My research uncovered two regularities of modern Supreme Court appointments.
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Nevertheless, there are some regularities when it comes to economic cycles.
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It turned out that there were regularities in all these categories.
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But why infants are sensitive to the regularities of music is peculiar.
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This lowest rung deals simply with observation — basically looking for regularities in past behavior.
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The problem with science is that so much of it simply isn't, William A. Wilson writes in First Things: At its best, science is a human enterprise with a superhuman aim: the discovery of regularities in the order of nature, and the discerning of the consequences of those regularities.
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To be intelligent is not merely to be capable of inferring logically from rules or statistically from regularities.
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Mrs Comstock worked for the House committee that looked into campaign finance regularities by the Clintons, among other allegations.
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For instance, our ability to extract patterns, regularities and to make accurate predictions improves over time because we've had more experience.
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But by putting observations together over years or even hundreds of years it's possible to see all sorts of repetitions and regularities.
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Jail-wide lockdowns have become regularities, and prosecutors are having a hard time keeping up with the sheer influx of violent cases there.
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We're forced to peer into the structure, and a list of numbers becomes something more: an organization, with subtle internal symmetries and regularities.
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The claim would be there are no fundamental laws that are purely spatial and that where you find spatial regularities, they have temporal explanations.
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Given this insight, we reasoned that social prejudice may originate from our general dislike of deviancy -- breaks in regularities and what we are accustomed to.
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Nevertheless, the researchers identified some regularities in the emissions from quasars, allowing the history of the cosmos to be traced back nearly 12 billion years.
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There are some predictable regularities, yes, but there are also a whole lot of dynamics and feedback loops that lead to occasional periods of unexpected change.
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They can, based on the rules and regularities they have observed, predict how those systems will react to the introduction of, say, megatons of greenhouse gases.
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And we tend to be interested in the structural factors that influence general regularities, not the ways in which individuals might help to sway a particular case.
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The researchers speculated that the agents had learned to "exploit the structural regularities," a phrase that in some circumstances means the AI figured out how to cheat.
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These are the elements that were a part of several dozen or hundreds of experiences—and the brain finds a way to extract and represent these regularities pretty faithfully and for a very long time.
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The brain's auditory and visual centers must take vast amounts of input in the form of waves and pixels, turn it all into data, and then capture the meaning, the statistical regularities, in that data.
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"Knowing more about your menstrual cycle gives you a window into your health, from simply insuring you are prepared to understanding your personal patterns and regularities," said Sumbul Desai, Apple's vice president of health, during the Worldwide Developers Conference.
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Born in Berlin to a German mother and an Mongolian-Chinese father, and raised in Arizona when his mother married an Apache man, the artist directed his attention to "the regularities between cultures and how commercial imagery is often such a peculiar regularity," he says.
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One answer is that there are certain kinds of techniques that people have been looking at where you don't commit yourself to knowing precisely what the signal looks like, but you just look for certain kinds of regularities—for instance, maybe this unexpected signal is at least a periodic signal.
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You just need lots and lots of the voters — in order to make sure that some part of your network picks up on even very weak regularities, on Scottish Folds with droopy ears, for example — and enough labeled data to make sure your network has seen the widest possible variance in phenomena.
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However, little in this celebrity artist-filled show — which includes male mega-star assets Maurizio Cattelan, Bruce Nauman, Damien Hirst, David Hammons and Robert Gober — argues for any kind of self-logo indiscernibility, even as deviating from the regularities of hyper-visibility might provide new sources for artistic production and social self-possession.
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History seems to present us with a choice between two undesirable options: If it is just one singular thing after another, then we can derive no general laws or regularities from it, and so we would seem to have no hope of learning from it; but when we do try to draw lessons from it, we lapse all too easily into such a simplified version of the past, with a handful of stock types and paradigm events, that we may as well just have made it up.
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This is evidenced by Easton's eight "intellectual foundation stones" of behaviouralism:Riemer, p. 50 # Regularities - The generalization and explanation of regularities. # Commitment to Verification - The ability to verify ones generalizations. # Techniques - An experimental attitude toward techniques.
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Giovanni Dosi's economic analysis is characterized by the contemporaneous attempt to (i) identify empirical regularities and (ii) provide micro-foundations consistent with such regularities. As such, his work is a mix of statistical investigations and theoretical efforts.
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Regularities are derived from a moving conductor loop in a constant magnetic field.
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Patterns have an underlying mathematical structure;Stewart, 2001. Page 6. indeed, mathematics can be seen as the search for regularities, and the output of any function is a mathematical pattern. Similarly in the sciences, theories explain and predict regularities in the world.
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These regularities are described in mathematical language by a differential extraction equation with a retarded argument.
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This is called the principle of variation. These two structural regularities are set forth in greatest detail in Praepositionernes theori.
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In opposition, the ERAN rests upon representations of music-syntactic regularities which exist in a long-term memory format and which are learned during early childhood.
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Since the domain is based on regularities, a newly learned item will tend to be similar to the previously learned information, which will allow the network to incorporate new data with little interference with existing data. Specifically, an input vector that follows the same pattern of regularities as the previously trained data should not cause a drastically different pattern of activation at the hidden layer or drastically alter weights.
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In addition, it appears necessary to maintain that Korotayev's theory of the World System development suggests a novel approach to the formation of a general theory of social macroevolution. The approach prevalent in social evolutionism is based on the assumption that evolutionary regularities of simple systems are significantly simpler than the ones characteristic of complex systems. A rather logical outcome of this almost self-evident assumption is that one should first study the evolutionary regularities of simple systems and only after understanding them move to more complex ones, whereas Korotayev's findings suggest that the simplest regularities accounting for extremely large proportions of all the macrovariation can be found precisely for the largest possible system – the human world, and, hence, the study of social evolution should proceed from the detection of simple regularities of the development of the most complex systems to the study of the complex laws of the dynamics of simple social systems.Korotayev A. V. A Compact Macromodel of World System Evolution.
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His main research effort in meteorology went into examining long-time series for regularities; he was more concerned with establishing the regularities than in explaining them. He made no contributions to the theory of meteorology which is perhaps surprising given his training in physics. The contrast with his American contemporary, William Ferrel, who discovered Buys-Ballot's law slightly earlier, is striking. Buys Ballot devised a tabular method for investigating periodicity in time series.
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These models also characterized how morphological and physiological innate constraints can interact with these self-organized mechanisms to account for both the formation of statistical regularities and diversity in vocalization systems.
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To obtain simplest codes, SIT applies coding rules that capture the kinds of regularity called iteration, symmetry, and alternation. These have been shown to be the only regularities that satisfy the formal criteria of (a) being holographic regularities that (b) allow for hierarchically transparent codes.van der Helm, P. A., & Leeuwenberg, E. L. J. (1991). Accessibility, a criterion for regularity and hierarchy in visual pattern codes. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 35, 151—213. doi:10.1016/0022-2496%2891%2990025-O.
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This approach lends itself to what Robert K. Merton called middle-range theory: abstract statements that generalize from segregated hypotheses and empirical regularities rather than starting with an abstract idea of a social whole.
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Emergence can be defined as a process whereby larger entities, patterns, and regularities arise through interactions among smaller or simpler entities that themselves do not exhibit such properties. The extensive amount of code publicly available on the web can be used to find this type of patterns and regularities. By modeling how developers use programming languages in practices, algorithms for finding common idioms and detecting unlikely code can be created. This process is limited to the amount of code that programmers are willing and able to share.
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The world that mainstream economists study is the empirical world. But this world is "out of phase" (Lawson) with the underlying ontology of economic regularities. The mainstream view is thus a limited reality because empirical realists presume that the objects of inquiry are solely "empirical regularities"—that is, objects and events at the level of the experienced. The critical realist views the domain of real causal mechanisms as the appropriate object of economic science, whereas the positivist view is that the reality is exhausted in empirical, i.e.
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London and New York: Continuum. pp. 179–80. She argued for the application of the system network as a mechanism for the systematic description of the regularities across diverse social contexts.Hasan, R. 2004. Analysing Discursive Variation.
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Of Taoism and the inability of empirical science to explain everything in the world, Shen Kuo wrote: > Those in the world who speak of the regularities underlying the phenomena, > it seems, manage to apprehend their crude traces. But these regularities > have their very subtle aspect, which those who rely on mathematical > astronomy cannot know of. Still even these are nothing more than traces. As > for the spiritual processes described in the [Book of Changes] that "when > they are stimulated, penetrate every situation in the realm," mere traces > have nothing to do with them.
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It reflects their broad knowledge in different academic areas as well as their abilities to synthesize ideas. Their book bridges the gap between ordinary language and the language of theories. It demonstrates that both are governed by the same semantic regularities.
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The term scientific theory is reserved for concepts that are widely accepted. A scientific law often refers to regularities that can be expressed by a mathematical statement. However, there is no consensus about the distinction between these terms.Scientific Laws And Theories.
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These changes and their expectations are so significant that they themselves affect the price of oil and hence the volume of production in the future. These regularities are described in mathematical language by a differential extraction equation with a retarded argument.
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Gennady Zyuganov, head of the party and its candidate for President of Russia, has denounced election regularities but has also expressed his opposition to the organizers of the mass demonstrations who he views as ultra liberals who are exploiting unrest.
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The progression of chords in time forms a tonal structure based on pitch organization, in which moving away from the tonic is perceived as tensioning and moving towards the tonic is experienced as releasing. Therefore, hierarchical relations may convey organized patterns of meaning. (4)Concerning harmonic aspects of major-minor tonal music, Musical syntax can be characterized by statistical regularities in the succession of chord functions in time, that is probabilities of chord transitions. As these regularities are stored in a long-term memory, predictions about following chords are made automatically, when listening to a musical phrase.
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Nevertheless, when creating a chord sequence in which the Neapolitan chord at the fifth position is music-syntactically less irregular than a Neapolitan chord at the third position, the amplitude is higher at the third position (see figure 4...). In opposition to the MMN, a clear ERAN is also elicited by using syntactically irregular chords, which are acoustically more similar to a proceeding harmonic context than syntactically regular chords. Therefore, the MMN seems to be based on an on-line establishment of regularities. That means, that the regularities are extracted on-line from the acoustic environment.
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In this view, the D-N mode of reasoning, in addition to being used to explain particular occurrences, can also be used to explain general regularities, simply by deducing them from still more general laws. Finally, the deductive-statistical (D-S) type of explanation, properly regarded as a subclass of the D-N type, explains statistical regularities by deduction from more comprehensive statistical laws. (Salmon 1989, pp. 8–9). Such was the received view of scientific explanation from the point of view of logical empiricism, that Salmon says "held sway" during the third quarter of the last century (Salmon, p. 10).
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In more recent years, research in the vicinity of Evolutionary psychology has proceeded on the basis that some observed transcultural regularities in human behaviour are also transhistoric, accounted for by their being fixed in the genetic legacy common to all Homo sapiens.
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So these notations do not guide readers to infer the regularities of English spelling. Also, the practicality of these systems for learning English locally may be offset by difficulties in communication with people used to different norms such as General American or Received Pronunciation.
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Accordingly, there is confusion in older literature reports on the physiological and habitat regularities of C. sphaerospermum in the strict sense. This fungus is most phylogenetically similar to C. fusiforme. According to modern phylogenetic analyses, the previously synonymized species, Cladosporium langeroni, is a distinct species.
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Under logical empiricism's influence, especially Carl Hempel's work on the "covering law" model of scientific explanation,Deductive-nomological model most philosophers had viewed scientific explanation as stating regularities, but not identifying causes. To replace the covering law model's inductive-statistical model (IS model), Salmon introduced the statistical-relevance model (SR model), and proposed the requirement of strict maximal specificity to supplement the covering law model's other component, the deductive-nomological model (DN model). Yet ultimately, Salmon held statistical models to be but early stages, and lawlike regularities to be insufficient, in scientific explanation. Salmon proposed that scientific explanation's manner is actually causal/mechanical explanation.
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For example, D. K. Simonton, finds some regularities in the types of ideas that gain ascendancy following certain types of historical events, in a data series spanning 2,500 years.Simonton, D. K. (1976). The Sociopolitical Context of Philosophical Beliefs: A Transhistorical Causal Analysis. Social Forces. vol. 54. pp. 513–523.
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The essential task of theory-building here is not to codify abstract regularities, but to make thick description possible; not to generalize across cases, but to generalize within them. Cockfight in Bali During Geertz's long career he worked through a variety of theoretical phases and schools of thought.
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Scene statistics is a discipline within the field of perception. It is concerned with the statistical regularities related to scenes. It is based on the premise that a perceptual system is designed to interpret scenes. Biological perceptual systems have evolved in response to physical properties of natural environments.
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One proposed method of how children are able to solve this problem is that they are attentive to the statistical regularities of the world around them. For example, in the phrase "pretty baby," children are more likely to hear the sounds pre and ty heard together during the entirety of the lexical input around them than they are to hear the sounds ty and ba together. In an artificial grammar learning study with adult participants, Saffran, Newport, and Aslin found that participants were able to locate word boundaries based only on transitional probabilities, suggesting that adults are capable of using statistical regularities in a language-learning task. This is a robust finding that has been widely replicated.
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In his book Fact, Fiction, and Forecast, Goodman introduced the "new riddle of induction", so-called by analogy with Hume's classical problem of induction. He accepted Hume's observation that inductive reasoning (i.e. inferring from past experience about events in the future) was based solely on human habit and regularities to which our day-to-day existence has accustomed us. Goodman argued, however, that Hume overlooked the fact that some regularities establish habits (a given piece of copper conducting electricity increases the credibility of statements asserting that other pieces of copper conduct electricity) while some do not (the fact that a given man in a room is a third son does not increase the credibility of statements asserting that other men in this room are third sons).
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Infants preferred to listen to words over part-words, whereas there was no significant difference in the nonsense frame condition. This finding suggests that even pre-linguistic infants are able to integrate the statistical cues they learn in a laboratory into their previously-acquired knowledge of a language. In other words, once infants have acquired some linguistic knowledge, they incorporate newly acquired information into that previously-acquired learning. A related finding indicates that slightly older infants can acquire both lexical and grammatical regularities from a single set of input, suggesting that they are able to use outputs of one type of statistical learning (cues that lead to the discovery of word boundaries) as input to a second type (cues that lead to the discovery of syntactical regularities.
