Throughout history, polities that have efficiently harnessed the latest in nonzero-sum technology have tended to survive and flourish, while rival polities fell by the wayside.
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The gap is even borne out in the architectures of the two polities.
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Chinese leaders are sniffy about polities that espouse rule of law as a founding principle.
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You have a much broader perspective on how polities deal with this kind of question.
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The forces at work in Hungary are eating away at other 21st-century polities, too.
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Amid the bad choices, the only way out is the gradual opening of Arab economies and polities.
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And among those who will remain, Mr Prayuth and Mr Hun Sen preside over dangerously fragile polities.
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In most polities, politicians manage to be pretty well compensated compared to the normal run of men.
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And most broadly, how can American democracy work when there are essentially two polities living in two separate realities?
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This is one dataset, and it's important not to treat it as definitive, especially in attempting comparisons between polities.
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These old-established polities are not about to become one-party states, but they are already showing signs of decay.
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We had a very successful, in my view, year of 2017, pivoting our policies and helping our partners understand those polities.
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Other polities such as the Palestinian Authority and Lebanon had already gone through traumatic upheavals in 2005-2006 and didn't need another one.
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A rare act in politics Few leaders of democratic polities have served their countries longer than Peres without ever achieving their nation's highest office.
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Hereditary caliphates in which religious and secular power were united in one figure were the model for Islamic polities for more than a millennium.
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Is this enough to make Orientalist art worth salvaging, despite the prejudices inherent in the generalizations it perpetuated about the multicultural polities it depicted?
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Their strong and unceasing influence even after the many revelations of Russian aggression show just how much Russian influence can corrupt otherwise Democratic polities.
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If the West cannot overcome these challenges, they will, over time, spread to the rest of the world and undermine open polities, economies and societies.
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Without addressing these causes and creating real states out of the fractured polities that now exist, it's impossible to imagine dealing the jihadists a mortal blow.
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The great empire of Srivijaya, which once controlled much of the maritime trade in the region, had fallen, leaving a vacuum for other polities to fill.
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Radical Islamists—and many mainstream Muslims, too—appeal to a "Zionist-Crusader" conspiracy theory, among other such theories, to explain the centuries-long downfall of Muslim polities.
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In many ways, Weimar was one of the most liberal polities of the early 20th century, yet it birthed Nazism, which in turn led to the Holocaust.
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It ought to be regarded as the evening's most important moment, and its most shameful: the violation of a democratic principle that distinguishes free polities from authoritarian ones.
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The latest all-or-nothing spasm in London ("It's free trade or a trade war," froths one MP) does not easily translate in those more consensus-oriented polities.
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Broader polities should support more openness than narrow ones, since the balance of winners and losers within them is closer to the global balance, which should be positive.
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"We implore the EU, its member states, and the United States to reconsider their position on such a return to ethnification of polities and frontiers," the letter said.
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But while institutional reform of the European Union may be vital, it is harder to sell to increasingly fragmented national polities, especially as the center-left parties lose ground.
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Adapting Abraham Lincoln, his theory describes polities that gain "input legitimacy" by electing citizen representatives and then holding them directly accountable, ie, that offer government of and by the people.
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It is possible that the Wallonia vote, or Brexit, for that matter, are less about the legitimacy of particular policies, like freer trade, than about the legitimacy of particular polities.
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It is 30 years since his travels round the moribund communist polities of south-eastern Europe prompted him to write Balkan Ghosts, a book that strongly influenced president Bill Clinton.
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The members of the fourth branch, which extends beyond the federal government to encompass state, city, and other local polities, all volunteer to serve and are duly appointed or hired.
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If disadvantaged groups within those broad polities are unable to form effective coalitions, however, in order to bargain for compensation against the costs of liberalisation, then trouble is bound to result.
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But checks and balances on presidential power are often still weak, so many African leaders have been able to cling to office far longer than is possible in more competitive polities.
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But unlike the EU, they all have centuries of history as common polities and a strong majority tongue; by contrast, only 18% of EU citizens speak German as their first language.
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The Civil War, Cook writes, was therefore less a war between a capitalist North and pre-capitalist or feudal South, but between two capitalist polities, undergirded by different types of capital.
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Dealing with variegated polities requires doses of decentralisation (as in Kenya), federalism (as in Nigeria) and requirements for parties or leaders to demonstrate a degree of cross-country or cross-ethnic support.
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In almost the same breath that Europe crossed the Atlantic and extended its reach into the Indian Ocean, Spain vanquished the continent's oldest Muslim polities and scattered Iberia's Jews across the Mediterranean.
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We need to make those lesser-discussed policies more visible—to stress their importance, bring them directly to the attention of the worst-hit polities and people, and get them enacted and funded.
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But the emergence of the state not only results in some people having power over others, it also enables the worst among us, at least in non-epistocratic polities, to prevail over the best.
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And the charges often have merit, especially in polities where a single institution — be it the Chinese Communist Party or the House of Saud — has operated largely outside the rule of law for decades.
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Along the way humankind has passed through various fairly distinct stages of social structure: multivillage agricultural polities known as chiefdoms, ancient city-states, ancient regional states, empires, modern nation-states, alliances of nation-states, and so on.
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Recognizing the role that human nature plays in shaping reactions to terrorism reinforces the importance of building resiliency in our communities, societies, and polities to do what we can at least to mitigate the risks associated with those reactions.
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"The Governor of California is elected by the people to administer not only the world's fifth-largest economy, but a state of nearly 40 million individuals that is one of the most diverse and complicated polities on earth," Cervantes said.
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Plus, "remain" supporters say that being a part of the EU gives the U.K. an voice in influencing European politics and polities, especially as one of the union's wealthiest nations – and some believe, a stronger voice on the world's political stage.
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Indeed, a number of factors are emerging to create what could be the new Israeli-Palestinian normal -- one in which a highly functional Israeli state interacts with two separate, highly dysfunctional and weak Palestinian polities in the West Bank and Gaza.
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The Taino were organized into multiple polities, each governed by a leader known as a cacique, and each showcasing its wealth and strength through carved stones, wooden and woven furniture and luxuries obtained through trade with societies from Mexico to Venezuela.
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" Backing up Ms. Merkel, dozens of prominent scholars and policymakers on both sides of the Atlantic have signed an open letter condemning the proposal and imploring the United States and the European Union to oppose "a return to ethnification of polities and frontiers.
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Rather, they threaten the return of longstanding tendency in modern secular polities — an institutionalized anti-Catholicism that effectively oppresses the church even if it stops short of persecuting it, a form of liberalism that is (if you will) integrally opposed to my religion's flourishing.
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Empowering a set of political elites to overturn the judgment of the people on the question of the general fitness of an elected official takes a large step toward autocracy and is all too reminiscent of the privilege claimed by generals in polities subject to repeated coups.
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"This location is very important because it suggests that the site may have shifted hands between these polities, more likely between Aram-Damascus and Israel," said Hebrew University archaeologist Naama Yahalom-Mack, who has headed the joint dig with California&aposs Azusa Pacific University since 2013.
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"What we are facing, if we continue on the current trajectory, I think the conversation in 15 years' time will really be about equal rights in one state," he added, alluding to a possible fusion of the Israeli and Palestinian polities in place of the creation of a Palestinian state alongside Israel.
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If the reality of Mr Trump presiding over a period of economic growth, low immigration, robust security and open communication has been one of weakening institutions, divided polities and ever-more-hysterical fears of civilisational collapse, the thought of 9/11 under President Trump—and the carnage that would have unleashed—is an even more alarming one.
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" Maria Charles, a sociologist at the University of California, Santa Barbara, who studies gender and STEM education and was not involved with Richardson's analysis, told BuzzFeed News by email, "There is no evidence that gender stereotypes and unconscious gender biases are less pronounced in advanced industrial societies — even in societies where women are well represented in universities, labor markets, and polities.
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The United States also needs to re-embrace its responsibilities to the liberal international order it painstakingly created after World War II. This order was anchored in the United Nations Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the International Monetary Fund and other institutions and principles that have become the bedrock of free societies, free economies and free polities.
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This period (euphemistically described in the exhibition's placards as a time when power between East and West was "more evenly balanced") saw travelers, such as the German Bernhard von Breydenbach (226-97) — whose magnificent 1486 travelogue "A Pilgrimage to The Holy Land" is part of the exhibition — write about the Islamic polities they visited for an increasingly curious audience back home, feeding European and, later, American fascination with the exotic lands of the Orient — especially the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires.
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Watts Making of Polities pp. 170–171 Further east, the kingdoms of Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia grew powerful.Watts Making of Polities pp. 173–175 In Iberia, the Christian kingdoms continued to gain land from the Muslim kingdoms of the peninsula;Watts Making of Polities p. 173 Portugal concentrated on expanding overseas during the 15th century, while the other kingdoms were riven by difficulties over royal succession and other concerns.Watts Making of Polities pp. 327–332Watts Making of Polities p.
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By the 18th century, it had broken into its previous polities.
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It remains unknown if there was any relation between these two polities.
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It remains unknown if these two polities were related in any way.
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Watts Making of Polities pp. 201–219 Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased.Watts Making of Polities pp. 224–233 The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the English Parliament and the French Estates General to gain power and authority.Watts Making of Polities pp.
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Farber, Henry S. and Gowa, Joanne. "Polities and Peace", International Security, Vol. 20 no. 2, 1995.
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This is a list of sovereign states or polities that existed in the 4th century BC.
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This is a list of sovereign states or polities that existed in the 3rd century BC.
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Retrospectively different polities, outside of declared democracies, have been described as proto-democratic (see History of democracy).
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While some power would remain in the constituent polities, government, and others should be given to the "system".
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From these records, Sai On naïvely inferred that these two polities ceased to exist immediately after the last contacts.
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Numerous ancient states, including Edom, Moab, Ammon, and various Aramaean polities depended largely on the King's Highway for trade.
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Paul V. Kroskrity (ed.). 2000. Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Polities, and Identities. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research.
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Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities. In the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes of India and Native American tribes of North America, tribes are considered polities, or sovereign nations, that have retained or been granted legal recognition and some degree of autonomy by a national or federal government.
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Polities do not need to be in control of any geographic areas, as not all political entities and governments have controlled the resources of one fixed geographic area. The historical Steppe Empires originating from the Eurasian Steppe are the most prominent example of non-sedentary polities. These polities differ from states because of their lack of a fixed, defined territory. Empires also differ from states in that their territories are not statically defined or permanently fixed and consequently that their body politic was also dynamic and fluid.
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The Republic of Biak-na-Bato was one of a number of unrecognized insurgent polities which existed during the time in which the Philippines was under Spanish colonial government as the Spanish East Indies. It was preceded and succeeded by two similarly unrecognized polities, the Tejeros government and the Central Executive Committee.
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Gaya polities exported abundant quantities of iron ore, iron armor, and other weaponry to Baekje and the Kingdom of Wa in Yamato period Japan. In contrast to the largely commercial and non-political ties of Byeonhan, Gaya polities seem to have attempted to maintain strong political ties with those kingdoms as well.
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The Buyeo state emerged from the Bronze Age polities of the Seodansan and Liangquan archaeological cultures in the context of trade with various Chinese polities. In particular was the state of Yan which introduced iron technology to Manchuria and the Korean peninsula after its conquest of Liaodong in the early third century BC.
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In the late 20th century, European historians who believed that historical Southeast Asian polities did not conform to classical Chinese or European views of political geography began adapting the Sanskrit word "Mandala" ("circle") as a model for describing the patterns of diffuse political power distributed among Mueang or Kedatuan (principalities) in early Southeast Asian history. They emphasized that these polities were defined by their centre rather than their boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. This model has been applied to the historical polities of Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia which traded extensively with various Bayan polities in the Philippines. However, Southeast Asian historians such as Jocano, Scott, and Osbourne are careful to note that the Philippines and Vietnam were outside of the geographical scope of direct Indian influence, and that the Philippines instead received an indirect Indian cultural influence through their relations with the Majapahit empire.
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780, one of the early medieval polities which would converge into the unified kingdom of Georgia in the 11th century.
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The LCI documents the existence of several early Philippine polities as early as AD 900, most notably the Pasig River delta polity of Tondo. Scholars believe that it also indicates trade, cultural, and possibly political ties between these polities and at least one contemporaneous Asian civilization—the Medang Kingdom of the island of Java.
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Geographica Byzantina, University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne, Paris, 1981, pp. 87–88. ; Tanașoca, p. 132 Iorga's peasant polities, sometimes described by him as Romanii populare ("people's Romanias", "people's Roman-like polities"),Gheorghe-Alexandru Niculescu, "Nationalism and the Representation of Society in Romanian Archaeology", in Nation and National Ideology, p. 214Boia (2000), pp. 99, 188; Neubauer, pp.
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More than half of humanity depends on mountains for water. In geopolitics mountains are often seen as preferable "natural boundaries" between polities.
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In 1545 to 1546, the Songhai Empire took Niani. After 1599, the empire lost the Bambouk goldfields and disintegrated into petty polities.
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This is a timeline showing the dates when countries or polities made Christianity the official state religion, generally accompanying the baptism of the governing monarch.
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Those colonies later evolved into semi-independent polities that waged a war against the Babylonian king Ammi-Saduqa and caused the trade temporarily to stop.
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Popular literature and some 20th century history textbooks often suggest that Hindu and Buddhist cultural influences first came to the Philippines through early contacts with the Srivijayan and Majapahit thassalocracies. Jocano notes, however, that there is insufficient physical evidence to suggest that Philippine polities traded extensively with the Srivijayan empire. He suggests that contact between Philippine polities and the Srivijaya was probably limited to small-scale trade.
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Polities were situated in the alluvial flats of tributary river valleys and the mouth of the Nakdong. In particular, the mouth of the Nakdong has fertile plains, direct access to the sea, and rich iron deposits. Gaya polities had economies that were based on agriculture, fishing, casting, and long-distance trade. They were particularly known for its iron-working, as Byeonhan had been before it.
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Andrews 1984, p. 589. The boundaries between polities were not stable, being subject to the effects of alliances and wars; those kuchkabaloob with more centralised forms of government were likely to have had more stable boundaries than those of loose confederations of provinces.Andrews 1984, p. 590. When the Spanish discovered Yucatán, the provinces of Mani and Sotuta were two of the most important polities in the region.
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Location of Bale within the Ethiopian Empire Bale (also known as Bali) is the name of two former polities located in the southeastern part of modern Ethiopia.
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233–238 Joan of Arc in a 15th-century depiction Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility.Watts Making of Polities p. 166 They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the Hundred Years' War,Watts Making of Polities p. 169 waged from 1337 to 1453.
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Different cultures of the Philippine archipelago used different titles to refer to the most senior datu, or leader, of the Bayan or Barangay state. In Muslim polities such as Sulu and Cotabato, the Paramount ruler was called a Sultan. In Tagalog communities, the equivalent title was Lakan. In communities which historically had strong political or trade connections with Indianized polities in Indonesia and Malaysia, the Paramount Ruler was called a Rajah.
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There were also larger polities that controlled larger territories and subjugated smaller polities; the extensive systems controlled by Tikal and Caracol serve as examples of these. Each kingdom had its name that did not necessarily correspond to any locality within its territory. Its identity was that of a political unit associated with a particular ruling dynasty. For instance, the archaeological site of Naranjo was the capital of the kingdom of Saal.
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This led to improved efficiency in acquiring and holding valued resources, especially through military force. Population growth increased the competition between polities, resulting in increased levels of violence.
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Classical Telugu poetry: an anthology, Page 63.Sanjay Subrahmanyam. Penumbral visions: making polities in early modern South India, page 198.BS Baliga. Tamil Nadu district gazetteers, page 427.
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Homeokinetics: A physical science for complex systems. Science 201:579, 1978.Iberall, A.S., H. Soodak and C. Arensberg. Homeokinetic physics of societies - A new discipline: Autonomous groups, cultures, polities.
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Giorgi was actively involved in a series of civil wars that plagued the western Georgian polities. He was eventually deposed by his own son and placed under house arrest.
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Not only did Southeast Asian polities not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. Empires such as Bagan, Ayutthaya, Champa, Khmer, Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as "mandala" in this sense.
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It also served as an important deterrent against rebellion by subjugated polities against the Aztec state, and such deterrents were crucial in order for the loosely organized empire to cohere.
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Glyph of Quiahuiztlan Quiahuiztlan was one of the four altepetl (polities) that made up the confederation of Tlaxcala. It is located in the modern city of Tlaxcala, Tlaxcala State, Mexico.
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However, Eastern Protestant Christianity within itself, does not constitute a single communion. This is due to the diverse polities, practices, liturgies and orientations of the denominations which fall under this category.
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The Thirteen Colonies and neighboring polities in 1748 After succeeding his brother in 1685, King James II and his lieutenant, Edmund Andros, sought to assert the crown's authority over colonial affairs.
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Only three polities recognize Transnistria's sovereignty, which are themselves largely unrecognized states: Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Artsakh. All four states are members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations.
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Increasing rice cultivation allowed the formerly rare delicacy to displace older crops such as sago or Job's tears and become the staple food of South Sulawesi. These changes were accompanied by the rise of new polities based on wet rice agriculture in the interior, such as the Bugis polities of Boné and Wajoq. Early Gowa, too, was an interior agricultural chiefdom centered on rice cultivation. Karaeng Loe ri Sero's exile from Sero and founding of Talloq, late 15th century.
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Like most of the Kuchkabalob of Yucatán Hocabá-Homún was a province of the League of Mayapan before 1441. After the League was destroyed its former territory was separated into seventeen polities. These Kuchkabalob (plural of Kuchkabal the form of government used by the polities) were mostly monarchies although some were oligarchies. Hocabá-Homún was constantly at war with the surrounding Kuchkabalob, Sotuta, Tutul-Xiu (who conquered the Kuchkabal Calotmul), Ah Kin Chel, Ceh Pech, and Chakan.
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Map of Okinawa Island, showing the Sanzan period polities. During the rule of Eiso's great-grandson, Tamagusuku (1314–1336), Okinawa became divided into three polities and began the so-called Sanzan period (1314–1429). The north and largest Hokuzan polity was the poorest due to forest and mountainous terrain (in which isolation was an advantage), with primitive farming and fishing. The central Chūzan polity was the most advantaged due to its developed castle towns and harbor facilities.
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Despite significant Chinese economical, cultural and political influence, the polities continued to maintain strong autonomy. In 1392, all three polities began to send extensive missions to the Korean Joseon kingdom. In 1403, Chūzan made formal relations with the Japanese Ashikaga shogunate, and an embassy was sent to Thailand in 1409. The contacts with Siam continued even in 1425, and were newly made with places like Palembang in 1428, Java in 1430, Malacca and Sumatra in 1463.
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It was and still is a very important theory among supporters of republicanism. Various schools have described modern polities, such as the European Union and the United States, as possessing mixed constitutions.
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Christopher Ocker, Michael Printy, Peter Starenko and Peter Wallace (eds). Politics and Reformations: Communities, Polities, Nations and Empires. Leiden/Boston: Brill (2007), p.8. It is a form of right of access.
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At the time of the Spanish conquest of Petén in 1697, the Kan Ekʼ kingdom was one of the three dominant polities in the central Petén Basin.Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 617.
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Subsequently, the royal power (now called Pagaruyung kingdom) further weakened until its coastal regions such as Kampar, Indragiri, and Siak were seized by the Aceh and Malacca sultanates, and eventually became independent polities.
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Nakijin Castle, identified as Hokuzan's capital The is a period in the history of the Okinawa Islands when three polities, namely , and , are said to have co-existed on Okinawa. It is said to have started during King Tamagusuku's reign (traditional dates: 1314–1336) and, according to Sai On's edition of the Chūzan Seifu, ended in 1429 when Shō Hashi unified the island. Historical records of the period are fragmentary and mutually conflicting. Some even question the co-existence of the three polities.
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They were all subsequently removed, and there was no direct governorship from Portugal until 1748. Portuguese forces had invaded the interior of Timor in 1642, establishing their rule over the inland polities. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) captured the Portuguese fort at Solor in 1613 and established themselves in what is today Kupang on Timor after defeating the Portuguese there in 1653. They allied with the native polities such as Sonbai and Amabi in 1655, but were defeated in ensuing conflicts.
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In the 9th century, the central Tibetan kingdom broke into smaller polities; however Amdo and Kham maintained close culturally and religiously to the central Tibet. These small polities were small kingdoms or even governed as tribes and were officially under Chinese and Tibetan rule; however they held no allegiance to either. During this same time period the Buddhist monks were forced out of their temples by rampaging Chinese. These monks wandered for a period to settle in the Amdo region.
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A Lumad datu performing in the 2018 Kaamulan Festival of Bukidnon The present day claimants of the precolonial royal/noble title and rank of Datu are of two types. The descendants of rulers of Islamic precolonial polities in Mindanao, and the descendants of the christianized Datus. This second group are those that live in the predominatly Catholic mainstream Filipino society. They are: # The descendants of datus and Sultans of historical and influential precolonial polities that were not totally subjected to Spanish rule, e.g.
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Considerable evidence exists, on the other hand, for extensive trade with the Majapahit empire. The exact scope and mechanisms of Indian cultural influences on early Philippine polities are still the subject of some debate among Southeast Asian historiographers, but the current scholarly consensus is that there was probably little or no direct trade between India and the Philippines, and Indian cultural traits, such as linguistic terms and religious practices, filtered in during the 10th through the early 14th centuries, through early Philippine polities' relations with the Hindu Majapahit empire. The Philippine archipelago is thus one of the countries, (others include Afghanistan and Southern Vietnam) just at the outer edge of what is considered the "Greater Indian cultural zone". The early polities of the Philippine archipelago were typically characterized by a three-tier social structure.
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Because the peoples of the Philippine archipelago had different languages, the highest ranking political authorities in the largest historical barangay polities went by different titles. The titles of the paramount datu also changed from case to case, including: Sultan in the most Islamized areas of Mindanao; Lakan among the Tagalogs; Thimuay Labi among the Subanen; Rajah in polities which traded extensively with Indonesia and Malaysia; or simply Datu in some areas of Mindanao and the Visayas. In communities which historically had strong political or trade connections with Indianized polities in Indonesia and Malaysia, the Paramount Ruler was called a Rajah. Among the Subanon people of the Zamboanga Peninsula, a settlement's Datus answer to a Thimuay, and some Thimuays are sometimes additionally referred to as "Thimuay Labi," or as Sulotan in more Islamized Subanon communities.
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Tatiana Proskouriakoff first identified this glyph in 1960. It generally depicts a bound individual or individuals. There is some debate over whether the figures represent the capture of specific people or symbolize towns or polities.
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In the academic realm, when combined with study of political economy, the study of economies as polities, it becomes political ecology, another academic subfield. It also helps interrogate historical events like the Easter Island Syndrome.
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Pitts (2011), p. 58.Pitts (2011), p. 63. The ajaw on the panel is notably surrounded by subservient lords of nearby polities, implying that during Yan Ahk I's rule, Piedras Negras was the regional power.
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When the Spanish discovered Yucatán, the provinces of Mani and Sotuta were two of the most important polities in the region. They were mutually hostile; the Xiu Maya of Mani allied themselves with the Spanish, while the Cocom Maya of Sotuta became the implacable enemies of the European colonisers. At the time of conquest, polities in the northern Yucatán peninsula included Mani, Cehpech and Chakan; further east along the north coast were Ah Kin Chel, Cupul, and Chikinchel. Ecab, Uaymil, Chetumal all bordered on the Caribbean Sea.
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Unlike the Aztecs and the Inca, the Maya political system never integrated the entire Maya cultural area into a single state or empire. Rather, throughout its history, the Maya area contained a varying mix of political complexity that included both states and chiefdoms. These polities fluctuated greatly in their relationships with each other and were engaged in a complex web of rivalries, periods of dominance or submission, vassalage, and alliances. At times, different polities achieved regional dominance, such as Calakmul, Caracol, Mayapan, and Tikal.
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Until that point, Spanish chroniclers continued to use the terms "king" and "kingdom" to describe the polities of Tondo and Maynila, but Goiti was surprised when Lakandula explained there was "no single king over these lands", and that the leadership of Tondo and Maynila over the Kapampangan polities did not include either territorial claim or absolute command. San Buenaventura (1613, as cited by Junker, 1990 and Scott, 1994) later noted that Tagalogs only applied the term Hari (King) to foreign monarchs, rather than their own leaders.
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Several ancient historical records list a number of polities of Gaya. For example, Goryeo Saryak (고려사략; 高麗史略) lists five: Geumgwan Gaya, Goryeong Gaya, Bihwa Gaya, Ara Gaya, and Seongsan Gaya. The various Gaya polities formed a confederacy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries that was centered on the heartland of Geumgwan Gaya in modern Gimhae. After a period of decline, the confederacy was revived around the turn of the 5th and 6th centuries, this time centered on Daegaya of modern Goryeong.
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Hudson 1997, pp. 152–153. The agricultural expansion and the formation of the eastern buffer zone may signal that all the Oconee polities were integrating into a paramount chiefdom in this period.Williams 1994, pp. 190–191.
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The datu have ruled over portions of the islands that are now the Philippines before Spanish colonization in the 16th century. This article lists the pre- colonial leaders of individual kingdoms and polities in Philippine history.
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However, there is still a debate whether the Wari dominated the Central Coast or the polities on the Central Coast were commercial states capable of interacting with the Wari people without being politically dominated by them.
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The Sultan launched a series of military expeditions against other polities in Java, such as Pajang, Surabaya, Priangan, and went further by attacking the Dutch East India Company (VOC) fortress in the Siege of Batavia (1628–29).
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Certain legal entities such as corporations, sovereign states and other polities, or estates in probate are also legally defined as persons.For corporations, see "Justices, 5–4, Reject Corporate Spending Limit", The New York Times, January 21, 2010.
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More detailed histories of significant changes in structure and organization only really begin to emerge toward the end of the eighteenth century, when some polities started looking beyond their frontiers for new territories and resources to control.
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Equivalent terms for this rank include the term "Sultan" among the most developed and complex Islamized principalities of Mindanao, and the term "Datu" as used by various polities in the Visayas and in some areas of Mindanao.
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Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full-fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation. According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro-pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics". Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively.
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Justice Edward Douglass White introduced the concept of unincorporated territories and reasoned that, unlike prior territories, Puerto Rico had not been incorporated by Congress or by treaty into the U.S. union. It was thus "foreign to the United States in a domestic sense", that is, foreign for domestic law purposes, yet also part of the United States under international law. The decision permitted the establishment of unequal, undemocratic polities in such territories, did not demand that those territories eventually be incorporated, and granted wide latitude to Congress and the executive in structuring those polities.
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PPI posits that regional interaction and competition can be drivers for social change. Polities, “the highest order sociopolitical unit in the region in question,” are considered autonomous from one another socio-politically, even though they may share aspects of trade, art, architecture and/or ideology. Through PPI, adjacent polities adopt or develop similar aspects of social complexity and archaeologists study how institutional features develop and how they are adopted. Interaction Spheres, developed by Joe Caldwell in 1964, examines how independent societies within and across regions could coherently interact within different institutional frameworks.
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224 Modernists propose the idea of "imagined communities"; the barbarian polities in late antiquity were social constructs rather than unchanging lines of blood kinship. The process of forming tribal units was called "ethnogenesis", a term coined by Soviet scholar Yulian Bromley. The Austrian school (led by Reinhard Wenskus) popularized this idea, which influenced medievalists such as Herwig Wolfram, Walter Pohl and Patrick Geary. It argues that the stimulus for forming tribal polities was perpetuated by a small nucleus of people, known as the ' ("kernel of tradition"), who were a military or aristocratic elite.
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Long term political decline occurred at Kʼo throughout the Classic period. The exact cause of Kʼo's decline remains unknown, though many archaeologists attribute the decline to the centralization of two major polities in the area, Holmul and Cival.
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The Manche Chʼol held territory in the extreme south of what is now the Petén department. The Mopan and the Chinamita had their polities in the southeastern Petén. The Manche territory was to the southwest of the Mopan.
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Glyph for Ocotelolco Ocotelolco (sometimes spelled Ocotelulco), in pre- Columbian Mexico, was one of the four independent altepetl (polities) that constituted the confederation of Tlaxcallan. The site is in the present day state of Tlaxcala in central Mexico.
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However, during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792), a Tbilisi-based small Russian force evacuated Georgia, leaving Heraclius to face new dangers from Persia alone. In 1790 Heraclius concluded the Treaty of the Iberians with western Georgian polities.
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A border portmanteau combines the names of two, or occasionally three, adjacent polities (countries, states, provinces, counties, cities) to form a name for a region, town, body of water, or other feature on or near their mutual border.
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Immediately after Muhammad's death in 632, Caliphates were established and the Shia emerged. Caliphates were Islamic states under the leadership of a political successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. These polities developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires.
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Most founding leaders of the various polities in the lake region seem to have claimed descent from the Bachwezi. There are now 13 million Tara who are part of the second African loss,(Nafi and Uma are two losses).
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Dominions were semi-independent polities that were nominally under the Crown, constituting the British Empire and British Commonwealth, beginning in the later part of the 19th century.Merriam Webster's Dictionary (based on Collegiate vol., 11th ed.) 2006. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.
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A dominion was one of the semi-independent polities under the British Crown that constituted the British Empire, beginning with Canadian Confederation in 1867."dominion". . Merriam Webster's Dictionary (based on Collegiate vol., 11th ed.), 2006. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.
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Elene (; 1753 – 17 June 1786) was a Georgian princess royal (batonishvili), a daughter of Heraclius II, King of Kartli and Kakheti. She was the mother of Solomon II of Imereti, the last king to have reigned in the Georgian polities.
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The idea of vilayet originated from the Seljuk vassal state (Uç Beyliği) in central Anatolia. Over the years the Empire became an amalgamation of pre-existing polities, the Anatolian beyliks, brought under the sway of the ruling House of Osman.
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"Changing Cultures: The Nayars Today". Cambridge University Press, 1976. pp. 116. The family of chieftains that ruled the polities in premodern Kerala was known as the swaroopam. The rulers of Kozhikode belonged to "Nediyirippu swaroopam" and followed matriliny system of inheritance.
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Philippine historiographers thus do not apply the term "Mandala" to describe early Philippine polities because doing so overemphasizes the scale of Indian influence on Philippine culture, obscuring the indigenous Austronesian cultural connections to the peoples of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia.
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The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, which means the island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom. Nevertheless, the same manuscript also mentioned Barune (Brunei) and other polities on the island.
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Historians of the early medieval period may refer to these polities as "khanates" (after khan, the title of their rulers). After the Mongol conquests of the 13th century the term orda ("horde") also came into use — as in "Golden Horde".
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Ehret, Christopher (2002). p. 252. After the decline of Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe rose on the Zimbabwe Plateau. Zimbabwe means stone building. Great Zimbabwe was the first city in Southern Africa and was the center of an empire, consolidating lesser Shona polities.
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Holly Bluff Site Winterville Site, near Greenville, Mississippi Various scholars have proposed and debated the identities of Quigualtam and the unnamed chiefdom and the exact locations of their polities. Historian Charles M. Hudson has suggested that Quigualtam was centered on the area surrounding the Holly Bluff or Winterville Sites in the lower Yazoo Basin. Archeologists believe that these two large Plaquemine culture sites had been abandoned by this time; the capital of the polity had probably shifted to another of the numerous sites within its territory. Other scholars have proposed the Glass Site and Emerald Mound as possibilities for the two polities.
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The naval expeditions of Zheng He between 1405 and 1431 also played a critical role in opening up of China to increased trade with Southeast Asian polities. Chinese trade was strictly controlled by the Imperial Court, but the Hokkien diaspora facilitated informal trade and cultural exchange with Southeast Asia, settling among Southeast Asian polities during this time period. Despite not having the official sanction of the Chinese government these communities formed business and trade networks between cities such as Melaka, Hội An and Ayutthaya. Many of these Chinese businesspeople integrated into their new countries, becoming political officials and diplomats.
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Some scholars also place the Philippine archipelago within the outermost reaches of the Indosphere, along with Northern Vietnam, where the Hindu and Buddhist elements were not directly introduced by Indian travellers. The most updated scholarship notes that there is no evidence of direct political or economic interaction between India and the various polities of the Philippine archipelago prior to the Philippines' European colonial era. Scholars such as Osbourne and Jocano instead suggest that "indirect cultural influence" mostly arrived through these early Philippine polities' relations with the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires. during the 10th through the early 14th centuries.
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Variables that appear in at least three Standalone CSES Modules, up to and including CSES Module 5, are eligible for inclusion in IMD with all polities participating in CSES included in the dataset. CSES IMD includes over 281,000 individual-level observations across 174 elections in 55 polities, with voter evaluations of over 600 political parties. One of the highlights of the IMD file is party and coalition numerical codes are synchronized across CSES Modules. CSES IMD is being rolled out on a phased basis with a first release in December 2018, and a second release of CSES IMD in October 2019.
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Tondo and Maynila are often portrayed as having adversarial relations with the polities of the Visayas, because of the disparaging comments of Rajah Sulayman towards the Visayan "pintados" during the earliest negotiations with Martin de Goiti in 1570. Sulayman had boasted that the people of Maynila were "not like the Painted Visayans" and would not give up their freedoms as easily as the Visayans did. Scott notes that at the very least, this meant that Sulayman had kept up-to-date with events happening in the Visayas, probably arising from the trade relationships Tondo and Maynila had developed with polities throughout the archipelago.
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This does not mean that the Atyap and their neiɡhbours indiscriminately waɡed wars to hunt for human heads as presented by British colonial officers. It is also not a siɡn of permanent hostility between the Atyap and those polities or ɡroups aɡainst whom they went to war. Even when issues leadinɡ to war were fundamental, these did not destroy the possibility of peaceful inter-ɡroup relations as seen in the alliances of protection between the Atyap and Bajju, Agworok, Asholyio, Akoro, and Ham. Such alliances often resulted to the establishment of jokinɡ relationships as a way of dissipatinɡ hostility between the polities.
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400px Abdi-Ashirta (14th century BC) was the ruler of Amurru who was in conflict with King Rib-Hadda of Byblos. While some contend that Amurru was a new kingdom in southern Syria subject to nominal Egyptian control, new research suggests that during Abdi-Ashirta's lifetime, Amurru was a "decentralized land" that consisted of several independent polities. Consequently, though Abdi-Ashirta had influence among these polities, he did not directly rule them. Rib-Hadda complained bitterly to Pharaoh Akhenaten -- in the Amarna letters (EA) -- of Abdi-Ashirta's attempts to alter the political landscape at the former's expense.
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Goguryeo annexed the former territory of Lelang in 313. Goguryeo ended Chinese rule over any part of the Korean peninsula by conquering Lelang in 313. After Lelang's fall, some commandery residents may have fled south to the indigenous Han polities there, bringing with them their culture that spread to the southern part of the Korean peninsula. With the collapse of the commanderies after four centuries of Chinese rule, Goguryeo and the native polities in the south that became Baekje and Silla began to grow and develop rapidly, heavily influenced by the culture of the Four Commanderies of Han.
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Thornton, 1999 Warfare in Atlantic Africa Internal politics, diplomacy and leadership also key factors in military evolution. Some scholars maintain that the key to understanding African warfare lies in the political institutions and processes of the African landscape, where a massive number of small polities greatly outnumbered large empires or nations. The consolidation of these small polities into larger units sparked a growth in mass-recruited armies, a development that was more decisive overall than the appearance of gunpowder weapons. The Asante for example rose to power first through larger mass armies equipped with traditional bows, arrows and spears.
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The Kingdom of Nagash was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it is one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.
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The Kingdom of Tankish was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.
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"DID STATE EXIST IN THE PRE-PALLAVAN TAMIL REGION". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 63, 2002, pp. 138–150. Tamil polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics".
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Gaya (, ) was a Korean confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea,(2001). Kaya. In The Penguin Archaeology Guide, edited by Paul Bahn, pp. 228–229. Penguin, London. growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period.
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Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies are not yet manifested, by 1000 CE the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. It is considered ancestral to the Plaquemine culture.
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English journalist Frederick Guest Tomlins described Rauso as a Kingdom. Rauso also had an alternative toponym by the epithet of Raitnus. It used to exchange ordained religious ministers with the northern polities. A predominant religion practised during the Rauso period was Waaqism.
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"The Unfinished Mission in Thailand," Seoul: East-West Center for Missions, 1980. Today, the beliefs and practices of the majority of CCT leaders and members are broadly evangelical. Its church government is a relatively centralized mixture of Presbyterian, Disciples, and Baptist polities.
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Collins, Early Medieval Europe, p. 100 Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new kingdoms was also based on Roman intellectual traditions.Collins, Early Medieval Europe, pp. 96–97 An important difference was the gradual loss of tax revenue by the new polities.
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In the mid 9th century, Maya civilization began to collapse. In the early 10th century, Yucatan was divided into many different polities. At this time Ce Acatl Topiltzin Tlatoani of the Toltec Empire conquered the Yucatan Peninsula. Toltec control however did not last long.
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Leach believed that the Gumlau and the Gumsa systems formed an oscillatory model and that gumsa polities would eventually become gumlao and vice versa. However this model has been criticized as being overly theoretical and not taking into account historical events.Sadan, M. 2007. Translating Gumlau.
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Subsequent issue of Tarantine coins also suffered from debasement of five percent. This downward evolution was significantly affected by the financial strain caused by warfare for the Greek polities. For instance, countering the expansion of Rome caused considerable pressure for the Italiote city states.
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The boundaries between the polities and even their number fluctuated over time. Some such as the Mahra Sultanate barely had any functioning administration. Not included in the protectorate were Aden Colony and the insular areas of Perim, Kamaran, and Khuriya Muriya that accrued to it.
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The first recorded kingdom attributed to the Mon people is Dvaravati, which prospered until around 1000 CE when their capital was sacked by the Khmer Empire and a significant portion of the inhabitants fled west to present-day Lower Burma and eventually founded new polities.
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Tu'i, also spelled more simplistically Tui, is a Polynesian traditional title for tribal chiefs or princes. In translations, the highest such positions are often rendered as "king". For details, see the links below various polities. Traditionally, a Tui is an equivalent of God title.
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In the early 16th century, the Bugis kingdom of Boné had been an ally of Gowa, with the latter sending troops east to help Boné's war against its neighbor Wajoq. But concurrently with Tunipalangga's foreign campaigns, La Tenrirawe, the arung (ruler) of Boné, endeavored to expand his own realm across eastern South Sulawesi. The two polities soon came to compete for the lucrative trading routes off the southern coast of the peninsula, and in 1562 war broke out when La Tenrirawe incited three of the newly acquired vassals of Gowa to ally with Boné. Tunipalangga quickly forced Boné to return the three polities in question.
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Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend against state expansion.
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Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, New York, Random House, 1987, , passim. Polities ignore Jan Bloch's 1898 warnings of the railroad-mobilized, industrialized, stalemated, attritional total war, World War I, that is on the way and will destroy an appreciable part of mankind;Jan Bloch, Future war and its economic consequences, 1898. and polities ignore geologists', oceanographers', atmospheric scientists', biologists', and climatologists' warnings of the climate-change tipping point that is on course to destroy all of mankind.Joshua Busby, "Warming World: Why Climate Change Matters More Than Anything Else", Foreign Affairs, vol.
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The earliest firsthand Spanish accounts described it as a smaller "village", in comparison to the fortified polity of Maynila. Politically, Tondo was made up of several social groupings, traditionally referred to by historians as Barangays, which were led by Datus. These Datus in turn recognised the leadership of the most senior among them as a sort of "Paramount datu" called a Lakan over the Bayan. In the middle to late 16th century, its Lakan was held in high regard within the alliance group which was formed by the various Manila Bay area polities, which included Tondo, Maynila, and various polities in Bulacan and Pampanga.
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After that, groups of Austronesians later migrated to the islands. Scholars generally believe that these social groups eventually developed into various settlements or polities with varying degrees of economic specialization, social stratification, and political organization. Some of these settlements (mostly those located on major river deltas) achieved such a scale of social complexity that some scholars believe they should be considered early states. This includes the predecessors of modern- day population centers such as Maynila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Panay, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, Lanao, and Sulu as well as some polities, such as Ma-i, whose possible location is still the subject of debate among scholars.
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The term Paramount Datu or Paramount ruler is a term applied by historians to describe the highest ranking political authorities in the largest lowland polities (see: Barangay state) or inter-polity alliance groups in early Philippine history, most notably those in Maynila, Tondo, Confederation of Madja-as in Panay, Pangasinan, Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu. Different cultures of the Philippine archipelago referred to the most senior datu or leader of the "Barangay state" or "Bayan" using different titles. In Muslim polities such as Sulu and Cotabato, the Paramount Ruler was called a Sultan. In Tagalog communities, the equivalent title was that of Lakan.
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In the early 16th century the territory that now makes up Guatemala was divided into various competing polities, each locked in continual struggle with its neighbours.Polo Sifontes 1986, p. 14. The most important were the Kʼicheʼ, the Kaqchikel, the Tzʼutujil, the Chajoma,Hill 1998, pp. 229, 233.
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Glyph of Tepeticpac Tepeticpac was one of the four altepetl (polities) that made up the confederation of Tlaxcala. It was the northwest-most altepetl, located west of the Atzompa river and north of Quiahuiztlan. The site is in the present day state of Tlaxcala in central Mexico.
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Unlike to other Georgian polities, he put ecclesiastic lords (bishops of Bodbe, Alaverdi, Rustavi, and Nekresi), generally more loyal to the crown than secular nobles, in charge of special military districts, sadrosho. He died in 1476 to be succeeded by Alexander I as king of Kakheti.
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In the 6th century BC Syracuse began minting their own coinage. They used Attic-Euboic weight standard, and it was rapidly adopted by the other polities of Sicily. In the 5th century a strong government and widely militarized society ruled by tyrants left behind abundant coinage.
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The khans of the Khoshut Khanate were indirect descendants. They were descendants from a younger brother of Genghis Khan, Qasar. As the Russian Empire absorbed Turkic polities, their Genghizid rulers frequently entered the Russian service. For instance, Kuchum's descendants became Russified as the Tsarevichs of Siberia.
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Rice 2009, p. 17. The Yalain appear to have been one of the three dominant polities in Postclassic central Petén, alongside the Itza and the Kowoj. The Yalain territory had its maximum extension from the east shore of Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj in Belize.
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The Vojislavljević (, pl. Vojislavljevići / Војислављевићи) was a Serbian medieval dynasty, named after archon Stefan Vojislav, who wrested the polities of Duklja, Travunia, Zahumlje, inner Serbia and Bosnia from the Byzantines in the mid-11th century. His successors, kings Mihailo I Vojislavljević (d. 1081) and Constantine Bodin (d.
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Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies are not yet manifested, by 1000 CE the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Sites for this phase are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Texas. After the Crippen Point phase the Plaquemine culture period begins.
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The Kingdom of Belgin, also known as the Kingdom of Baqulin, was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.
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Cochuah was also in the eastern half of the peninsula. Tases, Hocaba and Sotuta were all landlocked provinces. Chanputun (modern Champotón) was on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, as was Acalan. In the southern portion of the peninsula, a number of polities occupied the Petén Basin.
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The Kingdom of Qita’a, also known as the Kingdom of Qata, was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa.
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However, others argue the forced abduction of children for the Ottoman military in the Janissary Corps or the practice of forced relocation of ethnic minorities 'songbun' betray a less positive policy in the Ottoman Empire towards internal polities, particularly those considered suitable for these measures by the Ottoman court.
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Koreans were classified along with the population of northern China as "Han", in the third class. The Mongols extracted tribute from throughout their empire. From Goryeo, they received gold, silver, cloth, grain, ginseng, and falcons. The tribute payments were a burden on Goryeo and subjugated polities in the empire.
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An outrigger banca on Estero de Vitas, as viewed from R-10 Bridge I, on Radial Road 10, Balut, Tondo, Manila. 14°36'35"N 120°57'29"E The Estero de Vitas is one of the rivulets, known as esteros, which delineated the small islands which historically constituted the city of Manila and its predecessors, the Tagalog polities (called bayan) of Maynila and Tondo. These esteros, along with the larger rivers of Manila Bay and the Pasig River delta, originally formed an important connecting network which allowed the precolonial polities of that Tagalog and Kapampangan peoples. The Estero de Vitas drains water from Manila as far as Tayuman Street, and then dumps water directly to Manila Bay.
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Cortés chanced to land at the borders of Cempoala, a recently Aztec-subdued vassal state with many grievances against them. Coming into contact with a number of polities who resented Aztec rule, Cortés claimed he has arrived on the orders of his Emperor to put things in order, abolish human sacrifices, teach the locals the true faith and "stop them from robbing each other", and was successful in enforcing excellent behaviour of his army when among potential allies. Cortés clashed with some of these polities, among them the Totonacs and Tlaxcalans. The latter gave him two good day battles and one night battle, and kept up a strong defence, holding off his army on a hilltop for two weeks.
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During the 7th and 8th centuries in Mesoamerica, there was an evident shift in the roles women played in ancient Maya society as compared with the previous two centuries. It was during this time that there was a great deal of political complexity seen both in Maya royal houses as well as in the Maya area. Warfare was a significant factor in political competition and marriage was one of the ways that alliances were made between the different polities. This was accompanied by a shift in women's roles from wife and mother to playing integral parts in courtly life, such as participating in rituals involving the supernatural world and at times ruling individual polities.
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When barangays grew larger, as was the case in Maynila, Tondo, the Madja-as of Panay, Pangasinan, Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu, among others, they took on a more complex social organization. Several barangays, consisting of households loyal to a datu, Rajah or Sultan banded together to form larger cosmopolitan polities as an apex city states. The Rulers of these barangays would then select the most senior or most respected among them to serve as a paramount datu. These polities sometimes had other names (such as bayan in the Tagalog regions) but since the terminology varies from case to case, scholars such as Jocano and Scott simply refer to them as "larger" barangays.
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More recently, anthropologist Laura Lee Junker conducted an updated comparative review of the social organization of early polities throughout the archipelago, alongside her study of inter and intra-regional trade among Philippine coastal polities. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Jesuit missionary Francisco Colin made an attempt to give an approximate comparison of the social stratification in Tagalog culture with that in the Visayan culture. While social mobility was possible in the former, in the Visayas, the Datu (if had the personality and economic means) could retain and restrain competing peers, relatives, and offspring from moving up the social ladder.Cf. William Henry Scott, Cracks in the Parchment Curtain, Quezon City: 1998, p. 125.
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The globus cruciger (made up of a monde and cross) was generally featured as the finial of European royal crowns, whether on physical crowns or merely in royal heraldry, for example, in Denmark, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary, Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, and Yugoslavia. It is still depicted not only in the arms of European polities for which a monarchy survives, yet also, since the end of communism in 1991, in the arms of some eastern European polities, despite the termination of their historical monarchies. Even in the modern era in the United Kingdom, the Sovereign's Orb symbolizes both the state and Church of England under the protection and domain of the monarchy.
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His collected papers are posthumously published as Medieval Polities and Modern Mentalities (Cambridge, 2006). Challenging the Boundaries of Medieval History: The Legacy of Timothy Reuter, edited by Patricia Skinner, was published in 2009 as volume 22 in the University of York Studies in the Early Middle Ages (Brepols, Turnhout, Belgium).
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Several polities seceded: The Xu enclaves of western Shandong aligned themselves with the state of Lu in 720 BC, the Shu peoples formed independent states, the state of Zhoulai occupied the middle Huai River valley, and a part of ruling Ying family broke off to form their own state, Zhongli.
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Pirates, polities and companies: global politics on the Konkan littoral, c. 1690-1756. The Peshwa's half brother Shamsher Bahadur commanded the Maratha forces.Karkhanis, M. D. “THE LIFE AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF SAMSHER BAHADUR, THE SON OF PESHWA BAJIRAO I.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 27, 1965, pp. 309–312.
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Political relationships are crafted out of the sense of debt created by a Moka gift. The Big Man has influence, but cannot command. Redistribution is common in the chiefly polities of Polynesia, such as Hawai'i, Tonga, and Fiji where those of rank can demand tribute, which they redistribute to their followers.
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A polity is an identifiable political entity—any group of people who have a collective identity, who are organized by some form of institutionalized social relations, and have a capacity to mobilize resources.Ferguson, Yale; Mansbach, Richard W. (1996). "Polities: Authority, Identities, and Change". Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press.
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Afar people are predominantly Muslim. They have a long association with Islam through the various local Muslim polities and practice the Sunni form of Islam, or non-denominational Islam. The Afar mainly follow the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islam. Sufi orders like the Qadiriyya are also widespread among the Afar.
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15-29, p. 533 During the period, the power of the Hungarian Grand Prince seemed to be decreasing irrespective of the success of the Hungarian military raids across Europe. The tribal territories, ruled by Hungarian warlords (chieftains), became semi-independent polities (e.g., the domains of Gyula the Younger in Transylvania).
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In short time a series of Slavic principalities emerged in the regions on the Middle Danube. Among these polities, the Moravian principality showed up for the first time in 822 when the Moravians, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, brought tribute to Charlemagne's son, Emperor Louis the Pious.Goldberg 2006, pp. 137., 354.
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Map showing the locations of major Rus' raids around the Caspian Sea, mid-9th to mid-11th century. Blue dates indicate major Rus' raids; purple outline indicates area affected by the 913 Caspian invasion. Names of polities shown depict the situation c. 950. The Rus' launched the first large-scale raid in 913.
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The traditional flag of Ethiopia. Despite not being Pan-African in its original conception, it has influenced the flags of many Pan-African organizations and polities. UNIA flag The term Pan-African colours may refer to two sets of three colours. Red, yellow, and green are inspired by the flag of Ethiopia.
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The Kingdom of Jarin was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa. Cities within the Kingdom of Jarin's territory included Suakin and ‘Aydhab.
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The Age is characterized by the rise of many polities, attainment of golden ages, and subsequent corruption and destruction by the Unlife, culminating in a "War of Dominion" in which the forces of the Unlife gather all their strength and are defeated by the forces of "civilization," though once again at catastrophic price.
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Although this temple is geographically remote from major polities of ancient Greece, it is one of the most studied ancient Greek temples because of its multitude of unusual features. Bassae was the first Greek site to be inscribed on the World Heritage List (1986).Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae, World Heritage List.
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The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 8. It involved the destruction of pagan polities, their subjection to their Christian conquerors, and frequently the wholesale resettlement of conquered areas and replacement of the original populations with German settlers, as in Old Prussia. Elsewhere, the local populations were subjected to an imported German overclass.
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The smallest barangays were communities of around 30 to 100 households, led by a Datu, or a leader with an equivalent title. This was the typical size of inland settlements by the time the Spanish colonizers arrived in the late 1500s, whereas larger, more cosmopolitan polities dominated the coasts, particularly river deltas.
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The lands that now form Romania were divided among various polities in the Middle Ages. Banat, Crişana, Maramureş and Transylvania were integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary. Wallachia and Moldavia developed into independent principalities in the 14th century. Dobruja emerged as an autonomous realm after the disintegration of Bulgaria in the 1340s.
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Therefore, it is possible for an individual to belong to more than one polity at a time. Thomas Hobbes was a highly significant figure in the conceptualisation of polities, in particular of states. Hobbes considered notions of the state and the body politic in Leviathan, his most notable work.Hobbes, Thomas (1651). Leviathan.
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Today, the ruins of Tenochtitlan are in the historic center of the Mexican capital. The World Heritage Site of Xochimilco contains what remains of the geography (water, boats, floating gardens) of the Mexica capital. Tenochtitlan was one of two Mexica āltēpetl (city-states or polities) on the island, the other being Tlatelolco.
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Malay polities in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. By the turn of the 8th century the states in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula were under Srivijayan domination. During the same century, Langkasuka on the Malay Peninsula became part of Srivijaya. Soon after this, Pan Pan and Tambralinga, north of Langkasuka, came under Srivijayan influence.
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U.S. states, districts, and territories have representative symbols that are recognized by their state legislatures, territorial legislatures, or tradition. Some, such as flags, seals, and birds have been created or chosen by all U.S. polities, while others, such as state crustaceans, state mushrooms, and state toys have been chosen by only a few.
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Pelley, p. 216. Chapuis, p. 119ff. They fought a long, bitter war that lasted 45 years that separated Vietnam into two polities for nearly two centuries. After the Tây Sơn wars, their descendants would finally rule over the whole of Vietnam as the Nguyễn dynasty and posthumously elevated their titles to emperors.
