575 Sentences With "Marxian" | Random Sentence Generator

Marxian thinking is back in the form of an aggressive China.

Yet I have held onto the Marxian position that philosophy can change the world.

No simplistic, Marxian happy ending, just the continuing fight, which will bring everyone together, up our game, and show us the way forward.

The cost, however, is a system in which one class of human beings, the property owners (in Marxian terms, the bourgeoisie), exploits another class, the workers (the proletariat).

Soon enough there were Fabian socialists and Marxian socialists and Debsian socialists, along with profusions of anarchists, syndicalists and trade unionists who shared one or another element of the socialist dream.

" He sees Sanders's ideology as closer to "European-style social democracy," observing that the Vermont senator started off his campaign last year with "kind of an old-school Marxian approach with the class struggle explaining everything.

The counterculture novelist Robert Anton Wilson's observation, "A monopoly on the means of communication may define a ruling elite more precisely than the celebrated Marxian formula of monopoly in the means of production," is more apt than ever.

The modern condemnation of religion has followed the Marxian rebuke that religion is an opiate administered indirectly by state power in order to secure a docile populace — one that accepts poverty and political powerlessness, in hopes of posthumous supernatural rewards.

Wolff, who espouses a Marxian economics ideology that that is critical of capitalism, argues that the economy is long overdue for a downturn from a historical perspective and predicted that the longer the crash takes to hit, the worse it will be.

It is tempting to place Scorsese and Bong in two distinct political categories: the liberal filmmaker, who asserts the primacy of the individual in all his fathomless complexity, versus the Marxian filmmaker, who grimly pronounces the triumph of systemic-materialist forces over individual notions of beauty and truth.

It's amusing to look back on the way that the Communist Party Historians' Group divvied up English history—Rodney Hilton the medievalist, Christopher Hill on the seventeenth century, Hobsbawm for more recent times—and attempted to stretch and squeeze each period on the procrustean bed of Marxian technique, with varying degrees of success.

That may appear an odd stance for a distinguished left-wing historian of Britain, best known for his studies of the Victorian-era working class; Stedman Jones was, for almost two decades, a member of the editorial board of New Left Review—the most prominent and sophisticated venue for Marxian thought in the English-speaking world.

TV's "Rising" program features Adam Green, co-founder of the Progressive Change Campaign Committee, with his reaction to the Iowa debate; Tim Murtaugh, Trump 2900 campaign communications director, also discusses the Democratic candidates and the debate in Des Moines; Cenk Uygur, host and founder of "The Young Turks," joins with campaign analysis; and co-founder of Democracy at Work and Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff offers his take on the state of the U.S. economy.

This is an alphabetical list of notable Marxian economists, that is, experts in the social science of economics that follow and develop Marxian economic theory. The list also includes some economic sociologists who have written from a Marxian perspective.

A standard reference, with an extensive survey of the entire literature prior to 1971 and a comprehensive bibliography, is Samuelson's (1971) "Understanding the Marxian Notion of Exploitation: A Summary of the So-Called Transformation Problem Between Marxian Values and Competitive Prices" Journal of Economic Literature 9 2 399-431\. Since the 1970s, several major schools of Marxian economics have arisen in response to the transformation problem–related challenges of the neoclassical and Sraffian schools. Analytical Marxists held that the transformation problem disproved the labour theory of value and based their Marxian social theory on a combination of the Fundamental Marxian theorem, game theory, and other neoclassical and mathematical tools.

This is the opposite way to Marx, who started from value and reached price and profit. Okishio’s proof has effects to persuade the validity of Marxian propositions to much more non-Marxian economists at present.

Marxian economics have been criticized for a number of reasons. Some critics point to the Marxian analysis of capitalism while others argue that the economic system proposed by Marxism is unworkable.Shleifer, Andrei, and Robert Vishny. Pervasive shortages under socialism.

But all this has never bothered neo-classical scholars such as Paul Samuelson in their interpretation of what Marx tried to do.P.A. Samuelson,"Wages and interest: a modern dissection of Marxian economic models," American Economic Review, Vol. 47, 1957, pp.884-912; P.A. Samuelson, “Understanding the Marxian Notion of Exploitation: A Summary of the So-Called Transformation Problem Between Marxian Values and Competitive Prices,” in: Journal of Economic Literature, Vol.

Samuel Stebbins Bowles (; born January 6, 1939), is an American economist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he continues to teach courses on microeconomics and the theory of institutions.Samuel Bowles UMass Amherst Dept. of Economics Faculty. His work belongs to the neo-Marxian (variably called post-Marxian)Samuel Bowles, "Post- marxian economics: Labour, learning and history", Social Science Information, Volume 24 (3): 507, SAGE – September 1, 1985.

Marxian economics is a school of economic thought tracing its foundations to the critique of classical political economy first expounded upon by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxian economics concerns itself with the analysis of crisis in capitalism, the role and distribution of the surplus product and surplus value in various types of economic systems, the nature and origin of economic value, the impact of class and class struggle on economic and political processes, and the process of economic evolution. Although the Marxian school is considered heterodox, ideas that have come out of Marxian economics have contributed to mainstream understanding of the global economy. Certain concepts of Marxian economics, especially those related to capital accumulation and the business cycle such as creative destruction have been fitted for use in capitalist systems.

This "correction of the Marxian system" has been the great contribution of Bortkiewicz to classical and Marxian economics but it was completely unnoticed until Paul Sweezy's 1942 book "Theory of Capitalist Development". Piero Sraffa (1960) has provided the complete generalization of the simultaneous method for classical and Marxian analysis. Bortkiewicz died in Berlin, Germany. His papers, including a voluminous correspondence file (some 1,000 letters 1876–1931), were deposited at Uppsala University in Sweden,L.v.

He was a member of the Social Democratic Federation where he was "steeped in Marxian theory".

M. C. Howard and J. E. King. (1992) A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990, chapter 7, sects. II–IV. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press. The allegations of inconsistency have been a large part of Marxian economics and the debates around it since the 1970s.

364 The group's first periodical was the Marxian Labor College Bulletin in San Francisco. This was moved to Chicago in 1939 and became The Marxist Review in 1940. The organization seems to have become defunct that year.Dale Reipe "Marxian Labor College Bulletin" in Joseph R. Conlin ed.

Bell, Daniel. Marxian Socialism in the United States. Cornell paperbacks. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996. p.

As far as Japan is concerned, some heated arguments are held between Okishio and some other Marxian economists.

For a commentary by a Marxian economist, see: Duncan K. Foley, The strange history of the economic agent .

Evolution, Marxian Biology and the Social Scene by Conway Zirkle. Isis. Vol. 51, No. 3. pp. 348-353.

An Essay on Marxian Economics is a 1942 book about the philosopher Karl Marx by the economist Joan Robinson.

A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Keynes, John Maynard. 1991. Essays in Persuasion.

He then accepted in toto the Marxian theory that capitalistic society bears within itself the enginery of its own doom.

Jakubowski published his only major work, a book based on his doctoral thesis, in Danzig, 1936. It is entitled Ideology and Superstructure in Historical Materialism, and may be seen as an extension to the seminal work of Karl Korsch on the centrality of the Hegelian dialectic to Marxian thought. Jakubowski rehearses for the reader the steps Marx and Engels took away from Hegel, via Feuerbach, to their 'historical materialist' position. Its unique contribution to Marxian thought is the clarity of its exposition of the relationship between subject and object in Marxian theory.

The American radical press 1880-1960 pp. 366 The new organization kept, however, some of the Proletarian Party's other characteristics, including an emphasis on Marxist education; hence its establishment of Marxian Labor Colleges in San Francisco, Chicago and Flint, Michigan.Dale Reipe "Marxian Labor College Bulletin" in Joseph R. Conlin ed. The American radical press 1880-1960 pp.

Roemer has contributed mainly to five areas: Marxian economics, distributive justice, political competition, equity and climate change, and the theory of cooperation.

Eugen Samuilovich "Jenő" Varga (born as Eugen Weisz, November 6, 1879, Budapest - October 7, 1964, Moscow) was a Marxian economist of Hungarian origin.

Alfredo Saad-Filho is a Marxian economist.Alfredo Saad Filho and Alison J Ayers, “Democracy against Neoliberalism: Paradoxes, Limitations, Transcendence,” forthcoming in Critical Sociology.

He soon began to doubt the premises and results of modern economics, and decided to search for alternatives by studying Marxian economics. Okishio worked to clarify the logic of Karl Marx’s economic system, offering formal and mathematical proofs for many Marxian theorems. For example, in 1955, he gave the world's first proof of the “Marxian fundamental theorem”, as it was later named by Michio Morishima, which is the theory that the exploitation of surplus labor is the necessary condition for the existence of positive profit. Concerning Marx’s Falling Rate of Profit, Okishio considered that his famous theorem would not deny it.

New Symbolization Project, a critical theory club at Boise State University, held the first sustained, multi-disciplinary academic response to the Jordan Peterson phenomenon in late October 2018; notable Marxist economist Richard D. Wolff and radical theologian Peter Rollins gave the keynotes.The terms neo-Marxian, post-Marxian, and radical political economics were first used to refer to a distinct tradition of economic theory in the 1970s and 1980s that stems from Marxian economic thought. Many of the leading figures were associated with the leftist Monthly Review School. The neo-Marxist approach to development economics is connected with dependency and world systems theories.

Anwar Shaikh, "Notes on the Marxian notion of competition." Unpublished paper, New School of Social Research, 1979. Anwar Shaikh, Capitalism. Oxford University Press, 2016, pp.

"In France, post-Utopian socialism begins with Peter Joseph Proudhon. [...] [Proudhon] was the most profound thinker among pre-Marxian socialists."Eatwell, Roger; Wright, Anthony (1999).

NESG was established as an alternative to Marxian school which was very influential having an absolute monopoly in the academic circles and universities in Georgia.

Roman Rozdolsky Roman Osipovich Rosdolsky ( Roman Osipovič Rozdol's'kyj) (Lemberg, July 19, 1898 – Detroit, October 20, 1967) was an important Ukrainian Marxian scholar and political revolutionary.

Howard, M. C., and J. E. King. 1992. A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Keynes, John Maynard. 1991.

Eric Roll reviewed The Theory of Capitalist Development positively in The Yale Law Journal, calling it an important work. Roll wrote that its appearance alongside the economist Joan Robinson's An Essay on Marxian Economics (1942) represented "a significant landmark in the development of economic thinking." Roll credited Sweezy with providing "the first modern comprehensive and systematic exposition of Marxian economic theory in the English language."Roll 1943.

22, 2005, pp. 51–64. and heterodox Marxian economistsPaul Cockshott; Dave Zachariah, "Credit crunch: origins and orientation", Science & Society, Vol. 74, No. 3, July 2010, pp.

In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and what he considered to be the exploitation of labour by capital.Roemer, J.E. (1987). "Marxian Value Analysis".

Brian Simon (26 March 1915 – 17 January 2002) was an English educationist and historian. A leading member of the British Communist Party, his histories reflected a Marxian interpretation.

There exist multiple plans for the project of Das Kapital and consequently whether or not Marx did complete his project is an ongoing debate among Marxian political economists.

Bernstein had held close association to Marx and Engels, but he saw flaws in Marxian thinking and began such criticism when he investigated and challenged the Marxian materialist theory of history. He rejected significant parts of Marxian theory that were based upon Hegelian metaphysics and also rejected the Hegelian dialectical perspective. Bernstein distinguished between early Marxism as being its immature form as exemplified by The Communist Manifesto, written by Marx and Engels in their youth, that he opposed for what he regarded as its violent Blanquist tendencies; and later Marxism as being its mature form that he supported. Bernstein declared that the massive and homogeneous working class claimed in The Communist Manifesto did not exist.

The Communist Party of New Zealand (logo pictured) existed between 1921 and 1994. Even before Holland's replacement, and especially after Labour's 1949 policy change, many people had come to the conclusion that the Labour Party had moved too far away from its socialist roots. Only two years after Labour's foundation, the New Zealand Marxian Association was established. The Marxian Association was inspired by the Socialist Party of Great Britain (SPGB) and focused on political action.

"In the end, conflict theory should be seen as a litte more than a transitional development in the history of sociological theory. Although the theory failed because it didn't go far in the direction of Marxian theory, it was still early in the 1950s and 1960s for American sociology to accept a full-fledged Marxian approach. However, conflict theory was helping in setting the stage for the beginning of the acceptance by the late 1960s".

Social criticism is based on the assertion that the Marxian conception of society is fundamentally flawed.Mirowsky, John. "Wage slavery or creative work?." Society and mental health 1.2 (2011): 73–88.

After a brief period at the City College of New York (1971–1973), Resnick began teaching at the Economics Department of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1973. He began working with Richard D. Wolff in this period, and from then until Resnick's death they published numerous articles and books together, formulating a nondeterminist, class analytical approach. Topics included Marxian theory and value analysis, overdetermination, radical economics, international trade, business cycles, social formations, the Soviet Union, and comparing and contrasting Marxian and non-Marxian economic theories. Resnick's work with Wolff took Louis Althusser and Étienne Balibar's Reading Capital as its point of departure and developed a very subtle reading of Karl Marx's Capital Volumes II and III in their influential Knowledge and Class.

While the prices of different types of means of production are prices, the rate of profit can be seen in Marxian terms, as reflecting the social and economic power that owning the means of production gives this minority to exploit the majority of workers and to receive profit. But not all followers of Sraffa interpret his theory of production and capital in this Marxian way. Nor do all Marxists embrace the Sraffian model: in fact, such authors as Michael Lebowitz and Frank Roosevelt are highly critical of Sraffian interpretations, except as a narrow technical critique of the neoclassical view. There are also Marxian economists, like Michael Albert and Robin Hahnel, who consider the Sraffian theory of prices, wages and profit to be superior to Marx's own theory.

This implies that Marx's prophecy that worsening labour exploitation would result in an eventual revolution against the capitalist system and the establishment of communism is logically and mathematically false. Proponents of the temporal single system interpretation such as Moseley (1999), who argue that the determination of prices by simultaneous linear equations (which assumes that prices are the same at the start and end of the production period) is logically inconsistent with the determination of value by labour time, question whether the mathematical proof that Marx's transformation problem has no general solution. Other Marxian economists accept the proof, but reject its relevance for some key elements of Marxian political economy. Still others reject Marxian economics outright, and emphasise the politics of the assumed relations of production instead.

An Essay on Marxian Economics received a positive review from the economist Eric Roll in The Yale Law Journal. Roll considered the book important. He maintained that its appearance alongside the Marxian economist Paul Sweezy's The Theory of Capitalist Development (1942) represented "a significant landmark in the development of economic thinking." Sweezy described the book as the first work by a major British economist to show interest in Marx since the 19th century, calling it "very interesting".

The temporal single-system interpretation (TSSI) of Karl Marx's value theory emerged in the early 1980s in response to renewed allegations that his theory was "riven with internal inconsistencies" and that it must therefore be rejected or corrected. The inconsistency allegations had been a prominent feature of Marxian economics and the debate surrounding it since the 1970s.M. C. Howard and J. E. King, 1992, A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

Reproduction schemes are introduced and used to outline the extraction of surplus value and to criticize the traditional, albeit limited, Marxian solution to the Transformation problem. Sweezy develops his own method to solving it, while attempting to remain close to the original Marxian version. He later discusses the concept of the reserve army of labor, and its tendency to reduce wages. The larger focus of the third section, Crisis and Depression, is the theory of under-consumption.

By this time, Jesson – who never had much of a steady career, working variously as labourer, wool presser, baker, dustman and freezing worker – was living with his wife Joce (Jocelyn née Brown), an educationist and tutor/lecturer, and worked as a househusband as well as pursuing his writing. He was interested in developing an indigenous Marxian tradition in New Zealand, and participated in the four NZ Marxian Political Economy conferences staged in the 1970s and early 1980s.

Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian School responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.

Arghiri Emmanuel (; June 22, 1911, Patras, Greece - December 14, 2001, Paris, France) was a Greek-French Marxian economist who became known in the 1960s and 1970s for his theory of 'unequal exchange'.

Dirk Jan Struik (September 30, 1894 - October 21, 2000) was a Dutch-born American (since 1934) mathematician, historian of mathematics and Marxian theoretician who spent most of his life in the U.S.

Mises Wire. Mises Institute. Retrieved 21 April 2020. The Austrian and Marxian schools of economics agree in their criticism of the mixed economy, but they reach different conclusions regarding authoritarian socialist states.

London: Routledge. such as ecological economics, Marxian economics, social economics, and institutional economics. As such, Kapp's theory of social costs was directed against neoclassical economics and the rise of neoliberalism.Berger, Sebastian (2017).

Both Thompson and Tronti suggest class consciousness within the production process precedes the formation of productive relationships. In this sense, Marxian class theory often relates to discussion over pre-existing class struggles.

Marx and Friedrich Engels steered the party toward more Marxian socialism and welcomed them (as far as German law would allow) into their International Workingmen's Association (IWA).Lindemann, p. 104.Bonnell, p. 37.

The Positive Theory of Capital. William A. Smart, trans. London: Macmillan and Co. 1891. Böhm von Bawerk's critique of Marx's theories was put under intense scrutiny by Marxian economists such as Nikolai Bukharin.

Regarding the Marxian concept of value-form, Milios argues for a monetary theory of value, where "Money is the necessary form of appearance of value (and of capital) in the sense that prices constitute the only form of appearance of the value of commodities." Milios has authored more than two hundred papers published in refereed journals (in Greek, English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian and Turkish) and has authored or co-authored more than ten scholarly books on Marxian economics.

The > Marxian labor theory of value (LTV) is intended to explain the determination > of prices under commodity production (this is occasionally denied, but see > Steele 1986). In Marxian terminology, there can be no 'value' in post- > capitalist society. Both the LTV and communist planning conceive of resource > allocation being guided by quantities of labor-time. Yet the LTV as an > explanation of market prices and the labor-time planning proposal are two > distinct theories, which may stand or fall independently.

Socialist economics has been associated with different schools of economic thought. Marxian economics provided a foundation for socialism based on analysis of capitalism while neoclassical economics and evolutionary economics provided comprehensive models of socialism. During the 20th century, proposals and models for both socialist planned and market economies were based heavily on neoclassical economics or a synthesis of neoclassical economics with Marxian or institutional economics.Enrico Barone, "Il Ministro della Produzione nello Stato Collettivista", Giornale degli Economisti, 2, pp. 267–93, trans.

Another Marxian accounting controversy, less discussed, concerns which net tax receipts of government constitute part of the new value product. Obviously taxes included in official gross product measures do not equal the net total tax take, because some taxes are unrelated to production and therefore excluded. The Marxian critique of public finance appears to be rather undeveloped as yet, however. In principle, net tax levied on current production and paid out of current gross revenues would be included in the value product.

One of Gordon's most important contributions to the collaborative research he carried out on labor economics and macroeconomic trends was his historical and institutional understanding of the process of economic growth and development. His approach sought to explain successive booms and crises in a capitalist economy in terms of successive institutional frameworks or, to use the neo-Marxian term, successive social structures of accumulation (SSAs). In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he sought to use statistical methodology to conduct a rigorous test of this historical-institutional approach. His project involved the specification of four distinct yet comparable econometric models of the U.S. economy, based respectively on the neoclassical, the classical Marxian, the post-Keynesian and his own Nno-Marxian "left-structuralist" perspective—the latter representing a formalization of the SSA approach.

"Neo-Marxism and Underdevelopment — A Sociological Phantasy." Journal of Contemporary Asia 4(1):5–23. In industrial economics, the neo- Marxian approach stresses the monopolistic and oligarchical rather than the competitive nature of capitalism.

By introducing random matrices, he was able to derive the (restrictive) conditions under which such old problems as the construction of an aggregate production function or the Marxian transformation problem can be solved rigorously.

1976, pp. 174–175. in Europe beginning (in Marx's view) with William Petty's Quantulumcunque Concerning Money (1682),A. Anikin, A science in its youth: pre-Marxian political economy. Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975, p. 80.

Alfred Sohn-Rethel (4 January 1899 – 6 April 1990) was a French-born German Marxian economist and philosopher especially interested in epistemology. He also wrote about the relationship between German industry and National Socialism.

There has been considerable debate about the real theoretical significance of the value-form concept.Pichit Likitkijsomboon, "Marxian Theories of Value-Form". Review of Radical Political Economics, vol. 27 no. 2, June 1995, pp. 73-105.

Eventually, this will cause a fall in the mass of profit, giving way to decline and crisis. Many advocates of Marxian economics reject underconsumptionist stagnation theories. However, Marxian economist James Devine has pointed to two possible roles for underconsumption in the business cycle and the origins of the Great Depression of the 1930s."The Origins of the 1929-33 Great Collapse: A Marxist Interpretation" First, he interprets the dynamics of the U.S. economy in the 1920s as being one of over-investment relative to demand.

Marxian economics and its proponents view capitalism as economically unsustainable and incapable of improving the living standards of the population due to its need to compensate for falling rates of profit by cutting employee's wages, social benefits and pursuing military aggression. The communist system would succeed capitalism as humanity's mode of production through workers' revolution. According to Marxian crisis theory, communism is not an inevitability, but an economic necessity.Free will, non-predestination and non-determinism are emphasized in Marx's famous quote "Men make their own history".

9 no. 2, 1971, pp. 399–431; P.A. Samuelson, "The 'transformation' from Marxian 'value' to competitive 'prices': a process of rejection and replacement," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 67, no. 1, 1970, pp.

Natalie Moszkowska (1 May 1886 – 26 November 1968) was a Polish socialist economist, who provided significant contributions to the Marxian theory of value and crisis regarding monopoly capital, and to the economic interpretation of military expenditures.

Founded mainly by the professors and graduate students of the Department of Economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, the first issue of Rethinking Marxism appeared in 1988, just before the dissolution of the Soviet Union began. The journal quickly became an influential academic platform for Althusserian Marxism in the North American context.See and also Even though the journal was launched by a group of economists (among others, Stephen Resnick, Richard D. Wolff, Jack Amariglio, David Ruccio) and continues to regularly publish articles in the various sub-fields of Marxian economics, such as the labor theory of value, class analysis, and crisis theory, Rethinking Marxism does not have an exclusive economics focus. It is a journal of Marxian theory that makes it a point to rethink and develop Marxian analyses of capitalism, imperialism and alternatives to capitalism.

Marx regarded the distinction between abstract and concrete labour as being among the most important innovations he contributed to the theory of economic value, and subsequently Marxian scholars have debated a great deal about its theoretical significance.

Anne Corbett, in her obituary of Simon in The Guardian said that he came under increasing attack in the late 20th century: The Guardian obituary also said that Simon's writing had reflected a Marxian interpretation of history.

In Marxian political economy, the rate of profit (r) would be measured as ::: r = (surplus value)/(capital invested). where surplus value corresponds to unpaid labor in the production process or to profits, interest, and rent (property income).

C. Howard & J. E. King, A History of Marxian Economics, Vol. 1. Princeton University Press, 1989, p. 29. Although Eugen VargaEugen Varga, The Great Crisis and its Political Consequences. London: Modern Books Limited, 1935André Mommen, Stalin's Economist.

Karl Marx in 1861 In Marxism, a theoretician is an individual who observes and writes about the condition or dynamics of society, history, or economics, making use of the main principles of Marxian socialism in the analysis.

David Gordon, John Roemer, Herbert Gintis, Jon Elster, and Adam Przeworski have adopted the techniques of neoclassical economics, including game theory and mathematical modeling, to demonstrate Marxian concepts such as exploitation and class conflict.Barry Stewart Clark, Political economy: a comparative approach, ABC-CLIO, 1998, p. 67. The neo- Marxian approach integrated non-Marxist or "bourgeois" economics from the post-Keynesians like Joan Robinson and the neo-Ricardian school of Piero Sraffa. Polish economists Michał Kalecki, Rosa Luxemburg, Henryk Grossman, Adam Przeworski, and Oskar Lange were influential in this school, particularly in developing theories of underconsumption.

Criticisms of the labor theory of value affect the historical concept of labor theory of value (LTV) which spans classical economics, liberal economics, Marxian economics, neo-Marxian economics, and anarchist economics. As an economic theory of value, LTV is central to Marxist social-political-economic theory and later gave birth to the concepts of labour exploitation and surplus value. LTV criticisms therefore often appear in the context of economic criticism, not only for the microeconomic theory of Marx but also for Marxism, according to which the working class is exploited under capitalism.

But most of it does not refer to any real flow of income, nor is it clear that this component has anything to do with production. As regards net interest, the official product accounts will exclude a portion of it, insofar as it is defined as property income unrelated to the value of production. But if it is paid from current gross revenues of producing enterprises, then it should be included in the Marxian value product. For this reason, the Marxian net interest aggregate is likely to be larger than the official one.

The bulk of Lange's contributions to economics came during his American interlude of 1933–45. Despite being an ardent socialist, Lange deplored the Marxian labor theory of value because he was very much a believer in the neoclassical theory of price. In the history of economics, he is probably best known for his work On the Economic Theory of Socialism published in 1936, where he famously put Marxian economics and neoclassical economics together. In the book, Lange advocated the use of market tools (especially the neoclassical pricing theory) in economic planning of socialism and Marxism.

According to Marxian crisis theory, socialism is not an inevitability, but an economic necessity.The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon (1852). Free will, non-predestination and non- determinism are emphasized in Marx's famous quote "Men make their own history".

One of the first issues addressed was the Marxian prediction that industrial capitalism would lead to concentration and centralization. But Bernstein pointed out that ownership of businesses had become more diffuse, instead of being concentrated in few hands.

Asimakopulos was a Post Keynesian / "Kaleckian" scholar, who elaborated upon Michał Kalecki's theories.Lavoie, Marc. The Kaleckian model of growth and distribution and its neo-Ricardian and neo-Marxian critiques. Cambridge Journal of Economics 19 (6), 1993, pp. 789–81.

While most official communist parties denounced neo-Marxian theories as "bourgeois economics," some neo- Marxians served as advisers to socialist or Third World developing governments. Despite being an orthodox Marxist economist, Maurice Dobb was also associated with this current.

Samir Amin () (3 September 1931 – 12 August 2018) was an Egyptian-French Marxian economist, political scientist and world-systems analyst. He is noted for his introduction of the term Eurocentrism in 1988 and considered a pioneer of Dependency Theory.

" But who is not bourgeois, i.e., own their home and private property, these days? Small businessmen, pension plan participants, academic critics. The game is to "redefine the bourgeoisie to fit the Marxian scheme in which one class oppresses another.

Murray's interests as economist included: Marxian theory; transfer pricing, globalisation and transnational corporations; industrial policy and cooperatives; fair trade, local economic development, international development, the environment, waste and recycling, social innovation and the social economy and the circular economy.

G. C. Stiebeling, Das Werthgesetz und die Profitrate. New York: John Heinrich, 1890. See the German Wikipedia article on Georg Christian Stiebeling. Stiebeling's analysis represented "almost certainly the first systematic use of statistical sources in Marxian value theory."M.

It is a central theoretical text in academic Marxian economics, economic sociology, historiography, dialectical logic and other fields. Capital, Volume I lists consistently high in rankings by economists, philosophers and others naming great books of lasting importance to modernity.

Marxian economists however argue that fraction is part of the value of production and the value product, insofar it has to be paid out of current revenues of producing enterprises. This Marxian interpretation implies a somewhat different view of the real cost structure of production, and the real composition of product values, and to obtain alternative measures, the official accounts must be substantially reaggregated to make explicit the sources and receipts of income from salaries, profits, interest, rent, taxes and social insurance levies, subsidies, royalties and fees, and their contribution to the valuation of gross product (see also value product). In the Marxian view, obtaining generic profit income from sales is precisely the prime motivator of capitalist business activity, and therefore to present this income as a "generic residual balancing item" in national accounts without making its components explicit does no justice to the real economic relations involved.

Democracy, education, and equality. Description and prreview. Cambridge Univ. Press —2008. In The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition. For the following, 1st-sentence links; TOC and Abstract links: :"equality of opportunity" :"Marxian value analysis." TOC :"socialism (new perspectives)" : —2010.

New Delhi: People's Publishing House. 1982. p. 229. in Tashkent. On his return to India, M.N. Roy who had read Gandhi Vs. Lenin met Dange in 1922. Dange at that time was closely associating with Lotvala to spread Marxian ideas.

This result calls into question his theory that the exploitation of workers is the sole source of profit.M.C. Howard and J.E. King. (1992) A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990, chapter 12, sect. III. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

In 1847, he left this job and finally settled in Paris, where he was now becoming celebrated as a leader of innovation. In this year, he also became a Freemason.Henri du Bac. The Un-Marxian Socialist: A Study of Proudhon .

Biplab Dasgupta (2 January 1938 – 17 July 2005) was a Marxian economist, former member of Rajya Sabha , Lok Sabha and the Bengal state committee of the CPI(M). He was the author of several books on the agrarian economy of India.

His pre-World War II published works in Marxian economic theory were regarded as particularly original and important an example being On Reproduction Schemes appearing in the appendix to Paul Sweezy's The Theory of Capitalist Development (1942). Schumpeter, to whose guidance Tsuru owed a great deal, discussed in his History of Economic Analysis the relation between Marx and Quesnay and wrote that on this subject "the interested reader finds all he needs in the appendix to Sweezy's volume by Shigeto Tsuru." Tsuru was actually one of the leaders in the founding of Science & Society - a Marxian quarterly.

Bortkiewicz identified a transformation problem in Marx's work. Making use of Dmitriev's analysis of Ricardo, Bortkiewicz proved that the data used by Marx was sufficient to calculate the general profit rate and relative prices. Though Marx's transformation procedure was not correct—because it did not calculate prices and profit rate simultaneously, but sequentially—Bortkiewicz has shown that it is possible to get the correct results using the Marxian framework, i.e. using the marxian variables constant capital and variable capital it is possible to obtain the profit rate and the relative prices in a three-sector model.

By contrast, Marx considered rents paid by producing enterprises from their gross income as a part of surplus value, and as an integral part of the cost structure of the social product. Business rents, excluded as intermediate expenditures from GDP, therefore are included in the Marxian value product as a component of surplus value. From a Marxian point of view, official value added also includes some dubious components such as the rental value of owner-occupied housing. This entry is the market rent of owner-occupied housing that would apply if the housing was rented, treated as a "service".

In 1930, however, former members of the Marxian Association (backed by members of the Socialist Party of Australia (WSM)) established the Socialist Party of New Zealand (distinct from the earlier New Zealand Socialist Party). This group denied that the Labour Party (or even any of the parties before it, except for the Marxian Association) represented genuine socialism. The new Socialist Party still exists today, although has slightly modified its name, becoming the World Socialist Party). Meanwhile, the CPNZ built its support from miners in the South Island's West Coast and Huntly in the North Island's Waikato district, and from seamen and waterside workers.

Later scholars argued that Marx's formulas for competitive prices were mistaken. First, competitive equilibrium requires a uniform rate of return over constant capital valued at its price, not its Marxian value, contrary to what is done in table 2 above. Second, competitive prices result from the sum of costs valued at the prices of things, not as amounts of embodied labour. Thus, both Marx's calculation of r and the sums of his price formulas do not add up in all the normal cases, where, as in the above example, relative competitive prices differ from relative Marxian values.

Many schools of thought have sought to combine Marxian concepts and non-Marxian concepts which has then led to contradictory conclusions. However, there is a movement toward the recognition that historical materialism and dialectical materialism remains the fundamental aspect of all Marxist schools of thought. Marxism–Leninism and its offshoots are the most well-known of these and have been a driving force in international relations during most of the 20th century. Classical Marxism is the economic, philosophical and sociological theories expounded by Marx and Engels as contrasted with later developments in Marxism, especially Leninism and Marxism–Leninism.

Cox was a MarxistCox describes his relationship to Marxist thought in his 1948 study Caste, Class, and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics: > At best, Marxian hypotheses are "servants, not masters." Indeed, it has been > said that Karl Marx himself was not Marxian because in his studies he > strived to understand modern society, while the religious Marxists, in their > exegetical discussions, center their attention not upon the ongoing social > system but rather upon an explanation and criticism of Marx — a sort of > rumination of his conclusions, incidental errors and all. If, therefore, > parts of this study seem Marxian, it is not because we have taken the ideas > of this justly famous writer as gospel, but because we have not discovered > any other that could explain the facts so consistently. (p. xi) who criticized capitalism and race in Foundations of Capitalism (1959), Capitalism and American Leadership (1962), Capitalism as a System (1964) and his last, Jewish Self-Interest and Black Pluralism (1974).