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The role of reading is downplayed by both Martindale and Moretti. Martindale's book has been largely ignored by literary scholars. According to Martindale, the principles of the evolution of art are based on statistic regularities rather than meaning, data or observation. “So far as the engines of history are concerned, meaning does not matter.
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By eyeballing the data, we can infer several regularities, sometimes called stylized facts. One is persistence. For example, if we take any point in the series above the trend (the x-axis in figure 3), the probability the next period is still above the trend is very high. However, this persistence wears out over time.
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People came to feel that the "impersonal order of regularities" was a more mature standpoint than the faith in a personal God. The new cosmic imaginary of a universe vast in time and space also argued against "a personal God or benign purpose." A materialist view is adult; faith in a personal God is childish.
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Nature is frequently used as the basis of Toraja's ornaments, because nature is full of abstractions and geometries with regularities and ordering. Toraja's ornaments have been studied in ethnomathematics to reveal their mathematical structure, but Torajans base this art only on approximations. To create an ornament, bamboo sticks are used as a geometrical tool.
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On the contrary, he maintains that an absolutely chance world would be a contradiction and thus impossible. Complete lack of order is itself a sort of order. The position he advocates is rather that there are in the universe both regularities and irregularities. Karl Popper commentsPopper, K: Of Clouds and Cuckoos, included in Objective Knowledge, revised, 1978, p231.
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It describes a way by which people make decisions when all of the outcomes carry a risk. Kahneman and Tversky found three regularities – in actual human decision-making, "losses loom larger than gains"; persons focus more on changes in their utility-states than they focus on absolute utilities; and the estimation of subjective probabilities is severely biased by anchoring.
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Review: Non-fiction. 11 February 2012. The beauty that people perceive in nature has causes at different levels, notably in the mathematics that governs what patterns can physically form, and among living things in the effects of natural selection, that govern how patterns evolve. Mathematics seeks to discover and explain abstract patterns or regularities of all kinds.
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Karas also attempted to revise the classification of musical modes, used by church chanters and choirs, from a musicological point of view, and not necessarily in line with the traditional 8-modes classification system. He also tried to guess and reconstruct the relations and history of these modes and scales, as well as regularities of their internal interval structure.
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Studying color perception adequately requires studying more than "pure" color (e.g., hue, saturation, and brightness). Fully understanding color perception also requires studying texture, regularities governing the interaction of light with different types of surfaces, the ways in which perceivers internally represent regions of space, and many other factors. The overall context of visual perception is crucial for color perception.
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In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in theories and methods that show promise for capturing and modeling the regularities underlying multiple interacting and changing processes. Dynamic systems theory is one of them. Many theorists, including Case, Demetriou,Demetriou, A., Christou, C., Spanoudis, G., & Platsidou, M. (2002). The development of mental processing: Efficiency, working memory, and thinking.
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The objective function thus motivates the action optimizer to create action sequences causing more wow-effects. Irregular, random data (or noise) do not permit any wow-effects or learning progress, and thus are "boring" by nature (providing no reward). Already known and predictable regularities also are boring. Temporarily interesting are only the initially unknown, novel, regular patterns in both actions and observations.
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While a traditional economist will view decision making as having both implicit and explicit consequences, a cultural economist would argue that an individual will not only arrive at their decision based on these implicit and explicit decisions but based on trajectories. These trajectories consist of regularities, which have been built up throughout the years and guide individuals in their decision-making process.
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Natural patterns form as wind blows sand in the dunes of the Namib Desert. The crescent shaped dunes and the ripples on their surfaces repeat wherever there are suitable conditions. Patterns of the veiled chameleon, Chamaeleo calyptratus, provide camouflage and signal mood as well as breeding condition. Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world.
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Exploring the comet systems, Guliyev has found more than 50 new regularities. He studied the question of the interaction of comets and planets, has predicted an existence of unknown planetary bodies in the trans-neptunian zone. Guliyev has advanced a new theory on the origin of short-perihelion comet groups. Jointly with S. K.Vsekhsvyatsky he has predicted tectonic activity of moons of Uranus.
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Easton aspired to make politics a science, that is, working with highly abstract models that described the regularities of patterns and processes in political life in general. In his view, the highest level of abstraction could make scientific generalizations about politics possible. In sum, politics should be seen as a whole, not as a collection of different problems to be solved.Easton, David. (1953).
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As in humans, research with animals distinguishes between "working" or "short-term" memory from "reference" or long-term memory. Tests of working memory evaluate memory for events that happened in the recent past, usually within the last few seconds or minutes. Tests of reference memory evaluate memory for regularities such as "pressing a lever brings food" or "children give me peanuts".
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This transcription often contains additional information about nonverbal communication and the way in which people say things. Jefferson transcription is a commonly used method of transcription. After transcription, the researchers perform inductive data-driven analysis aiming to find recurring patterns of interaction. Based on the analysis, the researchers identify regularities, rules or models to describe these patterns, enhancing, modifying or replacing initial hypotheses.
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This is because she is becoming more sensitive to the differences. She can tell what cry is because they are hungry, need to be changed, etc. Extensive practice reading in English leads to extraction and rapid processing of the structural regularities of English spelling patterns. The word superiority effect demonstrates this—people are often much faster at recognizing words than individual letters.
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These include the (mentioned above) regularity, probabilistic, counterfactual, mechanistic, and manipulationist views. The five approaches can be shown to be reductive, i.e., define causality in terms of relations of other types. According to this reading, they define causality in terms of, respectively, empirical regularities (constant conjunctions of events), changes in conditional probabilities, counterfactual conditions, mechanisms underlying causal relations, and invariance under intervention.
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They concluded that varied practice was underused. Apfelbaum, Hazeltine and McMurray (2013) found consistent benefits of varied practice for children learning phonics regularities in English. Children who practiced the vowel rules of English in varied consonant contexts showed substantially stronger learning of the vowel rules than children who practiced in constrained contexts. These benefits of varied practice included generalization to new tasks and new items.
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A long period of silence ensued with podium regularities conducting without Senna. Senna was disqualified for re-entering the track illegally, ultimately quashing his chances for a second title. Senna made a case to the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), however his case was dismissed swiftly. Senna would continue to protest throughout the off-season, with his ultimate battle just beginning to heat up.
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Behavioral measures of primary consciousness can be either objective or subjective. Regarding objective measures, knowledge is unconscious if it expresses itself in an indirect test. For example, the ability to pick which item might come next in a series can indicate unconscious knowledge of regularities in sequences. "Strategic control measures" use a person's ability to deliberately use or not use knowledge according to instructions.
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Internally, parametric audio coding algorithms operate on 10 ms PCM frames using a model of the human voice. Each of these audio segments is declared voiced (vowel) or unvoiced (consonant). Codec 2 uses sinusoidal coding to model speech, which is closely related to that of multi-band excitation codecs. Sinusoidal coding is based on regularities (periodicity) in the pattern of overtone frequencies and layers harmonic sinusoids.
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Torretti 1999 p. 101–02. Berkeley did not object to everyday talk about the reality of objects, but instead took issue with philosophers' talk, who spoke as if they knew something beyond sensory impressions that ordinary folk did not.Torretti 1999 p. 102. For Berkeley, a scientific theory does not state causes or explanations, but simply identifies perceived types of objects and traces their typical regularities.
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Proponents of the genetic approach (Vladimir Bazarov, Vladimir Groman, Nikolai Kondratiev) believed that the plan should be based on objective regularities of economic development, identified as a result of an analysis of existing trends. Proponents of the teleological approach (Gleb Krzhizhanovsky, Valerian Kuybyshev, Stanislav Strumilin) believed that the plan should transform the economy and proceed from future structural changes, production opportunities and rigid discipline.
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A key technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to fixate on every word in a text, but instead pause on some words mentally while their eyes are moving. This is possible because human languages show certain linguistic regularities.
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For example, fi / fii / means star, set / sææt / means sea, il for / iil / means mother. 5\. In writing morphophonemic regularities such as the predictable vowel qualities before possessive suffixes, the Carolinian paid no attention to the underlying regulations. On the order hand, they focus totally on the surface phones. This is the same as Chamorro practice as well as to most of other Micronesian orthographies. '6.
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A discursive formation is defined as the regularities that produce such discourse. Discourse (acts of speaking and writing) is the medium by which an individual's behavior is framed for him/her and others. We are who we are, based on our communicative practices with others. Foucault uses this concept in his analysis of the political economy and natural history, but it's very useful when studying organizational communication.
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Instead, he argued for the use of the comparative method to find regularities in human societies and thereby build up a genuinely scientific knowledge of social life. : :"For social anthropology the task is to formulate and validate statements about the conditions of existence of social systems (laws of social statics) and the regularities that are observable in social change (laws of social dynamics). This can only be done by the systematic use of the comparative method, and the only justification of that method is the expectation that it will provide us with results of this kind, or, as Boas stated it, will provide us with knowledge of the laws of social development. It will be only in an integrated and organised study in which historical studies and sociological studies are combined that we shall be able to reach a real understanding of the development of human society"A.
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The term "middle-range theory" does not refer to a specific theory, but is rather an approach to theory construction. Raymond Boudon defines middle-range theory as a commitment to two ideas. The first is positive, and describes what such theories should do: sociological theories, like all scientific theories, should aim to consolidate otherwise segregated hypotheses and empirical regularities; "if a 'theory' is valid, it 'explains' and in other words 'consolidates' and federates empirical regularities which on their side would appear otherwise segregated." The other is negative, and it relates to what theory cannot do: "it is hopeless and quixotic to try to determine the overarching independent variable that would operate in all social processes, or to determine the essential feature of social structure, or to find out the two, three, or four couples of concepts ... that would be sufficient to analyze all social phenomena".
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Because of the geography of the bay there is only a small exchange of water from the bay with the sea. Consequently, the marine life in the bay is different from that in the nearby sea. The bay houses a rare species of finless porpoise, which does not leave the bay during its lifetime. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins and common dolphins may migrate into the basin on unclear regularities.
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The reality is not static but it always evolves, even though some regularities and laws may be identified. Due to that, the effort associated with organizing the world adequately to our own needs continues through the whole life. It cannot be ceased because of the second law of thermodynamics. In order to decrease its own entropy and the entropy of its immediate surroundings, the organism must expend energy.
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Theoretical quantum-mechanical calculations become rather accurate to describe the energy structure of some simple electronic configurations. The results of theoretical developments were summarized by Condon and Shortley in 1935. Edlén thoroughly analyzed spectra of MIA for many chemical elements and derived regularities in energy structures of MIA for many isoelectronic sequences (ions with the same number of electrons, but different nuclear charges). Spectra of rather high ionization stages (e.g.
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Satellite view of cyclone. Satellite view of Manhattan. As mentioned above, granular computing is not an algorithm or process; there is no particular method that is called "granular computing". It is rather an approach to looking at data that recognizes how different and interesting regularities in the data can appear at different levels of granularity, much as different features become salient in satellite images of greater or lesser resolution.
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The institutionalization of this kind of sociology is often credited to Paul Lazarsfeld, who pioneered large-scale survey studies and developed statistical techniques for analyzing them. This approach lends itself to what Robert K. Merton called middle-range theory: abstract statements that generalize from segregated hypotheses and empirical regularities rather than starting with an abstract idea of a social whole.Boudon, Raymond. 1991. "Review: What Middle-Range Theories are".
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Rising global iron-ore prices driven by Chinese demand brought focus to the iron ore rich Bellary region of Karnataka. This iron ore is alleged to have been illegally mined after paying a minuscule royalty to the government. The major regularities involve mines in Bellary, including those of Obulapuram Mining Company owned by G. Karunakara Reddy and G. Janardhana Reddy who were ministers in the Government of Karnataka at the time.
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JODE intends to be the premier demography & economics outlet for empirical contributions that are firmly grounded in theory as well as theoretical papers that are motivated by empirical regularities and findings. The editor-in-Chief of JODE is David de la Croix (UClouvain) and Murat Iyigun (University of Colorado at Boulder) is the Co-Editor. According to the Journal Citation Reports, JODE has an impact factor of 1.026 in 2017.
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The role of statistical learning in language acquisition has been particularly well documented in the area of lexical acquisition. One important contribution to infants' understanding of segmenting words from a continuous stream of speech is their ability to recognize statistical regularities of the speech heard in their environments. Although many factors play an important role, this specific mechanism is powerful and can operate over a short time scale.
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Structural regularities enable the prediction of as yet unspecified elements, much as occurred with the discovery of the periodic table of chemical elements. Although many parts of the Taxonomy are as yet unformulated, in 2012-2014, Kinston proposed an evolutionary basis for the discovered architecture. In 2007, Kinston introduced THEE by invitation at the Global Organization Design Conference in Toronto, Canada. He then launched the THEE Online Project in 2008.
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The bias-variance tradeoff is a central problem in supervised learning. Ideally, one wants to choose a model that both accurately captures the regularities in its training data, but also generalizes well to unseen data. Unfortunately, it is typically impossible to do both simultaneously. High-variance learning methods may be able to represent their training set well but are at risk of overfitting to noisy or unrepresentative training data.
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It had four editions in the USSR and was translated in a number of foreign countries. Kravkov’s wide range of scientific interests included: adaptation and interaction of the senses organs, contrast, successive images, synesthesia, bioelectricity of different levels of visual system (retina, cerebral subcortex and cortex), interaction of macular and peripheral spheres of the retina, induction of retina, electrophysiology of the eyesight (electric sensibility of the eye, lability, electroretinogram), colour eyesight and its anomalies, sensorial classical conditioning, glaucoma diagnosis methods (by colour sensation and by the reaction of a blind spot) and many other items. Kravkov is one of the founders of physiological optics, a scientific discipline representing a synthesis of knowledge about physiological, psychical and psychological regularities that characterize the function of the eyesight organ. He studied the regularities of the functioning of the vision system, central regulation of vision functions, interaction of senses organs, electrophysiology of vision, investigated colour vision and the hygienics of lightning.