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1, pp. 17–20. The territories in the Empire of late 1796 included more than 1,000 entities, including Breisgau (Habsburg), Offenburg and Rottweil (free cities), the territories belonging to the princely families of Fürstenberg and Hohenzollern, the Duchy of Baden, the Duchy of Württemberg, and several dozen ecclesiastic polities. Many of these territories were not contiguous: a village could belong predominantly to one polity, but have a farmstead, a house, or even one or two strips of land that belonged to another polity. The size and influence of the polities varied, from the Kleinstaaterei, the little states that covered no more than a few square miles, or included several non-contiguous pieces, to such sizable, well-defined territories as Bavaria and Prussia.
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Anarchism replaces the Westphalian nation-states; in the novel the UN is described as having 900 of the planet's 15,000 polities as members, and its membership is not limited to polities. A century later, the first interstellar missions, using quantum tunnelling-based jump drives to provide effective faster-than-light travel without violating causality, are launched. One that reaches Barnard's Star finds what happened to those who disappeared from Earth: they were sent to colonise other planets via wormholes that took them back one year in time for every light-year (ly) the star was from Earth. Gradually, it is learned, these colonies were scattered across a 6,000-ly area of the galaxy, all with the same message from the Eschaton etched onto a prominent monument somewhere.
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Polities during the Old Elamite period, and northern tribes of the Lullubi, Simurrum and Hurti. Silver cup with linear-Elamite inscription on it. Late 3rd millennium BC. National Museum of Iran. The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi, the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia.
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Taras (modern Taranto) from the 5th century BC Greek coinage of Italy and Sicily originated from local Italiotes and Siceliotes who formed numerous city states. These Hellenistic communities descended from Greek migrants. Southern Italy was so thoroughly hellenized that it was known as the Magna Graecia. Each of the polities struck their own coinage.
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The Mongols extracted tribute from throughout their empire. From Goryeo, they received gold, silver, cloth, grain, ginseng, and falcons. The tribute payments were a burden on Goryeo and subjugated polities in the empire. As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided palace women, eunuchs, Buddhist monks, and other personnel to the Mongols.
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Its Old Malay cognate Dayang was also used for young noblewomen in Tagalog-speaking polities, such as the kingdoms of Tondo and Namayan. Binibini in modern times has become a generic term for any teenage girl, and as a title (abbreviated as "Bb.") may be used by an unmarried woman, equivalent to señorita or "Miss".
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Some scholars have suggested that the capture of sacrificial victims was a driving force behind warfare.Chacon and Dye 2007 Among the most critical resources were water and agricultural land. Economic control of resources such as obsidian also increased competition among polities.Sharer and Traxler 2005 As polities became more successful, they also became more complex.
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The posts of shadow United States Senator and shadow United States Representative are held by elected or appointed government officials from subnational polities of the United States that lack congressional vote. While these officials are not seated in either chamber of Congress, they seek for their subnational polity to gain voting rights in Congress.
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The early Slavic expansion reached Central Europe in c. the 7th century, and the West Slavic dialects diverged from Common Slavic over the following centuries. West Slavic polities of the 9th century include the Principality of Nitra and Great Moravia. The West Slavic tribes settled on the eastern fringes of the Carolingian Empire, along the '.
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Survival International (2009). Experts Panel Assesses Belo Monte Dam Viability. Retrieved 10 February 2013. In the Upper Xingu region was a highly self-organized pre-Columbian anthropogenic landscape, including deposits of fertile agricultural terra preta, black soil in Portuguese, with a network of roads and polities each of which covered about 250 square kilometers.
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Andrews 1984, p. 589. Two of the most important provinces were Mani and Sotuta, which were mutually hostile.Caso Barrera 2002, p. 17. At the time of Spanish contact, polities in the northern Yucatán peninsula included Mani, Cehpech, Chakan, Ah Kin Chel, Cupul, Chikinchel, Ecab, Uaymil, Chetumal, Cochuah, Tases, Hocaba, Sotuta, Chanputun (modern Champotón), and Acalan.
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Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.
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Retrieved August 6, 2011. Other scholars, however, use the term in the broader descriptive sense to refer to various groups in various religious traditions including those groups that would object to being classified as fundamentalists, such as in The Fundamentalism Project.See, for example, Marty, M. and Appleby, R.S. eds. (1993). Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance.
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Tim Reuter has shown that many military efforts during Louis' reign were largely defensive and in response to external threats.Reuter, Timothy, Medieval Polities and Modern Mentalities (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.252. It had long been held that Carolingian military success was based on the use of a cavalry force created by Charles Martel in the 730s.
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Hamas Rule in Gaza: Human Rights Under Constraint . Palgrave Macmillan. 2012. pp. vii, 57. Since then, it has fought several wars with Israel, and the Palestinian Authority has been split into two polities, each seeing itself as the true representative of the Palestinian people – the Fatah-ruled Palestinian National Authority and the Hamas Government in Gaza.
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There is no evidence for conquest of Pampa Grande or that Pampa Grande made any advances on other polities. The artistic styles seemed to have evolved over-time not in relation to conquest. There were numerous elite-sponsored workshops, which had minimal evidence of habitation. These workshops had controlled access, so as to keep the materials inside of them.
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Mitanni had outposts centred on its capital, Washukanni, whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the Khabur River.De Martino, Stefano, 2018. "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia", in Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500-500 BCE, Ugarit Verlag, p.
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It has also been applied to social physics where a homeokinetics analysis shows that one must account for flow variables such as the flow of energy, of materials, of action, reproduction rate, and value-in-exchange.Iberall, A.S., H. Soodak and C. Arensberg. Homeokinetic physics of societies - A new discipline: Autonomous groups, cultures, polities. In: H. Reul et al (eds.).
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In 846 the Narentines reached close to Venice itself, and raided nearby Caorle. Western Balkan polities in the late 9th century. The arrival of Basil I (r. 867–886) to the Byzantine throne led to important changes in Byzantium; energetic, he managed to enter closer ties with Bulgars, and even the distant Croats, and protected the Empire well.
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26, de Amicitia, 27, comp. pro Murena, 31, Velleius i.13.3 Both Panaetius and Polybius accompanied him on the Roman embassy that Scipio headed to the principal monarchs and polities of the Hellenistic east in 139-138 BC.Cicero de Re Publica vi. 11, A. E. Astin, Classical Philology 54 (1959), 221-27, and Scipio Aemilianus (Ox.
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Glyph for Tizatlan Tizatlan, in pre-Columbian Mexico, was one of the four independent altepemeh (polities, sing. altepetl) that constituted the confederation of Tlaxcallan. Today Tizatlan is a part of the modern city of Tlaxcala, and the Pre-Columbian city is visible as a small archaeological site. The site is in the state of Tlaxcala in central Mexico.
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Georgescu 1991, p. 16. After the failure and disappearance of the Hospitallers, the history of the region is shrouded in obscurity for decades. But the trend toward the unification of the Romanian polities seems to begin with Voivode Litovoi. He (or his namesake son) was at war with the Hungarians and killed in battle sometime between 1270 and 1280.
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The district has been one of strategical importance for centuries. The area and the port of Massawa were ruled by a succession of polities, including the Axumite Empire, Umayyad Caliphate, Beja Kingdom, Ottoman Empire, Egypt, Britain, Italy and Ethiopia, until Eritrea's independence in 1991. Massawa became the capital of Italian Eritrea, until this was moved to Asmara in 1900.
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The Franks had been supported by the Slavs, who established polities on former Avar territory. Charlemagne's son Pepin of Italy captured a large, fortified encampment known as "the Ring", which contained much of the spoils from earlier Avar campaigns.Victor Duruy, The History of the Middle Ages, p. 446 The campaign against the Avars again gathered momentum.
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The first describes the three basic possible responses to decline in firms or polities (quitting, speaking up, staying quiet) in Exit, Voice, and Loyalty (1970). The second describes the basic arguments made by conservatives (perversity, futility and jeopardy) in The Rhetoric of Reaction (1991). In World War II, he played a key role in rescuing refugees in occupied France.
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This type of state is not specifically European: such empires existed in Asia, Africa and the Americas. In the Muslim world, immediately after Muhammad's death in 632, Caliphates were established. Caliphates were Islamic states under the leadership of a political-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. These polities developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires.
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The vast and centralized Maurya Empire was broken into numerous new polities. In the east, the newly formed Sunga Empire utilized the industries pre-established in Pataliputra. Yona kings, which were once incorporated by or allied with the Mauryan Empire, settled in the Indus forming Indo-Greek Kingdoms bringing new coinage practices.The Coins Of India, by Brown, C.J. p.
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Tikal was often in conflict with other polities in the Petén Basin, as well as with others outside of it, including Uaxactun, Caracol, Dos Pilas, Naranjo, and Calakmul. Towards the end of the Early Classic, this conflict lead to Tikal's military defeat at the hands of Caracol in 562, and a period commonly known as the Tikal Hiatus.
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Kwasarawa is an ancient place where some Fulani Rulers migrated to from Daura after the British and French had divided the three Daura polities, the British installed Zango's king, Malam Musa, as the new emir of Daura. Kwasarawa once part of Daura, It became part of the newly created Sandamu Local Government in Daura Emirate, Katsina State, Nigeria.
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Several ancient names of Berber polities may be related to their self- designated identity as Imazighen. The Egyptians knew as pharaohs the leaders of a powerful Berber tribe called Meshwesh of the XXII dynasty.See below section entitled Accounts of the Berbers. Located near Carthage was the Berber kingdom of Massyli, later called Numidia, ruled by Masinissa and his descendants.
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A caravan of dromedaries in Algeria. Much of the Radhanites' overland trade between Tangier and Mesopotamia was by camel. During the Early Middle Ages, Muslim polities of the Middle East and North Africa and Christian kingdoms of Europe often banned each other's merchants from entering their ports. Privateers of both sides raided the shipping of their adversaries at will.
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It has also been applied to social physics where a homeokinetics analysis shows that one must account for flow variables such as the flow of energy, of materials, of action, reproduction rate, and value- in-exchange.Iberall, A.S., H. Soodak and C. Arensberg. Homeokinetic physics of societies - A new discipline: Autonomous groups, cultures, polities. In: H. Reul et al (eds.).
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Watts Making of Polities pp. 180–181 In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s the military successes of Joan of Arc (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453.Watts Making of Polities pp. 317–322 The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars had a positive effect on English national identity, doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence.
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The Estero de Sunog Apog is one of the rivulets, known as esteros, which delineated the small islands which historically constituted the City of Manila and its predecessors, the Tagalog polities (called "bayan") of Maynila and Tondo. These esteros, along with the larger rivers of Manila Bay and the Pasig River delta, originally formed an important connecting network which allowed the precolonial polities of that Tagalog and Kapampangan peoples. The Estero de Sunog Apog drains water from Manila as far north as Estero de Maypajo (also sometimes called Estero de Maypad), and then dumps water into Manila Bay via Estero de Vitas. It forms the east bank of the Isla de Balut, along with Estero de Vitas which forms the island's west bank, and Estero de Maypajo and the Navotas River to the island's north.
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27 It is employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian political formations, such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized polity under a center of domination. It was adopted by 20th century European historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of avoiding the term "state" in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast Asian polities except Vietnam to not conform to classical Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. In some ways similar to the feudal system of Europe, states were linked in suzerain–tributary relationships.
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However, unlike purely congregational polities, the association has the main authority to ordain clergy and grant membership, or "standing", to clergy coming to a church from another association or another denomination (this authority is exercised "in cooperation with" the person being ordained/called and the local church that is calling them). Such standing, among other things, permits a minister to participate in the UCC clergy pension and insurance plans. Local churches are usually aided in searching for and calling ordained clergy through a denominationally coordinated "search-and-call" system, usually facilitated by staff at the conference level. However, the local church may, for various reasons, opt not to avail itself of the conference placement system, and is free to do so without fear of retaliation, which would likely occur in synodical or presbyterian polities.
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In sub-Saharan West Africa there were only two known source of copper that were commercially viable: Dkra near Nioro, Mali and Takedda in Azelik, Niger. Akjoujt was a significant source of copper, but due to the lack of timber it lost its significance in early historic times. The sources for West Africa’s copper came from southern Morocco, northwestern Mauritania, the Byzantine Empire and Central Europe (Herbert 1973). In West Africa there is a great deal of documentation about copper in trade, but the travelers who wrote these documents only visited the major centers of West African polities and there is no information on the people who lived out the polities or from the savanna and forest zones to the south, in terms of their use of copper.
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During the Middle Ages, the North of the peninsula housed many small Christian polities including the Kingdom of Castile, the Kingdom of Aragon, the Kingdom of Navarre, the Kingdom of León or the Kingdom of Portugal, as well as a number of counties that spawned from the Carolingian Marca Hispanica. Christian and Muslim polities fought and allied among themselves in variable alliances. The Christian kingdoms progressively expanded south taking over Muslim territory in what is historiographically known as the "Reconquista" (the latter concept has been however noted as product of the claim to a pre-existing Spanish Catholic nation and it would not necessarily convey adequately "the complexity of centuries of warring and other more peaceable interactions between Muslim and Christian kingdoms in medieval Iberia between 711 and 1492").
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The divine authority invested within the ruler was such that the king was able to mobilize both the aristocracy and commoners in executing huge infrastructure projects, apparently with no police force or standing army.Oakley and Rubin 2012, p. 82. Some polities engaged in a strategy of increasing administration, and filling administrative posts with loyal supporters rather than blood relatives.Foias 2014, p. 162.
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Throughout the Early Classic period (AD 200-650), Monte Alban and also the Oaxaca Valley formed the nucleus of the Zapotec polity. Interaction with other Classic period polities, specifically Teotihuacan, is evident. Monuments and murals at Monte Alban depict the arrival of visitors from Teotihuacan,Marcus 1983. while there is evidence that a Zapotec “barrio” existed at the central Mexican city.
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However, both polities exhausted their resources and manpower in this conflict, allowing the northward migration of the Oromo into their present homelands to the north and west of Addis Ababa.See, for example, Richard Pankhurst, The Ethiopians: A History (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), pp. 96f and sources cited therein. Many historians trace the origins of hostility between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.
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For some unknown reason, however, Sai On changed the names of Sanhoku and Sannan to and respectively. A world view presented in the Omoro Sōshi is strikingly different from that of the history books. The perception that Okinawa was divided into three polities is absent from the poem anthology. It never uses the terms of Sanzan, Sanhoku, Chūzan or Sannan.
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The ten languages spoken on the island are from the family of New Georgia languages, a subgroup of the Northwest Solomonic languages within the Oceanic languages, a major group of the Austronesian family. The Kalikoqu is a tribe in the Roviana Lagoon on the southern side of New Georgia Island; the larger tribal polities are the chief districts of Saikile and Kalikoqu.
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Xu, pp. 89–135 pp. 92ff. In this perspective, while recognizing the great impact of Chinese civilization on both polities, the role of Korean peninsular peoples in the transmission of Sinic culture was underplayed and it was claimed that Japan had retained its indigenous uniqueness by consistently modifying the cultural elements flowing through Korea to Yamato.Ebrey and Walthall, p.117.
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Sultan Barquq's reign was also marked by trade with other contemporaneous polities. Excavations in the late 1800s and early 1900s in modern-day northwestern Somalia unearthed, among other things, coins identified as having been derived from Barquq. All of the pieces had been struck in either Cairo or Damascus. Most of these finds are associated with the medieval Sultanate of Adal.
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Nevertheless, cultural Zhou influence in the middle Yangtze area was initially weak. Very few Zhou bronzes of the Shang-Zhou transition period were found in eastern Hubei, indicating little Zhou presence in the region. These findings correspond with contemporary bronze inscriptions, which show that the dynasty was initially focused on expanding to the east and north, while leaving the southern polities mostly alone.
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Other Berber polities at the periphery of the settled regions retained their total independence.A. Mahjoubi and P. Salama, "The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa" 261–285, at 283–285, in General History of Africa, Volume II. Ancient Civilizations of Africa (Paris: UNESCO 1990), edited by G. Mokhtar. Garmul, King of Mauretania, "destroyed a Byzantine army" in 571. Ibid. at 284.
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Giorgi III Gurieli (; died 1684), of the Georgian House of Gurieli, was Prince of Guria from 1669 to 1684 and King of Imereti from 1681 to 1683. He was energetically involved in civil wars in western Georgian polities, which he sought to bring under his sway. He was killed in battle while trying to recover the lost throne of Imereti.
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"Communities participating in the synoecism of Nikopolis and the boundaries of the territory." Synoecism or synecism ( ; , sunoikismos, ), also spelled synoikism ( ), was originally the amalgamation of villages in Ancient Greece into poleis, or city-states. Etymologically the word means "dwelling together (syn) in the same house (oikos)." Subsequently, any act of civic union between polities of any size was described by the word synoikismos.
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The Eastern Turkic Khaganate () was a Turkic khaganate formed as a result of the internecine wars in the beginning of the 7th century (AD 593–603) after the Göktürk Khaganate (founded in the 6th century in Mongolia by the Ashina clan) had splintered into two polities – Eastern and Western. Finally, the Eastern Turkic power was absorbed by the Chinese Tang Empire.
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Both sites are near the southeast coast in the Rizhao area, with Yaowangcheng about 35 km to the south of Liangchengzhen. Each site is surrounded by a hierarchy of economically integrated settlements, but there are relatively few settlements in the area between the two, suggesting that they were political centers of rival polities. Production of pottery, stone tools and textiles was common.
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The documentary evidence-including the preexisting political status of tribes, prior Supreme Court precedent, the treaty relationship, and the constitutional clauses acknowledging the distinctive status of tribal polities- clearly support exclusion. Indian territories, in other words, were not regarded as included in congressional enactments unless the tribe had given its explicit consent and unless they were expressly included in the law.
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After Ivan Vladislav's death in February 1018, Diogenes was charged with mopping up the last remaining centres of Bulgarian resistance. He took Sirmium and was named its commander (archon); his authority extended over the vassal polities in the inner regions of Serbia. His title was possibly that of "strategos of Serbia" (Greek: στρατηγός Σερβίας), which is attested in a seal attributed to him.; .
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This is a list of early and legendary monarchs of Burma (Myanmar). It covers the monarchs of the early polities according to the Royal Chronicles that gave rise to Pagan Kingdom. The list consists of two types. Some of the dynasties were likely derived from "Indian legends taken from Sanskrit or Pali originals" in order to link the Burmese monarchy to the Buddha.
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Madrid: Imprenta de Manuel Ruiz de Murga. . OCLC 79696350. "The second part of the work, compiled by Casimiro Díaz Toledano from the manuscript left by Gaspár de San Agustín, was not published until 1890 under the title: Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas, Parte segunda", pp. 374-376. Pangasinan, Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu \- were integrated into large cosmopolitan polities.
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The polities of Petén in the south remained independent and received many refugees fleeing from Spanish jurisdiction. In 1618 and in 1619 two unsuccessful Franciscan missions attempted the peaceful conversion of the still pagan Itza. In 1622 the Itza slaughtered two Spanish parties trying to reach their capital Nojpetén. These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695.
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They were mutually hostile; the Xiu Maya of Mani allied themselves with the Spanish, while the Cocom Maya of Sotuta became the implacable enemies of the European colonisers.Caso Barrera 2002, p. 17. At the time of conquest, polities in the north included Mani, Cehpech and Chakan. Chakan was largely landlocked with a small stretch of coast on the north of the peninsula.
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Certain traits assigned by past scholars to "conquest dynasties" to distinguish them from "native" dynasties may not have been so distinguishing. An example is the "royal hunt," which, according to David M. Robinson, "originated in China in a complex legacy of venerable Central Plains polities of high antiquity."Roger des Forges, (Review) Journal of Chinese Studies No. 60 – (January 2015) pp. 302-303.
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The polities of western Georgia fought one another for supremacy, particularly the Gurieli of Guria and Dadiani of Mingrelia. They forged a temporary alliance and organized, in January 1533, an ultimately disastrous expedition against the piratical tribe of Zygii in the north of Abkhazia. This setback enabled the king of Imereti to reassert his hegemony over Guria, but for a short time.
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The subsequent Peace of Lunéville stripped Austria of much of her Italian territories, obliged the Habsburgs to recognize the French satellites in the Low Countries, Switzerland, and northern Italy, and laid the groundwork for the mediatization of the small independent ecclesiastical and secular imperial polities by the duchies of Baden and Württemberg, and the Electorate of Bavaria.Rothenberg, pp. 43–44.
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Retrieved 2 January 2019. Polities do not necessarily need to be governments. A corporation, for instance, is capable of marshalling resources, has a governance structure, legal rights and exclusive jurisdiction over internal decision making. An ethnic community within a country or subnational entity may be a polity if they have sufficient organization and cohesive interests that can be furthered by such organization.
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Levan III Dadiani (), born Shamadavle (შამადავლე) (died 1680) was Prince of Mingrelia, of the House of Dadiani, from 1661 to 1680. His reign unfolded against the background of a series of civil wars in western Georgian polities, in which Levan III was an opponent of King Bagrat V of Imereti to whom he lost a battle and his own wife.
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After years of indecisive engagements, French forces finally defeated Rabih az-Zubayr at the Battle of Kousséri in 1900. In the next years, the French gradually expanded into eastern and northern Chad, encountering heavy resistance such as during the Wadai War. France conquered the last independent polities in Chad in 1917, and had defeated the last major native insurgencies by 1920.
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Andrews 1984, pp. 589, 591. A number of polities and groups inhabited the southern portion of the peninsula incorporating the Petén Basin, Belize, and surrounding areas,Estrada-Belli 2011, p. 52. Rice and Rice 2009, p. 17. Feldman 2000, p. xxi. including the Kejache, the Itza,Jones 2000, p. 353. the Kowoj,Rice and Rice 2009, p. 10. Rice 2009, p. 17.
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Lances, stirrups and saddles were to accompany horses, giving the mounted warrior a significant advantage over the lumbering footman. Several cavalry-dominated polities were to emerge in the savannah regions, including Mali, Songhai, Oyo, Bornu and others. Horse imports surpassed local breeding in several areas, and were to remain important through the centuries. Accounts of the empire of Mali mention saddles and stirrups.
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It was a confederation of different polities that accepted the absolute authority of Moshoeshoe. During the 1830s, the kingdom invited missionaries as a strategic means of acquiring guns and horses from the Cape. The Orange Free State slowly diminished the kingdom but never completely defeated it. In 1868, Moshoeshoe asked that the Sotho Kingdom be annexed by Britain, to save the remnant.
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Later the same year, the local post office at Benevola was renamed "Campbellsburg" as well. The arrival of the Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington Railroad in 1869 led to a division of the town into "Old" and "New Campbellsburg". The later was separately incorporated in 1876 but eventually expanded until the two polities merged into the present town.Rennick, Robert M. Kentucky Place Names.
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Gradually, by the end of the ensuing Dark Age, remnants of the Hittites coalesced into small Syro- Hittite states in Cilicia and the Levant, the latter states being composed of mixed Hittite and Aramean polities. Beginning in the mid-10th century BCE, a series of small Aramean kingdoms formed in the Levant and the Philistines settled in southern Canaan, where Canaanite speakers had coalesced into a number of defined polities such as Israel, Moab, Edom and Ammon. From 935 BCE, Assyria began to reorganize and once more expand outwards, leading to the Neo- Assyrian Empire (911–605 BCE), which came to control a vast area from the Caucasus to Egypt, and from Greek Cyprus to Persia. Phrygians, Cimmerians and Lydians arrived in Anatolia and a new Hurrian polity of Urartu formed in eastern Anatolia and Transcaucasia, where the Colchians (west Georgians) also emerged.
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It was never a true territorial empire controlling a territory by large military garrisons in conquered provinces, but rather dominated its client city-states primarily by installing friendly rulers in conquered territories, by constructing marriage alliances between the ruling dynasties, and by extending an imperial ideology to its client city-states. Client city-states paid tribute to the Aztec emperor, the Huey Tlatoani, in an economic strategy limiting communication and trade between outlying polities, making them dependent on the imperial center for the acquisition of luxury goods. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering polities as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala and spanning Mesoamerica from the Pacific to the Atlantic oceans. The empire reached its maximal extent in 1519, just prior to the arrival of a small group of Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés.
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The land (chan chʼeʼn) of the kingdom and its capital were called Wakabʼnal or Maxam and were part of a larger geographical entity known as Huk Tsuk. Despite constant warfare and eventual shifts in regional power, most kingdoms never disappeared from the political landscape until the collapse of the whole system in the 9th century. In this respect, Classic Maya kingdoms were similar to late Postclassic polities encountered by the Spanish in Yucatán and Central Mexico: some polities were subordinate to hegemonic centers or rulers through conquest and/or dynastic unions and yet even then they persisted as distinct entities. Presentation of captives to a Maya ruler Mayanists have been increasingly accepting the "court paradigm" of Classic Maya societies that puts the emphasis on the centrality of the royal household and especially the person of the king.
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Yarmaqs were silver coins minted in the Khazar Khaganate and other Turkic polities in medieval Eurasia. Ar- or yar- evolved from the verb "to cut longitudinally, to split", Turkish verb is also co-originating with the Old Turkic word ır- or yır- which means the same. The name is similar to Mongolian language word "yaarmag" meaning "market," especially outdoor ones that sell wide variety of goods.
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De Martino, Stefano, 2018. "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia", in Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500-500 BCE, Ugarit Verlag, p. 38: "...the recent German archaeological excavations at Tell Fekheriye support the assumption that the capital of Mittani, Wassukkanni, was located there..." See also Novák (2013: 346) and Bonatz (2014).
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Eastern Mediterranean in 1135. Frankish states are indicated with a red cross . The alt=Map of the states of the eastern Mediterranean in 1135 The Crusader states were Latin Catholic polities created in the aftermath of the First Crusade at the beginning of the 12thcentury on the Levantine littoral. These medieval French states became known as Outremer or , a phrase derived from or beyond and or sea.
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M. Witzel. "Rigvedic history: poets, chieftains, and polities," in The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity. ed. G. Erdosy (Walter de Gruyer, 1995), p. 333 The placement in Bihar is also challenged by historical geographers Mithila Sharan Pandey (who argues they must have been near Western Uttar Pradesh),Mithila Sharan Pandey, The Historical Geography and Topography of Bihar (Motilal Barnarsidass, 1963), p.
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Kaikhosro II Jaqeli (; b. 1522 – d. 1573), of the House of Jaqeli, son of Qvarqvare III, was prince of Samtskhe (styled with the hereditary title of atabeg), ruling nominally in 1545–1573. Invested as a puppet ruler by the Ottomans in 1545, Kaikhosro II's tenure was marred by incessant Iranian–Ottoman rivalry, as well as uneasy relations with neighboring Georgian polities, and internecine feuds.
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Berdan, et al. (1996), Aztec Imperial Strategies. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were organized as city-states (individually known as altepetl in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs). These were small polities ruled by a king or tlatoani (literally "speaker", plural tlatoque) from an aristocratic dynasty.
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Foias 2014, p. 64. Dominant capitals exacted tribute in the form of luxury items from subjugated population centres. Political power was reinforced by military power, and the capture and humiliation of enemy warriors played an important part in elite culture. An overriding sense of pride and honour among the warrior aristocracy could lead to extended feuds and vendettas, which caused political instability and the fragmentation of polities.
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Ptolemy III's reign was also marked by trade with other contemporaneous polities. In the 1930s, excavations by Mattingly at a fortress close to Port Dunford (the likely Nikon of antiquity) in present-day southern Somalia yielded a number of Ptolemaic coins. Among these pieces were 17 copper coins from the reigns of Ptolemy III to Ptolemy V, as well as late Imperial Rome and Mamluk Sultanate coins.
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It is the 27th century. The culture featured in the novel is based on the culture portrayed in the last chapter of Accelerando, "Survivor" (full chapter here). Humanity has spread throughout the galaxy using the wormhole technology copied from the alien routers, forming a plethora of societies and 'polities'. Robin, a human male, is recovering from a memory excision process in a rehabilitation centre.
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T-gates : (Transporter gates). These are the ubiquitous point-to-point wormholes which link everything from polities that are light-years apart to rooms in habitats to each other. They are also used to enable one to access private storage spaces, even from clothing. Unlike the A-gates, traffic through these is instantaneous and unfiltered, though they can be fitted with firewalls at a variety of strengths.
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He has worked with the most successful Greek singers, composing the music and writing the lyrics for a large number of hit songs. (I akti, Pame gi’alles polities, Lathos epohi, Simera, Efiges noris, Zoi klemmeni, Kalimera ti kanis, etc). With his religious works, he has provided a very different perspective of contemporary byzantine music. (Kyrie ton Dynameon, Efta Paraklisis, Imera Triti, Earini Ora, etc).
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Subsequently they restored, in 888, the Georgian kingdom, which prospered from the 11th to the 13th century, bringing several regional polities under its control. Several members of royal families from Europe, Russia and Asia married with Georgian royalty. This period of time, particularly the reigns of David IV (1089–1125) and his great granddaughter Tamar (1184–1213), is celebrated as a “golden age” in Georgian history.
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Okinawa Islands during the Sanzan Period Polities of the Okinawa Islands were unified as the Ryūkyū Kingdom in 1429. The kingdom conquered the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands. At its peak, it also subjected the Amami Islands to its rule. In 1609, Shimazu Tadatsune, Lord of Satsuma, invaded the Ryūkyū Kingdom with a fleet of 13 junks and 2,500 samurai, thereby establishing suzerainty over the islands.
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It disintegrated soon after its founder's death and Avar control of the region was restored. The Avar Khaganate collapsed around 803 as a result of several successful military campaigns launched by the Franks against it. The fall of the Khaganate contributed to the rise of new polities among the Slavs in the region. The shift in political control was accompanied by changes in military strategy and equipment.
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According to Chase and Chase, Naranjo was also defeated by Caracol- the monuments appear to show Caracol kings at Naranjo itself. Based on the distances between the polities (Naranjo is exactly halfway between Tikal and Caracol, 42 kilometers in either direction), the Chases suggest that the takeover of Naranjo is what allowed Caracol to defeat and dominate Tikal for such a long period of time.
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In more open areas, such as the rest of Shandong, the Central Plain (in Henan) and the Wei River basin in Shaanxi, local centers were more numerous, smaller (generally 20 to 60 ha) and fairly evenly spaced. Walls of rammed earth have been found in 20 towns in Shandong, 9 in the Central Plain and one (Taosi) in southern Shanxi, suggesting conflict between polities in these areas.
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During the Jin dynasty, the five semi-nomadic tribes of Xiongnu, Jie, Xianbei, Di, and Qiang conquered northern China. Historians call this period and the polities they created the Sixteen Kingdoms. During this era, the Di ruled the states of Cheng Han (304–347), Former Qin (351–394) and Later Liang (386–403). The tribe of Di was originally from the southern part of Gansu Province.
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169 The very origin of the Romanians was narrated differently than before: Roller himself concluded that the influence of Slavic polities—Danube Bulgaria, Kievan Rus', Halych—was fundamental in shaping the lives of early Romanians.Boia, Istorie și mit..., p.166-7 Classical Western values were attacked, more violently in later editions as the Cold War deepened. The iconography of national awakening was consciously modified.
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Toniná was an aggressive state in the Late Classic, using warfare to develop a powerful kingdom.Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.472. For much of its history, Toniná was engaged in sporadic warfare with Palenque, its greatest rival and one of the most important polities in the west of the Maya region, although Toniná eventually became the dominant city in the west.Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.451.
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If this is the case, then Machaquilá appears to have been the dominant city out of the two. Seibal Stela 10, dating to roughly 849 AD, has an inscription naming Kan Ek' as ruler of Motul de San José, which is recorded as being one of the four paramount polities in the mid-9th century (ca. 849), along with Calakmul, Tikal and Seibal itself.Martin & Grube 2000, pp.
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He also negotiated peace and mounted some significant military expeditions against local Javanese princes to subjugate them into British rule. Most significant of these was 21 June 1812 assault on Yogyakarta, one of the two most powerful indigenous polities in Java. During the attack the Yogyakarta kraton was badly damaged and extensively looted by British troops. Raffles seized much of the contents of the court archive.
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In 1816, the Dutch regained the full control of their colony in Java and other parts of the archipelago, and they would embark on their conquest over other independent polities in the archipelago. By 1920 they had consolidated their realm, a colonial state in the Indonesian archipelago, established Dutch East Indies as one of the most profitable European colony in the world's colonial history.
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States have adopted various attitudes towards religions, ranging from theocracy to state atheism. A theocracy is "government by divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided". Modern day recognised theocracies include the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Holy See, while the Taleban and Islamic State are insurgencies attempting to create such polities. Historical examples include the Islamic Caliphates and the Papal States.
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Adriatic polities in ca. 814 AD. Slavic principalities c. 850. Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814, expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire (800) that incorporated much of western and central Europe. He brought the Frankish state face to face with the West Slavs to the northeast and the Avars and South Slavs to the southeast of the Frankish empire.
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The variety of titles used by leaders of small polities is bewildering: anrongguru, dampang, gallarrang, jannang, kare, kasuiang, lao, loqmoq, todo, and more besides. All were local titles Makassarese used before the rise of Gowa. Gowa's expansion brought some systematic order to this variety. Granting titles was an important method of establishing and recognizing a given person/s and a given community's place within society.
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Patterson identifies the Halifax Treaties define the relationship between the Mi'kmaq and the British. While the Treaties do not stipulate the laws governing land and resources, the treaties ensured that both parties would follow the laws that would eventually be made to deal with these matters and any other matters. The British, accepted a continuing role for existing Mi'kmaw polities within the limits of British sovereignty.Patterson, p.
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Iranun pirate In thalassocratic Austronesian cultures in Island Southeast Asia, maritime raids for slaves and resources against rival polities have ancient origins. It was associated with prestige and prowess and often recorded in tattoos. Reciprocal raiding traditions were recorded by early European cultures as being prevalent throughout Island Southeast Asia. prahu in Skerang river. 1890 illustration by Rafael Monleón of a late 18th-century Iranun lanong warship.
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Vameq III Dadiani (also Vamiq; ; died 1661) was Prince of Mingrelia, of the House of Dadiani, from 1658 until being deposed in 1661. He was also briefly King of Imereti in 1661. He assumed both Mingrelian and Imeretian thrones and lost them during a messy civil war in western Georgian polities and was killed by assassins while hiding in a refuge of the mountains of Svaneti.
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Hull: Centre for South East Asian Studies, University of Hull. Extensive surveys and excavations in Luwu have revealed that the Bugis-speaking kingdom is a century or so younger than the oldest polities of the southwest peninsula.David Bulbeck and Ian Caldwell, Land of iron: The historical archeology of Luwu and the Cenrana valley. Results of the Origins of Complex Society in South Sulawesi Project (OXIS).
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National Library of Australia. Asia's French Connection : George Coedes and the Coedes Collection Shiva statue, Champa (modern Vietnam) The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Selective adoption of Indian civilisation elements and individual suitable adaption stimulated the emergence of centralised states and development of highly organised societies. Ambitious local leaders realised the benefits of Hindu worship.
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Historic Indosphere cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the honorific titles, naming of people, naming of places, mottos of organisations and educational institutes as well as adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and dance, traditional Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has been also aided by the ongoing historic expansion of Indian diaspora. Southeast Asia was under Indian sphere of cultural influence starting around 290 BC until around the 15th century, when Hindu-Buddhist influence was absorbed by local politics. Kingdoms in the southeast coast of the Indian Subcontinent had established trade, cultural and political relations with Southeast Asian kingdoms in Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Cambodia and Champa. This led to Indianisation and Sanskritisation of Southeast Asia within Indosphere, Southeast Asian polities were the Indianised Hindu-Buddhist Mandala (polities, city states and confederacies).
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Junker describes coastal polities of Tondo and Maynila's size as "administrative and commercial centers functioning as important nodes in networks of external and internal trade." While the basic model for the movement of trade goods in early Philippine history saw coastal settlements at the mouth of large rivers (in this case, the Pasig river delta) controlling the flow of goods to and from settlements further upriver (in this case, the upland polities on the Laguna Lake coast), Tondo and Maynila had trade arrangements which allowed them to control trade throughout the rest of the archipelago. Scott observes that while the port of Tondo had the monopoly on arriving Chinese merchant ships, it was Manila's fleet of trading vessels which in turn retailed them to settlements throughout the rest of the archipelago, so much so that Manyila's ships came to be known as "Chinese" (sinina).
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Junker describes coastal polities of Tondo and Maynila's size as "administrative and commercial centers functioning as important nodes in networks of external and internal trade." While the basic model for the movement of trade goods in early Philippine history saw coastal settlements at the mouth of large rivers (in this case, the Pasig river delta) controlling the flow of goods to and from settlements further upriver (in this case, the upland polities on the Laguna Lake coast), Tondo and Maynila had trade arrangements which allowed them to control trade throughout the rest of the archipelago. Scott observes that while the port of Tondo had the monopoly on arriving Chinese merchant ships, it was Manila's fleet of trading vessels which in turn retailed them to settlements throughout the rest of the archipelago, so much so that Manyila's ships came to be known as "Chinese" (sinina).
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Silver coin of king Nitichandra, Arakan. Brahmi legend "NITI" in front, Shrivatasa symbol on the reverse. 8th century CE. The history of the region of Arakan (now renamed Rakhine) State can be roughly divided into seven parts. The first four divisions and the periods are based on the location of the centre of power of the main independent Rakhine- dominated polities in the northern Rakhine region, especially along the Kaladan River.
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Neither did he refer to the Magyars' fights with the Moravians, Franks and Bavarians which had been described in earlier annals and chronicles. On the other hand, Anonymus wrote of local polities and rulersincluding Gelou, the Vlach duke of Transylvania, Menumorut, the lord of the regions between the rivers Mureș, Someș and Tisza, and Salanus, the Bulgar ruler of the lands between the Danube and the Tiszaunknown from other primary sources.
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None of these were Han Chinese ruled dynasties. Rather, all were led by Shato. Finally, the last major hurdle had to do with the ability to rule of all China. While each of these five dynasties held more territory than any of the other Chinese polities of the era, the reality is that none of them realistically had the chance to conquer the southern kingdoms and unite the entire realm.
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The Brabant Revolution broke out in the Austrian Netherlands in October 1789, inspired by the revolution in neighbouring France, but had collapsed by the end of 1790. The region of modern-day Belgium was divided between two polities: the Austrian Netherlands and Prince- Bishopric of Liège. Both territories experienced revolutions in 1789. In the Austrian Netherlands, the Brabant Revolution succeeded in expelling Austrian forces and established the new United Belgian States.
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The development of states—large-scale, populous, politically centralized, and socially stratified polities/societies governed by powerful rulers—marks one of the major milestones in the evolution of human societies. Archaeologists often distinguish between primary (or pristine) states and secondary states. Primary states evolved independently through largely internal developmental processes rather than through the influence of any other pre-existing state. The earliest known primary states appeared in Mesopotamia c.
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Shavshat was a part of a province of Greater Armenia - Gugark. After 387 this land was a part of Marzpan Iberia (vassal of Iran). After this, in IX century it was one of the Georgian princedoms in the constellation of several polities which is conventionally known as Tao-Klarjeti in Georgian. The princedom of Shavsheti included today's districts of Şavşat, Borçka, and Murgul in Turkey and Lower Machakheli in Adjara (Georgia).
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The first large Maya cities developed in the Petén Basin in the far south of the Yucatán Peninsula as far back as the Middle Preclassic (c. 600–350 BC), and Petén formed the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the Classic period (c. AD 250–900). The 16th-century Maya provinces of northern Yucatán are likely to have evolved out of polities of the Maya Classic period.
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The Kingdom of Bazin was an early medieval kingdom centered in Northeast Africa. According to Al-Yaqubi, it was one of six Beja polities that existed in the region during the 9th century. The kingdom's territory was located between Aswan and Massawa. While the ruling class was Beja, the majority of the population were the native Kunama people, called "Bazin" (or sometimes Baden, Bazen etc.), who practiced a traditional religion.
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In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities, as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the political science fields of comparative politics and international relations. Like all categories discerned within forms of government, the boundaries of government classifications are either fluid or ill-defined. Superficially, all governments have an official or ideal form.
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Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples who migrated to central Mexico from the north in the early 13th century.Davies 1973, pp. 3–22 The migration story of the Mexica is similar to those of other polities in central Mexico, with supernatural sites, individuals, and events, joining earthly and divine history as they sought political legitimacy.Alfredo López Austin, "Aztec" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture, vol. 1, p. 68.
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King regained power in the 1935 general election. He immediately went to Dunning, pressing him to re-enter polities. King convinced Dunning that he was needed in the tough economic times created by the Great Depression, a sitting Member of Parliament stepped aside, and Dunning was yet again acclaimed in a 1936 by-election held in the constituency of Queen's in Prince Edward Island. Dunning returned to the Finance portfolio.
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Sasanian coinage was produced within the domains of the Iranian Sasanian Empire (224–651). Together with the Roman Empire, the Sasanian Empire was the most important money-issuing polity in Late Antiquity. Sasanian coinage had a significant influence on coinage of other polities. Sasanian coins are a pivotal primary source for the study of the Sasanian period, and of major importance in history and art history in general.
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Maghrebi traditions of mounted warfare eventually influenced a number of sub-Saharan African polities in the medieval era. The Esos of Ikoyi, military aristocrats of the Yoruba peoples, were a notable manifestation of this phenomenon.Johnson, Samuel (1921), The History of the Yorubas, from the earliest times to the beginning of the British protectorate, p. 73-75. Kanem-Bu warriors armed with spears in the retinue of a mounted war chief.
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The talks ended with both sides claiming the other side dropped follow-up contacts. Following the conflict that erupted between the two main Palestinian parties, Fatah and Hamas, Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip, splintering the Palestinian Authority into two polities, each claiming to be the true representatives of the Palestinian people. Fatah controlled the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank and Hamas governed in Gaza.
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Sargon claims in his inscriptions that he is "Sargon, king of the world, conqueror of Elam and Parahshum", the two major polities to the east of Sumer. He also names various rulers of the east whom he vanquished, such as "Luh-uh-ish-an, son of Hishibrasini, king of Elam", thought to be Lu-sihan, or " Sidga'u, general of Parahshum", who later also appears in an inscription by Rimush.
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With the defeat of the Itza, the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to European colonisers. Sizeable Maya populations existed in Petén before the conquest, particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers. Petén was divided into different Maya polities engaged in a complex web of alliances and enmities. The most important groups around the central lakes were the Itza, the Yalain and the Kowoj.
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The Yalain appear to have been one of the three dominant polities in Postclassic central Petén, alongside the Kowoj and the Itza. At its height, this territory would have extended from the eastern shore of Lake Petén Itzá to Tipuj in Belize.Cecil et al 1999, p. 788. The site of Muralla de León, to the east of Lake Macanché, may have been an early capital of the Yalain.
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The ruins of a royal castle at Gremi. Unlike other Georgian polities, Kakheti was spared, for the time being, from major foreign incursions and significant internal unrest. Furthermore, it had the advantage over other parts of Georgia of flanking the important Ghilan-Shemakha-Astrakhan “silk route.” The Kakhetian government sponsored this trade and actively participated in it, closely tying the kingdom to the economic life of eastern Transcaucasia and Iran.
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As recounted by Vasiliev, Maria arrived in Moldavia on 4 September 1472. However, other scholars place the event almost a full year before that, to 14 September 1471. The marriage, which took place on 14 September 1472, was probably contracted for political reasons. As noted by historian Constantin Iordachi, her presence in Moldavia formed part of a "multifaceted influence" of post-Byzantine polities, which at that phase was still "direct".
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According to Chimalpahin, it was as a result of this that the war between the two polities began. Chimalpahin states that the war continued for a year with it only coming to an end upon the death of Moquihuix. It is said that the Tenochca "threw [Moquihuix] from the top of an earthen mound along with his hunchbacks and [a] quetzal feather crest, there ending the rulership in Tlatelolco".
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Mycenaean palatial states, or centrally organized palace-operating polities, are recorded in ancient Greek literature and mythology (e.g., Iliad, Catalogue of Ships) and confirmed by discoveries made by modern archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann. Each Mycenaean kingdom was governed from the palace, which exercised control over most, if not all, industries within its realm. The palatial territory was divided into several sub-regions, each headed by its provincial center.
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3-4Nicholas J. Higham and Martin J. Ryan, The Anglo-Saxon World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013), pp. 97–101.Fred C. Robinson, "Old English," in Early Germanic Literature and Culture (2004), p. 205 New political and social identities emerged, including an Anglian culture in the east of England and a Saxon culture in the south, with local groups establishing regiones, small polities ruled over by powerful families and individuals.
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In May 2013, the Association of Comprehensive Studies for Independence of the Lew Chewans (ACSILs) was established, focusing on demilitarization, decolonization, and aim of self-determined independence. They plan to collaborate with polities such as Guam and Taiwan that also seek independence. In September 2015, it held a related forum in New York University in New York City. The topics of self-determination have since entered mainstream electoral politics.
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The development of states—large-scale, populous, politically centralized, and socially stratified polities/societies governed by powerful rulers—marks one of the major milestones in the evolution of human societies. Archaeologists often distinguish between primary (or pristine) states and secondary states. Primary states evolved independently through largely internal developmental processes rather than through the influence of any other pre-existing state. The earliest known primary states appeared in Mesopotamia c.
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Her current projects concern rethinking state and popular sovereignty in the epoch of globalization, as well as defending the law-making capacities of secular polities from religiously motivated legal pluralism. Jean L. Cohen serves on the Editorial Advisory Board of the Council's journal, Ethics & International Affairs. Civil Society and Political Theory, co-authored with Andrew Arato, is viewed by many as a seminal text on contemporary civil society.
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Junker notes that significant work still needs to be done in analyzing the internal/local supply and demand dynamics in pre-Spanish era polities, because much of the prior research has tended to focus on their external trading activities. Scott notes that early Spanish lexicons are particularly useful for this analysis, because these early dictionaries captured many words which demonstrate the varied nuances of these local economic activities.
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On the breakup of the Kingdom of Georgia, the province came under the Kingdom of Imereti, 1455. Through incessant feudal warfare, the nobles from the Chikovani (Chikvani) family were eventual winners and established themselves as semi-independent Lords of Lechkhumi (Georgian: Lechkhumis Tavi). In 1714, Bejan Chikovani became Prince of Mingrelia and assumed the dynastic name of Dadiani. Thus, these two western Georgian polities united under the princes of Mingrelia.
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Three of the original polities within the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands did not join the eventual Federated States of Micronesia. Islands within Micronesia came under the jurisdiction of the United States in 1947, as the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. This territory was divided into six administrative districts: Chuuk, the Marshall Islands, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Pohnpei, and Yap State (Yap). Kosrae was later separated from Pohnpei.
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Anitta also defeated the polities of Zalpuwa and Hattum, after which he took the title of Great King. Most scholars also accept a further king, Labarna I, to be a member of the Kussaran dynasty.Bryce 2005, p. 66. It is notable that Hattusili I, recognized as one of the first Hittite kings, referred to himself as "man of Kussara", although his capital (from which he likely took his name) was Hattusa.
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During the Roman civil wars of the 40s, Massilia chose to maintain its longstanding relationship with Pompeius even in isolation, as the Gallic polities of the Narbonensis continued to support Caesar.Stéphane Mauné, "La centuriation de Béziers B et l'occupation du sol de la vallée de l'Hérault au Ie av. J.-C.," in Histoire, espaces et marges de l'Antiquité: Hommages à Monique Clavel Lévêque (Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises, 2003), vol. 2, p.
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Colha is located in north-central Belize, about 52 km. north of Belize City in a chert-rich area, Colha offers an in depth look at Maya warfare and collapsed polities during the Terminal Classic. Colha is associated with extensive lithic production ranging in time from the early Classic and into the Post Classic. A huge chert quarry is near Colha, facilitating the production of many chert lithics.
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The 1966 discovery of a 9.5 kilometer long earthwork north of Tikal's center did much to dispel the notion that the Maya were peaceful. Later reevaluation of the evidence suggested that the earthworks, which were constructed sometime between A.D. 400 and 550, may not have ever been a functional defensive system. However, epigraphic data shows that Tikal participated in violent interactions with other polities, including Caracol (see above).
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Junker notes that significant work still needs to be done in analyzing the internal/local supply and demand dynamics in pre-Spanish era polities, because much of the prior research has tended to focus on their external trading activities. Scott notes that early Spanish lexicons are particularly useful for this analysis, because these early dictionaries captured many words which demonstrate the varied nuances of these local economic activities.
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In State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives, pp. 179–200. Curzon, London. The material culture remains of Gaya culture mainly consist of burials and their contents of mortuary goods that have been excavated by archaeologists. Archaeologists interpret mounded burial cemeteries of the late third and early fourth centuries such as Daeseong-dong in Gimhae and Bokcheon-dong in Busan as the royal burial grounds of Gaya polities.
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Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005. that dominated the banks of the Pasig River in the Philippines during the 16th century, just prior to the Spanish colonization of the Philippines. Archeological findings in Santa Ana, Namayan's former seat of power, have produced the oldest evidence of continuous habitation among the three polities, pre-dating artifacts found within the historical sites of Maynila and Tondo.Fox, Robert B. and Avelino M. Legaspi. 1977.
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Huerta describes the original settlement in Sta Ana as a fishing village that had other industries including carpentry, masonry, piña (pineapple cloth) embroidery, tinapá, cigars, bricks, sugar and bread. This contrasts sharply with the economic activities of the contemporaneous polities of Tondo and Maynila, which monopolized the influx of goods coming from China, and monopolized the re-sale of the same Chinese goods to other ports in the archipelago, respectively.
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Matlalxochtzin () was a daughter of Tlacacuitlahuatzin, the first tlatoani (ruler) of Tiliuhcan, one of the polities (altepetl) of the Tepanec people in the Valley of Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology.Chimalpahin (1997, pp.118–119) She was born in Tiliuhcan after her father had been elevated as tlatoani--his father Huehuetzin (Matlalxochtzin's grandfather) had been leader in Tiliuhcan but was only of eagle warrior rank.Chimalpahin (1997, p.
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The Kalikoqu is a tribe in the Roviana Lagoon, southern side of New Georgia in the Solomon Islands. Currently, in the Roviana Lagoon, the larger tribal polities are the chief districts of Saikile and Kalikoqu. The Kalikoqu originally lived in the eastern side of Nusa Roviana in the western Roviana Lagoon. The Kalikoqu had their own property rights of land and sea by intermarrying each other to share kinship relationships.
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Often, these Paramount Datus, Rajah's and Sultans formed ritual alliances with the leaders of nearby polities, and these "alliance groups" spread their political influence (but not their territorial claims) across an even larger geographic area. One prominent example was the case of the Paramount Rulers of Maynila and Tondo, who were said to have political sway among the peoples of Bulacan and Pampanga before the arrival of the Spanish.
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The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, founded by Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi in 670, is one of the oldest and most important mosques in North Africa., page 248 The early Muslim conquests included North Africa by 640. By 700, most of North Africa had come under Muslim rule. Indigenous Berbers subsequently started to form their own polities in response in places such as Fez and Sijilmasa.
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Langkasuka among polities in ancient Malay realm. Several archaeological expeditions were conducted in the 1960s to locate Langkasuka following the suggestion by Paul Wheatley of its likely location. In 1963, Stewart Wavell led a Cambridge expedition to locate Langkasuka and Tambralinga and the details of this expedition are described in The Naga King's Daughter. An archaeological investigation of the Yarang area began in 1989 by the Fine Arts Department of Thailand.
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Their ceramics were influenced by the Moche cultura. While the Peruvian coastal cultures of that time, such as the Moche, the Lima, and the Nasca, are much better known, the high sierra also saw the emergence of powerful cultural polities. These were the Cajamarca in the north, the Huarpa in central highlands, and the Pucará in the Titicaca highlands.George F. Lau, Andean Expressions: Art and Archaeology of the Recuay Culture.
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From 185 to 184, Baebius was one of the ambassadors (legati)The others were Q. Caecilius Metellus and either Ti. Sempronius Gracchus or the Ti. Claudius Nero who was praetor in 181. sent to negotiate disputes between Philip, his former joint commander in the Roman-Syrian War, and surrounding Greek polities, who had lodged complaints about Philip's occupation of Aenus and Maroneia.Polybius 22.10; Livy 39.23.5–29.3; Pausanias 7.8.6.
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Outer slopes of Rano Raraku with twenty moai, some buried to the neck Hotu-iti (also, "Tongariki territory") is an area of southeastern Easter Island that takes its name from a local clan. Located in Rapa Nui National Park, the area includes Rano Raraku crater, the Ahu Tongariki site, and a small bay. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Hotu-iti clan was one of two polities on Easter Island.
