241 Sentences With "lexically" | Random Sentence Generator

There can be no antonym for a term that is lexically meaningless.

"The left hemisphere was more active for lexically marked sounds — meaningful words — but not for ... meaningless sound sequences," he writes.

It can occur in both lexically and non- lexically headed clauses. /ala/ may indicate a locative, temporal or manner adverbial is the head of the relative clause. In non-lexically headed relative clauses, /ala/ can sometimes be interpreted as the head of the clause itself. It can also occur in both lexically and non-lexically headed clauses.

The languages are Doromu and Maria, and are 63% lexically similar.

All dependencies must be respected during execution to prevent incorrect results. In general, loop invariant dependencies and lexically forward dependencies can be easily vectorized, and lexically backward dependencies can be transformed into lexically forward dependencies. However, these transformations must be done safely, in order to ensure that the dependence between all statements remain true to the original. Cyclic dependencies must be processed independently of the vectorized instructions.

This contrasts with lexical input which is lexically supplied and therefore language-specific.

Verbs such as "want" can be used to express modality lexically, as can adverbs.

Gurgula is a Rajasthani language of Pakistan. It is lexically quite similar with Ghera, but very different grammatically.

Chotachchu is a short form of 'Choto Chachchu' which lexically translates to 'Small Uncle', it means, 'the youngest uncle.

Bebe, or Naami, is an Eastern Beboid language of Cameroon. According to Ethnologue, it's 85% lexically similar to Kemezung.

Bauwaki (Bawaki) is a Papuan language of New Guinea, sometimes classified as a member of the Mailuan family. It is 70% lexically similar to Abia of the Yareban family. Dutton (1971) proposed it to be a 'bridge' between the Mailuan and Yareban language families. O'oku, either a dialect or a closely related language, is similarly lexically 60% Yareban.

Kuri, or Nabi, is a small Austronesian language of the Bomberai Peninsula of New Guinea. Lexically it is very close to Irarutu.

There has been accentual simplification by replacing mobile accent with fixed accent position. Lexically, the dialect shows extensive influence from Romance languages.

Kemezung (Dumbo, Dumbu, Dzumbo, Kumaju) is a Southern Bantoid (Eastern Beboid) language of Cameroon. According to Ethnologue, it's 85% lexically similar to Bebe.

Natingero is an aboriginal language of Western Australia. It has been listed as a dialect of Kalaamaya, but is only 40% lexically similar.

Verbs are inflected for tense, aspect and mood. Three tenses are marked morphologically: present, past, and future. Gender and number are expressed lexically.

Based on Swadesh list data, Lenakel was found to be 73-80% lexically identical to North Tanna and 75-81% lexically identical to Whitesands. Linguist D.T. Tryon has referred to the linguistic situation in Vanuatu as one of "language-chaining," a reference to Dialect continuum, the idea within linguistics that dialects exist along a continuum or chain within a language area.

Ngie is a Southern Bantoid language of Cameroon. A variety called Mengum is only 56% lexically similar, and so should perhaps be considered a distinct language.

Yanda Dogon is a Dogon language spoken in Mali. It is reported to be lexically similar to Nanga, which is only known from one report from 1953.

Saari, or Nsari, is an Eastern Beboid language of Cameroon. According to Ethnologue, it's 84% lexically similar to Ncane, making it very close to the Noni cluster.

Relative clauses in Crow are complex and subject to theoretical debates. There are two types of relative clauses in Crow: lexically headed and non-lexically headed. There are two basic relativizers /ak/ and /ala/, several composite forms based on ala plus baa 'indefinite pronoun' and instances with no relativizer. /ak/ indicates the subject of the relative clause is relativized and marks the subject as animate, and generally agenitive.

There are three lexically contrastive contour tones in Konyak – rising (marked in writing by an acute accent – á), falling (marked by a grave accent – à) and level (unmarked).

The three varieties of Sierra Otomi—Eastern Highland, Texcatepec, and Tenango—are above 70% lexically similar; the Eastern Highland dialects are above 80%, and will be considered here.

Gorap is lexically 85% Malay, but has many Ternate words as well, and word order differs from both Austronesian and Halmahera languages. Children no longer acquire the language.

Vanuma (Bvanuma), or South Nyali, is a minor Bantu language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is lexically similar to Ndaka and Budu, Mbo, and Nyali.