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After Mendels studies and discoveries more and more new discoveries about genetics were made. Mendel himself has said that the regularities he discovered apply only to the organisms and characteristics he consciously chose for his experiments. Mendel explained inheritance in terms of discrete factors—genes—that are passed along from generation to generation according to the rules of probability. Mendel's laws are valid for all sexually reproducing organisms, including garden peas and human beings.
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This leads to a breakdown of image quality at higher sensitivities in two ways: noise levels increase and fine detail is smoothed out by the more aggressive noise reduction. In cases of extreme noise, such as astronomical images of very distant objects, it is not so much a matter of noise reduction as of extracting a little information buried in a lot of noise; techniques are different, seeking small regularities in massively random data.
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Petviashvili was born in Tbilisi to a family of scientists in 1936. In 1959, he graduated from Tbilisi State University. After defending his doctoral dissertation in March 1979, Petviashvili expanded his research interests to nonlinear drift waves and drift turbulence, which were critical in the development of the theory of plasmas. Petviashvili showed that drift turbulence can have some regularities in its chaotic structure and consists of structural elements— two-dimensional soliton vortices.
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In it he asserted that even in a field dominated by people's impulses to buy, that of marketing, there are striking regularities. The discovery and development of such lawlike relationships, was described in series of papers.Ehrenberg, A., (1966) Laws in Marketing – A tailpiece, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series C, 15, 257–268.Ehrenberg, A., (1968) The Elements of lawlike relationships, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A, 131, 280–329.
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Eric Hattan departs from concrete objects and spaces. He questions places, architectures and situations of all-day-life through breaking regularities and subversing the assumed stasis of the world with playful irony. The rearrangement of clothing, furniture, pedestals or monitors plays a decisive role in his oeuvre, even became independent and exposes given situations to unbiased observation. Eric Hattan directs his gaze on processes and incidents in the urban space through his video camera.
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A numeric sequence is said to be statistically random when it contains no recognizable patterns or regularities; sequences such as the results of an ideal dice roll or the digits of π exhibit statistical randomness.Pi seems a good random number generator – but not always the best, Chad Boutin, Purdue University Statistical randomness does not necessarily imply "true" randomness, i.e., objective unpredictability. Pseudorandomness is sufficient for many uses, such as statistics, hence the name statistical randomness.
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Venda tried to revise the traditional psychological view of learning processing. Unlike Herman Ebbinghaus's unified exponential theory of teaching (1890), Venda proposed a transformational learning theory (based on his transformational laws). He presented this as a wave-shaped learning curve with periods of decline in the transition from one activity structure to the next. His transformational learning theory greatly expands the possibilities of analyzing regularities and predicting individual development and systemic progress.
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His attempt at 'codification' sought to determine which social structure[s] "provide an institutional context for the fullest measure of [scientific] development", i.e. lead to scientific achievement rather than only "potentialities". He saw these "institutional imperatives (mores)" as being derived from the [institutional] "goal of science" ("the extension of certified knowledge") and "technical methods employed [to] provide the relevant definition of knowledge: empirically confirmed and logically consistent statements of regularities (which are, in effect, predictions)".
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Building off of the work of her doctoral advisor, Noam Chomsky, Fodor wrote an article on the importance of identifying empty categories in sentence processing. Empty categories can “account for certain regularities of sentence structure”, and attaching it with a previous word or phrase can help determine what it means. Figuring out and understanding the meaning of empty categories requires a linguistic background, but all language-speakers have the ability to use empty categories.
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Lesions at this location result in pure alexia, a deficit in word recognition, while other language abilities remain intact. The visual word form area is activated by reading real words and pseudowords more so than random consonant strings, suggesting that it has adapted to incorporate orthographic regularities in language. It also consistently represents visual words regardless of irrelevant variations, which side of the visual field they're presented on, or whether they're uppercase or lowercase.
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This new science was not interested in revealed knowledge or a priori knowledge but in the workings of humanity: human practices, and social variety and regularities. Western thought, therefore, received a significant movement towards cultural relativism, where cross-cultural comparison became the dominant methodology. Importantly, social science was created by philosophers who sought to turn ideas into actions and to unite theory and practice in an attempt to restructure society as a whole.
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In September 2008, a special committee of Punjab Vidhan Sabha, during the tenure of a government led by Akali Dal-Bharatiya Janata Party, expelled him on the count of regularities in the transfer of land related to the Amritsar Improvement Trust. In 2010, the Supreme Court of India held his expulsion unconstitutional on the grounds that it was excessive and unconstitutional. He was appointed as chairman of Punjab Congress Campaign Committee in 2008.
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Created in February 2016, AIVA specializes in Classical and Symphonic music composition. It became the world’s first virtual composer to be recognized by a music society (SACEM). By reading a large collection of existing works of classical music (written by human composers such as Bach, Beethoven, Mozart) AIVA is capable of detecting regularities in music and on this base composing on its own. The algorithm AIVA is based on deep learning and reinforcement learning architectures.
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Sergey Vasilyevich Kravkov (Russian: Сергéй Васи́льевич Кравко́в; 1893–1951) was a Russian psychologist and psychophysiologist, Doctor of Science in Biology (1935), Corresponding Member of the Academy of Science of the USSR and the Academy of Medical Science of the USSR (1946). He is considered one of the founders of physiological optics, a scientific discipline that studies physiological processes, physical and psychic regularities which characterize the functioning of the organs of human vision.
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In macroeconomics, recursive competitive equilibrium (RCE) is an equilibrium concept. It has been widely used in exploring a wide variety of economic issues including business-cycle fluctuations, monetary and fiscal policy, trade related phenomena, and regularities in asset price co-movements. This is the equilibrium associated with dynamic programs that represent the decision problem when agents must distinguish between aggregate and individual state variables. These state variables embody the prior and current information of the economy.
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Financial Stability and Development Council (FSDC) is an apex-level body constituted by the government of India. The idea to create such a super regulatory body was first mooted by the Raghuram Rajan Committee in 2008. Finally in 2010, the then Finance Minister of India, Pranab Mukherjee, decided to set up such an autonomous body dealing with macro prudential and financial regularities in the entire financial sector of India. An apex-level FSDC is not a statutory body.
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Hence, human knowledge is reduced to two elements: that of spirits and of ideas (Principles #86). In contrast to ideas, a spirit cannot be perceived. A person's spirit, which perceives ideas, is to be comprehended intuitively by inward feeling or reflection (Principles #89). For Berkeley, we have no direct 'idea' of spirits, albeit we have good reason to believe in the existence of other spirits, for their existence explains the purposeful regularities we find in experience.
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Support vector machines (SVMs) are supervised learning methods used for classification and regression analysis by recognizing patterns and regularities in the data. Standard SVMs require a positive definite kernel to generate a squared kernel matrix from the data. Sepp Hochreiter proposed the "Potential Support Vector Machine" (PSVM), which can be applied to non-square kernel matrices and can be used with kernels that are not positive definite. For PSVM model selection he developed an efficient sequential minimal optimization algorithm.
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"Fencepost error" can, in rare occasions, refer to an error induced by unexpected regularities in input values, which can (for instance) completely thwart a theoretically efficient binary tree or hash function implementation. This error involves the difference between expected and worst case behaviours of an algorithm. In larger numbers, being off by one is often not a major issue. In smaller numbers, however, and specific cases where accuracy is paramount committing an off-by-one error can be disastrous.
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1\. Regularities for consistent phase transitions in spontaneous-polarized crystals have been given. 2\. A new relax or ferroelectrics class has been determined on the base of TlİnS2 and TlGaSe2 crystals. 3\. Superionic conductivity in TlİnS2 and TlGaSe2 crystals has been observed and its radiation dose dependence kinetics has been studied. The results of these studies have been published in the form of article in 33 peer-reviewed scientific journals and 49 articles in Republic publications.
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Some of Schwann's earliest work in 1835 involved muscle contraction, which he saw as a starting point for "the introduction of calculation to physiology". He developed and described an experimental method to calculate the contraction force of the muscle, by controlling and measuring the other variables involved. His measurement technique was developed and used later by Emil du Bois-Reymond and others. Schwann's notes suggest that he hoped to discover regularities and laws of physiological processes.
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Guerry worked with the data on crime statistics in France collected as part of the General office for administration of criminal justice in France, the first centralized national system of crime reporting. Guerry was so fascinated with these data, and the possibility to discover empirical regularities and laws that might govern them, that he gave up the active practice of law to devote the rest of his life to study crime and its relation to other moral variables.
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Max and Moritz. Max and Moritz: A Story of Seven Boyish Pranks (original: Max und Moritz – Eine Bubengeschichte in sieben Streichen) is a German language illustrated story in verse. This highly inventive, blackly humorous tale, told entirely in rhymed couplets, was written and illustrated by Wilhelm Busch and published in 1865. It is among the early works of Busch, yet it already featured many substantial, effectually aesthetic and formal regularities, procedures and basic patterns of Busch's later works.
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From the birth of their science, biologists have sought to explain apparent regularities in observational data. In his biology, Aristotle inferred rules governing differences between live-bearing tetrapods (in modern terms, terrestrial placental mammals). Among his rules were that brood size decreases with adult body mass, while lifespan increases with gestation period and with body mass, and fecundity decreases with lifespan. Thus, for example, elephants have smaller and fewer broods than mice, but longer lifespan and gestation.
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In 1985, Bybee published her influential volume Morphology: A study of the Relation between Meaning and Form, in which she uncovered semantic regularities across 50 genetically and geographically diverse languages. These meaning similarities manifest themselves in recurring cross- linguistic patterns in morphological systems with respect to tense, aspect and mood. This work runs counter to Chomskyan generative theory, which describes grammar as an independent module of the brain that works in an abstract manner completely detached from semantic considerations.
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Querying the CPPN to determine the connection weight between two neurons as a function of their position in space. Note sometimes the distance between them is also passed as an argument. Hypercube-based NEAT, or HyperNEAT, is a generative encoding that evolves artificial neural networks (ANNs) with the principles of the widely used NeuroEvolution of Augmented Topologies (NEAT) algorithm. It is a novel technique for evolving large-scale neural networks using the geometric regularities of the task domain.
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Striking regularities were observed, amongst others "that when a nitrile [tertiary] base possesses a strychnialike action, the salts of the corresponding ammonium [quaternary] bases have an action identical with curare [poison]." He discovered the carbon double bond of ethylene, which was to have important implications for the modern plastics industry. He also made significant contributions to pharmacology, and worked with physiology, phonetics, mathematics and crystallography. In 1912, he introduced the name of kerogen to cover the insoluble organic matter in oil shale.
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Markov chains are used throughout information processing. Claude Shannon's famous 1948 paper A Mathematical Theory of Communication, which in a single step created the field of information theory, opens by introducing the concept of entropy through Markov modeling of the English language. Such idealized models can capture many of the statistical regularities of systems. Even without describing the full structure of the system perfectly, such signal models can make possible very effective data compression through entropy encoding techniques such as arithmetic coding.
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Out of these observation the thesis can be built that the MMN is essential for the establishment and maintenance of representations of the acoustic environment and for processes of the auditory scene analysis. But only the ERAN is completely based on learning to build up a structural model, which is established with reference to representations of syntactic regularities already existing in a long-term memory format. Considering effects of training both the ERAN and the MMN can be modulated by training.
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Twelve words were excluded because proto-words had been proposed for two or fewer language families. The remaining 188 words yielded 3804 different reconstructions (sometimes with multiple constructions for a given family). In contrast to traditional comparative linguistics, the researchers did not attempt to "prove" any given pairing as cognates (based on similar sounds), but rather treated each pairing as a binary random variable subject to error. The set of possible cognate pairings was then analyzed as a whole for predictable regularities.
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Most of the different explanations that have been forwarded to explain the regularities in species abundance and geographic distribution mentioned above similarly predict a positive distribution–abundance relationship. This makes it difficult to test the validity of each explanation. A key challenge is therefore to distinguish between the various mechanisms that have been proposed to underlie these near universal patterns. The effect of either niche dynamics or neutral dynamics represent two opposite views and many explanations take up intermediate positions.
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Essential kenosis is a form of process theology, (also known as "open theism") that allows one to affirm that God is almighty, while simultaneously affirming that God cannot prevent genuine evil. Because out of love God necessarily gives freedom, agency, self-organization, natural processes, and law-like regularities to creation, God cannot override, withdraw, or fail to provide such capacities. Consequently, God is not culpable for failing to prevent genuine evil. Thomas Jay Oord's work explains this view most fully.
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Perception of Glass patterns and mirror symmetries in the presence of noise follows Weber's law in the middle range of regularity-to-noise ratios (S), but in both outer ranges, sensitivity to variations is disproportionally lower. As Maloney, Mitchison, & Barlow (1987) showed for Glass patterns, and as van der Helm (2010) showed for mirror symmetries, perception of these visual regularities in the whole range of regularity-to-noise ratios follows the law p = g/(2+1/S) with parameter g to be estimated using experimental data.
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During such long-term observations by "NP" stations, a lot of important discoveries in physical geography were made, valuable conclusions on regularities and the connection between processes in the polar region of the Earth's hydrosphere and atmosphere were obtained. Some of the most important discoveries were finding the deep-water Lomonosov Ridge, which crosses the Arctic Ocean, other large features of the ocean bottom's relief, the discovery of two systems of the drift (circular and "wash-out"), the fact of cyclones' active penetration into the Central Arctic.
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A sentence is determined to be grammatically correct if a final state is reached by the last word in the sentence. This model meets many of the goals set forth by the nature of language in that it captures the regularities of the language. That is, if there is a process that operates in a number of environments, the grammar should encapsulate the process in a single structure. Such encapsulation not only simplifies the grammar, but has the added bonus of efficiency of operation.
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Miguel Antonio Catalán Sañudo (1920) Miguel Antonio Catalán Sañudo (1894–1957) was a Spanish spectroscopist. Born in Zaragoza, he obtained his degree in chemistry from the University of Zaragoza and received his doctorate in Madrid in 1917 for his thesis about spectrochemistry. In 1920, he began work as a researcher at Imperial College London. Examining the spectrum of the arc of manganese, he determined that the optical spectra of complex atoms consisted of groups of lines –which he called "multipletes"- between which existed certain characteristic regularities.