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This foreign contact was started by small Indianised trading kingdoms in the early 4th century that nurtured contacts with other major civilisations in the Asian mainland, India and China. Benefited by its strategic location on a thriving maritime trade route between India and China, polities in Indonesian archipelago soon would grow into a thriving, healthy, and cosmopolitan trading empire such as Srivijaya that rose in the 7th century.
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The scattering Ndwandwe and Swazi caused the Mfecane to spread. During the 1820s, Shaka expanded the empire all along the Drakensberg foothills, with tribute being paid as far south as the Tugela and Umzimkulu rivers. He replaced the chiefs of conquered polities with indunas, responsible to him. He introduced a centralized, dedicated, and disciplined military force not seen in the region, with a new weapon in the short stabbing-spear.
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The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, c. 900 CE. The oldest known historical record found in the Philippines, which indirectly refers to the polity of Tondo The earliest historical record of local polities and kingdoms is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which indirectly refers to the Tagalog polity of Tondo (–1589) and two to three other settlements believed to be located somewhere near Tondo, as well as a settlement near Mt. Diwata in Mindanao, and the temple complex of Medang in Java. Although the precise political relationships between these polities is unclear in the text of the inscription, the artifact is usually accepted as evidence of intra- and inter- regional political linkages as early as 900 CE. By the arrival of the earliest European ethnographers during the 1500s, Tondo was led by the paramount ruler called a "Lakan". It had grown into a major trading hub, sharing a monopoly with the Rajahnate of Maynila over the trade of Ming dynasty products throughout the archipelago.
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Karagwe, Nkore, and Buhaya formed small neighboring states to the major kingdoms of Bunyoro and Buganda in the Great Lakes region. Karagwe and Nkore were individual polities, while Buhaya refers to an area along the western side of Lake Victoria in which seven small states were recognized: Kiamutwara, Kiziba, Ihangiro, Kihanja, Bugabo, Maruku, and Missenye. Although this entry only deals with the period up to the end of the eighteenth century, it is essential to recognize that the earlier histories of these polities and the detail with which they have been recorded are a direct product of nineteenth- and twentieth-century history and the circumstances which befell them. Nkore (Ankole in colonial times) found itself within the British Protectorate of Uganda and became a cornerstone of Protectorate policy, being one of the four main kingdoms and enjoying a considerably enlarged territorial status under the Protectorate than it had done in precolonial times.
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501 Al-Ghazi's forces and their Ottoman allies came close to extinguishing the ancient Ethiopian kingdom. However, the Ethiopians managed to secure the assistance of Cristóvão da Gama's Portuguese troops and maintain their domain's autonomy. Both polities in the process exhausted their resources and manpower, which resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come. Many historians trace the origins of hostility between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.
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The conflict also engendered considerable propaganda, hacktivism and cyber warfare (both on the part of the combatants and polities directly involved and of independent, private parties) which resulted in numerous website defacements, denial-of- service attacks and domain name and account hijackings. An opt-in anti-Hamas botnet created by Israeli students appeared, and new media diplomacy appeared on social networking sites such as Facebook and Second Life, and on new media such as Twitter.
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An image from the Boxer Codex () supposedly portraying an indigenous Tagalog ("naturales tagalos") couple, presumed by Professor Charles Ralph Boxer to be Tagalogs from the Maginoo class. The term Paramount Ruler, or sometimes Paramount Datu, is a term applied by historians to describe the highest ranking political authorities in the largest lowland polities or inter-polity alliance groups in early Philippine history, most notably those in Maynila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, and Sulu.
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This bronze artifact was used to memorialize his Shang ancestors. The inscription contradicts the hypothesis that the Zhou dynasty manufactured the existence of the Xia dynasty. Although the Shang oracle bone inscriptions contain no mention of the Xia, some scholars have suggested that polities they mention might be remnants of the Xia. Guo Moruo suggested that an enemy state called Tufang state mentioned in many inscriptions might be identified with the Xia.
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However, the Abyssinians managed to secure the assistance of Cristóvão da Gama's Portuguese troops and maintain their domain's autonomy. Both polities in the process exhausted their resources and manpower, which resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come. Many historians trace the origins of hostile Ethiopia–Somalia relations to this war.David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987).
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Rhodian stater from 250–230 BC Ancient Rhodian coinage refers to the coinage struck by an independent Rhodian polity during Classical and Hellenistic eras. The Rhodians also controlled territory on neighbouring Caria that was known as Rhodian Peraia under the islanders' rule. However, many other eastern Mediterranean states and polities adopted Rhodian (Chian) monetary standard following Rhodes. It has been speculated how much Rhodians had influenced the spread of the monetary standard.
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Green, gold and red are now found on the national flags of many African nations. The colour combination was borrowed from the flag of Ethiopia. The Ethiopian flag has influenced the flags of many Pan-African organizations and polities. Except for a brief period of occupation by Kingdom of Italy, Ethiopia remained outside European control during the colonial era by defeating the Italian army at the battle of Adwa, Ethiopia, in 1896.
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After Curious Yellow's destruction, a number of Quisling dictatorships formed, using hacked versions of the worm to spread in an attempt to form separatist dystopias, populated by brainwashed populations led by sinister "cognitive dictators". But these were mopped-up one-by-one, and the galaxy returned to a semblance of normality with the firewalled polities building "clean" A-gates to carefully re-integrate. The Invisible Republic became one of the largest new networks.
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Tarantine coin portraying a mounted soldier Coins of Taras from the 4th century BC picture a mounted cavalryman equipped with a shield. At that time no other Greek military equipped cavalry with shields. It can be deduced that the influence of Taras may have been responsible for the spread of shielded cavalry to other Greek polities. Throughout the Greek world it was common that weight standards of Hellenistic coinage decreased in weight over time.
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Silver coin of Ezana. The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue its own coins, which bore legends in Ge'ez and Greek. From the reign of Endubis up to Armah (approximately 270 to 610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to its neighbours.
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Due to lack of sufficient evidence, he refrained from determining Hokuzan's relationship with Chūzan. He related these alleged polities to Ming China's haijin (sea ban) policy. Unlike the preceding Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty prohibited Chinese merchants from engaging in oversea trade. In order to maintain international trade that covers the vast area from Southeast Asia to Japan and Korea, they set up tribute-paying missions under the names of foreign kings.
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Jan Nederveen Pieterse believes that the United States is in the position of new universal Empire which succeeds Roman and British, but unlike them, the United States maintains "Pax" not on the basis of the rule of law, but on the rule of power. He also emphasized that breaches of the international law placed United States in the position of "international legal nihilism" and that USA does not recognize other polities as legitimate equals.
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Parthian temple in Assur. The city revived during the Parthian Empire period, particularly between 150 BC and 270 AD, being resettled and becoming an administrative centre of Parthian-ruled Assuristan. Assyriologists Simo Parpola and Patricia Crone suggest Assur may have had outright independence in this period. Other polities such as Beth Garmai, Beth Nuhadra and Adiabene also flourished due to the fact that the Parthians exercised only loose or intermittent control of Assyria.
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38 ff as well as Matara were important ancient Dʿmt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea. The realm developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the Kingdom of Aksum, which was able to reunite the area.
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The other Serb-inhabited lands (or principalities) that were mentioned included the "countries" of Paganija (state of the Narentines), Zahumlje and Travunija, while the "land" of Duklja was held by the Byzantines (it was presumably settled with Serbs as well). Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the DAI explicitly names the inhabitants of these four dukedoms as the Serbs. These polities bordered Serbia to the north. The exact borders of the early Serbian state are unclear.
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Central Asian art adopted many Tang Chinese stylistic elements, like the sancai three color glaze used for ceramics. According to Chinese sources, Turkic states and polities still valued ties with the courts of dynasties in northern China as a form of prestige. The Qarakhan and Qarakhitay khans held titles that identified them as Tabghach or Khitay, named after kingdoms in northern China. Tang architectural influences are apparent in the Buddhist architecture in Dunhuang.
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They have also argued that four forms of globalization can be distinguished that complement and cut across the solely empirical dimensions. According to James, the oldest dominant form of globalization is embodied globalization, the movement of people. A second form is agency- extended globalization, the circulation of agents of different institutions, organizations, and polities, including imperial agents. Object-extended globalization, a third form, is the movement of commodities and other objects of exchange.
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A historical province known as Manila encompassed territories once held by various pre-Hispanic polities. This included the well-known Pasig River delta settlements of Maynila and Tondo, but smaller settlements such as those at Tambobong, Taguig, Pateros, and the fortified polity of Cainta. It became the capital of the colonial Philippines, with Manila (Intramuros) serving as the center of colonial power. In 1898, it included the City of Manila and 23 other municipalities.
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In contrast to many post-Roman polities in Europe, grants of land, or of rights to collect taxes directly from the payers, were of only minor importance. A major consequence of this was that the army directly depended on the state for its subsistence which, in turn, meant that the military had to control the state apparatus.The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Contributors: Hugh Kennedy - author.
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Geographic information systems (GIS) provide an environment to model and measure the conditions by which spatial relationships develop and change. GIS software serves as an important tool to visualize such metrics. In Mexico, archaeologists used GIS models to examine transportation corridors between sites that prove useful in learning about trade relationships among polities through time. Archaeologists working in the Caribbean used GIS to model cultural landscapes to assess cultural and economic change in plantation societies.
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Demetre Gurieli (, died ), of the House of Gurieli, was Prince of Guria from 1658 to 1668 and King of Imereti from 1663 to 1664. His rule in Guria as well as in Imereti were result of coups and part of a chaotic civil war raging in these western Georgian polities. Demetre's royal career in Imereti terminated with his deposition and blinding. Demetre was a member of the Gurieli, a family of princes-regnant of Guria.
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In his 1967 essay The principle of the hiding hand, Hirschman helped develop the hiding hand principle. His later work was in political economy, where he advanced two schemata. In Exit, Voice, and Loyalty (1970) he described the three basic possible responses to decline in firms or polities (quitting, speaking up, staying quiet). The second describes the basic arguments made by conservatives (perversity, futility and jeopardy) in The Rhetoric of Reaction (1991).
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How and under what conditions does prosocial behavior evolve in large societies? What is the impact of environmental and climatic factors in societal advance? To maximise their time and resources, the Seshat project has begun data collection with a representative sample of polities from around the globe and throughout human history, ranging from the late Neolithic (roughly 4,000 BCE) to the early modern period (roughly 1,900 CE). This is the World Sample 30.
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The Rasulids in fact created the strongest Yemeni state during the medieval Islamic era. Among the numerous medieval polities it was the one that endured for the longest period, and enjoyed the widest influence. Its impact in terms of administration and culture was stronger than the preceding regimes, and the interests of the Rasulid rulers covered all the affairs prevalent in those times.G. Rex Smith, The Ayyubids and Early Rasulids in the Yemen, Vols.
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Kolathunadu transferred the regions already occupied to Kozhikode and certain Hindu temple rights. The stories about the origin of the Kadathanadu ruling family (Vatakara) are associated with battle of the Eradis with Polanadu. When the Samoothiri swarmed over Polanadu, he exiled a Polarthiri royal princess and she was welcomed in Kolathunadu (Cannanore) – one of the Samoothiri's rivals polities. After the marriage of a Kolathu prince with this princess the Kadathanadu ruling family was born.
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Munro-Hay, Aksum, p. 57.Phillipson. "The First Millennium BC in the Highlands of Northern Ethiopia and South–Central Eritrea: A Reassessment of Cultural and Political Development". African Archaeological Review (2009) 26:257–274 After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller unknown successor kingdoms. This lasted until the rise of one of these polities during the first century BC, the Aksumite Kingdom.
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A second group of southeastern barbarians covered countries like Sulu, Malacca, and Sri Lanka. Many of these are independent states in modern times. In addition, there were northern barbarians, northeastern barbarians, and two large categories of western barbarians (from Shanxi, west of Lanzhou, and modern-day Xinjiang), none of which have survived into modern times as separate or independent polities. The situation was complicated by the fact that some tributary states had their own tributaries.
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The traditional period used by historians for Gaya chronology is 42–532 CE. According to archaeological evidence in the third and fourth centuries some of the city-states of Byeonhan evolved into the Gaya confederacy, which was later annexed by Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The individual polities that made up the Gaya confederacy have been characterized as small city-states.Barnes, Gina L. (2001). Introducing Kaya History and Archaeology.
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Although the companies claimed to pay better wages than prevailed in the local economies, their wage scale for rural workers was low, and company polities favored low wages and kept them low. As some compensation, company employees did have access to schools, hospitals and housing from the company. This housing was usually segregated. "White Zones" were reserved for the company elite, and included better houses, recreational facilities, and schools; other employees lived outside this zone.
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Also discussed is the space and place of buildings at the site. Lubaantun, being a smaller Maya site, has discernible open public and closed private spaces. Little is still known regarding how the Lubaantun Maya traded with other polities and their relationship with neighboring communities. While Sharer and Traxler’s work largely pertains to the cacao trade, Heather McKillop’s work at Stingray Lagoon reveals the importance of salt production and trade in the Precolumbian Maya realm.
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Although the Mongols withdrew in a year, their invasion caused destruction throughout the region. The unification of small polities ruled by local Romanian leaders in Oltenia and Muntenia led to the establishment of a new principality, Wallachia. It achieved independence under Basarab the Founder, who defeated a Hungarian army in the battle of Posada in 1330. A second principality, Moldavia, became independent in the 1360s under Bogdan I, a Romanian nobleman from Maramureș.
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Zeta (Montenegrin and ) was one of the medieval polities that existed between 1356 and 1421, whose territory encompassed parts of present-day Montenegro and northern Albania, ruled by the Balšić family.Balšići, www.me Zeta was a crown land of the Grand Principality and Kingdom of Serbia, ruled by heirs to the Serbian throne from the Nemanjić dynasty. In the mid-14th century, Zeta was divided into Upper and Lower Zeta, governed by magnates.
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Pyramid of the Moon viewed from atop of the Pyramid of the Sun. The Classic period is marked by the rise and dominance of several polities. The traditional distinction between the Early and Late Classic are marked by their changing fortune and their ability to maintain regional primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in central Mexico and Tikal in Guatemala; the Early Classic's temporal limits generally correlate to the main periods of these sites.
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Cavalry and fort of the Sultanate of Hobyo, one of the ruling Somali polities that the zaptié fought against in the Campaign of the Sultanates. Three hundred zaptié took part in the Italian conquest of northern Somalia in 1925. As part of the "colonna Musso", they assisted in the occupation of the Sultanate of Hobyo (Hafun and Ordio). Other zaptìé units served with the "colonna Bergesio" in the Elemari region (Gallacaio, Garad and Sinedogò).
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The walls of certain sites still reportedly stood 18 meters high. Excavations in the area yielded 26 silver coins, unlike the copper pieces that were more common in polities below the Horn region. The earliest of these recovered coins had been minted by Sultan Barquq (1382–99), also of the Egyptian Burji dynasty, and the latest were again Sultan Qaitbay issues. All of the pieces had been struck in either Cairo or Damascus.
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Another research theme explored by Taube is that of inter– and intra-regional exchanges and contacts for Mesoamerica, such as with those of Aridoamerica and the American Southwest. He has also researched the interactions between Teotihuacan, a dominant center in Mexico's plateau region during the Classic era of Mesoamerican chronology, and contemporary Maya polities. His father, Canadian-born Henry Taube (d. 2005), was the recipient of the 1983 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
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The introduction of firearms does not tell the whole story of the 19th century due to their mixed impact and use in many regions. Indeed, some historians argue that mere advanced technology was not the single most decisive factor in the outcome of many colonial conquests. More important, was the divided, fragmented nature of many small African polities that enabled them to be defeated separately by their enemies. Such fragmentation is not unique to Africa.
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The thalassocratic empire of Srivijaya emerged by the 7th century through conquest and subjugation of neighboring thalassocracies. These included Melayu, Kedah, Tarumanagara, and Medang, among others. These polities controlled the sea lanes in Southeast Asia and exploited the spice trade of the Spice Islands, as well as maritime trade-routes between India and China. Srivijaya was in turn subjugated by Singhasari around 1275, before finally being absorbed by the successor thalassocracy of Majapahit (1293–1527).
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After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Greek states started fighting among themselves again, while up north independent Illyrian polities arose again. In 312 BC, King Glaukias seized Epidamnus. By the end of the 3rd century BC, an Illyrian kingdom based in Scodra controlled parts of northern Albania, and littoral Montenegro. Under Queen Teuta, Illyrians attacked Roman merchant vessels plying the Adriatic Sea and gave Rome an excuse to invade the Balkans.
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The smaller kingdoms did not disappear without trace once they were incorporated into larger polities; on the contrary their territorial integrity was preserved when they became ealdormanries or, depending on size, parts of ealdormanries within their new kingdoms. An example of this tendency for later boundaries to preserve earlier arrangements is Sussex; the county boundary is essentially the same as that of the West Saxon shire and the Anglo-Saxon kingdom.Leslie, Kim, and Brian Short.
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The era of European colonialism, early Modernity and the Cold War era revealed the reality of limited political significance for the various Southeast Asian polities. Post- World War II national survival and progress required a modern state and a strong national identity. Most modern Southeast Asian countries enjoy a historically unprecedented degree of political freedom and self-determination and have embraced the practical concept of intergovernmental co-operation within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
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The period that begins after 300 BCE can be described as 'protohistoric', a time when some documentary sources seem to describe societies in the Korean peninsula. The historical polities described in ancient texts such as the Samguk Sagi are an example. The historical period in Korea begins in the late 4th to mid 5th centuries, when as a result of the transmission of Buddhism, the Korean Three Kingdoms modified Chinese writing to produce the earliest records in Old Korean.
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Although South Sulawesi polities are generally referred to as kingdoms, archaeologists classify most of them as complex chiefdoms or proto-states rather than true state societies. However, many archaeologists believe Gowa constitutes the first and possibly only genuine state in precolonial South Sulawesi. The case for this has been made most forcefully by Bulbeck. Bulbeck argues that Gowa is an example of a "secondary state", a state society which emerges by adopting foreign technologies and administrative institutions.
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Rice 2009, p. 17. Other groups are less well known and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure; among them were the Chinamita, the Kejache, the Icaiche, the Lakandon Chʼol, the Mopan, the Manche Chʼol and the Yalain.Rice 2009, p. 17. Feldman 2000, p. xxi. The Kejache occupied an area north of the lake on the route to Campeche, while the Mopan and the Chinamita had their polities in the southeastern Petén.Rice 2009, p. 19.
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In short, Anonymus continued, one of the princes, the Prince of Halych, also informed the Magyar leaders of the polities among which the territory was divided and their rulers. Among these local rulers, the Rus' prince listed Glad who had "taken possession of the land from the river Mureș up to the castle" of UrsuaAnonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (ch. 11.), pp. 32–33. (Orşova or Vršac) with the help of the Cumans.
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Sadzny, formerly known as Zygia (Jiketi of the Georgian sources) extended north to Abkhazia proper between the modern-day cities of Gagra and Sochi, and was run by the Gechba clan. These polities included also several minor fiefdoms governed by the representatives of the Shervashidze-Chachba house or other noble families such as Achba (Anchabadze), Emhaa (Emukhvari), Ziapsh-Ipa, Inal-Ipa, Chabalurkhua and Chkhotua. All these princedoms were more or less dependent on the princes of Abkhazia proper.
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This form of elective monarchy existed in the kingdom from its inception in around 1400 until its complete disintegration in the early 20th century. In the pre-colonial period, a number of West African rulers, such as the kings and chieftains of the Ashanti Empire and those of Ife and the Oyo Empire, were elected from amongst the various royal families of their polities by colleges of noblemen known as kingmakers. This practice has continued to the present day.
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The first reliably evidenced polities formed in the Maya lowlands in the 9th century BC.Cioffi-Revilla and Landman 1999, p. 563. During the Late Preclassic, the Maya political system coalesced into a theopolitical form, where elite ideology justified the ruler's authority, and was reinforced by public display, ritual, and religion.Oakley and Rubin 2012, p. 81. The divine king was the centre of political power, exercising ultimate control over the administrative, economic, judicial, and military functions of the polity.
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Presumably these kingdoms represented an alliance of several smaller polities, though the sources of the time tell us nothing about it. The Seven Kingdoms were also called momboares in the 17th-century text of the Portuguese Jesuit priest, Mateus Cardoso, which offers an extensive description of the region.Mateus Cardoso, "Relação de alevamento de Dom Afonso, irmão de rei de Congo D Álvaro III," (1622) in António Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana (15 vols., Lisbon, 1952-88) 15: 533-34.
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Ajuran currency was an old coinage system minted in the Ajuran Sultanate. The polity was a Somali Muslim kingdom that ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa during the Middle Ages.Lee V. Cassanelli, The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600-1900, (University of Pennsylvania Press: 1982), p.102. The Ajuran Sultanate maintained an active commercial network with other contemporaneous polities in the Arabian peninsula, Near East and Central Asia.
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Although the Amami Islands are today part of Kagoshima Prefecture in the Kyūshū region, the inhabitants share much cultural heritage with Okinawans to the south. Politically, however, they were controlled by different polities for a long time. The Amami Islands were relatively late in being conquered by the Okinawa-based Ryūkyū Kingdom, and Ryūkyū's direct control only lasted about 150 years. In 1609, Satsuma Domain of southern Kyūshū invaded Ryūkyū, forcing the kingdom to cede the Amami Islands.
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Note that this is a direct jurisdictional responsibility and is different from the situation when a governing body makes arrangements with another governing body's LEA to provide law enforcement for its subjects. This latter type of arrangement is described under Establishment and constitution of law enforcement agencies. In federal polities, actions that violate laws in multiple geographical divisions within the federation are escalated to a federal LEA. In other cases, specific crimes deemed to be serious are escalated.
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Mamia IV Gurieli () (died 1778 or 1784), of the western Georgian House of Gurieli, was Prince of Guria from 1726 to 1756 and again from 1758 to 1765 and from 1771 to 1776. Intermissions of his rule was the result of Mamia's rivalry with his younger brother, Giorgi V Gurieli, and complex political situation in the region, including the Ottoman encroachments and efforts by the kings of Imereti to bring western Georgian polities under their supreme authority.
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In 1473, Suwar was captured and led back to Cairo, together with his brothers; the prisoners were drawn and quartered and their remains were hung from Bab Zuwayla.Petry, Twilight, 57-72. Qaitbay's reign was also marked by trade with other contemporaneous polities. Excavations in the late 1800s and early 1900s at over fourteen sites in the vicinity of Borama in modern-day northwestern Somalia unearthed, among other things, coins identified as having been derived from Qaitbay.
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He only demanded from these local rulers vassalage to the Spanish Crown, replacing the similar overlordship, which previously existed in a few cases, e.g., Sultanate of Brunei's overlordship of the Kingdom of Maynila. Other independent polities, which were not vassals to other States, e.g., Confederation of Madja-as and the Rajahnate of Cebu, were de facto Protectorates/Suzerainties having had alliances with the Spanish Crown before the Kingdom took total control of most parts of the Archipelago.
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From this point of view, Internet provides a much more attractive model than the obsolete nation-state or the nationalistic movements. Mosterín thinks that the nation-state is incompatible with the full development of freedom, whose blossoming requires the reorganization of the world political system along cosmopolitan lines. He proposes a world without nation-states, territorially organized in small autonomous but not-sovereign cantonal polities, complemented by strong world organizations.Mosterín, Jesús (2005). “A World without Nation States”.
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In Pomerania, Brandenburg, Prussia and Silesia, the former West Slav (Polabian Slavs and Poles) or Balt population became minorities in the course of the following centuries, although substantial numbers of the original inhabitants remained in areas such as Upper Silesia. In Greater Poland and in Eastern Pomerania (Pomerelia), German settlers formed a minority. Some of the territories (such as Pomerelia and Masovia) reunited with Poland during the 15th and 16th centuries. Others became more firmly incorporated into German polities.
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A map of the Upper Usumacinta Maya polities with Comalcalco Bolded Plan de Ayutla is in the Upper Usumacinta area, about from the small community of the same name as the site. It is in a mountainous area of the Lacandon Jungle known as the Sierra de Jalapa. The site is part of the municipality of Ocosingo, State of Chiapas in southeast Mexico, close to the border with Guatemala. It is about northwest of the Bonampak.
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Afterwards, it was again invaded by the Avars in the 560s, and the Slavs, who first may settled c. 480s but became independent only from the 7th century. In 790s, it was invaded by the Franks, who used the name "Pannonia" to designate named newly formed frontier province, the March of Pannonia. The term Pannonia was also used for Slavic polities (like Principality of Lower Pannonia and Principality of Savian Pannonia), that were vassal to the Frankish Empire.
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In contrast to many post-Roman polities in Europe, grants of land, or rights to collect taxes directly from the people within one's grant of land, were of only minor importance. A major consequence of this was that the army directly depended on the state for its subsistence which, in turn, meant that the military had to control the state apparatus.The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State. Contributors: Hugh Kennedy - author.
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Vendryes 1974, S 146-7; Kelly 1988, 140 There is, of course, no evidence who actually could grant such hospitality, but it seems, if we go by the tesserae hospitales, that at least in Celtiberia this practice was not necessarily limited to ruling kin in larger polities, but was available at a relatively local level, which might indicate that, much like in early medieval Ireland and Wales, many members of any given polity were able to grant hospitality.
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Beginning in the sixteenth century, the Holy Roman Empire was organized loosely into ten "circles", or regional groups of ecclesiastical, dynastic, and secular polities that coordinated economic, military and political actions. During times of war, the Circles contributed troops to the Habsburg military by drafting (or soliciting volunteers) among their inhabitants. Some circles coordinated their efforts better than others; the Swabian Circle was among the more effective of the imperial circles at organizing itself and protecting its economic interests.
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The biblical view of the late Iron Age political and cultural map describes it as a set of branching genealogies. Biblical figures three generations forward from Terah are invariably described as the eponymous founders of different tribes and polities that interacted with the Kingdom of Judah between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE. Such is the case of the Qedarite Arabs, who according to biblical tradition, are the offspring of the Abraham- Ishmael-Kedar genealogical line.Routledge, 2004, p. 43.
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Georgia's 1918–1921 borders were formed through the border conflicts with its neighbors and ensuing treaties and conventions. In the north, Georgia was bordered by various Russian Civil War polities until Bolshevik power was established in the North Caucasus in the spring of 1920. The international border between Soviet Russia and Georgia was regulated by the 1920 Moscow Treaty. During the Sochi conflict with the Russian White movement, Georgia briefly controlled the Sochi district in 1918.
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Although the Samoothiri of Kozhikode derived greater part of his revenue from taxing the Indian Ocean spice trade, but he still did not run a fully developed mercantilist state. The Samoothiris left trade in the hands of Paradesi (Middle Eastern) and Kerala Muslims. Shahbandar Koya (sometimes Khwaja, popularly known as the "Koya of Kozhikode") was a privileged administrative position in Kozhikode. The Shahbandar was the second most important official in most Asian polities after the ruler.
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Mirimidongguk was one of the 12 tribes or polities making up the Byeonhan confederation. It is mentioned in the San guo zhi, and is generally believed to have been located near the modern-day city of Miryang in Gyeongsangnam-do, South Korea. Later Mirimidongguk was absorbed into Geumgwan Gaya. By the early 6th century, it had fallen under the sway of Silla; in 505, it was formally integrated into Silla as the county of Chuhwa-gun.
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The Tiwanaku shared domination of the Middle Horizon with the Wari culture (based primarily in central and south Peru) although found to have built important sites in the north as well (Cerro Papato ruins). Their culture rose and fell around the same time; it was centered 500 miles north in the southern highlands of Peru. The relationship between the two polities is unknown. Definite interaction between the two is proved by their shared iconography in art.
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The Gaya polities evolved out of the chiefly political structures of the twelve tribes of the ancient Byeonhan confederacy, one of the Samhan confederacies. The loosely organized chiefdoms resolved into six Gaya groups, centered on Geumgwan Gaya. On the basis of archaeological sources as well as limited written records, scholars such as Sin have identified the late 3rd century as a period of transition from Byeonhan to Gaya, with increasing military activity and changing funerary customs.Sin, K.C. (2000).
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Columbia University Press, 1997. . Page 14 Archaeological evidence suggests that Gaya polities were the main exporter of technology and culture to Kyushu at that time. The theory of a Japanese outpost is widely rejected in Korea as there was no Japanese local groups at the time that had a strong enough military power to conquer Gaya or any other part of Korea. The technology of Gaya was more advanced than that of the Japanese dynasties of the time.
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"Rigvedic history: poets, chieftains, and polities," in The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity. ed. G. Erdosy (Walter de Gruyer, 1995), p. 333 The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharvaveda, where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and Mujavats. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern day Rajgir), then Pataliputra (modern Patna).
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The Kingdom of Larantuka was a kingdom in present-day East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. It was the one of the few, if not the only, indigenous Roman Catholic polities in the territory of modern Indonesia. Acting as a tributary state of the Portuguese Crown, the Raja (King) of Larantuka controlled holdings on the islands of Flores, Solor, Adonara and Lembata. It was later purchased by Dutch East Indies from the Portuguese, prior to its annexation in 1904.
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While in college in China, Liang co-founded an organization for lesbian feminists, but encountered many obstacles to engagement. She protested differential treatment of women to men in regards to admission polities. She also lobbied for more public restroom facilities for women. In 2012, Liang was an organizer who used performance art as a method of protest. Liang and other activists did a street demonstration where they protested by doing a performance on occupying men’s restrooms.
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After Alexander the Great's death, Lysimachus of Thrace ruled the northern regions of the Balkan Peninsula. He waged wars against King Dromichaetes of the Getae, but could not defeat him. The latter even captured Lysimachus and forced him to withdraw his troops from the lands between the Lower Danube and the Haemus in 292 BC. The subsequent history of Dromichaetes and his realm are unknown. According to the historian Vlad Georgescu, Dromichaetes's kingdom disintegrated into smaller polities.
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These differences in political and economic makeup often led to hostilities between the provinces. The politically fragmented state of the Yucatán Peninsula at the time of conquest hindered the Spanish invasion, since there was no central political authority to be overthrown. However, the Spanish were also able to exploit this fragmentation by taking advantage of pre-existing rivalries between polities. Estimates of the number of kuchkabal in the northern Yucatán vary from sixteen to twenty- four.
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Another Spanish conquistador was killed by hostile Maya. Rumours of this setback grew in the telling and both the Cupul and Cochua provinces once again rose up against their would-be European overlords. The Spanish hold on the eastern portion of the peninsula remained tenuous and a number of Maya polities remained independent, including Chetumal, Cochua, Cupul, Sotuta and the Tazes. On 8 November 1546, an alliance of eastern provinces launched a coordinated uprising against the Spanish.
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This battle marked the final conquest of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula. As a result of the uprising and the Spanish response, many of the Maya inhabitants of the eastern and southern territories fled to the still unconquered Petén Basin, in the extreme south of the peninsula. The Spanish only achieved dominance in the north and the polities of Petén remained independent and continued to receive many refugees from the north.Caso Barrera 2002, p. 19.
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Tadjoura (; Tağūrah; ) is one of the oldest towns in Djibouti and the capital of the Tadjourah Region. The town evolved into an early Islamic center with the arrival of Muslims shortly after the Hijra. An important port for many centuries, it was ruled by a succession of polities, including the Ifat Sultanate, Adal Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire, France until Djibouti's independence in 1977. Lying on the Gulf of Tadjoura, it is home to a population of around 45,000 inhabitants.
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Started during the age of exploration in the 16th century, the European kingdoms and empires began to established themselves in Southeast Asia. From Portuguese, Spanish, British to the Dutch, each of them involved in some fierce contests, during the age of European colonialism, to rule Indonesian archipelago. Because of the European's advance military technology, such as gunpowder technology in canons and muskets, many kingdoms and polities in Indonesian archipelago were conquered and subjugated by European power.
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The Sultan continued his father's policy of establishing ties with faraway Muslim polities. The years around 1570 witnessed a coordinated onslaught on the Portuguese possessions by the Muslim states of South India and Aceh with Ottoman backing, which was probably linked with Babullah's efforts.Anthony Reid (2006) "The pre-modern sultanate's view of its place in the world", in Anthony Reid (ed.), Veranda of violence; The background to the Aceh problem. Singapore: Singapore University Press, p. 57.
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Nor was crushing the only method used by the Mughals' execution elephants; in the Mughal sultanate of Delhi, elephants were trained to slice prisoners to pieces "with pointed blades fitted to their tusks". The Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta, visiting Delhi in the 1330s, has left the following eyewitness account of this particular type of execution by elephants:Battuta, "The travels of Ibn Battuta", transl. Lee, S, London 1829, pp. 146-47 Other Indian polities also carried out executions by elephant.
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Furthermore, the rebels were able to gain several external allies. Led by the states of Pugu and Yan, powerful Shang sympathizers, most of the Dongyi polities of Shandong rallied to the rebel cause. Even some Huaiyi tribes, which controlled the Huai River region and had little connection to either the Zhou or the Shang, joined the rebel forces. Among them was the state of Xu, which would grow into one of the Zhou dynasty's greatest enemies.
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In 2015, Iyigun published a general interest book entitled War, Peace and Prosperity in the Name of God. In this book Pr. Iyigun studies the impact of monotheistic faith on socio-economic development of societies using econometric techniques. He demonstrates thanks to data that polities based on monotheistic faiths historically had larger territories and survived longer. On this basis, Pr. Iyigun argues that monotheism was a factor of sociopolitical stability domestically but a source of conflicts & territorial conquest internationally.
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This endeavor was undertaken by Franciscan, Dominican, and Augustinian friars immediately after conquest. Divvying up of the spoils of the war was of key interest to the Spanish conquerors. The major ongoing benefit to conquerors after the obvious material plunder was to appropriate the existing system of tribute and obligatory labor to the Spanish victors. This was done by the establishment of the encomienda, which awarded the tribute and labor from individual indigenous polities to particular Spanish conquerors.
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The Chinese government rejects the notion of the Uyghurs being an indigenous group. The Uyghurs have traditionally inhabited a series of oases scattered across the Taklamakan Desert within the Tarim Basin. These oases have historically existed as independent states or were controlled by many civilizations including China, the Mongols, the Tibetans and various Turkic polities. The Uyghurs gradually started to become Islamized in the 10th century and most Uyghurs identified as Muslims by the 16th century.
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Ogboni (also known as Osugbo in Ijèbú) is a fraternal institution indigenous to the Yoruba language-speaking polities of Nigeria, Republic of Bénin and Togo, as well as among the Edo people. The society performs a range of political and religious functions, including exercising a profound influence on monarchs and serving as high courts of jurisprudence in capital offenses. Its members are generally considered to constitute the nobility of the various Yoruba kingdoms of West Africa.
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The most notable forms of tribute pictured on Maya ceramics are cacao, textiles and feathers. The social basis of the Classic Maya civilization was an extended political and economic network that reached throughout the Maya area and beyond into the greater Mesoamerican region.Carmack 2003, p. 76. The dominant Classic period polities were located in the central lowlands; during this period the southern highlands and northern lowlands can be considered culturally, economically, and politically peripheral to this core area.
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Urartian Material Culture As State Assemblage: An Anomaly in the Archaeology of Empire, Paul Zimansky, Page 103 of 103-115 However, the exact relationship between Urartu and Nairi is unclear. Some scholars have suggested that Urartu and Nairi were separate polities. The Assyrians seem have continued to refer to Nairi as a distinct entity for decades after the establishment of Urartu, until Nairi was totally absorbed by Assyria and Urartu in the 8th century BCE.Paul Zimansky.
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In addition to the dominant Turkic population, medieval chronicles and documents mention other peoples who lived between the Carpathians and the Dniester, including the Ulichians and the Tivercians in the , and the Brodnici and the Alans in the . The Vlachs' presence in that territory is well documented from the 1160s. Their local polities were first mentioned in the : the Mongols defeated the Qara-Ulagh, or Black Vlachs, in 1241, and the Vlachs invaded Halych in the late 1270s.
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31 Kan Ekʼ is mentioned in a hieroglyphic text dated to AD 766 upon Stela 10 at Yaxchilan on the west bank of the Usumacinta River. At Seibal, on the Pasión River, Stela 10, dating to 849 AD, has an inscription naming Kan Ekʼ as ruler of Motul de San José, which is recorded as being one of the four paramount polities in the mid-9th century, along with Calakmul, Tikal and Seibal itself.Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 18, 227.
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The period from 1571-1638 marked a political discontinuity and period of crisis for Lan Xang, and many other polities in Southeast Asia. Burmese expansions which created the Taungoo Empire challenged existing dynasties and political structures. In 1571 the death of King Setthathirath, created an internal succession crisis for Lan Xang. The succession of kings including Sen Soulintha, Voravongsa I, Nakhon Noi, Nokeo Koumane, and Voravongsa II were installed, or at least confirmed, by the Burmese.
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Agricultural success gave ground in the fifth century BCE for a stationary culture and the emergence of towns, cross-sea trade and the earliest polities. Archaeologists have uncovered a port at Wari-Bateshwar which traded with Ancient Rome and Southeast Asia. The archaeologists have discovered coinage, pottery, iron artefacts, bricked road and a fort in Wari-Bateshwar. The findings suggest that the area was an important administrative hub, which had industries such as iron smelting and valuable stone beads.
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In 1332 the king of Denmark, Christopher II, died as a "king without a country" after he and his older brother and predecessor had divided Denmark into smaller polities. King Magnus took advantage of his neighbours' weakness, purchasing lands for the eastern Danish provinces for 6500 kg of silver, which included Scania. On 21 July 1336, Magnus was crowned king of Norway and Sweden in Stockholm. Scania was later reconquered by the Danish king Valdemar in 1360.
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The people may vote against a conscription army. However, actual research shows that democracies are more likely to win wars than non-democracies. One explanation attributes this primarily to "the transparency of the polities, and the stability of their preferences, once determined, democracies are better able to cooperate with their partners in the conduct of wars". Other research attributes this to superior mobilisation of resources or selection of wars that the democratic states have a high chance of winning.
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Some of the local chiefs had the investiture ceremony, rather similar to that of the Samoothiri of Kozhikode, some claimed kshatriya status, and some of them even used the title "Raja". Vettam Udaya Mootha Kovil, Thirumanassheri Namboothiri, Thalappalli Punnathoor Nambadi, Thalappalli Kakkattu Nambadi, Vannilassheri Padinjare Nambadi, Parappur Karippuva Kovil, Chittoor Namboothirippadu, Manakkulathil Mooppil, Parappur Valavil Kovil, Parappur Kayyavil Kovil, Venginnadu Nambadi, Kurumburanadu Madampu Unithiri were some of the local chiefs of the kingdom of Kozhikode. K. V. Krishna Iyer, the court historian in Kozhikode, explains; Apart from the southern half of Kurumburanadu, Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu, Venkadakkotta, Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarakkadu, Karimpuzha, Nedunganadu, Naduvattom, Kollangode, Koduvayur, and Mankara the kingdom of Kozhikode included the following territories as tributary polities: Kottayam, Payyormala, Pulavayi, Tanore, Chaliyam, Beypore, Parappanadu, Thirunavaya, Thalapalli-Kakkad, Thalapalli-Punnathoor, Chittoor, Chavakkad, Kavalappara, Edappally, Patinjattedam, Cranganore, Kollengodu, Cochin and all of its vassal polities, Paravur, Purakkad, Vadakkumkur, Tekkumkur, Kayamkulam and Quilon. The kingdom only included the following territories during the late 18th century: Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu, Venkattakkotta, Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarkkad, Karimpuzha, and Nedunganadu.
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Political > allegiance was given only to the leader immediately above an individual with > whom a kin group had personal ties of economic reciprocity and loyalty." This explanation of the limited powers of a paramount leader in cultures throughout the Philippine archipelago explains the confusion experienced by Martin de Goiti during the first Spanish forays into Bulacan and Pampanga in late 1571. Until that point, Spanish chroniclers continued to use the terms "king" and "kingdom" to describe the polities of Tondo and Maynila, but Goiti was surprised when Lakandula explained there was "no single king over these lands", and that the leadership of Tondo and Maynila over the Kapampangan polities did not include either territorial claim or absolute command. Antonio de Morga, in his work Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, expounds: > "There were no kings or lords throughout these islands who ruled over them > as in the manner of our kingdoms and provinces; but in every island, and in > each province of it, many chiefs were recognized by the natives themselves.
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An Islamic state is a form of government based on Islamic law. As a term, it has been used to describe various historical polities and theories of governance in the Islamic world. As a translation of the Arabic term dawlah islāmiyyah () it refers to a modern notion associated with political Islam (Islamism). The concept of the modern Islamic state has been articulated and promoted by ideologues such as Abul A'la Maududi, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, Israr Ahmed, Sayyid Qutb or Hassan al-Banna.
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Early Gowa was a largely agrarian polity with no direct access to the coastline, whose growth was supported by a rapid increase in wet Asian rice cultivation. Talloq was founded two centuries later when a prince from Gowa fled to the coast after his defeat in a succession dispute. The coastal location of the new polity allowed it to exploit maritime trade to a greater degree than Gowa. The early sixteenth century was a turning point in the history of both polities.
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Historians also credit the Mongol regime with an important role in the development of Muscovy as a state. Under Mongol occupation, for example, Muscovy developed its mestnichestvo hierarchy, postal road network (based on Mongolian ortoo system, known in Russian as "yam", hence the terms yamshchik, Yamskoy Prikaz, etc.), census, fiscal system and military organization.See Ostrowski, page 47. The period of Mongol rule over the former Rus' polities included significant cultural and interpersonal contacts between the Slavic and Mongolian ruling classes.
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Monarchies pre-date polities like nation states and even territorial states. A nation or constitution is not necessary in a monarchy since a person, the monarch, binds the separate territories and political legitimacy (e.g. in personal union) together. Monarchies though have applied state symbols like insignia or abstracts like the concept of the Crown to create a state identity, which is to be carried and occupied by the monarch, but represents the monarchy even in absence and succession of the monarch.
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Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered is a collection of essays by German-born British economist E. F. Schumacher. The phrase "Small Is Beautiful" came from a principle espoused by Schumacher's teacher Leopold KohrDr. Leopold Kohr, 84; Backed Smaller States, New York Times obituary, 28 February 1994. (1909–1994) The concept is often used to champion small, appropriate technologies or polities that are believed to empower people more, in contrast with phrases such as "bigger is better".
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247 pp, available online at Fundación Larramendi service here The first two centred on secularization of Western polities; they confronted Christian-Democratic visiondetailed discussion in de Armas 1965 and Vatican II alike,Ayuso 2004, p. 163-4, Santa Cruz 2004, p. 177 explored roots of perceived cultural decline, tried to re-define tradition versus progressRafael Gambra Ciudad 1920-2004, [in:] filosofia.org and strove to demonstrate how multifold advances of the last centuries have given man a false sense of mastery.
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The paramount chiefdom changed substantially in the late 16th century. A large impetus was apparently the founding of Spanish St. Augustine in 1565, which caused Indian polities to realign in response to the new regional power center. Ocute's population dispersed from the mound centers in favor of decentralized farmsteads, and some began migrating into Spanish Florida. The mounds themselves were no longer used after about 1580. However, the total population continued increasing until about 1600.Williams 1994, pp. 191–192.
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The tower house style would also be adopted in the north of England and Ireland in later years. In North Wales Edward I built a sequence of militarily powerful castles after the destruction of the last Welsh polities in the 1270s. By the 14th century castles were combining defences with luxurious, sophisticated living arrangements and heavily landscaped gardens and parks. Many royal and baronial castles were left to decline, so that by the 15th century only a few were maintained for defensive purposes.
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His power is illustrated by the fact that he summoned the resources to build Offa's Dyke. However, a rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century the "Mercian Supremacy" was over. This period has been described as the Heptarchy, though this term has now fallen out of academic use. The term arose because the seven kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain.
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This became the accepted model for the future Federation of Malaya and ultimately Malaysia, distinguishing the nation in a region where other countries adopted stricter, heavily centralised administrations. By 1910 the British had established seven polities on the Malay Peninsula – the Straits Settlements, the Federated Malay States and the standalone protectorates of Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, Terengganu and Johore. The First World War had a limited impact on Malaya, with notable events including the Battle of Penang and the Kelantan rebellion.
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Shown with the characteristic tanja sail of Southeast Asian Austronesians. Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed them. By the 7th century CE, Arab dhow traders ventured into the routes, leading to the earliest spread of Islam into Southeast Asian polities. By the 10th to 13th centuries, the Song Dynasty of China started building its own trading fleets, despite the traditional Chinese Confucian disdain for trade.
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This may be done by establishing attached facilities or by conducting production within their own households. # They may collect finished or semi‐finished products from non‐elite households within or outside of their polities through a variety of extractive or exchange mechanisms. This requires political arrangements and an established system of barter, and thus some mechanism that resembles a marketplace. # In the form of a domestic economy, where non-elite households are engaged in production when resources are made accessible.
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Sai On, in particular, extensively rewrote his father's edition of the Chūzan Seifu using newly obtained Chinese sources. As a result, he damaged its historical value, from modern historians' perspective. Additionally, the Omoro Sōshi (1623) is helpful in understanding Okinawa's own world-view although it is a compilation of poems and by no means a history book. The Chūzan Seikan and Sai Taku's edition of the Chūzan Seifu follow Chinese sources in that they refer to the supposed polities as , Chūzan and .
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The Islamic ambitions of the sultans and Mughals had concentrated in expanding Muslim power, not in seeking converts. Evidence of the absence of systematic programs for conversion is the reason for the concentration of South Asia's Muslim populations outside the main core of the Muslim polities in the northeast and northwest regions of the subcontinent, which were on the peripheries of Muslim states. Another theory propounds that Indians embraced Islam to obtain privileges. There are several historical cases which apparently bolster this view.
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The date of the foundation of the Kingdom of Burundi is unknown but probably dates back to the 17th century when the Tutsi ethnic group gained dominance over the larger ethnic Hutu population of the region. Under mwami Ntare I (1675–1705), the kingdom expanded and annexed a number of surrounding polities. Although ruled by the mwami, the kingdom was extensively decentralised and local sub-rulers had wide independence. Before the arrival of European colonists, succession struggles were also common.
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Having been established for almost a decade, Batavia, the first major Dutch settlement and trading post in Java, had naturally begun to draw hostility from the surrounding Javanese kingdoms. The European port and settlement was considered to be a foreign threat by the native polities. The sultans of Banten aspired to retake the port city and also to close down a major trading rival. However they could not afford to launch a campaign of a scale capable of retaking the port.
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This may have affected the narratives, as can be seen in the motif of the musicians lying naked on the floor before the prince's renunciation. Besides rituals, the biographies may have been influenced by local accounts. These accounts developed at pilgrimage sites dedicated to certain events in the Buddha's life, such as the Great Renunciation. The more official biographies integrated these local accounts connected to cultic life, to authenticate certain Buddha images, as well as the patrons and polities connected to them.
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Mainstream scholarship holds that the Mon established small polities (or large city-states) in Lower Burma. Both the city of Thaton and Pegu (Bago) are believed to have been established in the 9th century. The states were important trading ports between Indian Ocean and mainland Southeast Asia. Still, according to traditional reconstruction, the early Mon city-states were conquered by the Pagan Kingdom from the north in 1057, and that Thaton's literary and religious traditions helped to mould early Pagan civilisation.
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Yet since, Turkish armies arrived from Central Asia and Turks eventually moved into leadership position at various Muslim polities, beginning about the 10th century. Thereafter, the Arabs ostensibly rested content under their foreign, albeit Islamic, rule. Moreover, about the year 1500 European Christians, once their rather opaque and trailing neighbors along the Mediterranean shore, "at last caught up with and overtook Islam, though the latter was quite unaware of what was happening."John J. Saunders, "The Muslim Climate of Thought", p.
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The Olmec, from the Gulf coast likewise obtained its obsidian also from El Chayal in Guatemala (Andrews (1990: 13). It is unclear if trade for foreign obsidian contributed to the growth of Maya polities, or if it simply served as a mode for obtaining superior items or human labor. Generally, obsidian came into the Maya area via larger central places, such as Tikal, Uaxactun, and Palenque. Obsidian artifacts and tools were then redistributed to smaller and potentially dependent centers and communities.
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These polities were either influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Indian religion, language, culture, literature and philosophy from India through many campaigns from India including the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra Chola I, Islam from Arabia or were Sinified tributary states allied to China. These small maritime states flourished from the 1st millennium. These kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The remainder of the settlements were independent barangays allied with one of the larger states.
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Since the two polities did not share records, the result was a pattern of legally recognized second marriages, despite the ban on polygamy by both sides of the Taiwan Strait. Today, foreigners wishing to marry Taiwan citizens must present letters from their countries' representative offices testifying that they are not already married. (Of course a determined bigamist might marry in some third country.) In the case of countries which lack centralized family records (such as the USA), a notarized affidavit is accepted.
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When the Mesopotamian central government under the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112–2004 BC) collapsed and polities that had once been vassals to Ur became independent, many of the new sovereign rulers refrained from taking the title of king (šar), instead applying that title to their principal deities (in the case of Assyria, Ashur). For this reason, most of the Assyrian kings of the Old Assyrian period (c. 2025–1378 BC) used the title Išši’ak Aššur, translating to "governor of Assyria".
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These two epics, still read today, tell of heroes fighting in the defence of Islam. The rise of Malacca as a centre of Islam had a number of crucial implications. Firstly, Islam transformed the notion of kingship so that the Sultan was no longer viewed as divine, but as God's Khalifah (vice-gerent on earth). Secondly, Islam was an important factor in enabling Malacca to foster good relations with other Islamic polities, including the Ottoman Empire, thereby attracting Muslim traders to Malacca.
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These pilleates or tarabostes formed the ruling stratum of the Dacian society; the commoners were called capillati or comati. Strabo writes that Burebista "was deposed" during an uprising. The year of Burebista's fall cannot exactly be determined, but most historians write that he was assassinated in 44 BC. Strabo narrates that after Burebista's death his empire fall apart and four (later five) smaller polities developed in its ruins. The names of some of their kings were recorded by Roman writers.
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During the relatively brief British rule in Java, Raffles negotiated peace and mounted some significant military expeditions against local Javanese princes to subjugate them to British rule. Most significant of these was the assault on Yogyakarta on 21 June 1812, known as Sepoy Commotion (Geger Sepehi); Yogyakarta was one of the two most powerful indigenous polities in Java. During the attack, the Yogyakarta kraton was badly damaged and extensively looted by British troops. Raffles seized much of the contents of the court archive.
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Since Romani people were often mentioned as either "Egyptians" or "the Pharaoh's People" in this period, Lord Emaus and his people must have been Romani. While the Romani populations of Western and Central Europe faced severe legal persecution in the 15th and 16th century, the diets of Hungary and Transylvania did not pass any anti-Roma legislation during this period. This difference can be explained by the contemporary political and military confrontation between these polities and the growing power of the Ottoman Empire.
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A union of former colonies itself, the United States approached imperialism differently from the other Powers. Much of its energy and rapidly expanding population was directed westward across the North American continent against English and French claims, the Spanish Empire and Mexico. The Native Americans were sent to reservations, often unwillingly. With support from Britain, its Monroe Doctrine reserved the Americas as its sphere of interest, prohibiting other states (particularly Spain) from recolonizing the newly independent polities of Latin America.
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The political status of Puerto Rico is that of an unincorporated territory of the United States. As such, the island of Puerto Rico is neither a sovereign nation nor a U.S. state. Because of that ambiguity, the territory, as a polity, lacks certain rights but enjoys certain benefits that other polities have or lack. For instance, in contrast to U.S. states, Puerto Rico residents cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections nor can they elect their own senators and representatives to the U.S. Congress.
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These were small polities ruled by a hereditary leader (tlatoani) from a legitimate noble dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competition among altepetl. Even after the confederation of the Triple Alliance was formed in 1427 and began its expansion through conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role of the altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonic form of control.
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Accordingly, the Punic city-state had once exerted great economic influence on the surrounding Berber polities and peoples. Yet Carthage directly ruled only an ample territory adjacent to the city and its developed network of trading posts. These Punic enclaves were situated at short intervals along the Mediterranean coast of Africa from Tripolitania westward.Carthage had also directly ruled in various Mediterranean islands and in lands of Hispania, but these were already lost as a result of the Second Punic War.
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He criticized the section on the Merovingian era as "replete with names and dates, but utterly lacking in significant context, motivation, or revelation", considering this evidence the Early Middle Ages are indeed a period obscured by a dearth of reliable information despite Wickham's view. Brady called the portions on the more stable polities "a fuller, more colorful depiction of their inner workings [...] much more enlightening", ultimately crediting the author with as thorough a depiction of the time period as is possible.