Rick Kuhn (born 18 September 1955) is an Australian Marxian economist, political analyst and reader at the Australian National University in Canberra.Rick Kuhn: curriculum vitae Australian National University. Accessed: 2 July 2009.Australian unions boost campaign against Rudd laws Reuters, 15 June 2009.

Alexandru Bârlădeanu (or Bîrlădeanu; 25 January 1911 – 13 November 1997) was a Romanian Marxian economist who was prominent during the Communist regime until being sidelined in 1968. In his later years, following the collapse of the regime, he served as Senate President.

He continued to promote Marxian theory, with some of his students helping to spread his ideas. He published his final work The Aesthetic Dimension in 1979 on the role of art in the process of what he termed "emancipation" from bourgeois society.

Economic Development of the North Atlantic Community: Historical Introduction to Modern Economics (1967). Dudley's second major work. Proudhon, Gesell and Keynes: An Investigation of Some "anti-Marxian Socialist" Antecedents of Keynes' General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1997). Dudley's third major work.

The bishops also claimed that the economic development of the 1970s and early 1980s had merely widened the gap between rich and poor. At the same time, however, Catholics were warned against employing Marxian analyses of society or endorsing violence or class conflict.

In Marxian economics, the exchange theory of value, proposed by I. I. Rubin (1927),I. I. Rubin, "Abstract Labour and Value in Marx's System", Capital and Class, 5 (Summer 1978), pp. 107–139, at pp. 118–119; first published: Pod Znamenem Marksizma, 1927.

"Reimeikai" in . This group was formed in order to sponsor public lectures.Marshall, Byron K. (1992). After World War I, he defended democracy, advanced a critique of Marxian theory, and emphasized the solution of social and labour problems by government intervention rather than revolution.

After he returned to Japan, he became an assistant professor at Kyushu University. In 1926, he became a professor. He was also known as a coterie of the magazine "Rōnō" and an artist and became one of the leading Marxian economists in Japan.

Allen Krebs was a Marxian economics professor who founded the Free University of New York (FUNY). Krebs was involved in the May 2nd Movement, a youth affiliate of the Progressive Labor Party. He set up FUNY after being sacked from Adelphi University.

According to the German Marxian scholar Michael Heinrich, "Marx was nowhere near solving all of the conceptual problems".Michael Heinrich, "Engels’ Edition of the Third Volume of Capital and Marx’s Original Manuscript". Science & Society, Vol. 60. No. 4, Winter 1996-1997, pp. 452-466.

In Marxian economics, the rate of exploitation is the ratio of the total amount of unpaid labor done (surplus-value) to the total amount of wages paid (the value of labour power). The rate of exploitation is often also called the rate of surplus-value.

Some economists, most notably Marxian economists, argue that the system of perpetual capital accumulation leads to irrational outcomes and a mis- allocation of resources as industries and jobs are created for the sake of making money as opposed to satisfying actual demands and needs.

Festgabe für K. Knies (1896). but the first was Wicksteed's "The Marxian Theory of Value. Das Kapital: a criticism" (1884,Wicksteed, Philip Henry; "Das Kapital: A Criticism", To-day 2 (1884) pp. 388–409. followed by "The Jevonian criticism of Marx: a rejoinder" in 1885).

From the 1970s, the so-called "value-form theorists" ("value-form school")Jan Hoff, Marx Worldwide; on the development of the international discourse on Marx since 1965. Leiden: Brill, 2017, p. 215. Pichit Likitkijsomboon, "Marxian Theories of Value-Form". Review of Radical Political Economics, vol.

Marxist historiography, that is, the writing of Marxist history in line with the given historiographical principles, is often seen as a tool. Its aim is to bring those oppressed by history to self-consciousness, and to arm them with tactics and strategies from history: it is both a historical and a liberatory project. Historians who use Marxist methodology, but disagree with the mainstream of Marxism, often describe themselves as marxist historians (with a lowercase M). Methods from Marxist historiography, such as class analysis, can be divorced from the liberatory intent of Marxist historiography; such practitioners often refer to their work as marxian or Marxian.

Josep Pallach i Carolà (Figueres (Catalonia, Spain) 1920, l'Hospitalet de Llobregat (Catalonia, Spain), 1977) was the Social democratic leader of Catalonia who most likely would have become the first democratic president of Catalonia had he survived a few more years. Libertarian communist during his youth, he fought with the Republic and was a leader of several antifrancoist movements. When time came for democratic organization, he opposed maximalist- Marxian views of socialism and communism. He attempted the creation of a Catalan Socialist party including Marxist socialists and left liberals, but adherence to pure Marxian values by Catalan socialists lead them to partner instead with the socialist branch of the Spanish Socialist party.

While it originates from the works of 19th-century German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Marxist communism has developed into many different branches and schools of thought, with the result that there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Different communist schools of thought place a greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while rejecting or modifying other aspects. Many communist schools of thought have sought to combine Marxian concepts and non-Marxian concepts which has then led to contradictory conclusions. However, there is a movement toward the recognition that historical materialism and dialectical materialism remains the fundamental aspect of all Marxist communist schools of thought.

The Un-Marxian Socialist: A Study of Proudhon. pp. 28–29. According to historian of anarchism George Woodcock, some positions Proudhon took "sorted oddly with his avowed anarchism". Woodcock cited as an example Proudhon's proposition that each citizen perform one or two years militia service.Woodcock, George (1987).

Andre Gunder Frank (February 24, 1929 - April 25, 2005) was a German-American sociologist and economic historian who promoted dependency theory after 1970 and world-systems theory after 1984. He employed some Marxian concepts on political economy, but rejected Marx's stages of history, and economic history generally.

Andrew Kliman is an American economist and professor of Economics. He is the author of several publications on Marxian economics. His book Reclaiming Marx's "Capital" defends the Temporal Single System Interpretation of Karl Marx's labor theory against claims of inconsistency from neoclassical, neo- Ricardian, and other economists.

Specifically, the discussions analysed the ways in which citizenship contributed to the formation and construction of identities. Dahrendorf's adherence to a Marxian position seemingly prevented him from participating in these debates. Absent from Dahrendorf's theory were any significant discussions of culture, and therefore, citizenship and identity.

Rosenberg wrote several books on art theory, and monographs on Willem de Kooning, Saul Steinberg, and Arshile Gorky. A Marxian cultural critic, Rosenberg's books and essays probed the ways in which evolving trends in painting, literature, politics, and popular culture disguised hidden agendas or mere hollowness.

Among the main issues addressed by the TSSI are Marx's law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall and the transformation of commodity values into prices of production––the so-called transformation problem––in Das Kapital Volume 3. TSSI authors have also challenged the "Fundamental Marxian theorem", which supposedly showed that Marx's value theory is unnecessary in order to arrive at his conclusion that exploitation of workers is the unique source of profit under capitalism. Other research informed by the TSSI includes studies of the impact of European economic integration, theoretical and empirical analysis of economic crisis (see Crisis), critiques of the static equilibrium methodology widely employed in economics (mainstream as well as Sraffian and Marxian), and challenges to the statistical claim that industry-level values and prices are strongly correlated. Drawing on their experiences in the controversy over Marx's value theory, some proponents of the TSSI have also been active in the movement for pluralism in economics, and they have critiqued, and argued for the reform of, the interpretive methods employed in Marxian economics.

Welcome to the Desert of the Real is a 2002 book by Slavoj Žižek. A Marxian and Lacanian analysis of the ideological and political responses to the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, Zizek's study incorporates various psychoanalytic, postmodernist, biopolitical, and (Christian) universalist influences into a Marxist dialectical framework.

Hugo Dewar (9 August 1908 – June 1980) was a Trotskyist activist influential in founding many of the early British Trotskyist groups. Dewar was born in Leyton in London in 1908. He joined the Independent Labour Party in 1928, and in 1930 co-founded the Marxian League.Alexander, Robert Jackson.

Shane Mage, The Law of the Falling Tendency of the Rate of Profit; Its Place in the Marxian Theoretical System and Relevance to the US Economy. Phd Thesis, Columbia University, 1963. Mage's work provided the first sophisticated disaggregate analysis of official national accounts data performed by a Marxist scholar.

Lucien Sanial (1835-1927). Lucien Delabarre Sanial (1835–1927) was a French- American newspaper editor, economist, and political activist. A pioneer member of the Socialist Labor Party of America, Sanial is best remembered as one of the earliest economic theorists to deal with the Marxian concept of imperialism.

Objections also exist on more fundamental bases, such as Marxian analysis. Colloquial uses of the term "market failure" reflect the notion of a market "failing" to provide some desired attribute different from efficiency – for instance, high levels of inequality can be considered a "market failure", yet are not Pareto inefficient, and so would not be considered a market failure by mainstream economics. In addition, many Marxian economists would argue that the system of private property rights is a fundamental problem in itself, and that resources should be allocated in another way entirely. This is different from concepts of "market failure" which focuses on specific situations – typically seen as "abnormal" – where markets have inefficient outcomes.

Again that leads to an understatement of domestic profits. The trend in operating surplus over time will normally be similar to the general trend in gross business profits, but in Marxian economics operating surplus is rejected as an adequate proxy for total gross profit or surplus value. The main reason is that in Marxian economics the official concepts of Gross Output and value added are not accepted as an adequate definition of the value of production. Among other things, a fraction of profit, interest and rent income which is payable from the gross income of producing enterprises is excluded from value added in the official accounts, on the ground that it is unrelated to production.

Utopian socialists like Robert Owen and Henri de Saint-Simon argued, although not from exactly the same perspective, that the injustice and widespread poverty of the societies they lived in were a problem of distribution of the goods created. On the other hand, Marxian socialists determined that the root of the injustice is based not in the function of distribution of goods already created, but rather in the fact that the ownership of the means of production is in the hands of the upper class. Marxian socialists also maintain in contrast to the utopian socialists that the root of injustice is not in how goods (commodities) are distributed, but for whose economic benefit are they produced and sold.

In the years leading up to the First World War, several New Zealand and Australian socialists including Harry Holland, Michael Joseph Savage, Peter Fraser, Harry Scott Bennett, Tom Barker, Tom Bloodworth, and Bob Semple advocated the creation of a "Cooperative Commonwealth" in which all land and means of wealth production, distribution, and management would be owned and managed collectively by the people. Besides Marx and Engels, these antipodean socialists were influenced by various radical European and American writers including Henry George, Edward Bellamy, Georges Sorel, August Bebel, Eugene Debs, Bill Haywood, and Irving Fisher. In 1912, a Petone Marxian Club was formed and met every Monday. This was one of the forerunners to the New Zealand Marxian Association.

Most Western Marxists had accepted the conventional price-theories of economics as largely correct and unproblematic,Thus, for example, in his textbook Monetary Theory (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981) the prominent English Marxian economist Laurence Harris, well known for his contributions to Marxian value theory, paid no attention to the price-form itself. and just kept insisting that value-theory was a necessary "add-on" to make sense of the economy. Alternatively, Marxists argued that value theory had nothing much to do with the market economics of prices, because it referred to a quite different "level of abstraction" or had a different intention.Diane Elson (ed.), Value: the representation of labour in capitalism.

Bhagabati Panigrahi was mainly a short story writer. Influenced by the romantic thoughts of Rabindranath Tagore, during the thirties when the progressive Marxian movements were in full flow in Odia literature, Kalindi Charan Panigrahi, the brother of Bhagabati Charan Panigrahi, the founder of Marxian Trend in Odisha, formed a group during 1920 called Sabuja Samiti. Mayadhar Mansingh was a renowned poet of that time though he was considered as a romantic poet, he kept the distance away from the influence of Rabindranath Tagore successfully. As the successor of Sachi babu, two poets Guruprasad Mohanty (popularly known as Guru Prasad) (1924–2004) and Bhanuji Rao came with T. S. Eliot and published their co-authored poetry book Nutan Kabita.

Paul Marlor Sweezy (April 10, 1910 – February 27, 2004) was a Marxist economist, political activist, publisher, and founding editor of the long- running magazine Monthly Review. He is best remembered for his contributions to economic theory as one of the leading Marxian economists of the second half of the 20th century.

In the 1960s and 1970s, Reich worked with David Gordon, Richard Edwards, and other well-known Marxist and Neo-Marxian economists. Focusing on labor economics, the group specifically narrowed in on segmented labor markets. In 1973, Reich, together with Edwards and Gordon, published A Theory of Labor Market Segmentation. Pdf version.

His escalation as an academic was phenomenal, but hardly surprising in view of his abilities. In the early 1930s he had been to Germany and had there come into contact with Marxian thought. After his stint at Jamia, Abdul Aleem joined the Lucknow University as head of Department of Arabic.

This break took a number of forms. The Bordigists and the SPGB championed a super-Marxian intransigence in theoretical matters. Other socialists made a return "behind Marx" to the anti-positivist programme of German idealism. Libertarian socialism has frequently linked its anti- authoritarian political aspirations with this theoretical differentiation from orthodoxy.

Worker self-directed enterprise is a recent proposal advocated by the American Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff. This model shares many similarities with the model of socialist self-management in that employees own and direct their enterprises, but places a greater role on democratically elected management within a market economy.

Ernest Mandel Ernest Ezra Mandel (; also known by various pseudonyms such as Ernest Germain, Pierre Gousset, Henri Vallin, Walter; 5 April 1923 – 20 July 1995), was a Belgian Marxian economist and a Trotskyist activist and theorist. He fought in the underground resistance against the Nazis during the occupation of Belgium.

The Theory of Capitalist Development is a 1942 book by the Marxian economist Paul Sweezy, in which the author expounds and defends the labor theory of value.Wolff 1991. pp. 151-152. It has received praise as an important work, but Sweezy has also been criticized for misrepresenting Karl Marx's economic theories.

See further: Anwar Shaikh, The Empirical Strength of the Labor Theory of Value. In: Riccardo Bellofiore (ed.), Conference Proceedings of Marxian Economics: A Centenary Appraisal. London: Macmillan, 1998 ; a classic study is Anwar Shaikh & Ergutul Tonak, Measuring the Wealth of Nations: The Political Economy of National Accounts. Cambridge University Press, 1994.

Historical economic figures who supported cooperatives and self-management of some kind include the anarchist Pierre Joseph Proudhon, classical economist John Stuart Mill and the neoclassical economist Alfred Marshall. Contemporary proponents of self-management include the American Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff, anarchist philosopher Noam Chomsky and social theorist and sociologist Marcelo Vieta.

Novosti Press Agency Pub. House, 1976. p. 5 However, because of the lack of market signals, Eastern Bloc economies experienced mis-development by central planners which, according to many authors, was an intrinsic property of the Marxian economics. The Eastern Bloc also depended upon the Soviet Union for significant amounts of materials.

James R. Crotty is an American Post-Keynesian macroeconomist whose research in theory and policy attempts to integrate the complementary analytical strengths of the Marxian and Keynesian traditions. He has made contributions to the social structure of accumulation (SSA) theory; the implications of radical uncertainty for macro theory and theories of financial markets.

This was a further development of the concept of social systems of the Berkeley school mentioned above, with the intent to prevent that its applications in systems design be reductively transformed into other approaches such as communicative action in the Kantian tradition, participatory design or co-design in the liberal tradition, conflict in the Marxian tradition or, lately, phenomenological and post- phenomenological postmodernism (and perspectivism, as in postmodern philosophy), social networks, actor-network theory (and its "non-modernism"), and design aestheticism.Ivanov's criticisms are found, for instance, in Ivanov (1991) and Ivanov (2001) Regarding design estheticism that followed and replaced Marxian trends in Scandinavia, Ivanov adduces the critique of post- Marxian aestheticism by especially pp. 16-30, 77-133, 263-282.) Ivanov perceives trends in computer and information science (where the design concept is grounded in design theory rather than systems theory) as related to variants of the intuitionism impersonated by Henri Bergson, or to problematic revisions of Aristotelian phronesis as expounded by Aubenque, P. (1993). La prudence chez Aristote, avec un appendice sur la prudence chez Kant [Prudence according to Aristotle, with an appendix on prudence according to Kant]. Quadrige/PUF.

Some schools have sought to combine Marxian concepts and non-Marxian concepts which has then led to contradictory conclusions. It has been argued that there is a movement toward the recognition of historical and dialectical materialism as the fundamental conceptions of all Marxist schools of thought. This view is refuted by some post-Marxists such as Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe, who claim that history is not only determined by the mode of production, but also by consciousness and will. Marxism has had a profound impact on global academia, having influenced many fields, including anthropology, archaeology, art theory, criminology, cultural studies, economics, education, ethics, film theory, geography, historiography, literary criticism, media studies,Manuel Alvarado, Robin Gutch, and Tana Wollen (1987).

In Resnick's work, Marxian class analysis entails the detailed study of the conditions of existences of concrete forms of performance, appropriation, and distribution of surplus labor. While there could be an infinite number of forms of surplus appropriation, the Marxist canon refers to ancient (independent), slave, feudal, capitalist, and communist class processes. In 1989, Resnick joined efforts with a group of colleagues, ex- and then current students to launch Rethinking Marxism, an academic journal that aims to create a platform for rethinking and developing Marxian concepts and theories within economics as well as other fields of social inquiry. He remained a member of the editorial board of the journal until 1994, and continued thereafter to serve as a member of the advisory board of the journal.

Within Marxian class theory, the structure of the production process forms the basis of class construction. To Marx, a class is a group with intrinsic tendencies and interests that differ from those of other groups within society, the basis of a fundamental antagonism between such groups. For example, it is in the laborer's best interest to maximize wages and benefits and in the capitalist's best interest to maximize profit at the expense of such, leading to a contradiction within the capitalist system, even if the laborers and capitalists themselves are unaware of the clash of interests. Marxian class theory has been open to a range of alternate positions, most notably from scholars such as E. P. Thompson and Mario Tronti.

This perspective was also manifested in the philosophical outlook of the American journal of radical theory Telos. Arato served on Telos’s editorial board from 1971 to 1984. Arato's emphasis on social praxis and the concomitant categories of subjectivity, culture and alienation was displayed in his dissertation on the early 20th-century Marxian philosophy of György Lukács.Also see his introduction to a special issue of International Journal of Sociology on the Marxian Theory of History (Spring, 1974) As Arato notes in his 1979 book, The Young Lukacs and the Origins of Western Marxism, the elaboration of a critical Western Marxism with its emphasis on intentional collective action or praxis was also intended as a critique of the authoritarian communist governments in Eastern Europe.

Investigación Económica, vol. LXXIII, no. 287, January-March 2014, pp. 115-134. Shaikh largely side-steps a more precise conceptual discussion of the relationship between Marxian "values" and the forms of prices as such, preferring to demonstrate a strong positive correlation between movements in labour requirements and movements in actual price-levels for outputs.

He emphasized the Russian rather than the Marxian roots of Bolshevism. He highlighted the differences between Lenin's one-party dictatorship and Stalin's one-man dictatorship. He illuminated the similarities between tsarist and Stalinist state-building and social engineering. He elucidated the domestic and international politics of de-Stalinization in Soviet and post-Soviet Russia.

Harrison's Reports called it "A good comedy" with a "pleasant" romance. John Mosher of The New Yorker wrote, "As comic pictures go, this ranks certainly above average; it has enough of the Marxian note for that. As Marx Brothers movies go, however, it is a minor effort." The film recorded a loss of $330,000.

Also a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term survival of the fittest. While Marxian ideas defined one strand of sociology, Spencer was a critic of socialism as well as strong advocate for a laissez-faire style of government. His ideas were closely observed by conservative political circles, especially in the United States and England.

The renewed industrialization, which based itself on both a dogmatic understanding of Marxian economics and a series of autarkic goals,Deletant & Ionescu, p.26, 32; Frunză, p.510-512 brought major economic problems to Romania, beginning with the effects of the 1973 oil crisis, and worsened by the 1979 energy crisis.Cioroianu, Pe umerii..., p.

From 1963 until his death he was Tyler Professor of Economics at the University of Leicester, where he initiated a B.Sc. course in Economics and a Public Sector Economics Research Centre. He published numerous books and articles on classical political economy, Marxian and Sraffian economics, as well as on electricity pricing and social theory.

In Marxian terms, the unemployed serve as a reserve army of labor. By contrast, in a job guarantee program, a buffer stock of employed people (employed in the job guarantee program) provides the same protection against inflation without the social costs of unemployment, hence potentially fulfilling the dual mandate of full employment and price stability.

Paul Mattick "New Essays" in Joseph R. Conlin ed. The American radical press Westport, CT; Greenwood Press p.360 In 1937 a group disagreeing with its attitude toward the Soviet Union split and formed the Marxist Workers Party.Dale Reipe "Marxian Labor College Bulletin" in Joseph R. Conlin (ed.) The American Radical Press, 1880-1960.

Marxist‒Leninist atheism and other adaptations of Marxian thought on religion enjoyed the official patronage of various one-party Communist states since 1917. The Bolsheviks pursued "militant atheism".Martin Amis; Koba the Dread; Vintage; 2003; pp.184-185 The Soviet leaders Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin energetically pursued the persecution of the Church through the 1920s and 1930s.

But with Marxian adherents—among whom we most decidedly belong—the question is simply, Are the Marx Brothers in it? They are." A review in Variety called it a "moderate comedy where dull stretches overshadow the several socko laugh sequences during a bumpy unfolding ... Marx Bros. repeat their familiar antics without much variation from previous appearances.

Stephen Alvin Resnick (; October 24, 1938 – January 2, 2013) was an American heterodox economist. He was well known for his work (much of it written together with Richard D. Wolff) on Marxian economics, economic methodology, and class analysis. His work, along with that of Wolff, is especially associated with a post-Marxist and post-Althusserian perspective on political economy.

Daniel Bell, Marxian Socialism in the United States. (1952). Paperback edition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967; pg. 97. Fundraising to support the cost of a daily newspaper proved an ongoing battle for New York City Socialists, with future member of the SPA's National Executive Committee Anna A. Maley given a full- time job as fundraiser for the publication.

Socialist Standard is a monthly socialist magazine published without interruption since September 1904 by the Socialist Party of Great Britain (SPGB). The magazine is written in a simple, direct style and focuses mainly on socialist advocacy and Marxian analysis of current events, particularly those affecting the United Kingdom. Some articles have been published in party pamphlets.

However, there is a sharp contrast between the scholars' arguments. Taking Williams as our point of discussion, he criticizes the mechanistic approach to Marxism that encourages a close reading of Marxian concepts. Concepts such as being, consciousness, class, capital, labor, labor power, commodity, economy, politics, etc. are not closed categories but rather interactive, engaging, and open practices or praxis.

The Kisan Mazdoor Mandal ('Peasant Worker Association', abbreviated KMM) was a political party in Bhopal State, India. The party was formed in 1950 by proponents of a merger with Madhya Bharat, who split away from the Indian National Congress. The party had a Marxian orientation. KMM was supported by the 10,000-member trade union Mazdoor Sabha.

Ronald Lindley Meek (27 July 1917 – 18 August 1978), also known as Ron Meek, was a Marxian economist and social scientist known especially for his scholarly studies of classical political economy and the labour theory of value. During the 1960s and 1970s, his writings had a strong influence on the Western academic discussion about Marx's economic theory.

The principles of the effort heuristic display a striking resemblance to the labor theory of value. This theory is a major pillar of traditional Marxian economics. Its basic claim is simple: the value of a commodity can be objectively measured by the average number of labor hours required to produce that commodity.Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1977).

In 1972, he married Shin Suk-ja, a fellow South Korean migrant in Germany. The couple had two daughters, Oh Hae-won (born 1976) and Oh Kyu-won (born 1978). He filed his doctoral dissertation at the University of Bremen in 1985, on the topic of Japanese Marxian economist Nobuo Okishio and the labour theory of value.

In the 1870s, Marx certainly wanted to test his theory of economic crises and profit-making econometrically,Zoltan Kenessey, "Why Das Kapital remained unfinished". In: William Barber (ed.), Themes in Pre-Classical, Classical and Marxian Economics. Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1991, pp. 119–133. but adequate macroeconomic statistical data and mathematical tools did not exist to do so.

141; Fried (1990), pp. 6, 15, 78–80. Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff argues that socialist and communist parties, along with organized labor, played a collective role in pushing through New-Deal legislation, and that conservative opponents of the New Deal coordinated an effort to single out and destroy them as a result.Richard D. Wolff (2 September 2013).

Cozier is mistaken if he thinks I took my Socialism from Marx, or that it depends upon the Marxian theory of value. I have never read a page of Marx. I got the idea of collective ownership from H. M. Hyndman; the rest of my Socialism I thought out myself. English Socialism is not German: it is English.

In a 1975 paper subtitled "Was Marx's Journey Really Necessary?", the influential Marxian economist Ronald L. Meek argued that Marx's value theory had become redundant, because all economic relationships can be described and explained in terms of prices.Ronald L. Meek, "From values to prices: was Marx's journey really necessary?". In: Ronald L. Meek, Smith, Marx and after.

Boasberg also wrote for 47 films between 1926 and 1937—especially 1935's A Night at the Opera, which provided The Marx Brothers with a commercial comeback on the screen. Another Marxian, the comedy producer Sid Kuller, started out as a ghost-gag-writer for Boasberg.Vosburgh, Dick, "Obituary: Sid Kuller", The Independent (People), London, October 31, 1993.

Oliver Hossfeld (2010) "US Money Demand, Monetary Overhang, and Inflation Prediction" International Network for Economic Research working paper no. 2010.4 In Marxian economics, the unemployed serve as a reserve army of labor, which restrain wage inflation. In the 20th century, similar concepts in Keynesian economics include the NAIRU (Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment) and the Phillips curve.

Following its publication in 1939, the book received little critical attention (Garland 1990: 106). In the late 1960s, however, the book's analytical stance and Marxian bent resonated with the developing school of critical criminology and its radical outlook. It generated considerable interest in the economic underpinning to the concept of punishment, and was effectively updated and reapplied in works such as Melossi and Pavarini's The Prison and the Factory (1981). The book has also been subjected to significant criticism, with commentators questioning its reductionist Marxian stance, with its overstatement of the influence of economic factors (Garland 1990: 108), the deterministic nature of the conclusions generated, the teleological problems inherent in the theme of punishment as a 'project' of the ruling class to reinforce its domination, and the book's vulnerability to various historical inexactitudes (Beattie 1986).

The Bardhan and Roemer model satisfied the main requirements of both socialism (workers own all the factors of production, not just labour) and market economies (prices determine efficient allocation of resources). New Zealand economist Steven O'Donnell expanded on the Bardhan and Roemer model and decomposed the capital function in a general equilibrium system to take account of entrepreneurial activity in market socialist economies. O'Donnell (2003) set up a model that could be used as a blueprint for transition economies and the results suggested that although market socialist models were inherently unstable in the long term, they would provide in the short term the economic infrastructure necessary for a successful transition from planned to market economies. In the early 21st century, the Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff refocused Marxian economics giving it a microfoundational focus.

In other words, how can the Marxian production-price constellation be justified in real economy? Marx considered, of course, that in the long run the average positive rate of profit is realized in capitalistic market economy. Then what is the logic to guarantee it considering the change of real wage rate? Adam Smith considered that competition among capitals effects downward pressures on profits.

See also by Michael Porter, Competitive advantage and Competitive strategy. (see further the important studies by Willi Semmler, Christian Bidard, Peter Flaschel, Anwar Shaikh, and Lefteris Tsoulfidis).Willi Semmler, Competition, Monopoly, and Differential Profit Rates; On the Relevance of the Classical and Marxian Theories of Production Prices for Modern Industrial and Corporate Pricing. Columbia University Press, 1984; Christian Bidard, Prices, Reproduction, Scarcity.

But according to Keen, this is an over- simplification of the way that the real economy behaves. He argues that economists need to become more familiar with the mathematical tools needed to study dynamical systems, such as nonlinear differential equations. The final section gives a discussion of possible alternatives, such as Marxian economics, Austrian economics, complexity economics, and so on.

The Mondragon Cooperative Corporation is the largest worker cooperative in the world, and as such the largest corporation that operates some form of workplace democracy. The Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff states it is "a stunningly successful alternative to the capitalist organization of production".Wolff, Richard (24 June 2012). Yes, there is an alternative to capitalism: Mondragon shows the way.

Paul Alexander Baran (; 25 August 1909 – 26 March 1964) was an American Marxist economist. In 1951 Baran was promoted to full professor at Stanford University and Baran was the only tenured Marxian economist in the United States until his death in 1964. Baran wrote The Political Economy of Growth in 1957 and co-authored Monopoly Capital with Paul Sweezy.Robert W. McChesney.

After the ordination, he began his research work for a doctoral thesis in Philosophy, related to the Marxian thought. While doing his doctoral studies, he was appointed the Vice-Rector of the Malabar College Rome, where Rev.Fr.Placid Podipara CMI was the Rector. After taking his Ph.D. from the Pontifical Urban University Rome, in 1962 he came back to the Diocese.

She investigated agrarian history in the Punjab. She argued that despite extensive irrigation works, colonialisation caused agricultural involution, with the number of workers per unit area rising and production dropping. She also analysed peasant movements in the erstwhile princely states of the Punjab across the pre- and post-1947 periods. Her critical analysis of a Marxian orientation of peasant consciousness has been highlighted.

In Marxian economics, economic reproduction refers to recurrent (or cyclical) processesIn a recurrent process, the same event repeats itself on multiple occasions. In a cyclical process, a sequence of events repeats itself on a regular basis. by which the initial conditions necessary for economic activity to occur are constantly re-created.Michel Aglietta, introduction to Aglietta, A theory of capitalist regulation.

The marxian theory of value and heterogenous labour: A critique and reformulation. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1, 173-192. Marx described labor power as a worker's capacity to produce goods and services. He explained that the long-run wage workers receive will depend on the number of labor hours it takes to produce a person who is fit for work.

For the most part, studies in economic anthropology focus on exchange. In contrast, the Marxian school known as "political economy" focuses on production. Post-World War II, economic anthropology was highly influenced by the work of economic historian Karl Polanyi. Polanyi drew on anthropological studies to argue that true market exchange was limited to a restricted number of western, industrial societies.

Productive and unproductive labour are concepts that were used in classical political economy mainly in the 18th and 19th centuries, which survive today to some extent in modern management discussions, economic sociology and Marxist or Marxian economic analysis. The concepts strongly influenced the construction of national accounts in the Soviet Union and other Soviet-type societies (see Material Product System).

Schwarzbuch Kapitalismus: ein Abgesang auf die Marktwirtschaft (The Black Book of Capitalism: A farewell to the market economy) is a book written by the German Marxian critical-theorist Robert Kurz in 1999. In an interview, Kurz described his book as a "radical-critical history of modernization since the 18th century."Heidemann, Dieter. "Interview on The Black Book of Capitalism - Robert Kurz" Libcom.

"heterodox economics," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition, v. 4, pp. 2–65. Abstract. These include institutional, evolutionary, feminist,In the order listed at JEL classification codes § B. History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches, JEL: B5 – Current Heterodox Approaches. social, post-Keynesian (not to be confused with New Keynesian), ecological, Georgist, Austrian, Marxian, socialist and anarchist economics, among others.

Tucker's Harvard University doctoral dissertation was in philosophy and challenged the dominant interpretations of Soviet and Western theorists. He linked the ideas of the young and mature Karl Marx and emphasized their "moralist," "ethical," and "religious" rather than political, economic, and social "essence". His revised dissertation was published as Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marx (1961) and was followed by a collection of innovative essays on Marxian theories of revolution, modernization, and distributive justice as well as comprehensive anthologies of the writings of Marx, Friedrich Engels, and Vladimir Lenin.Robert C. Tucker, Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marx (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1961); Robert C. Tucker, The Marxian Revolutionary Idea (New York: Norton, 1969); Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader (New York: Norton, 1972); and Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Lenin Anthology (New York: Norton, 1975).

The SDT view is that social constructions employing ideology and social narratives may be used as effective justifications regardless whether they are epistemologically true or false, or whether they legitimize inequality or equality. From the Marxian economic determinist perspective, race, ethnic and gender conflict are sociological epiphenomena derivable from the primary economic class conflict. Unlike Marxian sociologists, SDT along with Mosca, Michels, and Pareto together reject reduction solely to economic causes, and are skeptical of the hoped for class revolution. Pareto’s analysis was that “victory” in the class struggle will merely usher in a new set of socially dominant elites. Departing from elite theory’s near exclusive focus on social structures manipulated by rational actors, SDT follows Pareto’s new direction towards examining collective psychological forces, asserting that human behavior is not primarily driven by either reason or logic.