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Generally speaking, as the number of compartments increase, it is challenging both to find the algebraic and numerical solutions of the model. However, there are special cases of models, which rarely exist in nature, when the topologies exhibit certain regularities that the solutions become easier to find. The model can be classified according to the interconnection of cells and input/output characteristics: #Closed model: No sinks or source, lit. all koi = 0 and ui = 0; #Open model: There are sinks or/and sources among cells.
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Musically, the structural regularities of the Well-Tempered Clavier encompass an extraordinarily wide range of styles, more so than most pieces in the literature. The preludes are formally free, although many of them exhibit typical Baroque melodic forms, often coupled to an extended free coda (e.g. Book I preludes in C minor, D major, and B major). The preludes are also notable for their odd or irregular numbers of measures, in terms of both the phrases and the total number of measures in a given prelude.
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The council's spokesman, Abbas-Ali Kadkhodaei, stated that, "Statistics provided by Mohsen Rezaei in which he claims more than 100% of those eligible have cast their ballot in 170 cities are not accurate -- the incident has happened in only 50 cities." The council also reported that these regularities would affect approximately 3 million votes, but stated that, "it has yet to be determined whether the amount is decisive in the election results."Guardian Council: Over 100% voted in 50 cities. Press TV. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
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Organizing the elements into subgroups of even and odd atomicity revealed "extraordinary regularities". While Blomsrand's system was a significant advance toward developing a periodic table of the elements, it did not account well for metals. Blomstrand included his system in his revised edition of Nils Johan Berlins popular textbook in 1870, and in his own textbooks in 1873 and 1875. Dmitri Mendeleev, later credited with developing the periodic table in widespread use, credited Blomstrand with important early advances leading to the organization of the periodic system.
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He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers', a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology.
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Converging empirical evidence indicates a functional equivalence between action execution and motor imagery. Motor imagery has been studied using the classical methods of introspection and mental chronometry. These methods have revealed that motor images retain many of the properties, in terms of temporal regularities, programming rules and biomechanical constraints, which are observed in the corresponding real action when it comes to execution. For instance, in an experiment participants were instructed to walk mentally through gates of a given apparent width positioned at different apparent distances.
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Rule-based machine translation (RBMT; "Classical Approach" of MT) is machine translation systems based on linguistic information about source and target languages basically retrieved from (unilingual, bilingual or multilingual) dictionaries and grammars covering the main semantic, morphological, and syntactic regularities of each language respectively. Having input sentences (in some source language), an RBMT system generates them to output sentences (in some target language) on the basis of morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of both the source and the target languages involved in a concrete translation task.
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Cognitive development theory argues that children are active in defining gender and behaving in ways that reflect their perceptions of gender roles. Children are in search of regularities and consistencies in their environment, and the pursuit of cognitive consistency motivates children to behave in ways that are congruent with the societal constructions of gender. Gender schema theory is a hybrid model that combines social learning and cognitive development theories. Daryl J. Bem argues that children have a cognitive readiness to learn about themselves and their surroundings.
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Even fundamental learning processes are, in some sense, forms of prospection. Associative learning enables individual animals to track local regularities in their environments and adapt their behaviour accordingly, in order to maximise their chances of positive outcomes and minimise risks. Animals that are capable of positive and negative states (for example pleasure and pain) can eventually learn about the consequences of their actions and thereby predict imminent rewards and punishments before they occur. This enables animals to change their current actions accordingly in line with prospective consequences.
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He also says that living systems (like the game of chess), while emergent, cannot be reduced to underlying laws of emergence: > Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy; they do not in fact 'generate' > anything. They serve merely to describe regularities and consistent > relationships in nature. These patterns may be very illuminating and > important, but the underlying causal agencies must be separately specified > (though often they are not). But that aside, the game of chess illustrates > ... why any laws or rules of emergence and evolution are insufficient.
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Others therefore suggested renaming the study of language-dependent pronunciation phonemics or phonematics instead, but this did not gain widespread acceptance either, so the terms graphemics and graphematics became more frequent. Graphemics examines the specifics of written texts in a certain language and their correspondence to the spoken language. One major task is the descriptive analysis of implicit regularities in written words and texts (graphotactics) to formulate explicit rules (orthography) for the writing system that can be used in prescriptive education or in computer linguistics, e.g. for speech synthesis.
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Berkeley's razor is a rule of reasoning proposed by the philosopher Karl Popper in his study of Berkeley's key scientific work De Motu. Berkeley's razor is considered by Popper to be similar to Ockham's razor but "more powerful". It represents an extreme, empiricist view of scientific observation that states that the scientific method provides us with no true insight into the nature of the world. Rather, the scientific method gives us a variety of partial explanations about regularities that hold in the world and that are gained through experiment.
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Ford's principal research was in the theory of nuclear structure, with some work in particle and mathematical physics. He exploited the nuclear shell model and the collective, or unified, model, and also worked extensively on muonic atoms. His first paper, co- authored with David Bohm in 1950, used data from low-energy neutron scattering to give evidence for the transparency of nuclei to neutrons. A 1953 paper showed how regularities in the energies of the first excited states of even- even nuclei can be interpreted in terms of the deformations of these nuclei.
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Gray accepted that there are many unconscious systems that detect errors, so this on its own does not establish a survival value for consciousness. However, he distinguished consciousness as being multi-modal, and as directing us towards whatever is most novel within several modalities. Gray argued that the brain takes account of plans as to what to do next, plus memories of past regularities, in assessing what is likely to be the next stage of a particular process. These predictions are submitted to a comparator, but still at an unconscious stage.
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Silvia Ferrara has prepared an even more comprehensive edition of the corpus as a companion volume to her analytic survey of 2012. In 2012–2013, Ferrara published two volumes of her research, where she studied the script in its archaeological context. She also largely used statistical and combinatoric methods to study the structure of large texts and to detect regularities in the use of the signs. Her work is interesting for substantiated contesting of several important hypotheses largely accepted before, namely related to the emergence, chronological classification, language and "non-Minoan" attribution of the texts.
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Differences were found in lateralization tendencies as language tasks favoured the left hemisphere, but the majority of activations were bilateral which produced significant overlap across modalities. Syntactical information mechanisms in both music and language have been shown to be processed similarly in the brain. Jentschke, Koelsch, Sallat and Friederici (2008) conducted a study investigating the processing of music in children with specific language impairments (SLI). Children with typical language development (TLD) showed ERP patterns different from those of children with SLI, which reflected their challenges in processing music- syntactic regularities.
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Einstein's brain was preserved after his death in 1955, but this fact was not revealed until 1978. The brain of Albert Einstein has been a subject of much research and speculation. Albert Einstein's brain was removed within seven and a half hours of his death. His brain has attracted attention because of his reputation as one of the foremost geniuses of the 20th century, and apparent regularities or irregularities in the brain have been used to support various ideas about correlations in neuroanatomy with general or mathematical intelligence.
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A random scattering of letters, punctuation marks and spaces do not exhibit these regularities. Zipf's law attempts to state this analysis mathematically. By contrast, cryptographers typically seek to make their cipher texts resemble random distributions, to avoid telltale repetitions and patterns which may give an opening for cryptanalysis. It is harder for cryptographers to deal with the presence or absence of meaning in a text in which the level of redundancy and repetition is higher than found in natural languages (for example, in the mysterious text of the Voynich manuscript).
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It tells economists, primarily, how not to do economic analysis. The Lucas critique suggests that if we want to predict the effect of a policy experiment, we should model the "deep parameters" (relating to preferences, technology, and resource constraints) that are assumed to govern individual behavior: so-called "microfoundations." If these models can account for observed empirical regularities, we can then predict what individuals will do, taking into account the change in policy, and then aggregate the individual decisions to calculate the macroeconomic effects of the policy change.Lucas (1976), p. 21.
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Voeltz & Kilian-Hatz 2001 Despite this diversity, ideophones show a number of robust regularities across languages. One is that they are often marked in the same way as quoted speech and demonstrations. Sometimes ideophones can form a complete utterance on their own, as in English "ta-da!" or Japanese .Diffloth 1972 However, ideophones also often occur within utterances, depicting a scene described by other elements of the utterance, as in Japanese Taro wa _sutasuta to_ haya-aruki o si-ta 'Taro walked hurriedly' (literally 'Taro did haste-walk sutasuta').
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Descartes rejects the teleological, or purposive, view of the material world that was dominant in the West from the time of Aristotle. The mind is not viewed by Descartes as part of the material world, and hence is not subject to the strictly mechanical laws of nature. Motion and rest, on the other hand, are properties of the interactions of matter according to eternally fixed mechanical laws. God only sets the whole thing in motion at the start, and later does not interfere except to maintain the dynamical regularities of the mechanical behavior of bodies.
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A convention is an agreement among the members of a community to abide by a single way of doing things. Linguists capture their regularities in "descriptive rules" – that is, rules that describe how people speak and understand. A subset of these conventions is less widespread and natural, but has become accepted by a smaller community of literate speakers for use in public forums such as government, journalism, literature, business, and academia. These conventions are "prescriptive rules" – rules that prescribe how one ought to speak and write in these forums.
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Mearsheimer and Walt from Harvard University wrote the article Leaving theory behind: Why simplistic hypothesis testing is bad for International Relations. They point out that in recent years, scholars of international relations have devoted less effort to creating and refining theories or using them to guide empirical research. Instead is a focus on what they call a simplistic hypothesis testing, which emphasizes discovering well-verified empirical regularities. They state that to be a mistake because insufficient attention to theory leads to misspecified empirical models or misleading measures of key concepts.
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While specific values of f_i and \tau_i are not universal and change within collections of specimens, typical values confirm the above regularities. In CdS, with E_i\approx6 meV, were observed impurity- exciton oscillator strengths f_i\approx 10. The value f_i>1 per a single impurity center should not be surprising because the transition is a collective process including many electrons in the region of the volume of about a_i^3>>v. High oscillator strength results in low-power optical saturation and radiative life times \tau_i\approx 500 ps.
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Posner writes that his "larger ambition is to present a theory of sexuality that both explains the principal regularities in the practice of sex and in its social, including legal, regulation and points the way toward reforms in that regulation—thus a theory at once positive (descriptive) and normative (ethical)." He refers to this approach to the study of sexual behavior and its social regulation as "the economic theory of sexuality", describing it as, "Functional, secular, instrumental" and "utilitarian". Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. Posner discusses Freud's work.
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Kaldor's growth laws are a series of three laws relating to the causation of economic growth. Looking at the countries of the world now and through time Nicholas Kaldor noted a high correlation between living standards and the share of resources devoted to industrial activity, at least up to some level of income. Only New Zealand, Australia and Canada have become rich whilst relying mainly on agriculture. He proposed three laws on these empirical regularities: #The growth of the GDP is positively related to the growth of the manufacturing sector.
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While statistical learning improves and strengthens multilingualism, it appears that the inverse is not true. In a study by Yim and Rudoy it was found that both monolingual and bilingual children perform statistical learning tasks equally well. Antovich and Graf Estes found that 14 month old bilingual children are better than monolinguals at segmenting two different artificial languages using transitional probability cues. They suggest that a bilingual environment in early childhood trains children to rely on statistical regularities to segment the speech flow and access two lexical systems.
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Cumulative prospect theory is one popular generalization of expected utility theory that can predict many behavioral regularities . However, the overweighting of small probability events introduced in cumulative prospect theory may restore the St. Petersburg paradox. Cumulative prospect theory avoids the St. Petersburg paradox only when the power coefficient of the utility function is lower than the power coefficient of the probability weighting function . Intuitively, the utility function must not simply be concave, but it must be concave relative to the probability weighting function to avoid the St. Petersburg paradox.
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These differences are furthermore linked to the well-known patterns of under and overgeneralization in infant word learning. Research has also shown that the frequency in co-occurrence of referents is tracked as well, which helps create associations and dispel ambiguities in object-referent models. The ability to appropriately generalize to whole classes of yet unseen words, coupled with the abilities to parse continuous speech and keep track of word-ordering regularities, may be the critical skills necessary to develop proficiency with and knowledge of syntax and grammar.
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Santayana holds that reason bases itself on science, as "science contains all trustworthy knowledge." Though he acknowledges the limitations of science and reason in finding metaphysical truths, he holds the scientific method as "merely a shorthand description of regularities observed in our experience" and says in 'Reason in Common Sense': "faith in the intellect...is the only faith yet sanctioned by its fruits." Proposing no technically new metaphysic, Santayana instead applies old philosophies to the modern day. He admires the atomism of Democritus and emphasis upon technically reason of Aristotle.
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Systems theory also eventually went on to show that predictions that a high amount of cultural regularities would be found were certainly overly optimistic during the early stages of processual archaeology, (Trigger, 1989:312). the opposite of what processual archaeologists were hoping it would be able to do with systems theory. However, systems theory is still used to describe how variables inside a cultural system can interact. Systems theory, at least, was important in the rise of processual archaeology and was a call against culture-historical methods of past generations.
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It can take longer for school pupils to become independently fluent readers of English than of many other languages, including Italian, Spanish, and German. Nonetheless, there is an advantage for learners of English reading in learning the specific sound-symbol regularities that occur in the standard English spellings of commonly used words. Such instruction greatly reduces the risk of children experiencing reading difficulties in English. Making primary school teachers more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation in English may help learners learn more efficiently to read and write English.
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The position he advocates is rather that there are in the universe both regularities and irregularities. To explain the presence of such a universal "law" Peirce proposes a cosmological theory of evolution in which law develops out of chance. The hypothesis that out of irregularity, regularity constantly evolves seemed to him to have decided advantages not the least being its explanation of "why laws are not precisely or always obeyed, for what is still in a process of evolution can not be supposed to be absolutely fixed."Hamblin, pg. 380.
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Bullskin Township/Connellsville Township Joint Sewage Authority is a municipal authority providing sewage treatment in Bullskin Township and Connellsville Township in Fayette County, Pennsylvania. In 2008, an audit of the authority revealed billing regularities. A year later, the former executive director pleaded guilty to taking "unauthorized payroll disbursements" and taking cash from customers and was sentenced to up to 2 years in prison and ordered to repay $141,000. In 2009, the authority raised sewage rates $2.70, a move that was expected to generate $30,000, which would pay for $36,000 in capital improvements.