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Here Ritter contrasted the utopianism of Sir Thomas More and the realism of Niccolò Machiavelli. Ritter declares that Germany had to follow the realism of Machiavelli because of the security requirements of its geographic position. Ritter describes two sorts of values as generated by two different types of polities: one traditionally Anglo-Saxon and the other continental, as personified by More and Machiavelli.Schwabe, Klaus "Gerhard Ritter" pages 83-103 from Paths of Continuity Washington, D.C. : German Historical Institute, 1994 page 99.
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The first Spanish troops to arrive to Guatemala were led by Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado in 1524. On arrival to Guatemala, the Spaniards discovered various Maya speaking and Nahua speaking polities within the territory. The Spaniards, with help of indigenous allies and troops from Mexico, began to slowly conquer the peoples of Guatemala. The first and major battles involved the K'iche' people who were defeated in March 1524 and resulted in the capture and sacking of the K'iche' capital of Q'umarkaj.
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The Regreg war is remembered in the collective memory of Javanese tradition. After the advent of Islamic polities in Java, the theme of Regreg war appeared in Javanese literatures, such as in Serat Kanda, Serat Damarwulan, and Serat Blambangan. According to the tales in Serat Kanda, there was a war between Queen Kencanawungu, the ruler of Majapahit in the west against Menak Jingga the ruler of Blambangan in the east. Menak Jingga finally was killed by Damarwulan, a knight sent by Queen Kencanawungu.
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They are designated as araja. vishaya in Rock Edict XIII, which means that they were kingless, i.e. republican polities. In other words, the Kambojas formed a self-governing political unit under the Maurya emperors.Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 117-121, K. P. Jayswal; Ancient India, 2003, pp 839-40, V. D. Mahajan; Northern India, p 42, Mehta Vasisitha Dev Mohan etcBimbisāra to Aśoka: With an Appendix on the Later Mauryas, 1977, p 123, Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya.
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Until their conquest by Silla in the sixth century, the delta of the southern Nakdong River was occupied by the Gaya polities. The Samguk yusa preserves the foundation myth of one of the most powerful Gaya kingdoms, that of Geumgwan Gaya. The nine chieftains of the country hear a strange voice announce that heaven has commanded it to found a kingdom there. After singing and dancing as commanded by the voice, a golden chest wrapped in red cloth descends from heaven.
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Southeast Asia was now situated in the central area of convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade routes, the basis for economic and cultural growth. The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Adoption of Indian civilization elements and individual adaptation stimulated the emergence of centralized states and the development of highly organized societies. Ambitious local leaders realized the benefits of Hinduism and Indian methods of administration, culture, literature, etc.
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The Janapada were highest political unit in Ancient India during this period; these polities were usually monarchical (though some followed a form republicanism) and succession was hereditary. The head of a kingdom was called a (rajan) or king. A chief (purohita) or priest and a (senani) or commander of the army who would assist the king. There were also two other political bodies: the (sabha), thought to be a council of elders and the (samiti), a general assembly of the entire people.
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West Slav tribes in 9th and 10th centuries Groß Raden The West Slavs are a subgroup of Slavic peoples who speak the West Slavic languages. They separated from the common Slavic group around the 7th century, and established independent polities in Central Europe by the 8th to 9th centuries. The West Slavic languages diversified into their historically attested forms over the 10th to 14th centuries. West Slavic speaking nations today include the Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Sorbs and ethnic groups Kashubians, Moravians and Silesians.
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The treaty's stipulations included the renunciation of most territory not inhabited by Turkish people and their cession to the Allied administration.TS0011.pdf The ceding of Eastern Mediterranean lands saw the introduction of novel polities, including the British Mandate for Palestine and the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon.See: Sykes-Picot The terms stirred hostility and Turkish nationalism. The treaty's signatories were stripped of their citizenship by the Grand National Assembly, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, which ignited the Turkish War of Independence.
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All others are abrogated, unless otherwise recognized under the terms of such de facto authority.Also cf. Professor Emilio Furno (Advocate in the Italian Supreme Court of Appeal), The Legitimacy of Non-National Orders in Rivista Penale, No.1, January 1961, pp. 46–70. This is the view to reconsider when we study sovereignty based on the political impact of the 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines to the some polities that have been existing since the pre-colonial period, e.g.
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242-262, 1992. Believing that laws about human nature should hold true among technological complex as well as simpler societies, he persuaded political scientist Bruce Russett to join him and his wife Carol R. Ember in a project to test the theory that “democracies do not fight each other”.Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember and Bruce Russett, "Peace Between Participatory Polities: A Cross-Cultural Test of the 'Democracies Rarely Fight Each Other' Hypothesis", World Politics, Volume 44, Issue 4, pp. 573-599, 1992.
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Subsequently, power fell into the hands of Ruhinda, and descent was directly drawn to him by many of the royal clans, known as Abahinda. Reinterpretations of these oral traditions suggest that characters such as Wamara and Ruhinda may well have been charismatic chiefs, who, after their deaths, became important spirits controlled by mediums tied to political power. Shrines to Wamara and Ruhinda were specifically associated with the manipulation and control of fertility. A further integral component of these polities was clans.
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The different successive polities over the last two centuries in France has tried various policies in intercultural relations, creating much research material for Citizenship Studies. The French Revolution was ground-breaking in its de- emphasis of religious and other cultural distinctions. On the 27th August 1789, the National Constituent Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. On the 27th September 1791, the National Constituent Assembly voted to give France’s Jewish population equal rights under the law.
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During this time, Banggai was located between the powerful states of Ternate and Gowa, though Banggai later came under influence of Ternate following the Treaty of Bongaya in 1667, with Ternate receiving annual tribute from Banggai and appointing its ruler. During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Dutch East India Company attempted to spread its influence to Banggai with little success. During this time, Banggai was also subjected to raids from Papuans and routinely fought with the Tambuku and Buton polities.
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Between 1890 and 1975 the County of Banff, also known as Banffshire, had its own county council. In 1975 Banffshire was abolished for the purpose of local government and its territory divided between the local government districts of Moray and Banff and Buchan, which lay within the Grampian region. In 1996, the Grampian region was abolished, and the area now lies within the council areas of Moray and Aberdeenshire (note that both these polities have different boundaries to the historic counties of the same names).
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Even today in Kerala, there is a continuing presence of both the Assyrian Church of the East and the Syriac Orthodox Church along with an independent Oriental Orthodox Church called the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church. In the 18th century and onwards, Nontrinitarian and Unitarian Christians are necessarily non-Chalcedonian having their own separate traditions, different nontrinitarian theologies, and polities. The largest such groups are The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Latter-day Saint movement), Jehovah's Witnesses and the Iglesia ni Cristo.
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Duklja and neighbouring Serbian regions during the 11th and 12th century Vladimir II (; died 1118) was King of Duklja (southern parts of present-day Montenegro and northwestern parts of present-day Albania) from 1103 to 1113. He was a son of prince Vladimir, the oldest son of King Mihailo I of Duklja (r. 1050-1081), and thus a nephew of King Constantine Bodin (r. 1081-1101). He married a daughter of Vukan, the Grand Prince of Serbia, thereby ending rivalries between the two polities.
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Abashidze family coat of arms. Abashidze-Gorlenko family coat of arms. The Abashidze () is a Georgian family and a former princely house. Appearing in the 15th century, they achieved prominence in the Kingdom of Imereti in western Georgia in the late 17th century and branched out in the eastern Georgian kingdoms of Kakheti and Kartli as well as the then-Ottoman-held southwestern region of Adjara. After the Russian annexation of Georgian polities, the family was confirmed as Knyaz Abashidze () by the Tsar’s decree of 1825.
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Abdirahman Mohamud Farole (; ; born 1945) is a Somali politician. He served for many years in the government, acting as a governor of the Nugal region of Somalia in the 1990s and later as the Minister of Finance of the autonomous Puntland region in the northeast. From 8 January 2009 to 8 January 2014, Farole was also the President of Puntland. Farole's multipronged efforts at creating provisions and collaboration with international polities and organizations resulted in a drastic decrease in piracy along the Marinka Gardafuul (Guardafui Channel).
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Aden was ruled as part of British India until 1937, when the city of Aden became the Colony of Aden. The Aden hinterland and Hadhramaut to the east formed the remainder of what would become South Yemen and was not administered directly by Aden but were tied to Britain by treaties of protection with local rulers of traditional polities that, together, became known as the Aden Protectorate. Economic development was largely centered in Aden, and while the city flourished, the states of the Aden Protectorate stagnated.
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Treaty of Kadesh, among the earliest extant examples of an international agreement. The origins of international law can be traced back to antiquity. Among the earliest examples are peace treaties between the Mesopotamian city-states of Lagash and Umma (approximately 2100 BCE), and an agreement between the Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II and the Hittite king, Hattusilis III, concluded in 1258 BCE. Interstate pacts and agreements of various kinds were also negotiated and concluded by polities across the world, from the eastern Mediterranean to East Asia.
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By 999, Norman adventurers had arrived in southern Italy. By 1016, they were involved in the complex local politics where Lombards were fighting against the Byzantine Empire. As mercenaries they fought the enemies of the Italian city-states sometimes fighting for the Byzantines and sometimes against them, but in the following century they gradually became the rulers of the major polities south of Rome. Roger I ruled the County of Sicily at the time of the birth of his youngest son, Roger, at Mileto, Calabria, in 1095.
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Later use of the language in a number of medieval Slavic polities resulted in the adjustment of Old Church Slavonic to the local vernacular, though a number of Southern Slavic, Moravian or Bulgarian features also survived. Significant later recensions of Old Church Slavonic (referred to as Church Slavonic) in the present time include: Slovene, Croatian, Serbian and Russian. In all cases, denasalization of the yuses occurred; so that only Old Church Slavonic, modern Polish and some isolated Bulgarian dialects retained the old Slavonic nasal vowels.
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Chinese era names were titles used by various Chinese dynasties and regimes in Imperial China for the purpose of year identification and numbering. The first monarch to adopt era names was the Emperor Wu of Han in 140 BCE, and this system remained the official method of year identification and numbering until the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912 CE. Other polities in the Sinosphere—Korea, Vietnam and Japan—also adopted the concept of era name as a result of Chinese cultural influence.
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Intelligent Governance for the 21st Century: A Middle Way Between West and East is a book published in 2012 by the investor and philanthropist Nicolas Berggruen and the editor and writer Nathan Gardels. It argues that Western democracies have become stymied by populism and short-term thinking, while authoritarian Eastern nations, notably China, need to bolster their meritocratic but authoritarian systems with the popular legitimacy characteristic of Western polities. The book was first published in English and later translated into Spanish, Portuguese and other languages.
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The emergence of Wajoq and other interior polities of South Sulawesi is associated with the major agricultural expansion and political centralization in the 14th century, which was encouraged by an increase in external demand for South Sulawesi rice. Population rose as the formerly common swidden agriculture was increasingly replaced with intensive wet rice cultivation. Throughout the interior of the peninsula, forests were cleared and new settlements were founded. The people of Wajoq themselves associate the origin of their polity with migrations and establishment of new settlements.
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"senior lord"). La Paléwo To Palippu from Béttémpola was chosen by the council as the first arung matoa of Wajoq. During the reign of the fourth arung matoa, La Tadampareq Puang ri Maggalatung ( 1491–1521), Wajoq became one of the major Bugis polities. By the turn of the 16th century, Wajoq had been able to secure a relatively higher standing in its relationship with the neighboring Luwuq, which was a powerful polity in South Sulawesi during the 15th century, and presumably was regarded as Wajoq's overlord.
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One explanation is that, as worn money circulated back to the issuing state, the worn coins were recoined. More noticeable reductions in weight can be occasionally attributed to a single event. During the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) coinage of Taras decreased in size noticeably, and the war also impacted coinage of certain other Greek polities in Italy. Silver coinage of Taras, Kroton, Herakleia, Thurii and Metapontum were 7.9 g in weight before the war, but decreased in weight and size to 6.6 g.
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The Toungoo Empire was “in theory and fact, a poly-ethnic political formation.” The Toungoo kings largely employed then prevailing Southeast Asian administrative model of solar polities in which the high king ruled the core while semi-independent tributaries, autonomous viceroys, and governors actually controlled day-to-day administration and manpower.Lieberman 2003: 35 The system did not work well even for mid-size kingdoms like Ava and Siam. Now, because of the sheer size of the empire, the system was even more decentralised and stretched thinner still.
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The rich tradition of maritime trade has continued into the modern era, exemplified by the resource exploitation of the coastal lagoons and cay locations along the Caribbean coast of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras. Eventually, the intensification of maritime trade reliance aided in the collapse of interior Maya power regimes, shifting political influence to coastal polities such as Uxmal and Chichen Itza in the Terminal Classic. A seaborne trade economy would continue to dominate the Maya civilization until the period of European Contact.Sharer, R. J. (2006).
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The planners also understood the importance of moving the French army out of France and into the territories of other polities. Theirs was an army entirely dependent for support upon the countryside it occupied. Parisian revolutionaries and military commanders alike believed an assault into the German states was essential, not only in terms of war aims, but also in practical terms: the French Directory believed that war should pay for itself and did not budget for the payment or feeding of its troops.Bertaud, pp. 283–290.
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Stela 2 at Ixkun records a battle against Sacul The cities of the northern part of the Maya Mountains first started erecting their own sculpted monuments in the period between AD 760 and 820.Laporte et al 1992, p.118. This appears to reflect a profound change in the political landscape at this time, with the emergence of Sacul, Ixkun, Ixtutz and Ixtonton as strongly competing polities. Of these four cities that were producing their own stelae, only Sacul and Ixtutz used their own Emblem Glyph.
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Notwithstanding these roles, Thorfinn's Christianity is emphasised in the saga materials. The Norse in the Northern Isles would have been strongly influenced by the neighbouring Christian countries and it is likely that marriages to individuals from such polities would have required baptism even before his time. Informal pagan practice was likely conducted throughout his earldom,Woolf (2007) p 311 but the weight of archaeological evidence suggests that Christian burial was widespread in Orkney even during the reign of Sigurd Hlodvirsson, Thorfinn's father.Thomson (2008) p.
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Eastern Ganga and Surya were Hindu polities, which ruled much of present-day Odisha (historically known as Kalinga) from the 11th century until the mid-16th century CE. During the 13th and 14th centuries, when large parts of India were under the rule of Muslim powers, an independent Kalinga became a stronghold of Hindu religion, philosophy, art, and architecture. The Eastern Ganga rulers were great patrons of religion and the arts, and the temples they built are considered among the masterpieces of Hindu architecture.
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Increase in commerce due to the rise of external demand for South Sulawesi rice encouraged major agricultural expansion and political centralization in the early 14th century. Swidden agriculture was increasingly replaced with intensive wet rice cultivation, leading to a rise in population density. New settlements were founded in the interior part of the peninsula as pristine forests were cleared. These changes accompanied the rise of new interior agricultural polities, such as the Bugis chiefdoms of Boné and Wajoq, as well as the Makassar polity of Gowa.
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A Beja shield made of animal hide from the 20th century, in the collection of the Walters Art Museum The Bejas are divided into clans. These lineages include the Bisharin, Hedareb, Hadendowa (or Hadendoa), the Amarar (or Amar'ar), Beni-Amer, Hallenga , Habab , Belin and Hamran, some of whom are partly mixed with Bedouins in the east. Beja society was traditionally organized into independent kingdoms. According to Al-Yaqubi, there were six such Beja polities that existed between Aswan and Massawa during the 9th century.
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Arab forces began launching sporadic raiding expeditions into Cyrenaica (modern northeast Libya) and beyond soon after their conquest of Egypt. Byzantine rule in northwest Africa at the time was largely confined to the coastal plains, while autonomous Berber polities controlled the rest. In 670 Arabs founded the settlement of Qayrawan, which gave them a forward base for further expansion. Muslim historians credit the general Uqba ibn Nafi with subsequent conquest of lands extending to the Atlantic coast, although it appears to have been a temporary incursion.
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Polities in southeastern Europe c.500 AD before the Lombard destruction of the Herulian kingdom King Rodulf was king of the Heruli kingdom on the Middle Danube in the period around 500, and possibly of Scandinavian origin. He died in a battle with the neighbouring Lombards which led to the splitting up of the Heruli. He is probably the same Heruli king that Theoderic the Great wrote to in two surviving letters, in one of which Theoderic "adopted" him with a gift of arms.
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Both polities in the process exhausted their resources and manpower, which resulted in the contraction of both powers and changed regional dynamics for centuries to come. Many historians trace the origins of hostility between Somalia and Ethiopia to this war.David D. Laitin and Said S. Samatar, Somalia: Nation in Search of a State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987). Some scholars also argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of firearms such as the matchlock musket, cannons and the arquebus over traditional weapons.
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During the 11th century, several exiled datus of the collapsing empire of SrivijayaJovito S. Abellana, "Bisaya Patronymesis Sri Visjaya" (Ms., Cebuano Studies Center, ca. 1960) led by Datu Puti led a mass migration to the central islands of the Philippines, fleeing from Rajah Makatunao of the island of Borneo. Upon reaching the island of Panay and purchasing the island from Negrito chieftain Marikudo, they established a confederation of polities and named it Madja-as centered in Aklan and they settled the surrounding islands of the Visayas.
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Patih or Pepatih is a regent title equivalent to vicegerent which was traditionally used among Austronesian polities of insular Southeast Asia, in particular those of Java and the Malay world. In the first place it denoted the chief minister of a kingdom or (in the case of Java) a traditional regency. Lesser ministers could also be known by the title. In some cases the headmen of local communities could be termed Patih, for example on 16th-century Java and in Banjarmasin in southeastern Kalimantan.
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Hostile relations between El Zotz and its huge neighbour Tikal are evidenced on the ground by an earthwork of unknown date that served to mark the territorial division between the two polities. In the 8th century AD, according to a text at Tikal, El Zotz and Naranjo were jointly engaged in battle against Tikal. This battle took place on 4 February 744. The last known hieroglyphic inscription to refer to El Zotz describes the city as being the target of an attack by Tikal.
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More recent investigations have shown a complicated variety of intensive agricultural techniques utilized by the Maya, explaining the high population of the Classic Maya polities. Modern archaeologists now comprehend the sophisticated intensive and productive agricultural techniques of the ancient Maya, and several of the Maya agricultural methods have not yet been reproduced. Intensive agricultural methods were developed and utilized by all the Mesoamerican cultures to boost their food production and give them a competitive advantage over less skillful peoples.See synopsis in Dunning et al.
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This is a list of rulers in Illyria, a region of classical antiquity in what is today the Western Balkans. The region was inhabited by loosely related tribes that often were part of larger tribal conglomerations like the Dalmatae. In the late 5th and the early 4th century BC, the first polities of the area would be created as exemplified by Bardylis's Dardanian kingdom. In the course of the 4th century parts of the southernmost and easternmost regions of Illyria fell under the Kingdom of Macedon.
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The largest of the Muslim polities in mainland Mindanao was the Sultanate of Maguindanao, which controlled the southern floodplains of the Rio Grande de Mindanao and most of the coastal area of the Illana Bay and the Moro Gulf. The name Mindanao was derived from this Sultanate. But most of Mindanao remained animist, especially the Lumad people in the interior. Most of the northern, eastern, and southern coastal regions inhabited by Visayans (Surigaonon and Butuanon) and other groups were later converted to Christianity by the Spanish.
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"Dutch" (Random House Reference, 2005). In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, theodisce refers to Anglo-Saxon, the West Germanic dialects of Britain. Although in Britain the name Englisc replaced theodisce early on, speakers of West Germanic in other parts of Europe continued to use theodisce to refer to their local speech. With the rise of local powers in the Low Countries during the Middle Ages, language names derived from these local polities came in use as well i.e.
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During the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), under the leadership of Iccius and Andecombogius, the Remi allied themselves with Julius Caesar. They maintained their loyalty to Rome throughout the entire war, and were one of the few Gallic polities not to join in the rebellion of Vercingetorix. When the Belgae besieged the oppidum of Bibrax (Saint-Thomas), defended by the Remi and their leader Iccius at the Battle of the Axona (57 BC), Caesar sent Numidian, Cretan and Balearic soldiers to avoid the seizure of the stronghold.
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Coe 1999, p. 31. Webster 2002, p. 45. The 16th century Maya provinces of northern Yucatán are likely to have evolved out of polities of the Maya Classic period. From the mid-13th century AD through to the mid-15th century, the League of Mayapán united several of the northern provinces; for a time they shared a joint form of government. The great cities that dominated Petén had fallen into ruin by the beginning of the 10th century AD with the onset of the Classic Maya collapse.
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Colonial Nahua polities had considerable autonomy to regulate their local affairs. The Spanish rulers did not entirely understand the indigenous political organization, but they recognized the importance of the existing system and their elite rulers. They reshaped the political system utilizing altepetl or city-states as the basic unit of governance. In the colonial era, altepetl were renamed cabeceras or "head towns" (although they often retained the term altepetl in local-level, Nahuatl-language documentation), with outlying settlements governed by the cabeceras named sujetos, subject communities.
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Knowing that the Mongols would send a military expedition to punish him, Kertanegara tried to solidify his power. Around 1290, he launched the Pamalayu expedition to Sumatra, in order to conquer Jambi in the south, one of successor states to Srivijaya. Jambi was one of the first Indonesian polities where Islam had established its presence, and it already entertained cordial relationships with Yuan China. Kublai Khan ordered that a strong punitive naval expedition be launched against the remote equatorial islands in order to punish Kertanegara in 1292.
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Greek historian Herodotus The regions that comprise today's Iran and Pakistan have been under the rule of contiguous Eurasian polities at various points in history, as Pakistan straddles an intermediary zone between the Iranian Plateau and Indian subcontinent. The Persian Achaemenid Empire, which spanned (among other regions) the area between the Balkans and the area of the Indus River (known to the Persians as Hind ) at its height, conquered the regions comprising modern-day Balochistan, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Western Punjab during the reign of Darius I.
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Leviathan, 1651 In geopolitics, a polity can be manifested in different forms such as a state, an empire, an international organization, a political organization and other identifiable, resource- manipulating organizational structures. A polity like a state does not need to be a sovereign unit. The most preeminent polities today are Westphalian states and nation-states, commonly referred to as nations. A polity encapsulates a vast multitude of organizations, many of which form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states such as their subordinate civil and local government authorities.
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In the first half of the 15th century, as the result of Golden Horde's collapse, the Khanate of Kazan emerged as the dominant power in the Volga–Kama region. As Muscovy grew in power and struggled for control of trade routes and territory with the Golden Horde's successor states, Kazan was at times dominated by factions favorable to Moscow, and at other times by factions advocating alliance with other Tatar polities such as the Crimean Khanate. Finally, the khanate was conquered by Ivan the Terrible in 1552.
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Demoicracy (also demoi-cracy) is a polity of multiple distinct people (demoi), polity of polities. The term is derived from demoi (δῆμοι in original Ancient Greek, plural form of δῆμος or demos), meaning "peoples" and kratos (κράτος) meaning "power" (to govern oneself). It is apparently meant to become an alternative to democracy, understood as power of a single demos. The term is used mainly to describe the genus of the European Union (EU) but is also gaining currency in more general theories of democracy above state level.
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The political relations and system relating to its realms is described as a mandala model, typical of that of classical Southeast Asian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. It could be described as federation of kingdoms or vassalised polity under a centre of domination, namely the central Kadatuan Srivijaya. The polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing further administrative integration. The relations between the central kadatuan and its member (subscribers) kadatuans were dynamic.
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As a result, the multi-storied roof architecture of mosques can be found from Aceh to Ambon. The spread of Islam through the Indonesian archipelago can be divided into three distinct historical processes. In Sumatra, the establishment of early Islamic states reflected the emergence of new polities rather than the subjugation of existing kingdoms. In Java, Muslim rulers succeeded to the political power base of Hindu kings; instead of eliminating the earlier ideology, they maintained a high degree of continuity with the past while extending their dominion.
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These settlements were characterized by a three-tier social structure, which, while slightly different between different cultures and polities, generally included a slave class (alipin/oripun), a class of commoners (timawa), and at the apex, an aristocratic or "noble" class. The noble class was exclusive, and its members were not allowed to marry outside of the aristocracy. Only members of this cognatically defined social class could rise to the position of Datu. In some cases, such as the more developed Sakop or Kinadatuan in the Visayas (e.g.
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Alliances were struck with a number of African polities in this area, particularly the Fulbe (Fula) jihad state of Fouta Djallon, who were facing pressure from the expanding French to submit to a protectorate. The aggressive expansion of the French brought them into conflict with Samori's empire. The Samorian army was also constantly on the move, fighting on multiple fronts. Faced with French pressure in the west, Samori moved east, conquering areas in the Ivory Coast and Liberia as he maneuvered for combat and logistics space.
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This coincides with the period of Teotihuacan contact at Kaminaljuyu. The production of local copies of Teotihuacan artifacts ceased by the close of the Early Classic, coinciding with widespread destruction in the centre of Teotihuacan and the decline of that city and indicating the end of Montana as a colony.Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.292-293. By the Late Classic, the Montana polity had fragmented into several smaller polities, and around AD 800 it was replaced as a regional capital by Cotzumalhuapa.Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.293.
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Others have suggested a more northerly location for Quizquiz at the Walls Phase sites near Memphis, Tennessee. Along with the introduction of Eurasian diseases, the social disruptions caused by de Soto and his men caused native polities to fragment and fall apart. No further European contact with the area happened until the late 1600s when French missionaries and explorers entered the region both downriver from Canada and upriver from the Gulf of Mexico, by which time the paramount chiefdoms recorded by de Soto had vanished.
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On the discussion of this position, see: Hansen, Magnus Paulsen, 2016, "Non-normative Critique: Foucault and Pragmatic Sociology as Tactical Re-politicization", European Journal of Social Theory, 19(1). This framework led to numerous articles and has also been developed and tested in collaborative and comparative research on the political and moral grammars used in differing and making things and issues common. Comparative projects included United States (Comparing Cultures and Polities: Repertoires of Evaluation in France and the United States, ed. with Michèle Lamont, 2000) and Russia.
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The Spaniards' technique of using local rivalries to their advantage had upset the delicate political balance between native groups, who had existed in a state of low-level endemic warfare between polities for generations. In addition, a series of disastrous multi-year droughts spanned the latter half of the 16th century. Many societies in the region began to collapse. Remnant populations of Mississippian peoples began migrating across and down the Mississippi, sometimes settling in areas recently deserted by Plaquemine peoples, and at other times displacing or merging with the Plaquemine populations on the lower river.
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The books in the trilogy share the same imaginary world; their plots are set among small city states and independent polities, in a fertile region on the western shore of a continental land mass, in an otherwise unspecified world. The culture is at a generally medieval level, with traditional crafts but no advanced technology. The three books share some characters; the protagonists in Gifts reappear as supporting or minor characters in the later books. Gifts centers on two young people, Gry and Orrec, who struggle to come to terms with inherent psychic abilities.
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Islam is the second-largest religion in Europe after Christianity.Global religious futures Europe Although the majority of Muslim communities in Europe formed recently, there are centuries-old Muslim societies in the Balkans and in the Caucasus. Islam entered southern Europe through the expansion of "Moors" of North Africa in the 8th–10th centuries; Muslim political entities existed firmly in what is today Spain, Portugal, Sicily and Malta for several centuries. The Muslim community in these territories was converted or expelled by the end of the 15th century by Christian polities (see Reconquista).
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Paata Abashidze (; died 1684) was a member of the Georgian princely family (tavadi) of Abashidze, prominent in the politics of the kingdom of Imereti in the 17th century. Paata Abashidze was born to Prince Paata Abashidze and his wife, Princess Gulbudakh Chkhetidze. He succeeded as the head of the house of Abashidze and prince of Saabashidzo in Upper Imereti on the death of his father in 1658. At that time, the kingdom of Imereti was plagued by a civil war in which neighboring Georgian polities were also involved.
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In prehistoric South-West Asia, alternatives to chiefdoms were the non-hierarchical systems of complex acephalous communities, with a pronounced autonomy of single-family households. These communities have been analyzed recently by Berezkin, who suggests the Apa Tanis as their ethnographic parallel (Berezkin 1995). Frantsouzoff (2000) finds a more developed example of such type of polities in ancient South Arabia in the Wadi Hadhramawt of the 1st millennium BCE. In Southeast Asian history up to the early 19th century, the metaphysical view of the cosmos called the mandala (i.e.
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Thereafter he claimed the clan name of Shimazu, which indicated the ownership of the estate. By the time Tadahisa took the position of jitō, the Shimazu Estate occupied 70% of agricultural fields of Satsuma Province although over 70% of the lands were yose gōri and were not under the estate's full control. A small portion of the Shimazu Estate in Satsuma was controlled by the Chiba clan. In Satsuma, the provincial government was fused with the Shimazu Estate, as a large overlap in membership between the two polities is observed.
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Sub-national monarchies also exist in a few states which are, in and of themselves, not monarchical, (generally for the purpose of fostering national traditions). The degree to which the monarchs have control over their polities varies greatly—in some they may have a great degree of domestic authority (as in the United Arab Emirates), while others have little or no policy-making power (the case with numerous ethnic monarchs today). In some, the monarch's position might be purely traditional or cultural in nature, without any formal constitutional authority at all.
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The history of West Africa can be divided into five major periods: first, its prehistory, in which the first human settlers arrived, developed agriculture, and made contact with peoples to the north; the second, the Iron Age empires that consolidated both intra-Africa, and extra-Africa trade, and developed centralized states; third, major polities flourished, which would undergo an extensive history of contact with non-Africans; fourth, the colonial period, in which Great Britain and France controlled nearly the entire region; and fifth, the post-independence era, in which the current nations were formed.
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The Bulgarians incited another nomadic tribe, the Pechenegs, to invade the Hungarians from the east, while the Bulgarians also attacked them from the south. The two synchronized attacks forced the Hungarians to cross the Carpathian Mountains in search for a new homeland. The Carpathian Basin on the eve of the "Hungarian Land-taking": a map based primarily on the narration of the Gesta Hungarorum About 300 years later, Anonymus, the author of Gesta Hungarorum, wrote a comprehensive list of polities and peoples of the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries.
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The army of Charles Robert Anjou ambushed by Basarab's army at 1330 Posada (from the Illuminated Chronicle manuscript) A new period of intensive colonization began in Banat, Transylvania and other regions within the Kingdom of Hungary after the withdrawal of the Mongols. King Béla IV was also considering settling the Knights Hospitallers in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube. His diploma of 1247 for the Knights evidences the existence of four Romanian polities in the region. They were under the rule of voivodes Litovoi and Seneslau, and of knezes Farcaş and John.
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The Spanish hold on the eastern portion of the peninsula remained tenuous and a number of Maya polities remained independent, including Chetumal, Cochua, Cupul, Sotuta and the Tazes. On 8 November 1546 an alliance of eastern provinces launched a coordinated uprising against the Spanish. The provinces of Cupul, Cochua, Sotuta, Tazes, Uaymil, Chetumal and Chikinchel united in an effort to drive the invaders from the peninsula; the uprising lasted four months. Eighteen Spaniards were surprised in the eastern towns, and were sacrificed, and over 400 allied Maya were killed.
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The six Dorian cities of coastal southwest Anatolia, or the twelve Ionian cities to the north, the dodecapolis forming an Ionian League emerging in the aftermath of a faintly remembered "Meliac war" in the mid-7th century BC, were already of considerable antiquity when the first written records emerge. An amphictyony consisting of polities under the aegis of Apollo's shrine at Delos was apparently well-established in the seventh century, as the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo of that approximate date lists them,Cf. Encyclopædia Britannica, 11 ed., s.v. "Amphictyony'".
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Dapeng or Great Peng (), also known simply as Peng, was a Chinese Bronze Age state that was centered at Xuzhou and Qiuwan (Tongshan District) in northern Jiangsu. First mentioned on oracle bones dating to the early 11th century BC, Dapeng was a contemporary of the late Shang dynasty, with whom it shared an ambiguous relationship. At times, the two polities were allies and trading partners, but at least on two occasions war broke out among them, eventually leading to Dapeng's destruction by King Di Xin of Shang around 1060 BC.
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See also Toltec Empire See also League of Mayapan Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl is a Mexica god related to Ce Acatl Topiltzin During the ninth century, the Maya civilization went into decline from overpopulation as part of the Maya collapse, The Yucatán Peninsula was divided into several different polities. Around 930 Ce Acatl Topiltzin, Tlatoani of the Toltec Empire conquered Yucatán. Toltec control over the area only lasted forty or fifty years. Around 970 Toltec power began to wane and the peninsula was separated into city states again.
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In 987 Ah Mekat Tutul Xiu united the cities of Uxmal, Mayapan, and Chichen Itza to form the League of Mayapan. The League was a confederation of Maya polities, which promised peace, and many cities joined it. Most places joined of their own free will, Izamal was the fifth city to join, but Tecoh was conquered by K'ak'upakal one of the four k’ul kokom (rulers) of Chichen Itza, as well as the head of the Itza military. Yawahal Cho Chak and Hun Pik Tok May were two of the other k’ul kokom.
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With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community during the Rashidun Caliphate. By the 8th century, the Umayyad Caliphate extended from Iberia in the west to the Indus River in the east. Polities such as those ruled by the Umayyads and Abbasid Caliphate (in the Middle East and later in Spain and Southern Italy), Fatimids, Seljuks, Ayyubids and Mamluks were among the most influential powers in the world. Highly persianized empires built by the Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghurids made significant developments.
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To base policy on ignorance and illusion is very dangerous. Policy should be based on knowledge and understanding.” In 1992, following the collapse of the USSR, the Institute officially expanded its focus to encompass all the states of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe and adopted the name of the Harriman Institute. In 1997, the Harriman and East Central European Institutes united to promote comparative scholarly knowledge and public understanding of the complex and changing polities, economies, societies, and cultures of the area between Germany and the Pacific Ocean.
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A coin of the Suessiones, ruled in the mid-1st century BC by Galba Galba (fl. mid-1st century BC) was a king (rex) of the Suessiones, a Celtic polity of Belgic Gaul, during the Gallic Wars. When Julius Caesar entered the part of Gaul that was still independent of Roman rule in 58 BC, a number of Belgic polities formed a defensive alliance and acclaimed Galba commander-in- chief.Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico 2.4; John Creighton, Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain (Cambridge University Press, 2000), p.
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Mobile Archive Suckers : Large spacecraft or mobile habitats which travel at slower-than-light speeds between the brown dwarf stars which most polities orbit. Self-contained and self-sufficient, fitted with their own A-gates, they are fuelled by plasma piped-in by T-gate from nearby stars. Generally, the ships' systems are not connected to the galactic network at large. The crews and/or passengers can, if they do not wish to experience the long subjective timescales of travel by this method, disassemble themselves in an A-gate and "sleep" throughout the journey.
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A caliphate ( ') is an Islamic state under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; can also be small groups within a country. ', ), a person considered a politico-religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim Community (ummah). Historically, the caliphates were polities based on Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).
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Parkin Site, circa 1539. Illustration by Herb Roe By the Middle Mississippian period, local Late Woodland peoples in the Central Mississippi Valley had developed or adopted a full Mississippian lifestyle, with intensive maize agriculture, hierarchical political structures, mussel shell-tempered pottery and participation in the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). At this time the settlement patterns were a mix of dispersed settlements, farmsteads and villages. Over the next centuries, settlement patterns changed to a pattern of more centralized towns, with defensive palisades and ditches, indicating a state of endemic warfare had developed between local competing polities.
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The empire marked the end of the period of petty kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia. Not only did the dynasty successfully reunify the Irrawaddy valley for the first time since the late 13th century but it also absorbed the surrounding highlands into the lowland orbit for good. Toungoo came of age in a period when the arrival of European firearms and an increase in Indian Ocean commerce enabled lowland polities to project power into interior states. The advantages of the lowland states persisted even after the monumental collapse of the empire.
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After the Trust Territory of Somaliland was unified with the State of Somaliland in 1960, it was discovered that the two polities had been unified under different Acts of Union. The newly unified Somali Republic's parliament promptly created a new Act of Union for all of Somalia, but this new Act was widely rejected in the former State of Somaliland. Regardless, the southern-dominated parliament ordered a referendum in the entire country to confirm the Act of Union. Much of the north's population boycotted the referendum, and just 100,000 northerners voted at all.
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Early Georgian Bagratids through dynastic marriage gained the Principality of Iberia after succeeding the Chosroid dynasty at the end of the 8th century. In 888 Adarnase IV of Iberia restored the Georgian monarchy; various native polities then united into the Kingdom of Georgia, which prospered from the 11th to the 13th century. This period of time, particularly the reigns of David IV the Builder (1089–1125) and of his great-granddaughter Tamar the Great (1184–1213) inaugurated the Georgian Golden Age in the history of Georgia.Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh.
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A world-system is a socioeconomic system, under systems theory, that encompasses part or all of the globe, detailing the aggregate structural result of the sum of the interactions between polities. World-systems are usually larger than single states, but do not have to be global. The Westphalian System is the preeminent world-system operating in the contemporary world, denoting the system of sovereign states and nation-states produced by the Westphalian Treaties in 1648. Several world-systems can coexist, provided that they have little or no interaction with one another.
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However, this identification received a new support by Stefano de Martino, Mirko Novák and Dominik Bonatz due to recent archaeological excavations by a German team.De Martino, Stefano, 2018. "Political and Cultural Relations between the Kingdom of Mittani and its Subordinated Polities in Syria and Southeast Anatolia", in Changing Faces of Kingship in Syria-Palestine 1500-500 BCE, Ugarit Verlag, p. 38: "...the recent German archaeological excavations at Tell Fekheriye support the assumption that the capital of Mittani, Wassukkanni, was located there..." See also Novák (2013: 346) and Bonatz (2014).
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In his later years he went on a pilgrimage to Rome and he was instrumental in making Orkney and Shetland part of mainstream Christendom. On his death in the latter half of the 11th century he was followed as earl by his sons Paul and Erlend. There are numerous problems associated with the chronology of Thorfinn's life and in identifying his relationships to the southern polities of the Kingdom of Alba (the precursor to modern Scotland) and the Kingdom of Moray. His diplomacy with the Norwegian court has also been interpreted in various ways.
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A 200px The town is located on an ancient Celtic settlement, named Arrubium. It was included in the Getic polities of Rhemaxos and Zyraxes, then conquered by the Roman Empire, which stationed a cavalry unit in this place between 99 and 241 AD. The ruins of the old Roman fortifications can be seen today on the top of "Cetate" Hill. Part of the Bulgarian, Byzantine and later Ottoman Empire, it was included for some time in the Wallachian and Moldavian voivodates. It was the site of the Battle of Măcin in 1791.
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During the Slavic migrations of the 6th and 7th centuries, the territory of modern-day Montenegro was settled by Serbs, who created several principalities in the region. In southern parts of modern Montenegro, Principality of Duklja was formed, while western parts belonged to the Principality of Travunija. Northern parts of modern Montenegro belonged to the inner Principality of Serbia. All of those early polities were described in historiographical works of Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenetos (944-959). In 1018, all of Serbian principalities came under the supreme rule of the Byzantine Empire.
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The Kingdom of Mankhera, also known as Mankhera or Leah and Bukkar, was a powerful Indian State that arose under the declining influence of the Mughal Empire and Durrani Empire. Initially the rulers of Mankera were governors of the Sindh Sagar Doab under the Emperors of Afghanistan. However, with the death of Ahmad Shah Abidali in 1772, it along with several other polities of Punjab became Independent. The state was founded by Nawab Sarbuland Khan and succeed by his son-in-law, Nawab Ahmad Khan and his progeny.
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Some afrophobic sentiments are based on the belief that Africans are unsophisticated. Such perceptions include the belief that Africans lack a history of civilization, and visual imagery of such stereotypes perpetuate the notion that Africans still live in mudhuts and carry spears along with other notions which indicate their primitiveness. Afrophobia in academia may also occur through the practise of oversight with regards to lacking deconstruction in mediums such as African art forms, omittance of historical African polities within world cartography, or by promoting a eurocentric viewpoint by ignoring historic African contributions to world civilization.
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By contrast, geographic and climatic factors in pre-colonial Africa made establishing absolute control over particular pieces of land prohibitively costly. For example, because African farmers relied on rain-fed agriculture and consequently invested little in particular pieces of land, they could easily flee rulers rather than fight. Some early African empires, like the Ashanti Empire, successfully projected power over large distances by building roads. The largest pre-colonial polities arose in the Sudanian Savanna belt of West Africa because the horses and camels could transport armies over the terrain.
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The dynasty had made their appearance in the Georgian lands in the 8th century and succeeded in unifying several native polities into a unified kingdom by 1008. David IV concluded this process of unification, setting stage for a Georgian domination in the Caucasus. Like his Bagratid ancestors, David entertained claims of descent from the biblical king David. He was a direct descendant of the first Georgian Bagratid monarch Ashot I (died 826/830) and bore known lineage, among others, from the Abkhazian, Alanian, Artsruni, Bagratuni, and Guaramid dynasties.
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The start of the rise of the kingdom of Melayu can be dated to 1025 when India's Chola kingdom attacked and destroyed the capital of the Sumatran maritime empire of Srivijaya. This allowed a number of smaller Sumatran polities to expand their political and economic influence. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it seems that from its river estuarine basis along the Batang Hari, Melayu became the dominant economic power in Sumatra. The substantial archaeological remains at Muaro Jambi suggest that this may have been the site of the Melayu capital.
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Caravans increasingly opted to travel through Wadai, deeming it safer, and brought the region much wealth. Relying on its prospering economy and firearms imported from the Senussi, Wadai expanded and subjugated several other polities such as Bornu and the Sultanate of Bagirmi, forcing them to pay tribute and abducting skilled craftsmen to enrich the empire. At the same time, the Scramble for Africa resulted in the rapid colonization of the Sahel. To Wadai's east, th British defeated Mahdist Sudan and reestablished the Sultanate of Darfur as buffer state.
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The Ikpeng were known to inhabit the same land as the Txipaya peoples, near the Iriri River, and they a strong alliance with that group in times of war. One oral history traces the Ikpeng ancestral territory as far as the Jari River (Rodgers, 2013). By 1850, the Ikpeng were known to inhabit an area of converging rivers thought to be the Teles Pires- Juruena river basin (Menget & Troncarelli, 2003). Before 1900, the Ikpeng were at war with several polities, and even encountered settlers of European descent (2003).
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Different zones support different levels of technology, and humans require periodic drug treatments to survive outside their native zone. Within Spearpoint itself, individual zones designate different precincts within the city; further away, they become much larger, with some on the opposite side of the world encompassing entire geographic regions. Spearpoint consists of six precincts of ascending technological advancement: Horsetown, Steamville, Neon Heights, Circuit City, the cybertowns/cyborg polities, and the Celestial Levels. Deep inside Spearpoint's spire is a theorized core, called the Mire or the Eye of God, near which the zones become exponentially smaller.
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P'adla II () (died 929 ) was a Prince and Chorepiscopus of Kakheti in eastern Georgia from 918 to 929. He succeeded upon the death of his father, Kvirike I. His rule was marked by the Arab raids into Kakheti and Padla's involvement in the struggles and dynastic feuds in various Caucasian polities. Early in his reign he lost the fortress of Orchobi to the neighboring ruler Adarnase of Hereti who had ceded it to Padla's father. In 922, Padla aided King Ashot II of Armenia in crushing the revolt by prince Moses of Utik.
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According to Spanish accounts, Sulayman began participating in the discussions again when he apologized to the Spanish for his aggressive actions of the previous year, saying that they were the product of his "youthful passion." As a result of these talks, it was agreed that Lakandula would join De Goiti in an expedition to make overtures of friendship to the various polities in Bulacan and Pampanga, with whom Tondo and Maynila had forged close alliances. This was met with mixed responses, which culminated in the Battle of Bangkusay Channel.
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Perhaps, speculates Ralph D. Sawyer, Yu Xiong had recognized that the Shang dynasty was crumbling or he simply wanted to ensure good relations with all powerful neighbors. Either way, he recognized the Zhou as promising upstarts and established a friendly relationship with them. Consequently, when the Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty, Chu supported the former by supplying bows and arrows. Nevertheless, the submission of Chu to the early Zhou kingdom was "hardly even nominal" - too great were the distances between the two polities, and too great was the independence of the Chu people.
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The state religion of Khazaria, Judaism, disappeared as a political force with the fall of Khazaria, while Islam of Volga Bulgaria has survived in the region up to the present. In the beginning of the period the Slavic tribes started to expand aggressively into Byzantine possessions on the Balkans. The first attested Slavic polities were Serbia and Great Moravia, the latter of which emerged under the aegis of the Frankish Empire in the early 9th century. Great Moravia was ultimately overrun by the Magyars, who invaded the Pannonian Basin around 896.
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Yazid, the Caliph's viceroy of Armīniya, moved in to reinforce the central Arab authority in the Caucasian polities in 827/8. Ashot I must have been still alive at that time, and the information provided by the 11th- century Georgian chronicler Sumbat, according to which Ashot was murdered in 826, is doubtful. It is more likely that the event took place four years later, on January 29, 830. Driven by the Arabs from central Iberia, Ashot fell back to the Nigali valley where he was assassinated by renegades at the altar of a local church.
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During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the Indianised states of Funan and its successor, Chenla, coalesced in present-day Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. For more than 2,000 years, what was to become Cambodia absorbed influences from India, passing them on to other Southeast Asian civilisations that are now Thailand and Laos. Little else is known for certain of these polities, however Chinese chronicles and tribute records do make mention of them. It is believed that the territory of Funan may have held the port known to Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemy as "Kattigara".
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The initial organization dates back to the Ottoman beginnings as a Seljuk vassal state (Uç Beyligi) in central Anatolia. The Ottoman Empire over the years became an amalgamation of pre-existing polities, the Anatolian beyliks, brought under the sway of the ruling House of Osman. This extension was based on an already established administrative structure of the Seljuk system in which the hereditary rulers of these territories were known as beys. These beys (local leadership), which were not eliminated, continued to rule under the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultans.
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The South Saxon kingdom remains one of the most obscure of the Anglo-Saxon polities. A few names of South Saxon kings are recorded, and the history of the kingdom is sometimes illustrated by that of other areas, but information is otherwise limited. Sussex seems to have had a greater degree of decentralisation than other kingdoms. For a period during the 760s there may have been as many as four or five kings based within the territory, perhaps with each ruling over a distinct tribal territory, perhaps on a temporary basis.
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After the establishment of the Monarchy of Spain in the 16th century, Catalans were found in Habsburg military, however, the Usage Princeps namque and the lack of a large Catalan manpower limited their presence in comparasion to the other polities of the Empire. Some cities like Barcelona gained recognition of self-defense and established urban militias, known as the Coronela. While the military conflicts with France aroused, many Catalan militas took part on the fight, as happened in the siege of Salses, in 1639, alongside the regular army.
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Aguateca is a Classic Maya site located in the south-western Petén department of Guatemala. Aguateca was a member of the Petexbatún States among which included such polities as Seibal, Itzan, Dos Pilas, Cancuén, Tamarindito, Punta de Chimino, and Nacimiento. The city was built on a 90 m escarpment with defensive fortifications surrounding the city. Archaeological remains, along with epigraphy and iconography at the site reveal an expansion of power and military influence from Aguateca by the ruling dynasty during the 8th century, a period noted for endemic warfare in the region.
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By about 1500 they had formed two military polities: the Ukrainian Zaparozhian Sich on the Dnieper bend and the Russian Don Cossacks on the Don River bend. There is a good reason why these two communities were so far from the settled lands. Many of the Cossacks on the upper Don had recently left the settled lands and were still in reach of the Russian government. Most of those on the lower Don had been on the steppe for generations, knew no other way of life and were out of reach of the government.
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The history of Kulthea is a convoluted and violent one characterized by the cyclical rising and destruction of countless races, kingdoms, and empires. Local wars are common as competing polities vie with one another for resources, people, tribute, or ideological reasons. Vast global conflicts have been fought between the powers of Light and Darkness, and each one has marked the transition from one Era to the next. These wars have nearly destroyed the planet, laying waste to entire continents and leading to millennia of cultural and political stagnation.
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The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and Sultanate of Sulu in Southern Philippines in particular developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. Other Malay sultans of Pontianak, Samarinda as far as Banjarmasin, treated the Sultan of Brunei as their leader. The true nature of Brunei's relations to other Malay Sultanates of coastal Borneo and Sulu archipelago is still a subject of study, as to whether it was a vassal state, an alliance, or just a ceremonial relationship. Other regional polities also exercised their influence upon these sultanates.
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In addition, Puuc, Chenes, and Rio Bec began to develop distinct styles. The Transition period 900 A.D. to 987 the Mayanist felt that there were no identifiable pottery types, he remarked on the fall of Chichen Itza, the abandonment of Puuc/Chenes/Rio Bec, and how Mexican influences were becoming stronger. According to Thompson, the Mexican period marked a decline in Maya civilization and ceramic styles due to conflict between Mesoamerican polities. He postulated that this era saw an end to hieroglyphic texts and increased worship of Mexican cosmology in place of Maya deities.
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The major Mixtec polity was Tututepec which rose to prominence in the 11th century under the leadership of Eight Deer Jaguar Claw, the only Mixtec king who ever united the Highland and Lowland polities into a single state. Like the rest of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, the Mixtec were conquered by the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre- Columbian Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million.archaeology.about.com › ... › Archaeology 101 › Glossary › M Terms Today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States.
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In the 21st century, Kurdish polities began adopting secularism as a political principle in the Middle East. This is not least due to the Kurdistan Communities Union movement and their radically secular Rojava model project in the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria. Kurdistan has been referred to as "the last safe haven for secularism" in a region rife with religious extremism. In 2012, the semi-autonomous Kurdistan Regional Government of Iraq (KRG) declared that public schools were to be religiously neutral and that all major religions of the world are taught on an equal basis.
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Qasr al-Farid, the largest tomb at Mada'in Saleh The Nabataeans spoke a form of Arabic. For their inscriptions, however, they used the Aramaic under heavy influence from Arabic forms and words demonstrated in numerous Nabataean inscriptions, which reflect the local tongue of the Nabataeans. For medium and mutually comprehensive communication with Middle Eastern ethnic groups the Nabataeans, like their neighbours, had to rely on Aramaic as a bridge between the different polities of the region. Therefore, Aramaic was used for commercial and official purposes across the Nabataean political sphere.
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In the late 17th century, social changes within the polities of the Gold Coast led to transformations in warfare, and to the shift from being a gold exporting and slave importing economy to being a major local slave exporting economy.Walter Rodney, "From Gold to Slaves on the Gold Coast", in Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana. The triangular Atlantic slave trade routes. Some scholars have challenged the premise that rulers on the Gold Coast engaged in wars of expansion for the sole purpose of acquiring slaves for the export market.
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Ismailis had faithful supporters in the lands governed by the Fatimids' rivals, and areas with a significant Ismaili population and presences were able to set up their own independently-administered polities, which were loyal to the Imam in Egypt. The Fatimids () claimed descent from Fatimah, the daughter of the prophet Muhammad. The Fatimid state took shape among the Kutama, Berbers living in the west of the North African littoral (in Kabylie in present-day Algeria). In 909, using the military resources of the Kutama, the Fatimids occupied Raqqada, the Aghlabid capital.
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The political situation in the Campania region during the ninth- and tenth-century was described as unstable and typified by constant tensions between and within the neighbouring polities. The Pactum Sicardi assumed the form of a multi-clause treaty that probably aimed to address all possible causes of conflict between the two signatories. By the treaty Prince Sicard recognised the rights of merchants from the three cities to travel through his domains. He made navigation up the rivers Patria, Volturno, and Minturno open to merchants, responsales (envoys), and milities (soldiers).
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With the absence of Medang paramount ruler, warlords in regional provinces and settlements in central and east Java rebelled and break loose from the central Medang government and forming their own polities serving local dynasties. Raids and robbery were rampant ravaging the country. There was further unrest and violence several years after the kingdom's demise. Airlangga, a son of King Udayana Warmadewa of Bali and Queen Mahendradatta, also a nephew of slain King Dharmawangsa, managed to escape the destruction and went into exile in Vanagiri forest in interior Central Java.