See Gary Mongiovi, "Vulgar Economy in Marxian Garb: A Critique of Temporal Single- System Marxism", Review of Radical Political Economics, 34 (2002), pp. 393–416; Roberto Veneziani, "Dynamics, Disequiilibrium and Marxian Economics: A Formal Analysis of Temporal Single-System Marxism", Review of Radical Political Economics, 37 (2005), pp. 517–29. They say that they find it inadequate because they claim that the following points are relevant to the issue of whether the TSSI critics speak the truth when they charge that the TSSI is an orthodoxy which asserts that Marx made no errors: People who claim to be followers and developers of Marx theory of value claim that the earliest formulations from the 1850s, as presented in Capital, Vol. III, sought to model what they characterize as a "structurally consistent presentation" of value formation in a capitalist economy with competitive profit-rate equalization.

Having completed his undergraduate coursework, his interests shifted from journalism to economics. Sweezy spent the 1931–32 academic year taking courses at the London School of Economics, traveling to Vienna to study on breaks. It was at this time that Sweezy was first exposed to Marxian economic ideas. He made the acquaintance of Harold Laski, Joan Robinson and other young left-wing British thinkers of the day.

As is well known, one of Keynes's critical points to classical economics is the determined to clear the labor market. On the contrary in Keynes, the real wage rate is determined in commodity markets. Many Marxian economists consider real wage rate is affected by labor market. However labor market can affect the nominal wage rate for the present and the commodity market can affect nominal prices.

Once these alleged errors are corrected, his conclusion that aggregate price and profit are determined by and equal to aggregate value and surplus value no longer holds true. This result calls into question his theory that the exploitation of workers is the sole source of profit.M. C. Howard and J. E. King. (1992) A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 1929–1990, chapter 12, sect. III.

Resnick continued to teach graduate seminars and undergraduate courses and direct dissertation research in economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst until 2013. He received multiple teaching awards and taught classes in economic theory, economic development, and economic history. Resnick listed his primary research interests as Marxian theory and economic history and development. Resnick died on January 2, 2013, as a result of leukemia.

The Young Karl Marx by the Haitian director Raoul Peck released in 2017 traces events in the life of young Marx in the 1840s until the writing of Communist Manifesto and has been positively reviewed by Peter Bradshaw who thought the film absorbing. The 2011 documentary film Marx Reloaded combines a Marxian analysis of economic crisis with satirical animation sequences involving Marx and Leon Trotsky.

John Milios ( ; born 1952) is a Greek social scientist and Marxian economics scholar. He is Professor of Political Economy and the History of Economic Thought at the National Technical University of Athens. An author of several scholarly books, Milios is also director of the quarterly journal of economic theory Theseis. He was chief economic adviser of the Greek leftist party SYRIZA until March 2015.

The SVD mission was not spared this fate. In 1951, the Diocese of Qingdao's Bishop Augustin Olbert, SVD was arrested, served 22 months in prison, and was then deported to Germany in 1953. Although the cathedral was closed by the government, Bishop Olbert remained Bishop of Qingdao until his death in 1964. Native Chinese clergy were not spared the government's Marxian contempt for religion during this period.

Vladimir Karpovich Dmitriev writing in 1898,V.K. Dmitriev, 1974 (1898), Economic Essays on Value, Competition and Utility. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz writing in 1906–1907Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1952 (1906–1907), "Value and Price in the Marxian System", International Economic Papers 2, 5–60; Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1984 (1907), "On the Correction of Marx’s Fundamental Theoretical Construction in the Third Volume of Capital".

The Marxian socialists and communists generally differ from anarchists in claiming that there must be an intermediate stage between the capitalist society and free association. However, there are major differences between the various Marxists trends. The Marxist position about this transition period ranged from "the expansion of the means of production owned by the state"Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1848). Manifesto of the Communist Party.

Smith travelled east, working a job in the Kansas wheat fields. In 1921 he joined the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) as a member of Agricultural Workers' Industrial Union, No. 110. He later followed the harvest to Canada, before heading for Seattle, Washington, where he became editor of the IWW's west coast newspaper, The Industrial Worker. Smith joined the local "Marxian Club" in Seattle in 1922.

Stalin explained the reasoning behind it at the 16th Congress held in 1930; > We stand for the strengthening of the dictatorship of the proletariat, which > represents the mightiest and most powerful authority of all forms of State > that have ever existed. The highest development of the State power for the > withering away of State power —this is the Marxian formula. Is this > contradictory? Yes, it is contradictory.

Crisis and Depression 4\. Imperialism The piece begins by discussing the use of abstraction in Marx's works. Beginning chapters are devoted to the concept of labor, including the qualitative and quantitative ideas about labor in the Marxist view. Sweezy continues to outline the Marxian concepts of both the labor theory of Value and surplus value, as well as covers the role of supply and demand.

Alltagsgeschichte (German; ) is a form of microhistory that was particularly prevalent among German historians during the 1980s. It was founded by historians Alf Luedtke and Hans Medick. Alltagsgeschichte can be considered part of the wider Marxian historical school of 'history from below'. It challenged the well-known framework of Strukturgeschichte, “structured history”, within the German historical field and advocated for a new model of social history.

After Marx died, Engels published as editor and in some ways expanded form Marx's economic manuscripts of volumes II (1885) and III (1894). Scholars are divided over which of several plans for the work was Marx's final. Because the project was not definitively completed, volume one's role in the critique of political economy leaves unanswered scientific questions that Marxian political economists continue to debate.

Henryk Grossman (alternative spelling: Henryk Grossmann; 14 April 1881 – 24 November 1950) was a Polish economist, historian, and Marxist revolutionary active in both Poland and Germany. Grossman's key contribution to political- economic theory was his book, The Law of Accumulation and Breakdown of the Capitalist System, a study in Marxian crisis theory. It was published in Leipzig months before the Stock Market Crash of 1929.

Blunden is a member and secretary of the Marxists Internet Archive Collective (or Marxists.org), a website which contains many Marxist and Marxist related text on history, philosophy and politics along with many other topics. Another internet project Blunden is involved with is the "Marx Myths & Legends". This website hosts many articles of prominent Marxian scholars and activists dealing with misunderstandings and slander surrounding Marx and his ideas.

London: Routledge, 2001. In recent years, the Italian Marxist scholar Riccardo Bellofiore and other members of the International Symposium on Marxian Theory (ISMT) have edited a number of volumes of scholarly commentaries on Marx's Capital, which benefit from the definitive MEGA II edition of Marx's works. Alan Freeman has provided IWGVT papers online. The Outline of Political Economy (OPE-L) archives are available online on two sites: .

Barbu, p.199 By then also an anticapitalist, he identified in Jewry the common source of economic liberalism and communism, both seen as internationalist forces manipulated by a Judaic conspiracy.Tismăneanu, p.65 As an opponent of modernization and materialism, he only vaguely indicated that his movement's economic goals implied a non-Marxian form of collectivism, and presided over his followers' initiatives to set up various cooperatives.

Fraad was born to a paediatrician father, Lewis M. Fraad and a housewife mother, Irma London who both had leftist sympathies. She is the wife of Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff. Wolff and Fraad have two children together. Her father worked for the Comintern in Vienna from 1932 to 1936 and was a member of the Communist Party of America from 1929 to 1957.

The doctrines of marginalism and the Marginal Revolution are often interpreted as a response to the rise of the worker's movement, Marxian economics and the earlier (Ricardian) socialist theories of the exploitation of labour. The first volume of Das Kapital was not published until July 1867, when marginalism was already developing, but before the advent of Marxian economics, proto-marginalist ideas such as those of Gossen had largely fallen on deaf ears. It was only in the 1880s, when Marxism had come to the fore as the main economic theory of the workers' movement, that Gossen found (posthumous) recognition. Aside from the rise of Marxism, E. Screpanti and S. Zamagni point to a different 'external' reason for marginalism's success, which is its successful response to the Long Depression and the resurgence of class conflict in all developed capitalist economies after the 1848–1870 period of social peace.

The Marxian reply to this mainstream view is as follows. The attempt to discard the theoretical relevance of the necessary preconditions of Marx's value analysis in volume 1 of Capital through a reductio ad absurdum is superficial. By first identifying that the preconditions necessary for J. B. Clark's old model of aggregate marginal productivity to hold true are the same as those necessary for Marxian values to conform to relative prices, we are then supposed to conclude that the foundation of Marx's analysis as based in these preconditions is faulty because Clark's model had been proven wrong in the Cambridge capital controversy. The superficiality stems from the fact that those who support this reduction forget that the Cambridge capital controversy called the entire concept of marginal productivity into question by attacking not Clark's special case assumptions but the notion that physical capital can be aggregated.

It also takes the form of waste and excess production capacity. Increases in marketing, defense spending and various forms of debt could alleviate the problem of overaccumulation. However, they believed that these remedies to capital's difficulties were inherently limited and tend to decrease in effectiveness over time so that monopoly capital would tend toward economic stagnation. This book is regarded as the cornerstone of Sweezy's contribution to Marxian economics.

Okishio critically investigated non-Marxian economists with a lot of energy, especially Keynes and Harrod. Although Keynes is not sympathetic to Marx, Okishio thought that Keynes is an important criticizer of neoclassical economics inside modern economics, because Keynes denied the harmonic adjusting mechanism of market economy. Keynes also emphasized the independent and volatile role of investment demand in capitalistic economy. In these respects Keynes shared the similar viewpoint with Marx.

Eckstein is usually remembered today for playing a role in communism. Dr. Otto Steiger writes that: > I think that this person could be Gustav Eckstein (1875–1916), socialist > (marxian revisionist) and economist. For a broader public he is known as a > critic of Rosa Luxemburg's Die Akkumulation des Kapitals. His review of this > book has been printed as an appendix in all German editions of Die > Akkumulation after Luxembourg's death.

For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective agent, renders its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended. Marx further argues that by moulding natureSee also Lefever DM; Lefever JT (1977). "Marxian alienation and economic organisation: An alternate view". The American Economist(21)2, pp. 40–48.

Any action can be considered in terms of what it attains or what it fails to attain." And again Merton footnotes Permanence and Change (1935), pp. 50, 58–59: "I believe that John Dewey's concept of "occupational psychosis" best characterizes this secondary aspect of interest. Roughly, the term corresponds to the Marxian doctrine that a society's environment in the historical sense is synonymous with society's methods of production.

Marxian class theory asserts that an individual's position within a class hierarchy is determined by their role in the production process, and argues that political and ideological consciousness is determined by class position.Parkin, F. Marx’s Theory of History: A Bourgeois Critique. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979. A class is those who share common economic interests, are conscious of those interests, and engage in collective action which advances those interests.

Niebuhr always believed that capitalism tended to dangerous concentrations of power; he criticized individualism in light of man's social nature. Still he recognized that capitalism had "more moral and political resources to avoid catastrophe" than its critics realized; Christians like him also misunderstood the nature of the Marxian program. It was utopian, not practical. In supporting nationalization, leftists did not count its costs in bureaucracy and centralization of power.

Furthermore, such analyses of systems reproduction (dissecting the dynamics and instrumental logics of state and markets) typically ignores the normative and institutionalized categories of the lifeworld and civil society that might support an autonomous social domain of solidarity and open public communication, which is also the terrain of social movements.See Jean Cohen, Class and Civil Society: The Limits of Marxian Critical Theory (University of Massachusetts Press: 1982) 201–03, 209-, 223.

Graduate school of economics and management, Tohoku University, January 2010. Eduardo Crespo and Marcus Cardoso, "The evolution of the theory of value from Dmitriev and Bortkiewicz to Charasoff" (Rio the Janeiro: Federal University of Rio the Janeiro, 2000).) claimed that Marx's argument about the distribution of profits from newly produced surplus value is mathematically faulty.Bruce Philp, Reduction, Rationality and Game Theory in Marxian Economics. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005, p. 42f.

Akademie-Verlag Berlin 1956. and Social Indicators Research besides which he contributed over subjects like family, caste and class, agrarian relations in West Bengal, nationalism in Bangladesh, urbanization and social change and colonial exploitation by the East India Company and in Uganda, and also contributed towards designing of National Sample Surveys. He had a Marxian and historical perspective with which he studied social institutions such as family and caste.

Karl Marx in The Communist Manifesto postulated that the era of feudal aristocracy and the capitalism experienced in 1847 at the time of its writing, would be replaced with communism, or as we now know it, a socialist society.Marx K. & Engels F. (Ed.). (2008) The Communist Manifesto London:Pluto Press. Communists from a Marxian perspective are described as persons that understand the world and are enlightened to the interests of the proletariat.

Roemer aims to "embed the Marxian theory of exploitation in a more general theory of exploitation which will be capable of specializing to cases other than capitalism", and in particular to socialism. He argues that this would make it possible to "propose a theory of exploitation and class for socialism which can provide a basis for a materialist political theory of socialism." He also discusses the labor theory of value.

ANHAD (Act Now for Harmony and Democracy) is an Indian socio-cultural organization established in March 2003, as a response to 2002 Gujarat riots. Social activist Shabnam Hashmi, sister of the slain activist Safdar Hashmi and founder of SAHMAT, Marxian historian Prof. K N Panikkar and social activist Harsh Mander are the founding members of ANHAD. Based in Delhi, ANHAD works in the field of secularism, human rights and communal harmony.

Originally desiring a career as a historical novelist, at the university Morishima pursued social science, studying both economics and sociology under Yasuma Takada. At Kyoto University, Morishima was rigorously trained in both mainstream neoclassical economic theory and Marxian economics. Mathematically gifted, in 1946, he graduated from Kyoto University and taught there in addition to Osaka University. He started Institute of Social and Economic Research (ISER) of Osaka University with Yasuma Takada.

This implies there is little point in engaging with conventional economics, because conventional economics makes quite incompatible theoretical assumptions. Critics of the value-form school often see this intellectual tradition as an "evasive tactic", which avoids difficult quantitative problems concerning the relationship between economic value and money-prices which still need to be solved.Cf. Paolo Giussani, "Orthodoxy in Marxian Price Theory". In: International Journal of Political Economy, vol.

271 That year, he traveled to Vălenii de Munte and held a seminary on "Marxism" at Iorga's "summer university"."Universitatea populară dela Vălenii de Munte", in Societatea de Mâine, Nr. 26–27/1925, p. 452 A contributor to Gusti's Arhiva pentru Știință și Reformă Socială, he was quoted for his 1929 critical study of Henri de Man and Marxian Revisionism.Cornel Grofșorean, Curentele social-politice contemporane. Critica materialismului istoric, pp. 80–81.

After 1949, since Marxian economics gained traction in mainland China, He Lian, Fang Xianting and other founders moved abroad one after another. Because it used to receive funds from foreign organizations like Rockefeller Foundation, Nankai Institute of Economics became a target of political oppression. It was demanded to be reformed, while many faculty members received unfair treatment. In 1952, after the reformation of higher education institutions, NKIE once stopped operating.

"Drift and Mastery, 100 Drift Lippmann begins by asserting that Wilson's New Freedom is flawed because it assumed an older form of democracy can be retrieved. This looking backwards for a golden age is fruitless and is essentially childish according to Lippmann. On similar grounds Lippmann goes on to criticize Marxian socialists who he sees as unrealistic in their assumptions. Lippmann ends by defining the challenge of "drift.

While DeLeon had helped to rescue the radical character of the organization from what was alleged to be a conservative and corruptive element, his own beliefs and practices soon became an issue for those same "beggars and tramps" with whom he'd previously allied. DeLeon's history and personality made him a fairly easy target for dissenters. DeLeon was head of the Socialist Labor Party, which Paul Brissenden described as "always ... emphatically Marxian and its leaders have been so decidedly doctrinaire in their interpretation of Marxian socialism ... that they have been not unjustly called impossibilists."Paul Frederick Brissenden, The I.W.W. A Study of American Syndicalism, Columbia University, 1919, page 47 DeLeon's enemies commonly referred to him as the "Pope of the S.L.P."Paul Frederick Brissenden, The I.W.W. A Study of American Syndicalism, Columbia University, 1919, page 48 Daniel DeLeon DeLeon believed that a rise in wages for workers resulted in a rise in price, so that workers obtained no worthwhile gain from seeking higher wages.

Using this equation Okishio proved Marx’s fundamental proposition that the exploitation of surplus labor is the necessary condition for the existence of positive profit, later called as Fundamental Marxian Theorem by Michio Morishima. This proof has some characteristics. First, it does not preclude the acceptance of value theory in advance. Starting from the existence of profit expressed in price terms, we can deduct the existence of surplus value as a logical consequence.

Other critiques come from an economic standpoint. Vladimir Karpovich Dmitriev writing in 1898,V. K. Dmitriev, 1974 (1898), Economic Essays on Value, Competition and Utility. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz writing in 1906–1907Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1952 (1906–1907), "Value and Price in the Marxian System", International Economic Papers 2, 5–60; Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1984 (1907), "On the Correction of Marx's Fundamental Theoretical Construction in the Third Volume of Capital".

Surplus labour (German: Mehrarbeit) is a concept used by Karl Marx in his critique of political economy. It means labour performed in excess of the labour necessary to produce the means of livelihood of the worker ("necessary labour"). The "surplus" in this context means the additional labour a worker has to do in his/her job, beyond earning his own keep. According to Marxian economics, surplus labour is usually uncompensated (unpaid) labour.

They stated that the lessons of actual experience such as the confrontation with the bourgeois parties had forced them to revise the Marxian strategy. As part of this argument, it was pointed out that after Luxemburg herself got out of jail, she was also forced to confront the National Assembly in Germany, a step they compared with their own conflict with the Russian Constituent Assembly.Fragment on War, National Questions, and Revolution. Collected Works. Vol.

Drawing on concepts from Hegelian and Marxian traditions, critical theory conceives society as a concrete totality, a social environment, e.g. family, authorities, peers or mass media shape individual consciousness. According to the Frankfurt school, it is important to discover the society's fabrics to allow for individuals to overcome being cornered. Critical rationalism considers this goal to be impossible and any attempts (changing society out of possibly non-scientific deductions) to be dangerous.

Capitalism and individual property rights have been associated with the tragedy of the anticommons where owners are unable to agree. Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff postulates that: capitalist economies prioritize profits and capital accumulation over the social needs of communities; and that capitalist enterprises rarely include the workers in the basic decisions of the enterprise.Frances Goldin, Debby Smith, Michael Smith (2014). Imagine: Living in a Socialist USA. Harper Perennial. pp. 49–50.

During World War I, Kraus worked on topics in relation to war and ethics and wrote important works in the field of public international law. Influenced by Brentano, Kraus developed an a priori value theory, which was formulated in opposition to Marxian value theory. He also applied this method on economics. Based on his ideas on law and duty he developed a juristic hermeneutics in the field of jurisprudence, and criticized historism and positivism.

Marshall points to the capitalist as sacrificing the money he could be using now for investment in business, which ultimately produces work. By this logic, the capitalist contributes to the work and productivity of the factory because he delays his gratification through investment. Through the law of supply and demand, Marshall attacked Marxian theory of value. According to Marshall, price or value is determined not just by supply, but by the demand of the consumer.

London: New Left Books John Roemer,"[The falling-rate-of-profit] position is rebutted in Chapter 5 by a theorem which states that ... competitive innovations result in a rising rate of profit. There seems to be no hope for a theory of the falling rate of profit within the strict confines of the environment that Marx suggested as relevant." John Roemer, Analytical Foundations of Marxian Economic Theory, p. 12. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.

One of the most important subfields impacted by the rise of Marxist geography was in urban geography. Harvey established himself as the leader of this subfield with the publication of Social Justice and the City (1973). Harvey argued in this book that geography could not remain 'objective' in the face of urban poverty and associated ills. It makes a significant contribution to Marxian theory by arguing that capitalism annihilates space to ensure its own reproduction.

Nitzan is the co-author (with Shimshon Bichler) of Capital as Power: A Study of Order and Creorder, published 2009. Their writings focus of the nature of capital in capitalism and provide an alternative view to that of Marxian and neoclassical economics. In their theory, capital is the quantification of power. According to their power theory of value, in capitalism, power is the governing principle as rooted in the centrality of private ownership.

Porter's analysis is essentially conflict theorist. While some aspects were inspired by Marxist thinking, he was at pains to present a non-Marxian approach. The nature of the Canadian capitalist class led Porter to develop his model. Notably, it was against his work that scholars in the 1970s began to develop a more contemporary, cultural and Marxist idea of class that defined it not in terms of occupational rank but in terms of power relationships.

Andrew John Glyn (30 June 1943 – 22 December 2007) was an English economist, University Lecturer in Economics at the University of Oxford and Fellow and Tutor in Economics in Corpus Christi College. A Marxian economist, his research interests focused on issues of unemployment and inequality. He was Associate Editor of Oxford Review of Economic Policy. He was a consultant for the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) and for the International Labour Organisation.

From 1922 to 1925, Grossman was Professor of economics at the Free Polish University in Warsaw. He emigrated in 1925 to escape political persecution. The same year he was invited to join the Marxian Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt by his former tutor Carl Grünberg. Hitler's accession to power in 1933 forced him first to Paris, and then via Britain to New York, where he remained in relative isolation from 1937 until 1949.

The Social Sciences in Modern Japan: The Marxian and Modernist Traditions By Andrew E. Barshay, University of California Press,2007, p.260Wege zu einer neuen Kulturgeschichte By Rudolf Vierhaus, Roger Chartier, 1995, p.62Was bleibt von marxistischen Perspektiven in der Geschichtsforschung, Alf Lüdtke, Wallstein Verlag, 1997, p.4. In an academic career extending over nearly five decades, he has played a seminal role in promoting understanding of Russian history, culture, literature, and society in India.

Fourthly, as a matter of fact, very few Marxian economists have studied monetary economics in any detail, and there are few significant Marxist works on the role of money in the economy.See Karl Kautsky, "Gold, Paper Currency and commodity" introduced by David Gaido (MIA archive); Hilferding, Finance Capital; Ernest Mandel, Decline of the dollar: a Marxist view of the monetary crisis. New York: Monad Press, 1972. Isaak Illich Rubin, "Studien zur Geldtheorie von Marx".

Uneven and combined development (or unequal and combined development or uneven development) is a concept in Marxian political economy Sam Ashman, "Combined and uneven development", pp. 60-65 in Ben Fine Alfredo & Saad Filho (eds.), The Elgar Companion to Marxist Economics. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2012. intended to describe dynamics of human history involving the interaction of capitalist laws of motion and starting world market conditions whose national units are highly heterogeneous.

Joshi stated that "I am not a Gandhian nor a Marxian" and "Thank god! Gandhi was not a Gandhian, nor Marx a Marxist". Initially Joshi even felt that ideals of socialism - Social justice and equality fitted very well with what Gandhi already preaching and living for. In this period, Joshi along with his dearest friend and collaborator Sundaram lead the young generation of writers who were associated with Freedom movement and also concerned towards other social issues.

The Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow during its 1931 demolition as Marxist‒Leninist atheism and other adaptations of Marxian thought on religion have enjoyed the official patronage of various one-party Communist states In Julian Baggini's book Atheism A Very Short Introduction, the author notes: "One of the most serious charges laid against atheism is that it is responsible for some of the worst horrors of the 20th century, including the Nazi concentration camps and Stalin's gulags".

Coleman (2013), p. 116-7. The Swedish Marxian economist Johan Söderberg has argued that the free software movement represents a complete alternative to Capitalism that may be expanded to create a post-work society. He argues that the combination of a manipulation of intellectual property law and private property to make goods available to the public and a thorough blend between labor and fun make the free software movement a communist economy.Söderberg (2007), p. 153-4.

The 4th National Congress, held in August 1960, reversed the decision reached at the 3rd National Congress, which supported the dissolution of the Syrian Regional Branch. It was mainly attended by representatives from the Lebanese Regional Branch. The congress had a strongly anti-Nasserite tendency, and the traditional leadership of Aflaq and Bitar was criticized. The delegates decided to deemphasize pan-Arabism for Marxian interpretation of socialism, and criticized the traditional leadership for entering Syria into the UAR.

La Voz Dominicana and Radio Caribe began attacking the US in Marxian terms, and the Dominican Communist party was legalized. Trujillo also unsuccessfully attempted to establish contacts and relations with the Soviet Bloc. In 1961, Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the CIA."The Assassination of Rafael Trujillo" Ramfis Trujillo, the dictator's son, remained in de facto control of the government for the next six months through his position as commander of the armed forces.

He and collaborators Fikret Adaman and Begum Ozkaynak are particularly notable for their elaboration of a visionary socialist model that they call participatory planning. The most significant influences on Devine's economic thought were Karl Marx and the Marxian tradition associated with Antonio Gramsci as well as the economo-anthropologic theories of Karl Polanyi. As of 2008, Devine is an honorary research fellow at Manchester University. He began his academic studies in economics at Balliol College, Oxford.

Weber's selected ideal-types – bureaucracy, religion, and capitalism – are culturally significant variables through which he demonstrated show multiple functionalities of social behavior. Similarly, Weber emphasizes that Marxist laws are also ideal-types. The concept of class, economy, capitalism, proletariat and bourgeoisie, revolution and state, along with other Marxian models are heuristic tools for understanding a society in its context. Thus, according to Weber, Marxist ideal-types could prove fruitful only if used to access a given society.

Physiocratic economists categorized production into productive labour and unproductive labour. Adam Smith expanded this thought by arguing that any economic activities directly related on material products (goods) were productive, and those activities which involved non-material production (services) were unproductive. This emphasis on material production was adapted by David Ricardo, Thomas Robert Malthus and John Stuart Mill, and influenced later Marxian economics. Other, mainly Italian, 18th-century economists maintained that all desired goods and services were productive.

In August 2006, in the aftermath of Tommy Sheridan's libel case against the News of the World, Williamson parted company with the Scottish Socialist Party. In November 2007, Williamson signalled a clear break with party politics and his previous Marxian background in an article entitled Scotland's Libertarian Left, which was originally published by Bella Caledonia - a free newspaper Williamson currently co-edits (with Mike Small) aimed at stimulating discussion around left libertarian and Scottish republican ideas.

It also attracted the scrutiny of Karl Marx, who started a correspondence with its author. The two influenced each other and met in Paris while Marx was exiled there. Their friendship finally ended when Marx responded to Proudhon's The System of Economic Contradictions, or The Philosophy of Poverty with the provocatively titled The Poverty of Philosophy. The dispute became one of the sources of the split between the anarchist and Marxian wings of the International Working Men's Association.

Questions of what might and might not be transhistorical phenomena are typically the concern of historians and sociologists identifying with the historicist traditions of Hegelian or Marxian thought, but matter additionally in the debates around Thomas Kuhn's notion of paradigm shift and similar discussions. Fredric Jameson, a Marxist or perhaps post-modern theorist, is a case in point. He famously asserted that theory must "Always historicize!", going on to wryly observe that this order was itself a "transhistorical imperative".

Indeed, a number of modern authors have tried to combine Marx's and Keynes's views. Henryk GrossmanGrossman, Henryk The Law of Accumulation and Breakdown of the Capitalist System. Pluto reviewed the debates and the counteracting tendencies and Paul Mattick subsequently emphasized the basic differences between the Marxian and the Keynesian perspective. While Keynes saw capitalism as a system worth maintaining and susceptible to efficient regulation, Marx viewed capitalism as a historically doomed system that cannot be put under societal control.

According to von Mises, Marxian philosophy has heavily influenced the way the general public interprets its economic condition and perceives of capitalism. The average wage-earner's high standard of living is viewed as an inevitable result of 'self-acting progress', akin to Marx's 'material productive forces'. It is believed that these material productive forces (e.g. technological innovations) are not only independent of capitalism but will eventually force capitalism to yield to more advanced forms of socialist organisation.

Entire symposiums and issues of scholarly journals have focused on discussing and debating Robinson's theories on global capitalism, class, and political economy. See for example the May 2012 issue of Critical Sociology , the April 2001 issue of Theory and Society, the debate between Robinson and noted Marxian theorist Ellen Meiksins Wood in issue 15 of the journal Historical Materialism, the debate between British political economist in the 2009 volume 1(2) of the journal of the contemporary science association.

Okishio wrote many papers covering various important fields in modern and Marxian economics, for example value and price, accumulation theory, critical analysis of Keynesian economics, trade cycle theory and on the long run tendency of capitalistic economy. They were published in over twenty books and two hundred papers, almost all in Japanese. About thirty of his published papers have been translated in English, and much of these materials are collected in the book (Nobuo Okishio, Michael Kruger and Peter Flaschel, 1993).

In another interpretation, however, the production price reflects only an empirical output price-level which dominates in the market for that output (a "norm" applying to a branch of production or economic sector, which producers cannot escape from).Lefteris Tsoulfidis & Persefoni Tsaliki, "Marxian Theory of Competition and the Concept of Regulating Capital: evidence from Greek manufacturing", in: Review of Radical Political Economics, Vol. 37, No. 1, 2005, pp. 5-22; Lefteris Tsoulfidis & Persefoni Tsaliki, “Classical Competition and Regulating Capital: Theory and Empirical Evidence”.

According to Whittaker Chambers, "an infiltration of Communists ... really ran the class, steered the discussions," and tried to "make the law of social revolution a Marxian law." Members included Dale Zysman, Sam Krieger, Eve Dorf, and her husband Ben Davidson, as well as Alfred J. Brooks, Myra Page, Benjamin Mandel, and Rachel Ragozin. It also included Carrie Katz, first wife of Sidney Hook, and Nerma Berman, wife of Isaiah Oggins. The result of this effort was The Law of Social Revolution.

Samik has been questioning that capacity of film all along. In general, his assessment is as follows: > Bangla theatre or film did not enter into the social-political complexities > of the 1970s. The emblemized angry young man of Kolkata could relate to his > rural other only on the platform of Marxian theory; rest of the commonality > is mere wrath. The urban youth is portrayed not as directly participating in > revolutionary activities: he is either hiding, or attacked or living a dual- > life.

He was the economic spokesperson in Jerry Brown's 1992 campaign for President of the United States. Pollin moved to the University of Massachusetts Amherst's economic department from University of California, Riverside in 1998. According to Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff, Pollin's department is described as being "left Keynesians, but the Keynesianism is the theoretical frame. Marxism, for sure, is not" while Pollin states that he would be happy to hire Marxists but that economics departments do not produce them any longer.

In Marxian economics and preceding theories,Perelman, p. 25 (ch. 2) the problem of primitive accumulation (also called previous accumulation, original accumulation) of capital concerns the origin of capital, and therefore of how class distinctions between possessors and non-possessors came to be. Adam Smith's account of primitive-original accumulation depicted a peaceful process, in which some workers laboured more diligently than others and gradually built up wealth, eventually leaving the less diligent workers to accept living wages for their labour.

Marxian Socialists, however, opposed to reformism believed in forming a Socialist party as an instrument of organization of the proletariat to propagate consciousness leading to an ultimate revolutionary seizing of state power. They championed strong trade unions, strikes, and boycotts to develop class consciousness through class conflict. The party at first had little influence over any politics in the United States on a national or local level. Much like the International Workingmen's Association before it, the WPUS was widely viewed as socialistic.

Independently of this taxonomy, individuals are either exploiters or exploited, depending upon whether they consume goods embodying more or less labor than they expend. The central result, the Class Exploitation Correspondence Principle (CECP), states that individuals who optimize by hiring labor are necessarily exploiters, and those who optimize by selling labor are exploited. Thus, a classical Marxian principle, taken as an observed fact in Marx's writings, emerges here as a theorem. Microfoundations are provided for the relationship between exploitation and class.

In Marxist theory and Marxian economics, the immiseration thesis, also referred to as emiseration thesis, is derived from Karl Marx's analysis of economic development in capitalism, implying that the nature of capitalist production stabilizes real wages, reducing wage growth relative to total value creation in the economy, leading to the increasing power of capital in society. The immiseration thesis is related to Marx's analysis of the rising organic composition of capital and reduced demand for labor relative to capital equipment as technology develops.

Labor, class conflict, commodity, value, surplus-value, bourgeoisie, and proletariat are thus central concepts in Marxian social theory. In contrast to the Cartesian "pure and rational subjectivity," Marx introduced social activity as the force that produces rationality. He was interested in finding sophisticated, scientific universal laws of society, though contrary to positivist mechanistic approaches which take facts as given, and then develop causal relationship out of them. Max Weber found Marxist ideas useful, however, limited in explaining complex societal practices and activities.

This opposition was controversial at the time, for many Americans perceived the Soviet Union to be acting as a bulwark against Nazi Germany and the territorial ambitions of Adolf Hitler. In early August 1939, more than 400 people signed a public letter denouncing the CCF's linkage of Stalinism and Nazism, and defending the Soviet Union.Cooney, The Rise of The New York Intellectuals: 'Partisan Review' and Its Circle, 2004, p. 144.Bell, Marxian Socialism in the United States, 1996, p. 152.