The Quanzhou dialect, Xiamen dialect, Zhangzhou dialect and Taiwanese are generally mutually intelligible. The overseas varieties such as Penang Hokkien and Singaporean Hokkien are slightly less intelligible to speakers of mainland Min Nan and Taiwanese dialects due to the existence of foreign loanwords. Although the Min Nan varieties of Teochew and Amoy are 84% phonetically similar including the pronunciations of un-used Chinese characters as well as same characters used for different meanings, and 34% lexically similar,, Teochew has only 51% intelligibility with the Tong'an Xiamen dialect of the Hokkien language (Cheng 1997) whereas Mandarin and Amoy Min Nan are 62% phonetically similar and 15% lexically similar. In comparison, German and English are 60% lexically similar.

The Chhantyal language is a member of the Tamangic group (along with Gurung, Thakali, Nar- Phu and Tamang) Within the group, it is lexically and grammatically closest to Thakali.

Tigrinya dialects differ phonetically, lexically, and grammatically.Leslau, Wolf (1941) Documents Tigrigna (Éthiopien Septentrional): Grammaire et Textes. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck. No dialect appears to be accepted as a standard.

Nyali, or North Nyali, is a minor Bantu language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is lexically similar to Ndaka and Budu, Mbo, and Vanuma (South Nyali).

Most of the Lisp systems whose designs contributed to Common Lisp—such as ZetaLisp and Franz Lisp—used dynamically scoped variables in their interpreters and lexically scoped variables in their compilers. Scheme introduced the sole use of lexically scoped variables to Lisp; an inspiration from ALGOL 68. CL supports dynamically scoped variables as well, but they must be explicitly declared as "special". There are no differences in scoping between ANSI CL interpreters and compilers.

Nearly all Unserdeutsch verbs are lexically derived from Standard German, but the Unserdeutsch inflectional system exhibits strong influence from English and Tok Pisin, and is considerably more isolating than Standard German.

Songlai (Songlai Chin) is a Kuki-Chin language of Burma. It is 90% lexically similar to Laitu Chin, but not mutually intelligible. Dialects are Doitu, Hettui, Mang Um (Song), and Lai.

Mbugwe is considered to be a seven-vowel language. It is a tonal language with two levels of tone identified - High and Low. Tone is distinctive lexically as well as grammatically.

Perl supports both dynamic and lexically-scoped local variables. The keyword `local` is used to define local dynamically- scoped variables, while `my` is used for local lexically-scoped variables. Since dynamic scoping is less common today, the Perl documentation warns that "`local` isn't what most people think of as “local”.".perldoc.perl.org: local Instead, the `local` keyword gives a temporary, dynamically-scoped value to a global (package) variable, which lasts until the end of the enclosing block.

Meta’ is a Southern Bantoid language of Cameroon. The Moghamo variety is perhaps divergent enough to be considered a separate language. Ngamambo is 88% similar lexically to Meta’, and often is considered separate.

Banaro is a Ramu language of Papua New Guinea. It is lexically divergent from the other branches of the family, having remarkably few cognates.Donald C. Laycock, 1973. 'Sepik languages: checklist and preliminary classification'.

Caddo is a tone language. There are three tones in Caddo: low tone, which is unmarked '; high tone, which is marked by an acute accent over the vowel '; and falling tone, which is always long and marked by a grave accent over the vowel '. Tone occurs both lexically (as a property of the word), non-lexically (as a result of tonological processes), and also as a marker of certain morphological features. For instance, the past tense marker is associated with high tone.

Blench, Roger. 2013. The Nupoid languages of west-central Nigeria: overview and comparative word list. Nupe Tako (meaning ‘The Nupe Below’; also known as Bassa-Nge) is lexically most closely related to central Nupe.

Waskia is spoken in Tokain (), a village in Malas ward, Sumgilbar Rural LLG on the coast of mainland New Guinea, and on Karkar Island, with the island and mainland varieties being lexically divergent from each other.

Yahadian is a Papuan language of the Bird's Head Peninsula of West Papua. It is spoken in Yahadian village, Kais District, South Sorong Regency. Yahadian is closest to Konda, with which it is 60% similar lexically.

Accent "is an important feature of Tamashek." The role of accent is "very different" for verbs and nouns. For nouns and other non-verb stems, accent is lexically determined. This is not the case for verbs.