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Previously, Singhasari seeks to dominate trade route, especially Malacca strait, and also saw the outreach of Mongolian-Chinese Yuan influence into Southeast Asia as the threat to their interest. During its formation, the returning Pamalayu expedition in 1293 has brought Malayu Kingdoms in Jambi and Dharmasraya under Javanese suzerainty. Therefore, Java often considers itself as the overlord of most of the polities in the Indonesian archipelago. During the reign of Majapahit's first two monarch – Wijaya and Jayanegara, the kingdom struggled to consolidate its rule, plagued by several rebellions.
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Fusion of powers is a feature of some parliamentary forms of government, where the executive and legislative branches of government are intermingled. It is contrasted with the European separation of powersMontesquieu, The Spirit of Laws found in presidential and semi-presidential forms of government where the legislative and executive powers are in origin separated by popular vote. Fusion of powers exists in many, if not a majority of, parliamentary democracies, and does so by design. However, in all modern democratic polities the judicial branch of government is independent of the legislative and executive branches.
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In alliance with Bagrat of Imereti, Luarsab fought both empires trying to preserve his independence and reestablish close cooperation between various Georgian polities. In 1535, Bagrat conquered a pro-Ottoman southern Georgian principality of Samtskhe, granting its province Javakheti to Kartli. The Kartlian-Imeretian alliance was soon joined by another Georgian monarch, Levan I of Kakheti. However, the 1541 invasion by the Persian shah Tahmasp I forced Levan out of a Georgian coalition, it left most of Kartli in ruins, and the capital Tbilisi garrisoned by a Persian force.
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In 1776, the British colonies declared independence, and the Treaty of Paris (1783) confirmed the area west of the Appalachians as part of the newly formed United States. In 1780, Pennsylvania and Virginia agreed to extend the Mason–Dixon line westward, and the region became part of Pennsylvania, settling a dispute of whether the area would be part of which state. The Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1784) resulted in the Iroquois Nations also relinquishing their claims to the area, but this was not necessarily the case in regard to other Native American polities.
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In Russian historiography the term Upper Oka Principalities ( - literally: "Upper Principalities") traditionally applies to about a dozen tiny and ephemeral polities situated along the upper course of the Oka River at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. Nowadays, the areas concerned lie within the bounds of the Tula Oblast and Kaluga Oblast of Russia. Following the Mongol invasion of Russia of 1223-1240, the formerly mighty Principality of Chernigov gradually degenerated to a point where the descendants of Mikhail of Chernigov (c. 1185 – 1246) ruled dozens of quasi-sovereign entities.
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The first king, also described as a Hyksos (ḥḳꜣw-ḫꜣswt, a "shepherd" according to Africanus), led his people into an occupation of the Nile Delta area and settled his capital at Avaris. These events put an end to the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt. There are is no evidence of conflict at that time however, and the settling of the Canaanite populations could have occurred rather peacefully in the power vacuum left by the disintegration of the Fourteenth Dynasty. Subsequent relations with Egyptian polities, however, were marked with violent conflict.
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It is possible that it was already a vassal state of Wu at this point. Like many other settlements and polities in the Huai River valley, Zhongli became involved in the wars between Chu and Wu, as these two powerful states battled for supremacy over the Yangtze and Huai River valleys. Zhongli was conquered by Chu at some point during the 6th century BC, and perhaps became its vassal in turn. The city was fortified by Chu's Director of Remonstrance in 538 BC, but conquered by King Liao of Wu twenty years later.
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It has information naming the polities that the Triple Alliance conquered, the types of tribute rendered to the Aztec Empire, and the class/gender structure of their society. Many written annals exist, written by local Nahua historians recording the histories of their polity. These annals used pictorial histories and were subsequently transformed into alphabetic annals in Latin script. Well-known native chroniclers and annalists are Chimalpahin of Amecameca- Chalco; Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc of Tenochtitlan; Alva Ixtlilxochitl of Texcoco, Juan Bautista Pomar of Texcoco, and Diego Muñoz Camargo of Tlaxcala.
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The historical capitals of Korea, including Gaegyeong and the Silla capital of Gyeongju Silla began a protracted decline in the late eighth century. By the early tenth century, the Korean Peninsula was once more divided into three warring polities: the rump Silla state, and two new kingdoms founded by local magnates. Goryeo, one of the latter, obtained the surrender of the Silla court in 935 and reunited the country the next year. Korea's political and cultural center henceforth became the Goryeo capital of Gaegyeong (modern Gaeseong), located in central Korea.
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During the European colonization of the Americas, forced conversion of the continents' indigenous, non-Christian population was common, especially in South America and Mesoamerica, where the conquest of large indigenous polities like the Inca and Aztec Empires placed colonizers in control of large non-Christian populations. According to some South American leaders and indigenous groups, there were cases among native populations of conversion under the threat of violence, often because they were compelled to after being conquered, and that the Catholic Church cooperated with civil authority to achieve this end.
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The complex evolution of the states of the British Isles. Those states evolved from the conquests and mergers of earlier states. The formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland has involved personal and political union across Great Britain and the wider British Isles. The United Kingdom is the most recent of a number of sovereign states that have been established in Great Britain at different periods in history, in different combinations and under a variety of polities. Norman Davies has counted sixteen different states over the past 2,000 years.
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This angered King Ugeo, who sent troops into Han territory to kill She He. The direct pretext for war thus came when King Ugeo had the Han envoy executed, which angered Emperor Wu considerably.. The initiation of war may also have been brought by the desire to remove the possibility that Gojoseon would ally with the Xiongnu against the Han. Another reason may also have been the deteriorating relations between Han and Gojoseon, because Wiman Joseon had prevented trade between Han and polities such as Jinbeon (진번, 眞番)..
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The Russian Empire had entered a more aggressive phase, becoming militarily active against the Ottoman Empire and also against China, with territorial aggrandizement explicitly in mind. Rethinking its policy the British government decided that the two polities under attack were necessary for the balance of power. It therefore undertook to oppose the Russians in both places, one result being the Crimean War. During that war the administration of the British Empire began promulgating a new vocabulary, giving specific regional meaning to "the Near East", the Ottoman Empire, and "the Far East", the East Indies.
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The Moche civilization (; alternatively, the Mochica culture or the Early, Pre- or Proto-Chimú) flourished in northern Peru with its capital near present-day Moche, Trujillo, Peru from about 100 to 700 AD during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of some debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common culture, as seen in the rich iconography and monumental architecture that survives today.
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Sturlusson, Snorri (2000) History of the Kings of Norway. Gallimard. pp. 15–16, 18, 24, 33–34, 38 ;Political model: The first of two main components to the political model is the external "Pull" factor, which suggests that the weak political bodies of Britain and Western Europe made for an attractive target for Viking raiders. The reasons for these weaknesses vary, but generally can be simplified into decentralized polities, or religious sites. As a result, Viking raiders found it easy to sack and then retreat from these areas which were thus frequently raided.
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Academics have also considered the etymological roots of the stems Armen- and Hay-, from which derive the modern exonym and endonym of Armenia and Armenians, in order to propose candidates for groups (i.e., Proto-Armenians) who may have contributed to the Armenian ethnogenesis. These propositions are purely speculative and are largely based on geographic proximity, similarity between names, linguistics, and extrapolations made from known historical events of the time.The following cultures, peoples and polities have all been suggested to have contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people.
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The indigenous people of Honduras developed stratified societies in some regions very early, and much of the earliest period conditions were shaped by its division into unequally represented social groups, in which some economic exploitation took place. Documentation, limited as it was from Maya sites confirms this inequality which is also observed archaeologically. Early Spanish reports likewise speak of inequities in the society, and the Spanish tended to exacerbate these. The encomienda system while it initially drew heavily on the older systems of taxation and labor employment used by indigenous polities, added new elements.
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The Postclassic (beginning 900–1000 CE, depending on area) is, like the Late Classic, characterized by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of various polities. The main Maya centers were located in the northern lowlands. Following Chichén Itzá, whose political structure collapsed during the Early Postclassic, Mayapán rose to prominence during the Middle Postclassic and dominated the north for c. 200 years. After Mayapán's fragmentation, political structure in the northern lowlands revolved around large towns or city-states, such as Oxkutzcab and Ti’ho (Mérida, Yucatán), that competed with one another.
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Grayson also notes Siberian myths where a bear is the mother of a tribal ancestor. Dan'gun appears to have been worshipped only locally in the Pyongyang area until the thirteenth century, when intellectuals attempted to bolster the legitimacy of the Korean state, then imperiled by Mongol invasion and domination, by establishing him as the ancestor of all Korean polities. By the twentieth century he had become accepted as the mythical founder of the Korean nation and plays an important role in the ideologies of both North and South Korea.
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This hypothesis effectively explains state formation in Southeast Asia, as these warriors came with the intention of conquering the local peoples and establishing their own political power in the region. However, this theory hasn't attracted much interest from historians as there is very little literary evidence to support it. The most widely accepted theory for the spread of Indianization into Southeast Asia is through the class of Brahman scholars. These Brahmans brought with them many of the Hindu religious and philosophical traditions and spread them to the elite classes of Southeast Asian polities.
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Balinese Ramayana dance drama, performed in Sarasvati Garden in Ubud. The pre-Indic political and social systems in Southeast Asia were marked by a relative indifference towards lineage descent. Hindu God kingship enabled rulers to supersede loyalties, forge cosmopolitan polities and the worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with ancestor worship, so that Khmer, Javanese, and Cham rulers claimed semi-divine status as descendants of a God. Hindu traditions, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the land and social structures, are inherent in Hinduism's transnational features.
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The Ikpeng were known to inhabit the same land as the Txipaya peoples, near the Iriri River, and they a strong alliance with that group in times of war. One oral history traces the Ikpeng ancestral territory as far as the Jari River (Rodgers, 2013). By 1850, the Ikpeng were known to inhabit an area of converging rivers thought to be the Teles Pires- Juruena river basin (Menget & Troncarelli, 2003). Before 1900, the Ikpeng were at war with several polities, and even encountered settlers of European descent (2003).
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Unlike some inscriptions of Srivijayan contemporaries — Tarumanagara and other Javanese polities that uses Sanskrit — Srivijayan inscriptions was written in Old Malay. This has promoted the status of local languages vis-a- vis to Sanskrit; as the language of elite, employed in royal and religious edicts. Sanskrit was only known by a limited circle; brahmin (priests) and kavi (poets), while Old Malay was a common language in Srivijayan realm. This linguistic policy was probably stemmed from the rather egalitarian nature of Mahayana Buddhist adhered in Srivijaya, in contrast to the elitist nature of Hinduism.
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The pre-Columbian New World was in a time of general transition in many regions. Wari and Tiwanaku cultures receded in power and influence while Chachapoya and Chimú cultures rose toward florescence in South America. In Mesoamerica, the Maya Terminal Classic period saw the decline of many grand polities of the Petén like Palenque and Tikal yet a renewed vigor and greater construction phases of sites in the Yucatán region like Chichén Itzá and Uxmal. Mitla, with Mixtec influence, became the more important site of the Zapotec, overshadowing the waning Monte Albán.
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The date of this supposed separation is unknown. The first Deiran king to make an appearance in Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum is Ælle, the father of the first Roman Catholic Northumbrian king Edwin. Book II, Chapter 1 A king of Bernicia, Ida's grandson Æthelfrith, was the first ruler to unite the two polities under his rule. He exiled the Deiran Edwin to the court of King Rædwald of the East Angles in order to claim both kingdoms, but Edwin returned in approximately 616 to conquer Northumbria with Rædwald's aid.
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This view changed over Islamic history. Sunni Muslims and rulers, for example, considered collection and disbursement of zakat as one of the functions of an Islamic state; this view has continued in modern Islamic countries.Faiz Mohammad (1991), Prospects of Poverty Eradication Through the Existing "Zakat" System in Pakistan, The Pakistan Development Review, Vol. 30, No. 4, 1119–1129 Zakat is one of the five pillars of Islam, and in various Islamic polities of the past was expected to be paid by all practising Muslims who have the financial means (nisab).
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In 2014, the impact factor was 0.696, ranking it 87th out of 161 journals in the category "Political Science", 15th out of 65 journals in the category "Area Studies" and 44th out of 85 journals in the category "International Relations". The aims and objectives of Mediterranean Politics is to 'shed light on the connectedness of polities and societies and thus takes an interdisciplinary approach which, while generally focused on the disciplines of politics and international relations, is inclusive where appropriate of economics, political economy, human geography, sociology and anthropology'.
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Ancient Mayan art is about the material arts of the Mayan civilization, an eastern and south-eastern Mesoamerican culture shared by a great number of kingdoms in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize and western Honduras. Many regional artistic traditions existed side by side, usually coinciding with the changing boundaries of Maya polities. This civilization took shape in the course of the later Preclassic Period (from c. 750 BC to 100 BC), when the first cities and monumental architecture started to develop and the hieroglyphic script came into being.
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Illustration of Kings Crossing Site in Warren County, Mississippi The Coles Creek culture is a Late Woodland culture (700-1200 CE) in the Lower Mississippi Valley in the Southern United States that marks a significant change of the cultural history of the area. Population and cultural and political complexity increased, especially by the end of the Coles Creek period. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies were not yet made, by 1000 CE, the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Texas.
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The chronicle tradition was maintained in the country's four historical polities: Upper Burma, Lower Burma, Arakan and the Shan states. The majority of the chronicles did not survive the country's numerous wars as well as the test of time. The most complete extant chronicles are those of Upper Burma-based dynasties, with the earliest extant chronicle dating from the 1280s and the first standard national chronicle from the 1720s. The subject matter of the chronicles is mainly about the monarchs, and the chronicles provide little information about the general situation of the kingdom.
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In communities which historically had strong political or trade connections with Indianized polities in Indonesia and Malaysia, the Paramount Ruler was called a Rajah. Among the Subanon people of the Zamboanga Peninsula, the most senior Thimuay is referred to as the "Thimuay Labi," or as Sulotan in more Islamized Subanon communities. In some other portions of the Visayas and Mindanao, there was no separate name for the most senior ruler, so the Paramount Ruler was simply called a Datu, although one Datu was identifiable as the most senior. Confer also: Non-sovereign monarchy.
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It was a function of language, since their respective sinocentrc and hispanocentric vocabularies were organized around worldviews which asserted the divine right of monarchs. As a result, they tended to project their beliefs into the peoples they encountered during trade and conquest. The concept of a sovereign monarchy was not unknown among the various early polities of the Philippine archipelago, since many of these settlements had rich maritime cultures and traditions, and travelled widely as sailors and traders. The Tagalogs, for example had the word "Hari" to describe a Monarch.
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Li Cunxu, with Wang Chuzhi also urging action from him, immediately launched his troops, with his general Zhou Dewei advancing first and he himself following, and headed for Zhen Prefecture to aid Wang Rong. From this point on, Wushun (which then changed its name back to Chengde) and Yiwu renounced their loyalty to Later Liang and restored their use of the Tang Dynasty era name of Tianyou (which Jin, as well as two other states that did not recognize Later Liang imperial authority (Qi and Wu), also used), and in effect became completely independent polities.
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The is the period of Japanese history when the Japanese Imperial court ruled from modern-day Nara Prefecture, then known as Yamato Province. While conventionally assigned to the period 250–710, including both the Kofun period (–538) and the Asuka period (538–710), the actual start of Yamato rule is disputed. The Yamato court's supremacy was challenged during the Kofun period by other polities centered in various parts of Japan. What is certain is that Yamato clans had major advantages over their neighbouring clans in the 6th century.
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A star war was a decisive conflict between rival polities of the Maya civilization during the first millennium AD. The term comes from a specific type of glyph used in the Maya script, which depicts a star showering the earth with liquid droplets, or a star over a shell. It represents a verb but its phonemic value and specific meaning have not yet been deciphered. The name "star war" was coined by the epigrapher Linda Schele to refer to the glyph, and by extension to the type of conflict that it indicates.
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Six of the fifteen Ahu Tongariki moai In the 15th and 16th centuries, the island was divided into two polities, described as either west (Tu'u) and east (Hotu-iti) confederacies, with Hotu-iti being the lower ranked; or northern (Tu'u Aro) and southern (Hotu-iti). In 1960, a tsunami, approximately above sea level, crossed of Hotu-iti, sweeping away ahu and moai (statues), and scattering them by . Fifteen statues of Hotu-iti's Ahu Tongariki site were damaged; a team of Japanese archaeologists restored the site between 1992 and 1994.
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Linguistic and archaeological evidence in Karagwe and Nkore on the other hand, indicates occupation around the beginning of the second millennium, based upon the increasing exploitation of cattle, supported by grain crops. From these bases, the core elements of the polities undoubtedly developed, although there is little evidence, as yet, to document the process. The actual origins of the dynasties that came to dominate are also unclear, being dependent on the interpretation of oral traditions. At face value, in all areas, dynasties claimed origin back to the Cwezi persona, Wamara.
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Population increased dramatically, and there is strong evidence of a growing cultural and political complexity, especially by the end of the Coles Creek sequence. Although many of the classic traits of chiefdom societies are not yet manifested, by 1000 CE the formation of simple elite polities had begun. Coles Creek sites are found in present-day Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Mississippi, and Texas. Many Coles Creek sites were erected over earlier Woodland period mortuary mounds, leading researchers to speculate that emerging elites were symbolically and physically appropriating dead ancestors to emphasize and project their own authority.
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Peter Heather estimates that the Herulian kingdom could muster an army of 5,000-10,000 men. Polities in southeastern Europe c.500 AD before the Lombard destruction of the Herulian kingdom Theoderic's efforts to build a system of alliances in Western Europe were made difficult both by counter diplomacy, for example between Merovingian Franks and the Byzantine empire, and also the arrival of a new Germanic people into the Danubian region, the Lombards who were initially under Herule hegemony. The Herulian king Rodulph lost his kingdom to the Lombards at some point between 494 and 508.
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At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four varnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterized both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India, but also eventually by the excluding of some indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure. During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).
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During the pre-Hispanic period, the area of what is now San Juan was a part of the Kingdom of Namayan, whose last recorded rulers were King Lacantagean and his consort, Bouan. After the kingdom and other polities in the islands were absorbed into the Spanish Crown in the late 16th century, the realm of Namayan was christened Santa Ana de Sapa. The present area of San Juan was meanwhile re-classified as a barrio, becoming a small encomienda by 1590. In 1602, the Dominicans built a retreat house in the vicinity for their immediate use, where ageing or convalescing friars stayed.
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In Book 3 of the Bellum Gallicum, Caesar says that the Andes provided winterquarters for Publius Crassus after his mission into Armorica, which brought several Gallic polities into relations with Rome.Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 2.33 and 3.7. Over the winter of 57–56 BC, the Romans built a fleet on the Loire under the command of Decimus Brutus, presumably in preparation for an invasion of Britannia, but which was instead called into action against the Veneti when Armorican objections were raised. The Andes, led by Dumnacus, played a significant role in the continuing war against Rome after the defeat of Vercingetorix at Alesia.
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The term Champa refers to a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is today central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century through 19th century (1832), before being absorbed and annexed by the Vietnamese state. The kingdom was known variously as nagara Campa (Sanskrit: नगरः कम्पः; ) in the Chamic and Cambodian inscriptions, in Vietnamese (Chiêm Thành in Sino- Vietnamese vocabulary) and (Zhànchéng) in Chinese records. The destruction of Champa caused the spread of different tribes in the regions of what is today Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia sharing the same linguistic root like the Jarai People.
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The Plaquemine culture contracted southward and abandoned the northern Natchez Bluffs altogether. The Lower Yazoo basin region, once occupied by the Winterville and Holly Bluff polity, became the territory of the historic period Yazoo, Tunica and Koroa tribes. They had migrated from further upriver, thought by archaeologists to be the descendants of Quizquiz and other polities encountered by de Soto in the Memphis area, who were escaping the destruction of their societies left in de Soto's wake. The Tioux and Grigra divisions of the Natchez were recent additions, also Tunica speakers from up the river who had been adopted into the Natchez tribe.
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A map of Bolivia highlighting the location of the Llanos de Moxos. Many types of earthworks have been documented in the Llanos, including monumental mounds, raised fields for agriculture, natural and man-made forest islands, canals and causeways, ring ditches, and fish weirs. There is no evidence that the inhabitants were politically united in pre-Columbian times, but rather they seem to have been organized into a large number of small, independent polities speaking a variety of different, unrelated languages. Archaeological investigations in the Llanos have not been extensive and many questions remain about the cultures of the prehistoric inhabitants.
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However, soon, the Croats became the dominant local power in northern Dalmatia, absorbing Liburnia and expanding their name by conquest and prestige. In the south, while having periods of independence, the Naretines also "merged" with Croats later under control of Croatian Kings. With such expansion, Croatia soon became the dominant power and absorbed other polities between Frankish, Bulgarian and Byzantine empire. Although the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja has been dismissed as an unreliable record, the mentioned "Red Croatia" suggests that Croatian clans and families might have settled as far south as Duklja/Zeta and city of Drač in today's Albania.
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Digital Elevation Model combined with an aerial photograph showing pyramidal architecture of ChunchucmilThe exact size of Chunchucmil is currently being studied using aerial photography, satellite imagery, and survey transects by the Pakbeh Regional Economy Project (who have been working at Chunchucmil since the mid-1990s, under the direction of Dr. Bruce H. Dahlin). Estimates range from 25 km² for the more compact urban settlement to around 64 km² for the city and its adjoining suburbs and farmsteads.Hixson 2005. In either case, this places the site of Chunchucmil among some of the largest and most densely settled ancient Maya polities.
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These included a new stress on detailed genealogies and other continuities between the past and present, a more stringently enforced social hierarchy centered on the divine descent attributed to nobility, the emergence and codification of the concept of a Makassar culture, and the "centralizing of Gowa" by which connections to Gowa became the greatest source of legitimacy for regional Makassar polities. Cummings's arguments have been contested by historians such as Caldwell, who argues that authority derived from the spoken word more than the written and that histories from other Makassar areas reject a Gowa-centered view of legitimacy.
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The "Matajap" of the inscription is believed to be Mukha Upang, a district of Palembang. According to George Coedes, "in the second half of the 9th century Java and Sumatra were united under the rule of a Sailendra reigning in Java...its centre at Palembang." As the capital of the Srivijaya kingdom, this second oldest city in Southeast Asia has been an important trading centre in maritime Southeast Asia for more than a millennium. The kingdom flourished by controlling the international trade through the Strait of Malacca from the seventh to thirteenth century, establishing hegemony over polities in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.
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Gravestone of Cadfan ap Iago, father of Cadwallon ap Cadfan The Battle of Chester would not end the ability of the Welsh to seriously threaten the Anglo-Saxon polities. Among the most powerful of the early kings was Cadwallon ap Cadfan (c. 624 – 634), grandson of Iago ap Beli. He became engaged in an initially disastrous campaign against Northumbria where following a series of epic defeats he was confined first to Anglesey and then just to Puffin Island before being forced into exile across the Irish Sea to Dublin – a place which would come to host many royal refugees from Gwynedd.
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However, the Spanish exploited this fragmentation by taking advantage of pre-existing rivalries between polities. Among Mesoamerican peoples the capture of prisoners was a priority, while to the Spanish such taking of prisoners was a hindrance to outright victory. The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns, or reducciones (also known as congregaciones). Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish.
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Traditions ascribe the founding of the city to Guite family, the then ruling house.Surajit Sinha, Tribal Polities and State Systems in Pre-Colonial Eastern and North Eastern India (Culcutta, India: Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, K .P. Bagchi & Co., 1987), 312 [Sinha also refers to Ciimnuai (Chiimnuai/Chiimnwe/Chinwe) as the first Guite/Vuite village]. Because of long chieftainship of the Guite as such, Goswami explains that the Paite even more prefer to be identified as Guite than as the Paite [cf., M. C. Goswami & H. Kamkhenthang, ‘Clan Among the Paite,’ in Bulletin of the Department of Anthropology, Vol.
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The city of Aït Benhaddou photographed in the evening Beginning in 1549, the region was ruled by successive Arab dynasties known as the Sharifian dynasties, who claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad. The first of these polities was the Saadi dynasty, which ruled Morocco from 1549 to 1659. From 1509 to 1549, the Saadi rulers had control of only the southern areas. While still recognizing the Wattasids as Sultans until 1528, Saadians' growing power led the Wattasids to attack them and, after an indecisive battle, to recognize their rule over southern Morocco through the Treaty of Tadla.
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The Dubats colonial troops and the Zaptié gendarmerie were extensively used by De Vecchi during these military campaigns. However, unlike the southern territories, the northern sultanates were not subject to direct rule due to the earlier treaties they had signed with the Italians. Cavalry and fort of the Sultanate of Hobyo, one of the ruling northern Somali polities in the Campaign of the Sultanates In 1926, the agricultural colony of Villaggio Duca degli Abruzzi comprised 16 villages, with some 3,000 Somali and 200 Italian inhabitants, and was connected by a 114 km new railway to Mogadishu.
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587–625, p. 606. Gebhard, the Prince Elector and Archbishop of Cologne. This declaration of parity between Protestantism and Catholics in an electoral territory contravened the Religious Peace of Augsburg established in 1555. In this document, to which the all the Estates of the Holy Roman Empire agreed, confirmed the co-existence of Lutheranism and Catholicism in select polities were both religious were already established; in all other regions, the principle of Cuius regio, eius religio (loosely translated from Latin as "Whose realm, his religion") confirmed the religion of the reigning sovereign to be the religion of his subjects.
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Goguryeo (; , 37 BC–668 AD), also called Goryeo (; ), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Manchuria. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most of the Korean peninsula, large parts of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East and eastern Mongolia. Along with Baekje and Silla, Goguryeo was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and was also associated with the foreign affairs of neighboring polities in China and Japan.
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Discord had existed for some time between the Castilian-dominated Spanish government and inhabitants of the realms of the Crown of Aragon (which included the Kingdom of Aragon itself, the Kingdom of Valencia, the Kingdom of Majorca, and the Principality of Catalonia). The crowns of Aragon and Castile had been dynastically unified under the same king since 1517, during the reign of King Charles I, grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. However, they remained separate polities with their own laws and institutions. Discontent had boiled over into revolts several times, most notably in the Reapers' War () from 1640-1652\.
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In 1870, the Utah Territory had become one of the first polities to grant women the right to vote—a right which the U.S. Congress revoked in 1887 as part of the Edmunds-Tucker Act. As a result, a number of LDS women became active and vocal proponents of women's rights. Of particular note was the LDS journalist and suffragist Emmeline Blanch Wells, editor of the Woman's Exponent, a Utah feminist newspaper. Wells, who was both a feminist and a polygamist, wrote vocally in favor of a woman's role in the political process and public discourse.
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In the last decade of the 19th century and the first part of the 20th century, integration of Mozambique into the structure of the Portuguese nation was begun. After all of the area of the present province had been recognized by other European powers as belonging to Portugal, administrators waged wars against African polities to assert control over the territory. Civil administration was established throughout the area, the building of an infrastructure was begun, and agreements regarding the transit trade of Mozambique's land-locked neighbours to the west were made. Colonial legislation discriminated against Africans on cultural grounds.
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Trade with the Near East and Europe led to strong mercantile empires growing such as the Ethiopian kingdom of Axum. Various states and polities also developed in West Africa including Ife, the Kingdom of Benin, Igbo Ukwu, Djenné-Djenno, Ghana Empire, Bono State and the Ashanti Empire. Bantu peoples in southern Africa built the impressive site of Great Zimbabwe between the 10th and 15th centuries CE. The north of the continent had close cultural and economic ties with the Classical and medieval Mediterranean. Cattle herding became important in the Horn of Africa and huge earthwork enclosures were built to corral the animals.
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Apart from their cultural functions, these monasteries were major landowners that could control the economy of an adjacent region. In fact, they served as outposts of Moscow influence in the neighboring principalities and republics. Another factor responsible for the expansion of the Grand Duchy of Moscow was its favorable dynastic situation, in which each sovereign was succeeded by his son, while rival principalities were plagued by dynastic strife and splintered into ever-smaller polities. The only lateral branch of the House of Moscow, represented by Vladimir of Serpukhov and his descendants, was firmly anchored to the Moscow Duchy.
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Mata, along with Helena Bonet Rosado and Joan Bernabeu Auban, published early work on the organisation of Iberian polities in the Valencian Community, arguing for hierarchical relationships between oppida in region. Mata and Bonet also published a typology of Iberian fine (class A) and coarse (class B) pottery, which is widely used by Iberian archaeologists. Mata led excavations at the Iberian site of Kelin, on the outskirts of modern Caudete de las Fuentes, and field surveys of the surrounding Requena-Utiel region. The site of Kelin continues to be presented through public education events, particular 'open door' days.
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On the Epirote coast, colonies of southern Greek provenance often spoke different dialects of Greek, but their incorporation into Epirote polities brought linguistic homogenization. Epirote also experienced interaction with other NW Doric varieties, as well as Macedonian, as adstrates. The war with Rome, ending in the Roman conquest of Epirus in 167 BCE, featured large-scale destruction and depopulation of Epirus, especially to the south of the Thyamis River. Further destruction was inflicted by king Mithridates VI's Thracian mercenaries in 88-87 BCE as well as during cases (such as 31 BCE) where Epirus served as a theatre for Roman civil wars.
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Other groups are less well known, and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure; among them were the Chinamita, the Kejache, the Icaiche, the Lakandon Chʼol, the Mopan, the Manche Chʼol and the Yalain. The Yalain appear to have been one of the three dominant polities in Postclassic central Petén, alongside the Itza and the Kowoj. The Yalain territory had its maximum extension from the east shore of Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj in Belize. In the 17th century the Yalain capital was located at the site of that name on the north shore of Lake Macanché.
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By the second quarter of the 17th century, Gowa and Talloq had became the most politically and economically powerful polities in eastern Indonesia. The twin kingdoms' attempt to retain their hegemony brought them to a conflict with the Dutch East India Company (VOC), which wanted to monopolize the spice trade in the Moluccas. In 1660, the Dutch attacked Gowa and managed to seize the fort of Paqnakkukang. Gowa then forced its vassals to provide labor to build military constructions in anticipation of further conflict, which ultimately resulted in a rebellion led by the Boné noble Arung Palakka.
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The museum acquired its collection through many ways, among others were through scientific expeditions, archaeological sites, acquisition of private collections, gifts from distinguished patrons, objects donated by religious missions; such as ethnological artifacts acquired by Christian Zending and Catholic Missions, and also treasures acquired — or looted to be exact — from a number of military expeditions led by Dutch East Indies military throughout the archipelago against indigenous kingdoms and polities. Treasures, among others from Aceh, Lombok and Bali acquired through the military expeditions led by the Dutch colonial government, also made it to the collection of Batavian Society and Leiden Museum.
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The Great Wall of China () is the collective name of a series of fortification systems generally built across the historical northern borders of China to protect and consolidate territories of Chinese states and empires against various nomadic groups of the steppe and their polities. Several walls were being built from as early as the 7th century BC by ancient Chinese states; selective stretches were later joined together by Qin Shi Huang (220–206 BC), the first emperor of China. Little of the Qin wall remains. Later on, many successive dynasties have built and maintained multiple stretches of border walls.
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Rees Davies, "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast", BBC, 1 July 2003 In West Africa, the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the New World, increasing anti- slavery legislation in Europe and America, and the British Royal Navy's increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British West Africa Squadron seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.
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Dedisimedi married Prince Kaikhosro II Jaqeli, a 22-year-old prince-atabag of Samtskhe, in 1545. Kaikhosro's rule over Samtskhe, one of the breakaway states of the Kingdom of Georgia, was marred by incessant Iranian–Ottoman rivalry over the territory, uneasy relations with neighboring Georgian polities, and internecine feuds. Installed through the Ottoman intervention, Kaikhosro ended up his reign, watching the western part of his principality being assimilated by the Ottomans and the eastern moiety—where he preferred to stay—being subjected to Iran. He died while visiting the court of Shah Tahmasp I at Qazvin in 1573.
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Some religious organizations, for example Seventh-day Adventist, Jehovah's Witnesses, The Salvation Army, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, describe their polity as hierarchical. In practice, such polities are similar to an episcopal polity, but often have a much more complex system of governance, with several dimensions of hierarchy. Leaders are not called bishops, and in some cases have secular-like titles such as president or overseer. The term bishop may be used to describe functionaries in minor leadership roles, such as a parish leader; it may also be used as an honorific, particularly within the Holiness movement.
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1, pp. 3–65. Abbé Rouchier conjectured that Caesar, seeing the strategic utility of Helvian territory on the border of the Roman province along a main route into central Gaul, cultivated the Valerii by redressing the punitive measures taken against them by Pompeius. Caesar mentions the land forfeiture in his Bellum Civile, while discreetly omitting any actions taken by his loyal Helvian friends against Rome in the 70s. During the Roman civil wars of the 40s, Massilia chose to maintain its longstanding relationship with Pompeius even in isolation, as the Gallic polities of the Narbonensis continued to support Caesar.
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Slavs settled in the Balkans during the 6th and 7th centuries. According to De Administrando Imperio, there existed three Slavic polities on the territory of modern Montenegro: Duklja, roughly corresponding to the southern half; Travunia, the west; and Principality of Serbia, the north. Duklja emerged as an independent state during the 11th century, initially held by the Vojislavljević dynasty, later to be incorporated into the state of the Nemanjić dynasty. By forming the first country under the rule of Časlav Klonimirović, with the centre in the old town of Ras, all these areas belong to Serbian territory by conquest.
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In the course of the 4th century, the purported branches of this family acquired the crowns of three Caucasian polities: Iberia (Chosroids), Gogarene and Caucasian Albania/Gardman (Mihranids).Toumanoff, Cyril. Introduction to Christian Caucasian History, II: States and Dynasties of the Formative Period. Traditio 17 (1961), p. 38. The much later Samanid dynasty that ruled most of Iran in the 9th and 10th centuries claimed descent from Bahrām ChōbinBritannica, "The Samanids", Their eponym was Sāmān-Khodā, a landlord in the district of Balkh and, according to the dynasty’s claims, a descendant of Bahrām Chūbīn, the Sāsānian general.
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Tondo was a large coastal settlement led by several leaders, called Datu, who had their own followings, called either "Dulohan" or "Barangay". These Datus with their respective Barangays in turn acknowledged the leadership of a datu with the most senior rank - a "paramount ruler" or "paramount datu", who was called a "Lakan". According to San Buenaventura, a large coastal settlement with this kind of leadership structure was called a "Bayan". The equivalent Paramount Datus who led the southern polity of Maynila were referred to using the term "Rajah", and in Mindanao, a similar title in more Islamized polities was that of "Sultan".
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Rice was the staple food of the Tagalog and Kapampangan polities, and its ready availability in Luzon despite variations in annual rainfall was one of the reasons Legaspi wanted to locate his colonial headquarters on Manila bay. Scott's study of early Tagalog lexicons revealed that the Tagalogs had words for at least 22 different varieties of rice. In most other places in the archipelago, rootcrops served as an alternate staple in seasons when rice was not readily available. These were also available in Luzon, but they were desired more as vegetables, rather than as a staple.
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Chueang established the Mueang Ho Kham Chiang Rung ().Aséanie: sciences humaines en Asie du Sud-Est - Numéros 13 à 14 - Page 151 Sūn Manutsayawitthayā Sirinthō̜n (Thailand) - 2004 "Introduction 1. History According to indigenous sources, in the year CS 542 (1180 AD), Cao Phanya Coeng (r. 1180-1192), most probably a Tai aristocrat , came to the Tai Lü region (Daile 3? $J), ascended the "Great Precious Throne" and proclaimed himself the most Dignified Buddhist Ruler of the Golden Palace Kingdom of Chiang Rung" (Jing-long jin-dian guo JS BjH it Wi HI)-2 He conquered various Tai polities in the region .
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Beginning in the sixteenth century, the Holy Roman Empire was organized loosely into ten "circles", or regional groups of ecclesiastical, dynastic, and secular polities that coordinated economic, military and political actions. During times of war, the Circles contributed troops to the Habsburg military by drafting (or soliciting volunteers) among their inhabitants. Some circles coordinated their efforts better than others; the Swabian Circle was among the more effective of the imperial circles at organizing itself and protecting its economic interests. See James Allen Vann, The Swabian Kreis: Institutional Growth in the Holy Roman Empire 1648–1715. Vol.
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Imperial Spheres and the Adriatic: Byzantium, the Carolingians and the Treaty of Aachen (812) Byzantine records, including the "Notitia episcopatuumî", the "Additio patriarchicorum thronorumî" by Neilos Doxopatres, the "Chronica" by Petrus Alexandrinus and the "Notitia patriarchatuum" mention the 9th century Avars as an existing Christian population.OLAJOS, TERÉZ, Az avar továbbélés kérdésérõl , A 9. SZÁZADI AVAR TÖRTÉNELEM GÖRÖG ÉS LATIN NYELVÛ FORRÁSAI, Tiszatáj, 2001, pp. 50–56 The Avars had already been mixing with the more numerous Slavs for generations, and they later came under the rule of external polities, such as the Franks, Bulgaria, and Great Moravia.
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The "Matajap" of the inscription is believed to be Mukha Upang, a district of Palembang. According to George Coedes, "in the second half of the 9th century Java and Sumatra were united under the rule of a Sailendra reigning in Java...its centre at Palembang." As the capital of the Srivijaya kingdom, this second oldest city in Southeast Asia has been an important trading centre in maritime Southeast Asia for more than a millennium. The kingdom flourished by controlling the international trade through the Strait of Malacca from the seventh to thirteenth century, establishing hegemony over polities in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.
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Matilda was born to Henry I, King of England and Duke of Normandy, and his first wife, Matilda of Scotland, possibly around 7 February 1102 at Sutton Courtenay, in Berkshire. Henry was the youngest son of William the Conqueror, who had invaded England in 1066, creating an empire stretching into Wales. The invasion had created an Anglo-Norman elite, many with estates spread across both sides of the English Channel.; These barons typically had close links to the kingdom of France, which was then a loose collection of counties and smaller polities, under only the minimal control of the king.
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The British gave the emir of Zaria increased powers over the Atyab through the village heads that he appointed, and causing increasing resentment. Achi in Achi et al. (2019) described the fabrication of the claims by Zaria about her sovereignty over the Atyap a deliberate distortion of history, as many of the polities portrayed by her as dependents were in reality independent. Accepting these claims, the British in 1912 appealed to the Atyap to acknowledge the emirs of Jema'a and Zaria as their paramount chiefs in a bid to impose colonial rule through those newfound allies.
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The Bronze Age is often held to have begun around 900-800 BCE in Korea, though the transition to the Bronze Age may have begun as far back as 2300 BCE. Bronze daggers, mirrors, jewelry, and weaponry have been found, as well as evidence of walled-town polities. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular pit-houses and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula.Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa Dolmen Sites , UNESCO Contemporaneous records suggest that Gojoseon transitioned from a feudal federation of walled cities into a centralised kingdom at least before the 4th-century BCE.
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The World Sample-30 provides the Seshat project with an initial sample of societies that vary along the dimension of social complexity from ten major regions around the globe. Three natural geographic areas (NGAs) were selected within each region––one NGA was selected in each world region that developed complex state-level societies comparatively early; a second NGA was selected that selected complex societies comparatively late, ideally one free of centralized polities (chiefdoms and states) until the colonial period; a third NGA was selected that was intermediate to these two extremes in terms of social complexity.
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3–65, especially pp. 48–52 on Troucillus (under the name Procillus). Abbé Rouchier conjectured that Caesar, seeing the strategic utility of Helvian territory on the border of the Roman province along a main route into central Gaul, was able to cultivate the Valerii by redressing punitive measures taken against the civitas by Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great") in the 70s. During the secession of Quintus Sertorius in Spain, Celtic polities in Mediterranean Gaul were subjected to troop levies and forced requisitions to support the military efforts of Metellus Pius, Pompeius, and other Roman commanders against the rebels.
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Caracol, located on the Vaca Plateau of western Belize has been studied by Diane and Arlen Chase since the 1980s. They have identified at least 33 individual war events involving Caracol based on the epigraphy of the site. From the Late Classic period starting around A.D. 550 until the Terminal Classic after A.D. 790, Caracol engaged in a series of wars with neighboring polities such as Tikal, Palenque, Naranjo, and Ucanal. In its early wars with Tikal, Caracol was victorious, ceasing the production of inscribed monuments and constricting settlement patterns at Tikal for 120 years while Caracol expanded.
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Somalis in India include naturalized citizens and residents of India who were born in or have ancestors from Somalia. Somalis have a long history of maritime trade and interaction with the peoples of India as well as Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal, having established various commercial settlements, trade stations and partnerships with the Malacca Sultanate and the Kingdom of Cambaya, among other ancient Indian polities. After the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991, some Somalis sought asylum in India. This small community of an estimated 600 people today comprises the bulk of Somali immigrants in the country.
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In the latter part of the 18th century, the Ganja khanate was one of the most economically prosperous polities in the Caucasus, benefiting from the strategic location of its capital on the regional crossroads. For this reason, two politically stronger neighbours, the Kingdom of Georgia and the Karabakh khanate, encroached on the independence of Ganja. From 1780 to 1783, the Ganja khanate was a condominium of Heraclius II of Georgia (represented by Prince Kaikhosro Andronikashvili) and Ibrahim-Khalil khan Javanshir of Karabakh (represented by the vizier, Hadrat Quli Beg). In 1783, Ganja rose up against its Georgian and Karabakh overlords.
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Rice was the staple food of the Tagalog and Kapampangan polities, and its ready availability in Luzon despite variations in annual rainfall was one of the reasons Legaspi wanted to locate his colonial headquarters on Manila bay. Scott's study of early Tagalog lexicons revealed that the Tagalogs had words for at least 22 different varieties of rice. In most other places in the archipelago, rootcrops served as an alternate staple in seasons when rice was not readily available. These were also available in Luzon, but they were desired more as vegetables, rather than as a staple.
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Enugu, the capital city of the old Eastern Region of Nigeria. Following the British parliament's abolition of the slave trade in 1807, the British Royal Navy had opened up trade with coastal towns Bonny and Opobo and further inland on the Niger with Asaba in the 1870s. The palm oil industry, the biggest export, grew large and important to the British who traded here. British arrival and trade led to increased encounters between the Igbo and other polities and ethnic groups around the Niger River and led to a deepening sense of a distinct Igbo ethnic identity.
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Besides the advent of swifter communication among Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country.Chisholm (1981), 122. In the year 6 Augustus established the aerarium militare, donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers.Bunson (1994), 6. One of the most enduring institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome.
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Relations between Kaya and Wa in the third to fourth centuries CE. Journal of East Asian Archaeology 2(3–4), 112–122. SinSin, K.C. (2000). further argues that this was associated with the replacement of the previous elite in some principalities (including Daegaya) by elements from the Buyeo kingdom, who brought a more militaristic ideology and style of rule. The Gaya Confederacy disintegrated under pressure from Goguryeo between 391 CE and 412, although the last Gaya polities remained independent until they were conquered by Silla in 562, as punishment for assisting Baekje in a war against Silla.
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The south Nanzan polity was the smallest, but endured because of good castle positions and sea merchants. In this period another rapid economical, social and cultural development of Ryukyu began as the polities had developed formal trade relations with Japan, Korea and China. During the Satto's reign, Chūzan made tributary relations with China's Ming dynasty in 1374 as the Hongwu Emperor sent envoys in 1372 to Okinawa. In the next two decades Chūzan made nine official missions to the Chinese capital, and the formal relations between them endured until 1872 (see Imperial Chinese missions to Ryukyu Kingdom).
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The Eternity Artifact is a science fiction novel by American writer L. E. Modesitt, Jr., published in 2005. It is set in a future approximately 3,000 years hence, in a galaxy largely colonized by humans but divided into disparate polities who strive against each other in a manner similar to that of modern-day nations. Once such group, the Comity, discovers a planet that may be the first evidence of nonhuman intelligent life. The Comity mounts an expedition to investigate this world, and certain of the other groups attempt to interfere in various ways and for various reasons.
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Each of his three grandchildren was apportioned an entitlement domain in order to exploit forested land, the reefs, and islands. Today, in spite of the loss of the intermarriage to exchange lineages for identifying each tribe, the Kalikoque and Saikle polities still have socio-political dominance over land and sea in New Georgia Island and the lagoon barrier islands. These two systems historically remain the centralization of chiefly power and the composition of the Roviana kinship system. The Roviana kinship system still connects individuals to multiple kin groups in order to allow the advantages of land and sea entitlements.
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In Sumatran front, Majapahit did capture Palembang, Jambi and Dharmasraya, invade Pasai, and it also saw the settlement of Tumasik, that later become Kingdom of Singapura, as its rebellious colony, and thus deal with them accordingly. In later years after the era of Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit has lost their grips on some of their overseas possessions. This led to the thrive and the rise of several polities previously held under Majapahit domination, such as Brunei and Malacca. The rise of Malacca in the 15th century, in particular, is important, because it represents Majapahit eventual failure to control Malacca strait.
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The 2001 Australian GT Production Car Championship was a CAMS sanctioned motor racing title open to production cars.Australian Title Conditions, 2001 CAMS Manual of Motor Sport, page 7–11 It was the sixth Australian GT Production Car Championship to be awarded.Records, Titles and awards, 2006 CAMS Manual of Motor Sport, page 14-10 The Australian championship was won by Queensland driver Brett Peters, driving a Subaru Impreza WRX ran by the Rod Dawson led Peters Motorsport team. Peters took a 28.5 championship victory over fellow Subaru driver Wayne Boatwright with HSV driver Phillip Polities a further 21.5 points back in third.
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Locurile memoriei, round table of the Babeș-Bolyai University's Center for Imagination Studies A major point of contention between Panaitescu and Iorga referred to Michael the Brave's historical achievements: sacrilegious in the eyes of Iorga, Panaitescu placed in doubt Michael's claim to princely descent, and described him as mainly the political agent of boyar interests.Boia (2000), pp. 102–103 Contradicting the Romantic nationalist tradition, Iorga also agreed with younger historians that, for most of their history, Romanians in Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania were more justifiably attached to their polities than to national awakening ideals.Boia (2000), pp.
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2-3 The second reason has to do with social organization. Prior to Ecuadorian or Peruvian colonization and Christian missionization in the 20th century, the principal unit of Jivaroan social organization was the polygynous matrilocal household or cluster of matrilocally-organized households. Notably, although Jivaroans shared the same language and culture, each household or cluster of matrilocally organized households were politically and economically autonomous. Thus, in 1938 Matthew Stirling commented that: He also said that: Prior to colonization and the presence of Christian missionaries, Jivaroan speakers were not organized into any stable and clearly bounded polities or ethnic groups.
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Kampilan – the common weapon of the pre-colonial warrior class. Because of the difficulty of accessing and accurately interpreting the various available sources, relatively few integrative studies of pre-colonial social structures have been done – most studies focus on the specific context of a single settlement or ethnic group. There are only a handful of historiographers and anthropologists who have done integrative studies to examine the commonalities and differences between these polities. In the contemporary era of critical scholarly analysis, the more prominent such works include the studies of anthropologist F. Landa Jocano and historian-historiographer William Henry Scott.
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The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was the campaign undertaken by the Spanish conquistadores against the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities in the Yucatán Peninsula, a vast limestone plain covering south-eastern Mexico, northern Guatemala, and all of Belize. The Spanish conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula was hindered by its politically fragmented state. The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns. Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish.
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3 (1897), p. 96. The darker variant of the Cross of St Alban was officially registered by the Flag Institute as the Flag of Mercia in 2014. The Flag Institute's own rules do not allow an identical flag being recognised for two different polities, and since the Cross of St Alban had already been registered for the City of St Albans, it could not be used for Mercia. Eventually the Institute decided to adopt the darker variant, as this tends to better match actual flags flown to represent Mercia, such as the one on Tamworth Castle.
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The Carnatic Wars were a series of military conflicts in the middle of the 18th century in India. The conflicts involved numerous nominally independent rulers and their vassals, struggles for succession and territory; and included a diplomatic and military struggle between the French East India Company and the British East India Company. They were mainly fought within the territories of Mughal India with the assistance of various fragmented polities loyal to the "Great Moghul". As a result of these military contests, the British East India Company established its dominance among the European trading companies within India.
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The Cham culture is diverse and rich because of the combination of indigenous cultural elements (plains culture, maritime culture, and mountain culture) and foreign cultural features (Indian cultures and religions such as Buddhism; early Han Chinese influences; Islam) (Phan Xuan Bien et al. 1991:376). The blend of indigenous and foreign elements in Cham culture is a result of ecological, social, and historical conditions. The influences of various Indian cultures produced similarities among many groups in Southeast Asia such as the Cham, who traded or communicated with polities on the Indian subcontinent. However, the indigenous elements also allow for cultural distinctions.
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Its largest city was Cahokia, located in present-day Illinois near the Mississippi River. The Native polities of the Mississippian culture fell apart and reformed as new groups such as the Catawba due to a series of destabilizing events know as the "Mississippian shatter zone" as described by anthropologist Robbie Ethridge. The Mississippian shatter zone was an area of great instability, in what is now the American South, caused by the instability of Mississippian chiefdoms, diseases from Europe, the construction of the global capitalistic economy through the trading of Native American slaves, and the emergence of Native "militaristic slaving societies".
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Before the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), the Low Countries was a patchwork of different polities created by the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). The Dutch Republic in the north was independent; the Southern Netherlands was split between the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of LiègeS Marteel, The Intellectual Origins of the Belgian Revolution (2018) p. 23 \- the former being part of Habsburg Monarchy, while both were part of the Holy Roman Empire. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, the War of the First Coalition broke out in 1792 and France was invaded by Prussia and the Holy Roman Empire.
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In 1641, the Dutch invaded Angola and captured Luanda, after an almost bloodless struggle. They immediately sought to renew their alliance with Kongo, which had had a false start in 1624, when Garcia I refused to assist a Dutch attack on Luanda. While relations between Sao Salvador and Luanda were not warm, the two polities had enjoyed an easy peace, due to the former's internal distractions, and the latter's war against the Kingdom of Matamba. The same year of the Portuguese ouster from Luanda, Kongo entered into a formal agreement with the new government, and agreed to provide military assistance as needed.
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The Sunni Revival followed a period of Shia ascendancy, sometimes called the "Shia Century", under the Fatimid dynasty in Africa, Palestine and parts of Arabia; the Hamdanid dynasty in Syria; and the Buyid dynasty in Iraq and Iran. During this period, Shia polities controlled most of the Islamic world, including its core areas. The Abbasid Caliph, the supreme Sunni leader, was under the control of the Buyids, who governed Baghdad, while the Sharif of Mecca was under the authority of the Fatimids. The revival began when the Sunni Seljuk Turks conquered Baghdad from the Buyids in 1055.
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Often taken by surprise, the Georgians failed to build up an effective defence mechanism against Lekianoba largely due to the permanent internal wars and rivalry among the Georgian polities. Furthermore, Dagestani mercenaries were frequently used by rival Georgian kings and princes against each other. In the early 1720s, the Georgian king Vakhtang VI intensified his efforts to counter the Dagestani inroads. In 1722, he decided to join his forces with the Russian tsar Peter I and mobilised a large army to campaign against the Dagestanis and their major ally, the Safavid Empire during the Russo-Persian War (1722-1723).
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The Wari Empire was a second-generation state of the Andean region; both it and Tiwanaku had been preceded by the first-generation Moche state. When expanding to engulf new polities, the Wari Empire practiced a policy of allowing the local leaders of the newly acquired territory to retain control of their area if they agreed to join the Wari empire and obey the Wari. The Wari required mit'a labor (non-reciprocal public labor for the state) of its subjects as a form of tribute. Mit'a laborers were involved in the construction of buildings at the Wari capital and in the provinces.
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At the beginning of the tenth century there were struggles between the followers of the Zaydiyyah brand of Islam and other polities of the Yemeni highlands. The first Zaydi imam al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya temporarily took over San'a in 901 but was later forced to leave the city. In the same period Ibn Haushab and Ali bin al-Fadl al-Jayshani disseminated the creed of the Fatimids among the highland tribes and acquired a great following. The two leaders are usually referred to as Qarmatians although they were actually appointed as da'is (leaders) by the Fatimid ruler.
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The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities, traditionally associated with a number of regional capitals like Taxila,Mortimer Wheeler Flames over Persepolis (London, 1968). Pp. 112 ff. It is unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by Sir John Marshall's excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as "not a Greek city but an Indian one"; not a polis or with a Hippodamian plan.
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Resolving the cross-Strait relationship required both sides to rethink definitions of basic concepts such as sovereignty, "one China" and unification. The two polities of accession resulted in the PRC's Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, the lifting of its martial law on PRC territory, and more recently the enactment of the PRC's Anti-Secession Law towards the ROC. The two sides have no cross-strait military confidence-building measures (CBM) "to improve military-to-military relations in ways that reduce fears of attack and the potential for military miscalculation". Nuclear tensions have risen since the PRC promulgated the Anti-Secession Law.