Carey in 1949 had formed the IUE, a new CIO union for electrical workers, because the old one, the UE, was tightly controlled by the left. Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff argues that anti-communism was part of a strategy by big business, Republicans and conservatives to single out and destroy the members of the coalition that forced through the New Deal, namely organized labor, socialist and communist parties.Richard D. Wolff (September 2, 2013). Organized labor's decline in the US is well-known.

Some members of the Marxian school argue that even if the means of production "earned" a return based on their marginal product, that does not imply that their owners (i.e., the capitalists) created the marginal product and should be rewarded. In the Sraffian view, the rate of profit is not a price, and it is not clear that it is determined in a market. In particular, it only partially reflects the scarcity of the means of production relative to their demand.

It would later clash acrimoniously with Holland. The Marxian Association itself would fall prey to internal division in 1921. That year, a number of members who supported the Russian Revolution departed to form the Communist Party of New Zealand (CPNZ). They were joined by two other revolutionary strands within the New Zealand Socialist Party: the De Lonites who espoused revolutionary politics and industrial unionism; and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)-syndicalist tradition who advocated direct action and spurned political activity.

Laski's biographer Michael Newman wrote: Blue plaque, 5 Addison Bridge Place, West Kensington, London Herbert A. Deane has identified five distinct phases of Laski's thought that he never integrated. The first three were pluralist (1914–1924), Fabian (1925–1931), and Marxian (1932–1939). There followed a 'popular-front' approach (1940–1945), and in the last years (1946–1950) near-incoherence and multiple contradictions.Deane, Herbert A. The Political Ideas of Harold Laski (1955) Laski's long-term impact on Britain is hard to quantify.

Petersen described the book as "a novel and controversial contribution to the Marxian theory of exploitation and class", noting that it had received praise from political scientists, sociologists, mathematical economists, and philosophers and that Politics & Society had devoted an entire issue to it. He believed that its results would challenge both Marxist and non-Marxist social science. However, he noted that the assumptions underlying Roemer's methodology were open to question. He compared Roemer's views to those of the sociologist Max Weber.

The second strand of Shaikh's work concerns macrodynamics. Once again, the profit rate is the key variable. He argues that capitalist growth is driven by profitability, not by the requirements of full employment as in neoclassical theory, by exogenous demand as in Keynesian theory, or by the savings rate as in Harrodian theory. In his earlier work, he used this notion to develop a theory of long waves and crises based on the Marxian concept of falling rate of profit.

Thomas T. Sekine has interpreted Marx's law of value as a purely theoretical principle of market equilibrium which has no application to empirical reality.See Thomas T. Sekine, "Marxian theory of value, what we might learn from it", in: Korean Journal of Political Economy, Volume 2, 2004, pp. 1–35. This raises the question of how we verify that it is a "law" at all. Paul Mattick argued that Marx offered no theory of market equilibrium, only a dynamic theory of enlarged economic reproduction.

The supply and demand model Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations, the first modern work of economics The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics.

As the productive forces continued to advance, socialism would be transformed into a communist society, i.e. a classless, stateless, humane society based on common ownership and distribution based on one's needs. While it originates from the works of Marx and Engels, Marxism has developed into many different branches and schools of thought, with the result that there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Different Marxian schools place a greater emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while rejecting or modifying other aspects.

According to that principle, income is determined by expenditure decisions, not by the exchange of resources (capital or labor). Kalecki and Keynes claimed that in capitalist economy, production and employment levels (economic equilibrium) are determined foremost by the magnitude of investment by business enterprises (the crucial "driver of the business cycle"), not by price and wage flexibility. Savings are determined by investments, not the other way around. Contrary to the Ricardian, Marxian and Neoclassical economics, Kalecki asserted that higher wages lead to fuller employment.

Eleanor Marx (middle) with Wilhelm Liebknecht (left) and Edward Aveling (right) photographed in New York while their tour to America in 1886 In 1884, Eleanor joined the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) led by Henry Hyndman and was elected to its executive. During her work in the SDF, she met Edward Aveling, with whom she would spend the rest of her life despite his faithlessness, thievery from the movement, and mental cruelty.Feuer, Lewis S., "Marxian Tragedies: A Death in the Family," Encounter magazine, November 1962, at 23-32.

"Munn, Nancy "Gawa Kula: Spatiotemporal Control and the Symbolism of Influence." In J.W Leach and E. Leach eds., The Kula: New Perspectives on Massim Exchange (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 301 In The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as a Process, Igor Kopytoff argues that, while commodities are often thought of in Marxian terms as things which are produced and then exist, in fact, "commoditization is best looked upon as a process of becoming rather than as an all-or-none state of being.

Williams 1985, p70 In 1934 Gaitskell was in Vienna on a Rockefeller scholarship. He was attached to the University of Vienna for the 1933–34 academic year and witnessed first-hand the political suppression of the social democratic workers movement by the conservative Engelbert Dollfuss's government in February 1934. This event made a lasting impression, making him profoundly hostile to conservatism but also making him reject as futile the Marxian outlook of many European social democrats. This placed him in the socialist revisionist camp.

59 Bernstein also attempted to demonstrate empirically that huge firms were not as profitable as small-scale ones, arguing that all sizes of companies could survive well together.Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, “The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate”, Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 28 Bernstein challenged orthodox Marxist theories that capitalism was doomed to fail, noting that capitalism was increasingly overcoming a number of its frailties “such as unemployment, overproduction, and the inequitable distribution of wealth.”Heather M. Campbell, edit.

A study group of supporters was formed, and the following year they founded the Socialist Party of the United States.Peter E. Newell, "Marxian education in the United States", Socialist Standard, July 2004 By this point, Baritz had moved to New York, where he was interned for speaking against the war. Once released, he travelled on to Australia and New Zealand,Karla Doris Rab, Role-Modeling Socialist Behavior: The Life and Letters of Isaac Rab, p.461 from which he was deported after only a brief stay.

Su- Qing Lin(:zh:林素琴), the first Taiwanese female scholar holding a bachelor in philosophy, published her research based on the Oeuvres De Descartes by and Paul Tannery in 1953. Intellectuals trends had also influenced. Lin Qiu- wu(:zh:林秋悟)’s critique on Buddhism was Marxian, and Wen Kwei Liao(:zh:廖文奎)’s pragmatist approach on reading intellectual histories was a pioneer. The intellectual movement was not just from works and papers but civic engagement of rebellious enlightenment.

Korsch's critique was not accepted into Marxist–Leninist communist theory. However it remained influential amongst communist dissenters and academics for several decades. Within those currents, particularly in Germany, Britain, Hungary and Italy, his influence varies from group to group, but became more significant with the brief revival of revolutionary politics in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Korsch taught and befriended Bertolt Brecht, the Marxian playwright, who said he picked Korsch to instruct him in Marxism due to his independence from the Communist Party.

Representing as he did Marxian principles, he was bitterly opposed by certain factions of his party. In 1870 he spoke in parliament against the continuance of the war with France. Bebel and Liebknecht were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary subsidy required for the war with France. Bebel was one of only two socialists elected to the Reichstag in 1871, and he used his position to protest against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine and to express his full sympathy with the Paris Commune.

The theory divides the history of the world into the following periods:Marx, Early writings, Penguin, 1975, p. 426.Charles Taylor, “Critical Notice”, Canadian Journal of Philosophy 10 (1980), p. 330.Marx and Engels, The Critique of the Gotha ProgrammeMarx and Engels, The Civil War in France Primitive communism; Slave society; Feudalism; Capitalism; and Socialism. Regna Darnell and Frederic Gleach argue that, in the Soviet Union, the Marxian theory of history was the only accepted orthodoxy, and stifled research into other schools of thought on history.

Heimann's views diverged from Marxian economics and came close to Manchester Liberalism. Heimann published one of the first theoretical works on the "competitive solution" with his 1922 Mehrwert und Gemeinwirtschaft. The concept was that the socialist economy would be based on various monopolies or "trusts" supervised by the unions or the government, with a degree of competition between the trusts. He accepted the value of market pricing, but was committed to introducing a socialist system and had doubts about the compatibility of competition and socialism.

Over the past two decades, the intellectual agendas of heterodox economists have taken a decidedly pluralist turn. Leading heterodox thinkers have moved beyond the established paradigms of Austrian, Feminist, Institutional-Evolutionary, Marxian, Post Keynesian, Radical, Social, and Sraffian economics—opening up new lines of analysis, criticism, and dialogue among dissenting schools of thought. This cross-fertilization of ideas is creating a new generation of scholarship in which novel combinations of heterodox ideas are being brought to bear on important contemporary and historical problems, such as socially grounded reconstructions of the individual in economic theory; the goals and tools of economic measurement and professional ethics; the complexities of policymaking in today's global political economy; and innovative connections among formerly separate theoretical traditions (Marxian, Austrian, feminist, ecological, Sraffian, institutionalist, and post-Keynesian) (for a review of post-Keynesian economics, see Lavoie (1992); Rochon (1999)). David Colander, an advocate of complexity economics, argues that the ideas of heterodox economists are now being discussed in the mainstream without mention of the heterodox economists, because the tools to analyze institutions, uncertainty, and other factors have now been developed by the mainstream.

The reason is that product-values refer to empirical quantities of labour-time performed, which are not hypothetical, but an inescapable physical and social reality. This type of analysis paves the way for an important new Marxian criticism of Piero Sraffa's otherwise brilliant critique of capital theory. In Sraffian theory, the value of a commodity "contains" both the average labour directly involved in making it ("direct labour") and past labour contained in the materials from which it is made ("indirect labour" or "dated labour").Ajit Sinha, Theories of Value from Adam Smith to Piero Sraffa.

However, he publicly denied having strong Fabian influences on his thought. Bernstein did acknowledge that he was influenced by Kantian epistemological scepticism while he rejected Hegelianism. He and his supporters urged the SPD to merge Kantian ethics with Marxian political economy. On the role of Kantian criticism within socialism which "can serve as a pointer to the satisfying solution to our problem", Bernstein argued that "[o]ur critique must be direct against both a scepticism that undermines all theoretical thought, and a dogmatism that relies on ready-made formulas".

Princeton University Press, 2004. P. 198. Third Way social democratic theorist and Labour Party member Anthony Giddens has said that the Third Way rejects the traditional conception of socialism, and instead accepts the conception of socialism as conceived of by Anthony Crosland as an ethical doctrine that views social democratic governments as having achieved a viable ethical socialism by removing the unjust elements of capitalism by providing social welfare and other policies, and that contemporary socialism has outgrown the Marxian claim for the need of the abolition of capitalism.Anthony Giddens.

Horkheimer's venia legendi was revoked by the new Nazi government because of the Marxian nature of the Institute's ideas as well as its prominent Jewish association. When Hitler was named the Chancellor in 1933, the Institute was thus forced to close its location in Germany. He emigrated to Geneva, Switzerland and then to New York City the following year, where Horkheimer met with the president of Columbia University to discuss hosting the Institute. To Horkheimer's surprise, the president agreed to host the Institute in exile as well as offer Horkheimer a building for the Institute.

Charles Bettelheim (20 November 1913, in Paris – 20 July 2006, in Paris) was a French Marxian economist and historian, founder of the Center for the Study of Modes of Industrialization (CEMI : Centre pour l'Étude des Modes d'Industrialisation) at the EHESS, economic advisor to the governments of several developing countries during the period of decolonization. He was very influential in France's New Left, and considered one of "the most visible Marxists in the capitalist world" (Le Monde, 4 April 1972), in France as well as in Spain, Italy, Latin America, and India.

His imprisonment only gave him further opportunities to read leftist literature, and he claimed in August 1905 that "Indeed, I had gone [to prison] as a Marxian Socialist and returned as a radical Anarchist." He travelled to the United States in November 1905 and spent until June 1906 in the country. While in America, he spent most of his time in California, and his ideology further radicalised towards anarcho- communism. He wrote to the anarcho-communist Peter Kropotkin, who gave him permission to translate his works into Japanese in letter dated September 1906.

Michał Kalecki (; 22 June 1899 – 18 April 1970) was a Polish Marxian economist. Over the course of his life, Kalecki worked at the London School of Economics, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford and Warsaw School of Economics and was an economic advisor to the governments of Poland, France, Cuba, Israel, Mexico and India. He also served as the deputy director of the United Nations Economic Department in New York City. Kalecki has been called "one of the most distinguished economists of the 20th century" and "likely the most original one".

439-455 Henri Lefebvre in Métaphilosophie (1965) argued, from a Marxian standpoint, in favor of an "ontological break", as a necessary methodological approach for critical social theory (whilst criticizing Louis Althusser's "epistemological break" with subjective Marxism, which represented a fundamental theoretical tool for the school of Marxist structuralism). Paul Moser writes that typical metaphilosophical discussion includes determining the conditions under which a claim can be said to be a philosophical one. He regards meta-ethics, the study of ethics, to be a form of metaphilosophy, as well as meta-epistemology, the study of epistemology.

Marxian economics do not exclusively rely on Marx and draw from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources. The dictatorship of the proletariat and workers' state are terms used by some Marxists, particularly Leninists and Marxist–Leninists, to describe what they see as a temporary state between the capitalist state of affairs and a communist society. Marx defined the proletariat as salaried workers, in contrast to the lumpenproletariat, who he defined as the outcasts of society such as beggars, tricksters, entertainers, buskers, criminals and prostitutes. The political relevance of farmers has divided the left.

Foster's initial research centered on Marxian political economies and theories of capitalist development, with a focus on Paul Sweezy and Paul Baran's theory of monopoly. This was reflected in Foster's early book The Theory of Monopoly Capitalism and the coedited volume (with Henryk Szlajfer), The Faltering Economy: The Problem of Accumulation under Monopoly Capitalism. In the late 1980s, Foster turned toward issues of ecology. He focused on the relationship between the global environmental crisis and the crisis in the capitalist economy, while stressing the imperative for a sustainable, socialist alternative.

140–151 John Maynard Keynes, Richard Kahn, Richard Goodwin, Nicholas Kaldor, Luigi Pasinetti, Joan Robinson and Piero Sraffa all started initially within the mainstream Economics of their time. They all moved well and truly outside it, attempting to create either a revolutionary alternative or to rehabilitate the classical Marxian tradition, in most cases in the light of the Keynesian revolution. The one exception is Michał Kalecki, whose personal history and independent mind combined to place him virtually always outside the mainstream. Asimakopulos however viewed himself as a mainstream economist.

Complexity economics draws inspiration from behavioral economics, Marxian economics, institutional economics/evolutionary economics, Austrian economics and the work of Adam Smith. It also draws inspiration from other fields, such as statistical mechanics in physics, and evolutionary biology. Some of the 20th century intellectual background of complexity theory in economics is examined in Alan Marshall (2002) The Unity of Nature, Imperial College Press: London. See Douma & Schreuder (2017) for a non-technical introduction to Complexity Economics and a comparison with other economic theories (as applied to markets and organizations).

ISIPE aims to be politically neutral. Its objective is not to promote a particular point of view or methodology, but to promote the idea that having multiple points of view and multiple methodologies is a good thing. While some associated with the movement are primarily interested in certain branches of economics, the movement itself aims promote non-orthodox economic thought in general. Various groups have called for the inclusion of both Marxian and Austrian Schools of thought in the economics curriculum, representing almost polar opposites of the political spectrum.

Not all analytical Marxists are rational-choice Marxists, however. Elster's account was an exhaustive examination of Marx's texts in order to ascertain what could be salvaged out of Marxism employing the tools of rational choice theory and methodological individualism (which Elster defended as the only form of explanation appropriate to the social sciences). His conclusion was that – contra Cohen – no general theory of history as the development of the productive forces could be saved. Like Roemer, he also rejected the labour theory of value and, going further, virtually all of Marxian economics.

A prominent derivative of Marxian thought is critical international relations theory which is the application of "critical theory" to international relations. Early critical theorists were associated with the Frankfurt School, which followed Marx's concern with the conditions that allow for social change and the establishment of rational institutions. Their emphasis on the "critical" component of theory was derived significantly from their attempt to overcome the limits of positivism. Modern-day proponents such as Andrew Linklater, Robert W. Cox and Ken Booth focus on the need for human emancipation from the nation-state.

In its barest essentials Rusche and Kirchheimer propound a structuralist analysis of punishment, arguing that modes of punishment are social phenomena shaped by economic drivers (p5 - stand-alone page references relate to the 1968 edition). The concretised forms of punishment actually found correspond, they maintain, to the prevailing means of production. It is here that the Marxian stance of privileging the economic base is evident. This leads to the renowned claim that 'Punishment as such does not exist; only concrete systems of punishment and specific criminal practices exist.

In addition to the Call, Daniel Bell mentions the official American Socialist and the privately owned Milwaukee Leader, Jewish Daily Forward, The Masses, the former National Rip-Saw, International Socialist Review, and "several German, Russian and Hungarian socialist dailies." Many of these publications did not survive their ban from the mails. See: Bell, Marxian Socialism in the United States, paperback edition, pg. 103. Charles Ervin, managing editor of the Call during this period, decided that, beginning on Monday, December 3, 1917, the paper would be printed in the evenings and would handle its own distribution.

"Marxian Utopia." (1985), Centre for Research into Communist Economies, , pp.18-19. It has been argued that Marx's effort to distinguish between skilled and unskilled labor was incoherent, as all labor ultimately required some degree of skill - true unskilled labor would only be possible with mindless automatons as workers still need to think in order to produce. This means it is not possible to reduce skilled labor to unskilled labor (and thus determine the number of unskilled labor hours) because all labor is skilled, meaning that value cannot be determined just by counting labor hours.

Developed by Yasuma Takada in a series of lectures at Kyoto University, the power theory of economics is mostly based on a critique of both mainstream economics as well as heterodox economics theories of unemployment, most notably Keynesian economics and Marxian economics. The theory accommodates Thorstein Veblen, Vilfredo Pareto and Joseph Schumpeter. Takada sometimes referred to the theory as a second order approximation, as introducing a theory of power relations into the materialism of economics was seen as one step closer to a true picture of socio-economic relationships.

The accumulation of capital is the process of "making money", or growing an initial sum of money through investment in production. Capitalism is based on the accumulation of capital, whereby financial capital is invested in order to make a profit and then reinvested into further production in a continuous process of accumulation. In Marxian economic theory, this dynamic is called the law of value. Capital accumulation forms the basis of capitalism, where economic activity is structured around the accumulation of capital, defined as investment in order to realize a financial profit.

In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the natural sciences. Some anthropologists, such as Lloyd Fallers and Clifford Geertz, focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as Julian Steward and Leslie White, focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche—an approach popularized by Marvin Harris. Economic anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and George Dalton challenged standard neoclassical economics to take account of cultural and social factors, and employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study.

Aderca's take on fascism was more ambiguous than his stance on antisemitism. In addition to the retrospective parable in Muzică de balet, a number of his earlier texts feature more or less explicit anti-fascist tropes. This is the case of 1916, with its grim prognosis of radical nationalism, and Oameni excepționali, where Nazism appears as a heterogeneous ideology. Aderca saw Adolf Hitler as a pale copy of Stalin and a reluctant follower of Marxian economics, propelled into high office by the inconsistencies of the German Communist Party.

Endore studied and was greatly inspired by Marx. As Joseph Ramsey summarizes, he "called for 'a new school of Marxian historical fiction,' to be based in 'a study of original sources' so as 'to furnish reliable and powerful revolutionary weapons.'" Endore struggled, however, to produce significant works of leftist fiction and he often felt resigned to composing what he believed would sell, especially after the public failure of Babouk, with its more explicitly sympathetic depiction of the Haitian Revolution. He retained his profound interest in historical subjects throughout his career.

In 1939, he graduated with a Masters in Law, and was awarded a fellowship to Cambridge University. However, World War II intervened and his graduate studies at Cambridge were delayed for six years. In 1944, he married a communist activist, Rona Stephenson (better known as Rona Bailey) though they were soon divorced again. Meek revealed himself to be the brightest Marxian thinker of his generation in New Zealand; his first monograph, a pamphlet called "Maori Problems Today" (1943) discussed a topic which had previously been largely ignored by the Communist Party of New Zealand.

The Bordigists and the SPGB championed a super-Marxian intransigence in theoretical matters. Other socialists made a return "behind Marx" to the anti- positivist programme of German idealism. Libertarian socialism has frequently linked its anti-authoritarian political aspirations with this theoretical differentiation from orthodoxy... Karl Korsch... remained a libertarian socialist for a large part of his life and because of the persistent urge towards theoretical openness in his work. Korsch rejected the eternal and static, and he was obsessed by the essential role of practice in a theory's truth.

This implicit critique of state socialist societies, however, largely operated at the level of abstract social philosophy. As Hungarian critics Gyorgy Bence and Janos Kis noted, this rebirth of Marxian philosophy in the East “sidestepped the problem of basic class antagonism” intrinsic to the socialist dictatorships of Eastern Europe.Rakovsky, Towards An Eastern European Marxism, 132. Rakovsky is a pseudonym for Bence and Kis. Mihály Vajda writes that this renaissance of Marxism in the East “cherished hopes” for reform of the socialist systems and hoped to find like-minded reformers in the ruling party.

Marx and Engels evaluated progressive nationalism as involving the destruction of feudalism and believed that it was a beneficial step, but they evaluated nationalism detrimental to the evolution of international class struggle as reactionary and necessary to be destroyed.Nimni 1991, 22. Marx and Engels believed that certain nations that could not consolidate viable nation-states should be assimilated into other nations that were more viable and further in Marxian evolutionary economic progress. On the issue of nations and the proletariat, The Communist Manifesto says: > The working men have no country.

Stephen Cullenberg stated that the TRPF "remains one of the most important and highly debated issues of all of economics" because it raises "the fundamental question of whether, as capitalism grows, this very process of growth will undermine its conditions of existence and thereby engender periodic or secular crises."Stephen Cullenberg, The Falling Rate of Profit: Recasting the Marxian Debate. London: Pluto Press, 1994, p.1. Marx regarded the TRPF as proof that capitalist production could not be an everlasting form of production since in the end the profit principle itself would suffer a breakdown.

He wrote extensively, publishing works on the effects of land reform and industrialization, on the history of economic thought, and on Romania's relations with the Comecon and the First World. An innovator among the Romanian communist intellectual and professional elite, Murgescu spent his final decades questioning the assumptions of Marxian economics. At the Institute for World Economy, which later became a branch of the Romanian Academy, he trained a new generation of like-minded economists. Shortly before his death, he was involved in dissidence against the Nicolae Ceaușescu regime.

Banu, p. 31; Diehl This successor company was itself dissolved in 1961. Soviet investment in Sovromcuarț was evaluated to a debt of 413 million rubles, which were to be paid by Romania over a 10-year period (starting with 1961).Banu, p.29 The gesture was used by First Secretary Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, who had previously ensured the SovRom's efficiency,Roper, p.22 as a means to gain popularity with Romanian citizens and, in parallel, to advertise the fact that Romania had developed the majority of Marxian requirements for Socialism after completing nationalization.Cioroianu, p.

Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard.

Finally, Axelos' third trilogy is entitled The Unfolding of an Investigation, and consists of the books: Arguments of an Investigation (1969), Horizons of the World (1974), and Issues at Stake (1979). In employing both Marx and Freud, Axelos did not carelessly reject their arguments despite trying to "liberate the vital forces" within them (1964), as his autobiography notes: "it remains to ask again, to extrapolate the Marxian and Freudian intuitions" (1997). The focus of the searches is still the "set-game of sets," especially in the context of the "end of history" debates.

Lifshitz in the early 1930s Mikhail Aleksandrovich Lifshitz (; July 23, 1905, in Melitopol (Taurida Governorate, now Zaporizhia Oblast of Ukraine) – September 28, 1983, in Moscow) was a Soviet Marxian literary critic and philosopher of art who had a long and controversial career in the former Soviet Union. In the 1930s, he strongly influenced Marxist views on aesthetics while being a close associate of György Lukács. He also published important compilations of early Marxist literature on the role of art. In 1975, he was elected as a full member of the USSR Academy of Arts.

29 (1), pp. 57–79. These include Carl Menger's theories on marginal utility, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on opportunity cost and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk's theories on time preference, as well as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics. Former American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said that the founders of the Austrian School "reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country".Greenspan, Alan.

These places of consumption, whether in our homes, the mall, or cyberspace, are in a constant state of "enchanting the disenchanted," luring us through new spectacles because their rational qualities are both necessary and deadening at the same time. The book also includes a wide range of theoretical perspectives — Marxian, Weberian, critical theory, postmodern theory — as well as a number of concepts such as hyperconsumption, implosion, simulation, and time and space to show the audience how sociological theory can be applied to everyday phenomena.Ritzer, G. Enchanting a Disenchanted World , Third Edition. SAGE Publications, Inc. 2009.

Marxian economist John Milios (2003) argues for a monetary theory of value, where "Money is the necessary form of appearance of value (and of capital) in the sense that prices constitute the only form of appearance of the value of commodities." According to this analysis, when money incorporates production into its M-C-M' circulation, it functions as capital implementing the capitalist relation and the exploitation of labor power constitutes the actual presupposition for this incorporation.John Milios, "Marx's Monetary Theory of Value, Fictitious Capital and Finance", 6 November 2015, p. 6.

Marxian sociologist Erik Olin Wright sees the underclass as a "category of social agents who are economically oppressed but not consistently exploited within a given class system". The underclass occupies the lowest possible rung on a class ladder. According to Wright, the underclass are oppressed. He believes this is because they are generally denied access to the labor market, and thus they cannot rise above their status easily but also thus are "not consistently exploited" because the opportunity for their economic exploitation is minimal for the classes above.

The crisis of Marxism encompassed the “Breakdown Controversy” which was an argument among Karl Kautsky, orthodox Marxists, Bernstein and his revisionists over the predicted breakdown of capitalism due to its internal contradictions. Orthodox Marxists held the opinion that capitalism's collapse was imminent, which would result in a revolutionary conjuncture.Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, “The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate”, Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 26 Opposed to revolutionary tactics, Bernstein argued that revolution was only justified if capitalism falls of its own accord.

He showed the fundamental nature of social learning processes, whether in market exchanges, in verbal conversations, or in hypertext-based dialogue. As a scholar, he studied the philosophy of the social sciences (especially the application of hermeneutics to economics) and Comparative economic systems (especially Marxian theories of socialism). Along with Richard Ebeling, Lavoie pioneered the attempt to merge Austrian Economics with philosophical hermeneutics in the late 1980s, and in particular with the hermeneutics of Hans-Georg Gadamer. His influence here extended to many of his students mentioned above.

In macroeconomics, his research monographs studied corporate finance, investment, and national income theory. He served as a staff economist for the Council of Economic Advisers of the United States President during the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson. Becoming critical of mainstream economics during the 1960s, he subsequently devoted his energies to Marxian political-economy, believing that "only Marxism provides the intellectual equipment needed to understand the reality of a modern capitalist society". He helped to organize the Union for Radical Political Economy (URPE), which publishes the journal Review of Radical Political Economics.

The party adheres and believes in the Marxian concepts of class struggle and historical materialism. Their ongoing belief in historical materialism cements their views that the socialist mode of production will still be the society of the future. It could be said that the party believed stronger than ever in the possibility of a socialist future since the "careerists", symbolized by Mikhail Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin and Leonid Kravchuk, were gone. The KPU believes that since the West has developed into a post-industrial society, capitalism through globalization was actively "de-modernizing" Ukraine.

In this context Kordela also addresses the intriguing relation between structuralism and dialectics. But, Kordela argues, there is always also an excess or surplus to structuralism, and this surplus is what the line of thought Spinoza-Marx-Freud-Lacan refers to with the concepts of immanent causality and singular essence (Spinoza), labor-power (Marx), and libido/enjoyment (Freud/Lacan). This surplus to structure leads to a Spinozan- Marxian-Lacanian revision of the concept of biopower, far beyond Foucault’s reduction of bios to the discursive inscription of the biological body and population.

Alongside the extinction of 'Hegelianism' around 1848, the bourgeoisie lost its claim to that progressive role in society, ceasing to be the universal class. Marx, in taking Hegel and transforming that philosophy into something new, in which the workers would be the progressive class, himself represented the moment at which the revolutionary baton materially passed from bourgeoisie to workers. To Korsch, the central idea of Marxian theory was what he termed "the principle of historical specification". This means to "comprehend all things social in terms of a definite historical epoch".

In Das Kapital Marx normally thinks of the quantity of labour that determines product-value as the ratio between the average total amount of labour-time required to produce a reproducible good, and the corresponding average amount of labour required to produce a unit of gold (see also gold standard).Ian Steedman, "Marx and Ricardo", in: Ian Bradley and Michael Howard, Classical and Marxian Political Economy: Essays in honour of Ronald L. Meek. London: Macmillan, 1982, p. 120. Already in 1844, long before he wrote Das Kapital, Marx was very aware of credit money.

While Marx used the concept of the law of value in his works Grundrisse, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Theories of Surplus Value and Das Kapital, he did not explicitly formalise its full meaning in a mathematical sense, and therefore how it should be exactly defined remains to some extent a controversial topic in Marxian economics. Different economists dispute how the proportionality between exchange-value and labour-time should be mathematically understood or modeled, and about the measures which are relevant.See e.g. Ian Steedman et al.

Fred M. Taylor (1855–1932) Oskar R. Lange (1904–1965) Abba Lerner (1903–1982) In response to the Economic Calculation Problem proposed by the Austrian School of Economics that disputes the efficiency of a state-run economy, the theory of Market Socialism was developed in the late 1920s and 1930s by economists Fred M. Taylor (1855–1932), Oskar R. Lange (1904–1965), Abba Lerner (1903–1982) et al., combining Marxian economics with neoclassical economics after dumping the labor theory of value. In 1938 Abram Bergson (1914–2003) defined the Social Welfare Function.

During this period, he was a member of the Greek group called Revolutionary Socialist Groups in London, which published the newspaper Μαμή ("Midwife", from the Marxian dictum, "violence is the midwife of revolution") for which he wrote several articles.As testified by the Left composer Lakis Karalis in an interview in the Athens newspaper Eleftherotypia (06/09/2008) and in an Arts web site Προβολέας . Fotopoulos married Sia Mamareli (a former lawyer) in 1966; the couple have a son, Costas (born in 1974), who is a Composer and Pianist.

This work responds critically to these critiques, offering evidence to counter the widespread notion of anthropology as the handmaiden of colonialism, and of its liability for exoticizing and otherwise misrepresenting what post-1960s writers call "the Other." A contextualized view of some of these critiques is also offered by Adam Kuper, in his book Anthropology and Anthropologists. Lewis' major research interests include: anthropological theory and history, cultural and social change, ethnicity, and political anthropology. Although initiated into anthropology by Marxian, materialist, neo-evolutionists at Brandeis and Columbia he soon became more of a Weberian-Boasian.

The higher wages perpetuate unemployment, but the threat of unemployment reduces shirking. Before current levels of world trade were developed, unemployment was shown to reduce inflation, following the Phillips curve, or to decelerate inflation, following the NAIRU/natural rate of unemployment theory since it is relatively easy to seek a new job without losing a current job. When more jobs are available for fewer workers (lower unemployment), that may allow workers to find the jobs that better fit their tastes, talents and needs. As in the Marxian theory of unemployment, special interests may also benefit.

In this sense, the usage of labour (per se) in Marxian economics is somewhat similar to the later concept, in neoclassical economics, of "labour services". The distinction between labour and labour-power, according to Marx, helped to solved a problem that David Ricardo had failed to solve, i.e. explaining why the surplus value resulting from profit normally arises out of the process of production itself—rather than in the investment of capital (e.g. the advance of money-capital in the form of wages) in labour-power (acquired from labourers).

Marxian economists have criticized SNA concepts also from a different theoretical perspective on the new value added or value product.Anwar Shaikh and Ahmet Tonak, Measuring the Wealth of Nations. Cambridge University Press, 2011. On this view, the distinctions drawn in SNA to define income from production and property income are rather capricious or eclectic, obscuring thereby the different components and sources of realised surplus value; the categories are said to be based on an inconsistent view of newly created value, conserved value, and transferred value (see also double counting).