The Ndaka language (or Indaaka, Ndaaka) is spoken by the Ndaka people in the Ituri Province, Mambasa Territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is lexically similar to the Mbo, Budu, Vanuma and Nyali languages.

The Enggano language, also known as Engganese, is either a lexically highly divergent Austronesian (specifically Malayo-Polynesian) language not closely related to any other, or alternatively may be a language isolateEthnologue entry on Enggano with Austronesian loans.

With very few exceptions, Unserdeutsch adjectives are lexically identical to their German counterparts.Maitz et al 2019, pp.14. As with other parts of speech, these adjectives are considerably more analytical than those of Standard German.Volker 1982, pp.37.

As a lexically focused theory, Lexicase has been used to identify verb subcategories in Korean,Jeong 1992 Russian, Thai,Wilawan 1993 and Indrambarya 1994. and Vietnamese,Clark 1978. and noun subcategories in KhmerSak-Humphrey 1996. and ThaiSavetamalya 1989.

The Mbo language (or Imbo, Kimbo) is spoken by the Mbo people in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 1994 there were about 11,000 speakers. It is lexically similar to the Ndaka and Budu, Vanuma and Nyali languages.

"They brought the wild pig to the town" ( "come with, i.e. bring"). "Who took the child?" ( "go with, i.e. take"). While many preverb-verb combinations are lexically specified, may also be used productively to express an instrumental argument, e.g.

The local form ek ('I' (pron. 1.sg.)) competed with "standard" ik; in a similar way the oblique form mik ('me') with "standard" mî. Unusually, there is also a dative pronoun (1.sg. mê). Lexically, close connections with Nordalbingian.

1.The three-way contrast in number : singular, dual and plural. 2.Gender is not grammatical and is lexically based. 3.The verbal agreement system:person-number elements are indicated in verbs. 4.The sentence structure: simple, compound and complex sentences. 5\.

Implementations of Common LISP were thus required to have lexical scope. Again, from An overview of Common LISP: > In addition, Common LISP offers the following facilities (most of which are > borrowed from MacLisp, InterLisp or Lisp Machines Lisp): (...) Fully > lexically scoped variables. The so-called "FUNARG problem" is completely > solved, in both the downward and upward cases. By the same year in which An overview of Common LISP was published (1982), initial designs (also by Guy L. Steele Jr.) of a compiled, lexically scoped Lisp, called Scheme had been published and compiler implementations were being attempted.

Kofei is a Papuan language of the Indonesian province of Papua, on the eastern shore of Cenderawasih Bay. Kofei is lexically similar to the East Geelvink Bay languages and presumably belongs in that family, but is too poorly attested to be sure.

Guanano (Wanano), or Piratapuyo, is a Tucanoan language spoken in the northwest part of Amazonas in Brazil and in Vaupés in Colombia. It is spoken by two peoples, the and the Piratapuyo. They do not intermarry, but their speech is 75% lexically similar.

For Mandarin Chinese and many other varieties of Chinese, the term refers to some words that carry the meanings of prepositions in English. In Chinese, they are lexically verbs and appear before the noun in question. They are more commonly referred to as coverbs.

Itelmen is now highly endangered, and most speakers are aged over sixty and live in scattered communities. However, there is a movement to revive the language, and educational materials are being developed. Modern Itelmen has been heavily influenced by Russian lexically, phonologically and grammatically.

Karawa (Bulawa) is a language spoken in Sandaun Province, Papua New Guinea, by decreasing number of people. Speakers are shifting to Pouye, which is closely related (67% similar lexically). It is spoken in the single village of Pulwa (Bulawa) () in East Wapei Rural LLG, Sandaun Province.

Exception handling was subsequently widely adopted by many programming languages from the 1980s onward. PL/I used dynamically scoped exceptions, however more recent languages use lexically scoped exceptions. PL/I exception handling included events that are not errors, e.g., attention, end-of-file, modification of listed variables.

The native present plural verbs was -et but the written norm often impressed -en. Similarly, the participal prefix ge- was usually written, though probably only spoken in the Southwest. Lexically, strong connections with adjacent dialects further north (East Frisian and Oldenburgish), e.g. godensdach ('Wednesday') instead of middeweke.