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From there, they could cross the river at Kehl, which was guarded by 7,000-man inexperienced and lightly trained militia—troops recruited that spring from the Swabian circle polities. In the south, by Basel, Ferino’s column was to move speedily across the river and advanced up the Rhine along the Swiss and German shoreline, toward Lake Constance and spread into the southern end of the Black Forest. Ideally, this would encircle and trap Charles and his army as the left wing of Moreau's army swung behind him, and as Jourdan's force cut off his flank with Wartensleben's autonomous corps.Dodge, p.290.
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The initial excavation and surveys seem to show that politically Pusilhá was a second tier polity. The ceramics evidence showed that there were ties to Copan and Quirigua. It also seems likely that there were connections between Tikal and Caracol as those polities rose to prominence in the Petén. Based in part to the favorable location of Pusilhá along both east and west corridors of trade and the north and south axis of influence that had Caracol to the north and Copan to the south it seemed likely that the polity was politically dependent to one of its larger neighbors.
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Frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca and Guatemala laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica, especially along the Pacific coast. During this formative period distinct religious and symbolic traditions spread, as well as the development of artistic and architectural complexes. In the subsequent Preclassic period, complex urban polities began to develop among the Maya, with the rise of centers such as Aguada fénix and Calakmul in Mexico; El Mirador, and Tikal in Guatemala, and the Zapotec at Monte Albán.
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During its existence, Adal had relations and engaged in trade with other polities in Northeast Africa, the Near East, Europe and South Asia. Many of the historic cities in the Horn of Africa such as Abasa and Berbera flourished under its reign with courtyard houses, mosques, shrines, walled enclosures and cisterns. Adal attained its peak in the 14th century, trading in slaves, ivory and other commodities with Abyssinia and kingdoms in Arabia through its chief port of Zeila. The cities of the empire imported intricately colored glass bracelets and Chinese celadon for palace and home decoration.
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The Mongols destroyed large territories during their invasion of Eastern and Central Europe in 1241 and 1242\. The Mongols' Golden Horde emerged as the dominant power of Eastern Europe, but Béla IV of Hungary's land grant to the Knights Hospitallers in Oltenia and Muntenia shows that the local Vlach rulers were subject to the king's authority in 1247\. Basarab I of Wallachia united the Romanian polities between the southern Carpathians and the Lower Danube in the 1310s. He defeated the Hungarian royal army in the Battle of Posada and secured the independence of Wallachia in 1330\.
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When the Spanish forces of Miguel López de Legazpi first established the City of Manila in 1571, Cainta was one of the surrounding polities who went to Manila to negotiate for friendship with Manila. However, Cainta's envoys noted the small size of Legaspi's forces and decided to withdraw their offer of friendship, since Cainta was a fortified polity which was perfectly capable of defending itself. In August 1571, Legazpi assigned his nephew, Juan de Salcedo, to "pacify" Cainta. After travelling several days upriver, Salcedo lay siege to the city, and eventually found a weak spot on the wall.
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In the early part of the Terminal Classic period, the divine leadership at Xunantunich began to weaken as its polities began to break ritual practices and declare independence. At the same time, many people in the river valley began to move away, meaning less labor was available for Xunantunich to maintain its control and infrastructure. This led to the eventual abandonment of Xunantunich. While many sites collapsed as residents chose to leave, due to the long time residents of Actuncan and the strong community ties, many residents at Actuncan chose to stay and establish their own local government.
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Nikare (also Nikare I) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC), at a time when Egypt was possibly divided between several polities. According to the Egyptologists Kim Ryholt, Jürgen von Beckerath and Darrell Baker he was the ninth king of the Eighth Dynasty.Kim Ryholt: "The Late Old Kingdom in the Turin King-list and the Identity of Nitocris", Zeitschrift für ägyptische, 127, 2000, p. 99Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, , 2008, p.
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From there, they could cross the river at Kehl, which was guarded by 7,000-man inexperienced and lightly trained militia—troops recruited that spring from the Swabian circle polities. In the south, by Basel, Ferino’s column was to move speedily across the river and advanced up the Rhine along the Swiss and German shoreline, toward Lake Constance and spread into the southern end of the Black Forest. Ideally, this would encircle and trap Charles and his army as the left wing of Moreau's army swung behind him, and as Jourdan's force cut off his flank with Wartensleben's autonomous corps.Dodge, p.290.
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The Moro raids were eventually subdued by several major naval expeditions by the Spanish and local forces from 1848 to 1891, including retaliatory bombardment and capture of Moro settlements. By this time, the Spanish had also acquired steam gunboats (vapor), which could easily overtake and destroy the native Moro warships. Aside from the Iranun and Banguingui pirates, other polities were also associated with maritime raiding. The Bugis sailors of South Sulawesi were infamous as pirates who used to range as far west as Singapore and as far north as the Philippines in search of targets for piracy.
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Not all North American polities participate in the NANP. Exceptions include Mexico, Greenland, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the Central American countries and some Caribbean countries (Cuba, Haiti, the French Caribbean and the Dutch Caribbean, except for Sint Maarten, which uses the 721 area code). The only Spanish-speaking state in the system is the Dominican Republic. Mexican participation was planned,AT&T;, Notes on the Network, Section 3, p.8 (1980) but implementation stopped after three area codes (706, 903 and 905) had been assigned, and Mexico opted for an international numbering format, using country code 52.
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The Burney Relief, a likely representation of either Ereshkigal or Ishtar, from the Isin-Larsa or First Babylonian Dynasty; 19th–18th century BC; clay; height: 49.5 cm, width: 37 cm, thickness: 4.8 cm; made in Babylonia; British Museum (London) Investiture of Zimri-Lim, Kingdom of Mari. (18th century BC) The political history of this period of nearly 1000 years is complicated, marked by the rise of Semitic-speaking polities originating in northwestern Mesopotamia. The period includes the Amorites Isin-Larsa Period and the First Babylonian Dynasty or Old Babylonian period (c.1830–1531 BC), an interlude under the rule of the Kassites (c.
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Porcelain production was stimulated as a result of the changing chiefly dynamics among indigenous groups within the Philippines. Porcelain served as symbols of political influence, as they were not only used in ritualized feasts associated with life crises and calendrical events, but also negotiation incentives amongst polities. A study in Tanjay, Negros, Philippines demonstrated that the immense quantity of foreign porcelains in burials and settlements increased significantly from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. Prior to the fifteenth century (and the introduction of the Manila Galleon trade), the high-quality exported porcelain were predominantly limited to high-ranking elites and chiefs.
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On the marginal lands, the more pastoral tribes of Berbers roamed widely to find grazing for their animals. Modern conjecture is that feuding between neighborhood clans at first impeded organized political life among these ancient Berber farmers, so that social coordination did not develop beyond the village level, whose internal harmony could vary.Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1996) at 33-34 (villages and clans), at 135 (semi- pastoral). Tribal authority was strongest among the wandering pastoralists, much weaker among the agricultural villagers, and would later attenuate further with the advent of cities connected to strong commercial networks and foreign polities.
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There is also some archeological evidence to support British origins for the polities of Bernicia and Deira. In what would have been southern Bernicia, in the Cheviot Hills, a hill fort at Yeavering called Yeavering Bell contains evidence that it was an important centre for first the British and later the Anglo-Saxons. The fort is originally pre-Roman, dating back to the Iron Age at around the first century. In addition to signs of Roman occupation, the site contains evidence of timber buildings that pre-date Germanic settlement in the area that are probably signs of British settlement.
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Most recently, she produced a report on the European Neighborhood Policy for the European Parliament. Much of Nicolaïdis' recent work focuses on "European demoi-cracy" and the challenge of building an EU of deep diversity through the mutual recognition of identities, polities, and socio-economic rules. She has published widely on EU institutional and constitutional debates, EU external relations including with Mediterranean countries and the United States, issues of identity, justice and cooperation in the international system, the sources of legitimacy in European and global governance, the relationship between trade and regulation, trade in services as well as preventive diplomacy and dispute resolution.
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Highly sophisticated arts such as stuccowork, architecture, sculptural reliefs, mural painting, pottery, and lapidary developed and spread during the Classic era. In the Maya region, under considerable military influence by Teotihuacan after the "arrival" of Siyaj K'ak' in 378 CE, numerous city states such as Tikal, Uaxactun, Calakmul, Copán, Quirigua, Palenque, Cobá, and Caracol reached their zeniths. Each of these polities was generally independent, although they often formed alliances and sometimes became vassal states of each other. The main conflict during this period was between Tikal and Calakmul, which fought a series of wars over the course of more than half a millennium.
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Four Provinces of Pakistan into one single polity, West Pakistan. The One Unit Scheme () was a geopolitical programme launched by the Government of Pakistan led by the then-Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra on 22 November 1954. The government claimed that the programme would overcome the difficulty of administering the two unequal polities of West and East Pakistan separated from each other by more than a thousand miles. To diminish the differences between the two regions, claimed the government, the 'One Unit' programme merged the four provinces of West Pakistan into a single province to parallel the East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
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Sueno's Stone Located in Forres, in the old kingdom of Fortriu, this gigantic probably post-Pictish monument marks some kind of military triumph At the close of the ninth century various polities occupied Scotland. The Pictish and Gaelic Kingdom of Alba had just been united in the east; the Scandinavian- influenced Kingdom of the Isles emerged in the west. Ragnall ua Ímair was a key figure at this time although the extent to which he ruled territory in western and northern Scotland including the Hebrides and Northern Isles is unknown as contemporary sources are silent on this matter.Woolf (2007) p. 148.
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In their account as reported by the geographer Olfert Dapper, the region where Loango would be constructed was populated by a number of small polities including Mayumba, Kilongo, Piri and Wansi, "each with their own leader" who "made war on each other." He recorded that the founder of Loango, who boasted hailing from the district in Nzari in the small coastal kingdom of Kakongo, itself a vassal of Kongo, triumphed over all his rivals through the skillful use of alliances to defeat those who opposed him, particularly Wansa, Kilongo and Piri, the latter two of which required two wars to subdue.
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However the prowess of the Sudanic infantry (variously known in writings as 'Kushites', 'Ethiopians', 'Nubians', 'Napthans' or 'Meroeites'), still made a distinctive mark in the region, and beyond, especially the archers. Several strong polities arose in the southern Nile Valley after the decline of the pharaonic period, ushering in the eras of Kush, Christian Nubia and other smaller groupings. Besides a process of internal conflict, fighting men from this region were to clash with several major external enemies - the legions of Rome, the armies of Persia, and the forces of Islam. Bowmen were the most important force component.
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The state-autonomy perspective emphasizes on the autonomy of the state officials from the dominant social class. This dominant class includes politicians and military officials, among others, and they sometimes develop interests that are opposing to those interests of the popular will. The state-capacity approach focuses on the material and organizational capacity of the state officials’ political agenda. The political-opportunity approach on the other hand “emphasizes how the apparent tolerance, or responsiveness of states or “polities” influences the ability of mobilized social groups to act collectively and/or to influence state policies” (Goodwin 2001: 38).
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If the experiences following one another in conflict processes are legitimate, they firmly bind actors to claim the universality of their reasoning in accord with the order of worth they refer to. If, however, the agents in conflict refer to different order of worth (e.g. to that of the civic polity and to that of the industrial polity), legitimate tests are not available. But if the agents are nevertheless oriented towards a notion of the common good (which belongs to neither of the conflicting polities), an (albeit fragile) "compromise" may evolve to settle the dispute (chap. 10).
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In the middle of the 6th century BC, the Achaemenid Persian Empire, led by Cyrus the Great, conquered most of the polities that existed at that time across western Anatolia, most notably the Lydian kingdom of Croesus. The consolidation of this area under a single external power from the east affected the indigenous cultures. A ruling Persian elite undoubtedly brought a knowledge of imperial iconography with them from home. These outside ideas combined with local ideas as well as Greek ideas brought from the west, to form a new style used by Anatolians in the decoration of their walls.
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Nkore, from its small base, does not appear to have had expansionist pretensions, or more importantly, capability, until key changes in its military organization. The creation of permanent levies of troops, known as Emitwe, allowed both the conquest of territory such as Mpororo and Buhweju and also the protection of its increasing herds from powerful neighbors to the north. It is important to emphasize that, in their early stages, all these polities were small and vulnerable. In particular, they appear to have been susceptible to succession disputes, which seem to have been the main cause of conflict.
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Nomadic empires, sometimes also called steppe empires, Central or Inner Asian empires, were the empires erected by the bow-wielding, horse-riding, nomadic people in the Eurasian steppe, from classical antiquity (Scythia) to the early modern era (Dzungars). They are the most prominent example of non-sedentary polities. Some nomadic empires consolidated by establishing a capital city inside a conquered sedentary state and then exploiting the existing bureaucrats and commercial resources of that non-nomadic society. In such a scenario, the originally nomadic dynasty may become culturally assimilated to the culture of the occupied nation before it is ultimately overthrown.
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South of Gojjam, across the Abay River, and southwest of Shewa, lay the fertile Gibe region and the gold deposits beyond. Both polities craved control of these resources in order to assert dominance over the rest of Ethiopia. Of the two, the Gojjame had the earlier start and better position: as early as 1810, a large volume of luxury trade passed North through Gojjam (and its major market at Boso) to the coast of the Red Sea, far more than passed east through Shewa to the coast. Negus Bofo of Limmu-Ennarea maintained good relations with the contemporary governor of Gojjam.
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During 1953/4, Wallowitch photographed for the Philadelphia Housing Association which maintained that housing problems and poor polities were intimately related to the City's social conditions and was making a comprehensive longitudinal documentation of poor living conditions and sanitary problems. Wallowitch's contributions represent the nascence of an ongoing subject matter in his work; children, as indicated in the titles of those in the Housing Association of Delaware Valley Records held in Temple University Library, for example, 'Coleman Children: 914 W. Master Street (S.W. Temple Redevelopment Area; Now Demolished) 12 Photos. April, 1954, Girl, Vicinity Of 10th & Master Street.
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In the 8th century BC, Tabal became the most influential of the Neo-Hittite polities, and the Mushki under Mita entered an anti-Assyrian alliance with Tabal and Carchemish. The alliance was soon defeated by Sargon of Assyria, who captured Carchemish and drove back Mita to his own province. Ambaris of Tabal was diplomatically married to an Assyrian princess, and received the province of Hilakku under Assyrian dominion, but in 713 BC, Ambaris was deposed and Tabal became a fully fledged Assyrian province. In 709 BC, the Mushki re-emerged as allies of Assyria, Sargon naming Mita as his friend.
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Iran regained its political unity and was given a new distinct religious identity under the Safavids. Shia became the official state religion and henceforth played an important role in the reconstruction of a new ethno- religious identity for the Iranian people. Furthermore, the rise of the Safavid empire coincided with the rise of the neighbouring Ottoman empire in West Asia and North Africa (and most importantly, for centuries Iran's geo- political as well as ideological arch rival), the Mughal empire in India, and the Uzbek empire in Central Asia, all adhering to Sunni Islam. The formation of these political entities helped create a distinct Iranian-Shia political identity among these polities.
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Nong Bua Lamphu was where the Lao defeated Ayutthaya in 1571, and was the site of a major battle against King Anouvong in 1827 when the city was totally destroyed by Thailand for its symbolic importance. Roi Et on the southern Khorat Plateau was also heavily fortified, and had been founded by the Khmer as a major trading center between the Pao, Mun and Chi Rivers. Trade cities also existed at Loei, and Nong Han Noi on the Song Khram River. The mueang or "city-states" formed independent polities bound to the regional power of the king in a system known as a mandala.
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Other, distinct polities also existed near the Croat duchy. These included the Guduscans (based in Liburnia), the Narentines (around the Cetina and Neretva) and the Sorabi (Serbs) who ruled some other eastern parts of ex-Roman "Dalmatia". Also prominent in the territory of future Croatia was the polity of Prince Liutevid, who ruled the territories between the Drava and Sava rivers ("Pannonia Inferior"), centred from his fort at Sisak. Although Duke Liutevid and his people are commonly seen as a "Pannonian Croats", he is, due to the lack of "evidence that they had a sense of Croat identity" referred to as dux Pannoniae Inferioris, or simply a Slav, by contemporary sources.
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The oldest known records of a political entity in Indochina are attributed to Funan - centered in the Mekong Delta and comprising territories inside modern day Thailand. Chinese annals confirm Funan's existence as early as the 1st century CE, but archaeological documentation implies an extensive human settlement history since the 4th century BCE. The Langkasuka and Tambralinga kingdoms on the Malay peninsula appear in Chinese texts by the fifth century. As well as Funan these polities are characterized as fully developed Indianized kingdoms, which after centuries of trade and socio-economic interaction with India had adopted and incorporated elements of Indian culture, religion, statecraft, administration, epigraphy, literature and architecture.
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Krath society is ruled by a theocracy and, unlike Diaspra, it is not a benevolent theocracy. While the valley has no effective external enemy, (negating the need for a significant field army), the Krath maintain large field armies because their satraps engage in a certain amount of "ritualistic" warfare to settle disputes (complete with laws of wars designed to avoid the massive damage an all-out fight would entail). The Krath consider themselves the center of the universe, with all other polities subject to them with extensive obeisance rituals. The Shesul Pass - A mountain pass that is on one of two roads from Kirsti to Mudh Hemh.
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Historically the border areas have been contested by successive Chinese and Korean polities, though the current border utilising the Yalu-Tumen rivers appears to have been in place by the mid 15th century. The Manchu (Qing) dynasty of China managed to consolidate control of north- east China (Manchuria) and establish a nebulous 'tributary' rule over Joseon Korea. In 1712 the Chinese Emperor Kangxi and Joseon King Sukjong authorised a border mission to analyse the border alignment in the vicinity of the Yalu- Yumen headwaters on Mount Paektu. A pillar was erected indicating the border alignment in this section, and a demilitarised neutral zone set along the frontier.
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A geopolitical map of South Sulawesi around 1590, depicting the division of the peninsula between Gowa-Talloq and the Tellumpocco alliance Boné felt threatened by the continuing rise of Gowa, while two neighboring vassals of Gowa, Soppéng and Wajoq, had also been alienated from their overlord due to its harsh rule. In 1582, Boné, Wajoq, and Soppéng signed the Treaty of Timurung which defined the relationship between the three polities as an alliance of brothers, with Boné considered the eldest brother. This Boné-led alliance, called the Tellumpocco (lit. "Three Powers" or "Three Summits"), sought to regain the autonomy of these Bugis kingdoms and halt Gowa's easward expansionism.
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Gowa was provoked by this alliance and launched a series of offensives to the east (often with the aid of Luwuq, another Bugis polity), beginning with an attack on Wajoq in 1583 which was repulsed by the Tellumpocco. Two subsequent campaigns in 1585 and 1588 against Boné were equally unsuccessful. Meanwhile, the Tellumpocco attempted to forge a pan-Bugis front against Gowa by forming marriage alliances with the Bugis polities of Ajatappareng. Tunijalloq decided to attack Wajoq once more in 1590, but was assassinated by one of his subjects in an amok attack while leading a fleet off the west coast of South Sulawesi.
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Cape Coast Slave Castle, the main British fort in the Gold Coast for the slave trade. Along the Gold Coast, in present- day Ghana, panyarring became a tool used in the slave trade and in the contest between the Dutch, British, and other European powers for trade along the coast. Politically, in the 18th century, that area of Africa was populated by a number of fragmented Akan polities without an organized central power. With the increase of slave trading, panyarring became a means of seizing persons, sometimes regardless of whether there was a pre-existing loan agreement and holding them hostage, selling them into slavery, or simply seizing their goods.
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James of Vitry, 'Historia Hierosolimatana', ed. J. ars, Gesta Dei per Francos, vol I (ii), Hanover, 1611, p. 1083, interprets this as a sign of martyrdom.) but in 1188 red and white crosses were chosen to identify the French and English troops in the "Kings' Crusade" of Philip II of France and Henry II of England, respectively. Together with the Jerusalem Cross, the plain red-on-white became a recognizable symbol of the crusader from about 1190, and in the 13th century it came to be used as a standard or emblem by numerous leaders or polities who wanted to associate themselves with the crusades.
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Condor from about 300 CE. The Moche civilization (alternately, the Mochica culture, Early Chimu, Pre-Chimu, Proto-Chimu, etc.) flourished in northern Peru from about 100 CE to 800 CE, during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of some debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common elite culture, as seen in the rich iconography and monumental architecture that survive today. They are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions (huacas) and irrigation systems.
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This appellation continued to exist for about 1,500 years until 630 BC, as stated in Assyrian chronicles. According to later Hittite documents, Sargon the Great had fought with the Luwian king Nurdaggal of Burushanda, while Sargon's successor Naram-Sin of Akkad had battled Pamba, king of Hatti and 16 other confederates. Both Hattian and Hurrian regions of Anatolia came to be dominated by East Semitic Mesopotamian polities, in the form the Akkadian Empire (2335-2154 BC) and the succeeding Old Assyrian Empire (2025-1750 BC), both of which set up trading colonies called karum in the region. The use of the word "Proto-Hittite" to refer to Hattians is inaccurate.
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In some cases monarchs are dependent on other powers (see vassals, suzerainty, puppet state, hegemony). In the British colonial era indirect rule under a paramount power existed, such as the princely states under the British Raj. In Botswana, South Africa, Ghana and Uganda, the ancient kingdoms and chiefdoms that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional or sectional entities. Furthermore, in Nigeria, though the hundreds of sub- regional polities that exist there are not provided for in the current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation.
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The army acted to implement policy and were not allowed to stop unless they received a command from the emperor or a decree from the senate. Against the tribal polities of Europe, particularly in Hispania, Roman tenacity and material weight eventually wore down most opposition. The tribes of Europe did not have a state or economic structure able to support lengthy campaigns and therefore could often (but not always) be made to change their minds about opposing Roman hegemony. The defeat in the Teutoburg Forest might seem like an exception, but even here, the Romans were back on the warpath 5 years later with major forces against their Germanic opponents.
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The Alignment included corrupted leaders of Solarian Core worlds promoting the destruction of the old order. Mesan puppet masters are revealed to be pulling the strings of corrupt Solarian League bureaucrats and admirals in both the sub-series and the main series. Enormously ambitious, the Alignment plans the overthrow of the Solarian League, and the complete destruction of the Star Kingdom of Manticore, Haven, Beowulf, and all of those polities' historic allies. Disruptive technological advances have been few in the Honorverse for most of the 500 years leading up to the series; as the series opens, that technological stagnation has led to a similar stagnation in both military strategy and tactics.
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A typical Baju melayu assemble, worn together with the songket. Baju Melayu traces its origin to the 15th century Malacca Sultanate, and today is one of the most important symbol of Malay culture. There is significant genetic, linguistic, cultural, and social diversity among modern Malay subgroups, mainly attributed to centuries of migration and assimilation of various ethnic groups and tribes within Southeast Asia. Historically, the Malays are descended from the Malayic- speaking Austronesians, various Austroasiatic tribes, Cham and Funan settlers of ancient polities in coastal areas of Malay peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo; Brunei, Old Kedah, Langkasuka, Gangga Negara, Old Kelantan, Negara Sri Dharmaraja, Malayu and Srivijaya.
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The coming of Islam to Southeast Asia constituted a new era in Malay history. The new religion transformed many aspects of the old Hindu-Buddhist-Animistic cultural practices and beliefs of the people and imbued it with an Islamic worldview. Beginning 12th century, the old polities were soon gradually superseded by Islamic kingdoms across the region. The most important of these was Melaka Sultanate, established around 1400 CE. At the zenith of its power in the 15th century, Melaka exercised its special role not only as a trading centre, but also as the centre of Islamic learning, therefore promoting the development of Malay literary traditions.
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In 17th century Cambodia, a polity renowned for its Buddhism, king Ramathipadi I converted to Islam, took the name Muhammad Ibrahim, married a Malay Muslim of a princely Cham family, had his courtiers wear krisses and used Malay language in correspondence. During the same century in Champa, a once powerful Indianized polity but by that time retreating before the advancing Vietnamese, the rulers held the title Paduka Seri Sultan which is so common in the Malay polities. These rulers were in close contact with the peninsula, in particular Kelantan. French missionaries reported the presence of scribes and religious scholars from Kelantan right into the 19th century.
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A popular destination for the plethora of Afghan mercenaries and warlords who were defeated in Nader's numerous campaigns against the various polities in Afghanistan, were the northern border areas of the Mughal Empire. Nader had sent a number of requests to the local governors and statesman of northern India requesting that these fugitives be captured and handed over to him. In the aftermath of his conquest of Afghanistan Nader was seeking a pretext for invading the Mughal Empire. Naturally he seized upon this opportunity to mask his invasion in the form of a hunt for the Afghan warriors who had found asylum in the rugged terrain of the northern Mughal realm.
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The existence of any meaning of the Mixteca- Puebla art style has also been questioned.Smith 1980 A contrary viewpoint is argued in a 2003 study by Michael E. Smith and Lisa Montiel who compare the archaeological record related to Tula Hidalgo to those of the polities centered in Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan. They conclude that relative to the influence exerted in Mesoamerica by Teotihuacan and Tenochtitlan, Tula's influence on other cultures was negligible and was probably not deserving of being defined as an empire, but more of a kingdom. While Tula does have the urban complexity expected of an imperial capital, its influence and dominance was not very far reaching.
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The first Soviet republics were short-lived communist revolutionary governments that were established in what had been the Russian Empire after the October Revolution and under its influence. These states included some such as the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic which won independence from Russia during the civil war period. Others such as the Ukrainian Soviet Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia later became union republics of the Soviet Union and are now independent states. Still others such as the Kuban Soviet Republic and the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic were absorbed into other polities and no longer formally exist under those names.
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Carolingian Emperor Louis the Pious represented as a Roman soldier holding a Christian cross, with superimposed poem De Laudibus Sanctae Crucis by Rabanus Maurus, 9th century The continuation, succession and revival of the Roman Empire is a running theme of the history of Europe and the Mediterranean region. It reflects the lasting memories of power and prestige associated with the Roman Empire itself. Several polities have claimed immediate continuity with the Roman Empire, using its name or a variation thereof as their own exclusive or non-exclusive self-description. Unsurprisingly, as centuries went by and more political ruptures occurred, the idea of institutional continuity became increasingly debatable.
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In 1991, the Somali Civil War broke out, which saw the collapse of the federal government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the Puntland administration in the northeast and Somaliland, an unrecognised self-declared sovereign state that is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia, in the northwest. Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, Islamic or customary law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A Transitional Federal Government was subsequently created in 2004. The Federal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate.
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Al-Mansur or Abu Ja'far Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Mansur (; ; 95AH – 158 AH (714 AD – 6 October 775 AD))Al-Souyouti, Tarikh Al-Kholafa'a (The History of Caliphs) was the second Abbasid Caliph reigning from 136 AH to 158 AH (754 AD – 775 AD)Stanley Lane-Poole, The Coins of the Eastern Khaleefahs in the British MuseumAxworthy, Michael (2008); A History of Iran; Basic, USA; . See p. 81. and succeeding his brother Abu al-'Abbas al-Saffah. Al-Mansur is generally regarded as the real founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, one of the largest polities in world history, for his role in stabilizing and institutionalizing the dynasty.
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A-gates : (Assembler gates). Nanotechnological arrays that can be used for creating all kinds of objects, goods, and substances very quickly, molecule by molecule, working from a wide series of templates. They are also used by the posthuman populace to create "backups" of themselves, redesign their physical bodies to whatever parameters they wish, long-distance travel between far-flung polities, and for medical purposes, making them, if they wish to be, virtually immortal. Military-grade versions exist which can be used to download polity-inbound traffic, analyse it for threats/contamination, reroute it to a DMZ, and then reassemble it if all is well.
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It was aimed to find new lands for agricultural uses; a "Second colonization", dated to the mid-6th century BC, can be attributed to the as much legendary Ocnus. The latter colonization involved the reorganization of the entire Padanian region in order to increase its utility for the etruscan businesses and trades. During the 6th century BC Etruria experienced significant social, political and economic transformations. The formative process of the city-states had concluded, within these polities the power of the great aristocratic families was matched and then replaced by that of a new social class of men whose wealth was based mainly on trade.
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The plethora of states of the Holy Roman Empire was especially dense on the east bank of the Rhine. In particular, the states involved in late 1796 included, for example, the Breisgau (Habsburg), Offenburg and Rottweil (imperial cities), the princely states of Fürstenberg, Neuenburg, and Hohenzollern, the Duke of Baden, the Duchy of Württemberg, and several dozen ecclesiastic polities. Many of these territories were not contiguous: a village could belong predominantly to one polity, but have a farmstead, a house, or even one or two strips of land that belonged to another polity. The light cream-colored territories are so subdivided they cannot be named.
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The principality often became involved in conflicts with neighboring Chernigov and Vladimir; by the time of the Mongol invasion their relationships were relatively peaceful. Ryazan was first mentioned in a chronicle of 1096 in connection with the move of Prince Oleg I Sviatoslavovich of Chernigov (also known as Oleg Gorislavovich) to Ryazan after he was . The ruling family of Ryazan started with Oleg Gorislavovich's younger brother— of Chernigov, who became Prince of Murom and Ryazan (). As a border principality, Ryazan became one of the first Rus' polities conquered by Batu Khan (a military leader of the Mongol forces) who led a united army of various nomadic steppe peoples.
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New York lawyer Allister Park is inexplicably torn from his normal existence and thrust into a series of parallel universes. Each morning he discovers he has become someone else, in a world changed from his own, initially finding himself in worlds where the American Revolution failed and France won the Napoleonic Wars. Ultimately he finds himself a bishop in the alternate New York City of New Belfast, in Vinland, a North America colonized by descendants of the Vikings and now divided between Norse-derived and native polities. He determines that this new world's differences from his own stem from two divergences in the course of history, relative to his own world.
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The Conference agreed to replace the term Eskimo with the term Inuit. This has not however met with widespread acceptance by some groups, most pre-eminently the Yupik (see Background section below). The principal goals of the ICC are to strengthen unity among Inuit of the circumpolar region; to promote Inuit rights and interests on an international level; to develop and encourage long-term policies that safeguard the Arctic environment; and to seek full and active partnership in the political, economic, and social development of circumpolar regions., or in short: to strengthen ties between Arctic peoples and to promote human, cultural, political and environmental rights and polities at the international level.
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The academic platform that would become Somali studies has its formal origins with religious, linguistic and historical research done by 18th and 19th century Somali scholars, such as Uways al-Barawi and Shaykh Aidarus. However, Somalis since antiquity have exchanged ideas with polities in North Africa, West Asia, South Asia and as far as East Asia. Through early 20th century scholars like Osman Yusuf Kenadid and the polymath Musa Haji Ismail Galal, other disciplines such as anthropology, sociology and archaeology would eventually form part of Somali studies. Kenadid published many works on various subjects related to Somali history and science, including textbooks on the Somali language, astronomy, geography and Somali philosophy.
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The Indian influences in early Philippine polities, particularly the influence of the Srivijaya and Majapahit thassalocracies on cultural development, is a significant area of research for scholars of Philippine, Indonesian, and Southeast Asian history, and is believed to be the source of Hindu and Buddhist elements in early Philippine culture, religion, and language. Because the Indonesian thassalocracies of Srivijaya and Majapahit acquired many of these Hindu and Buddhist elements through Indianization, the introduction of such elements to early Philippine cultures has sometimes been referred to as indianization. In more recent scholarship, it is termed localization, as in, e.g., localization of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs.
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As the Bantu-speaking agriculturists of the Uganda area spread and multiplied over the centuries, they evolved a form of government by clan chiefs. This kinship- organized system was useful for coordinating work projects, settling internal disputes, and carrying out religious observances to clan deities, but it could effectively govern only a limited number of people. Larger polities began to form states by the end of the first millennium CE, some of which would ultimately govern over a million subjects each. More extensive and improved cultivation of bananas and plantains (high-yield crops) by Bantu groups between 300 and 1200 CE helped this process.
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The Battle of Tlatelolco was fought between the two pre-Hispanic altepetls (or city-states) Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco, two independent polities which inhabited the island of Lake Texcoco in the Basin of Mexico. The war was fought between Moquihuix (or Moquihuixtli), the tlatoani (ruler) of Tlatelolco, and Axayacatl, the tlatoani of Tenochtitlan. It was a last-ditch attempt by Moquihuix and his allies to challenge the might of the Tenochca, who had recently cemented their political dominance within the empire. Ultimately the rebellion failed, resulting in the death of Moquihuix who is pictured in the Codex Mendoza tumbling down the Great Temple of Tlatelolca.
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The largest and most advanced polities in the setting are the fifteen "Sephirotic Empires," so named due to their loose correlation with the archetypes of ancient Kabbalistic mysticism. The denizens of these societies are ruled over by god- like, superintelligent artificial intelligences (AIs), called "archailects", the descendants of humanity's early artificial life experimentation. These beings are so powerful that they can utilize spacetime engineering to create new miniature universes, and are completely beyond the comprehension of normal humans. They exist as distributed intelligences in networks of planet-sized computer brains; their subroutines are themselves sentient, making an "archai" an individual and a civilization at the same time.
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This is a list of the next general elections around the world in democratic polities. The general elections listed are for the government of each jurisdiction. These elections determine the Prime Minister and makeup of the legislature in a parliamentary democracy, or the president and then the legislature in a system where separate votes are taken for different tiers of government. In most jurisdictions, general elections are held between every three to five years,In Germany, where there are elections every 4 years, the Federal Constitutional Court has held that five years is the limit that is compatible with living in a democratic society.
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David III Kuropalates (, Davit’ III Kuropalati) or David III the Great (დავით III დიდი, Davit’ III Didi), also known as David II, (c. 930s – 1000/1001) was a Georgian prince of the Bagratid family of Tao, a historic region in the Georgian–Armenian marchlands, from 966 until his murder in 1000 or 1001. Kuropalates was a Byzantine courtier title bestowed upon him in 978 and again in 990. David is best known for his crucial assistance to the Byzantine Macedonian dynasty in the 976–9 civil war and his unique role in the political unification of various Georgian polities as well as his patronage of Christian culture and learning.
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Oyo Empire and surrounding states Monarchies were a common form of government in Yorubaland, but they were not the only approach to government and social organization. The numerous Ijebu city-states to the west of Oyo and the Ẹgba communities, found in the forests below Ọyọ's savanna region, were notable exceptions. These independent polities often elected an Ọba, though real political, legislative, and judicial powers resided with the Ogboni, a council of notable elders. The notion of the divine king was so important to the Yoruba, however, that it has been part of their organization in its various forms from their antiquity to the contemporary era.
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Hayyim Saruq was probably born sometime in the early sixteenth century in or around Thessaloniki or Salonica, Greece. Little has been produced regarding his life until recently as some Jewish historians have taken up the task of writing about his significance during his life.Arbel, 95-96 Hayyim Saruq played an active role between different polities in the Levant as well as Italy and as a merchant helped in the readmission of Jews into Venice. A book by Benjamin Arbel, Trading Nations: Jews and Venetians in the Early Modern Eastern Mediterranean, refers to him in a couple of chapters discussing his significance throughout the region.
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1736 in Annamaboe, the then largest slave-trading port on the Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana). His father, John Corrente, was the head of Annamaboe's government, and chief caboceer (one of the local officials responsible for supplying African slaves to European traders), and an important ally for anyone living or trading in the city. Accordingly, Ansah and his family were of interest to the many European polities competing for access to Annamaboe's abundant trade. After sending Ansah's brother to France, John Corrente sent Ansah to England to gain an education, curry favour with the English, and serve as his eyes and ears in Europe.
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New Delhi: Oxford University Press.) Asoka refers to the peoples of south India – the Chodas, Keralaputras, Pandyas and Satiyaputras.Kulke and Rothermund, p104Keay, p119 These polities, although not part of the Maurya empire, were on friendly terms with Asoka: leftThe earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan, figuring in the Tamil-Brahmi Mangulam inscription (near Madurai) assigned to 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE and belongs ot Jainism. The record documents a gift of rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic. It is assumed that the people found in the Mangulam inscription, Nedunjeliyan, Kadalan, and Izhanchadikan predates rulers such as Talaiyanganam Nedunjelyan and Palyaga-salai Mudukudimi Peruvaludi.
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How long this situation lasted is not clear but oral historical sources and archaeological data soundly indicate that centralized political authority and a new kingship dynasty were re-installed in sections of Benin area during the thirteenth century. The name associated in oral traditions with this period of renewal is Eweka I. Yet, Eweka I's ambition to reunite the polity met with fierce opposition and competing claims. His success was limited as competing polities mushroomed around Benin area. Hence his son or grandson is even credited with establishing another polity known as Ugu in Iyekeorhionmwon, east of Benin and styled himself as Oba n'Ugu or king of Ugu.
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Political map of Okinawa before unification. The Ryukyuan people are indigenous people who live on the Ryukyu Islands, and are ethnically, culturally, and linguistically distinct from Japanese people. During the Sanzan period, Okinawa was divided into the three polities of Hokuzan, Chūzan and Nanzan. In 1429, Chūzan's chieftain Shō Hashi unified them and founded the autonomous Ryukyu Kingdom (1429–1879), with the capital at Shuri Castle. The kingdom continued to have tributary relations with the Ming Dynasty and Qing Dynasty China, a practice that was started by Chūzan in 1372–1374 and lasted until the downfall of the kingdom in the late 19th century.
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Rome, Parthia and Seleucid Empire in 200 BC. Soon both the Romans and the Parthians would invade the Seleucid- held territories, and become the strongest states in western Asia. According to James Howard-Johnston, "from the third century BC to the early seventh century AD, the rival players [in the East] were grand polities with imperial pretensions, which had been able to establish and secure stable territories transcending regional divides".Howard-Johnston (2006), 1 The Romans and Parthians came into contact through their respective conquests of parts of the Seleucid Empire. During the 3rd century BC, the Parthians migrated from the Central Asian steppe into northern Iran.
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Neither is there any just reason for restraining the free circulation of people, ideas, or goods. Mosterín thinks that the nation-state is incompatible with the full development of freedom, whose blossoming requires the reorganization of the world political system along cosmopolitan lines. He proposes a world without sovereign nation-states, territorially organized in small autonomous but not- sovereign cantonal polities, complemented by strong world organizations. He emphasizes the difference between international institutions, led by representatives of the national governments, and world or universal institutions, with clearly defined aims served by directors selected by their personal qualifications, independently of any national bias or proportion.
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Prajñāpāramitā from 13th century Singhasari, East Java, seated in lotus position on a lotus throne performing dharmachakra-mudra. Approximately for more than a millennia, between 5th to 15th centuries, the various Indianised states and empires flourished in the Indonesian archipelago; from the era of Tarumanagara to Majapahit. Though founded possibly by either early Indian settlers or by native polities that adopted Indian culture, and have maintaining diplomatic contacts with India, these archipelagic Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms remained politically independent from the kingdoms of Indian subcontinent. Together with Cambodia and Champa, the Hindu-Buddhist civilization of Java was one of the most beautiful jewel of the Dharmic civilization ever flourished in Southeast Asia.
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Historians widely agree that the larger coastal polities which flourished throughout the Philippine archipelago in the period immediately prior to the arrival of the Spanish colonizers (including Tondo and Maynila) were "organizationally complex", demonstrating both economic specialization and a level of social stratification which would have led to a local demand for "prestige goods". Specialized industries in the Tagalog and Kapampangan regions, including Tondo and Maynila, included agriculture, textile weaving, basketry, metallurgy, hunting, among others. The social stratification which gave birth to the Maginoo class created a demand for prestige products including ceramics, textiles, and precious stones. This demand, in turn, served as the impetus for both internal and external trade.
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San Buenaventura (1613, as cited by Junker, 1990 and Scott, 1994) later noted that Tagalogs only applied the term Hari (King) to foreign monarchs, rather than their own leaders. that had been referred to as the "Kingdom of Luzon" (Portuguese: Luçon, locally called "Lusong"), and whose residents had been called "Luções". However, Kapampangan scholars such as Ian Christopher Alfonso add that it's also possible that while the Portuguese and Spanish chroniclers specifically equated “Luçon” with Rajah Matanda's Maynila polity, the description may have been expansive enough to describe other polities in the Manila bay area, including Tondo as well as the Kapampangans of Hagonoy and Macabebe.
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There were no more serious invasions of the southern polities, and the Zhou were therefore never again able to venture farther south into the middle Yangtze region. Military campaigns against the Dongyi of Shandong stagnated and then ceased altogether. However, despite his “humiliating end”, King Zhao was still sometimes commemorated for his southern campaigns, as he had at least established political dominance over the region to the north of the Yangtze and east of the Han River. The Zhou were also able to rebuild the lost Six Armies of the West during the reign of Zhao’s successor, King Mu, and successfully defended the kingdom against ensuing foreign invasions.
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On one side, the expansion could have had economic causes, as the need for ores was constantly growing in the Zhou empire. In consequence, King Zhao might have wanted to fully secure and exploit the Yangtze mines by conquering them. Since the southern polities were relatively wealthy, the Zhou expansion might also have been motivated by the hope for plunder. Furthermore, ideology might have contributed to the war's outbreak: Perhaps King Zhao desired to recover the southern territories of the fallen Shang dynasty, since the Zhou dynasty saw itself as the latter's legitimate successor and thus entitled to rule all of its former territory.
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Suffren meeting with Hyder Ali in 1782, J.B. Morret engraving, 1789. Various Franco-Indian alliances were formed between France and Indian polities between the 18th century to the ascent of Napoleon. Following the alliances of Dupleix, a formal alliance was formed between by Louis XVI's France during the late 18th century in an attempt to oust Great Britain from the Indian subcontinent. Later, numerous proposals of alliance were made by Tipu Sultan, leading to the dispatch of a French fleet of volunteers to help him, and even motivating an effort by Napoleon to make a junction with India, through the 1798 Campaign of Egypt.
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In the early 1990s Martin was at the forefront of epigraphic research that would challenge some prevailing views on the nature of Maya lowland states and their political interactions during the Mid- to Late- Classic period.Appenzeller (1994, p.733) Archaeologists and epigraphers had generally conceived the Maya lowlands region of this era as a mosaic of dozens of polities or city-states, each controlling only a small surrounding territory and acting more or less independently of the others. These states were engaged in alternating episodes of warfare and alliance with one another, but such interactions had been assessed as primarily local and transient in nature.
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In 900 AD, the lord-minister Jayadewa presented a document of debt forgiveness to Lady Angkatan and her brother Bukah, the children of Namwaran. This is described in the Philippines' oldest known document, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. The Chinese also mention a polity called "Luzon." This is believed to be a reference to Maynila since Portuguese and Spanish accounts from the 1520s explicitly state that "Luçon" and "Maynila" were "one and the same", although some historians argue that since none of these observers actually visited Maynila, "Luçon" may simply have referred to all the Tagalog and Kapampangan polities that rose up on the shores of Manila Bay.
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German Togoland Under German colonial rule, a common governing ethos was that of divide et impera, which sought to exacerbate their various colonial subjects' cultural identities against each other to prevent larger political units from forming against their imperial hegemony. This manifested itself in German Togoland with the pitting of the Ewe peoples against other more allegedly barbaric groups, like the Ashanti, by German Protestant priests from the Norddeutsche Missionsgesellschaft. Under the ethos, these priests translated the Protestant Bible into a standardized Ewe language, and utilized it and the resulting linguistic studies to consolidate a shared Ewe identity based around a common language to loosely unify their disparate polities further.
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"Old Khmer" describes the language as it existed until the 14th century. It was the language of three successive polities in the region, Funan, Chenla and the Khmer Empire (Angkor), which, at its zenith, ruled much of mainland Southeast Asia from the Mekong Delta west to the Andaman Sea and from the Gulf of Thailand north to China. Old Khmer was the language of the ruling Khmers and the language of administration throughout the empire. After the 14th century sack of Angkor by the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom, the Khmer Empire was terminally weakened and steadily lost both its hegemony and prestige in the region.
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The Feast of the Black Nazarene in Quiapo, Manila, which is held at every 9th of January. Roman Catholicism first arrived in Tagalog areas in the Philippines during the 16th century when the Spanish toppled the polities of Tondo and Maynila in the Pasig River. They later on imposed the European religion, and tried to replace the shamanistic belief systems of the natives. By the 18th century, majority of Tagalogs have adhered to Roman Catholicism, however, the shamanistic beliefs and other indigenous belief systems of Tagalogs were passed down secretly by the natives to the younger generations, effectively preserving their beliefs of creatures and supernatural crafts.
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Intermittent wars and fighting occurred throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the Dutch reconstructing their fort at Kupang in 1746. During this period, Dutch control of Timor and surrounding areas was largely limited to their Kupang fort and surroundings. In early 1749, the ruler of Sombai (which was returned to Portuguese influence prior) reallied themselves with the Dutch and settled with their followers near Kupang, causing Gaspar da Costa, leader of the Topasses, to gather an army from both the Topass and the local polities aligned to Portugal. On 18 October 1749, the ruler of Amabi informed the Dutch of a large army assembling.
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After the battle, many of the polities under da Costa would realign with the Dutch. Fighting occurred as the Dutch attempted to take the fortifications one at a time, and as the tide of the battle turned in favor of the Dutch, their Timorese allies joined the fighting. Eventually, with the Topasses trapped in the final fortification, da Costa attempted to flee the battlefield, but was struck down from his horse by an assegai before he went far, and was beheaded. Others who attempted to escape the battle were also pursued and killed, with around 2,000 dead, including many Topass officers and three native rajas.
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Historians widely agree that the larger coastal polities which flourished throughout the Philippine archipelago in the period immediately prior to the arrival of the Spanish colonizers (including Tondo and Maynila) were "organizationally complex", demonstrating both economic specialization and a level of social stratification which would have led to a local demand for "prestige goods". Specialized industries in the Tagalog and Kapampangan regions, including Tondo and Maynila, included agriculture, textile weaving, basketry, metallurgy, hunting, among others. The social stratification which gave birth to the Maginoo class created a demand for prestige products including ceramics, textiles, and precious stones. This demand, in turn, served as the impetus for both internal and external trade.
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On May 19, 1571, Miguel López de Legazpi took formal possession of the Rajahnate of Maynila and its surrounding polities in the name of the Spanish crown. Of the many religious orders that came, it was the Augustinian Order who would figure predominantly in the evangelisation of Pasay. The parish of Pasay was governed from the old Namayan capital, since renamed Santa Ana de Sapa, which was under the jurisdiction of the Franciscans. The promise of space in Heaven prompted early native converts to donate their possessions to the Church, with folklore recounting how a baptized Pasay on her deathbed donated her vast estate to the Augustinians.
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Linton (1928), p. 386 Zebu were kept in large herds in the south and west, but as individual herd members escaped and reproduced, a sizable population of wild zebu established itself in the highlands. Merina oral history tells that highland people were unaware that zebu were edible prior to the reign of King Ralambo (ruled 1575–1612), who is credited with the discovery, although archaeological evidence suggests that zebu were occasionally hunted and consumed in the highlands prior to Ralambo's time. It is more likely that these wild herds were first domesticated and kept in pens during this period, which corresponds with the emergence of complex, structured polities in the highlands.
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Aodh Méith or Áed Méith (died 1230) was a 13th-century king of Tír Eoghain. The son of Aodh an Macaoimh Tóinleasg, Aodh spent much of his career fighting off threats from Fir Manach, Tír Conaill and Galloway, as well as John de Courcy and the Lordship of Ireland. His involvement in Irish Sea politics may have seen him sponsor a Mac Uilleim claim to the Scottish throne, but this is unclear. Latterly the ally of Hugh de Lacy, Earl of Ulster, Aodh secured a stable relationship with the earldom of Ulster and lordship of Ireland, two Anglo-Norman polities that came into existence in Aodh's lifetime.
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The ethos of United Church of Christ organization is considered "covenantal". The structure of UCC organization is a mixture of the congregational and presbyterian polities of its predecessor denominations. With ultimate authority given to the local church, many see United Church of Christ polity as closer to congregationalism; however, with ordination and pastoral oversight of licensed, commissioned and ordained ministers conducted by Associations, and General Synod representation given to Conferences instead of congregational delegates, certain similarities to presbyterian polity are also visible. The UCC's "Covenantal Polity" is best expressed in Article III of the 1999 revision of the Bylaws and Constitution of the United Church of Christ.
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With the failed attempt by the Frankfurt Parliament to include the Habsburgs in a newly unified German Empire, the Parliament turned to Prussia. Seeing Austrian ambivalence towards Prussia taking a more powerful role in German affairs, Frederick William began considering a Prussian-led union. All German states, excluding those of the Habsburgs, would be unified under Hohenzollern authority, and these two polities would be linked in an overarching political framework. Frederick William, therefore, did attempt to establish the Erfurt Union, a union of the German states except for Austria, but abandoned the idea by the Punctation of Olmütz on 29 November 1850, in the face of renewed Austrian and Russian resistance.
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The latter request suggests that the route from the salt mines of the Eastern Carpathians to Moravia was controlled around that time by the Bulgarians.The Annals of Fulda (year 892), p. 124. The anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum, instead of Svatopluk I of Moravia and other rulers known from contemporary sources, writes of personalities and polities that are not mentioned by chroniclers working at the end of the 9th century. For instance, he refers to Menumorut residing in the castle of Bihar (Biharia, Romania), to Zobor "duke of Nitra by the grace of the Duke of the Czechs",Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (ch.
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Somali maritime enterprise took a significant hit after the collapse of the Ajuran Empire. However, other Somali polities such as the Warsangali Sultanate, the Geledi Sultanate, the Majeerteen Sultanate, the Dervish state and the Sultanate of Hobyo ensured its continuity. In the mid-17th century, the Oromo Nation began expanding from its homeland around Lake Abaya in southern Ethiopia towards the southern Somali coast at the time when the Ajuran was at the height of its power.Cerulli, Somalia 1: 65–67 The Garen rulers conducted several military expeditions known as the Gaal Madow wars against the Oromo warriors, converting those that were captured to Islam.
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Historians debate whether Otto von Bismarck—Minister President of Prussia—had a master plan to expand the North German Confederation of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the power of the Kingdom of Prussia. They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck's led a collection of early modern polities to reorganize political, economic, military, and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century. Reaction to Danish and French nationalism provided foci for expressions of German unity. Military successes—especially those of Prussia—in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification.
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Pencak silat tied the art of combat with practices of meditation and spiritual development, adding a new layer to the martial arts aside from merely being used to fight or kill so that it was used consistently throughout Indonesia's history. The wide geographical area in which pencak silat was practiced is naturally reflected in its diversity of techniques and weaponry, some indigenous and some adopted from outside through maritime trade. Chinese communities continued to establish themselves, their native kuntao influencing the local martial arts. Gunpowder technology in cannons and muskets allowed many kingdoms and polities in Indonesia to be conquered and subjugated by European power.
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This Chontal Maya-speaking province extended east of the Usumacinta River in Tabasco, as far as what is now the southern portion of Campeche state, where their capital was located. In the southern portion of the peninsula, a number of polities occupied the Petén Basin. The Kejache occupied a territory to the north of the Itza and east of Acalan, between the Petén lakes and what is now Campeche, and to the west of Chetumal. The Cholan Maya-speaking Lakandon (not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of Chiapas by that name) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning southwestern Petén in Guatemala and eastern Chiapas.
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The southernmost living Vikings lived no further north than Newcastle upon Tyne, and travelled to Britain more from the east than from the north. The northern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula (with the exception of the Norwegian coast) was almost unpopulated by the Norse, because this ecology was inhabited by the Sami, the native people of northern Sweden and large areas of Norway, Finland, and the Kola Peninsula in today's Russia. The Norse Scandinavians established polities and settlements in what are now Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales), Ireland, Iceland, Russia, Belarus, France, Sicily, Belgium, Ukraine, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Germany, Poland, Greenland, Canada, and the Faroe Islands.
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Champa or Tsiompa (Cham: Campa; ) was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across the coast of what is today central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century AD until 1832 when it was annexed by the Vietnamese Empire under Minh Mạng. The kingdom was known variously as nagara Campa (Sanskrit: नगरः चम्पः; ) in the Chamic and Cambodian inscriptions, in Vietnamese (Chiêm Thành in Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary) and (Zhànchéng) in Chinese records. The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the remnants of this former kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages.