43-84, at p. 73. "...measured in terms of their average absolute percentage deviations, prices of production are within 8.2 per cent of market prices, labour values are within 9.2 per cent of market prices and 4.4 per cent of prices of production, and the linear approximation is within 2 per cent of full prices of production and 8.7 per cent of market price." - Anwar Shaikh, "the Empirical Strength of the Labor Theory of Value". In: Riccardo Bellofiore (ed.), Marxian Economics: A Reappraisal, Volume 2. New York: St Martin's Press, 1998, p. 226.

Raj Gauthaman was closely associated with the wave of Dalit political thought and writing that rose in the 1980s in India and in Tamil Nadu. He published essays and articles that analyzed Tamil culture in subaltern perspectives through a Marxian approach. The energy of Tamil Dalit movement and Gauthaman's distinct contribution to it is captured in two widely cited early works, Dalit Panpaadu (Dalit Culture, 1993) and Dalit Paarvaiyil Tamil Panpaadu (Tamil Culture from a Dalit Perspective, 1994). He also published Iyothee Thassar Ayvugal on activist Iyothee Thass and Aram Adhikaram.

He challenged Marx's position on liberalism by claiming that liberal democrats and social democrats held common grounds that he claimed could be utilized to create a "socialist republic". He believed that economic class disparities between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat would gradually be eliminated through legal reforms and economic redistribution programs. Bernstein rejected the Marxian principle of dictatorship of the proletariat, claiming that gradualist democratic reforms would improve the rights of the working class. According to Bernstein, social democracy did not seek to create a socialism separate from bourgeois society, but it instead sought to create a common development based on Western humanism.

The various right oppositional groups loosely aligned with Bukharin within the Comintern were forced to form their own organisations when they were, in their turn, purged from the national sections of the Comintern. In Europe, the most important and substantial of these new organisations was the Communist Party Opposition (KPO) in Germany, led by Heinrich Brandler. In the United States, Jay Lovestone, Bertram Wolfe and their supporters founded the Communist Party (Opposition) and published the newspaper Workers Age. In Canada, the Marxian Educational League was formed as part of Lovestone's CP(O), and it became affiliated with the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation.

Most of these ideas were developed in the early 1970s by dissatisfied quantitative geographers; David Harvey is generally regarded as the primary trail-blazer of the Marxist movement in human geography. In order to accomplish such philosophical aims, these geographers rely heavily upon Marxist social and economic theory, drawing on Marxian economics and the methods of historical materialism to tease out the manner in which the means of production control human spatial distribution in capitalist structures. Marx is also invoked to examine how spatial relationships are affected by class. The emphasis is on structure and structural mechanisms.

He also was published in journals such as The Quarterly Journal of Economics and Science & Society, and, in 1986, published The Theory of Monopoly Capitalism: An Elaboration of Marxian Political Economy, based on his Ph.D. dissertation. Foster was hired in 1985 as a Visiting Member of the Faculty at The Evergreen State College. One year later he took a position as assistant professor of sociology at the University of Oregon, and became a full professor of sociology in 2000. In 1989 he became a director of the Monthly Review Foundation Board and a member of the editorial committee of Monthly Review.

The implication of this is that the valuation used for the 'value composition of capital' had to be accordingly modified, since the labor-values used throughout Book I was an expedient he used in order to not excessively complicate the communication of this theory. But Marx was not able to complete to his satisfaction Books II and III. The various distinct concepts related to the composition of capital are often used in contemporary Marxian economics as a theoretical alternative to similar neo-classical concepts. The neoclassical concept most similar to the increasing organic composition of capital is capital deepening.

Bell, Marxian Socialism in the United States, paperback edition, pg. 103. Mere opposition to the American war effort via public speech or the printed word was interpreted by the Wilson Administration, and affirmed by the courts, as a violation of the law and a wave of prosecutions and administrative actions followed, including action by Postmaster General Albert S. Burleson to ban offending newspapers from the mail. Mailing privileges of the New York Call were quickly revoked as part of a general offensive against the Socialist Party's press.The number of Socialist papers and magazines affected was significant.

Using both quantitative data and qualitative sources, economic historians emphasize understanding the historical context in which major economic events take place. They often focus on the institutional dynamics of systems of production, labor, and capital, as well as the economy's impact on society, culture, and language. Scholars of the discipline may approach their analysis from the perspective of different schools of economic thought, such as mainstream economics, Marxian economics, the Chicago school of economics, and Keynesian economics. Sub-disciplines of the field include financial and business history, which overlaps with areas of social history such as demographic and labor history.

" —Eric J. Iannelli, The Times Literary Supplement "Wark- responds to the problems created by the current proliferation of digital culture. [She] pumps air back into Marxian categories and spices them up with Debord and Gautarri. As Millions of young people illegally download electronic information off the Internet, Wark sees possibilities for revolutionary politics grounded on the chaotic circulation of information freed from the regime of property." "Writers, artists, biotechnologists, and software programmers belong to the 'hacker class' and share a class interest in openness and freedom, while the 'vectoralist' and 'ruling classes' are driven to contain, control, dominate, and own.

It was: Guesde had been in close association with Paul Lafargue, and through him with Karl Marx, whose daughter Lafargue had married. It was in conjunction with Marx and Lafargue that he drew up the programme accepted by the National Congress of the French Workers' Party at Le Havre in 1880, which laid stress on the formation of an international labour party working by revolutionary methods. The following year, at the Reims Congress, the orthodox Marxian programme of Guesde was opposed by the "possibilists", who rejected the intransigeant attitude of Guesde for the reformist policy of Paul Brousse and Benoît Malon.

The political scientist David McLellan described the book as "an impressive attempt to revitalise Marx's main economic doctrines." The Marxian economist Ernest Mandel accused Robinson of misinterpretations of Marx similar to those of the socialist economist Rosa Luxemburg. He rejected Robinson's view that the first and third volumes of Marx's Das Kapital make contradictory assumptions about real wages. He argued that Robinson fails to understand that the first and third volumes are at different levels of abstraction, deal with different questions, and make different assumptions in order to clarify the specific dynamics which allow answers to them.

Some economists such as Paul Samuelson have taken issue with Marx's concept of the reserve army of labour. Samuelson argues that much Marxian literature assumes that the mere existence of the unemployed drives down wages, when in reality is dependent upon contingent factors. (Are the unemployed easily available as replacements? Is the mere threat of replacement sufficient to get workers to accept a wage cut or does the employer have to demonstrate this is not an empty threat?) Samuelson argues that if prices also fall with money wage, then this does not mean real wages will fall.

The concept of the social market economy received fundamental impulses from reflection and critique of historical economic and social orders, namely Smithian laissez-faire liberalism on the one hand and Marxian socialism on the other. Furthermore, various Third Way conceptions prepared the ground for the socio-economic concept. Already in the late 19th century, the Kathedersozialisten ("Catheder Socialists") engaged in social reforms in the Verein für Socialpolitik, turning away from pure liberalism to demand a purposive state policy designed to regulate economic life and advocating a middle course between anarchic individualism, traditionalistic corporatism and bureaucratic etatism.Nipperdey, Th., Deutsche Geschichte 1866–1918.

One of the theoretical problems in Marxian economics is to distinguish exactly between relations of production and relations of distribution, determining the significance of each in the allocation of resources. According to the crudest and most vulgar interpretations of Das Kapital, exploitation occurs only at the point of production. Marx himself obviously did not assert this at all, he only postulated the command over the surplus labour of others as the basis of the existence of capital and its economic power. Marx discusses the theoretical problem in two main places: the introduction to the Grundrisse manuscript and in chapter 51 of Das Kapital.

The Marxist Workers Party was a communist party in the United States active in the late 1930s. The MWP was a splinter group of the Proletarian Party, which left in 1937 because they disapproved of the PP vacillating line concerning the USSR and the popular front. The founders of the Marxist Workers Party were more critical of the Communist Party of Soviet Union line and, while granting that the USSR was, in some sense, a workers state, they had no use for the Comintern or the Communist Party.Dale Reipe "Marxian Labor College Bulletin" in Joseph R. Conlin ed.

In St Paul's School's alumni magazine, he praised his former schoolmaster Keith Perry, saying that the teacher did "much to bolster [his] self-confidence". During his time at the school, he co-founded its Economics and Politics Society (known as Polecon) with his close friend Owen Tudor, who now works for the Trades Union Congress. Tsakalotos went on to read Philosophy, Politics and Economics at The Queen's College, Oxford. Whilst at the Queen's College, Tsakalotos was an admirer of both G. A. Cohen and Andrew Glyn, a Marxist political philosopher and Marxian economist respectively, who both taught at the university.

In Swargadhoothan, Rafi envisioned the islets around Kochi getting connected to the mainland in 1958 and it became a reality when Goshree bridges were opened in February 2004. He also wrote a detective novel, Padakkuthira Missi and two plays, Mathai Master and Mezhukuthiri. One of his non-fiction books, Marxism, Oru Thirinjunottam, co-written with his wife, is a detailed study of the Marxian theory and its spiritual aspects; the book also has a critique on Mother of Maxim Gorky. Kaliyugam, a Sabeena Rafi co-written work, is a study of human behaviour from early ages, with a philosophical perspective.

Sabeen Rafi's oeuvre consists of five non-fiction works and Chritumas Sammanam, her autobiography. Chavittu Nadakam - Oru Charithra Padanam, her 1964 publication on the history of Chavittu Nadakam, an operatic dance form originated in Ernakulam, is considered to be the first comprehensive book on the subject. Marxism, Oru Thirinjunottam, a book co-written with her husband, is a detailed study of the Marxian theory and its spiritual aspects; the book also has a critique on Mother of Maxim Gorky. Kaliyugam, again a Ponjikkara Rafi co- written work, is a study of human behaviour from early ages, with a philosophical perspective.

For Arato, this new focus on civil society constituted, in part, a rejection of the traditional Marxian problematic for a post-Marxist one. He and intellectuals in Eastern Europe criticized Marx's advocacy of a radical democratic reunification of state and society in a supposedly collective free social order. They rejected Marx's idea of ending of the distinction of state and society (or state and market), along with his conception of an unalienated collective subject, totally undivided and in control of itself. The experience of Eastern Europe and Russia suggested this utopian merging of government and society inevitably resulted in authoritarian forms of rule.

In Marxian economics, surplus value is the difference between the amount raised through a sale of a product and the amount it cost to the owner of that product to manufacture it: i.e. the amount raised through sale of the product minus the cost of the materials, plant and labour power. The concept originated in Ricardian socialism, with the term "surplus value" itself being coined by William Thompson in 1824; however, it was not consistently distinguished from the related concepts of surplus labor and surplus product. The concept was subsequently developed and popularized by Karl Marx.

By raising productivity, labor-saving technologies can increase the average industrial rate of profit rather than lowering it, insofar as fewer workers can produce vastly more output at a lower cost, enabling more sales in less time.Ronald L. Meek, "The Falling Rate of Profit", in R. L. Meek, Economics and Ideology and Other Essays (London: Chapman and Hall, 1967). Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz stated: "Marx’s own proof of his law of the falling rate of profit errs principally in disregarding the mathematical relationship between the productivity of labour and the rate of surplus value."Ladislaus Bortkiewicz, "Value and Price in the Marxian System".

This article was translated into English in 1952 as "Value and Price in the Marxian System", International Economic Papers, no. 2, 1952. A translation of Bortkiewicz’s follow-up article "On the Correction of Marx's Fundamental Theoretical Construction in the Third Volume of Capital" (Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, July 1907) is provided in Paul Sweezy (ed.), Karl Marx and the Close of his System by Eugen von Bohm Bawerk (New York: Kelley, 1949), pp. 199–221. (himself influenced by Vladimir Karpovich DmitrievKenji Mori, "Charasoff and Dmitriev: An Analytical Characterisation of Origins of Linear Economics". Discussion Paper No. 249.

Oneal, James American communism : a critical analysis of its origins, development and programs New York City: Rand Book Store, 1927 p.107 Daniel Bell detected the influence of De Leonism in its ideology.Daniel Bell "The background and development of Marxian socialism in the United States" in Donald Drew Egbert and Stow Persons eds. Socialism and American life Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1952. p.338 The Industrial Communists did not believe that the other communist factions were capable of carrying out a socialist revolution, "any one of them if put into power could not establish industrial communism".

These needs were both physical needs as well as moral, emotional and intellectual needs. According to Marx, human development is characterized by the fact that in the process of meeting their needs, humans develop new needs, implying that at least to some extent they make and remake their own nature. This idea is discussed in more detail by the Hungarian philosopher Ágnes Heller in A Theory of Need in Marx (London: Allison and Busby, 1976). Political economy professor Michael Lebowitz has developed the Marxian interpretation of needs further in two editions of his book Beyond Capital.

Much of the book is a defense of "negative thinking" as a disrupting force against the prevailing positivism. Marcuse also analyzes the integration of the industrial working class into capitalist society and new forms of capitalist stabilization, thus questioning the Marxian postulates of the revolutionary proletariat and the inevitability of capitalist crisis. In contrast to orthodox Marxism, Marcuse champions non-integrated forces of minorities, outsiders, and radical intelligentsia, attempting to nourish oppositional thought and behavior through promoting radical thinking and opposition. He considers the trends towards bureaucracy in supposedly Marxist countries to be as oppositional to freedom as those in the capitalist West.

Jameson's work focused on the relation between the style of Sartre's writings and the political and ethical positions of his existentialist philosophy. The occasional Marxian aspects of Sartre's work were glossed over in this book; Jameson would return to them in the following decade.Ian Buchanan, Fredric Jameson: Live Theory, London and New York: Continuum, 2006, pp. 29-30. Jameson's dissertation, though it drew on a long tradition of European cultural analysis, differed markedly from the prevailing trends of Anglo-American academia (which were empiricism and logical positivism in philosophy and linguistics, and New Critical formalism in literary criticism).

Nonetheless, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the generation who followed the preceptors of the Revolution succeeded partly because they could formulate straightforward responses to Marxist economic theory. The most famous of these was that of Böhm-Bawerk, Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems (1896),Böhm-Bawerk, Eugen Ritter von: "Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems" ["On the Closure of the Marxist System"], Staatswiss. Arbeiten. Festgabe für K. Knies (1896). but the first was Wicksteed's "The Marxian Theory of Value. Das Kapital: a criticism" (1884,Wicksteed, Philip Henry; "Das Kapital: A Criticism", To-day 2 (1884) pp. 388–409.

However, over the course of the 20th century a considerable literature developed on the conflict between marginalism and the labour theory of value, with the work of the neo-Ricardian economist Piero Sraffa providing an important critique of marginalism. It might also be noted that some followers of Henry George similarly consider marginalism and neoclassical economics a reaction to Progress and Poverty which was published in 1879.Gaffney, Mason, and Fred Harrison: The Corruption of Economics (1994). In the 1980s John Roemer and other analytical Marxists have worked to rebuild Marxian theses on a marginalist foundation.

Property income is nominal revenues minus expenses for variable inputs (labor, purchased materials and services). Property income represents the return for the supply of both physical capital and financial capital. Capitalist economic systems are usually defined as those systems where the means of production are privately owned through equity, stock, bonds or privately held by a group of owners who bear the risk of investment and production to generate returns. In Marxian economics and related schools, property income is a portion of the surplus value produced by an economy, where "surplus value" refers to value beyond what is needed for subsistence.

For Polanyi, the effort by classical and neoclassical economics to make society subject to the free market was a utopian project and, as Polanyi scholars Fred Block and Margaret Somers claim, "When these public goods and social necessities (what Polanyi calls "fictitious commodities") are treated as if they are commodities produced for sale on the market, rather than protected rights, our social world is endangered and major crises will ensue." Polanyi's insight follows the Marxian notions of "commodification" and "Commodity fetishism." Fetishism in anthropology refers to the primitive belief that godly powers can inhere in inanimate things, e.g., in totems.

Although an official publication of the Industrial Workers of the World only from February 1921 through March 1929, Tie Vapauteen was an enthusiastic supporter of the IWW for its entire 19-year existence. Tie Vapauteen, (Finnish for "Road to Freedom"), was a Finnish language monthly magazine published by Finnish members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in the United States from 1919 to 1937. The magazine advanced an explicitly syndicalist position marked by Marxian class analysis. The magazine featured regular analysis of American industry, working life, and political commentary alongside poetry, fiction, and humor.

Anwar Shaikh (see references). In Marxian social accounting, one theoretical controversy concerns the treatment of the wages of so-called productive and unproductive labour. Unproductive labour by definition does not make net additions to the new value product, but only transfers value from other sectors on the basis that it reduces the costs of capitalist production. Depending on how the gross and net product are defined, the value of these wages could be accounted for either as a component of surplus value, or as a circulating constant capital outlay, or be excluded from the value product altogether.

In 1977 he started to work on a new, generalized social theory, which he called the non- Marxian historical materialism. In this theory real socialism occurs as the most oppressive system in the history of the hitherto known societies. Nowak was aware of the risk of working on such a theory in the country of real socialism but he did not decide to accept intellectual compromise and in 1979 disseminated the typescript of his book. During the time of Solidarność movement he spent all energy to educate union members and to reveal the oppressive nature of socialism.

Ideas of Science Management was very popular in the Soviet Union. One of the leading theorists and practitioners of the Scientific Management in Soviet Russia was Alexei Gastev. The Central Institute of Labour (Tsentralnyi Institut Truda, or TsIT), founded by Gastev in 1921 with Vladimir Lenin's support, was a veritable citadel of socialist Taylorism. Fascinated by Taylorism and Fordism, Gastev has led a popular movement for the “scientific organization of labor” (Nauchnaya Organizatsiya Truda, or NOT). Because of its emphasis on the cognitive components of labor, some scholars consider Gastev’s NOT to represent a Marxian variant of cybernetics.

Radical institutional economists Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler (2009) argue that it was never possible to separate economics from politics.Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler, Capital as Power: A Study of Order and Creorder, Routledge, 2009, p. 10. This separation is required to allow for neoclassical economics to base their theory on utility value and for Marxists to base the labour theory of value on quantified abstract labour. Instead of a utility theory of value (like neoclassical economics) or a labour theory of value (as found in Marxian economics), Nitzan and Bichler propose a power theory of value.

But if capitalism fails to self-destruct under the crisis of capital, as predicted by Marx, Bernstein and Marxist reformers believed that a transition to socialism could be accomplished through the existing political structure.Terrance McLoughlin, R. T. Drake, “The First Crisis of Marxian Theory and the Bernstein-Kautsky Debate”, Praxis, No. 3, 1976, p. 26 To the consternation of orthodox Marxists, the contradiction of capitalism did not result in the worsening of economic conditions, pitting socialist theory against empirical data. In this debate, Kautsky, considered the pope of socialism, maintained that the Marxist revolution did not demand the economic breakdown of capitalism.

According to Pătrășcanu, Moldavia and Wallachia had forsaken feudalism by the mid 18th century, maintaining instead a form of serfdom which had not been affected by the reforms of Hospodar Constantine Mavrocordatos. He argued that, whereas feudalism was supported by metayage, legislation passed by Mavrocordatos had endorsed and prolonged corvées, a system consecrated in the 1830s by the new Organic Statute. In his view, capitalism had manifested itself mainly as a reactionary force inside Romanian economy during the time of Phanariote rules. Thus, despite characteristic underdevelopment (which he also noted), the local economy had not contrasted with the stages postulated by Marxian economics.

Lebowitz wrote that Roemer employed elegant models and techniques and offered admirable discussions of many issues. However, he considered Roemer's conclusions about the Marxian theory of exploitation, and "the character of modern socialist states", controversial, and questioned Roemer's treatment of both subjects, arguing that they rested on flawed assumptions. Nevertheless, he concluded that Roemer had taken, "the consideration of exploitation on to a new, promising terrain." A General Theory of Exploitation and Class is considered a representative work of analytical Marxism, comparable to the philosopher G. A. Cohen's Karl Marx's Theory of History (1978) and Elster's Making Sense of Marx (1985).

When speaking about Marxism, Murray Bookchin said that "Marxism, in fact, becomes ideology. It is assimilated by the most advanced forms of state capitalist movement—notably Russia. By an incredible irony of history, Marxian "socialism" turns out to be in large part the very state capitalism that Marx failed to anticipate in the dialectic of capitalism. The proletariat, instead of developing into a revolutionary class within the womb of capitalism, turns out to be an organ within the body of bourgeois society [...] Lenin sensed this and described "socialism" as "nothing but state capitalist monopoly made to benefit the whole people.

This concept is directly related to the Marxian concept of mode of production and has been lately adopted as a tool to study the evolution of organizational forms in knowledge-intensive productions. In the field of political economy, following the work of Ernest André Gellner, Pagano has established a link between nationalism and globalisation, highlighting similarities and discontinuities. Being strongly influenced by the Darwinian theory of evolution, Pagano has also done some works on bioeconomics. In a recent article, in particular, he has suggested that in the course of human evolution sexual selection supplied the development of human brain and intelligence.

Marxian political economists are divided over the methodological character driving Marx's choice of presentation order of economic concepts, a question frustrating quicker completion of this book in Marx's adult life. There are logical, historical, sociological and other interpretations attempting to clarify method which Marx did not explain because his writing project on dialectics had lower priority than other matters. Since 1867, scholars have promoted different interpretations of the purpose driving volume one's long and oftentimes expansive argument. Key writers include Louis Althusser, Harry Cleaver, Richard D. Wolff, David Harvey, Michael Lebowitz, Moishe Postone, Fred Moseley, Michael Heinrich and others.

When speaking about Marxism, Murray Bookchin said the following: > Marxism, in fact, becomes ideology. It is assimilated by the most advanced > forms of state capitalist movement — notably Russia. By an incredible irony > of history, Marxian 'socialism' turns out to be in large part the very state > capitalism that Marx failed to anticipate in the dialectic of capitalism. > The proletariat, instead of developing into a revolutionary class within the > womb of capitalism, turns out to be an organ within the body of bourgeois > society [...] Lenin sensed this and described 'socialism' as 'nothing but > state capitalist monopoly made to benefit the whole people'.

16–72 The JSDP sought to affiliate to the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria (the General Party), but this was refused. However, the JSDP was active alongside the General Party, for example for universal suffrage. Grossman earned his Juris Doctor in 1908 from the Jagiellonian University. At the end of 1908, he went to the University of Vienna to study with the Marxian economic historian Carl Grünberg, withdrawing from his leadership role in the JSDP (although he remained on its executive until 1911 and had contact with the small JSDP group in Vienna, the Ferdinand Lassalle Club).

A third strand of his work is the relation between theoretical categories and empirical measures. His 1994 book Measuring the Wealth of Nations: The Political Economy of National Accounts, co-authored with Ahmet Tonak, developed a mapping between the national accounts corresponding to neoclassical and Keynesian concepts and those corresponding to classical and Marxian ones. It is now a classic reference on the subject. More recently, he has argued that it is crucially important to distinguish between the average rate of profit on all capital invested, which includes old and new investments, and the rate of return on new investment alone.

7 a piece of art. Sontag asserts that the modern style is quite harmful; to art and to audiences alike, enforcing hermeneutics -- fallacious, complicated “readings” that seem to engulf an artwork, to the extent that analysis of content begins to degrade, to destroy. Reverting to a more primitive and sensual, almost magical experience of art is what Sontag desires; even though that is quite impossible due to the thickened layers of hermeneutics that surround interpretation of art and that have grown to be recognised and respected. Sontag daringly challenges Marxian and Freudian theories, claiming they are “aggressive and impious”.

You tell us that although Marxian communism is stupidly, blindly wrong and mischievous, you have an admiration and friendship for the men who have imposed it upon the Russian people to the infinite misery and impoverishment of the land."Henry Arthur Jones, Gentle Advice To "My Dear Wells", New York Times, Sunday 5 December 1920, query.nytimes.com Wells repeatedly declined to respond, as in this letter to the New York Times, in 1921: "I do not believe that Mr. Jones has ever read a line that I have written. But he goes on unquenchably, a sort of endless hooting.

In his Economic Theory of the Leisure Class (1927),Economic Theory of the Leisure Class by Nikolai Bukharin 1927 at www.marxists.org Bukharin argued that Böhm von Bawerk's axiomatic assumptions of individual freedom in his subjectivist theories are fallacious in that economic phenomena can only be understood under the prism of a coherent, contextualised, and historical analysis of society, such as Marx's. By contrast, Austrian economists have regarded his critique of Marx as definitive. For example, Gottfried Haberler argued that Böhm von Bawerk's thorough critique of Marx's economics was so devastating that as of the 1960s, no Marxian scholar had conclusively refuted it.

Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority".

When he came back to Georgia, he propagated the Marxist ideas among the workers of Tbilisi, and in the 1890s he became a leader of the first legal Marxist organization in Georgia, called the Mesame Dasi (the Third Group). In late December 1892, Noe Zhordania emerged on the political scene. He attended the Marxian meetings at the Aleksandre Pushkin House in Kvirila, and eventually became a member of the first Marxist group. Other famous members were: Nikolay Chkheidze, Eugene Vatsadze, Mikha Tskhakaia, Joseph Kakabadze, Razhden Kaladze, Dmitry Kalandarishvili, Isidore Ramishvili, Arsen Tsitlidze, Isidore Kvitsaridze and Silibistro Jibladze.

Friedrich Engels, the editor of volume 3 of Capital, hinted since 1894 at an alternative way to look at the matter. His view was that the pure Marxian "law of value" of volume 1 and the "transformed" prices of volume 3 applied to different periods of economic history. In particular, the "law of value" would have prevailed in pre-capitalist exchange economies, from Babylon to the 15th century, while the "transformed" prices would have materialized under capitalism: see Engels's quotation by Morishima and Catephores (1975), p. 310\. Engels's reasoning was later taken up by Meek (1956) and Nell (1973).

Drăghicescu, pp. 87–106 From Poporanism, Mihalache's group inherited the notion of a "peasant state" or "peasant democracy"—a moderate take on the "peasant dictatorship" proposed by the Bulgarian Agrarianists.Harre, pp. 59–60, 63–64 Some of the core assumptions in interwar Peasantism were also informed by Marxian economics, though contradicting all Marxist assumptions about peasantry as a recessive and reactionary class.Drăghicescu, pp. 99–100; Harre, passim; Ilincioiu, p. 25 The Peasantists were fundamentally anti-bourgeoisie in their outlook, which exposed them to suspicions that they were communists. Early on, the People's Party decried Madgearu as an agitator for "economic Bolshevism".

The 1958 text introduced a "family tree of economics", which by the 20th century consisted of only two groupings, "socialism", listing Marx and Lenin, and the "neo-classical synthesis", listing Marshall and Keynes. This paralleled the then-extant Cold War economies of Soviet communism and American capitalism. This advanced a simplified view of the vying schools of economic thought, subsuming schools which considered themselves distinct, and today many within and without economics equate "economics" with "neo-classical economics", following Samuelson. Later editions provided expanded coverage of other schools, such as the Austrian school, Institutionalism, and Marxian economics.

There are a number of allusions to Galileo's science and to Marxism which are not further elaborated in the play; some of these are glossed below. The discussion of price versus value was a major point of debate in 19th century economics, under the terms exchange value versus use value. Within Marxian economics this is discussed under the labor theory of value. More subtly, Marx is sometimes interpreted as advocating technological determinism (technological progress determines social change), which is reflected in the telescope (a technological change) being the root of the scientific progress and hence social unrest.

Marxist scholars like N Muthumohan praise the works for their blend of Marxian analysis and satire. Writer and critic Jeyamohan in his introductory note for the Vishnupuram Award contends that while his early works projected critical intensity and satire, they generally lacked the integrity of his later works. Jeyamohan remarks that Raj Gauthaman should primarily be known as one of the three stalwarts of Tamil literary history studies. Dalit Paarvaiyil Tamil Panpaadu (1994) argues that analyzed carefully from below, mainstream Tamil culture reveals itself, not as a unified expression of Tamil achievement, but as comprising heterogeneous strands.

In Karl Marx's critique of political economy and subsequent Marxian analyses, the capitalist mode of production refers to the systems of organizing production and distribution within capitalist societies. Private money-making in various forms (renting, banking, merchant trade, production for profit and so on) preceded the development of the capitalist mode of production as such. The capitalist mode of production proper, based on wage-labour and private ownership of the means of production and on industrial technology, began to grow rapidly in Western Europe from the Industrial Revolution, later extending to most of the world.Duncan Foley and Gérard Duménil, 2008.

In 2010 he published Capitalism Hits the Fan: The Global Economic Meltdown and What to Do About It, also released on DVD. In 2012 he released three new books: Occupy the Economy: Challenging Capitalism, with David Barsamian (San Francisco: City Lights Books), Contending Economic Theories: Neoclassical, Keynesian, and Marxian, with Stephen Resnick (Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT University Press), and Democracy at Work (Chicago: Haymarket Books). In 2019 he released his book Understanding Marxism (Democracy at Work). name/Rampell> Wolff hosts the weekly 30-minute-long program Economic Update, which is produced by the non- profit Democracy at Work, which he co-founded.

This dualist logic is clearly present in the Marxian theory of ideology, according to which social reality may be very different from its empirically observable surface appearance. Notably, Alex Callinicos has argued for a 'critical realist' ontology in the philosophy of social science and explicitly acknowledges Bhaskar's influence (while also rejecting the latter's 'spiritualist turn' in his later work).Callinicos, A. (2006), The Resources of Critique, Cambridge, Polity, pp.155-158 The relationship between critical realist philosophy and Marxism has also been discussed in an article co- authored by Bhaskar and Callinicos and published in the Journal of Critical Realism.

"Economic relations of men determine social associations of men" he said in his Marxian economics class. Dobb believed the capitalist system created classes, and with class comes class warfare. After his 1925 trip to Russia with Keynes, Dobb refrained slightly from his interests of political conflict; he was notorious for long and dull lectures with fewer attendees each class. Other positions held by Dobb around 1928 include teaching in a summer school, acting as the Chairman of the Faculty of Economics of the Communist Party of Great Britain, and even helping to launch the party's own film company.

The Feldman–Mahalanobis model is a Neo-Marxian model of economic development, created independently by Soviet economist Grigory Feldman in 1928 (Translated version) and Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953. Mahalanobis became essentially the key economist of India's Second Five Year Plan, becoming subject to much of India's most dramatic economic debates. The essence of the model is a shift in the pattern of industrial investment towards building up a domestic consumption goods sector. Thus the strategy suggests in order to reach a high standard in consumption, investment in building a capacity in the production of capital goods is firstly needed.

Critics have seen Marxist allusions in the band's lyrics, and have gone so far as to call the band members themselves Marxist. Music journalist Simon Reynolds commented that Sadier's lyrics tend to lean towards Marxist social commentary rather than "affairs of the heart". The 1994 single "Ping Pong" has been put forward as evidence in regard to these alleged views. In the song, Sadier sings "about capitalism's cruel cycles of slump and recovery" with lyrics that constitute "a plainspoken explanation of one of the central tenets of Marxian economic analysis" (said critics Reynolds and Stewart Mason, respectively).

" He promised to use them to replace striking workers, but never carried out that threat.Brecher, 126-7 Meanwhile the national leadership of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and international leaders of some of the Seattle locals recognized how inflammatory the general strike was proving in the eyes of the American public and Seattle's middle class. Press and political reaction made the general strike untenable, and they feared Seattle labor would lose gains made during the war if it continued.Brecher, 127-8; Murray, 64 The national press called the general strike "Marxian" and "a revolutionary movement aimed at existing government.

All factions of the Socialist Party of America were supportive of the overthrown revolutionary government in Finland, it should be noted, although the events there served to energize adherents of revolutionary methods. In July 1919, the Finnish Socialist Federation, headed by Translator-Secretary Henry Askeli, issued a proclamation calling for affiliation of the SPA to the Communist International and demanding "the renewal of the program of the American Socialist Party," calling on it to "reject the viewpoint of petty bourgeois socialism" and demanding that it adopt "Marxian revolutionary socialism.""Finnish Socialist Federation Endorses Left Wing Program," The Ohio Socialist, July 16, 1919, pg. 3.

MacDonald released a new political programme for the party titled Labour and the Nation (1928). Labour returned to government in 1929, but it soon had to deal with the economic catastrophe of the stock market crash of 1929. Rudolf Hilferding, a major figure and policymaker in the Social Democratic Party of Germany and the Czechoslovak Sopade In the 1920s, SPD policymaker and Marxist Rudolf Hilferding proposed substantial policy changes in the SPD as well as influencing social-democratic and socialist theory. Hilferding was an influential Marxian socialist both inside the social democratic movement and outside, with his pamphlet titled Imperialism influencing Lenin's own conception of imperialism in the 1910s.