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Farmer is considered one of the founders of the field of "econophysics". This is distinguished from economics by a more data-driven approach to building fundamental models, breaking away from the standard theoretical template used in economics of utility maximization and equilibrium. Together with Michael Dempster of Cambridge, Farmer started a new journal called Quantitative Finance and served as the co- editor-in-chief for several years. His contributions to market microstructure include the identification of several striking empirical regularities in financial markets, such as the extraordinary persistence of order flow.
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Besides the Kantō region, the Kansai region is one of the leading industrial clusters and manufacturing centers for the Japanese economy. The size and industrial structure of cities in Japan have maintained tight regularities despite substantial churning of population and industries across cities overtime. Japan is the world's largest creditor nation. Japan generally runs an annual trade surplus and has a considerable net international investment surplus. As of 2010, Japan possesses 13.7% of the world's private financial assets (third largest in the world) at an estimated of $12.5trillion.
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Each string concatenated from symbols of this alphabet is called a word, and the words that belong to a particular formal language are sometimes called well-formed words or well- formed formulas. A formal language is often defined by means of a formal grammar such as a regular grammar or context-free grammar, which consists of its formation rules. The field of formal language theory studies primarily the purely syntactical aspects of such languages—that is, their internal structural patterns. Formal language theory sprang out of linguistics, as a way of understanding the syntactic regularities of natural languages.
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Sometimes between the 1950-1990s, cognitive scientist Jerry Fodor said that use theories of meaning (of the Wittgensteinian kind) seem to assume that language is solely a public phenomenon, that there is no such thing as a "private language". Fodor thinks it is necessary to create or describe the language of thought, which would seemingly require the existence of a "private language". In the 1960s, David Kellogg Lewis described meaning as use, a feature of a social convention and conventions as regularities of a specific sort. Lewis' work was an application of game theory in philosophical topics.
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Auditory Cortex As a child attempts to develop their language acquisition as one of the most fundamental human traits it is the brain that undergoes the developmental changes. During the phases of language acquisition the brain both stores linguistic information and adapts to the grammatical regularities and irregularities of language. Recent advances in Functional neuroimaging (fMRI) have contributed to the system leave analysis of the brain in relation to linguistic processing. In order for language to be obtained, there needs to be brain stimulation and memory processes at work in order to form the correct brain pathways.
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Even such a seemingly limited ordering makes it possible to fix systemic regularities of the sort shown by Feigenbaum numbers and strange attractors. (...) Different types of orderings in the chaos phase may be brought together under the notion of directing, for they point to a possible general direction of system development and even its extreme states. But even if a general path is known, enormous difficulties remain in linking algorithmically the present state with the final one and in operationalizing the algorithms. These objectives are realized in the next two large phases that I call predispositioning and programming.
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But Schmidhuber's objective function to be maximized also includes an additional, intrinsic term to model "wow-effects." This non- standard term motivates purely creative behavior of the agent even when there are no external goals. A wow-effect is formally defined as follows. As the agent is creating and predicting and encoding the continually growing history of actions and sensory inputs, it keeps improving the predictor or encoder, which can be implemented as an artificial neural network or some other machine learning device that can exploit regularities in the data to improve its performance over time.
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A significant contributor to the work of unavoidable patterns, or regularities, was Frank Ramsey in 1930. His important theorem states that for integers k, m≥2, there exists a least positive integer such that despite how a complete graph is colored with two colors, there will always exist a solid color subgraph of each color. Other contributors to the study of unavoidable patterns include van der Waerden. His theorem states that if the positive integers are partitioned into k classes, then there exists a class c such that c contains an arithmetic progression of some unknown length.
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One type of granulation is the quantization of variables. It is very common that in data mining or machine-learning applications the resolution of variables needs to be decreased in order to extract meaningful regularities. An example of this would be a variable such as "outside temperature" (temp), which in a given application might be recorded to several decimal places of precision (depending on the sensing apparatus). However, for purposes of extracting relationships between "outside temperature" and, say, "number of health-club applications" (club ), it will generally be advantageous to quantize "outside temperature" into a smaller number of intervals.
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Arithmetic — the science of numbers, their properties and their relations — is one of the main mathematical sciences. It is closely connected with algebra and the theory of numbers. The practical need for counting, elementary measurements and calculations became the reason for the emergence of arithmetic. The first authentic data on arithmetic knowledge are found in the historical monuments of Babylon and Ancient Egypt in the third and second millennia BC. The big contribution to the development of arithmetic was made by the ancient Greek mathematicians, in particular Pythagoreans, who tried to define all regularities of the world in terms of numbers.
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In phonology, an idiosyncratic property contrasts with a systematic regularity. While systematic regularities in the sound system of a language are useful for identifying phonological rules during analysis of the forms morphemes can take, idiosyncratic properties are those whose occurrence is not determined by those rules. For example, the fact that the English word cab starts with a /k/ is an idiosyncratic property; on the other hand that its vowel is longer than in the English word cap is a systematic regularity, as it arises from the fact that final consonant is voiced rather than voiceless.
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Chalmers believes the tentative variant of panpsychism outlined in The Conscious Mind (1996) does just that. Leaning toward the many-worlds interpretation due to its mathematical parsimony, he believes his variety of panpsychist property dualism may be the theory Penrose is seeking. Chalmers believes that information will play an integral role in any theory of consciousness because the mind and brain have corresponding informational structures. He considers the computational nature of physics further evidence of information's central role, and suggests that information that is physically realised is simultaneously phenomenally realised; both regularities in nature and conscious experience are expressions of information's underlying character.
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In 1969 Langbein published an article Dieter Langbein, Phys. Rev. 180, 633 - 648 The tight-binding and the Nearly-Free-Electron Approach to Lattice Electrons In external Magnetic Fields (1969) in which he demonstrated that the electron's energy sub-band disposal presents regularities which are connected to the Landau levels. In 1974 he published his first book, Theory of Van der Waals attraction.Langbein, Dieter Theory of Van der Waals Attraction, ( Springer-Verlag New York Heidelberg 1974) In 2002 he published his second book Capillary Surfaces: Shape - Stability - Dynamics in particular under weightlessness about the capillary effect.
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The part-words were syllable sequences composed of the last syllable from one word and the first two syllables from another (such as kupado). Because the part-words had been heard during the time when children were listening to the artificial grammar, preferential listening to these part-words would indicate that children were learning not only serial-order information, but also the statistical likelihood of hearing particular syllable sequences. Again, infants showed greater listening times to the novel (part-) words, indicating that 8-month- old infants were able to extract these statistical regularities from a continuous speech stream.
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Since the discovery of infants’ statistical learning abilities in word learning, the same general mechanism has also been studied in other facets of language learning. For example, it is well-established that infants can discriminate between phonemes of many different languages but eventually become unable to discriminate between phonemes that do not appear in their native language; however, it was not clear how this decrease in discriminatory ability came about. Maye et al. suggested that the mechanism responsible might be a statistical learning mechanism in which infants track the distributional regularities of the sounds in their native language.
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However, the precise ecology regularities of the fungus remain elusive, and P. brasiliensis has rarely been encountered in nature outside the human host. One such rare example of environmental isolation was reported in 1971 by Maria B.de Albornoz and colleagues who isolated P. brasiliensis from samples of rural soil collected in Paracotos in the state of Miranda, Venezuela. In in vitro studies, the fungus has been shown to grow when inoculated into soil and sterile horse or cow excrement. The mycelial phase has also been shown to survive longer than the yeast phase in acidic soil.
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Statistical language acquisition, a branch of developmental psycholinguistics, studies the process by which humans develop the ability to perceive, produce, comprehend, and communicate with natural language in all of its aspects (phonological, syntactic, lexical, morphological, semantic) through the use of general learning mechanisms operating on statistical patterns in the linguistic input. Statistical learning acquisition claims that infants language learning is based on pattern perception rather than an innate biological grammar. Several statistical elements such as frequency of words, frequent frames, phonotactic patterns and other regularities provide information on language structure and meaning for facilitation of language acquisition.
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Pattern recognition is the automated recognition of patterns and regularities in data. It has applications in statistical data analysis, signal processing, image analysis, information retrieval, bioinformatics, data compression, computer graphics and machine learning. Pattern recognition has its origins in statistics and engineering; some modern approaches to pattern recognition include the use of machine learning, due to the increased availability of big data and a new abundance of processing power. However, these activities can be viewed as two facets of the same field of application, and together they have undergone substantial development over the past few decades.
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This study was followed by Regional Model Life Tables and Stable Populations (1966), whom he co-wrote with Paul Demeny. These model life tables both established new empirical regularities, and proved invaluable in the development of later techniques for estimating mortality and fertility in populations with inaccurate or incomplete data. Along with William Brass, Coale pioneered the development and use of these techniques, first explained in Methods of Estimating Basic Demographic Measures From Incomplete Data (1967, with Demeny) and in The Demography of Tropical Africa (1968, with other demographers). Perhaps Coale's major scientific contribution was to the understanding of the demographic transition.
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For a human observer, some symmetry types are more salient than others, in particular the most salient is a reflection with a vertical axis, like that present in the human face. Ernst Mach made this observation in his book "The analysis of sensations" (1897), and this implies that perception of symmetry is not a general response to all types of regularities. Both behavioural and neurophysiological studies have confirmed the special sensitivity to reflection symmetry in humans and also in other animals. Early studies within the Gestalt tradition suggested that bilateral symmetry was one of the key factors in perceptual grouping.
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He described morphological and functional features of the early evolution of primate brain. Based on the analysis of the hominid brain structure he developed neurobiological hypotheses of occurrence of bipedality, association and speech centers development, established neurobiological regularities of emergence of the brain of modern human. For many years he is engaged in research in the field of paleoneurology with the Paleontological Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences. Together with senior scientists of the Institute A.V. Lavrov (laboratory of mammals) and V.R. Alifanov (laboratory of paleoherpetology) he established the principles of brain organization of dinosaurs, creodonts and gienodonts.
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On the other hand, De Liso and Filatrella, while providing a review of the literature which confirms the existence of the sailing ship effect, provide a mathematical model which can simulate the sailing ship effect. A recent paper by Sandro Mendonca argues that "The modernisation of the sailing trader occurs before, not after, the steamship had become an effective competitor", and further cautions "if history is to be used to give credence to explanations of empirical regularities in a variety of settings the original source of the relevant concepts must be carefully revisited and deeply researched".
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Since in nature there exist only temporarily stable objects, such limit cycles and attractors must exist in the dynamics of observed natural objects (chemistry, flora and fauna, economics, cosmology). The general theory suggests as-yet-unknown regularities in the dynamics of the various systems surrounding us. Despite the success already achieved in research on trophic functions, the field still has great further theoretical potential and practical importance. Global economics, for instance, needs tools to forecast the dynamics of outputs and prices over a scale of at least 3–5 years so as to maintain stable demand and not over-produce, and to prevent crises such as that of 2008.
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The comparative method was formally developed in the 19th century and applied first to Indo- European languages. The existence of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had been inferred by comparative linguistics as early as 1640, while attempts at an Indo-European proto-language reconstruction date back as far as 1713. However, by the 19th century, still no consensus had been reached about the internal groups of the IE family. The method of internal reconstruction is used to compare patterns within one dialect, without comparison with other dialects and languages, to try to arrive at an understanding of regularities operating at an earlier stage in that dialect.
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While words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the smallest units of syntax, it is clear that, in most (if not all) languages, words can be related to other words by rules. The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific patterns (or regularities) in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word-formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages, in the context of historical linguistics, how the means of expression change over time. See grammaticalisation.
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When analysing the regularities and structure of music as well as the processing of music in the brain, certain findings lead to the question of whether music is based on a syntax that could be compared with linguistic syntax. To get closer to this question it is necessary to have a look at the basic aspects of syntax in language, as language unquestionably presents a complex syntactical system. If music has a matchable syntax, noteworthy equivalents to basic aspects of linguistic syntax have to be found in musical structure. By implication the processing of music in comparison to language could also give information about the structure of music.
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For several years, Dr. Huberman's research concentrated on the World Wide Web, with particular emphasis the dynamics of its growth and use. With members of his group he discovered a number of strong regularities, such as the dynamics that govern the growth of the web, and the laws that determine how users surf the web and create the observed congestion patterns. Recently, Huberman was the Director of the Mechanisms and Design Lab at Hewlett Packard Labs where his work centers on the design of novel mechanisms for discovering and aggregating information in distributed systems as well as understanding the dynamics of information in large networks.
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Research on the inductive synthesis of recursive functional programs started in the early 1970s and was brought onto firm theoretical foundations with the seminal THESIS system of Summers and work of Biermann. These approaches were split into two phases: first, input-output examples are transformed into non- recursive programs (traces) using a small set of basic operators; second, regularities in the traces are searched for and used to fold them into a recursive program. The main results until the mid 1980s are surveyed by Smith. Due to limited progress with respect to the range of programs that could be synthesized, research activities decreased significantly in the next decade.
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This leads him to the third branch of causal inference, Belief. Belief is what drives the human mind to hold that expectancy of the future is based on past experience. Throughout his explanation of causal inference, Hume is arguing that the future is not certain to be repetition of the past and that the only way to justify induction is through uniformity. The logical positivist interpretation is that Hume analyses causal propositions, such as "A causes B", in terms of regularities in perception: "A causes B" is equivalent to "Whenever A-type events happen, B-type ones follow", where "whenever" refers to all possible perceptions.
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He recognized that modern science often judges color similarities to be superficial, but denied that equating existential similarities with abstract universal similarities makes natural kinds any less permanent and important. The human brain's capacity to recognize abstract kinds joins the brain's capacity to recognize existential similarities. : Credit is due to man's inveterate ingenuity, or human sapience, for having worked around the blinding dazzle of color vision and found the more significant regularities elsewhere. Evidently natural selection has dealt with the conflict [between visible and invisible similarities] by endowing man doubly: with both a color-slanted quality space and the ingenuity to rise above it.