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Settlements in modern Guinea and Nigeria's Ondo State failed within a year; those in Cameroon, Namibia, Tanzania and Togo quickly grew into lucrative colonies. Together these four territories constituted Germany's African presence in the age of New Imperialism. They were invaded and largely occupied by the colonial forces of the Allied Powers during World War I, and in 1919 were transferred from German control by the League of Nations and divided between Belgium, France, Portugal, South Africa and the United Kingdom. The six principal colonies of German Africa, along with native kingdoms and polities, were the legal precedents for the modern states of Burundi, Cameroon, Namibia, Rwanda, Tanzania and Togo.
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A new ruler with the Indianized name Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the ambassador Likanhsieh. Likanhsieh shocked the Emperor Zhenzong by presenting a memorial engraved on a gold tablet, some white dragon (Bailong 白龍) camphor, Moluccan cloves, and a South Sea slave at the eve of an important ceremonial state sacrifice.Song Shih Chapter 7 to 8 This display of irreverence sparked interests from China over the polity and the diplomatic relations between the two polities reached its peak during the Yuan dynasty. Chinese records about the polity stopped after the reign of Rajah Siagu, the last independent Rajah of Butuan.
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Although the term Aztecs is often narrowly restricted to the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, it is also broadly used to refer to Nahua polities or peoples of central Mexico in the prehispanic era,e.g. as well as the Spanish colonial era (1521–1821). The definitions of Aztec and Aztecs have long been the topic of scholarly discussion ever since German scientist Alexander von Humboldt established its common usage in the early nineteenth century. Most ethnic groups of central Mexico in the post-classic period shared basic cultural traits of Mesoamerica, and so many of the traits that characterize Aztec culture cannot be said to be exclusive to the Aztecs.
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Cortés allied with city-states opposed to the Mexica, particularly the Nahuatl-speaking Tlaxcalteca as well as other central Mexican polities, including Texcoco, its former ally in the Triple Alliance. After the fall of Tenochtitlan on 13 August 1521 and the capture of the emperor Cuauhtemoc, the Spanish founded Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. From there they proceeded with the process of conquest and incorporation of Mesoamerican peoples into the Spanish Empire. With the destruction of the superstructure of the Aztec Empire in 1521, the Spanish utilized the city- states on which the Aztec Empire had been built, to rule the indigenous populations via their local nobles.
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Each altepetl would see itself as standing in a political contrast to other altepetl polities, and war was waged between altepetl states. In this way Nahuatl speaking Aztecs of one Altepetl would be solidary with speakers of other languages belonging to the same altepetl, but enemies of Nahuatl speakers belonging to other competing altepetl states. In the basin of Mexico, altepetl was composed of subdivisions called calpolli, which served as the main organizational unit for commoners. In Tlaxcala and the Puebla valley, the altepetl was organized into teccalli units headed by a lord (), who would hold sway over a territory and distribute rights to land among the commoners.
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In fact, institutions with flexibility to absorb different polities are crucial to the development and stability of an emerging state. The role of institutions is thus crucial in the implementation of standard practices to ensure cohesive order and rules for interactions. Without this type and scale of human organization, it would have been impossible for societies to emerge from their agrarian roots. Institutions allow for the state to coordinate the actions of its society so as to defend itself, settle disputes within its borders, improve production means, protect the welfare of its people, and thus create the material and cultural developments we appreciate today.
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The title of prince consort for the husband of a reigning queen is rare. Examples are Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, in Scotland; Antoine of Bourbon-Vendôme in Navarre; Francis, Duke of Cádiz, in Spain; and Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in Portugal. Where some title other than that of king is held by the sovereign, his wife is referred to by the feminine equivalent, such as princess consort or empress consort. In monarchies where polygamy has been practiced in the past (such as Morocco and Thailand), or is practiced today (such as the Zulu nation and the various Yoruba polities), the number of wives of the king varies.
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Minor Chinese and sinicized states and polities continued to exist well into the Warring States Era, such as Shu (annexed by Qin in 316 BCE), Zhongshan (annexed by Zhao in 296 BCE), Song (annexed by Qi in 286 BCE), Lu (annexed by Chu in 256 or 249 BCE). These political changes led to changes amongst the ruling families as well: in 481 BCE, the Tian clan usurped the state of Qi in a coup and replaced the ruling Jiang clan. Meanwhile, the state of Jin, which had been controlled by different noble clans for decades, was partitioned between the Han, Zhao and Wei clans in 403 BCE.
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The plethora of states of the Holy Roman Empire was especially dense on the east bank of the Rhine. In particular, the states involved in late 1796 included, for example, the Breisgau (Habsburg), Offenburg and Rottweil (free cities), the territories belonging to the princely families of Fürstenberg and Hohenzollern, the Duchy of Baden, the Duchy of Württemberg, and several dozen ecclesiastic polities. Many of these territories were not contiguous: a village could belong predominantly to one polity, but have a farmstead, a house, or even one or two strips of land that belonged to another polity. The light cream-colored territories are so subdivided they cannot be named.
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Xochicalco, Temple of the Feathered Serpent, 650–900 CE The Late Classic period (beginning c. 600 CE until 909 CE) is characterized as a period of interregional competition and factionalization among the numerous regional polities in the Maya area. This largely resulted from the decrease in Tikal's socio-political and economic power at the beginning of the period. It was therefore during this time that other sites rose to regional prominence and were able to exert greater interregional influence, including Caracol, Copán, Palenque, and Calakmul (which was allied with Caracol and may have assisted in the defeat of Tikal), and Dos Pilas Aguateca and Cancuén in the Petexbatún region of Guatemala.
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The plethora of states of the Holy Roman Empire was especially dense on the east bank of the Rhine. In particular, the states involved in late 1796 included, for example, the Breisgau (Habsburg), Offenburg and Rottweil (free cities), the territories belonging to the princely families of Fürstenberg and Hohenzollern, the Duchy of Baden, the Duchy of Württemberg, and several dozen ecclesiastic polities. Many of these territories were not contiguous: a village could belong predominantly to one polity, but have a farmstead, a house, or even one or two strips of land that belonged to another polity. The light cream-colored territories are so subdivided they cannot be named.
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The Volcae Arecomici were probably first officially recognized, or defined, by Rome as an entity around 75 BC. According to anthropologist Michael Dietler, the Roman colonization of the region, which led to the organization of Nemausus as a colonia Latina in the late 1st century AD, "resulted in the ethnogenesis of the Volcae Arecomici out of a formerly fluid coalition of different polities and ethnic groups". They were indeed part of a political confederation encompassing multiple smaller tribes. In the early first century AD, the Volcae Arecomici were the dominant force of the confederation, ruling over twenty-four subject towns (oppida ignobilia) from their new capital Nemausus.
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There are no Moldovan-representative offices, consulates or embassies in Transnistria. Transnistrian sovereignty is recognised by three polities: Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, and South Ossetia. Transnistria, Abkhazia, and South Ossetia are members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations, an organisation of states in the former USSR which have limited international recognition. Although Russia does not recognise Transnistria as an independent state, it maintains a consulate in Tiraspol (the Transnistrian capital). The Moscow Memorandum of 1997, also known as the Primakov Memorandum, is an agreement signed by Moldovan president Petru Lucinschi and Transnistrian president Igor Smirnov establishing legal and state relations between Moldova and Transnistria.
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The Islamic world was in its Golden Age; still organised in caliphates, it continued to be dominated by the Abbasid Caliphate, with the Caliphate of Córdoba to the west, and experienced ongoing campaigns in Africa and in India. Persia was in a period of instability, with various polities seceding from Abassid rule, among whom the Ghaznavids would emerge as the most powerful. The Islamic world was reaching the peak of its historical scientific achievements. Important scholars and scientists who flourished in AD 1000 include Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), Ibn Yunus (publishes his astronomical treatise Al-Zij al-Hakimi al-Kabir in Cairo in c.
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The importance of competitive feasting in chiefly polities and status competition can be seen through the decrease in quality of porcelain (from more diverse to less diverse vessels), in which large inventories of less attractive porcelain (lower quality) were intended for a growing market of lower social class. Once the Manila Galleon trade was in full effect, the quality in porcelain starts to decrease dramatically, ultimately leading to porcelain tradewares becoming more accessible to lower class communities. The large influx of several competing porcelain producers (of varying quality) from China resulted from the placement of high value on foreign porcelain in Philippine political economies.
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The Battle of Bangkusay (; ), on June 3, 1571, was a naval engagement that marked the last resistance by locals to the Spanish Empire's occupation and colonization of the Pasig River delta, which had been the site of the indigenous polities of Rajahnate of Maynila and Tondo. Tarik Sulayman, the chief of Macabebes, refused to ally with the Spanish and decided to mount an attack at Bangkusay Channel on Spanish forces, led by Miguel López de Legazpi. Sulayman's forces were defeated, and Sulayman himself was killed. The Spanish victory in Bangkusay and Legazpi's alliance with Lakandula of Tondo, enabled the Spaniards to establish themselves throughout the city and its neighboring towns.
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The overall number of the chronicles outside the inscriptions is "modest" due to their destruction in the country's repeated bouts of warfare. Most of the extant material is that of Upper Burmese dynasties, which by the virtue of winning the majority of the wars "possessed an abiding palace and a continuous tradition". The sparseness of the chronicles of Ramanya (Lower Burma), Arakan and Shan states belies the long histories of these former sovereign states, which for centuries were important polities in their own right. Even the Upper Burmese chronicles still have many gaps and lack specificity, especially with regard to pre-Toungoo (pre-16th century) eras.
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Such experiences put paid to the notion (advanced by some Portuguese of the time) that the Africans would be defeated as easily as the Inca or Aztecs by the appearance of horses, guns and cannon. Recruitment, organization and special units. The bulk of the fighting hosts were made of up general purpose levies and volunteers, but most Kongo polities maintained a small core of dedicated soldiers- nucleus of a standing army. Special detachments and commands called lucanzos were also used for various missions, and one such under a commander called Kakula ka Kabasa was defeated by the Portuguese in 1586 when crossing a river.
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Scotland or Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Denmark–Norway all claimed sovereignty over the archipelago of Svalbard in the seventeenth century, but none permanently occupied it. Expeditions from each of these polities visited Svalbard principally during the summer for whaling, with the first two sending a few wintering parties in the 1620s and 1630s. During the 19th century, both Norway and Russia made strong claims to the archipelago. In 1909, Italian jurist Camille Piccioni described Spitzbergen, as it was then known, as terra nullius: The territorial dispute was eventually resolved by the Svalbard Treaty of 9 February 1920 which recognized Norwegian sovereignty over the islands.
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The record in the Caffa register suggests that the two voivodes—Costea and Petru Mușat—had the same position. The division of the medieval principality into two greater administrative units—Țara de Sus ("Upper Country") and Țara de Jos ("Lower Country")—each administered by a high official, the vornic, also implies the former existence of two polities, which were united by the Moldavian monarchs. Petru Mușat paid homage to Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland, in Kraków on 26 September 1387. Upon Peter's request, Anton, the Orthodox Metropolitan of Halych, ordained two bishops for Moldova, one of them being Joseph Mușat, who was related to the voivode.
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The name Campanians, used by the Romans from the 5th century BC, apparently comes from that of Capua, the leading city of the Capuan League, one of the Oscan main polities. It was used to designate both the inhabitants of the city itself and those of the other federated cities. The surrounding territory was known as Ager Campanus. During the Roman imperial age, consequently to the Augustan administrative reorganization of the Italian peninsula, the concept of Campania (the "Land of the Campani") was extended far beyond its original limits up to encompassing a much larger territory enclosed inside the southern part of the Regio I Latium et Campania.
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It is then named as Añjali Mudrā, and endemic to the dharmic culture of Hindu-Buddhist civilization in Indian subcontinent. By early first century, Hindu-Buddhist civilization began to exercises their influences in Indonesia, and by the 4th century early Hindu polities has established their rule in Java, Sumatra and Borneo; such as the kingdom of Tarumanagara and Kutai. By the 6th to 9th century, Hindu-Buddhist civilization stood firmly in Java, Bali and Sumatra, as the kingdom of Srivijaya and Medang Mataram rose. The images of sembah or añjali mudrā appear in bas-reliefs of Javanese candis, such as the 9th-century Borobudur and Prambanan temples.
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The timing of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor enabled Hitler to angle his planned speech to the Reichstag in a more positive fashion, squeezing as much propaganda value out of it as possible. Hitler, in fact, put off the speech - and the declaration of war - for several days, trying to arrive at the proper psychological moment to make the announcement.Kershaw (2000), pp.444-45 Still, the propaganda motive was hardly sufficient to justify declaring war on the US, especially considering that doing so would create an otherwise "unnatural alliance" between two disparate and heretofore antagonistic polities, the United States and the Soviet Union.
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Italian states before the beginning of the Italian Wars in 1494 Italy was the birthplace and heart of the Renaissance during the 1400s and 1500s. The Italian Renaissance marked the transition from the medieval period to the modern age as Europe recovered, economically and culturally, from the crises of the Late Middle Ages and entered the Early Modern Period. The Italian polities were now regional states effectively ruled by Princes, de facto monarchs in control of trade and administration, and their courts became major centres of Arts and Sciences. The Italian princedoms represented a first form of modern states as opposed to feudal monarchies and multinational empires.
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Henry was probably born in England in 1068, in either the summer or the last weeks of the year, possibly in the town of Selby in Yorkshire.; His father was William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy who had invaded England in 1066 to become the king of England, establishing lands stretching into Wales. The invasion had created an Anglo-Norman ruling class, many with estates on both sides of the English Channel.; These Anglo-Norman barons typically had close links to the Kingdom of France, which was then a loose collection of counties and smaller polities, under only the nominal control of the king.
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At about the same time, the Boers began to encroach upon Basotho territory.. After the Cape Colony had been ceded to Britain at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, the voortrekkers ("pioneers") were farmers who opted to leave the former Dutch colony and moved inland where they eventually established independent polities.. At the time of these developments, Moshoeshoe I gained control of the Basotho kingdoms of the southern Highveld. Universally praised as a skilled diplomat and strategist, he was able to wield the disparate refugee groups escaping the Difaqane into a cohesive nation.Becker, P. (1969) Hill of destiny: the life and times of Moshesh, founder of the Basuto. London : Longman.
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View of Puntal dels Llops from inside the fort looking down the central street towards the tower Puntal dels Llops is a small Iberian hilltop fort located near the modern town of Olocau, in Valencia province. It overlies an earlier Bronze Age site. Its original name in Iberian is unknown. It was built in the late fifth or early fourth century BC and destroyed violently around the end of the Second Punic War or in the early second century BC. The site is part of a network of fortified sites that surround the large Iberian town of Edeta (Tossal de Sant Miguel, Llíria) and so is important to understanding the formation and organisation of Iberian polities.
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Tamar was a daughter of Constantine I, Prince of Mukhrani, by her wife Darejan, daughter of Prince Ghuana Abashidze. She was, thus, a brotherly niece of Vakhtang V Shah-Nawaz, King of Kartli in eastern Georgia. Both eyewitnesses, such as the French traveler Jean Chardin, and historians, such as the 18th-century royal Prince Vakhushti, characterize Tamar as being exceptionally beautiful as well as passionate and seductive. Tamar's first marriage was occasioned by a military campaign of her uncle, Vakhtang V, into the western Georgian polities in the course of which, in 1661, he replaced King Bagrat V of Imereti with his own son, Archil, and Vameq III Dadiani, Prince of Mingrelia, with his protégé, Levan III Dadiani.
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Because there are hostile forces in the system who seem to have the spaceport under control, they can't merely send a distress signal. Along the way Roger and his group are forced to make alliances with a succession of local polities (of varied social types) ranging from hunter-gatherers to early gunpowder civilizations. The journey requires the Prince to shed his foppish tendencies and immature behaviors, earning the respect of the Marines who come to see their Prince in a new light. Sergeant Nimashet Despereaux becomes attracted to the Prince, particularly after his more capable and effective potential is revealed, and Roger in turn with her, leading to a romantic tensions in the midst of the long march.
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The Principality of Lower Pannonia (), also known as the Balaton Principality (, ), was an early medieval Slavic polity, situated in Lower Pannonia (central and south-eastern regions of Pannonia), with capital in Blatnograd (modern Zalavár). The polity was a vassal principality of the Frankish Empire, or according to others, a frontier county () of the Eastern Frankish Kingdom. It was initially led by a dux (Pribina) and later by a comes (Kocel, Pribina's son, who was titled as "Count of the Slavs" ().. It was one of the early Slavic polities, that emerged during the early medieval period. It was centered in western regions of modern Hungary, but also included some parts of modern Austria, Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia.
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The region now known as southern New England was home to a complex variety of communities, sometimes grouped into larger polities, which can be divided into at least three basic ecological subregions: the coastal, the riverine and the uplands. Although sharing an underlying cosmology, similar languages, and a long history, the peoples living in each of these regions developed distinctive social and economic adaptations. Although their habitations were relatively mobile, being made of striplings fixed in a circle in the ground with their tops tied by walnut bark (with hole for smoke from central fire inside), covered with mats of reed, hemp and hides, reprinted in and ; in ; Letter of Philaret (John Dunton) to Rev. Samuel Annesley, n.d.
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He emphasises the dynamic the role of historians and artists, showing how they interact with religious reformists and a discontented modernising intelligentsia to form national identities. His second book, Modern Nationalism (Fontana 1994) applies this cultural approach to the analysis of contemporary politics, notably, the relationship of nationalism to the collapse of communism, the religious revival and contentions in multicultural polities. More recently, his Nations as Zones of Conflict (Sage 2005) has sought to combine the focus of ethnosymbolists on the historical embeddedness of nations with the stress of postmodernists on the multiplicity of identities by exploring nations as heterogeneous entities, characterised by persisting conflicts that derive from historic divisions (e.g., civil wars).
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Arms of 1920 The state of Thuringia was created in 1920 by uniting the seven Thuringian polities: Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Saxe-Meiningen, half of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (where Saxe (Gotha) subsequently merged into Thuringia whereas Coburg merged into Bavaria), Saxe-Altenburg, Republic of Reuss (Reuss Elder Line, Reuss Younger Line), Schwarzburg-Sondershausen and Schwarzburg- Rudolstadt. The northern part of today's Thuringia was part of Prussia (Erfurt governorate) and therefore not represented in this coat of arms. Inspired by the American flag (by featuring one star for each of its counties), the shield is gules, seven mullets of six points argent - seven six-pointed stars on a red background. It was used on the state flag of that period.
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Thus, the later kings did not relinquish the titles of the all-Georgian monarchs whose legitimate successors they claimed to be. The idea of all-Georgian unity also dominated history-writing of the early 18th- century Georgian scholar and a member of the royal family, Prince Vakhushti, whose Description of the Kingdom of Georgia (agtsera sameposa sakartvelosa) had a noticeable influence on the latter-day conception of Sakartvelo. Although Georgia was politically divided among competing kingdoms and principalities during Vakhushti's lifetime, the scholar viewed the past and present of these breakaway polities as parts of the history of a single nation. Georgia fell under successive Ottoman, Iranian (Safavid, Afsharids, Qajars), and Russian rule during the 15th to 19th centuries.
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In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the Mongol Empire, swept through the region but were eventually eclipsed by the Turks and the founding of the Ottoman Empire in modern-day Turkey around 1280. North Africa saw the rise of polities formed by the Berbers, such as the Marinid dynasty in Morocco, the Zayyanid dynasty in Algeria, and the Hafsid dynasty in Tunisia. The region will later be called the Barbary Coast and will host pirates and privateers who will use several North African ports for their raids against the coastal towns of several European countries in search of slaves to be sold in North African markets as part of the Barbary slave trade.
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Map of Northern Asia in 1921 The region was first populated by hominins in the Late Pleistocene, approximately 100,000 years ago, and modern humans are confirmed to arrived in the region by 45,000 years ago with the first humans in the region having West Eurasian origins. Its Neolithic culture is characterized by characteristic stone production techniques and the presence of pottery of eastern origin. The Bronze Age began during the 3rd millennium BCE, with influences of Indo-Iranian cultures as evidenced by the Andronovo culture. During the 1st millennium BCE, polities such as the Scythians and Xiongnus emerged in the region, who often clashed with its Persian and Chinese neighbors in the south.
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Taizong set out to solve internal problems within the government which had constantly plagued past dynasties. Building upon the Sui legal code, he issued a new legal code that subsequent Chinese dynasties would model theirs upon, as well as neighboring polities in Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. The earliest law code to survive was the one established in the year 653, which was divided into 500 articles specifying different crimes and penalties ranging from ten blows with a light stick, one hundred blows with a heavy rod, exile, penal servitude, or execution. The legal code distinguished different levels of severity in meted punishments when different members of the social and political hierarchy committed the same crime.
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At its zenith, the massive settlement sprawled across a thousand kilometers wide, dominated in the northern plains of Malay Peninsular. On contemporary account, the area is known as the lost city of Sungai Batu. Founded in 535 BC, it is the oldest testament of civilisation in Southeast Asia and a potential progenitor of the Kedah Tua kingdom. In addition to Sungai Batu, the coastal areas of Malay peninsular also witnessed the development of other subsequent ancient urban settlements and regional polities, driven by a predominantly cosmopolitan agrarian society, thriving skilled craftsmanship, multinational merchants and foreign expatriates. Chinese records noted the names of Akola, P’an P’an, Tun-Sun, Chieh-ch'a, Ch'ih-tu, Pohuang, Lang-ya-xiu among few.
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Menumorut is one of the opponents of the conquering Magyars only mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum. In Romanian historiography, he is considered to be one of the Vlach, or Romanian, dukes whose role in the Gesta proves the existence of Romanian polities in the Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. For instance, historians Ioan-Aurel Pop and Tudor Sălăgean write that Romanians and Slavs (and possibly Avars) inhabited Menumorut's duchy, as well as the Khazars and Székelys whom Anonymus explicitly mentions, because another chapter of the Gesta lists the "Slavs, Bulgarians, Vlachs, and the shepherds of the Romans"Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians (ch. 9.), p. 27.
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Myres, pp. 162–3, 168. Some historians (such as Welbore St Clair Baddeley in 1929) have concluded that the Saxons may have launched a surprise attack and seized the hill fort at Hinton Hill Camp (Dyrham Camp)The Modern Antiquarian because it commanded the Avon Valley, and disrupted communications north and south between Bath and her neighbouring Romano-British towns of Gloucester and Cirencester.The importance given the towns more likely reflects ninth and tenth-century polities, of the time the Chronicle was given its present form, than the de-urbanised sixth century; Simon T. Loseby, "Power and towns in Late Roman Britain and early Anglo-Saxon England" in Gisela Ripoll and Josep M. Gurt, eds.
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The main reason for its failure to survive was the perpetual struggle between the monarch, who wanted a strong unified state, and the Swedish and Danish nobility, which did not.For a somewhat different view see Steinar Imsen, "The Union of Calmar: Northern Great Power or Northern German Outpost?" in Christopher Ocker, ed. Politics and Reformations: Communities, Polities, Nations, and Empires (BRILL, 2007) pp 471–72 Diverging interests (especially the Swedish nobility's dissatisfaction with the dominant role played by Denmark and Holstein) gave rise to a conflict that would hamper the union in several intervals starting in the 1430s. Charles Bonde, for example, was made king of Sweden three times by nationalists there, in 1440, 1464 and 1467.
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In 1963, Aden and much of the Protectorate were joined to form the Federation of South Arabia with the remaining states that declined to join, mainly in Hadhramaut, forming the separate Protectorate of South Arabia. Both of these polities were still tied to Britain with promises of total independence in 1968. Two nationalist groups, the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY) and the National Liberation Front (NLF), began an armed struggle known as the Aden Emergency on 14 October 1963 against British control and, with the temporary closure of the Suez Canal in 1967, the British began to withdraw. One faction, NLF, was invited to the Geneva Talks to sign the independence agreement with the British.
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Initiation iconography similar to that of the Etruscan oinochoë is found on a panel of the Gundestrup Cauldron, generally regarded as presenting Celtic subject matter with a Thracian influence in workmanship.Kim R. McCone, “Werewolves, Cyclopes, Díberga, and Fíanna: Juvenile Delinquency in Early Ireland,” Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies 12 (1986) 1–22; John T. Koch, Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), pp. 908 online and 1489–1490. At least one of the Celtic polities of central Gaul, the Aedui, claimed like the Romans to be of Trojan descent and were formally recognized by the Roman senate as the "brothers" as well as the allies of Rome long before they were incorporated into the empire.
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By 176 BC, domain of the Xiongnu was in size.Claudio Cioffi-Revilla, J. Daniel Rogers, Steven P. Wilcox, & Jai Alterman, "Computing the Steppes: Data Analysis for Agent-Based Modeling of Polities in Inner Asia", Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the Amer. Pol. Sci. Assoc., Boston, Massachusetts, p. 8 August 28–31, (2008) Xiongnu capital (Luut; Dragon) located on the beach Orkhon River, Central Mongolia.G.Sukhbaatar "An ancestor of the Mongols" Between 130 and 121 BC, Chinese armies drove the Xiongnu back across the Great Wall, weakened their hold on Gansu Province as well as on what is now Inner Mongolia, and finally pushed them north of the Gobi into central Mongolia.
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Map of the region of modern-day Belgium at the start of the period. The Austrian Netherlands was not contiguous and was bisected by the independent Prince-Bishopric of Liège In 1789, the area of modern-day Belgium was divided into two independently-governed polities, both part of the Holy Roman Empire. The Austrian Netherlands, which included most of the territory of modern-day Belgium, had been in existence since the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1714 when the Habsburg Monarchy annexed the section called the Spanish Netherlands from the Spanish branch of the house. The traditional principalities, duchies and counties surviving from the Middle Ages retained great regional autonomy.
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While no current archaeological evidence exist describing pre-Hispanic Iloilo, an original work by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro published in 1907 called Maragtas details the alleged accounts of the founding of the various pre- Hispanic polities on Panay Island. The book is based on oral and written accounts available to the author at the time. The author made no claim on the historical accuracy of the accounts.Originally titled Maragtás kon (historia) sg pulô nga Panay kutub sg iya una nga pamuluyö tubtub sg pag-abut sg mga taga Borneo nga amó ang ginhalinan sg mga bisayâ kag sg pag-abut sg mga Katsilâ, According to Maragtas, Madja-as was founded after ten datus fled Borneo and landed on Panay Island.
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The multidimensionality of the imperial claim, together with the unique prestige of the imperial title, explains the recurrence of often intractable conflicts about which polities and rulers could rightfully assume them. These conflicts lost their potency in the course of the Early modern period, however, as improved communications and literacy increasingly undermined any claim of universal supremacy. A letter of Carolingian Emperor Louis II to Byzantine Emperor Basil I, probably drafted in Roman circles close to the Papacy in response to a lost original and surviving in 13th-century copy kept at the Vatican Library, articulates how the debate was framed in its time (ca. 871). The following quotes are from a full translation by scholar Charles West.
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Objects found in two treasure pits are in a style distinct from objects found from further north. This culture is suggested by many archaeologists to be that of the Shu kingdom. There are very few mentions of Shu in the early Chinese historical records until the 4th century BC. Although there are possible references to a "Shu" in Shang Dynasty oracle bones inscriptions that indicate contact between Shu and Shang, it is not clear if the Shu mentioned refer to the kingdom in Sichuan or other different polities elsewhere. Shu was first mentioned in Shujing as one of the allies of King Wu of Zhou who helped defeated the Shang in 1046 BC at the Battle of Muye.
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The Hausa set up rival states nearby, and the ruler of one, Malam Musa, was made the new emir of Daura by the British in 1904, While Fulani emirs reigned and established a rival kingdoms at Daure-Zango (Zango) and at Daure-Baure (Baure). Zango (founded in 1825) was the more prominent Hausa-Daura kingdom, and in 1903–04, after the British and French had divided the three Daura polities, the British installed Zango's king, Malam Musa, as the new emir of Daura. Part of former North-Central state after 1967, the traditional emirate was incorporated into Kaduna state in 1976. It became part of the newly created Katsina state in 1987.
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In a historical sense, statelessness could reasonably be considered to the default human condition that existed universally from the evolution of human species to the emergence of the first human civilizations. Historically in every inhabited region on Earth, prior the emergence of states as polities humans organized into tribal groups. In the absence of written laws, people living in tribal settings were typically expected to adhere to tribal customs and owed allegiance to their tribe and/or tribal leaders. As states began to form, a distinction developed between those who had some form of legal attachment to a more complex polity recognized to be a state in contrast to those who did not.
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According to plan, Jourdan's army feinted toward Mannheim, and Charles repositioned his troops. Once this occurred, Moreau's army turned and executed a forced march south and attacked the bridgehead at Kehl, which was guarded by 7,000 imperial troops—troops recruited that spring from the Swabian Circle polities, inexperienced and untrained—which held the bridgehead for several hours, but then retreated toward Rastatt. Moreau reinforced the bridgehead with his forward guard, and his troops poured into Baden unhindered. In the south, by Basel, Ferino's column moved quickly across the river and advanced up the Rhine along the Swiss and German shoreline toward Lake Constance, spreading into the southern end of the Black Forest.
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Under Tsar Simeon I of Bulgaria (Simeon the Great), who was educated in Constantinople, Bulgaria became again a serious threat to the Byzantine Empire. His aggressive policy was aimed at displacing Byzantium as major partner of the nomadic polities in the area. By subverting the principles of Byzantine diplomacy and political culture, Simeon turned his own kingdom into a society-structuring factor in the nomadic world.Boris Todorov, "The value of empire: tenth-century Bulgaria between Magyars, Pechenegs and Byzantium," Journal of Medieval History (2010) 36#4 pp 312–326 Simeon hoped to take Constantinople and become emperor of both Bulgarians and Greeks, and fought a series of wars with the Byzantines through his long reign (893–927).
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The Concert of Europe began with the 1814-1815 Congress of Vienna, which was designed to bring together the "major powers" of the time in order to stabilize the geopolitics of Europe after the defeat of Napoleon in 1813–1814, and contain France's power after the war following the French Revolution. The Congress of Vienna took place from November 1814 to June 1815 in Vienna, Austria, and brought together representatives from over 200 European polities. The Congress of Vienna created a new international world order which was based on two main ideologies: restoring and safeguarding power balancing in Europe; and collective responsibility for peace and stability in Europe among the "great powers".
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Political division of southern Sulawesi in around 1590 The continued rise of Gowa and its harsh treatment of its Bugis subordinates Wajoq and Soppéng prompted the latter two to sign the Treaty of Timurung, a mutual defense pact initiated by Boné in 1582. The relationship between these three allied Bugis polities, also known as the Tellumpocco ("Three Powers", lit. "Three Peaks"), is defined as that of brothers, with Boné acting as the elder, Wajoq the middle, and Soppéng the younger one. It sought to reclaim the autonomy of these Bugis lands, and to stop Gowa's expansionism. Gowa's subsequent campaigns against Wajoq in 1582 as well as against Boné in 1585 and 1588 were all successfully repulsed by the alliance.
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As a result of Chinese cultural influence, other polities in the Sinosphere—Korea, Vietnam and Japan—also adopted the concept of era name as a result of Chinese cultural influence. Abolished era names may be reused, for example as a means of claiming or denying political legitimacy. An example of this is, that when the Yongle emperor usurped the throne from his nephew he dated the year of his accession as "洪武三十五年", the 35th year of his father, the Hongwu Emperor's reign, i.e. 1402. Hongwu had in fact died in 1398, and the short reign of the Jianwen Emperor, who ruled between 1398 and 1402 was written out of the official record.
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Modern-day digs in the region have found that these walls were situated in the eastern Benin Empire and northern Esanland. Settlements were close to permanent springs on the northern plateau, but never next to intermittent springs. Esanland's culture, language and growth were majorly influenced by the mass exoduses to Esan territory from all adjacent polities Communities on Esanland's southern and eastern fringes (Ewohimi, Ewatto, Ekpon, Amahor) were heavily populated by Igbos and Igalas (into Uroh); from the north came the Emai into Ukhun, Idoa, and Amahor and the Etsako into Irrua); and from the south came the Itsekiri (into Ekpon) and Urhobo (into Ujiogba). The biggest influence on Esanland came from the Benin Empire.
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Stepan is a member of the National Endowment for Democracy's International Forum for Democratic Studies Research Council. He authored and edited a number of books, including Arguing Comparative Politics (Oxford University Press, 2001), Democracy in Multinational Societies: India and Other Polities (co-authored with Juan Linz and Yogendra Yadav; Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post Communist Europe, (with Juan Linz; Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) and Democracies in Danger (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009). In 2002, Stepan was awarded the Order of Rio Branco by the Brazilian government. He has also been awarded the Kalman Silvert Award for his lifetime contribution to Latin American studies.
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In the east of Circassia were two feudal polities, Greater Kabardá and Lesser Kabardá. In the late 1550s, the ruler of one of the Kabardás, Temryuk (or Temriuk), struck a politico-military alliance with Tsar Ivan IV of Russia ("Ivan the Terrible"), for mutual assistance against expansionist attacks by the Persian and Ottoman Empires. In this period of history, the Circassians were Christians; Islam did not begin to penetrate Circassia until the following century.Shenfield 1999:150 In the 1560s Ivan and Temryuk directed forts to be constructed, including Tumnev at the western end of Circassian lands and at Sunzha Ostrog at the mouth of the Sunzha river, at the eastern end of Circassian lands in Kabardia.
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Further to the north, the Érainn's Dál Riata colonised Argyll (eventually founding Alba) and there was a significant Gaelic influence in Northumbria and the MacAngus clan arose to the Pictish kingship by the 8th century. Gaelic Christian missionaries were also active across the Frankish Empire. With the coming of the Viking Age and their slave markets, Irish were also dispersed in this way across the realms under Viking control; as a legacy, in genetic studies, Icelanders exhibit high levels of Gaelic-derived mDNA. Since the fall of Gaelic polities, the Gaels have made their way across parts of the world, successively under the auspices of the Spanish Empire, French Empire, and the British Empire.
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In both Punjab and Bengal Islam was viewed as just one of several methods to seek redress for ordinary problems. These nominal conversions to Islam, brought about by regional Muslim polities, were followed by reforms, especially after the 17th century, in which Muslims integrated with the larger Muslim world. Improved transport services in the nineteenth century brought Muslim masses into contact with Mecca which facilitated reformist movements stressing Quranic literalism and making people aware of the differences between Islamic commands and their actual practices. Islamic reformist movements, such as the Fara'izi, in the nineteenth century rural Bengal aimed to remove indigenous folk practices from Bengali Islam and commit the population exclusively to Allah and Muhammad.
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With the decline and subsequent Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria (from the second half of the 10th century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of the Pechenegs, Turkic peoples who extended their rule west through the 10th and 11th century, until they were defeated around 1091, when the Cumans of southern Ruthenia took control of the lands of Wallachia.Giurescu, pp. 39–40 Beginning with the 10th century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others, Vlachs led by knyazes and voivodes. In 1241, during the Mongol invasion of Europe, Cuman domination was ended—a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested, but it remains probable.
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This tributary relationship was greatly beneficial to the kingdom as the kings received political legitimacy, while the country as a whole gained access to economic, cultural and political opportunities in Southeast Asia without any interference by China in the internal political autonomy of Ryukyu. In addition to Korea (1392), Thailand (1409) and other Southeast Asian polities, the kingdom maintained trade relations with Japan (1403), and during this period a unique political and cultural identity emerged. However, in 1609 the Japanese feudal domain of Satsuma invaded the kingdom on behalf of the first shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu and Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) because the Ryukyu king Shō Nei refused to submit to the shogunate.
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Due to Vietnam's current economic situation, it does not rush to privatization reform. Although privatization is conducive to the development of Vietnamese polities, the grassroots' masses still rely on state-owned enterprises in Vietnam. Privitization suffers from at least three serious shortcomings: a focus on micro-efficiency through regulation at the expense of SOE’s social and public functions; laggard implementation due to misalignments of political incentives; and the shaky equitization process. These three shortcomings hinder the improvement of the country's three aspects: first, the recent reforms have little concern for the social or public functions of state-owned enterprises, but rather focus on allowing state-owned enterprises to perform limited business functions.
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The Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru with its Huacas del Sol y de la Luna from about AD 100 to 800, during the Regional Development Epoch. The people likely had formed into a group of autonomous polities that shared a common elite culture, as seen in the rich iconography and monumental architecture that survive today. They are particularly noted for their elaborately-painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions (huacas) and irrigation systems. Moche history is broadly divided into three periods – the emergence of the Moche culture in the Early Moche (AD 100–300), its expansion and florescence during the Middle Moche (300–600), and the urban nucleation and subsequent collapse in the Late Moche (500–750).
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Nevertheless, the Zhou forces managed to take full control of the area east of the Han River and north of the Yangtze. There, they constructed the stronghold of Lutaishan as political and military base. After these first successes, the Zhou forces launched attacks on other southern polities in order to secure the whole region: An army under Scribe Yü successfully campaigned against Xian, while the Duke of Nan led an assault against the Hufang around 959 BC, and probably was victorious, though this is disputed. These campaigns were well prepared and planned through the construction of forward bases, the use of local allies, such as the states of Fang, Deng and Eh, and diplomatic ventures.
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The French grand plan called for two French armies to press against the flanks of the northern armies in the German states while simultaneously a third army approached Vienna through Italy. Jourdan's army would push southeast from Düsseldorf, intending to draw troops and attention toward themselves, which would allow Moreau's army an easier crossing of the Rhine between Kehl and Hüningen. According to plan, Jourdan’s army feinted toward Mannheim, and Charles quickly reapportioned his troops. Moreau's army attacked the bridgehead at Kehl, which was guarded by 7,000 imperial troops—troops recruited that spring from the Swabian circle polities, inexperienced and untrained—which amazingly held the bridgehead for several hours, but then retreated toward Rastatt.
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Simon Martin is a British epigrapher, historian, writer and Mayanist scholar. He is best known for his contributions to the study and decipherment of the Maya script, the writing system used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilisation of Mesoamerica. As one of the leading epigraphers active in contemporary Mayanist research, Martin has specialised in the study of the political interactions and dynastic histories of Classic-era Maya polities. Since 2003 Martin has held positions at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology where he is currently an Associate Curator and Keeper in the American Section, while teaching select courses as an Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania.
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By the 1300s, a number of the large coastal settlements had emerged as trading centers, and became the focal point of societal changes. The Barangic Phase of history can be noted for its highly mobile nature, with barangays transforming from being settlements and turning into fleets and vice versa, with the wood constantly re-purposed according to the situation. Politics during this era was personality-driven and organization was based on shifting alliances and contested loyalties set in a backdrop of constant inter-polity interactions, both through war and peace. Legendary accounts often mention the interaction of early Philippine polities with the Srivijaya empire, but there is not much archaeological evidence to definitively support such a relationship.
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In ancient Rome, some of the kinds of settlement that were incorporated by synoecism into greater municipal polities were the prefecture (praefectura), a non-autonomous village administered by a prefect; the oppidum, a fortified, autonomous town; the castellum, a small fortified place under or previously under martial jurisdiction; the forum, a marketplace; the conciliabulum, a meeting place; the vicus, a small, private settlement without government; the canabae, a settlement of dependents in the vicinity of a military base; the pagus, a rural village; the gens, a tribal canton; the saltus, a settlement of coloni (farmers) on a large estate, part of which they leased from the conductor (manager); and the colonia, a settlement of colonists from Rome.
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The defeat resulted in the decline of the Topass influence in Timor, and weakened Portuguese power on the island. In the following twelve years, local polities in Timor shifted their allegiances from the Portuguese to the Dutch. In 1769, Portuguese authorities on the island later shifted their headquarters from Lifau in the west to Dili in the east, due to both the Dutch and the Topasses. Dutch historian remarked that though impressions of the battle as a turning point in Timorese history are an "exaggeration", the balance of power in the island shifted dramatically after the battle, and had da Costa achieved victory, Timor and the Solor archipelago might have remained Portuguese.
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Naha became the busiest port on the island at this time, bringing wealth and prestige to Chūzan over its neighboring polities, and enhancing already heightened tensions. The Kings of Sanhoku and Sannan died around the same time as Bunei's father Satto, and since China never recognized more than one chief (or prince, in the Chinese view) of Okinawa, all three clamored to be officially invested by the Chinese Imperial Court as the sole ruler of all of Okinawa. However, due to the recent chaos in Nanking, which was taken by force by Zhu Di, installing himself as Ming Emperor, Bunei's request lay unanswered for eleven years. A missive was finally sent in 1406.
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Aboriginal peoples in Canada are defined in the Constitution Act, 1982 as Indians, Inuit and Métis. Prior to the acquisition of the land by European empires or the Canadian state after 1867, First Nations (Indian), Inuit, and Métis peoples had a wide variety of polities within their countries, from band societies, to tribal chiefdoms, multinational confederacies, to representative democracies (in the case of the Métis-led Legislative Assembly of Assiniboia). These were ignored or suppressed by the Government of Canada (federal government).Wherrett, Section A For the Métis and Inuit, self-government was replaced by integration into the Canadian polity: these people could vote in the standard municipal, provincial, and federal elections as citizens of Canada.
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When Cuauhtemoc was elected tlatoani in 1520, Tenochtitlan had already been rocked by the invasion of the Spanish and their indigenous allies, the death of Moctezuma II, and the death of Moctezuma's brother Cuitlahuac, who succeeded him as ruler, but died of smallpox shortly afterwards. In keeping with traditional practice, the most able candidate among the high noblemen was chosen by vote of the highest noblemen, Cuauhtemoc assumed the rulership.León-Portilla, "Cuauhtemoc", ibid. Although under Cuitlahuac Tenochtitlan began mounting a defense against the invaders, it was increasingly isolated militarily and largely faced the crisis alone, as the numbers of Spanish allies increased with the desertion of many polities previously under its control.
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In the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, Java was divided between multiple polities of which the most prominent was Majapahit. The campaigns of Hayam Wuruk and Gajah Mada ensured that the majority of the island had fallen under Majapahit hegemony by the late fourteenth century, but by the next century its control over the northern coastline was beginning to ebb. The Joseon Veritable Records, a Korean history which is the only source yet known for Chen's life, refers only to "Java" (Korean: ) without naming a specific polity. The polity that patronized the merchant is generally taken to be Majapahit, the independent Javanese state most active in maritime trade during the period.
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Hrushevsky wrote his first academic book, Bar Starostvo: Historical Notes: XV- XVIII, on the history of Bar, Ukraine Hrushevsky, M., Bar Starostvo: Historical Notes: XV-XVIII, St. Volodymyr University Publishing House, Velyka- Vasyl'kivska, Building no. 29-31, Kyiv, Ukraine, 1894; Lviv, Ukraine, , pp. 1 – 623, 1996.. As a historian, he authored the first detailed scholarly synthesis of Ukrainian history, his ten-volume History of Ukraine-Rus, which was published in the Ukrainian language and covered the period from prehistory to the 1660s. In the work, he balanced a commitment to the ordinary Ukrainian people with an appreciation for native Ukrainian political entities, autonomous polities, which steadily increased in the final volumes of his master work.
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Feinman helped to develop full coverage survey methods, which he and colleagues applied to the Valley of Oaxaca to help understand the evolution of the Monte Alban state The particular method developed by Feinman and colleagues Richard Blanton and Stephen Kowalewski influenced a generation of archaeologists and are still widely used today. Feinman continues to employ and refine this method in his ongoing work in the Valley of Oaxaca and Shandong Province, China. Feinman was an early proponent of world-systems theory, and actively applied it to the evolution of Mesoamerican and Southwestern US polities. Although this work was criticized at the time, it was further developed and employed by many scholars.
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The Battle of Nájera, also known as the Battle of Navarrete, was fought on 3 April 1367 near Nájera, in the province of La Rioja, Castile. It was an episode of the first Castilian Civil War which confronted King Peter of Castile with his half-brother Count Henry of Trastámara who aspired to the throne; the war involved Castile in the Hundred Years' War. Castilian naval power, far superior to that of France or England, encouraged the two polities to take sides in the civil war, to gain control over the Castilian fleet. King Peter of Castile was supported by England, Aquitaine, Majorca, Navarra and the best European mercenaries hired by the Black Prince.
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Central America is composed of seven independent nations: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. After the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, most of the inhabitants of Central America shared a similar history. The exception was the Western Caribbean Zone, which included the Caribbean coast and encompassed both semi-independent indigenous polities, runaway slave communities, and settlers, especially British settlers who would eventually form British Honduras (the modern-day nation of Belize), a sparsely populated area that was inhabited by the British through the Treaty of Madrid from Spain. When Spain failed to regain control over British Honduras, the British continued to inhabit the country and eventually colonized it.
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John Smith's 1624 map of the Somers Isles (Bermuda), showing St. George's Town and related fortifications, including the Castle Islands Fortifications with their garrisons of militia infantry and volunteer artillery As successful English settlement of North America began to take place in 1607 in the face of the hostile intentions of the powerful Spanish, and of the native populations, it became immediately necessary to raise militia amongst the settlers. The militia in Jamestown saw constant action against the Powhatan Federation and other native polities. In the Virginia Company's other outpost, Bermuda, fortification began immediately in 1612. A Spanish attack in 1614 was repulsed by two shots fired from the incomplete Castle Islands Fortifications manned by Bermudian Militiamen.
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The practice of headhunting developed the martial skills of some tribes to a high level such as the Dayak, Batak, and Nias people. Warriors from militaristic tribes were appreciated by other factions, and were recruited by developed kingdoms and polities as mercenaries. Traditional war dances were used both to reenact battles and as a form of training, a precursor to the preset forms or jurus of later fighting systems. Displaced Baiyue from present-day China and Vietnam (particularly the Dong Son culture) during the first centuries of the common era introduced bronze-casting to the Nusantara and resulted in the development of native edged weapons such as the parang, klewang, mandau, badik, kujang, golok and kris.
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That was why Lapulapu resisted the attempt of > Magellan to make him acknowledge the lordship of Humabon. The same was true > of the other datus who resisted coercive efforts of the Spaniards to make > them subservient to other Datus." Keifer compares this situation to similarly-structured African polities where "component units of the political structure consist of functionally and structurally equivalent segments integrated only loosely by a centralized authority dependent on the consensual delegation of power upwards (sic) through the system." Junker, expounding further on Keifer's work, notes: > ..."While political leadership followed an explicitly symbolized heirarchy > (sic) of rank [...] this leadership heirarchy (sic) did not (sic) constitute > an institutionalized chain of command from center to periphery.
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The historical strength of various Muslim-led polities – which, unlike other comparable non-Western entities such as China and Japan, were adjacent to "Christian" Europe and/or perceived to be in competition with Western powers – meant that the question of women in Islam has not always been approached objectively by those professing expertise in the subject. This can be viewed as part of the "Orientalist" academic discourse (as defined by Edward Said) that creates a rigid East-West dichotomy in which dynamic and positive values are ascribed to Western civilisation; by contrast, "Oriental" societies (including but certainly not limited to Islamic ones) are depicted as being "stationary" and in need of "modernising" through imperial administrations.
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Modern-day digs in the region have found that these walls were situated in the eastern Benin Empire and northern Esanland. Settlements were close to permanent springs on the northern plateau, but never next to intermittent springs. Esanland’s culture, language and growth were majorly influenced by the mass exoduses to Esan territory from all adjacent polities Communities on Esanland’s southern and eastern fringes (Ewohimi, Ewatto, Ekpon, Amahor) were heavily populated by Igbos and Igalas (into Uroh); from the north came the Emai into Ukhun, Idoa, and Amahor and the Etsako into Irrua); and from the south came the Itsekiri (into Ekpon) and Urhobo (into Ujiogba). The biggest influence on Esanland came from Edo, founders of Benin Empire.
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Based on the belief that particular types of artifacts, elements of personal adornment generally found in a funerary context, are thought to indicate the race and/or ethnicity of the person buried, the "Culture-History" school of archaeology assumed that archaeological cultures represent the ' (homeland) of tribal polities named in historical sources. As a consequence, the shifting extensions of material cultures were interpreted as the expansion of peoples. Influenced by constructionism, process-driven archaeologists rejected the culture-historical doctrine and marginalized the discussion of ethnicity altogether and focused on the intragroup dynamics that generated such material remains. Moreover, they argued that adoption of new cultures could occur through trade or internal political developments rather than only military takeovers.
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No further recorded European contact with the indigenous people in this area occurred for almost 140 years when the first French explorers arrived in the area. By the historic period, power had shifted within the Natchez polity from Emerald Mound to the Grand Village of the Natchez. In the meantime native peoples of the region suffered from epidemics of infectious disease; carried both by the de Soto expedition and indirectly from other Native Americans who had contact with European traders on the Gulf coast. On top of this the intrusion of Europeans had upset the delicate political balance between native groups who had existed in a state of endemic warfare between polities for generations.
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Geburtstag, 2007, pp. 271-277. Malcolm H. Wiener et al. (eds.), Pottery and Society, The Impact of Recent Studies in Minoan Pottery, Gold Medal Colloquium in Honor of Philip P. Betancourt, 104th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America, New Orleans, Louisiana (5 January 2003), 2006. “Pots and Polities”, Pottery and Society, The Impact of Recent Studies in Minoan Pottery, Gold Medal Colloquium in Honor of Philip P. Betancourt, 104th Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America, New Orleans, Louisiana (5 January 2003), 2006, pp. 1-21. “Egypt and Time”, Egypt and the Levant 16, 2006, pp. 325-339. “Chronology Going Forward (With a Query about 1525/4 B.C.)”, Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak, Vol.
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Neferkauhor Khuwihapi was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the Eighth Dynasty during the early First Intermediate Period (2181–2055 BC), at a time when Egypt was possibly divided between several polities. Neferkauhor was the sixteenth and penultimateJürgen von Beckerath: The Date of the End of the Old Kingdom, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21 (1962), p.143 king of the Eighth Dynasty and as such would have ruled over the Memphite region.Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, , available online see p. 68Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, , 2008, p.
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Angkor Wat in Cambodia is the largest Hindu temple in the world It is unknown how immigration, interaction, and settlement took place, whether by key figures from India or through Southeast Asians visiting India who took elements of Indian culture back home. It is likely that Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and princes traveled to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of the Common Era and eventually settled there. Strong impulse most certainly came from the region's ruling classes who invited Brahmans to serve at their courts as priests, astrologers and advisers. Divinity and royalty were closely connected in these polities as Hindu rituals validated the powers of the monarch.
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By freeing cultivators from dependence on unreliable seasonal monsoons, they made possible an early "green revolution" that provided the country with large surpluses of rice. The empire's decline during the 13th and 14th centuries probably was hastened by the deterioration of the irrigation system. Attacks by Thai and other foreign peoples and the internal discord caused by dynastic rivalries diverted human resources from the system's upkeep, and it gradually fell into disrepair. Suryavarman II (1113 - 1150), one of the greatest Angkorian monarchs, expanded his kingdom's territory in a series of successful wars against the kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam and the small Mon polities as far west as the Irrawaddy River of Burma.
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The history of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people in China spans thousands of years. Unlike the histories of European and European-ruled polities in which Christianity formed the core of heavily anti-LGBT laws until recent times, non-heterosexual states of being were historically treated with far less animosity in historic Chinese states. For a period of the modern history of both the Republic of China and People's Republic of China in the 20th century, LGBT people received more stringent legal regulations regarding their orientations, with restrictions being gradually eased by the beginning of the 21st century. However, activism for LGBT rights in both countries has been slow in development due to societal sentiment and government inaction.
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This principle leads to a fundamental contradiction within fascism: the incompatibility of ultimate triumph with perpetual war. #"Contempt for the Weak", which is uncomfortably married to a chauvinistic popular elitism, in which every member of society is superior to outsiders by virtue of belonging to the in-group. Eco sees in these attitudes the root of a deep tension in the fundamentally hierarchical structure of fascist polities, as they encourage leaders to despise their underlings, up to the ultimate Leader who holds the whole country in contempt for having allowed him to overtake it by force. #"Everybody is Educated to Become a Hero", which leads to the embrace of a cult of death.
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Among others are pecel, pindang, rarawwan (rawon), rurujak (rujak), kurupuk (krupuk), sweets like wajik and dodol, also beverages like dawet. In the 15th century Sundanese manuscript Sanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian, it was mentioned the common Sundanese food flavours of that times which includes; lawana (salty), kaduka (hot and spicy), tritka (bitter), amba (sour), kasaya (savoury), and madura (sweet). By the 13th to 15th century, coastal Indonesian polities began to absorb culinary influences from India and the Middle East, as evidence with the adoption of curry-like recipes in the region. This was especially affirmative in the coastal towns of Aceh, Minangkabau lands of West Sumatra, and Malay ports of Sumatra and Malay peninsula.