In Western Europe, the prominent Italian Communist Party transformed itself into the post-communist Democratic Party of the Left in 1991. Bill Clinton and Tony Blair, supporters of the Third Way In the 1990s, the ideology of the Third Way developed and many social democrats became adherents of it. The Third Way has been advocated by its proponents as an alternative to capitalism and what it regards as the traditional forms of socialism (Marxian socialism and state socialism) which Third Way social democrats reject. It officially advocates ethical socialism, reformism and gradualism which includes advocating a humanized version of capitalism, a mixed economy, political pluralism and liberal democracy.

In 1929 the Communist Academy in Moscow published "The Capitalist Cycle: An Essay on the Marxist Theory of the Cycle", a 1927 report by Bolshevik theoretician Pavel Maksakovsky to the seminar on the theory of reproduction at the Institute of Red Professors of the Communist Academy. This work explains the connection between crises and regular business cycles based on the cyclical dynamic disequilibrium of the reproduction schemes in volume 2 of "Capital". This work rejects the various theories elaborated by "Marxian" academics. In particular it explains that the collapse in profits following a boom and crisis is not the result of any long term tendency but is rather a cyclical phenomenon.

Second-generation Austrian economist Eugen Böhm von Bawerk used praxeological and subjectivist methodology to attack the law of value fundamentally. Gottfried Haberler has regarded his criticism as "definitive", arguing that Böhm-Bawerk's critique of Marx's economics was so "thorough and devastating" that he believes that as of the 1960s no Marxian scholar had conclusively refuted it. Third-generation Austrian Ludwig von Mises rekindled debate about the economic calculation problem by arguing that without price signals in capital goods, in his opinion all other aspects of the market economy are irrational. This led him to declare that "rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth".

It is often claimed that he developed many of the same ideas as John Maynard Keynes before Keynes, but he remains much less known to the English-speaking world. He offered a synthesis that integrated Marxist class analysis and the new literature on oligopoly theory, and his work had a significant influence on both the neo-Marxian (Monopoly Capital) and post- Keynesian schools of economic thought. He was one of the first macroeconomists to apply mathematical models and statistical data to economic questions. Being also a political economist and a person of leftist convictions, Kalecki emphasized the social aspects and consequences of economic policies.

Schumpeter devotes the first 56 pages of the book to an analysis of Marxian thought and the place within it for entrepreneurs. Noteworthy is the way that Schumpeter points out the difference between the capitalist and the entrepreneur, a distinction that he claims Marx would have been better served to make (p. 52). The analysis of Marx is broken down into four roles that Schumpeter ascribes to the writer (prophet, sociologist, economist, and teacher). The section Marx the Prophet explains that if nothing else Marx would have been received well by people who needed a theory to explain what was happening in their society.

Joseph Stalin and Vladimir Lenin Despite the Marxian basis of Vladimir Lenin's socialism, the realities of his system were in direct opposition to Karl Marx's belief in the emancipation and autonomy of the working class. Those contradictions stemmed primarily from Lenin's implementation of a vanguard or regimented party of committed revolutionaries "who knew exactly what history's mandate was and who were prepared to be its self-ordained custodians". The function of this party was meant to be primarily transitional, given that Lenin believed that the working class was politically unprepared for rule and Russia was not yet industrially poised for socialism. Lenin adopted state-capitalist policies.

Referring to directors Robert Florey and Joseph Santley, Groucho Marx remarked, "One of them didn't understand English and the other didn't understand Harpo." As was common in the early days of sound film, to eliminate the sound of the camera motors the cameras and the cameramen were enclosed in large soundproof booths with glass fronts to allow filming, hence the largely static camera work. For many years, Marxian legend had it that Florey, who had never seen the Marxes' work before, was put in the soundproof booth because he could not contain his laughter at the brothers' spontaneous antics.Paul D. Zimmerman, The Marx Brothers At The Movies.

Paul A. Cohen's Discovering History in China critiques Feuerwerker's point of view.Paul Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York, London:: Columbia University Press, 1984 2010, with a New Introduction by the Author), pp. 79–80. Feuerwerker returned to this theme in his Presidential Address to the Association for Asian Studies, "Presidential Address: Questions About China's Early Modern Economic History That I Wish I Could Answer," Journal of Asian Studies 51.4 (1992): 757–769. His criticisms and analysis of Marxist historiography of China are represented in articles such as "China's History in Marxian Dress," The American Historical Review 66.2 (1961): 323–353.

10 However, to a large degree Phillips' interpretive model of the dynamic between master and slave was revived by Eugene Genovese, who wrote that Phillips's "work, taken as a whole, remains the best and most subtle introduction to antebellum Southern history and especially to the problems posed by race and class."Genovese, In Red and Black: Marxian Explorations in Southern and Afro-American History (1971) 275-76 In 1963, C. Vann Woodward wrote: "Much of what Phillips wrote has not been superseded or seriously challenged and remains indispensable."Woodward, "Introduction" to 1963 edition of Life and Labor in the Old South page v. Phillips denied he was proslavery.

In this context, "capital" is defined as money or a financial asset invested for the purpose of making more money (whether in the form of profit, rent, interest, royalties, capital gain or some other kind of return). In mainstream economics, accounting and Marxian economics, capital accumulation is often equated with investment of profit income or savings, especially in real capital goods. The concentration and centralisation of capital are two of the results of such accumulation. In modern macroeconomics and econometrics, the phrase "capital formation" is often used in preference to "accumulation", though the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) refers nowadays to "accumulation".

This argument is intertwined with Marx' version of the labor theory of value arguing that labor is the source of all value and thus of profit. In Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), Vladimir Lenin further developed Marxist theory and argued that capitalism necessarily led to monopoly capitalism and the export of capital—which he also called "imperialism"—to find new markets and resources, representing the last and highest stage of capitalism. Some 20th century Marxian economists consider capitalism to be a social formation where capitalist class processes dominate, but are not exclusive.See, for example, the works of Stephen Resnick and Richard Wolff.

However, For Marx has attracted criticism from both anti-Marxists, such as the philosopher Roger Scruton, and from Marxist theorists, such as the Marxian economist Harry Cleaver. According to the philologist Sebastiano Timpanaro, the Marxist Italian philosopher Cesare Luporini, despite his largely favorable view of Althusser, commented that Althusser's anti-humanism, "manifests itself in a tendency to make man disappear as much as possible from the framework of the so-called human sciences." 'For Marx'-bubble: Wikidata SPARQL-query regarding editions of Althusser's For Marx Scruton maintains that For Marx is poorly written and obscure. Scruton criticizes Althusser for employing technical terms without explaining them.

As a moderate diffusionist, Childe was heavily critical of the "Marrist" trend in Soviet archaeology, based on the theories of the Georgian philologist Nicholas Marr, which rejected diffusionism in favour of unilinear evolutionism. In his view, it "cannot be un-Marxian" to understand the spread of domesticated plants, animals, and ideas through diffusionism. Childe did not publicly air these criticisms of his Soviet colleagues, perhaps so as not to offend communist friends or to provide ammunition for right-wing archaeologists. Instead, he publicly praised the Soviet system of archaeology and heritage management, contrasting it favourably with Britain's because it encouraged collaboration rather than competition between archaeologists.

In 1963, he published his magnum opus, Dialectics of the Concrete, a re-working of Marxian categories in terms of humanist phenomenology, which earned him an international reputation as a leading philosopher of humanist Marxism. During the "Prague Spring" of 1968, Kosík became a leading voice for democratic socialism (a distinction he shared with other prominent Marxist humanists like Ivan Sviták and Robert Kalivoda). This political engagement led to Kosík's dismissal from university work in 1970, after the period of democratization had ended. He remained unemployed until 1990, when he returned to public intellectual life as one of Central Europe's few prominent leftist social critics.

Many critics, both non-Marxist and some Marxist philosophers, feel that this is too quick a dismissal of the post-Marxian philosophical tradition. Much sophisticated and important thought has taken place after the writing of Marx and Engels; much or perhaps even all of it has been influenced, subtly or overtly, by Marxism. Simply dismissing all philosophy as sophistry might condemn Marxism to a simplistic empiricism or economism, crippling it in practice and making it comically simplistic at the level of theory. Nonetheless, the force of Marx's opposition to Hegelian idealism and to any "philosophy" divorced from political practice remains powerful even to a contemporary reader.

He criticized Kołakowski for ignoring and neglecting important elements in Marxian economics, such as Paul Sweezy's revival of the work of Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz in The Theory of Capitalist Development (1942). He also thought that there were several other subjects which Kołakowski could have given greater attention, including "the controversies over Soviet economic policy in the 1920s". He considered Kołakowski's bibliography excellent, though he was surprised at the exclusion of the philosopher H. B. Acton's The Illusion of the Epoch (1955) and the philosopher Karl Popper's The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945). He praised the quality of Kołakowski's writing, as well as that of its translation.

258–260 One debate in Marxian economics concerns the question of whether the product-values formed and traded include both direct and indirect labour, or whether these product-values refer only to current average production costs (or the value of current average replacement costs). Mirowski (1989) for example accuses Marx of vacillating between a field theory (labour-time currently socially necessary) and a substance theory of value (embodied labour-time). This kind of criticism is due to a confusion of the process of labour in general (adding use to a product, which under capitalism equates adding value to a commodity) with the task of quantifying the exchange value added.

Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution has been praised by authors such as the political scientist David McLellan, who described the book as a "splendidly detailed discussion aiming to show that Marx was always right". The book received positive reviews from Mark P. Maller in Library Journal, the economist Robert Heilbroner in The New York Review of Books, The Political Quarterly, Raphael De Kadt in Political Studies, and the Marxian economist Rick Kuhn in the Australian Journal of Political Science. It received a negative review from David Felix in The American Historical Review. Maller described the work as "helpful and well- written" and less biased than many other books about Marx.

It is a theological and political theory based upon the view that the teachings of Jesus Christ compel Christians to support communism as the ideal social system. Although there is no universal agreement on the exact date when Christian communism was founded, many Christian communists assert that evidence from the Bible suggests that the first Christians, including the Apostles, created their own small communist society in the years following Jesus' death and resurrection. Advocates of Christian communism argue that it was taught by Jesus and practiced by the Apostles themselves. Contemporary communism, including contemporary Christian communism, owes much to Marxist thought—particularly Marxian economics.

Theory of Imperialism concerns the global systemic outcomes of the tendency for the rate of profit to fall in the capitalist system, and the objective impact of the consequences of those dynamics, and counter-tendencies in the world economy which are now generally associated with Marxian economics.Lenin V.I. [1916] Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism Marxists.org, retrieved 2016-11-23 As such it is often considered distinct and differentiated from the history of imperialism that extends through earlier historic periodsRobert Ligston Schuyler, The Rise of Anti-Imperialism in England in Political Science Quarterly (vol. 37 no. 3) September 1922 pp 440–471 and economic formations.

Doubleday) Adversary in the House (1947) is a biographical novel based on the life of prominent socialist Eugene V. Debs and of his wife Kate, who was opposed to socialism.Kate Debs seemed to have been so hostile to Debs's socialist activities - it threatened her sense of middle-class respectability - that novelist Irving Stone was led to call her, in the title of his fictional portrayal of the life of Debs, the Adversary in the House. (Daniel Bell, Marxian Socialism in the United States, footnote on page 88) The book is Irving Stone's portrayal of Eugene V. Debs's "tempestuous relationship with a wife who rejects the very values he holds most dear".

In Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942), Joseph Schumpeter developed the concept out of a careful reading of Marx's thought (to which the whole of Part I of the book is devoted), arguing (in Part II) that the creative-destructive forces unleashed by capitalism would eventually lead to its demise as a system (see below). Despite this, the term subsequently gained popularity within mainstream economics as a description of processes such as downsizing in order to increase the efficiency and dynamism of a company. The Marxian usage has, however, been retained and further developed in the work of social scientists such as David Harvey, Marshall Berman, Manuel Castells. and Daniele Archibugi..

William Paul Cockshott (born 16 March 1952) is a Scottish computer scientist, Marxian economist and a reader at the University of Glasgow. He has made contributions in the fields of image compression, 3D television, parallel compilers and medical imaging, but became known to a wider audience for his proposals in the multi-disciplinary area of economic computability, most notably as co-author, along the economist Allin Cottrell, of the book Towards a New Socialism, in which they strongly advocate the use of cybernetics for efficient and democratic planning of a complex socialist economy.Allin Cottrell & W.Paul Cockshott, Towards a new socialism (Nottingham, England: Spokesman, 1993). Retrieved: 17 March 2012.

Other prominent analytical Marxists include the economist John Roemer, the social scientist Jon Elster, and the sociologist Erik Olin Wright. The work of these later philosophers have furthered Cohen's work by bringing to bear modern social science methods, such as rational choice theory, to supplement Cohen's use of analytic philosophical techniques in the interpretation of Marxian theory. Cohen himself would later engage directly with Rawlsian political philosophy to advance a socialist theory of justice that contrasts with both traditional Marxism and the theories advanced by Rawls and Nozick. In particular, he indicates Marx's principle of from each according to his ability, to each according to his need.

According to Dieterich, this form of socialism is revolutionary in that the existing society is altered to be qualitatively different, but the process itself should be gradual and non-violent, instead utilising participatory democracy to secure power, education, scientific knowledge about society and international cooperation. Dieterich suggests the construction of four basic institutions within the new reality of post-capitalist civilisation: # Equivalence economy based on Marxian labor theory of value and democratically determined by those who directly create value instead of market-economical principles. # Majority democracy which makes use of referendums to decide upon important societal questions. # Basic state democracy with a suitable protection of minority rights.

Kōtoku's imprisonment only gave him further opportunities to read leftist literature, such as Peter Kropotkin's Fields, Factories and Workshops, and he claimed in August 1905 that "Indeed, I had gone [to prison] as a Marxian Socialist and returned as a radical Anarchist." He decided to leave Japan due to its restrictions on freedom of speech, and travelled to the United States in November 1905, where he lived until June 1906. While in America, he spent most of his time in California, and his ideology further shifted towards anarchism. He wrote to the anarcho-communist Kropotkin, who gave him permission to translate his works into Japanese.

However, Bismark's State Socialism was based upon Romantic political thought in which the state was supreme and carried out Bismarck's agenda of supporting "the protest of collectivism against individualism" and of "nationality against cosmopolitanism" and stated that "the duty of the State is to maintain and promote the interests, the well-being of the nation as such". The academic equivalent of Bismarck's State Socialism at the time was the Kathedersozialismus of Adolph Wagner and Gustav Schmoller. Schmoller was an opponent of both liberalism and Marxian proletarian socialism. Wagner had originally been a Manchester liberal, but he had developed into a far- right conservative and antisemite.

This the government can do in two ways, firstly by increasing the money supply (expansionary monetary policy) and secondly by increasing government spending or cutting taxes (expansionary fiscal policy). By contrast, some economists, notably New classical economist Robert Lucas, argue that the welfare cost of business cycles are very small to negligible, and that governments should focus on long-term growth instead of stabilization. However, even according to Keynesian theory, managing economic policy to smooth out the cycle is a difficult task in a society with a complex economy. Some theorists, notably those who believe in Marxian economics, believe that this difficulty is insurmountable.

The empirical criticism is that Marx's law of value contradicts the known facts about the allocation of resources in capitalist society. The main empirical criticism is simply that there is no observable quantitative correspondence at all between changes in relative expenditures of labour-time, and changes in relative market prices of products, however measured (the measures are also contested, for example on the ground that qualitatively different kinds of labour cannot be compared and equated).Shane Mage, "The Law of the Falling Tendency of the Rate of Profit; Its Place in the Marxian Theoretical System and Relevance to the US Economy". Phd Thesis, Columbia University, 1963 (available from Scribd).

The transnational capitalist class (TCC), also known as the transnational capitalist network (TCN), in neo-Gramscian and Marxian-influenced analyses of international political economy and globalization, is the global social stratum that controls supranational instruments of the global economy such as transnational corporations and heavily influences political organs such as the World Trade Organization. Up until 1960s capitalist class was studied mostly within the national context. Study from 1974 titled Global Reach: The Power of the Multinational Corporation by Ronald E. Muller and Richard Barnet started the discussion about multinational corporations and to what authors referred as “international corporate elite.”Robinson, William I. and Sprague, Jeb. (2018) .

Some economists strongly influenced by the Marxian tradition such as Oskar Lange, Włodzimierz Brus, and Michał Kalecki have attempted to integrate the insights of classical political economy, marginalism, and neoclassical economics. They believed that Marx lacked a sophisticated theory of prices, and neoclassical economics lacked a theory of the social frameworks of economic activity. Some other Marxists have also argued that on one level there is no conflict between marginalism and Marxism as one could employ a marginalist theory of supply and demand within the context of a big picture understanding of the Marxist notion that capitalists exploit surplus labor.Steedman, Ian; Socialism & Marginalism in Economics, 1870–1930 (1995).

Göran Therborn in 2015 Göran Therborn FAcSS (23 September 1941, Kalmar, Sweden) is a professor of sociology at Cambridge University and is amongst the most highly cited contemporary Marxian-influenced sociologists. He has published widely in journals such as the New Left Review, and is notable for his writing on topics that fall within the general political and sociological framework of post-Marxism. Topics on which he has written extensively include the intersection between the class structure of society and the function of the state apparatus, the formation of ideology within subjects, and the future of the Marxist tradition. Therborn was awarded the 2019 Lenin Award.

The primary benefit of unemployment is that people are available for hire, without being headhunted away from their existing employers. That permits both new and old businesses to take on staff. Unemployment is argued to be "beneficial" to the people who are not unemployed in the sense that it averts inflation, which itself has damaging effects, by providing (in Marxian terms) a reserve army of labour, which keeps wages in check. However, the direct connection between full local employment and local inflation has been disputed by some because of the recent increase in international trade that supplies low-priced goods even while local employment rates rise to full employment.

In 2007 Kuczynski took part in the theatre project, "Karl Marx: Das Kapital - Erster Band" ("Karl Marx: Das Kapital - First volume"), a show presenting a range of experts, mostly not normally to be found on a theatre stage, from various political and business backgrounds, giving their perspectives on Marxian philosophy in general and on Das Kapital in particular. Kuczynski claims to eschew "-isms", but it is hard to avoid concluding that much of his academic work is undertaken through an appropriately updated Marxist prism. He is a member of the advisory council of the Bildungsgemeinschaft SALZ (Soziales, Arbeit, Leben & Zukunft), a left-of- centre think tank.

These authors argued that, whatever one might say of his interpretation of capitalism, Marx's "value" theory retains its usefulness as a tool to interpret pre-capitalist societies, because, they maintained, in pre-capitalist exchange economies there were no "prices of production" with a uniform rate of return (or "profit") on capital. It hence follows that Marx's transformation must have had a historical dimension, given by the actual transition to capitalist production (and no more Marxian "values") at the beginning of the modern era. In this case, this true "historical transformation" could and should take the place of the mathematical transformation postulated by Marx in chapter 9 of volume 3.

Marxian socialists argue that modern social democratic welfare policies are unable to solve the fundamental and structural issues of capitalism such as cyclical fluctuations, exploitation and alienation. Accordingly, social democratic programs intended to ameliorate the issues of capitalism—such as unemployment benefits and taxation on profits—create further contradictions in capitalism by limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system by reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production. As a result, the welfare state only serves to legitimize and prolong the exploitative and contradiction-laden system of capitalism to society's detriment.Market Socialism: The Debate Among Socialists, by Schweickart, David; Lawler, James; Ticktin, Hillel; Ollman, Bertell. 1998. pp. 60–61.

Bourgeois socialism or conservative socialism was a term used by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in various pieces, including in The Communist Manifesto. The Marxian view is such that the bourgeois socialist is the sustainer of the current state of bourgeois class relations. Opinions vary as to whether this or that bourgeois socialist intentionally is excusing the current order, but the common thread is that they are in objective fact preserving it. Rather than abolishing class divisions, they wish to simply raise everyone up to be a member of the bourgeoisie to allow everyone the ability to endlessly accumulate capital without a working class.

In some interpretations of the Marxian transformation problem, total "(production) prices" for output must equal total "values" by definition, and total profits must by definition equal total surplus value. However, Marx himself explicitly denied in chapter 49 of the third volume of Das Kapital that such an exact mathematical identity actually applies. As soon as synchronic and diachronic variability in labour productivity is admitted, then the two famous identities cannot be true even in theory.Karl Marx, Capital, Volume III, Penguin 1981, pp. 971-972. Subsequently, Frederick Engels emphasized in this regard that an idealization of reality is not the same thing as reality itself, in a letter to Conrad Schmidt dated March 12, 1895.

Brafman became more than a singular writer. He was simply the first in a new field. Hal Draper, an American Trotskyist, in his book Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution claimed that Mikhail Bakunin, one of the Russian founding figures of anarchism, was likely inspired by Brafman's writings on Jews. In the case of Bakunin, in a letter written in December 1871, he made the claim that Jews were a "collective parasite", and claimed that "this world is presently, at the disposal of Marx on the one hand and the Rothschild family on the other," putting a conspiratorial spin on this theme as part of his rivalry with the Marxian socialists of the International Workingmen's Association.

However he provided no specific calculus by which the value of skilled work could be expressed as a multiple of unskilled work, nor a theory of what regulates the valuation of skill differences. This has led to some theoretical debate among Marxian economists, but no definitive solution has yet been given. In the first volume of Das Kapital Marx had declared his intention to write a special study of the forms of labour- compensation, but he never did so. In contemporary society, a division is emerging between creative, skilled and specialized jobs attracting extraordinarily large salaries, and routine jobs paying very low salaries, where the enormous differences in pay rates are difficult to explain.

John Huston directed the film between two box office successes: Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) and The Asphalt Jungle (1950). We Were Strangers was released in April 1949 and received mixed reviews. In The New York Times, Bosley Crowther praised the physical and psychological realism of the conspirators, but he disliked Jennifer Jones' performance and missed a central romance: "the real emotional tinder which is scattered within this episode is never swept into a pyramid and touched off with a quick, explosive spark". Reviews in Time and Collier's were more positive, but The Hollywood Reporter denounced its politics: "a shameful handbook of Marxian dialectics ... the heaviest dish of Red theory ever served to an audience outside the Soviet".

Due to political instability in the country, the School was divided in the North School based in Marxian economics and the South School based in Keynesian economics. He remained the Director of the Keynesian School until the end of 1973. In January 1971 President Allende sent him for two months to visit 17 countries to research the possible technical collaboration to his government; including a new port in Talcahuano and the factory of bearings offered by Russia. At the beginning of 1974, he was appointed Undersecretary of Regional Planning, where he was in charge of the Physical and Administrative Regionalization of Chile, originating the Development Regional Fund and the Codecos and Coderes.

In Marxian economics, the rate of accumulation is defined as the value of the real net increase in the stock of capital in an accounting period and the proportion of realised surplus-value or profit-income which is reinvested, rather than consumed. This rate can be expressed by means of various ratios between the original capital outlay, the realised turnover, surplus-value or profit and reinvestments (e.g. the writings of the economist Michał Kalecki). Other things being equal, the greater the amount of profit-income that is disbursed as personal earnings and used for consumptive purposes, the lower the savings rate and the lower the rate of accumulation is likely to be.

To these thinkers, capitalist class processes are simply those in which surplus labor takes the form of surplus value, usable as capital; other tendencies for utilization of labor nonetheless exist simultaneously in existing societies where capitalist processes predominate. However, other late Marxian thinkers argue that a social formation as a whole may be classed as capitalist if capitalism is the mode by which a surplus is extracted, even if this surplus is not produced by capitalist activity as when an absolute majority of the population is engaged in non-capitalist economic activity. In Limits to Capital (1982), David Harvey outlines an overdetermined, "spatially restless" capitalism coupled with the spatiality of crisis formation and resolution.David Harvey.

Twenty years in the writing, the book showed Faber's admiration for Dickens' prose and George Eliot's narrative architecture, but its themes were informed by feminism, post-Freudian awareness of sexual pathology, and post-Marxian class analysis, as well as by unrestricted access to Victorian pornographic texts that had been suppressed until the late 20th century. The Crimson Petal and the White was a bestseller in the US, Italy, France, Holland and Belgium, and a steady seller in most other countries. Faber's second collection of short stories The Fahrenheit Twins was published in 2005. Its opening story, "The Safehouse", won second place in the inaugural National Short Story Prize (since renamed the BBC National Short Story Award) in 2005.

Born into a traditional Nasrani family in Kodikulam, Travancore, during the British Raj, Kappen entered the Society of Jesus at the age of 20 (in 1944), and was ordained a priest on 24 March 1957. He pursued studies at the Gregorian University (Rome), obtaining a doctorate in Theology (1961) with a thesis on Religious Alienation and Praxis according to Marx's Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844. This was a time when Marxism was growing in influence in his home state of Kerala, in India. Away from scholasticism and its essentialism, he found in Marxian tools of social analysis effective instruments to understand the people's alienation from freedom and loss of ability to contribute to the wellbeing of society.

Land ownership, in the sense of political economy, could refer to ownership over any natural phenomena, including air rights, water rights, drilling rights, or spectrum rights. Classicals like John Stuart Mill were also concerned about monopolies, both natural monopolies and artificial monopolies, and didn't consider their incomes to be entirely earned. In Marxian economics and related schools, unearned income originates from the surplus value produced by an economy, where "surplus value" refers to value beyond what is needed for subsistence. As such, individuals and groups who subsist on unearned income are characterized as being in an exploitative relationship because the unearned income they receive is not generated by their effort or contribution (hence why their income is "unearned").

According to George Stigler, "Economists working in the Marxian-Sraffian tradition represent a small minority of modern economists, and that their writings have virtually no impact upon the professional work of most economists in major English-language universities". In a review of the first edition of The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, Robert Solow criticized it for overemphasizing the importance of Marxism in modern economics: > Marx was an important and influential thinker, and Marxism has been a > doctrine with intellectual and practical influence. The fact is, however, > that most serious English-speaking economists regard Marxist economics as an > irrelevant dead end. A 2006 nationally representative survey of American professors found 3% of them identify as Marxists.

In 1974 he became a professor at the Institute of Advanced Studies at the Australian National University in Canberra, heading the Department of Anthropology from 1976. In 1990 he moved to McGill University in Montreal. In 1974 he wrote a famous article, one of around a hundred published over the course of his career, defining and specifying a view of culture inspired by linguistics and Marxian thinking. He also wrote several books, and is perhaps best known among students of anthropology as the author of Cultural Anthropology: A Contemporary Perspective, regarded as one of the most authoritative general introductory works on the subject.Maranda, Pierre (1993)In Memoriam Roger M, Keesing (1935-1993) Journal de la Société des océanistes.

Political economy, where it isn't considered a synonym for economics, may refer to very different things. From an academic standpoint, the term may reference Marxian economics, applied public choice approaches emanating from the Chicago school and the Virginia school. In common parlance, "political economy" may simply refer to the advice given by economists to the government or public on general economic policy or on specific economic proposals developed by political scientists. A rapidly growing mainstream literature from the 1970s has expanded beyond the model of economic policy in which planners maximize utility of a representative individual toward examining how political forces affect the choice of economic policies, especially as to distributional conflicts and political institutions.

The Unified Socialist Party (PSU) which included former Radical Pierre Mendès- France was in favour of autogestión or self-management.LIP, l'imagination au pouvoir, article by Serge Halimi in Le Monde diplomatique, 20 March 2007 . In the Basque Country of Spain, the Mondragon Cooperative Corporation represents perhaps the longest lasting and most successful example of workers' self- management in the world. It has been touted by a diverse group of people such as the Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff and the research book Capital and the Debt Trap by Claudia Sanchez Bajo and Bruno Roelants as an example of how the economy can be organized on an alternative to the capitalist mode of production.

To understand this concept, Wacquant argues for a single analytical frame unifying expansive 'prisonfare' and attenuating workfare, resulting in a deepening marginalisation and social and political subordination of stigmatized and defamed 'surplus' populations. Inspired by Bourdieu, Wacquant analyzes the structural constraints and consequences, but like Bourdieu endeavours to provide a more nuanced analysis than, for example, a reductionist Marxian economic analysis (cf. Rusche and Kirchheimer's Punishment and Social Structure, referenced by Wacquant in his Punishing the Poor (2009)). The ghetto and the prison are now locked in a whirlpool, when it is no longer clear which is the egg and which is the chicken: the two look the same and have the same function (p. 115).

In Marxian economics, the rate of accumulation is defined as (1) the value of the real net increase in the stock of capital in an accounting period, (2) the proportion of realized surplus-value or profit- income which is reinvested, rather than consumed. This rate can be expressed by means of various ratios between the original capital outlay, the realized turnover, surplus-value or profit and reinvestment's (see, e.g., the writings of the economist Michał Kalecki). Other things being equal, the greater the amount of profit-income that is disbursed as personal earnings and used for consumption purposes, the lower the savings rate and the lower the rate of accumulation is likely to be.

Of course, in reality it could be that real ("economic") depreciation diverges from depreciation for tax purposes. In that case, the reported consumption of fixed capital could contain an element of undistributed profit. Additionally, official national accounts may include in consumption of fixed capital the value of those insurance premiums, interest and rents paid from gross income, which relate directly to the acquisition or maintenance of productive fixed assets, on the ground that they are part of the cost of operating productive fixed assets. In Marxian economics, however, these flows would be regarded either as a faux frais of production, a circulating constant capital outlay, or an element of gross surplus value.

Trimberger departs from the Marxian theories of the state as simply the political "superstructure" on top of the economic "base", or the more substantive theory of "relatively autonomy" as described by Nicos Poulantzas. Instead, Trimberger has a theory of the state in which the state is more autonomous, with its actors acting without regard to dominant class interests. Trimberger sees the state as "relatively autonomous" when military and civil bureaucrats are not recruited from dominant classes and when they do not form social and economic ties with these classes after their ascension to high office. These state bureaucrats become "dynamically autonomous" during periods of crisis, in which they take measures to destroy the existing economic and class order.

An intensively productive scholar, Watts works on a variety of themes from African development to contemporary geopolitics, social movements and oil politics. As Tom Perrault notes, his work charted a "rigorous and wide-ranging theoretical engagement with Marxian political economy", with contributions to the development of political ecology, struggles over resources, and – more recently – how the politics of identity play out in the contemporary world. His first major study, Silent Violence, dealt with the effects of colonialism on the susceptibility of Northern Nigerians to food shortage and famine. Over the last decade he has continued to work in Nigeria, but on the political ecology of oil and the effect of oil exploitation on Ogoni people in the Niger delta.

He has honoured the memory of another victim of political persecution, Gu Zhun, whose unyielding character and pioneering attempts to revise Marxian economics in a market-oriented direction were for Wu a source of enlightenment. In the 1960s, Wu participated in a group led by economist Yu Guangyuan to write a textbook on political economy. The first economics textbook printed in China after 1949, the Political Economy Reader () was widely circulated and played a significant role in later economic reforms. Having called for China's opening up and celebrated its entry to the WTO, Wu was distressed by the side-effects of rapid growth: corruption, inequitable distribution, and crony capitalism (more often the "magnate capitalism" in Chinese).

Some proponents of redistribution argue that capitalism results in an externality that creates unequal wealth distribution.Marx, K. A. ,Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1977 Many economists have argued that wealth and income inequality are a cause of economic crises, and that reducing these inequalities is one way to prevent or ameliorate economic crises, with redistribution thus benefiting the economy overall. This view was associated with the underconsumptionism school in the 19th century, now considered an aspect of some schools of Keynesian economics; it has also been advanced, for different reasons, by Marxian economics. It was particularly advanced in the US in the 1920s by Waddill Catchings and William Trufant Foster.

Postone analyzed antisemitism against the Marxian notion of the dual character of the commodity category. And he observed that the characteristics that antisemitism attributes to Jews are the same as for value: abstraction, invisibility, automation, impersonal domination. Postone argued that the form of socialization under capitalism (the historically specific function of the spirit of labour under capitalism) makes it possible to separate the concrete (as socially "natural" sound, true, etc.). This opposition between the concrete and the abstract, determined by social forms, pervades all forms of subjectivity, and thus helps to understand a central feature of the National Socialist ideology, because this ideology was not fundamentally anti-modern and it would be wrong to label it as such.

Edward Lawrence (Ted) Wheelwright (1921–2007) was a notable Australian economist, radio host and anti-war activist who taught at the University of Sydney from 1952 until 1986.Stilwell, Frank Obituary: Ted Wheelwright, 1921–2007Stilwell, Frank. Political Economy: The contest of economic ideas, Oxford University Press (2006) He has written on Australian economic history, often from an institutionalist or Marxian perspective, and his published works have included the analysis of capitalism in Australian historyWheelwright E.L. & Buckley, K False Paradise: Australian Capitalism Revisited, 1915–1955, Oxford University Press (1998) and an analysis of the influence and development of transnational corporations.Crough, G. J., Wheelwright, E. L. Australia: client state of international capital: a case study of the mineral industry.