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The digital age has brought the implementation of prospect theory in software. Framing and prospect theory has been applied to a diverse range of situations which appear inconsistent with standard economic rationality: the equity premium puzzle, the excess returns puzzle and long swings/PPP puzzle of exchange rates through the endogenous prospect theory of Imperfect Knowledge Economics, the status quo bias, various gambling and betting puzzles, intertemporal consumption, and the endowment effect. It has also been argued that prospect theory can explain several empirical regularities observed in the context of auctions (such as secret reserve prices) which are difficult to reconcile with standard economic theory.
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Underwood emphasises a social-scientific dimension in this prehistory of distant reading, referring to particular examples in the work of Raymond Williams (from the 1960s) and Janice Radway (from the 1980s). Moretti’s conception of literary evolution in Distant Reading is quite similar to the psychologist Colin Martindale’s (Clockwork Muse, 1990) “scientific,” computational, neo-Darwinist project of literary evolution, and the role of reading is downplayed by both Martindale and Moretti. According to Martindale, the principles of the evolution of art are based on statistic regularities rather than meaning, data or observation. “So far as the engines of history are concerned, meaning does not matter.
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Mlinar was the first person to internationally conceive the research and lecturing of spatial sociology. He considered it in the broader context of the multi-level interpretations of socio-structural change and the role of actors in it. In doing so, Mlinar integrated and transcended the frameworks of urban and rural sociology, local self-government, and regional research, revealing the regularities of social change, particularly in terms of individualization and socialisation processes, globalisation, and informatisation. He studied the dynamics of the interpenetration and exclusion of opposites, transcending the outdated notions of the zero-sum game logic between local and global, homogenisation, diversification, and de-territorialisation and re- territorialisation.
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VITAL could be considered either a board director who has voting rights or an observer who does not. Lin said either choice raised questions about whether VITAL is subject to corporate law and who would be held accountable if VITAL recommends a choice that turns out to be damaging to the company. David Theo Goldberg in the Critical Times, a peer reviewed journal in Critical Global Theory, argues that VITAL processed a dataset to predict the most remunerative investment opportunities. Drawing his analysis on an article from Business Insider, Goldberg describes VITAL's decision-making predictiveness based "on surface pattern recognition and the identification of regularities and/or irregularities".
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The midrange approach was developed by Robert Merton as a departure from the general social theorizing of Talcott Parsons. Merton agreed with Parsons that a narrow empiricism consisting entirely of simple statistical or observational regularities cannot arrive at successful theory. However, he found that Parsons' "formulations were remote from providing a problematics and a direction for theory-oriented empirical inquiry into the observable worlds of culture and society".Robert K. Merton - California State University, Dominguez Hills He was thus directly opposed to the abstract theorizing of scholars who are engaged in the attempt to construct a total theoretical system covering all aspects of social life.
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The term social mechanisms and mechanism-based explanations of social phenomena originate from the philosophy of science. The core thinking behind the mechanism approach has been expressed as follows by Elster (1989: 3-4): “To explain an event is to give an account of why it happened. Usually… this takes the form of citing an earlier event as the cause of the event we want to explain…. [But] to cite the cause is not enough: the causal mechanism must also be provided, or at least suggested.” Existing definitions differ a great deal from one another, but underlying them all is an emphasis on making intelligible the regularities being observed by specifying in detail how they were brought about.
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In 9.5 Confucius says that a person may know the movements of the Tian, and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that Tian spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that Tian was not to be interpreted as personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao: "the way things are" or "the regularities of the world", which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis, "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order.
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In general, occasionalism is the view that there are no efficient causes in the full sense other than God. Created things are at best "occasions" for divine activity. Bodies and minds act neither on themselves nor on each other; God alone brings about all the phenomena of nature and the mind. Changes occurring in created things will exhibit regularities (and will thus satisfy a Humean definition of causation) because God in creating the world observes what Malebranche calls "order": he binds himself to act according to laws of nature chosen in accordance with his general will that the world be as good as possible, and thus (for example) that the laws be simple and few in number.
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Even though music syntactic regularities are often simultaneously acoustical similar and music syntactic irregularities are often simultaneously acoustical different, an ERAN but not an MMN can be elicit, when a chord does not represent a physical but a syntactic deviance. To demonstrate this, so-called "Neapolitan sixth chords" are used. These are consonant chords when played solitary, but which are added into a musical phrase of in which they are only distantly related to the harmonic context. Added into a chord sequence of five chords, the addition of a Neapolitan sixth chord at the third or at the fifth position evokes different amplitudes of ERANs in the EEG with a higher amplitude at the fifth position.
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173–177 However, it is also reported that the term was used in the 1980s in European Cognitive Systems Engineering research. Possibly the earliest reference is the following, although it does not use the exact term "macrocognition": > A macro-theory is a theory which is concerned with the obvious regularities > of human experience, rather than with some theoretically defined unit. To > refer to another psychological school, it would correspond to a theory at > the level of Gestalten. It resembles Newell’s suggestion for a solution that > would analyse more complex tasks, although the idea of a macro-theory does > not entail an analysis of the mechanistic materialistic kind which is > predominant in cognitive psychology.
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Viewed as a workflow process, nanoinformatics deconstructs experimental studies using data, metadata, controlled vocabularies and ontologies to populate databases so that trends, regularities and theories will be uncovered for use as predictive computational tools. Models are involved at each stage, some material (experiments, reference materials, model organisms) and some abstract (ontology, mathematical formulae), and all intended as a representation of the target system. Models can be used in experimental design, may substitute for experiment or may simulate how a complex system changes over time. At present, nanoinformatics is an extension of bioinformatics due to the great opportunities for nanotechnology in medical applications, as well as to the importance of regulatory approvals to product commercialization.
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O. Samadov has been engaged in studying the influence of external factors on phase transitions of ferroelectric and antiferroelectric and summarizing the achieved results, established the regularities for the first and second phase transitions in spontaneously polarized crystals for the first time. By injecting impurities with various ionic radius to TlİnS2 and TlGaSe2crystals, he has studied their dielectric, pyroelectric, electric properties and influence of γ-rays on these properties. He has shown that when alloying TlİnS2 crystal with Yan-Teylor atoms, the obtained compounds show the properties characteristic for relaxor ferroelectrics. Studying the dielectric and electric relaxation, impedance spectrum, the scientist has observed superionic conductivity in TlGaTe2, TlİnTe2 and TlInSe2crystalsfor the first time.
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By contrast, Classical Chinese has very little morphology, using almost exclusively unbound morphemes ("free" morphemes) and depending on word order to convey meaning. (Most words in modern Standard Chinese ["Mandarin"], however, are compounds and most roots are bound.) These are understood as grammars that represent the morphology of the language. The rules understood by a speaker reflect specific patterns or regularities in the way words are formed from smaller units in the language they are using, and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
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In a metaoperational theoretic approach, children first have to get at one of the keys of the double keyboard, i.e. to grasp how a microsystem, just any microsystem, works. Once they have that key, they progressively gain access to the whole grammatical system of their language, because it is based on a single organizing binary principle (cf. preceding paragraph, The two-phase theory or the « double-keyboard theory »). Children infer the rules organizing their language from the structural regularities they detect in the data, even if the conditions in which they gain access to the fundamental principle (‘the principle of cyclicity’) can vary not only from individual to individual but also from language to language.
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The result of Battler's scientific work is a number of laws and regularities in the areas of philosophy, sociology and the theory of international relations; he discovered these laws based on re-interpreting key terms and turning into concepts and categories. The single most important among them is the category of force which in the book Dialectics of Force turned into ontóbia (ontological force) – one of the attributes of being, along with the categories of matter, motion, time and space. This attribute status of ontóbia enabled Battler to advance his own version of the Big Bang conception and of the Universe's expansion process. In the organic world ontóbia turns into orgábia (the organic force).
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Nicholas Kaldor, Baron Kaldor (12 May 1908 – 30 September 1986), born Káldor Miklós, was a Cambridge economist in the post-war period. He developed the "compensation" criteria called Kaldor–Hicks efficiency for welfare comparisons (1939), derived the cobweb model, and argued for certain regularities observable in economic growth, which are called Kaldor's growth laws.Kaldor, N. (1967) Strategic Factors in Economic Development, New York, Ithaca Kaldor worked alongside Gunnar Myrdal to develop the key concept Circular Cumulative Causation, a multicausal approach where the core variables and their linkages are delineated. Both Myrdal and Kaldor examine circular relationships, where the interdependencies between factors are relatively strong, and where variables interlink in the determination of major processes.
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In the course of this work the Erikson- Goldthorpe-Portocarero (EGP) class schema was developed and has subsequently been widely used in comparative social research. A specifically British version of the schema was also developed by Goldthorpe and this provided the theoretical basis for the Office for National Statistics' Socio-Economic Classification which, in 2002, was introduced into British official statistics in replacement of the old Registrar-General's Social Classes. In the 1990s Goldthorpe concentrated mainly on theoretical and methodological issues, in particular on the understanding of social causation and, relatedly, on the application of rational action theory in the explanation of the probabilistic empirical regularities typically established through large-scale social survey research.
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His basic purpose is outlined in the introduction to the first volume: > "The most important aim of all physical science is this: to recognize unity > in diversity, to comprehend all the single aspects as revealed by the > discoveries of the last epochs, to judge single phenomena separately without > surrendering their bulk, and to grasp Nature's essence under the cover of > outer appearances." Humboldt soon adds that Cosmos signifies both the “order of the world, and adornment of this universal order.” Thus, there are two aspects of the Cosmos, the “order” and the “adornment.” The first refers to the observed fact that the physical universe, independently of humans, demonstrates regularities and patterns that we can define as laws.
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Continuation of this work nowadays is the development of the technique of woodstand taxation and morphology structure investigation on the basis of laser, digital photo and video survey, digital satellite survey and three-dimensional taxational computer analysis of images. On its basis regularities of taxational structure and dynamics of phytomass in plantations forming after fires and cuttings were found out. Two receiving and analyzing satellite information stations available at the Institute make it possible to estimate ecological information in real time in the interests of various institutions. In cooperation with foreign scientists the Institutes is working out the system approach to forest management with the help of GIS technologies and databases characterizing the main components of forest biocenoses.
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The pygmy mammoth is an example of insular dwarfism, a case of Foster's rule, its unusually small body size an adaptation to the limited resources of its island home. A biological rule or biological law is a generalized law, principle, or rule of thumb formulated to describe patterns observed in living organisms. Biological rules and laws are often developed as succinct, broadly applicable ways to explain complex phenomena or salient observations about the ecology and biogeographical distributions of plant and animal species around the world, though they have been proposed for or extended to all types of organisms. Many of these regularities of ecology and biogeography are named after the biologists who first described them.
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McRae and Hetherington (1993) argued that humans, unlike most neural networks, do not take on new learning tasks with a random set of weights. Rather, people tend to bring a wealth of prior knowledge to a task and this helps to avoid the problem of interference. They showed that when a network is pre-trained on a random sample of data prior to starting a sequential learning task that this prior knowledge will naturally constrain how the new information can be incorporated. This would occur because a random sample of data from a domain that has a high degree of internal structure, such as the English language, training would capture the regularities, or recurring patterns, found within that domain.
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At first PROMT translation was a rule-based machine translation (RBMT). RBMT is a machine translation system based on linguistic information about source and target languages basically retrieved from (bilingual) dictionaries and grammars covering the main semantic, morphological, and syntactic regularities of each language respectively. Having input sentences (in some source language), an RBMT system generates them to output sentences (in some target language) on the basis of morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of both the source and the target languages involved in a concrete translation task. At the end of 2010, of PROMT provided the Hybrid technology of translation leverages the strengths of Statistical machine translation and rule-based translation methodologies.
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In 2002 he published a monograph, illustrating it with original snapshots of entire human embryos in the first days after implantation and neurulation period. Considerable attention he paid to the origin of the nervous system and its evolution, introduced evolutionary theory of transitional environments as a basis for the development of neurobiological models of the origin of chordates, protoaquatic vertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, gave examples of the use of neurobiological laws for the reconstruction of the ways of the evolution of vertebrates and invertebrates. He developed the basic principles of adaptive evolution of the nervous system and behavior. He investigated the reasons and evolutionary regularities of development of the forebrain and neocortex of mammals.
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Yet Salmon found causality ubiquitous in scientific explanation,Andrew C Ward, "The role of causal criteria in causal inferences: Bradford Hill's 'aspects of association'", Epidemiologic Perspectives & Innovations, 2009 Jun 17;6:2. which identifies not only natural laws (empirical regularities), but accounts for them via nature's structure and thereby involves the ontic (concerning reality), how the phenomenon "fits into the causal nexus" of the world (Salmon's causal/mechanical explanation). For instance, Boyle's law relates temperature, pressure, and volume of an ideal gas (epistemic), but this was later reduced to laws of statistical mechanics via average kinetic energy of colliding molecules composing the gas (ontic). Thus, Salmon finds scientific explanation to be not merely nomological—that is, lawlike—but rather ontological, or causal/mechanical.
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A site frequently related by theorists as evidence of pre-Polynesian settlers is the Kaimanawa Wall, which some claim is a remnant of ancient human construction that the Māori could not have built because they did not build with stone in such a way. Controversial author Barry Brailsford claimed that 'Waitaha elders' said it was built before their arrival. Several anthropologists and geologists have concluded the formation to be a natural ignimbrite outcrop formed 330,000 years ago. A ground-penetrating radar scan of the area surrounding the formation confirmed that it is not part of a pyramid as the rock has no regularities or chambers for a depth of 12 metres, and no metal had been found under a geomagnetic scan.
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Helimski was a participant and organizer of numerous linguistic expeditions to Siberia and to the Taimyr Peninsula; field studies of all Samoyedic languages, one of the authors of the well-known "Studies on the Selkup Language" which were based on field studies and which have substantially broadened the linguistic understanding of Samoyedic. He exposed a number of regularities in the historical phonetics of Hungarian, and substantiated the existence of grammatical and lexical Ugro-Samoyedic parallels. He gathered all accessible data on Mator, the extinct South- Samoyedic language, and published its dictionary and grammar. He proposed a number of novel Uralic, Indo-European and Nostratic etymologies, and collected a large body of material on the borrowed lexicon of the languages of Siberia (including Russian).