In Ethiopia, Tigrinya is the third most spoken language. The Tigrayans constitute the fourth largest ethnic group in the country after the Oromo, Amhara and Somali, who also speak Afro-Asiatic languages. Tigrinya dialects differ phonetically, lexically, and grammatically.Leslau, Wolf (1941) Documents Tigrigna (Éthiopien Septentrional): Grammaire et Textes.

In programming languages, a closure, also lexical closure or function closure, is a technique for implementing lexically scoped name binding in a language with first-class functions. Operationally, a closure is a record storing a function together with an environment.Sussman and Steele. "Scheme: An interpreter for extended lambda calculus".

Spread of the contemporary Low Franconian and Low German dialects. A lot of the dialects have been affected by the Hollandic expansion of the 17th century. All of them are lexically dependent on Dutch rather than German for neologisms. When written down, they use a Dutch-based orthography.

This functionally is similar to . Columns are typically distinguished with the character. If the input files contain lines beginning with the separator character, the output columns can become ambiguous. For efficiency, standard implementations of expect both input files to be sequenced in the same line collation order, sorted lexically.

This makes PRE one of the most important optimizations in optimizing compilers. Traditionally, PRE is applied to lexically equivalent expressions, but recently formulations of PRE based on static single assignment form have been published that apply the PRE algorithm to values instead of expressions, unifying PRE and global value numbering.

Ambonese Malay has phonemic word stress, by which is meant that the position of stress within a word is unforeseeable (van Minde 1997, p. 21) . Van Minde (1997, p. 22) uses the term “lexically reduplicated morphemes” which means that both of the roots that compose the morpheme contain an important (e.g.

Both its tone and stress are lexically distinctive. That means both the stress and the pitch of a word may affect meaning. The stress and tone are quite independent from one another, in contrast to their occurrence in Swedish and Serbo-Croatian. It has three tonemes (high, rising and falling).

This accounts for the resurfacing of stød when such words are followed by a syllabic consonant such as the definite suffix (e.g. , 'the friend' ), but not when they are followed by a syllable with a vowel (e.g. , 'friends'). Another set of exceptions are assumed to be lexically coded as lacking stød.

Wantoat, named after the Wantoat River, is one of the Finisterre languages of Papua New Guinea. Dialects are Wapu (Leron), Central Wantoat, Bam, Yagawak (Kandomin), continuing on to Awara, though the last is only 60–70% lexically similar with Wantoat and Wapu. Major Wantoat villages are Gwabogwat, Mamabam, Matap, Ginonga, Kupung.

One common idiom is to assign `@_` to a list of named variables. my ($x, $y, $z) = @_; This provides mnemonic parameter names and implements pass-by-value semantics. The `my` keyword indicates that the following variables are lexically scoped to the containing block. Another idiom is to shift parameters off of `@_`.

Nisa (Bonefa, Kerema) and Anasi (Bapu), are dialects of a Papuan language of the Indonesian province of Papua, on the eastern shore of Cenderawasih Bay in Sawai District, Mamberamo Raya Regency. Language use is vigorous. Nisa-Anasi is lexically similar to the East Geelvink Bay languages and presumably belongs in that family.

The preverbal marker ' expresses the progressive aspect in both past and present tense. However, if the past is not marked overtly (lexically or by using '), an unambiguous understanding is only possible in connection to context. ' is always mandatory. In past progressive, it is possible to achieve an unambiguous meaning by combining ' + ' + verb.

The Malaysian language has most of its borrowings absorbed from Sanskrit, Tamil, Hindi, Persian, Portuguese, Dutch, Sinitic languages, Arabic and more recently, English (in particular many scientific and technological terms). Modern Malaysian Malay has also been influenced lexically by the Indonesian variety, largely through the popularity of Indonesian dramas, soap operas, and music.

Tefaro is a Papuan language of the Indonesian province of Papua, on the eastern shore of Cenderawasih Bay. It is spoken in Demba and Tefaro villages of Waropen Regency. Tefaro is lexically similar to the East Geelvink Bay languages and presumably belongs in that family, but is too poorly attested to be sure.

Sauri is a Papuan language of the Indonesian province of Papua, on the eastern shore of Cenderawasih Bay. It is spoken in Sauri-Sirami village, Masirei District, Waropen Regency. Sauri is lexically similar to the East Geelvink Bay languages and presumably belongs in that family, but is too poorly attested to be sure.