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Piye's daughter, Shepenupet II, was also appointed Divine Adoratrice of amun. The monarchs of Kush ruled Egypt for over a century until the Assyrian conquest, finally being expelled by the Egyptian Psamtik I in the mid seventh century BC. Following the severing of ties with Egypt, the Kushite imperial capital was located at Meroë, during which time it was known by the Greeks as Aethiopia. The Kingdom of Kush persisted as a major regional power until the fourth century AD, when it weakened and disintegrated from internal rebellion. Meroë was captured and destroyed by the Kingdom of Aksum, marking the end of the kingdom and its dissolution into the three polities of Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia.
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Political map of Ireland The partition of Ireland () was the process by which the Government of the (then) United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland divided the island of Ireland into two separate polities. It took place on 3 May 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The smaller of the two, Northern Ireland, was duly created with a devolved administration and forms part of the United Kingdom today, but the larger one, intended as a home rule jurisdiction to be known as Southern Ireland, failed to gain acceptance. The territory instead became independent and is now a sovereign state also named Ireland and additionally described as the Republic of Ireland.
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Having been rebuffed by Conference, Aitken formed The Christian Society in Liverpool in December 1835; "separating himself from all sects and religious bodies" he became an evangelical revivalist taking some of the Methodist Association leaders and members with him. The Society was based on a merger of Anglican and Methodist polities, and mixed evangelism with tractarianism, preaching "the glorious gospel of Holiness and the New Birth". In 1836 he built Hope Hall in Liverpool as his headquarters; it was here he had his largest following, numbering 1,500 by 1837. His followers were called Aitkenites who responded wildly to his Pentecostal evangelism, and his themes of ancient prophesies and the imminence of Christ's return.
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Among the most notable Muslim kingdoms are the Malacca Sultanate that control the strategic Malacca Strait and the Demak Sultanate that replaced Majapahit as the regional power in Java. Both were also active in spreading Islam in the archipelago, and by the late 15th century, Islam has supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism in Java and Sumatra, and Sulawesi and northern Maluku as well. The Islamic polities in the archipelago formed parts of the more extensive Islamic trading networks that spanned from Al-Andalus in the West to Muslim trading colonies in Chinese ports of the East, as spices from Indonesia like cloves, nutmeg and pepper could reach spice markets in Canton, Damascus and Cairo.
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The Nawabs of Awadh were semi-autonomous rulers within the fragmented polities of Mughal India after the death of Aurangzeb. They fought wars with the Peshwa, the Battle of Bhopal against the Maratha Confederacy which was opposed to the Mughal Empire, and the Battle of Karnal as courtiers of the "Great Moghul". The Nawab of Awadh, along with many other Nawab were regarded as members of the nobility of the greater Mughal Empire. They joined Ahmad Shah Durrani during the Third Battle of Panipat and restored the imperial throne Shah Alam II. The Nawab of Awadh also fought the Battle of Buxar in the aftermath of the Battle of Plassey, preserving the interests of the Moghul.
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Slightest changes in styles, frequently ignored in the works on general history, might be restored only by careful examination of heritage accumulated by the national governments. For instance, it is known that the colloquial use of the term tsar for the All-Russian Emperor in 1721–1917 is strictly incorrect, because in this period the term tsar was used in the sense of monarch only for subsidiary (and partially imaginary) polities (with the exception of Poland, at least from 1815 to 1830). The lack of proper definition for a ruler's style results in a distorted view of political development. The answers are often to be found exclusively in the study of legal documents.
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In early Polynesian history Tongan king Tu'i Tonga Talakaifaiki of the Tu'i Tonga dynasty ruled, around 1250 to 1300, over several western Polynesian polities including Lau group of islands (eastern Fiji), Niue, 'Uvea, Futuna, 'Upolu, and Savai'i). Tu'i Tonga Talakaifaiki established a long-term residence at Safotu, Savai'i, Samoa Journal of the Polynesian Society and installed his brother, Lautivunia, as governor of Western Samoa islands. Samoan lore suggests that Talakaifaiki's reign was one of tyranny and oppression that was highly resented by his Samoan subjects. The seeds of rebellion were planted, according to legend, to the "sons" of Atiogie, namely Savea, Tuna, Fata and Ulumasui (who was actually a grandson of Atiogie).
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Whereas early 20th-century scholars emphasised the thorough Indianisation of Southeast Asia, more recent authors argued that this influence was very limited and affected only a small section of the elite. Sea trade from China to India passed Champa, Funan at the Mekong Delta, proceeded along the coast to the Isthmus of Kra, portaged across the narrow and transhipped for distribution in India. This trading link boosted the development of Funan, its successor Chenla and the Malayan states of Langkasuka on the eastern and Kedah on the western coast. Numerous coastal communities in maritime Southeast Asia adopted Hindu and Buddhist cultural and religious elements from India and developed complex polities ruled by native dynasties.
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The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier Austronesian spice trade networks of Islander Southeast Asians with Sri Lanka and Southern India (established 1000 to 600 BCE), as well as the jade industry trade in lingling-o artifacts from the Philippines in the South China Sea (c. 500 BCE). For most of its history, Austronesian thalassocracies controlled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the polities around the straits of Malacca and Bangka, the Malay peninsula and the Mekong delta; although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being "Indian" due to the Indianization of these regions. Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed them.
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Tea was first introduced to Europe by Italian traveler Giovanni Battista Ramusio, who in 1555 published Voyages and Travels, containing the first European reference to tea, which he calls "Chai Catai"; his accounts were based on second-hand reports in the polities of the Gulf of Aden; Yemen and Somalia. Portuguese priests and merchants in the 16th century made their first contact with tea in China, at which time it was termed chá. The first Portuguese ships reached China in 1516, and in 1560 Portuguese missionary Gaspar da Cruz published the first Portuguese account of Chinese tea; in 1565 Portuguese missionary Louis Almeida published the first European account of tea in Japan.
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The Persian Expedition of Catherine the Great, alongside the Persian Expedition of Peter the Great, was one of the Russo-Persian Wars of the 18th century which did not entail any lasting consequences for either belligerent. The last decades of the 18th century were marked by continual strife between rival claimants to the Peacock Throne. Catherine the Great of Russia took advantage of the disorder to consolidate her control over the weak polities of the Caucasus, which was, for swaths of it, an integral Persian domain. The kingdom of Georgia, a subject of the Persians for many centuries, became a Russian protectorate in 1783, when Erekle II signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, whereby the Empress promised to defend him in case of the Iranian attack.
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Other settlers marched further west, into the territories of the present-day Mexican states of Zacatecas and Nayarit, where they established new cities and polities like Hueyxallan in 610 and Xalisco in 618.Agraz G.A.G. (1958) Jalisco y sus hombres: compendio de geografía, historia y biografía jaliscienses The dynastic history of the Toltecs was recorded by several pre-Columbian and Colonial sources, although there are contradictions in most of them. Some sources say that a man named Huemac,Adams, R.E.W.(2005) Prehistoric Mesoamerica. University of Oklahoma Press was the leader of the Toltecs when they arrive into Man-he-mi, while others begin the list of Toltec rulers, or tlatoani, with Chalchiutlanetzin, with Mixcoamatzatzin, or even with Cē Ācatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl.
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Throughout the Middle Ages and the early modern era prior to its independence in the 19th century, the region corresponding to modern Romania was divided between several different polities. During the Middle Ages the Orthodox Church held extensive power in the Dobruja (controlled by the Second Bulgarian Empire before becoming briefly independent in the 14th century) as well as the independent principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, whereas the Kingdom of Hungary which controlled Banat, Crişana, Maramureş and Transylvania was controlled by a Catholic aristocracy that considered Eastern Orthodoxy to be heretical. The Ottoman Empire annexed Dobruja in the 14th century, and forced Wallachia and Moldavia to become its tributaries in the 15th. Muslim Nogai Tatars settled in Dobruja, and local gypsy tribes converted to Islam as well.
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The western Caribbean zone is a region consisting of the Caribbean coasts of Central America and Colombia, from the Yucatán Peninsula in southern Mexico to the Caribbean region in northern Colombia, and the islands west of Jamaica are also included. The zone emerged in the late sixteenth century as the Spanish failed to completely conquer many sections of the coast, and northern European powers supported opposition to Spain, sometimes through alliances with local powers. Unsubdued indigenous inhabitants of the region included some Maya polities, and other chiefdoms and egalitarian societies, especially in Belize, eastern Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In addition, the region was the refuge of several groups of runaway slaves, who formed independent settlements or intermixed with the indigenous societies.
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The Western Roman Empire fell under the domination of Germanic tribes in the 5th century, and these polities gradually developed into a number of warring states, all associated in one way or another with the Catholic Church. The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, continued as what came to be called the Byzantine Empire. Centuries later, a limited unity would be restored to western Europe through the establishment in 962 of a revived "Roman Empire", later called the Holy Roman Empire, comprising a number of states in what is now Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Belgium, Italy, and parts of France. In China, dynasties would rise and fall, but, by sharp contrast to the Mediterranean-European world, dynastic unity would be restored.
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Its collapse brought about political fragmention that ended with the rise of the Toungoo Empire in the 16th century. Other notable kingdoms of the period include the Srivijayan Empire and the Lavo Kingdom (both coming into prominence in the 7th century), the Champa and the Hariphunchai (both about 750), the Đại Việt (968), Lan Na (13th century), Majapahit (1293), Lan Xang (1354), and the Kingdom of Ava (1364). This period saw the spread of Islam to present-day Indonesia (beginning in the 13th century) and the emergence of the Malay states, including the Malacca Sultanate and the Bruneian Empire. In the Philippines, several polities arose during this period, including the Rajahnate of Maynila, the Rajahnate of Cebu, the Rajahnate of Butuan.
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Ila Yara was the original kingdom founded about the 12th century by Ajagun-nla (meaning "mighty warrior or great warrior"), also nicknamed "Orangun", a legendary grandson of Oduduwa. The kingdom split into two after Orangun Apakiimo was installed (as the 6th Orangun) towards the end of the 15th century. A young prince Arutu, who lost the contest for the Orangun throne, led a rebellion and exodus of his supporters, and founded the Ila, Nigeria kingdom further northward (near the Isedo kingdom of Obalumo, while Orangun Apakiimo soon evacuated Ila Yara to found the Oke-Ila kingdom further eastward (after attracting other polities including a segment of the Isedo kingdom). Both kings of the Oke-Ila and Ila kingdoms are titled "Orangun".
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The third factor is city, whose effect upon ethnic identification 'requires examination of a host of factors ranging from the impact of town planning to the unifying of centrifugal effects of various legal codes, especially the Lübeck and Magdeburg law. The fourth factor is imperial polities' role, whose central question is "how could the intense consciousness of loyalty and identity established through face-to-face contact in the city-state transferred to the larger agglomerations of cities and countryside known as empires"? The Mesopotamian myth of the polity as a reflection of heavenly rule, being called mythomoteur by Armstrong, is exemplified as "myth transference for political purposes" since it was used as vehicle for incorporating city-state loyalties in a larger framework. The last factor is language.
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See the Dying Gaul for an example. The Gallic opposition was also composed of a large number of different peoples and tribes, geographically ranging from the mountains of Switzerland to the lowlands of France and thus are not easy to categorize. The term "Gaul" has also been used interchangeably to describe Celtic peoples farther afield in Britain adding even more to the diversity of peoples lumped together under this name. From a military standpoint, however, they seem to have shared certain general characteristics: tribal polities with a relatively small and lesser elaborated state structure, light weaponry, fairly unsophisticated tactics and organization, a high degree of mobility, and inability to sustain combat power in their field forces over a lengthy period.
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Khazars were the allies of the Byzantines until the reign of Romanus I Lecapenus, who persecuted the Jews of his empire. The conflict may also have been spurred by the Khazars' decision to close passage down the Volga in response to the raid of 943. In the Khazar Correspondence, written around 950–960, the Khazar ruler Joseph reported his role as defender of the Muslim polities of the Caspian region against Rus' incursions: "I have to wage war with them [Rus], for if I would give them any chance at all they would lay waste the whole land of the Muslims as far as Baghdad.""Khazar". Encyclopaedia of Islam Earlier conflict between Muslim elements of the Khazar army and Rus' marauders in c.
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The ruling stratum, like that of the later Činggisids within the Golden Horde, was a relatively small group that differed ethnically and linguistically from its subject peoples, meaning the Alano-As and Oğuric Turkic tribes, who were numerically superior within Khazaria. The Khazar Qağans, while taking wives and concubines from the subject populations, were protected by a Khwârazmian guard corps, or comitatus, called the Ursiyya. But unlike many other local polities, they hired soldiers (mercenaries) (the junûd murtazîqa in al-Mas'ûdî). At the peak of their empire, the Khazars ran a centralised fiscal administration, with a standing army of some 7–12,000 men, which could, at need, be multiplied two or three times that number by inducting reserves from their nobles' retinues.
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The missionaries had originated from several countries and regions, initially from the South Asia such as Gujarat and other Southeast Asia such as Champa,Negeri Champa, Jejak Wali Songo di Vietnam. detik travel. Retrieved 3 October 2017. and later from the southern Arabian Peninsula such as the Hadhramaut. In the 13th century, Islamic polities began to emerge on the northern coast of Sumatra. Marco Polo, on his way home from China in 1292, reported at least one Muslim town. The first evidence of a Muslim dynasty is the gravestone, dated AH 696 (AD 1297), of Sultan Malik al Saleh, the first Muslim ruler of Samudera Pasai Sultanate. By the end of the 13th century, Islam had been established in Northern Sumatra.
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The disintegration, or parcelling of the polity of Kievan Rus' in the 11th century resulted in considerable population shifts and a political, social, and economic regrouping. The resultant effect of these forces coalescing was the marked emergence of new peoples. While these processes began long before the fall of Kiev, its fall expedited these gradual developments into a significant linguistic and ethnic differentiation among the Rus' people into Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians. All of this was emphasized by the subsequent polities these groups migrated into: southwestern and western Rus', where the Ruthenian and later Ukrainian and Belarusian identities developed, was subject to Lithuanian and later Polish influence; whereas the Russian ethnic identity developed in the Muscovite northeast and the Novgorodian north.
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Pyramid C at Tula, Hidalgo Some archaeologists, such as Richard Diehl, argue for the existence of a Toltec archaeological horizon characterized by certain stylistic traits associated with Tula, Hidalgo and extending to other cultures and polities in Mesoamerica. Traits associated with this horizon are: Mixtec- Puebla style of iconography, Tohil plumbate ceramic ware and Silho or X-Fine Orange Ware ceramics.Diehl 1993 The presence of stylistic traits associated with Tula in Chichén Itzá is also taken as evidence for a Toltec horizon. Especially the nature of interaction between Tula and Chichén Itzá has been controversial with scholars arguing for either military conquest of Chichén Itzá by Toltecs, Chichén Itzá establishing Tula as a colony or only loose connections between the two.
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Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho, a Bantu-speaking people: an estimated 99.7 percent of the people identify as Basotho. In this regard, Lesotho is part of a handful of sub-Saharan African countries that are nation states with a single dominant cultural ethnic group and language; majority of sub-Saharan African nations' borders were drawn by colonial powers and do not correspond to ethnic boundaries or pre-colonial polities. Basotho subgroups include the Bafokeng (totems: phoka (dew), 'mutla (hare)), Batloung (totem: tlou (elephant)), Baphuthi (totem: phuthi), Bakuena (totem: kuena (crocodile)), Bataung (totem: tau (lion)), Batšoeneng (totem: tšoene), and Matebele. The main language, Sesotho, is also the first official and administrative language, and it is what Basotho speak on an ordinary basis.
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The theory also has a strong orientalist bent, regarding all Asian states as generally the same while finding reasons for European polities not fitting the pattern.Frederick W. Mote, "The Growth of Chinese Despotism: A Critique of Wittfogel's Theory of Oriental Despotism as Applied to China," Oriens Extremus 8.1 (1961): 1–41. While Wittfogel's theories were not popular among Marxist historians in China, the economist Chi Ch'ao-ting used them in his influential 1936 book, Key Economic Areas in Chinese History, as Revealed in the Development of Public Works for Water- Control. The book identified key areas of grain production which, when controlled by a strong political power, permitted that power to dominate the rest of the country and enforce periods of stability.
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Aukh in the upper right (Russian: Окоцкая земля) is an Old Russian term used by the Russian Tsardom to denote a Chechen feudal state, which they encountered in the 16th century. Okotsk was one of the biggest and most influential states in the North Caucasus, and had a rivalry with the other polities of Dagestan, particularly the Kumyk controlled Shamkalate of Tarki. It distinguished itself by being in opposition to Persian, Ottoman and Crimean hegemony over the North Caucasus, allying itself with the Russian Tsardom instead. The Knyaz Shikh Okotsky commanded at some point a host of 500 Cossacks and 500 Chechens (Aukhovites), although the 500 Aukhovites were part of a larger immobilized Chechen force of 1000 infantry and 100 mounted cavalry.
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Other territories of the former Empire were not conquered by the Latin crusaders, and remained held by various holdovers of the former ("Greek") Empire. Several of the polities emerging from that fragmentation claimed to be the rightful successor of the prior Empire, on various motives: the Latin Empire held the Imperial capital; the rulers of the Empire of Trebizond stemmed from the formerly Imperial Komnenos family; those of the Despotate of Epirus (briefly the Empire of Thessalonica) were from the Angelos family, even though they renounced the imperial claim by accepting Nicaean overlordship in 1248; the Empire of Nicaea successfully claimed the patriarchate in 1206, and eventually prevailed through skillful management of alliances and its recapture of Constantinople in 1261.
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A protection racket is a scheme where a potentially hazardous group guarantees protection from violence, looting, raiding, piracy, and other such threats posed by them outside the sanction of the law, to polities, businesses, individuals, or other entities and groups that pay to them in cash or kind. In other words, it is a racket that sells security, traditionally physical security but now also computer security. Through the credible threat of violence, the racketeers deter people from swindling, robbing, injuring, sabotaging or otherwise harming their clients. Protection rackets tend to appear in markets in which the police and judiciary cannot be counted on to provide legal protection, because of incompetence (as in weak or failed states) or illegality (black markets).
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Senger und Etterlin was born on June 8, 1923 in Tübingen, Germany, into a family rich in military tradition, with over 250 years of service to various German polities. His father, Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin, who served as a Wehrmacht officer throughout the Second World War, reached the rank of General der Panzertruppe ("General of Armored Troops"), and began his own highly decorated military service before the First World War in service with the Reichswehr."Some of the troops held at Special Camp 11: General der Panzertruppe Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin" British website about Island Farm Prisoner of War Camp. Retrieved July 4, 2010 His mother, Hilda Margarethe von Kracht, was the daughter of Prussian general Ernst Alexander von Kracht.
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Ur-Nammu was acknowledged by the priesthood at Nippur and crowned as sovereign of the two lands surrounding Nippur "to right and left". The fourth king of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Amar-Sin (r. 2046–2038 BC), was the first ruler to introduce the title šarru dannu ("mighty king"), replacing the earlier epithet dannum. When the Third Dynasty of Ur collapsed and its vassals once again became independent polities, the former vassal cities often only implicitly renounced their allegiance to Ur. Since the ruler of Ur was deified and thus technically a god, ruling titles like šar ("king") were applied to the principal deities of the cities. As a result, formerly subordinate titles such as šakkanakki and Išši’ak (both translating to "governor") became sovereign ruling titles.
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Northern and Southern Vietnam was a fluid concept that changed constantly during the course of history. During the Lê–Mạc wars (1541–92), Vietnam was partitioned with the Mạc dynasty holding the Red River Delta and Lê dynasty controlling the Central Region from Nghệ An to Bình Định while Champa and the Khmers still held their polities further south. During the Trịnh–Nguyễn War (1627–73), the country was partitioned between two ruling Lords with the border being the Gianh River in Quảng Bình Province. The North, called Đàng Ngoài (Outer Realm) was ruled by the Trịnh Lords and Nguyễn lords in the South, called Đàng Trong (Inner Realm) or Quảng Nam Quốc, with Lê emperors still nominally acting as head of state.
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Another artifact often presented as physical evidence of early Indonesian and Indian influence in the Philippines is the 10th century Laguna Copperplate Inscription (LCI), found in 1989 and deciphered in 1992 by Dutch anthropologist Antoon Postma, and famous as the earliest known written document found in the Philippines. The (LCI) was written in a variety of the Old Malay language, using the Old Kawi script, and contains numerous loanwords from Sanskrit and a few non-Malay vocabulary elements whose origin may be Old Javanese. The use of Sanskrit loanwords is considered evidence of Indian cultural influences on the cultures of the Malay Archipelago, which in turn had close trade and cultural ties with early Philippine polities, including those mentioned in the LCI.
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Romanian historians have always presented them as Romanian rulers whose presence in the Gesta proves the existence of Romanian polities in the territory of present- day Romania at the time of the Hungarian Conquest. The Romanian government even published a full-page advertisement about the reliability of Anonymus's reference to the Romanians in the New York Times in 1987. The view of modern historians on the Gesta Hungarorum is mixed: some consider it a reliable source; others consider its information doubtful. Alexandru Madgearu, who wrote a monography of the Gesta Hungarorum, concluded that the "analysis of several fragments of" the Gesta Hungarorum "has demonstrated that this work is generally credible, even if it ignores important events and characters and even if it makes some chronological mistakes".
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Occupational guilds, social clubs, secret or initiatory societies, and religious units, commonly known as Ẹgbẹ in Yoruba, included the Parakoyi (or league of traders) and Ẹgbẹ Ọdẹ (hunter's guild), and maintained an important role in commerce, social control, and vocational education in Yoruba polities. There are also examples of other peer organizations in the region. When the Ẹgba resisted the imperial domination of the Ọyọ Empire, a figure named Lisabi is credited with either creating or reviving a covert traditional organization named Ẹgbẹ Aro. This group, originally a farmers' union, was converted to a network of secret militias throughout the Ẹgba forests, and each lodge plotted and successfully managed to overthrow Ọyọ's Ajeles (appointed administrators) in the late 18th century.
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The Malay Annals have had great influence on the history, culture, and development of the Malay civilisation, which had to confront major cultural transformation through the centuries. Through courtly chronicles like the Malay Annals, the Melakan tradition developed in the 15th century was transmitted onwards and fostered a vigorous ethos of Malay identity. These chronicles became an important source of instruction for Melaka's successor regimes, as they enshrined the sanctity and authority of a Malay ruler (daulat), his role in maintaining the cohesion of the realm, and legitimated the increasingly absolutist visage these states adopted in the competitive environment. The documents were used by Johor to promote the idea that Malacca and Johor were the centre of Malay culture, during competition with Malay polities in Sumatra.
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The emergence of the Arameans occurred during the Bronze Age collapse (1200–900 BC), which saw great upheavals and mass movements of peoples across the Middle East, Asia Minor, The Caucasus, East Mediterranean, North Africa, Ancient Iran, Ancient Greece and Balkans, leading to the genesis of new peoples and polities across these regions. The first certain reference to the Arameans appears in an inscription of Tiglath- Pileser I (1115–1077 BC), which refers to subjugating the "Ahlamû-Aramaeans" (Ahlame Armaia). Shortly after, the Ahlamû rapidly disappear from Assyrian annals, to be replaced by the Aramaeans (Aramu, Arimi). This indicates that the Arameans had risen to dominance amongst the nomads; however, it is possible that the two peoples had nothing in common, but operated in the same area.
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Other independent polities which were not vassals to other States, e.g., Confederation of Madja-as and the Rajahnate of Cebu, were more of Protectorates/Suzerainties having had alliances with the Spanish Crown before the Kingdom took total control of most parts of the Archipelago. An interesting question remains after the cessession of the Spanish rule in the Philippines, that is, what is the equivalent of the rank of the Filipino Principalía, freed from vassalage yet not able to exercise their sovereignty within the democratic society in the Archipelago? One logical conclusion would be the reassumption of their ancestral Royal and noble title as Datus while retaining the Hidalguía of Castile (their former protector State), as a subsidiary title, appears most suitable to the hispanized Filipino nobles.
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The plethora of states of the Holy Roman Empire was especially dense on the east bank of the Rhine. In particular, the states involved in late 1796 included, for example, the Breisgau (Habsburg), Offenburg and Rottweil (free cities), the territories belonging to the princely families of Fürstenberg and Hohenzollern, the Duchy of Baden, the Duchy of Württemberg, and several dozen ecclesiastic polities. The light cream-colored territories are so subdivided they cannot be named. The German-speaking states on the east bank of the Rhine were part of the vast complex of territories in central Europe called the Holy Roman Empire.Joachim Whaley, Germany and the Holy Roman Empire: Volume I: Maximilian I to the Peace of Westphalia, 1493–1648 Oxford University Press, 23012, vol.
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Historians have interpreted that Gajah Mada might have performed what is now known in Javanese tradition as puasa mutih, only consuming plain food of white steamed rice, plain vegetables and clear water, without any coconut or spices for flavouring. Some might also interpret this to mean Gajah Mada was somehow performing a somewhat ascetic ritual by refusing to indulge himself in sensual pleasures, which includes consuming spiced flavoursome food. This oath was probably meant to describe his seriousness and strong will in achieving his goal of furthering the glory of Majapahit. From this manuscript, historians have learnt several names of places and polities in Nusantara at the time the oath was taken, which were not under Majapahit suzerainty, and were targeted by Gajah Mada's ambitious expansive campaign.
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Coat of arms of Aragonese Monarchs, also used as royal emblem in Valencia Former coat of arms of Valencia (before 18th century) For the majority of the Middle Ages, Valencia was a constituent part of larger polities. From the time of the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Valencia was controlled by the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus and the Emirate/Caliphate of Cordoba. Following the latter's collapse, Valencia became the seat of a Taifa state ruled by a succession of local dynasties from 1010 until it was conquered by Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, El Cid, in 1095. He ruled until his death, when his widow swore fealty to Castile, but was forced out in 1102 and Valencia fell back under the control of a Muslim Caliphate.
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Each territory was assigned a mani-mpembe (provincial governor) by the manikongo. In 1506, Afonso I (1506–1542), a Christian, took over the throne. Slave trading increased with Afonso's wars of conquest. About 1568 to 1569, the Jaga invaded Kongo, laying waste to the kingdom and forcing the manikongo into exile. In 1574, Manikongo Álvaro I was reinstated with the help of Portuguese mercenaries. During the latter part of the 1660s, the Portuguese tried to gain control of Kongo. Manikongo António I (1661–1665), with a Kongolese army of 5,000, was destroyed by an army of Afro-Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila. The empire dissolved into petty polities, fighting among each other for war captives to sell into slavery.
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Cajamarca ceramics achieved their greatest prestige and widest distribution during Middle Cajamarca subphase B (700-900), coinciding with Moche demise and dominance of the Wari empire in Peru. Middle Cajamarca prestige ceramics have been found at a great deal of Wari sites, as far as southern-frontier Wari sites such as the city of Pikillacta located in Cusco region. Moreover, the construction of the north coastal settlement of Cerro Chepen, a massive terraced mountain city-fortress in Moche territory is attributed to an apparent joint effort between Wari and Cajamarca polities to ruler over this area of Peru. In 2004 a large building erected in Cerro Chepen mountain was excavated, said structure follows high-altitude Andean architectural models, which is tentatively interpreted as an elite residential structure.
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Chaahk. A third individual whose name includes Chaahk might also be named on the same monument, although the hieroglyphs are eroded, decreasing legibility. It is not uncommon for Maya polities to have recurring names: many kings at the site of Piedras Negras carry Ahk (turtle) as part of their name; at the site of Toniná, Chapaht (centipede) is a prevalent name; and at Calakmul the name Yuknoom (meaning unknown) occurs several times. It might be that Chac is a recurring name at Uxmal, similar to those at the aforementioned sites. The scarcity of inscriptions at Uxmal (and other Puuc sites for that matter) makes this question difficult to answer, however, and most archaeologists still favour the idea of a single Lord Chac.
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The Nation of Ma-i produced beeswax, cotton, true pearls, tortoise shell, medicinal betel nuts and yuta cloth in their trade with East Asia. By the early sixteenth century, the two largest polities of the Pasig River delta, Maynila and Tondo, established a shared monopoly on the trade of Chinese goods throughout the rest of the Philippine archipelago. The Visayas islands which is home to the Kedatuan of Madja-as, the Kedatuan of Dapitan and the Rajahnate of Cebu on the other hand were abundant in rice, fish, cotton, swine, fowls, wax and honey. Leyte was said to produce two rice crops a year, and Pedro Chirino commented on the great rice and cotton harvests that were sufficient to feed and clothe the people.
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However, the War of the Polish Succession saw the Spanish regain Sicily and Naples as part of a personal union, with the 1738 Treaty of Vienna recognising the two polities as independent under a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons. During the time of Ferdinand IV, the effects of the French Revolution were felt in Naples: Horatio Nelson, an ally of the Bourbons, even arrived in the city in 1798 to warn against the French republicans. Ferdinand was forced to retreat and fled to Palermo, where he was protected by a British fleet. However, Naples' lower class lazzaroni were strongly pious and royalist, favouring the Bourbons; in the mêlée that followed, they fought the Neapolitan pro-Republican aristocracy, causing a civil war.
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An example of a page from the Orkneyinga saga, as it appears in the 14th century Flateyjarbók. The Orkneyinga saga (also called the History of the Earls of Orkney and Jarls' Saga) is a historical narrative of the history of the Orkney and Shetland islands and their relationship with other local polities, particularly Norway and Scotland. The saga has "no parallel in the social and literary record of Scotland" and is "the only medieval chronicle to have Orkney as the central place of action". The main focus of the work is the line of jarls who ruled the Earldom of Orkney, which constituted the Norðreyjar or Northern Isles of both Orkney and Shetland and there are frequent references to both archipelagoes throughout.
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Other city-states also joined, including Cempoala and Huexotzinco and polities bordering Lake Texcoco, the inland lake system of the Valley of Mexico. Particularly important to the Spanish success was a multilingual (Nahuatl, a Maya dialect, and Spanish) indigenous slave woman, known to the Spanish conquistadors as Doña Marina, and generally as La Malinche. After eight months of battles and negotiations, which overcame the diplomatic resistance of the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II to his visit, Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on 8 November 1519, where he took up residence with fellow Spaniards and their indigenous allies. When news reached Cortés of the death of several of his men during the Aztec attack on the Totonacs in Veracruz, Cortes claims that he took Motecuhzoma captive.
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Later, the two prisoners, being misled or misinterpreting the language with information given to the Spanish conquistadors that there was plenty of gold up for grabs. On the western side of the Yucatán Peninsula, the Spanish were attacked at night by Maya chief Mochcouoh, a battle in which fifty men were killed. Córdoba was mortally wounded and only a remnant of his crew returned to Cuba.Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London: Penguin Books, At that time, Yucatán was briefly explored by the conquistadors, but the Spanish conquest of Yucatán with its many independent city-state polities of the Late Postclassic Maya civilization came many years after the Spaniards' and their indigenous allies' rapid conquest of Central Mexico (1519–21).
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Nouvelle Série, Volume 7, 2e Semestre 1991 This view is supported by scholars such as François G. Richard who posits that: :The Kingdom of Sine remained a modest participant in the Atlantic system, secondary to the larger Wolof, Halpulaar [ Fula and Toucouleur people ] or Mandinka polities surrounding it on all sides... As practices of enslavement intensified among other ethnic groups during the 18th century, fuelling a lucrative commerce in captives and the rise of internal slavery, the Siin may have been demoted to the rank of second player, in so far as the kingdom was never a major supplier of captives.Richard, François G., Recharting Atlantic encounters. Object trajectories and histories of value in the Siin (Senegal) and Senegambia. Archaeological Dialogues 17(1) 1–27.
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The Ryukyuans have a specific culture with some matriarchal elements, native religion, and cuisine which had fairly late (12th century) introduction of rice. The population lived on the islands in isolation for many centuries, and in the 14th century from the three divided Okinawan political polities emerged the Ryukyu Kingdom (1429–1879) which continued the maritime trade and tributary relations started in 1372 with Ming dynasty China. In 1609 the kingdom was invaded by Satsuma Domain which allowed its independence being in vassal status because Tokugawa Japan was prohibited to trade with China, being in dual subordinate status between both China and Japan. During the Meiji period, the kingdom became Ryukyu Domain (1872–1879), after which it was politically annexed by the Empire of Japan.
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This dichotomy would become, according to Hugh Kennedy, a "distinctive feature" of many Islamic polities, and would reach its apogee in the Mamluk dynasties that ruled Egypt and Syria in the late Middle Ages. More immediately, although al-Mu'tasim's new professional army proved militarily highly effective, it also posed a potential danger to the stability of the Abbasid regime, as the army's separation from mainstream society meant that the soldiers were entirely reliant on the ʿaṭāʾ for survival. Consequently, any failure to provide their pay, or policies that threatened their position, were likely to cause a violent reaction. This became evident less than a generation later, during the "Anarchy at Samarra" (861–870), where the Turks played the main role.
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Columns in the Temple of a Thousand Warriors Several archaeologists in the late 1980s suggested that unlike previous Maya polities of the Early Classic, Chichen Itza may not have been governed by an individual ruler or a single dynastic lineage. Instead, the city's political organization could have been structured by a "multepal" system, which is characterized as rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.; This theory was popular in the 1990s, but in recent years, the research that supported the concept of the "multepal" system has been called into question, if not discredited. The current belief trend in Maya scholarship is toward the more traditional model of the Maya kingdoms of the Classic Period southern lowlands in Mexico.
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In contemporary terminology, people of Persian heritage native specifically to present-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are referred to as Tajiks, whereas those in the Caucasus (primarily in the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan and the Russian federal subject of Dagestan), albeit heavily assimilated, are referred to as Tats. However, historically, the terms Tajik and Tat were used as synonymous and interchangeable with Persian. Many influential Persian figures hailed from outside Iran's present-day borders to the northeast in Central Asia and Afghanistan and to a lesser extent to the northwest in the Caucasus proper. In historical contexts, especially in English, "Persians" may be defined more loosely to cover all subjects of the ancient Persian polities, regardless of ethnic background.
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Between the eighth and the fifteenth centuries, medieval Europe was in a state of intermittent warfare between the Christian kingdoms of southern Europe and the Muslim polities of North Africa, Southern France, Sicily and Moorish portions of Spain. According to James W. Brodman, the threat of capture, whether by pirates or coastal raiders, or during one of the region's intermittent wars, was a continuous threat to residents of Catalonia, Languedoc and the other coastal provinces of medieval Christian Europe.Brodman, James William, Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain:The Order of Merced on the Christian- Islamic Frontier, 1986 Raids by militias, bands and armies from both sides were an almost annual occurrence.Ibn Khaldun, Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique septentrionale, ed.
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A recall election (also called a recall referendum, recall petition or representative recall) is a procedure by which, in certain polities, voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote before that official's term has ended. Recalls, which are initiated when sufficient voters sign a petition, have a history dating back to the constitution in ancient Athenian democracyAristotle, Constitution of Athens 43.4 and feature in several current constitutions. In indirect or representative democracy, people's representatives are elected and these representatives rule for a specific period of time. However, where the facility to recall exists, should any representative come to be perceived as not properly discharging their responsibilities, then they can be called back with the written request of specific number or proportion of voters.
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Modern Georgian nationalism emerged in the middle of the 19th century as a reaction to the Russian annexation of fragmented Georgian polities, which terminated their precarious independence, but brought to the Georgians unity under a single authority, relative peace and stability. The first to inspire national revival were aristocratic poets, whose romanticist writings were imbued with patriotic laments. After a series of ill-fated attempts at revolt, especially, after the failed coup plot of 1832, the Georgian elites reconciled with the Russian rule, while their calls for national awakening were rechanneled through cultural efforts. In the 1860s, the new generation of Georgian intellectuals, educated at Russian universities and exposed to European ideas, promoted national culture against assimilation by the Imperial center.
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Published in 2011, Civilization: The West and the Rest examines what Ferguson calls the most "interesting question" of our day: "Why, beginning around 1500, did a few small polities on the western end of the Eurasian landmass come to dominate the rest of the world?" The Economist in a review wrote: > In 1500 Europe's future imperial powers controlled 10% of the world's > territories and generated just over 40% of its wealth. By 1913, at the > height of empire, the West controlled almost 60% of the territories, which > together generated almost 80% of the wealth. This stunning fact is lost, he > regrets, on a generation that has supplanted history's sweep with a feeble- > minded relativism that holds "all civilisations as somehow equal".
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While some panels of the bas-reliefs on temple walls, such as Borobudur and Prambanan, describe agricultural activities, Javanese stone inscriptions which can be traced back from the 8th century, describes the king placing a levy on rice. Next to rice, the bas-reliefs of Borobudur describe other indigenous agricultural products as well, like banana (musa paradisiaca), coconut (Cocos nucifera), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum'), Java apple (Syzygium samarangense), jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), durian (Durio zibethinus) and mangosteen (Mangifera indica). Local kingdoms in Indonesia were among the earliest polities to participate in global spice trade. The ancient maritime empires of Srivijaya (7th to 11th century) and Majapahit (13th to 15th century) for example, were actively involved in spice trade with China, India and the Middle East.
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Native edged weapons, such as the parang, klewang, mandau, badik, pedang, kujang, golok and kris, were invented early. Tribal warfare, although often motivated by resources, lands and slave grabbing, was also a tribal solution to settling disputes, as well as a component of coming of age rituals (headhunting) for several tribes, primarily the Dayak, Nias and Batak. Warriors from militaristic tribes were appreciated by other factions, and were recruited by developed kingdoms and polities as mercenaries, such as Nias warriors serving as palace guards in the Aceh Sultanate, as well as Ambonese warriors recruited by the Dutch East India Company. Tribal wars still occur amongst Papuan tribes in West Papua, as well as more remote areas of Nusantara, such as the interior of Borneo and Sumatra.
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For most of its history, Austronesian thalassocracies controlled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the polities around the straits of Malacca and Bangka, the Malay peninsula, and the Mekong delta; although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being "Indian" due to the Indianization of these regions. Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed them. The route was influential in the early spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to the east. China later built its own fleets starting from the Song dynasty in the 10th century, participating directly in the trade route up until the end of the Colonial Era and the collapse of the Qing dynasty.
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Location of the Sasanian coinage of Sindh, circa 400 CE, in relation with the other polities of the time. After a period of control of the areas as far as Gandhara by the Kushano-Sasanians, the Sasanian Empire further expanded into the northwest of the subcontinent, particularly in the regions of Gandhara and Punjab, from the time of Shapur II circa 350 CE. Further south, as far as the mouth of the Indus river, the Sasanians exerted some sort of control or influence, as suggested by the Sasanian coinage of Sindh. It is probable that the Sasanian expansion in India, which put an end to the remnants of Kushan rule, was also made in part at the expense of the Western Satraps.
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Good Friday is not a federal public holiday, but is a state public holiday in Sabah, and also in Sarawak, where Christianity is the largest religion; both states were granted some level of greater autonomy than other states in the Federation, as they were considered polities on par with Malaya when they merged with it and Singapore to form Malaysia. But it is a school holiday for some schools (or specifically, non- Muslim-majority schools). However, there is no evidence that this theological objection plays any role in the non-inclusion of Good Friday as a holiday. On the contrary, Good Friday is probably not a public holiday because, as a whole in the federation, Christians constitutes 9.2% of the population according to the 2010 Census.
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Historians debate whether Bismarck wanted this annexation or was forced into it by a wave of German public and elite opinion. France was also required to pay an indemnity; the indemnity figure was calculated, on the basis of population, as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon I had imposed on Prussia in 1807. Historians debate whether Bismarck had a master plan to expand the North German Confederation of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the power of the Kingdom of Prussia. They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck's Realpolitik led a collection of early modern polities to reorganize political, economic, military, and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century.
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According to oral traditions, the establishment of Vangteh was related to the pre-encampment of the Vahuis (Vahui), Ngaihtes (Ngaihte), and Neihgups (Neih Khup or Neih Gup) at the place called Tawizawi, which is in the precinct of present-day Vangteh, in finding a new settlement from Ciimnuai (Chinwe), the place of their first settlement in the region.Surajit Sinha, Tribal Polities and State Systems in Pre-Colonial Eastern and North Eastern India (Culcutta, India: Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, K .P. Bagchi & Co., 1987), 312 [Sinha also refers to Ciimnuai (Chiimnuai/Chiimnwe/Chinwe) as the first Guite/Vuite village]. As this new place seemed comfortable for them, they came back to Ciimnuai to get permission for their new settlement.
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In 1991, following German reunification, the East German churches rejoined the EKD. The member churches (Gliedkirchen), while being independent and having their own theological and formal organisation, share full pulpit and altar fellowship, are united in the EKD synod, and are individual members of the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe (CPCE). Boundaries of EKD churches within Germany partially resemble those of the states of the Holy Roman Empire and successor forms of German statehood (to the most part 1815 borders), due to the historically close relationship between individual German states and churches. As for church governance, the Lutheran churches typically practise an episcopal polity, while the Reformed and the United ones a mixture of presbyterian and congregationalist polities.
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Digby Smith, Napoleonic Wars Data Book Greenhill Press, 1996, p. 111. The French grand plan called for two French armies to press against the flanks of the northern armies in the German states while a third army simultaneously approached Vienna through Italy. Jean-Baptiste Jourdan's army would push southeast from Düsseldorf, hopefully drawing troops and attention toward themselves, which would allow Moreau's army an easier crossing of the Rhine between Kehl and Hüningen. According to plan, Jourdan's army feinted toward Mannheim, and Charles quickly reapportioned his troops. Moreau's army attacked the bridgehead at Kehl, which was guarded by 7,000 imperial troops—troops recruited that spring from the Swabian circle polities, inexperienced and untrained—which amazingly held the bridgehead for several hours, but then retreated toward Rastatt.
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Between the eighth and the fifteenth centuries, medieval Europe was in a state of intermittent warfare between the Christian kingdoms of southern Europe and the Muslim polities of North Africa, Southern France, Sicily and portions of Spain. According to James W. Brodman, the threat of capture, whether by pirates or coastal raiders, or during one of the region's intermittent wars, was a continuous threat to residents of Catalonia, Languedoc, and the other coastal provinces of medieval Christian Europe.Brodman, James William, Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier, 1986 Raids by militias, bands, and armies from both sides was an almost annual occurrence.Ibn Khaldun, Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique septentrionale, ed.
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The formation of the Seven Warring States was the culmination of trends during the preceding Spring and Autumn period, when the patchwork of states created by the Western Zhou dynasty were conquered and absorbed through warfare, coalescing into seven larger polities. Qin, Qi, Chu and Yan already existed as states during that period; Qin and Yan, owing to their remote locations, were traditionally considered second-tier powers, while Chu and Qi were among the dominant states of the period, in direct competition with the State of Jin. In 403 BCE, King Weilie of Zhou recognized Jin's partition, leading to the creation of three new states: Wei, Zhao and Han. Other major states included Wu and Yue, with the latter conquering the former in 473 BCE.
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In 1805, during the Fulani War, Daura was taken over by Fulani warrior Malam Ishaku, who set up an emirate. The Hausa set up rival states nearby, and the ruler of one, Malam Musa, was made the new emir of Daura by the British in 1904, While Fulani emirs reigned and established a rival kingdoms at Daure-Zango (Zango) and at Daure-Baure (Baure). Zango (founded in 1825) was the more prominent Hausa- Daura kingdom, and in 1903–04, after the British and French had divided the three Daura polities, the British installed Zango's king, Malam Musa, as the new emir of Daura. Part of former North-Central state after 1967, the traditional emirate was incorporated into Kaduna state in 1976.
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Having secured his throne, he then planned his operations to regain the north, which included not only Rajarata but numerous smaller semi-independent polities. The king's army consisted of 'chariots, troops and beasts for riders', soldiers and a number of war elephants, as well as a number of monks (to advise the King) and a relic placed in his spear for luck and blessings. In addition he was accompanied by the famed Ten Giant Warriors who had been recruited from all over the island by his father Kavantissa – Nandhimitra, Suranimala, Mahasena, Theraputtabhya, Gotaimbara, Bharana, Vasabha, Khanjadeva, Velusamanna, and Phussadeva. The campaign saw Dutugemunu subduing a number of usurping Tamil rulers in the north (as many as 32, according to the Mahavamsa).
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An old U.S. Army map showing Mountain province covering the present areas of Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga and Apayao During the Spanish colonial era, the Spaniards referred to the inhabitants of the Cordilleras as the Ygorrottes or the Igorots while the Americans starting 1908 have governed the area as part of a single locality called as the Mountain Province. People from outside the region, or the lowlanders as they are known in the Cordillera, often referred all ethnic people in the area under the single label, Igorot. Unlike the people in the southern Philippines, the Moro who organized themselves in large polities such as sultanates, the Cordilleran people had independent tribes governed by tribal councils. These are among the facts use to argue for a pan-Cordillera identity.
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Location of Caithness to the north of the Scottish mainland, with the archipelagoes of Orkney and Shetland to the north and the Hebrides to the west. The Pentland Firth, between Caithness and Orkney, was a stretch of water which divided the two earldoms but also united them, especially perhaps for the Norse, whose command of the seas was an important aspect of their culture. Indeed there are numerous incidents recorded in the Orkneyinga saga in which movement across these waters occurs as if the two polities were parts of a single political and cultural arena. Even in the mid-12th century it appears that a king of Norway - Eystein Haraldsson - had no difficulty in capturing Harald Maddadson, an Earl of Orkney, from his base in Thurso, Caithness.
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Despite its association with China in recent centuries, the Maritime Silk Route was primarily established and operated by Austronesian sailors in Southeast Asia, Tamil merchants in India and Southeast Asia, Greco-Roman merchants in East Africa, India, Ceylon and Indochina, and by Persian and Arab traders in the Arabian Sea and beyond. Prior to the 10th century, the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian traders, although Tamil and Persian traders also sailed them. For most of its history, Austronesian thalassocracies controlled the flow of the Maritime Silk Road, especially the polities around the straits of Malacca and Bangka, the Malay peninsula, and the Mekong delta; although Chinese records misidentified these kingdoms as being "Indian" due to the Indianization of these regions.
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While no current archaeological evidence exist describing pre-Hispanic Panay, an original work by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro published in 1907 called Maragtas details the alleged accounts of the founding of the various pre-Hispanic polities on Panay Island. The book is based on oral and written accounts available to the author at the time. The author made no claim on the historical accuracy of the accounts. Originally titled Maragtás kon (historia) sg pulô nga Panay kutub sg iya una nga pamuluyö tubtub sg pag-abut sg mga taga Borneo nga amó ang ginhalinan sg mga bisayâ kag sg pag-abut sg mga Katsilâ, According to Maragtas, the Kedatuan of Madja-as was founded after ten datus fled Borneo and landed on Panay Island.
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According to , this latter kingdom was founded in the valley of the Soummam River some 30km from Béjaïa. Both Kuku and the Kingdom of Ait Abbas came into being in a society where the norm was for small self-governing 'republics', jealously guarding their independence. There were however earlier historic examples of larger Kabyle polities being formed; for example, during the Hafsid period, around 1340, a woman leader had wielded power, supported by her sons, among the Aït Iraten. Rural kabyle communities had to preserve their autonomy, particularly in terms of resources such as their forests, from the hegemony of local lords, while at the same time they had to support them sufficiently in the face of pressure from the central government of the Regency of Algiers.
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Those who supported relocation to West Africa believed, or pretended to believe, that the African Americans would create there better polities, first as some vague type of colonies, then countries, away from white prejudice and white discrimination and white economic exploitation and white liquor. While thousands of free blacks did relocate to the colonies, most free African Americans opposed this project, claiming the right of their birth in the United States and wanting to improve their lives there. (See Abolitionism in the United States.) Maryland had an increasing proportion of free blacks among its African-American population. During the first two decades after the Revolution, about 25% of blacks were freed, in part because slaveholders were inspired by the war's ideals.
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In Eastern Europe, the title of grand duke equalled king and sometimes emperor. In Western Europe, the title of grand duke is reserved to monarchs of small polities and ranks junior to king and emperor. After the formal Christianization and especially after the creation of the personal union with Poland, the Kings of Poland–Lithuania retained the separate titles of Grand Dukes of Lithuania and Kings of Poland (similarly to how the Emperors of Austria–Hungary had retained the separate titles of Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, to some extent). The Catholic crown was to be received from the Pope or Holy Roman Emperor, but being multireligious and powerful, Lithuania was not subservient to either and with rare exceptions did not pursue the title.
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Valerius Soranus was admired for his learning by Cicero (depicted anachronistically in a 16th-century edition of his letters) Cicero has an interlocutor in his De oratore praise Valerius Soranus as “most cultured of all who wear the toga,”Marcus Tullius Cicero, De oratore 3.43: litteratissimum togatorum omnium. and Cicero lists him and his brother Decimus among an educated elite of socii et Latini;Marcus Tullius Cicero, Brutus 169. that is, those who came from allied polities on the Italian peninsula rather than from Rome, and those whose legal status was defined by Latin right rather than full Roman citizenship. The municipality of Sora was near Cicero's native Arpinum, and he refers to the Valerii Sorani as his friends and neighbors.
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Antisemitism was stronger in those areas where Jews no longer lived and where previously practically no Jews had lived, and among people who neither have had nor have any personal contact with Jews. Since post-war prejudice against Jews has been publicly forbidden and tabooed, antisemitism was actually 'antisemitism without antisemites', but different expressions to it were to be found in the Austrian polities. During the 80', the taboo against open expressions of explicitly antisemitic beliefs has remained, but the means of circumventing it linguistically have extended its boundaries in such a way that the taboo itself appears to have lost some of its significance. Anti-Jewish prejudices which had remained hidden began to surface and were increasingly found in public settings.
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The ousting of Tunipasuluq thus secured the autonomy of the nobility, delineated the limits of the karaeng of Gowa's authority, and restored balance between Gowa, Talloq, and other Makassar polities. Henceforth the dominion of Gowa was ruled by a confederation of powerful dynasties of which the Gowa royalty was nominally primus inter pares, although Talloq, the homeland of the tumabicara-butta, was often the de facto dominant polity. During the following four decades, Karaeng Matoaya spearheaded both the conversion of South Sulawesi to Islam and Gowa- Talloq's rapid expansionism east to Maluku and south to the Lesser Sunda Islands. The ousting of Tunipasuluq and the beginning of Karaeng Matoaya's effective rule may therefore be considered to mark the end of Gowa's initial expansion and the beginning of another era of Makassar history.
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The former event shifted the main source of trade in South Sulawesi from Java to western Indonesia and the Malay peninsula, and the latter caused the predominantly Muslim traders from those regions to avoid Malacca and seek other ports such as Gowa. The most celebrated of Tumapaqrisiq Kallonna's accomplishments may be his war against Talloq and its allies, a crucial turning point in the history of both kingdoms which occurred in the late 1530s or early 1540s. The cause of war between Gowa and Talloq was not explicitly recorded, but a later text in the Gowa Chronicle hinted that war broke out after a Gowa prince abducted a Talloq princess. Tunipasuruq of Talloq allied with the rulers of two nearby polities, Polombangkeng and Maros, to attack his cousin Tumapaqrisiq Kallonna.
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The term "Déisi" is used anachronistically in The Expulsion of the Déisi, since its chronologically confused narrative concerns "events" that long predate the historical development of déisi communities into distinct tribal polities or the creation of the kingdom of Déisi Muman. The epic tells the story of a sept called the Dal Fiachach Suighe, who are expelled from Tara by their kinsman, Cormac mac Airt, and forced to wander homeless. After a southward migration and many battles, part of the sept eventually settles in Munster. At some point during this migration from Tara to Munster, one branch of the sept, led by Eochaid Allmuir mac Art Corb, sails across the sea to Britain where, it is said, his descendants later ruled in Demed, the former territory of the Demetae (modern Dyfed).
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Rulers from Philippine polities were sometimes referred to as "Kings" by the Chinese officials conducted trade with, and later initially by early Spanish chroniclers such as Pigafetta and Rodrigo de Aganduru Moriz. However, this was a function of language, and of the respective sinocentrism and hispanocentrism of these early records, rather than ethnographic observation of the way power was exercised locally. Since both the Chinese and the Spanish came from cultures which were politically organized around a belief in the divine right of monarchs, they tended to project their beliefs into the peoples they encountered during trade and conquest. In a more careful ethnographic observation, San Buenaventura (1613, as cited by Junker, 1990 and Scott, 1994) later noted that Tagalogs only applied the term Hari (King) to foreign monarchs, rather than their own leaders.
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