Joan Robinson in the 1920s In 1933, her book The Economics of Imperfect Competition, Robinson coined the term "monopsony," which is used to describe the buyer converse of a seller monopoly. Monopsony is commonly applied to buyers of labour, where the employer has wage setting power that allows it to exercise Pigouvian exploitation and pay workers less than their marginal productivity. Robinson used monopsony to describe the wage gap between women and men workers of equal productivity. In 1942, Robinson's An Essay on Marxian Economics famously concentrated on Karl Marx as an economist, helping to revive the debate on this aspect of his legacy. In 1956, Robinson published her magnum opus, The Accumulation of Capital, which extended Keynesianism into the long run.

This change he described was manifested in the change of laws in Britain that granted political changes in favour of the working class that the Chartist movement had demanded for years, arguing that they made a "near approach to 'universal suffrage,' at least such as it now exists in Germany". Sidney Webb, a prominent and influential leader within the Fabian socialist movement A major non-Marxian influence on social democracy came from the British Fabian Society. Founded in 1884 by Frank Podmore, it emphasized the need for a gradualist evolutionary and reformist approach to the achievement of socialism. The Fabian Society was founded as a splinter group from the Fellowship of the New Life due to opposition within that group to socialism.

The development of socialism under social democracy does not seek to rupture existing society and its cultural traditions, but rather to act as an enterprise of extension and growth. Furthermore, he believed that class cooperation was a preferable course to achieve socialism than class conflict. Bernstein responded to critics that he was not destroying Marxism and instead claimed he was modernizing it as it was required "to separate the vital parts of Marx's theory from its outdated accessories". He asserted his support for the Marxian conception of a "scientifically based" socialist movement and said that such a movement's goals must be determined in accordance with "knowledge capable of objective proof, that is, knowledge which refers to, and conforms with, nothing but empirical knowledge and logic".

He gives the example that attempts to reduce unemployment too much would result in inflation and too much job security would erode labour discipline. In contrast to social democracy's mixed economy, democratic socialists advocate a post-capitalist economic system based on either a market economy combined with workers' self-management, or on some form of participatory, decentralized planning of the economy. Marxian socialists argue that social- democratic welfare policies cannot resolve the fundamental structural issues of capitalism such as cyclical fluctuations, exploitation and alienation. Accordingly, social democratic programs intended to ameliorate living conditions in capitalism—such as unemployment benefits and taxation on profits—creates further contradictions by further limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system by reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production.

Leftists continue to criticize the perceived exploitative nature of globalization, the "race to the bottom" and unjust lay-offs and exploitation of workers. In the last quarter of the 20th century, the belief that the government (ruling in accordance with the interests of the people) ought to be directly involved in the day-to-day workings of an economy declined in popularity amongst the centre-left, especially social democrats who adopted the Third Way. Other leftists believe in Marxian economics, named after the economic theories of Karl Marx. Some distinguish Marx's economic theories from his political philosophy, arguing that Marx's approach to understanding the economy is independent of his advocacy of revolutionary socialism or his belief in the inevitability of a proletarian revolution.

Zaehner used a comparative-religion approach in his several discussions of Communism, both as philosophical- religious theory (discussed below),For dialectical materialism of Marx and Engels: section below. and here in its practical business running a sovereign state. In its ideological management of political and economic operations, Soviet party rule was sometimes said to demonstrate an attenuated resemblance to Catholic Church governance. Features in common included an authoritarian command structure (similar to the military), guided by a revered theory (or dogma), which was articulated in abstract principles and exemplars that could not be questioned.Zaehner, "A new Buddha and a new Tao", per section "Marxian communism and dialectical materialism" at 406-412; and his "Conclusion" 413-417, at 415-416, 417, in his Concise Encyclopedia (1967).

Helge Schneider as Karl Marx Alexander Kluge's News from Ideological Antiquity: Marx – Eisenstein – Das Kapital, is an experimental film which explores “the Marxian attention to the production, distribution and consumption at work behind the phenomenological surface of everyday life and experience.” The film is composed of what the Marxist critic Frederic Jameson calls "fragments", akin to "Freudian free association", rather than a conventional and linear narrative. Instead of representing Marx's book Capital, the film is therefore a study of the difficulty facing Eisenstein, or any other director, in trying to represent such a work and the ideas contained in it. Apart from the more conceptual passages in the film – whose overall running time is a lengthy 570 minutes – comedian Helge Schneider impersonates Marx in several scenes.

And we value things, price them, based on how much labor we can avoid or command, and we can command labor not only in a simple way but also by trading things for a profit. The demonstration of the relation between commodities' unit values and their respective prices is known in Marxian terminology as the transformation problem or the transformation of values into prices of production. The transformation problem has probably generated the greatest bulk of debate about the LTV. The problem with transformation is to find an algorithm where the magnitude of value added by labor, in proportion to its duration and intensity, is sufficiently accounted for after this value is distributed through prices that reflect an equal rate of return on capital advanced.

David Harvey expands the concept of "primitive accumulation" to create a new concept, "accumulation by dispossession", in his 2003 book, The New Imperialism. Like Mandel, Harvey claims that the word "primitive" leads to a misunderstanding in the history of capitalism: that the original, "primitive" phase of capitalism is somehow a transitory phase that need not be repeated once commenced. Instead, Harvey maintains that primitive accumulation ("accumulation by dispossession") is a continuing process within the process of capital accumulation on a world scale. Because the central Marxian notion of crisis via "over-accumulation" is assumed to be a constant factor in the process of capital accumulation, the process of "accumulation by dispossession" acts as a possible safety valve that may temporarily ease the crisis.

A socialist society, Marxian economists argue, also has a surplus product from an economic point of view, insofar as more is produced than is consumed. Nevertheless, the creation and distribution of the surplus product would begin to operate under different rules. In particular, how the new wealth is allocated would be decided much more according to popular-democratic and egalitarian principles, using a variety of property forms and allocative methods that have proved practically to correspond best to meeting the human needs of all. 20th century experience with economic management shows that there is a broad scala of possibilities here; if some options are chosen, and others not, this has more to do with who holds political power than anything else.

As ethical acts such as Israeli "peacenik" soldiers' solidarity with their Palestinian neighbors show, there are other alternatives to capitalism than fundamentalism or fascism; however, the current paradigm of the "end of history" and the "clash of civilizations" restricts the range of apparent conflicts to cultural or ethnic/religious ones, masking anything more fundamental, such as an economic conflict. The same displacement of socio-economic conflict that occurred under fascism is mirrored in the Israel-Palestinian conflict, the "symptomal knot" of all the economic and cultural logics of the contemporary world. In his rejection of binary ethical choices and predictive certainty, Žižek is certainly postmodernist, but the substance of his critique of responses to 9/11 is primarily Marxian and secondarily Lacanian.

The antecedents of ecological economics can be traced back to the Romantics of the 19th century as well as some Enlightenment political economists of that era. Concerns over population were expressed by Thomas Malthus, while John Stuart Mill predicted the desirability of the stationary state of an economy. Mill thereby anticipated later insights of modern ecological economists, but without having had their experience of the social and ecological costs of the Post–World War II economic expansion. In 1880, Marxian economist Sergei Podolinsky attempted to theorize a labor theory of value based on embodied energy; his work was read and critiqued by Marx and Engels. Otto Neurath developed an ecological approach based on a natural economy whilst employed by the Bavarian Soviet Republic in 1919.

Other figures include ecologists C.S. Holling and H.T. Odum, biologist Gretchen Daily, and physicist Robert Ayres. In the Marxian tradition, sociologist John Bellamy Foster and CUNY geography professor David Harvey explicitly center ecological concerns in political economy. Articles by Inge Ropke (2004, 2005) and Clive Spash (1999) cover the development and modern history of ecological economics and explain its differentiation from resource and environmental economics, as well as some of the controversy between American and European schools of thought. An article by Robert Costanza, David Stern, Lining He, and Chunbo Ma responded to a call by Mick Common to determine the foundational literature of ecological economics by using citation analysis to examine which books and articles have had the most influence on the development of the field.

Virgil Madgearu Virgil Traian N. Madgearu (; December 14, 1887 - November 27, 1940) was a Romanian economist, sociologist, and left-wing politician, prominent member and main theorist of the Peasants' Party and of its successor, the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ). He had an important activity as an essayist and journalist, being for long a member on the editorial board for the influential Viaţa Românească. Madgearu was a prominent opponent of the National Liberal Party for much of his life, developing an original theory that challenged both Liberal tenets and Marxian economics, proposing measures to enhance the political and economic roles of Romanian peasants. In his later years, he was involved in anti-fascist causes, and was one of several politicians to be assassinated by the Iron Guard.

The complete book is also critical of Marxian theory, which Goldman describes as "a cold, mechanistic, enslaving formula". After much back and forth with the publishers, the missing portions of Goldman's original manuscript were published in a second (American) volume My Further Disillusionment in Russia (also titled by the publisher) in 1924. In the preface to the second "volume" of the American edition, Goldman wryly observes that only two of the reviewers sensed the incompleteness of the original American version, one of whom was not a regular critic, but a librarian. A complete version of the complete manuscript was published in England with an introduction by Rebecca West, also with the title My Disillusionment in Russia (London: C. W. Daniel Company, 1925).

The intellectual leader of the group was Chris Pallis, whose pamphlets (written under the name Maurice Brinton) included Paris May 1968, The Bolsheviks and Workers' Control 1917-21 and 'The Irrational in Politics'.Now collected in a book, Maurice Brinton, For Workers' Power. Other key Solidarity writers were Andy Anderson (author of Hungary 1956), Ken Weller (who wrote several pamphlets on industrial struggles and oversaw the group's Motor Bulletins on the car industry), Joe Jacobs (Out of the Ghetto), John Quail (The Slow- Burning Fuse), Phil Mailer (Portugal:The Impossible Revolution) John King (The Political Economy of Marx, A History of Marxian Economics), George Williamson (writing as James Finlayson, Urban Devastation - The Planning of Incarceration), David Lamb (Mutinies) and Liz Willis (Women in the Spanish Revolution).

However, Ralph Miliband countered that Kolakowski had a flawed understanding of Marxism and its relation to Leninism and Stalinism. In Defence of Marx's Labour Theory of Value Economist Thomas Sowell wrote in 1985: > What Marx accomplished was to produce such a comprehensive, dramatic, and > fascinating vision that it could withstand innumerable empirical > contradictions, logical refutations, and moral revulsions at its effects. > The Marxian vision took the overwhelming complexity of the real world and > made the parts fall into place, in a way that was intellectually > exhilarating and conferred such a sense of moral superiority that opponents > could be simply labelled and dismissed as moral lepers or blind > reactionaries. Marxism was – and remains – a mighty instrument for the > acquisition and maintenance of political power.

Among Popper's conclusions was that Marxists used dialectic as a method of side-stepping and evading criticisms, rather than actually answering or addressing them: > Hegel thought that philosophy develops; yet his own system was to remain the > last and highest stage of this development and could not be superseded. The > Marxists adopted the same attitude towards the Marxian system. Hence, Marx's > anti-dogmatic attitude exists only in the theory and not in the practice of > orthodox Marxism, and dialectic is used by Marxists, following the example > of Engels' Anti-Dühring, mainly for the purposes of apologetics – to defend > the Marxist system against criticism. As a rule critics are denounced for > their failure to understand the dialectic, or proletarian science, or for > being traitors.

Ağaç, the writers of which included Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Ahmet Kutsi Tecer and Mustafa Şekip Tunç, decided to follow a spiritualist and idealist line on the contrary to the materialist and Marxian ideas supported by the writers such as Burhan Belge, Vedat Nedim Tör, Şevket Süreyya Aydemir and İsmail Husrev Tökin of closed Kadro magazine owned by Yakup Kadri and which influenced the intellectuals of the time greatly. Kısakürek later transferred to Ağaç (Tree) magazine published during six volumes in Ankara to İstanbul, however, unable to establish a viable reader base, the magazine was closed at the 17th volume. Necip Fazıl next began to publish the magazine called Büyük Doğu (Great East). Starting in 1943, the magazine was published intermittently as weekly, daily and monthly.

The Marxian economist Harry Cleaver wrote that Althusser and his co-authors provided one of the most politically influential of the philosophical reinterpretations of Das Kapital that were made by Marxists in the 1960s and 1970s. However, he considered their influence regrettable, writing that in For Marx and Reading Capital, Althusser's aim was to revitalize dialectical materialism "as an ideology to mediate the widely discredited political practices of the French Communist Party." He accused Althusser of ignoring working class struggles in favor of an abstract "science of history", and noted that Althusser himself admitted that Reading Capital largely ignored the class struggle. William S. Lewis described Reading Capital as the culmination of the rereading of Marx that Althusser began in 1953.

At the same time, Hitler also never voiced public support for the programme and many historians argue that he was in fact privately opposed to it. Hitler did not mention any of the planks of the programme in his book Mein Kampf and only talked about it in passing as "the so-called programme of the movement".Henry A. Turner, "German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler", Oxford University Press, 1985. p.77 Hitler called his political party "National Socialist", but he was clear to point out that his interpretation of socialism "has nothing to do with Marxian Socialism", saying that "Marxism is anti-property; true Socialism is not".Francis Ludwig Carsten, The Rise of Fascism, University of California Press, 1982, p. 137.

The key factor is the combination of private problems with public issues: the combination of troubles that occur within the individual's immediate milieu and relations with other people with matters that have to do with institutions of an historical society as a whole. Mills shares with Marxist sociology and other "conflict theorists" the view that American society is sharply divided and systematically shaped by the relationship between the powerful and powerless. He also shares their concerns for alienation, the effects of social structure on the personality, and the manipulation of people by elites and the mass media. Mills combined such conventional Marxian concerns with careful attention to the dynamics of personal meaning and small-group motivations, topics for which Weberian scholars are more noted.

In Italy he created the group Cantiere per il Bene Comune (Construction of the Common Good) together with Achille Occhetto, Paolo Sylos Labini, Elio Veltri, Antonello Falomi and Diego Novelli. In October 2004 I peggiori crimini del comunismo (The Worst Crimes of Communism) was published, co-written by him and the cartoonist Vauro, a biting satire which reveals the leftist past of some of the closest associates of the current Prime Minister of the time, Mr Silvio Berlusconi. In 2005 a book of interviews was issued, edited by Massimo Panarari, entitled Cronache Marxziane (Marxian Chronicles), translated a year later into Russian with the title Vostok-Zapad:Voinà Imperii. In the same year a collection of essays was published called Prima della tempesta (Before the Storm).

Theorists use a commodification framing in order to contest the perspectives of "market environmentalism," which sees marketization as a solution to environmental degradation. The environment has been a key site of conflict between proponents of the expansion of market norms, relations and modes of governance and those who oppose such expansion. Critics emphasize the contradictions and undesirable physical and ethical consequences brought about by the commodification of natural resources (as inputs to production and products) and processes (environmental services or conditions). Most researchers who employ a commodification of nature framing invoke a Marxian conceptualization of commodities as "objects produced for sale on the market"Polanyi, Karl (2001) The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time, Boston: Beacon Press. (p.

Wartime violence and the October 1917 Revolution in Russia proved a stimulant to revolutionary ideas, drawing members to these groups, leading to their formal affiliation during the summer Christmas holiday of 1918 as the New Zealand Marxian Association (NZMA). This group electing T. W. Feary as secretary of the organisation and in 1919 dispatched him and two others to North America to gain additional information on the revolutionary movement through the American and Canadian prism. Visiting the Pacific Coast cities of San Francisco and Vancouver, Feary and his co-thinkers obtained copies of a number of influential publications, including Ten Days That Shook the World, a participant's account of the October Revolution by John Reed, and The Soviets at Work, a widely reprinted pamphlet by Lenin.

Engels later remarked that the problem really was that much data relevant to testing Marx's concepts simply was not available. Subsequent Marxian scholars have argued the critique of political economy should continue, with regard to the new economic concepts and theories, rather than stop at the point where the ink dried on the last sheet of paper that Marx wrote on. One reason is that the new concepts and theories might distort the representation of economic reality, just as much as the old ones that Marx criticized. In the USSR and other Soviet-type societies, Marx's social accounting approach strongly influenced the Material Product System (MPS), a social accounting method alternative to GDP accounts, which distinguished sharply between "productive" and "non- productive" sectors of the economy.

The Marxist school of economic thought comes from the work of German economist alt=Photograph of Karl Marx facing the viewer Marxist (later, Marxian) economics descends from classical economics and it derives from the work of Karl Marx. The first volume of Marx's major work, Das Kapital, was published in German in 1867. In it, Marx focused on the labour theory of value and the theory of surplus value which, he believed, explained the exploitation of labour by capital.• • The labour theory of value held that the value of an exchanged commodity was determined by the labour that went into its production and the theory of surplus value demonstrated how the workers only got paid a proportion of the value their work had created.

Poulantzas provides a nuanced analysis of class structure in an era when the internationalisation of production systems (today "globalisation") was shifting power from labour to capitalist classes. In many areas, he foresaw the current debate on the critical Marxian language of class, bourgeoisie, and hegemony finds little echo in contemporary political science, where its positivism requires researchers to focus on putative measurable and objective entities. However, by placing class analysis at the center of political analysis, Poulantzas reminds us that theorists are political agents themselves and that accounts of the political world are suffused with the ambient ideology that they suppose themselves to bracket. The official think-tank of SYRIZA, a left-wing Greek political party, is called Nicos Poulantzas Institute.

Building on this assumption, neoclassical economics goes on to conclude a variety of important results such as that market activity is efficient, that free trade has net positive effects and that markets in which economic agents participate voluntarily make them better off. Notably, neoclassical economists—having made the assumption of voluntary exchange—deny the Marxist definition of the exploitation of labour as a possibility within neoclassically-defined capitalism. Marxian economics, one of the major alternatives to neoclassical economics, contends that the exploitation of labor is both possible and a definitional condition of the capitalist mode of production, among other modes of production. Mainstream economists have shown that voluntary exchanges are more conducive to economic efficiency than exchanges mandated by governments.

George Bernard Shaw date between 1900-1910 The Perfect Wagnerite: A Commentary on the Niblung's Ring (originally published London, 1898) is a philosophical commentary on Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen, by the Irish writer George Bernard Shaw. Shaw offered it to those enthusiastic admirers of Wagner who "were unable to follow his ideas, and do not in the least understand the dilemma of Wotan." According to Shaw: Shaw interprets the Ring in Marxian terms as an allegory of the collapse of capitalism from its internal contradictions. Musicologically, his interpretation is noteworthy for its perception of the change in aesthetic direction beginning with the final scene of Siegfried, in which he claimed that the cycle turns from Musikdrama back towards opera.

Gordon's work over the three decades since he began graduate study can be divided into three periods, during which he addressed different sets of issues. From the late 1960s to the late 1970s, often working in collaboration with Richard Edwards and Michael Reich, he focused on labor economics and in particular segmented labor markets. During the 1980s, he turned his attention to analysis of the long- term trajectory of the U.S. economy, working with Samuel Bowles and Thomas Weisskopf to develop an historical and institutional approach to macroeconomic analysis that would yield progressive economic policy proposals. Finally from the late 1980s through the mid-1990s, Gordon worked to develop a neo-Marxian model of the U.S. macroeconomy and brought to a conclusion his ongoing analysis of the implications of widespread bureaucratic supervision of American workplaces.

He joined the Socialist Party of Canada becoming involved in its left wing and was one of the founding members of the Communist Party of Canada and was elected to the Central Executive Committee at its founding convention May 1921 and was the first general secretary of the Workers' Party of Canada which was the legal wing of the underground Communist Party. He remained one of the leading members of the Communist Party throughout the 1920s and was elected to the executive of the Communist International in 1925. He was expelled from the party in 1930 as a supporter of the "Right Opposition", pro-Bukharin, Jay Lovestone current in the Comintern. He founded the Toronto-based Marxian Educational League which was a branch of Lovestone's Communist Party (Opposition) and the International Communist Opposition.

Part 3 in Socialism: Utopian and Scientific. > Then the capitalist mode of appropriation, in which the product enslaves > first the producer, and then the appropriator, is replaced by the mode of > appropriation of the products that is based upon the nature of the modern > means of production; upon the one hand, direct social appropriation, as > means to the maintenance and extension of production — on the other, direct > individual appropriation, as means of subsistence and of enjoyment. Marxian economics and its proponents view capitalism as economically unsustainable and incapable of improving the living standards of the population due to its need to compensate for falling rate of profit by cutting employees' wages and social benefits while pursuing military aggression. The socialist mode of production would succeed capitalism as humanity's mode of production through revolution by workers.

Aside from purely academic work, Struik also helped found the Journal of Science and Society, a Marxian journal on the history, sociology and development of science. In 1950 Struik published his Lectures on Classical Differential Geometry, which gained praise from Ian R. Porteous: :Of all the textbooks on elementary differential geometry published in the last fifty years the most readable is one of the earliest, namely that by D.J. Struik (1950). He is the only one to mention Allvar Gullstrand.Ian R. Porteous (2001) Geometric Differentiation, p 319, Cambridge University Press Struik's other major works include such classics as A Concise History of Mathematics (1948), Yankee Science in the Making, The Birth of the Communist Manifesto, and A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200–1800, all of which are considered standard textbooks or references.

Although faculties at such eminent universities as Heidelberg and Freiburg called him to chairs, the respective governments always vetoed this. Sombart, at that time, was an important Marxian, someone who used and interpreted Karl Marx — to the point that Friedrich Engels said he was the only German professor who understood Das Kapital. Sombart called himself a "convinced Marxist,". but later wrote that "It had to be admitted in the end that Marx had made mistakes on many points of importance."Werner Sombart (1896), Socialism and the Social System NY: Dutton and Sons, translated by M. Epstein, p. 87 As one of the German academics concerned with contemporary social policy, Sombart also joined the Verein für Socialpolitik (Social Policy Association) around 1888, together with his friend and colleague Max Weber.

The labor theory of value (LTV) is a theory of value that argues that the economic value of a good or service is determined by the total amount of "socially necessary labor" required to produce it. The LTV is usually associated with Marxian economics, although it also appears in the theories of earlier classical economics such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo and later also in anarchist economics. Smith saw the price of a commodity in terms of the labor that the purchaser must expend to buy it, which embodies the concept of how much labor a commodity, a tool for example, can save the purchaser. The LTV is central to Marxist theory, which holds that the working class is exploited under capitalism, and dissociates price and value.

Adherents of neoclassical economics, the mainstream school of economics, employ the theory of marginalism, which holds that the value of any good or service is measured by its price. While Marxian surplus value can't be measured, the utility of the "last" bought consumption good determined by its marginal utility, in satisfying a specific consumer's wants should therefore be concerned as a complete absolute essence, where politics, social constructions, ideologies and culture (such as the media, fashion, and consumerism) should be considered nonexistent. While Marx emphasizes profit maximisation (under the premise that a capitalist would only be concerned with profit), neoclassical economists view the maximisation of utility at the individual or societal level (i.e. in capitalism individuals are understood as altruist concerned solely in providing people with what they want).

If any of these conditions is not satisfied, the economy is eventually forced to either allow users to determine their own value in use using market prices (second economy, NEP) or deny the users "the right to assign goods a value in use". According to Dembinsky, many of the declaratively Marxian economies were effectively left with an open and crucial question on how to actually assess the labor value, which is not clearly answered in Marx works. Most of them applied an ideologically safe "average labor time" model, which had however considerable negative influence on effectiveness by "discouraging marginal productivity gains". Another criticism is that socially necessary labour time needs to be able to be measured as a homogenous unit of labour, which can then be added up.

Cheltenham, UK, Brookfield, US 1996.For the difference between wage workers and working animals or slaves confer: John R. Bell: Capitalism and the Dialectic - The Uno-Sekine Approach to Marxian Political Economy, p. 45. London, Pluto Press 2009 Albert Einstein, in his description of the LTV, argues similarly: "It is important to understand that even in theory the payment of the worker is not determined by the value of his product."Albert Einstein: "Why Socialism?". Originally published 1949 in Monthly Review Marx writes on this: “In the slave system, the money-capital invested in the purchase of labor-power plays the role of the money-form of the fixed capital, which is but gradually replaced as the active period of the slave’s life expires.”Karl Marx Capital, volume II, chapter XX. www.marxists.

Paul Auerbach and Dimitris Sotiropoulos have criticized the Lange model for degrading the definition of socialism to a form of "capitalism without capital markets" attempting to replicate capitalism's efficiency achievements through economic planning. Auerbach and Sotiropoulos argue that Friedrich Hayek provided an analysis of the dynamics of capitalism that is more consistent with Marxian economics' analysis because Hayek viewed finance as a fundamental aspect of capitalism and any move through collective ownership or policy reform to undermine the role of capital markets would threaten the integrity of the capitalist system. According to Auerbach and Sotiropoulos, Hayek gave an unexpected endorsement to socialism that is more sophisticated than Lange's superficial defense of socialism.Revisiting the Socialist Calculation Debate: The role of markets and finance in Hayek's response to Lange's challenge, by Auerbach, Paul and Sotiropoulos, Dimitris. 2012.

The neo-Ricardian school is an economic school that derives from the close reading and interpretation of David Ricardo by Piero Sraffa, and from Sraffa's critique of neoclassical economics as presented in his The Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities, and further developed by the neo- Ricardians in the course of the Cambridge capital controversy. It particularly disputes neoclassical theory of income distribution. Prominent neo-Ricardians are usually held to include Pierangelo Garegnani, Krishna Bharadwaj, Luigi Pasinetti, Joan Robinson, John Eatwell, Fernando Vianello, Murray Milgate, Ian Steedman, Heinz D. Kurz, Neri Salvadori, Bertram Schefold, Fabio Petri, Massimo Pivetti, Franklin Serrano, Fabio Ravagnani, Roberto Ciccone, Sergio Parrinello, Alessandro Roncaglia, Maurice Dobb, Gilbert Abraham-Frois, Theodore Mariolis and Giorgio Gilibert. The school partially overlaps with post-Keynesian and neo-Marxian economics.

The concept of surplus value originated in Ricardian socialism, with the term "surplus value" itself being coined by William Thompson in 1824. William Godwin and Charles Hall are also credited as earlier developers of the concept. Early authors also used the terms "surplus labor" and "surplus produce" (in Marx's language, surplus product), which have distinct meanings in Marxian economics: surplus labor produces surplus product, which has surplus value. Some authors consider Marx as completely borrowing from Thompson, notably Anton Menger: This claim of priority has been vigorously contested, notably in an article by Friedrich Engels, completed by Karl Kautsky and published anonymously in 1887, reacting to and criticizing Menger in a review of his The Right to the Whole Produce of Labour, arguing that there is nothing in common but the term "surplus value" itself.

However many scholars or writers defended USC in various ways. Poh Soo Kai (2010) argued the Club was labelled based on the shallow and oversimplified logic of "we were genuine and sincere so were communists then we were labelled as communists".He also defended this by giving numerous reasons including Lee Kuan Yew's friendship with Sydney Woodhull, the isolation of the club from political parties, their broad concept of socialism and the diverse ideologies under one consensus that is against western aggregation and imperialism and for civil rights and democracy (156-163). Loh argued that except for the initial year of the Club and the period of Tommy Koh's stewardess, the Club adopted a Marxian form of socialism, however, it was not a front for the MCP (Malaya Communist Party) (25).

Use value (German: Gebrauchswert) or value in use is a concept in classical political economy and Marxian economics. It refers to the tangible features of a commodity (a tradeable object) which can satisfy some human requirement, want or need, or which serves a useful purpose. In Karl Marx's critique of political economy, any product has a labor-value and a use-value, and if it is traded as a commodity in markets, it additionally has an exchange value, most often expressed as a money-price. Marx acknowledges that commodities being traded also have a general utility, implied by the fact that people want them, but he argues that this by itself tells us nothing about the specific character of the economy in which they are produced and sold.

For Marx, the economy based on production of commodities to be sold in the market is intrinsically prone to crisis. In the heterodox Marxian view, profit is the major engine of the market economy, but business (capital) profitability has a tendency to fall that recurrently creates crises in which mass unemployment occurs, businesses fail, remaining capital is centralized and concentrated and profitability is recovered. In the long run, these crises tend to be more severe and the system will eventually fail.Henryk Grossmann Das Akkumulations – und Zusammenbruchsgesetz des kapitalistischen Systems (Zugleich eine Krisentheorie), Hirschfeld, Leipzig, 1929 Some Marxist authors such as Rosa Luxemburg viewed the lack of purchasing power of workers as a cause of a tendency of supply to be larger than demand, creating crisis, in a model that has similarities with the Keynesian one.

The concrete utopia is Ernst Bloch's notion of homeland which he created in his main work "The Principle of Hope" (Das Prinzip Hoffnung) during his exile in the United States. Bloch, who opposed war in Wilhelmian Germany in 1914, who had to leave Nazi-Germany in the 1930s as he was a Marxian Jew and who was forced to emigrate from the German Democratic Republic in the 1950s, defines homeland as something beyond class society. That way he summarized "Thesen über Feuerbach" (theses about Feuerbach) by Karl Marx as follows: Based on this, Bernhard Schlink evoked once again reconstructive homeland as a utopia. This representation explicitly pushed the notion's part linked to the location away and considers homeland as "non-location": a feeling, a hope, a desire to experience - especially in exile.

Răileanu & Carassou, p. 11 suggesting that Leninist and Labor Zionist projects were economically unsound. Much admired by Emil Cioran for his rejection of all modern ideology, the poet argued that a critical distance imposed itself between artists and social structures, and, although he too reacted against "bourgeois" culture, concluded that communism carried a greater risk for the independent mind.Răileanu & Carassou, p. 46–52, 139 In particular, he objected to the Marxist theory on base and superstructure: although his planned address for the Writers' Congress spoke of Marxian economics as being justified by reality, it also argued that economic relationships could not be used to explain all historical developments. His critique of the Soviet Union as an equally "bourgeois" society also came with the argument that Futurism, not Surrealism, could transform into art the communist version of voluntarism.Răileanu & Carassou, p.

Leszek Kołakowski noted that while Bolsheviks (especially Lenin) were very much focused on the Marxian concept of "violent revolution" and dictatorship of the proletariat long before the October Revolution, implementation of the dictatorship was clearly defined by Lenin as early as in 1906, when he argued it must involve "unlimited power based on force and not on law", "absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever and based directly on violence". In The State and Revolution of 1917, Lenin once again reiterated the arguments raised by Marx and Engels calling for use of terror. Voices such as Kautsky calling for moderate use of violence met "furious reply" from Lenin in The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky (1918). Another theoretical and systematic argument in favor of organized terror in response to Kautsky's reservations was written by Trotsky in The Defense of Terrorism (1921).

Roemer's early work was an attempt to state the main themes of Marxian economics using the tools of general equilibrium and game theory. In Roemer (1982), he proposed a model of agents who were differentiated by their endowments, and had to choose occupations—involving either selling labor, hiring labor, or working on one's own capital stock. In optimizing with respect to market prices, agents choose one of five class positions, each consisting of various combinations of these three activities. This gives rise to a class structure, whose agricultural nomenclature would be landlords (who only hire labor), rich peasants (who hire labor and work themselves on their fields), middle peasants (who only work for themselves and do not participate in the labor market), poor peasants (who work on their own plot and sell labor), and landless laborers (who only sell labor).

The relationship between the state, its formal mechanisms, and capitalist societies has been debated in many fields of social and political theory, with active discussion since the 19th century. Hernando de Soto is a contemporary Peruvian economist who has argued that an important characteristic of capitalism is the functioning state protection of property rights in a formal property system where ownership and transactions are clearly recorded. According to de Soto, this is the process by which physical assets are transformed into capital, which in turn may be used in many more ways and much more efficiently in the market economy. A number of Marxian economists have argued that the Enclosure Acts in England and similar legislation elsewhere were an integral part of capitalist primitive accumulation and that specific legal frameworks of private land ownership have been integral to the development of capitalism.

With The Society of the Spectacle, Debord attempted to provide the Situationist International (SI) with a Marxian critical theory. The concept of "the spectacle" expanded to all society the Marxist concept of reification drawn from the first section of Karl Marx's Capital, entitled The Fetishism of Commodities and the Secret thereof and developed by György Lukács in his work, History and Class Consciousness. This was an analysis of the logic of commodities whereby they achieve an ideological autonomy from the process of their production, so that "social action takes the form of the action of objects, which rule the producers instead of being ruled by them."Marx, Capital Developing this analysis of the logic of the commodity, The Society of the Spectacle generally understood society as divided between the passive subject who consumes the spectacle and the reified spectacle itself.