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A discourse community is essentially a group of people that shares mutual interests and beliefs. "It establishes limits and regularities...who may speak, what may be spoken, and how it is to be said; in addition [rules] prescribe what is true and false, what is reasonable and what foolish, and what is meant and what not." The concept of a discourse community is vital to academic writers across nearly all disciplines, for the academic writer's purpose is to influence how their community understands its field of study: whether by maintaining, adding to, revising, or contesting what that community regards as "known" or "true." Academic writers have strong incentives to follow conventions established by their community in order for their attempts to influence this community to be legible.
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Richard Samuels, in an article titled "Science and Human Nature", proposes a causal essentialist view that "human nature should be identified with a suite of mechanisms, processes, and structures that causally explain many of the more superficial properties and regularities reliably associated with humanity." This view is "causal" because the mechanisms causally explain the superficial properties reliably associated with humanity by referencing the underlying causal structures the properties belong to. For example, it is true that the belief that water is wet is shared by all humans yet it is not in itself a significant aspect of human nature. Instead, the psychological process that lead us to assign the word "wetness" to water is a universal trait shared by all human beings.
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Flag designs exhibit a number of regularities, arising from a variety of practical concerns, historical circumstances, and cultural prescriptions that have shaped and continue to shape their evolution. Vexillographers face the necessity for the design to be manufactured (and often mass-produced) into or onto a piece of cloth, which will subsequently be hoisted aloft in the outdoors to represent an organization, individual, idea, or group. In this respect, flag design departs considerably from logo design: logos are predominantly still images suitable for reading off a page, screen, or billboard; while flags are alternately draped and fluttering images - visible from a variety of distances and angles (including the reverse). The prevalence of simple bold colors and shapes in flag design attests to these practical issues.
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At the same time, fewer parameters tend to increase the error from bias, implying that heuristic strategies are more likely to be biased than strategies that use more pieces of information. The exact amount of bias, however, depends on the specific problem to which a decision strategy is applied. If the decision problem has a statistical structure that matches the structure of the heuristic strategy, the bias can be surprisingly small. For example, analyses of the take-the-best heuristic and other lexicographic heuristics have shown that the bias of these strategies is equal to the bias of the linear strategy when the weights of the linear strategy show specific regularities that were found to be prevalent in many real-life situations.
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Ochre has been detected inside some of the shell beads, implicating that they were subject to deliberate or indirect use of ochre as a colouring agent. Blombos Cave shell beads The wearing and display of personal ornaments during the Still Bay phase was not idiosyncratic. In-depth analyses of the Blombos Cave shell beads deriving from various levels and squares within the site demonstrate chronological regularities and variability, in terms of manufacture, stringing method and design of the bead works. Discrete groups of beads with wear patterns and colouring specific to that group have been recovered, a patterning that suggests that at least a number of individuals may have worn beads, perhaps on their person or attached to clothing or other artifacts.
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Comparative public administration or CPA is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the study of public administration in other countries. There have been several issues which have hampered the development of comparative public administration, including: the major differences between Western countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this sub-field in public administration programs; and the lack of success in developing theoretical models which can be scientifically tested. Even though CPA is a weakly formed field as a whole, this sub-field of public administration is an attempt at cross-cultural analysis, a "quest for patterns and regularities of administrative action and behavior." CPA is an integral part to the analysis of public administration techniques.
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Lojban may be written in different orthography systems as long as it meets the required regularities and unambiguities. Some of the reasons for such elasticity would be as follows: # Lojban is rather defined by the phonemes (spoken form of words), therefore, as long as they are correctly rendered so as to maintain the Lojbanic audio-visual isomorphism, a representational system can be said to be an appropriate orthography of the language; # Lojban is meant to be as culturally neutral as possible, so it is never crucial or fundamental to claim that some particular orthography of some particular languages (e.g. the Latin alphabet) should be the dominant mode. Lojbanist Kena extends this principle to argue that even an original orthography of the language is to be sought.Kena.
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A study conducted by Ezequiel Zamora (former vicepresident of the CNE), Freddy Malpica (former rector of the Universidad Simón Bolívar), Guillermo Salas (USB professor), Jorge Tamayo (UCV professor), Ramiro Esparragoza (UCV professor), four statistics experts and three computer engineers concluded in January 2007 that the 2006 Presidential elections presented "important statistical inconsistencies, despite the fact that the opposition candidate recognized the results". They argued that the elections results of many electoral centers showed a very regular statistical distribution of the votes in favor of Rosales in comparison with the dispersion of the votes for Chávez. This suggest that the regularities are the possible result of numerical ceilings embedded in the voting machines. Also there seems to be a regular statistical abstention of 25% in most electoral centers and no signs of dispersion.
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How then can we differentiate between regularities or hypotheses that construe law-like statements from those that are contingent or based upon accidental generality? Hempel's confirmation theory argued that the solution is to differentiate between hypotheses, which apply to all things of a certain class, and evidence statements, which apply to only one thing. Goodman's famous counterargument was to introduce the predicate grue, which applies to all things examined before a certain time t just in case they are green, but also to other things just in case they are blue and not examined before time t. If we examine emeralds before time t and find that emerald a is green, emerald b is green, and so forth, each will confirm the hypothesis that all emeralds are green.
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The earliest inscriptions are dated about 1550 BC. Although some scholars disagree with this classification, the inscriptions have been classified by Emilia Masson into four closely related groups: archaic CM, CM1 (also known as Linear C), CM2, and CM3, which she considered chronological stages of development of the writing. This classification was and is generally accepted, but in 2011 Silvia Ferrara contested its chronological nature based on the archaeological context. She pointed out that CM1, CM2, and CM3 all existed simultaneously, their texts demonstrated the same statistical and combinatorial regularities, and their character sets should have been basically the same; she also noted a strong correlation between these groups and the use of different writing materials. Only the archaic CM found in the earliest archaeological context is indeed distinct from these three.
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What should be > abandoned is rather the tendency to think in elementaristic terms and to > increase the plethora of mini-and micro-theories. ... To conclude, if the > psychological study of cognition shall have a future that is not a continued > description of human information processing, its theories must be at what we > have called the macro-level. This means that they must correspond to the > natural units of experience and consider these in relation to the > regularities of human experience, rather than as manifestations of > hypothetical information processing mechanisms in the brain. A psychology > should start at the level of natural units in human experience and try to > work upwards towards the level of functions and human action, rather than > downwards towards the level of elementary information processes and the > structure of the IPS.
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Throughout his work Dosi and his co-authors have identified some stylized facts as being especially relevant for economic analysis,Dosi, G., Pavitt, K. and Soete L. The Economics of Technical Change and International Trade, Harvester Wheatsheaf, London (1990), pp.40-74.Dosi, G., Freeman, C. and Fabiani, S., The Process of Economic Development: Introducing Some Stylized Facts and Theories on Technologies, Firms and Institutions, Industrial and Corporate Change, 3(1), (1994)Dosi, G., Statistical regularities in the Evolution of Industries. A Guide through some Evidence and Challenges for the Theory, LEM Working Paper, 17, June, (2005). among others: S.F.1 Over the 19th-20th century technological innovation has proved to be the major contributor to the economic growth of countries, whose growth rates have however displayed an expanding variance.
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At test, 12-month-olds preferred to listen to sentences that had the same grammatical structure as the artificial language they had been tested on rather than sentences that had a different (ungrammatical) structure. Because learning grammatical regularities requires infants to be able to determine boundaries between individual words, this indicates that infants who are still quite young are able to acquire multiple levels of language knowledge (both lexical and syntactical) simultaneously, indicating that statistical learning is a powerful mechanism at play in language learning. Despite the large role that statistical learning appears to play in lexical acquisition, it is likely not the only mechanism by which infants learn to segment words. Statistical learning studies are generally conducted with artificial grammars that have no cues to word boundary information other than transitional probabilities between words.
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For example, even young infants appear to be sensitive to some predictable regularities in the movement and interactions of objects (for example, an object cannot pass through another object), or in human behavior (for example, a hand repeatedly reaching for an object has that object, not just a particular path of motion), as it becomes the building block of which more elaborate knowledge is constructed. Piaget's theory has been said to undervalue the influence that culture has on cognitive development. Piaget demonstrates that a child goes through several stages of cognitive development and come to conclusions on their own but in reality, a child's sociocultural environment plays an important part in their cognitive development. Social interaction teaches the child about the world and helps them develop through the cognitive stages, which Piaget neglected to consider.
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The Latvian Language Expert Commission, on a regular basis, examines the compliance of norms provided for in laws and regulations to regularities of the Latvian language, codifies norms of the literary language, provides opinions on various language issues, for example, the use of capital letters in the names of establishments, the spelling of internationally recognised names of countries and territories, the spelling of house names and numbers, the spelling of addresses, the spelling of languages and language groups in the Latvian language in compliance with the requirements of ISO 639-2 etc. The Commission has prepared several draft legal acts and has participated in the formation of the normative basis for the Official Language Law. The Latvian Language Expert Commission has two sub- commissions: Sub-commissions for Place- names and Latgalian Written Language.
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Gendlin points out that the universe (and everything in it) is implicitly more intricate than concepts, because a) it includes them, and b) all concepts and logical units are generated in a wider, more than conceptual process (which Gendlin calls implicit intricacy). This wider process is more than logical, in a way that has a number of characteristic regularities. Gendlin has shown that it is possible to refer directly to this process in the context of a given problem or situation and systematically generate new concepts and more precise logical units. Because human beings are in an ongoing interaction with the world (they breathe, eat, and interact with others in every context and in any field in which they work), their bodies are a "knowing" which is more than conceptual and which implies further steps.
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The planets would condense from small clouds developed in, or captured by, the 2nd cloud, the orbits would be nearly circular because accretion would reduce eccentricity due to the influence of the resisting medium, orbital orientations would be similar because the small cloud was originally small and the motions would be in a common direction. The protoplanets might have heated up to such high degrees that the more volatile compounds would have been lost and the orbital velocity decreases with increasing distance so that the terrestrial planets would have been more affected. The weaknesses of this scenario are that practically all the final regularities are introduced as a prior assumptions and most of the hypothesizing was not supported by quantitative calculations. For these reasons it did not gain wide acceptance.
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Added to this, it drew work from the capabilities perspective by introducing a firm-specific, path-dependent concept of routines that stresses on their complexity and underlies their influence on the differences in performance. Despite the fact that it is grounded in evolutionary economics and hence paying minimal focus on individual agency in routines, significant number of ideas remains aligned with the practice perspective. Moreover, Nelson and Winter expected the recent focus on endogenous change in routines when they contended that routine operation is aligned with routinely arising laxity, slippage, rule-breaking, defiance and sabotage. However, ambiguities still arise concerning the intentionality of routines and the level to their stability and change, where some scholars addressed the behavioural regularities of routines and their habitual nature, specifically bringing forward that they are mindlessly conducted until they are disturbed by an external change.
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In Aspects, Chomsky lays down the abstract, idealized context in which a linguistic theorist is supposed to perform his research: "Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance." He makes a "fundamental distinction between competence (the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of language in concrete situation)." A "grammar of a language" is "a description of the ideal speaker-hearer's intrinsic competence", and this "underlying competence" is a "system of generative processes." An "adequate grammar" should capture the basic regularities and the productive nature of a language.
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Polymer fracture is the study of the fracture surface of an already failed material to determine the method of crack formation and extension in polymers both fiber reinforced and otherwise.John Scheirs, “john wiley and sons”, 30-oct-2000 “[Compositional and Failure Analysis of Polymers: A Practical Approach]” Failure in polymer components can occur at relatively low stress levels, far below the tensile strength because of four major reasons: long term stress or creep rupture, cyclic stresses or fatigue, the presence of structural flaws and stress-cracking agents. Formations of submicroscopic cracks in polymers under load have been studied by x ray scattering techniques and the main regularities of crack formation under different loading conditions have been analyzed. The low strength of polymers compared to theoretically predicted values are mainly due to the many microscopic imperfections found in the material.
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Statistical learning is the ability for humans and other animals to extract statistical regularities from the world around them to learn about the environment. Although statistical learning is now thought to be a generalized learning mechanism, the phenomenon was first identified in human infant language acquisition. The earliest evidence for these statistical learning abilities comes from a study by Jenny Saffran, Richard Aslin, and Elissa Newport, in which 8-month-old infants were presented with nonsense streams of monotone speech. Each stream was composed of four three-syllable “pseudowords” that were repeated randomly. After exposure to the speech streams for two minutes, infants reacted differently to hearing “pseudowords” as opposed to “nonwords” from the speech stream, where nonwords were composed of the same syllables that the infants had been exposed to, but in a different order.
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Many, although not all post-processualists have adhered to the theory of structuralism in understanding historical societies. Structuralism itself was a theory developed by the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009), and held to the idea that "cultural patterns need not be caused by anything outside themselves… [and that] underlying every culture was a deep structure, or essence, governed by its own laws, that people were unaware of but which ensured regularities in the cultural productions that emanate from it." At the centre of his structuralist theory, Lévi-Strauss held that "all human thought was governed by conceptual dichotomies, or bilateral oppositions, such as culture/nature, male/female, day/night, and life/death. He believed that the principle of oppositions was a universal characteristic inherent in the human brain, but that each culture was based on a unique selection of oppositions".
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" He added that "the distinction between the merely geographical and the metageographical is not always clear-cut.Leonhardt van Efferink Martin Lewis: Metageographies, postmodernism and fallacy of unit comparability Exploring Geopolitics August 2010 (Accessed 05/01/2015) The term was criticized by James M. Blaut: "the word metageography seems to have been coined by the authors as an impressive-sounding synonym for 'world cultural geography.'" Lewis and Wigen, however, disagreed, arguing that every consideration of human affairs employs a metageography as a structuring force on one's conception of the world In 1969, Soviet geographers Gokhman, Gurevich and Saushkin wrote that "[m]etageography is concerned with study of the common basis of geographical regularities and the potentialities of geography as a science" and argued that many factors must be taken into account in order to define geographical entities, not simply spatial ones.