There are 7,000 speakers of Chiripá in Paraguay. Additionally, another variety of Guarani known as Mbyá is also spoken in Paraguay by 8,000 speakers. Lexically, it is 75% similar to Paraguayan Guarani. The smallest Guarani speaking community in Paraguay is that of the Aché, also known as Guayaki, with a population of 850.

As of 1987, it was still spoken in Atayal territories. In 2000, this language was still reported to be spoken by 24 speakers but considered moribund. In 2017, a study using the EDGE metric from species conservation found that Kavalan, although critically endangered, was among the most lexically distinct of Austronesian languages.

Saanich stress is phonemic. Each full word has one stressed syllable, either in the root or in a suffix, the position of which is lexically determined. "Secondary stress" is sometimes described, but this is merely a way of distinguishing lexical schwas (with "secondary stress", like all other vowels in a word) from epenthetic schwas ("unstressed").

Port Moresby: Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea. Foley (2018) accepts that Ramu and Lower Sepik are related on the basis of morphological evidence, although they are typologically still very different from each other. It is also accepted by Glottolog. Grass languages are lexically divergent, sharing very few cognates with the other Ramu languages.

Lexically there is a mix between Kriol and Gurindji. Despite the verb-noun structural split, some verbs are derived from Kriol and others from Gurindji. Similarly nouns from both languages are present. In general, based on a 200 word Swadesh list, 36.6% of vocabulary is derived from Kriol and 35% finds its origins in Gurindji.

Hindustani, Caribbean Ethnologue (2013) It has experienced lexical influence from Caribbean English in Trinidad and Tobago and in Guyana. In Suriname, languages that have lexically influenced it include Sranan Tongo Creole, Surinamese Dutch, and English. Another dialect is spoken in Mauritius; its use is declining. it is spoken by about 5% of the country's population.

Virginia Volterra and Traute Taeschner put forth an influential study in 1978, positing that bilingual children move from a stage where the two languages are lexically mixed into eventual structural differentiation between the languages.Volterra and Taeschner 1978. They theorized that until age two, a child does not differentiate between languages.De Houwer 1996, sec. 5.2.

Another type of English bracketing paradox is found in compound words that are a name for a professional of a particular discipline, preceded by a modifier that narrows that discipline: nuclear physicist, historical linguist, political scientist, etc.Williams, E. 1981. "On the notions 'lexically related' and 'head of a word.'" Linguistic Inquiry 12:245–274.

Sohra and War are lexically very similar. The Sohra dialect is taken as Standard Khasi as it was the first dialect to be written in Latin and Bengali scripts by the British. Standard Khasi is in turn significantly different from the Shillong dialects (eight at most) which form a dialect continuum across the capital region.

Awara is one of the Finisterre languages of Papua New Guinea. It is part of a dialect chain with Wantoat, but in only 60–70% lexically similar. There are around 1900 Awara speakers that live on the southern slopes of the Finisterre Range, they live along the east and west sides of Leron River basin.

The concept of closures was developed in the 1960s for the mechanical evaluation of expressions in the λ-calculus and was first fully implemented in 1970 as a language feature in the PAL programming language to support lexically scoped first-class functions.David A. Turner (2012). "Some History of Functional Programming Languages". Trends in Functional Programming '12.

In sociolinguistics, a style is a set of linguistic variants with specific social meanings. In this context, social meanings can include group membership, personal attributes, or beliefs. Linguistic variation is at the heart of the concept of linguistic style—without variation there is no basis for distinguishing social meanings. Variation can occur syntactically, lexically, and phonologically.

Megam is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken in Kalmakanda subdistrict, Netrokona district, Mymensingh division, Bangladesh. It is most closely related to Garo, but has been strongly influenced by Khasian languages, to the extent that it is only 7–9% lexically similar to with A’beng, the neighboring Garo dialect, but 60% similar to the Khasian language Lyngngam.

Somra (after its literary dialect), also known as Burmese Tangkhul (Tangkhul Naga), is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken in Burma. The two ethnic Tangkhul languages are related, but are not mutually intelligible, being only 30% lexically similar. Somra is closer to Akyaung Ari. Somra is spoken in Somra tract, Leshi Township and Homalin Township of Sagaing Division, Myanmar.

Unstressed vowels are deleted, except at word boundaries (initial or final vowel) and unless doing so would create a forbidden consonant cluster (see below). For example, the verb "to cut with a bolo" takes stress on the syllables and , and is realized as . However, this does not explain all consonant clusters, many of which are lexically determined.