He also argues that it is doubtful that Althusser's interpretation of historical materialism is true to Marx's intentions, and that it does not deserve to be considered a coherent theory, that it effectively abandons the Marxian thesis that base determines superstructure, that it effectively abandons historical materialism itself, that it is irrefutable in the sense that no possible event would be inconsistent with it, and that it makes no useful predictions. He further suggests that Althusser's supporters had difficulty agreeing on how For Marx should be understood. Cleaver considers For Marx and Reading Capital an attempt by Althusser and his colleagues to reinterpret Marx with the "aim of revitalizing dialectical materialism as an ideology to mediate the widely discredited political practices of the French Communist Party." He criticizes Althusser's science of history for being ahistorical and abstract.

Marx himself presents a simplified explanation in the Appendix to the first German edition of ' published in English translation in Capital & Class. The need for this appendix was suggested by EngelsEngels to Marx, June 16, 1867 Letters on ‘Capital’ and there is an exchange of correspondenceMarx to Engels, June 22, 1867 Letters on ‘Capital’Engels to Marx, June 24, 1867 Letters on ‘Capital’Marx to Engels, June 27, 1867 Letters on ‘Capital’ concerning its purpose and form. The two principal components of marxist science are the dialectical method of logical deduction and genetic synthesis and its application to the evolution of real social history. While in each of these areas considered separately there are at least a number of scholarly works, there are few examples of substantial exegesis and fewer still successful applications of marxian method to the fundamental obstacles to class-consciousness today.

Because of the way CFC is calculated, aggregate profit (or operating surplus the residual item in the product account) is likely to be understated, independently of the actual profit calculation, which is usually derived from tax data. Ultimately, the distinction drawn between that portion of business operating expenditure included in CFC beyond depreciation, in contrast to that portion of operating expenditure included in Intermediate consumption may appear rather capricious, rather than theoretically justified. In Marxian economics, the official concept of CFC is also disputed, because it is argued that CFC really should refer to the value transferred by living labor from fixed assets to new output. Consequently, operating expenditures associated with fixed assets other than depreciation should be regarded as either as circulating constant capital, faux frais of production or surplus value, depending on the case.

As Marxism took off, it also began to come under criticism from other European intellectuals, including fellow socialists and leftists. For instance, the Russian collectivist anarchist Mikhail Bakunin criticised what he believed were the flaws in the Marxian theory that the state would eventually dissolve under a Marxist government, instead he believed that the state would gain in power and become authoritarian. Criticism also came from other sociologists such as the German Max Weber, who whilst admiring Marx disagreed with many of his assumptions on the nature of society. Some Marxists tried to adapt to these criticisms and the changing nature of capitalism and Eduard Bernstein emphasised the idea of Marxists bringing legal challenges against the current administrations over the treatment of the working classes rather than simply emphasising violent revolution as more orthodox Marxists did.

The analysis of the technological sophistication of the means of production and how they are owned is a central component in the Marxist theoretical framework of historical materialism and in Marxian economics. In Marx's work and subsequent developments in Marxist theory, the process of socioeconomic evolution is based on the premise of technological improvements in the means of production. As the level of technology improves with respect to productive capabilities, existing forms of social relations become superfluous and unnecessary, creating contradictions between the level of technology in the means of production on the one hand and the organization of society and its economy on the other. These contradictions manifest themselves in the form of class conflicts, which develop to a point where the existing mode of production becomes unsustainable, either collapsing or being overthrown in a social revolution.

Arato, From Neo- Marxism to Democratic Theory: Essays on the Critical Theory of Soviet-Type Societies (M. E. Sharpe, 1993). Intro. Further, Arato argued that Marxian writers were typically trapped by the problematic of Marx's philosophy of history, which could only conceive of two possible modern industrialized social formations – either capitalism or a progressive socialist society. Instead, Arato, along with a number of East European theorists, sought to analyze state socialist societies as a new, hierarchical, exploitative social formation “sui generis”; he understood the communist societies as a unique social formation with its own particular mechanisms of control, exploitation and crisis.See Arato, “Understanding Bureaucratic Centralism,” Telos 35 (Spring 1978) Arato argued that this type of society could not be understood by focusing on market or economic relations, instead it rested on a type of prerogative political control operating through the bureaucratic state.

Nowadays the volume of world trade grows significantly faster than GDP, suggesting to Marxian economists such as Samir Amin that surplus-value realised from commercial trade (representing to a large extent a transfer of value by intermediaries between producers and consumers) grows faster than surplus-value realised directly from production. Thus, if we took the final price of a good (the cost to the final consumer) and analysed the cost structure of that good, we might find that, over a period of time, the direct producers get less income and intermediaries between producers and consumers (traders) get more income from it. That is, control over the access to a good, asset or resource as such may increasingly become a very important factor in realising a surplus-value. In the worst case, this amounts to parasitism or extortion.

Smith later recalled: > "I read Marx's Capital and decided that the Communists probably had the > right idea and joined the Marxian Club. This club was a legal group in > Seattle under the influence of the underground Communist Parties. I never > got into the underground movement, but went with the club into the Workers > Party when the club joined the Party in a body immediately after the > organization of the Workers Party [in December 1921]." Smith was one of three key members of the IWW to join the Communist movement, the others being Elizabeth Gurley Flynn and Harrison George.Joseph R. Starobin, American Communism in Crisis, 1943-1957. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972; pg. 248, fn. 7. When the IWW turned against the Communists in 1922, Smith remained in the union under the direction of the Workers Party in Seattle.

The woman as a self does not exist. Haraway criticizes both when writing that "my complaint about socialist/Marxian standpoints is their unintended erasure of polyvocal, unassimilable, radical difference made visible in anti-colonial discourse and practice" and "MacKinnon's intentional erasure of all difference through the device of the 'essential' non-existence of women is not reassuring" (299). Haraway also indirectly critiques white feminism by highlighting the struggles of women of color: she suggests that a woman of color "might be understood as a cyborg identity, a potent subjectivity synthesized from fusions of outsider identities and in the complex political-historical layerings of her 'biomythography.'" To counteract the essentializing and anachronistic rhetoric of spiritual ecofeminists, who were fighting patriarchy with modernist constructions of female-as-nature and earth mothers, Haraway employs the cyborg to refigure feminism into cybernetic code.

Although Marx and Engels did not write widely about the social functions of education, their concepts and methods are theorized and criticized by the influence of Marx as education being used in reproduction of capitalist societies. Marx and Engels approached scholarship as "revolutionary scholarship" where education should serve as a propaganda for the struggle of the working class. The classical Marxian paradigm sees education as serving the interest of capital and is seeking alternative modes of education that would prepare students and citizens for more progressive socialist mode of social organizations. Marx and Engels understood education and free time as essential to developing free individuals and creating many-sided human beings, thus for them education should become a more essential part of the life of people unlike capitalist society which is organized mainly around work and the production of commodities.

Feuer visited the Soviet Union during one of the first academic exchanges in the period after Stalin's death, often referred to as "the Thaw" and was expelled for challenging Soviet orthodoxies regarding Marxist thought. His experiences at Berkeley, where he challenged left wing student movements and professors who ceded to their demands, led Feuer to reject left wing, radical politics and he wrote continuously after this period about the corrupting influences of ideology on thought, the dangers of totalitarianism in the modern world and the role of the United States as a bulwark against tyranny and authoritarianism in the modern world. His edited collection, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy (1959) is one of the most widely used readers on Marxian thought ever published. Politically, he was closely allied with the philosophical anti-communism of Sidney Hook.

104: "Since it (social democracy) permits a powerful capitalist class to exist (90 percent of productive assets are privately owned in Sweden), only a strong and unified labor movement can win the redistribution through taxes that is characteristic of social democracy. It is idealistic to believe that tax concessions of this magnitude can be effected simply through electoral democracy without an organized labor movement, when capitalists organize and finance influential political parties. Even in the Scandinavian countries, strong apex labor organizations have been difficult to sustain and social democracy is somewhat on the decline now." Marxian economists argue that social democratic reforms – including policies to redistribute income – such as unemployment benefits and high taxes on profits and the wealthy create more contradictions in capitalism by further limiting the efficiency of the capitalist system via reducing incentives for capitalists to invest in further production.

Alienation in the sense of a lack of power has been technically defined by Seeman as "the expectancy or probability held by the individual that his own behaviour cannot determine the occurrence of the outcomes, or reinforcements, he seeks." Seeman argues that this is "the notion of alienation as it originated in the Marxian view of the worker's condition in capitalist society: the worker is alienated to the extent that the prerogative and means of decision are expropriated by the ruling entrepreneurs".(Seeman, 1959: 784) More succinctly, Kalekin-Fishman (1996: 97) says, "A person suffers from alienation in the form of 'powerlessness' when she is conscious of the gap between what she would like to do and what she feels capable of doing". In discussing powerlessness, Seeman also incorporated the insights of the psychologist Julian Rotter.

The regulation school () is a group of writers in political economy and economics whose origins can be traced to France in the early 1970s, where economic instability and stagflation were rampant in the French economy. The term régulation was coined by Frenchman Destanne de Bernis, who aimed to use the approach as a systems theory to bring Marxian economic analysis up to date.The Regulation School: A Critical Introduction (Columbia University Press, 1990) These writers are influenced by structural Marxism, the Annales School, institutionalism, Karl Polanyi's substantivist approach, and theory of Charles Bettelheim, among others, and sought to present the emergence of new economic (and hence social) forms in terms of tensions within existing arrangements. Since they are interested in how historically specific systems of capital accumulation are "regularized" or stabilized, their approach is called the "regulation approach" or "regulation theory".

In the context of the theory of Leninist revolutionary struggle, vanguardism is a strategy whereby the most class-conscious and politically advanced sections of the proletariat or working class, described as the revolutionary vanguard, form organizations in order to draw larger sections of the working class towards revolutionary politics and serve as manifestations of proletarian political power against its class enemies. From 1917 to 1922, Leninism was the Russian application of Marxian economics and political philosophy, effected and realised by the Bolsheviks, the vanguard party who led the fight for the political independence of the working class. In the 1925–1929 period, Joseph Stalin established his interpretation of Leninism as the official and only legitimate form of Marxism in Russia by amalgamating the political philosophies as Marxism–Leninism which then became the state ideology of the Soviet Union.

Helen Lynd became a lecturer at Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, New York, and from 1929 to 1964, a faculty member at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, New York. She also continued to author books, such as England in the 1880s: Toward a Social Basis for Freedom (1945) and On Shame and the Search for Identity (1958), in addition to writing articles on academic freedom. The model of shame that Lynd advocated in her book, On Shame and the Search for Identity (1958), is loosely Marxian, insisting upon "the importance of historical context and of transcultural analysis within single social formations" (particularly Western). Her theory of shame hinges upon the clashing of different social or moral 'values' in specific locations at specific moments, highlighting the trauma experienced by members of communities marginal to dominant culture: those most likely to feel shame are those made to feel ‘inappropriate’ by dominant cultural norms.

When the volume on the Regency was published, for example, some may have thought that such would be the complete history of that era, and no one would need to do as much work in that field, because the best people with the best resources would already have written it down. Subsequent changes in scholarly perspective can alter that perception; for example the work of Lewis Namier on mid-18th century British politics caused one of the Oxford History volumes to appear outdated. It was not considered that entirely new viewpoints and methods would come into being, or that scholars would follow new threads of causality throughout stretches of time that differed from the canonical ones over a region which varied over time. And as each academic history was primarily a list of persons, places, things, and events, there was hardly any Marxian content to any of these projects.

The book was widely read and had a big influence on the discussions of Marxian, Ricardian and Post-Keynesian economists in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1956 Meek also quit the Communist Party of Great Britain and he abandoned his previous support for the policies of Joseph Stalin, although he continued to be a Marxist until his last years. He was acknowledged to be a scholarly authority on Adam Smith and on the Physiocrats. In the introduction to an article from 1971, "Smith, Turgot and the 'Four Stages' Theory," Ron Meek writes: "In the good old days, when I was a fierce young Marxist instead of a benign middle-aged Meeksist, I became very interested in the work of the members of the so-called Scottish historical school..."Meek, Ronald L. “Smith, Turgot, and the ‘Four Stages’ Theory.” History of Political Economy 3, no. 1 (1971): 9.

E. Sharpe, 1993), p. XIII. and strongly influenced by the philosophical and sociological work of Jürgen Habermas.Arato, From Neo-Marxism to Democratic Theory: Essays on the Critical Theory of Soviet-Type Societies (M. E. Sharpe, 1993), p. X. Arato's intellectual itinerary can be simplified into four overlapping stages: It begins with (I) efforts to revitalize Marxism by drawing on a Hegelian Marxist philosophy of "praxis".”In a second phase, (II) Arato worked through the corpus of Western Marxian thinkers to construct a critical theory of state socialist societies. Phase three was (III) marked by a turn to a post-Marxist emphasis on civil society as a moral and analytical category meant to further the project of democratization in both the East and West. Finally, in his latest work, (IV) Arato engages in comparative studies of recent constitution making and has developed a theory of “post-sovereign” constitution making.

Marx first defines use-value precisely in A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) where he explains: The concept is also introduced at the beginning of Das Kapital, where Marx writes, but in the extract below he holds it up as a critique of Hegel's liberal "Philosophy of Right". He remained a sharp critic of what was to the Marxian view a destructive philosophy: This was a direct reference by Marx to Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Right §63 as Marx adds: Marx acknowledges that a nominal price or value can be imputed to goods or assets which are not reproducible goods and not produced by human labour, as correctly noted later by Engels that a product is not necessarily a commodity. However Marx generally holds that only human labour expended can create value compared with Nature, through instrumentation known as modus operandi, or the method of working.

In Marxian economic theory the concept refers more broadly to the linked processes of the accumulation and annihilation of wealth under capitalism. The German sociologist Werner Sombart has been credited with the first use of these terms in his work Krieg und Kapitalismus (War and Capitalism, 1913).Describing the way in which the destruction of forests in Europe laid the foundations for nineteenth-century capitalism, Sombart writes: "Wiederum aber steigt aus der Zerstörung neuer schöpferischer Geist empor" ("Again, however, from destruction a new spirit of creation arises"). In the earlier work of Marx, however, the idea of creative destruction or annihilation (German: Vernichtung) implies not only that capitalism destroys and reconfigures previous economic orders, but also that it must ceaselessly devalue existing wealth (whether through war, dereliction, or regular and periodic economic crises) in order to clear the ground for the creation of new wealth.

For these theorists, societal conflict from which crime emerges is founded on the fundamental economic inequalities that are inherent in the processes of capitalism (see, for example, Wikipedia article on Rusche and Kirchheimer's Punishment and Social Structure, a book that provides a seminal exposition of Marxian analysis applied to the problem of crime and punishment). Drawing on the work of Marx (1990 [1868]); Engels, (1984 [1845]); and Bonger (1969 [1916]) among others, such critical theorists suggest that the conditions in which crime emerges are caused by the appropriation of the benefits others' labor through the generation of what is known as surplus value, concentrating in the hands of the few owners of the means of production, disproportionate wealth and power. There are two main strands of critical criminological theory following from Marx, divided by differing conceptions of the role of the state in maintenance of capitalist inequalities.

Leonard D. Abbott recalled Gronlund as a "great soul" who had lived in poverty throughout his life out of commitment to the socialist cause, the recipient of "very small financial rewards from all his books put together." He quoted Gronlund during his last year of life as rejecting the political strategy of winning power through independent political action, declaring "I regard [Eugene] Debs as the most unselfish of labor leaders, but you can't build up a third party in this county – you've got to work through the Democratic Party." Gronlund was enormously influential during the decades of the 1880s and 1890s and is credited by historian Daniel Bell with playing a pivotal role in the conversion of future Appeal to Reason publisher Julius Wayland to socialism in 1891.Daniel Bell, Marxian Socialism in the United States, in Donald Drew Egbert and Stow Persons, Socialism and American Life.

Some critics conclude that because Marx fails to "transform" value magnitudes into price magnitudes in a way consistent with formal logic, he has not proved value exists, or that it influences prices; in turn, his theory of labour-exploitation must be false. But the validity of Marx's value theory or his exploitation theory may not depend on the validity of his specific transformation procedures, and Marxian scholars indeed often argue that critics mistake what he intended by them. In particular, since value relations - according to Marx - describe the proportionalities between average quantities of labour-time currently required to produce products, value proportions between products exist quite independently of prices (and irrespective of whether goods are currently priced or not). As the structure of product-values changes across time, the structure of prices is likely to change as well, but product-prices will fluctuate above or below product- values and typically respond to changing value proportions only with a certain time lag.

He also credited him with having authored the lyrics to the first of Communist Romania's national anthems, Zdrobite cătușe. Arguing that the Communist Party fabricated the "Toma myth" in order to provide a poet whose scale would match that of the prose writer Mihail Sadoveanu (himself noted for his close connection with the regime), Boia pointed that, in contrast, important poets such as Tudor Arghezi or Lucian Blaga, who refused collaboration, were originally left "completely outside the game". He also proposed that Toma's promotion was indicative of a will to replace "the natural order of things [italics in the original]", and "no less abhorrent" than other major Communist projects to reshape Romania—citing among these the restructuring of Romanian economy on the basis of Marxian guidelines (with the collateral attempt to turn Romania into a major producer of steel), the unsuccessful plan to reclaim the Danube Delta, and the completion of a massive House of the People during the 1980s.Boia, p.

Corey's public declaration of his alienation from Marxism came in a three part series published in the liberal news weekly The Nation, in which he declared: > The bitter admission must be made that all variants of Marxism, > "revolutionary" and "reformist," meeting the pragmatic test of history, have > revealed fatal shortcomings.... > > All [Marx's] creative originality was congealed into a system which had a > "Marxist" explanation for everything..., which was unjust to Marx himself > because the system denied his emphasis on the historical relativity of > ideas.... > > "The socialist system of collective ownership is compatible with > totalitarianism,..." there is a totalitarian potential in the socialist > economic system.Quoted in Corey, "Lewis Corey (Louis C. Fraina), 1892-1953," > pg. 118. Corey's search for a new social philosophy and program to replace the one he had discarded found expression in a 1942 book entitled The Unfinished Task. Corey regarded this as his "final detailed repudiation" of the Marxian edifice.

Some zero-rating programs offer subsidized data access to certain websites on low-cost plans. Critics say that this is an anti-competitive program that undermines net neutrality and creates a "walled garden" for platforms like Facebook Zero. A 2015 study found that 65% of Nigerians, 61% of Indonesians, and 58% of Indians agree with the statement that "Facebook is the Internet" compared with only 5% in the US. Eric Ehrmann contends that social media in the form of public diplomacy create a patina of inclusiveness that covers traditional economic interests that are structured to ensure that wealth is pumped up to the top of the economic pyramid, perpetuating the digital divide and post-Marxian class conflict. He also voices concern over the trend that finds social utilities operating in a quasi-libertarian global environment of oligopoly that requires users in economically challenged nations to spend high percentages of annual income to pay for devices and services to participate in the social media lifestyle.

The magazine Solidarity continued to be published by the London group until 1992—other former Solidarity members were behind Wildcat in Manchester and Here and Now magazine in Glasgow. The intellectual leader of the group was Chris Pallis, whose pamphlets (written under the name Maurice Brinton) included Paris May 1968, The Bolsheviks and Workers' Control 1917-21 and The Irrational in Politics.Now collected in a book, Maurice Brinton, For Workers' Power. Other key Solidarity writers were Andy Anderson (author of Hungary 1956), Ken Weller (who wrote several pamphlets on industrial struggles and oversaw the group's Motor Bulletins on the car industry), Joe Jacobs (Out of the Ghetto), John Quail (The Slow-Burning Fuse), Phil Mailer (Portugal:The Impossible Revolution) John King (The Political Economy of Marx, A History of Marxian Economics), George Williamson (writing as James Finlayson, Urban Devastation - The Planning of Incarceration), David Lamb (Mutinies) and Liz Willis (Women in the Spanish Revolution).

In his attempt to understand Indian society from a Marxian perspective, he consistently applied Marxist methods in his treatment of Indian social structure and processes and adopted a dialectical historical approach for his sociological studies on nationalism, examination of Community Development programmes, urban slums and their demographic problems, peasant movements and interface between state and society. He edited, compiled and authored many volumes on rural sociology, urbanization, labour movements, peasant struggles, modernization, religion, democratic rights and political sociology. His study of the bourgeois class character and inherent contradiction of the Indian National Movement is noteworthy and his edited volume on Rural Sociology showed how change and development was taking place in Indian rural society. While focusing on the relevance of the Marxist approach for Indian society in his presidential address of AISC, he gave notice to the mainstream that Marxism indeed had a place in Sociology and accordingly created a forum for scholars in University of Bombay to broaden their horizons of research.

Supersam Warsaw, the first self-serve shopping centre in Poland, 1969 During the Gierek era, Poland borrowed large sums from Western creditors in exchange for promise of social and economic reforms. None of these have been delivered due to resistance from the hardline communist leadership as any true reforms would require effectively abandoning the Marxian economy with central planning, state-owned enterprises and state-controlled prices and trade. After the West refused to grant Poland further loans, the living standards began to sharply fall again as the supply of imported goods dried up, and as Poland was forced to export everything it could, particularly food and coal, to service its massive debt, which would reach US$23 billion by 1980. In 1981, Poland notified Club de Paris (a group of Western-European central banks) about its insolvency and a number of negotiations of repaying its foreign debt were completed between 1989–1991.

Karl Marx in 1861 Karl Marx (5 May 1818, Trier, Germany - 14 March 1883, London) was an immensely influential German philosopher, sociologist, political economist and revolutionary socialist. Marx addressed a wide range of issues, including alienation and exploitation of the worker, the capitalist mode of production and historical materialism, although he is most famous for his analysis of history in terms of class struggles, summed up in the opening line of the introduction to The Communist Manifesto: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles". The influence of his ideas, already popular during his life, was given added impetus by the victory of the Russian Bolsheviks in the 1917 October Revolution and there are few parts of the world which were not significantly touched by Marxian ideas in the course of the twentieth century. As the American Marx scholar Hal Draper remarked: "[T]here are few thinkers in modern history whose thought has been so badly misrepresented, by Marxists and anti-Marxists alike".

Punishment and Social Structure (1939), a book written by Georg Rusche and Otto Kirchheimer, is the seminal Marxian analysis of punishment as a social institution. It represents the 'most sustained and comprehensive account of punishment to have emerged from within the Marxist tradition’ and ‘succeeds in opening up a whole vista of understanding which simply did not exist before it was written' (Garland 1990: 89, 110). It is a central text in radical criminology, and an influential work in criminological conflict theory, cited as a foundation text in several major textbooks (Oxford Handbook of Criminology 2007; Newburn 2007; Innes 2003). It offers a broader (macrosociological) level of analysis than many micro-analyses that focus on the atomised and differentiated individual (Jacobs 1977: 91). The work is extensively cited by both critical theorists and radical criminologists (Garland and Young 1983: 7, 24), and has influenced seminal works in the sociology of imprisonment, being cited in, for example, modern classics such as James B. Jacobs's Stateville (1977: 91), Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish (1977:24) and Punishing the Poor (2009: 206) by Loïc Wacquant.

Cornford believes that the new policies of the Communist International (about which Smith argues, he has serious doubts) will be tested in practice: (Oviedo is a city in Northern Spain where miners had already taken up arms against the dictatorship that preceded the Second Spanish Republic; the Mauser is a type of rifle.) In the third section, Cornford confronts his own isolation. Smith discusses what he calls "the paradoxical fusion of solidarity and solitude in a single line at the heart of 'Full Moon at Tierz': 'Now with my Party, I stand quite alone'. In the midst of all this enforced solidarity, it is the loneliness which persists." Smith goes on: "A hesitant and solitary being wills himself, in a kind of prayer to an absent Marxian deity, not to lose his faith, to be a good Communist": The raw, even violent emotional honesty of these lines is both very modern—one cannot imagine a poet before about 1920 writing them—and very characteristic of Cornford's mature poetry.

In economics, particularly political economy, the distinction between paper wealth and real wealth is part of a larger debate on different notions of value; paper wealth corresponds to exchange value (value that can be realized in exchanging a good for something else) and real wealth corresponds to use value (value that can be realized in using a good oneself). This is a traditional distinction, dating from Aristotle in antiquity to David Ricardo in the classical economics of the 19th century, but the distinction is no longer drawn in mainstream economics, particularly neoclassical economics, and the debate resolved in favor of exchange value – market price is seen as a sufficient notion of value; see Exchange value: Other theories of exchange value for discussion. In economics, the notion of paper wealth is most associated with the heterodox school of Marxian economics, in the notion of fictitious capital by Karl Marx, in his critique of capitalism. Paper wealth is also important in certain theories of economic crises, notably those that believe these to be caused by price bubbles, as described below.

In the elections of 1936 the USR aspired to act as a midpoint between traditional Radicalism and orthodox Marxian socialism, expecting that the political crisis since 1933 had weakened voters' satisfaction with the traditional left parties: the Socialists for their rigid refusal to enter a reformist government that could mitigate the effects of the Great Depression; the Radical-Socialists for their ostensible lack of principle for having switched from an alliance with the Socialists to one with the conservatives midway through the legislature. The USR hoped that by offering French voters a synthesis of both main parties, a centre-left republican party committed to a systematic programme of economic state intervention, it could offer a major political alternative. However the formation of the Popular Front made this offer redundant. The SFIO now accepted participation in a coalition government dedicated to socio-economic reforms, while the PRRRS had now publicly positioned itself as a party of anti-fascism and thereby pledged to remain faithful to the electoral alliance of the left.

Modern Sinology, aside from canonical interpretation, is a research through the lens of modern western philosophy and elaborate further on own problematics. As the Japanese, Korea, and the Western Sinologists, Taiwanese philosophers Lin Mosei(:zh:林茂生), Shenqie Zhang(:zh:張深切), Ming-kun Kuo(:zh:郭明昆), Lin Qiu-wu(:zh:林秋悟), Dongfang Zhang:zh:張冬芳 reinvigorated understandings onto Confucianism canons. Lin Mosei(:zh:林茂生)’s ‘Wang Yang- ming’s Liangzhi’(王陽明の良知說) compared Kantian and Descartean conscience with Yangmingism. Lin Mosei(:zh:林茂生) and Dongfang Zhang:zh:張冬芳 lectured the Oriental philosophy and literature in the postwar founding National Taiwan University. Shenqie Zhang(:zh:張深切) )’s ‘Studies on Confucianism’(孔子哲學評論) (1954) was banned and his manuscript ‘Studies on Laoziism’(老子哲學評論) was also unable to publish. Lin Qiu-wu(:zh:林秋悟)’s Marxian critique on Buddhism was another westernized interpretation on the Oriental canons.

Her Retrospection... Hester Thrale Piozzi, Retrospection, or a review of the most striking and important events, characters, situations, and their consequences which the last eighteen hundred years have presented to the view of mankind, 2 vols, London: John Stockdale, 1801 was an attempt at a popular history of that period, but was not received well by critics, some of whom patently resented female intrusion into what was then the male preserve of history. Posterity has been kinder. According to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, "it has since been seen as a feminist history, concerned to show changes in manners and mores in so far as they affected women; it has also been judged to anticipate Marxian history in its keen apprehension of reification: 'machines imitated mortals to unhoped perfection, and men found out they were themselves machines.'" A lexicographer in her own right, Mrs Piozzi's British synonymy, or, An attempt at regulating the choice of words in familiar conversation was published in 1794 by G. G. & J. Robinson of London, ten years after Dr Johnson's death..

The program was furthered at the 27th Congress of the Communist Party in Gorbachev's report to the congress, in which he spoke about "perestroika", "uskoreniye", "human factor", "glasnost", and "expansion of the khozraschyot" (commercialization). The acceleration was planned to be based on technical and scientific progress, revamping of heavy industry (in accordance with the Marxian economics postulate about the primacy in development of heavy industry over light industry), taking the "human factor" into account, and increasing the labour discipline and responsibility of apparatchiks. In practice it was implemented with the help of massive monetary emission infused into heavy industry, which further destabilised the economy and in particular brought an enormous disparity between actual cash money and virtual money used in cashless clearings (безналичный расчёт) between enterprises and state and among enterprises. The politics of mere "acceleration" eventually failed, which was de facto admitted in June 1987 at a Party Plenum, and the "uskoreniye" slogan was phased out in favor of the more ambitious "Perestroika" (restructuring of the whole economy).

The relationship between the state, its formal mechanisms, and capitalist societies has been debated in many fields of social and political theory, with active discussion since the 19th century. Hernando de Soto is a contemporary economist who has argued that an important characteristic of capitalism is the functioning state protection of property rights in a formal property system where ownership and transactions are clearly recorded. According to de Soto, this is the process by which physical assets transform into capital, which in turn is used in many more ways and much more efficiently in the market economy. A number of Marxian economists have argued that the Enclosure Acts in England, and similar legislation elsewhere, were an integral part of capitalist primitive accumulation and that specific legal frameworks of private land ownership have been integral to the development of capitalism.. New institutional economics, a field pioneered by Douglass North, stresses the need of a legal framework in order for capitalism to function optimally, and focuses on the relationship between the historical development of capitalism and the creation and maintenance of political and economic institutions.

Spargo was a bitter opponent of the syndicalism which was sweeping parts of the Socialist Party and staunchly supported the established craft unionism of the American Federation of Labor against the radical industrial unionism of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). A battle royal between the dominant center-right coalition that controlled the Socialist Party and its pro-syndicalist left wing erupted in 1912. As Spargo's biographer notes: > Throughout, the faction fight was about much more than just a struggle for > power. To Spargo and his fellow right-wingers, it subsumed under its rubric > the larger question of where and how the socialist movement was headed, that > is, whether it was to be led by those schooled in theoretical Marxian > exegesis and historical study or by those who discarded such exegesis and > study and opted instead for direct catastrophic action.Ruotsila, John Spargo > and American Socialism, pg. 60. The brewing skirmish erupted into an open fight at the 1912 National Convention of the Socialist Party, to which Spargo was once again a delegate from New York as well as the elected Chairman of the Resolutions Committee.

Stefan Winter is a Canadian historian specialising in the study of Ottoman Syria. His research revolves around Ottoman administrative policies toward the Shi‘i and ‘Alawi communities as well as Bedouin and Kurdish principalities in northern Syria and southern Anatolia, and he takes a generally Marxian approach to show how the co-optation or creation of so-called “tribal” elites by the Ottoman state authorities and their economic expansion under the twin impulse of European colonialism and Ottoman administrative reform, rather than their essential sectarian or ethnic identities, determined these groups’ fate in the early modern period. His first book, The Shiites of Lebanon under Ottoman Rule, 1516-1788, was published by Cambridge University Press in 2010; his second book, A History of the ‘Alawis: From Medieval Syria to the Turkish Republic, 947-1938 was published by Princeton University Press in 2016. The latter was awarded the Fuat Köprülü Book Prize by the Ottoman and Turkish Studies Association (OTSA) in 2017. He also co-edited, together with Mafalda Ade, the collective volume Aleppo and its Hinterland in the Ottoman Period/Alep et sa province à l’époque ottomane with E.J. Brill in 2019.

With the exception of his diploma dissertation, also published in a journal, on the Marxian Law of the tendencial decline of the rate of profit,Das Marxsche Gesetz des tendenziellen Falls der Profitrate, Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft 131, 1975, S. 646–696 Sinn dealt in his early years particularly with economic risk theory. He made a name for himself with his dissertation "Ökonomische Entscheidungen bei Ungewissheit" (1980), published in English as "Economic Decisions under Uncertainty" (1983), with numerous spin-off articles. Subsequent work focused on the axiomatic basis of mean-variance analysis, on the foundation of the principle of insufficient reason, on the psychological foundation of risk preference functions and on the analysis of risk decisions under limited liability, which he subsequently developed into a theory of bank regulation in his Yrjö Jahnsson Lectures, "The New Systems Competition". In 2003, in the journal Finanzarchiv, he touched off an academic debate on banking regulation in which he was criticised by market- oriented economists for his favouring of stronger banking regulation to prevent excessive risk-taking. With his dissertation in 1977 on excess risk propensity under liability restrictions, Sinn, in the opinion of Martin Hellwig, preceded the pioneering analysis of Stiglitz and Weiss of 1981.