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This analysis is made on the basis of two structural principles: the principle of symmetry, which says that every system of word classes has a tendency to balance manifest contrasts, and the principle of continuity, which says that every system of word classes has a tendency to realize elements of mediation between manifest contrasts. These principles are employed to determine the possible or necessary manifestation or non‐manifestation of word classes in the grammar of a given language in relation to the total inventory of word classes in the morphology of the universal grammar. Later, Brøndal improved his analysis of structural regularities in generalizing them to include all parts and levels of grammar. When developing the principle of symmetry, Brøndal sets up six forms of relation, which indicate the formal possibilities of the manifestations of a given element: positive, negative, neutral, complex, positive‐complex, and negative‐complex.
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The central essay of "Time and Commodity Culture" (1997) theorized the distinction and the inter-dependence of gift and commodity economies as a way of analysing the encroachment of the commodity form on the commons in information; other essays in the book explored the temporality of capital as the basis for historical understanding and the technologies of memory. Randy Martin, Review of "Time and Commodity Culture", "Science and Society" 63: 2 (1999), pp. 256-8. "Accounting for Tastes: Australian Everyday Cultures" (1999), written with Tony Bennett and Michael Emmison, is a study, based on a broad survey and the resulting quantitative analysis, of the cultural practices and preferences of Australians across a range of cultural areas. It sought to develop an account of social class in which cultural capital plays a central and formative role, and developed the concept of the regime of value to theorize the structural regularities it found.
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This result has been the impetus for much more research on the role of statistical learning in lexical acquisition and other areas (see ). In a follow-up to the original report, Aslin, Saffran, and Newport found that even when words and part words occurred equally often in the speech stream, but with different transitional probabilities between syllables of words and part words, infants were still able to detect the statistical regularities and still preferred to listen to the novel part-words over the familiarized words. This finding provides stronger evidence that infants are able to pick up transitional probabilities from the speech they hear, rather than just being aware of frequencies of individual syllable sequences. Another follow-up study examined the extent to which the statistical information learned during this type of artificial grammar learning feeds into knowledge that infants may already have about their native language.
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Some problems in sequence mining lend themselves to discovering frequent itemsets and the order they appear, for example, one is seeking rules of the form "if a {customer buys a car}, he or she is likely to {buy insurance} within 1 week", or in the context of stock prices, "if {Nokia up and Ericsson up}, it is likely that {Motorola up and Samsung up} within 2 days". Traditionally, itemset mining is used in marketing applications for discovering regularities between frequently co-occurring items in large transactions. For example, by analysing transactions of customer shopping baskets in a supermarket, one can produce a rule which reads "if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, he or she is likely to also buy hamburger meat in the same transaction". A survey and taxonomy of the key algorithms for item set mining is presented by Han et al. (2007).
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But since, according to Book 1, physical necessity is nothing more than constant conjunction and the causal inferences drawn by the human mind, the issue then comes down to this: is there a regular correspondence between human action and human psychology, and do we base causal inferences upon such regularities? Hume thinks the answer to both questions is obviously in the affirmative: the uniformity found in the world of human affairs is comparable to that found in the natural world, and the inferences we base on "moral evidence" (concerning human psychology and action) are comparable to the inferences we base on natural evidence (concerning physical objects). Thus, given Hume's idiosyncratic account of necessity, it is hard to deny that human action is governed by necessity. In the next section, Hume challenges "the doctrine of liberty"—the view that human beings are endowed with a distinctive kind of indeterministic free will—by setting out and debunking "the reasons for [its] prevalence".
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Some scholars have recently questioned the assumption that economic development and fertility are correlated in a simple negative manner. A study published in Nature in 2009 found that when using the Human Development Index instead of the GDP as measure for economic development, fertility follows a J-shaped curve: with rising economic development, fertility rates indeed do drop at first but then begin to rise again as the level of social and economic development increases while still remaining below the replacement rate. TFR vs HDI showing "J curve", from UN Human Development Report 2009 In an article published in Nature, Myrskylä et al. pointed out that “unprecedented increases” in social and economic development in the 20th century had been accompanied by considerable declines in population growth rates and fertility. This negative association between human fertility and socio-economic development has been “one of the most solidly established and generally accepted empirical regularities in the social sciences”.
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Some researchers argue that democratic peace theory is now the "progressive" program in international relations. According to these authors, the theory can explain the empirical phenomena previously explained by the earlier dominant research program, realism in international relations; in addition, the initial statement that democracies do not, or rarely, wage war on one another, has been followed by a rapidly growing literature on novel empirical regularities (, , ). Other examples are several studies finding that democracies are more likely to ally with one another than with other states, forming alliances which are likely to last longer than alliances involving nondemocracies ; several studies (including ) showing that democracies conduct diplomacy differently and in a more conciliatory way compared to nondemocracies; one study finding that democracies with proportional representation are in general more peaceful regardless of the nature of the other party involved in a relationship ; and another study reporting that proportional representation system and decentralized territorial autonomy is positively associated with lasting peace in postconflict societies .
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Against the behaviourism and the cognitivism of the time which looked for universal regularities in human psychology, Maze drew on Freud's theory that attributed primacy and determinism to the biological bases of drives in setting out a framework for individual differences in behavior and cognition, an approach that also was employed to set a foundation for human motivation (Boag, 2008). In regards to the cognitive representationism inherent within ego psychology and object relations theory which implies that internal representations of self must exist as objects, Maze worked to identify logical incoherence in these accounts insofar as the internal representations could only be qualified by the behavior or phenomena they produced. These internal representations then cannot be considered to exist as independent objects at risk of the logical fallacy of reification (Boag, 2007). The challenge to simplistic descriptions in psychology presented by Maze extended to critique of purposivist accounts of psychological homeostasis (1953/2009) and the logically plausible foundations of a concept of attitude (1973/2009).
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Gr. : Lat. '); that many instances of had earlier been (cf. Gr. : Lat. '); that Greek sometimes stood in words that had been lengthened from and therefore must have been pronounced at some stage (the same holds analogically for and , which must have been ), and so on. For the consonants, historical linguistics established the originally plosive nature of both the aspirates and the mediae , which were recognised to be a direct continuation of similar sounds in Indo-European (reconstructed and ). It was also recognised that the word-initial spiritus asper was most often a reflex of earlier (cf. Gr. : Lat. '), which was believed to have been weakened to in pronunciation. Work was also done reconstructing the linguistic background to the rules of ancient Greek versification, especially in Homer, which shed important light on the phonology regarding syllable structure and accent. Scholars also described and explained the regularities in the development of consonants and vowels under processes of assimilation, reduplication, compensatory lengthening etc.
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Many Chinese inventions — paper and printing, gunpowder, porcelain, the magnetic compass, the sternpost rudder, and the lift lock for canals — made major contributions to economic growth in the Middle East and Europe. The outside world remained uninformed about Chinese work in agronomy, pharmacology, mathematics, and optics. Scientific and technological activity in China dwindled, however, after the 14th century. It became increasingly confined to little-known and marginal individuals who differed from Western scientists such as Galileo or Newton in two primary ways: they did not attempt to reduce the regularities of nature to mathematical form, and they did not constitute a community of scholars, criticizing each other's work and contributing to an ongoing program of research. Under the last two dynasties, the Ming (1368–1644) and the Qing (1644–1911), China's ruling elite intensified its humanistic concentration on literature, the arts, and public administration and regarded science and technology as either trivial or narrowly utilitarian (see Culture of China).
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Unified growth theory was developed in light of the failure of endogenous growth theory to capture key empirical regularities in the growth processes and their contribution to the momentous rise in inequality across nations in the past two centuries. Unlike earlier growth theories that have focused entirely on the modern growth regime, unified growth theory captures the growth process over the entire course of human existence, highlighting the critical role of the differential timing of the transition from Malthusian stagnation to sustained economic growth in the emergence of inequality across countries and regions. Unified growth theory was first advanced by Oded Galor and his co-authors who were able to characterize in a single dynamical system a phase transition from an epoch of Malthusian stagnation to an era of sustained economic growth. Due to the evolution of latent state variables during the Malthusian epoch, the stable Malthusian equilibrium ultimately vanishes, and the system gradually converges to a modern growth steady-state equilibrium.
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Newport studies both normal acquisition and creolization using miniature languages presented to learners in the lab, where both the input and the structure of the language can be controlled, to see how the learning process actually works. A second line of research concerns maturational effects on language learning, comparing children to adults as first and second language learners, and asking why children, who are more limited in most cognitive domains, perform better than adults in language acquisition. She also conducts studies of human learners acquiring musical and other nonlinguistic patterns, and of nonhuman primates attempting to learn the same materials, to see where sequential learning, and the constraints on such learning, differ across species and domains. A long-term interest concerns understanding why languages universally display certain types of structures, and considers whether constraints on pattern learning in children may provide part of the basis for universal regularities in languages of the world.
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Retrieved on 27 February 2017 Whales off the east coast of North America seems to approach coasts less frequently than in the western North Pacific, but they may travel further south than in Japan. Historical distributions of southward migrations or vagrants in Asian waters are unknown as the whales wintering from Bōsō Peninsula and in Tokyo Bay to Sagami Bay and around Izu Ōshima have been severely depleted or nearly wiped out by modern whaling (recently whalers shifted their major hunting grounds from Bōsō Peninsula to further north due to the very small numbers of whales still migrating to the former habitats). Within the Sea of Japan, the first scientific approaches to the species were made in Peter the Great Gulf, and the whales can widely distribute more on Japanese archipelago from west of Rebun Island to west of Oki Islands on unknown regularities, and major whaling grounds were in Toyama Bay and Oshima Peninsula. The historic and current status of the northern species in northwestern coastal Pacific outside the Japanese EEZ are vague, especially within North and South Korea and China.
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Additionally, even when the individual words of the grammar were changed, infants were still able to discriminate between grammatical and ungrammatical strings during the test phase. This generalization indicates that infants were not learning vocabulary-specific grammatical structures, but abstracting the general rules of that grammar and applying those rules to novel vocabulary. Furthermore, in all four experiments, the test of grammatical structures occurred five minutes after the initial exposure to the artificial grammar had ended, suggesting that the infants were able to maintain the grammatical abstractions they had learned even after a short delay. In a similar study, Saffran found that adults and older children (first and second grade children) were also sensitive to syntactical information after exposure to an artificial language which had no cues to phrase structure other than the statistical regularities that were present. Both adults and children were able to pick out sentences that were ungrammatical at a rate greater than chance, even under an “incidental” exposure condition in which participants’ primary goal was to complete a different task while hearing the language.
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One of the unexplained regularities of nature is that there are several fungi of different phylogenetic ancestry that show a similar pattern of existence: dimorphism (conversion from a filamentous form in the environment to a yeast form in warm-blooded host tissues), virulent pathogenesis (ability to cause a significant infection in an animal host that is otherwise in good health), pulmonary infectivity (infection mainly via the lungs) and sharply delimited endemism (occurrence in only a limited geographic range.). Blastomyces dermatitidis is one of these fungi; the others are Histoplasma capsulatum, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Coccidioides immitis, C. posadasii and Talaromyces marneffei. The geographic range of B. dermatitidis is largely focused around the waterways of the St. Lawrence and Mississippi River systems of North America. There is a widely distributed and much republished, partially erroneous map that shows the U.S. portion of this range accurately, inclusive of occurrence in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, Kentucky, Arkansas, Tennessee, North and South Carolina, the Virginias, Mississippi, Louisiana, and a few regions of states adjacent to those named.
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Although quadratic residues appear to occur in a rather random pattern modulo n, and this has been exploited in such applications as acoustics and cryptography, their distribution also exhibits some striking regularities. Using Dirichlet's theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions, the law of quadratic reciprocity, and the Chinese remainder theorem (CRT) it is easy to see that for any M > 0 there are primes p such that the numbers 1, 2, ..., M are all residues modulo p. > For example, if p ≡ 1 (mod 8), (mod 12), (mod 5) and (mod 28), then by the > law of quadratic reciprocity 2, 3, 5, and 7 will all be residues modulo p, > and thus all numbers 1-10 will be. The CRT says that this is the same as p ≡ > 1 (mod 840), and Dirichlet's theorem says there are an infinite number of > primes of this form. 2521 is the smallest, and indeed 12 ≡ 1, 10462 ≡ 2, > 1232 ≡ 3, 22 ≡ 4, 6432 ≡ 5, 872 ≡ 6, 6682 ≡ 7, 4292 ≡ 8, 32 ≡ 9, and 5292 ≡ > 10 (mod 2521).
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With emergence of Copernicanism, however, Descartes introduced mechanical philosophy, then Newton rigorously posed lawlike explanation, both Descartes and especially Newton shunning teleology within natural philosophy.In the 17th century, Descartes as well as Isaac Newton firmly believed in God as nature's designer and thereby firmly believed in natural purposiveness, yet found teleology to be outside science's inquiry (Bolotin, Approach to Aristotle's Physics, pp 31–33). By 1650, formalizing heliocentrism and launching mechanical philosophy, Cartesian physics overthrew geocentrism as well as Aristotelian physics. In the 1660s, Robert Boyle sought to lift chemistry as a new discipline from alchemy. Newton more especially sought the laws of nature—simply the regularities of phenomena—whereby Newtonian physics, reducing celestial science to terrestrial science, ejected from physics the vestige of Aristotelian metaphysics, thus disconnecting physics and alchemy/chemistry, which then followed its own course, yielding chemistry around 1800. At 1740, David HumeNicknames for principles attributed to Hume—Hume's fork, problem of induction, Hume's law—were not created by Hume but by later philosophers labeling them for ease of reference.
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Unified growth theory was developed by Oded Galor and his co-authors to address the inability of endogenous growth theory to explain key empirical regularities in the growth processes of individual economies and the world economy as a whole.Galor O., 2005, "From Stagnation to Growth: Unified Growth Theory". Handbook of Economic Growth, Elsevier Unlike endogenous growth theory that focuses entirely on the modern growth regime and is therefore unable to explain the roots of inequality across nations, unified growth theory captures in a single framework the fundamental phases of the process of development in the course of human history: (i) the Malthusian epoch that was prevalent over most of human history, (ii) the escape from the Malthusian trap, (iii) the emergence of human capital as a central element in the growth process, (iv) the onset of the fertility decline, (v) the origins of the modern era of sustained economic growth, and (vi) the roots of divergence in income per capita across nations in the past two centuries. The theory suggests that during most of human existence, technological progress was offset by population growth, and living standards were near subsistence across time and space.
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