The case of the object of an Old Norse verb is lexically assigned, meaning that the case is determined on a per-verb basis. Most verbs take an accusative object, but some, such as gefa (give) have primary and secondary objects in the accusative and dative, while still others have nominative, genitive, or dative direct objects.

Gorani or Hawrami (also Gurani, ) is a language spoken by ethnic Kurds and which with Zazaki constitute the Zaza–Gorani languages. All the Gorani dialects are influenced by Kurdish lexically and morphologically. Gorani is considered a Kurdish dialect by many researchers. Gorani has four dialects: Bajelani, Hawrami, Sarli and Shabaki and is spoken in Iraq and Iran.

The dialect spoken in Wuchuan County, about 60 km north of the city, has a recognizably different flavour. The same applies to the dialect in Siziwang Banner. The dialect around Tumed Left Banner, west of the city, is significantly different phonologically, but lexically similar. In Zhangjiakou, Hebei, however, the dialect seems relatively similar and has little variation.

The Badaic languages are a group of three closely related Austronesian languages spoken in the North Lore and South Lore districts of Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, viz. Bada (Bada’), Behoa (Besoa), and Napu. The three languages are 80–91% lexically similar and to a great degree mutually intelligible, but their speakers are culturally distinct.Martens, Michael P. (1989).

Bulgarian demonstrates some linguistic developments that set it apart from other Slavic languages shared with Romanian, Albanian and Greek (see Balkan language area). Bulgarian was influenced lexically by medieval and modern Greek, and Turkish. Medieval Bulgarian influenced the other South Slavic languages and Romanian. With Bulgarian and Russian there was a mutual influence in both directions.

The adverb kaia 'fast, quick(ly)' can be used lexically to modify predications, but in the three biblical texts it is also apparently used to mark the second component clause in 'if-then' types of constructions. There is no mention made of this in surviving grammars, nor in the dictionary glosses of kaia. The progressive verb suffix -gaiata may be related.

Mbya Guarani is a Tupi–Guarani language spoken by approximately 6,000 Brazilians, 3,000 Argentines, and 8,000 Paraguayans. It is 75% lexically similar to Paraguayan Guarani. Mbya Guarani is one of a number of "Guarani dialects" now generally classified as distinct languages. Mbya is closely connected to Ava Guarani, also known as Ñandeva, and intermarriage between speakers of the two languages is common.

Paranan, also called Palanan, is a Philippine language belonging to the Northern Luzon languages. It is spoken in the northeastern coastal areas of Isabela province located in Luzon in the Philippines. Lexically, it is extremely close to Pahanan Agta. However, this is due to convergence to that language; the sources of the two languages are different, and this is reflected in their grammar.

Woria is a nearly extinct Papuan language of the Indonesian province of Papua, on the eastern shore of Cenderawasih Bay. It is spoken in Botawa village, Waropen Regency, where the Lakes Plain language Saponi was also spoken. Woria is lexically similar to the East Geelvink Bay languages and presumably belongs in that family, but is too poorly attested to be sure.

Studies in Language Change, 552. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2003. Nonetheless, lexically they have almost nothing in common, other than cognates in their words for 'thou' (nhinhi and nyinyi) and 'this' (kanhi and kinyi),Note that Ngan’gityemerri has no nh, and so one would expect it to have ny where its relatives have nh. and it is not clear what could explain this discrepancy.

The fifteen Katuic languages form a branch of the Austroasiatic languages spoken by about 1.3 million people in Southeast Asia. People who speak Katuic languages are called the Katuic peoples. Paul Sidwell is the leading specialist on the Katuic languages. He notes that Austroasiatic/Mon–Khmer languages are lexically more similar to Katuic and Bahnaric the closer they are geographically.

Hantgan and List report that Bangime speakers seem unaware that it is not mutually intelligible with any Dogon language.Hantgan, Abbie, and Johann-Mattis List. “Bangime: Secret Language, Language Isolate, or Language Island.” Roger Blench, who discovered the language was not a Dogon language, notes, :This language contains some Niger–Congo roots but is lexically very remote from all other languages in West Africa.

In Norwegian, each stressed syllable must contain, phonetically, either a long vowel or a long (geminate) consonant (e.g. male , "to paint" vs malle , "catfish") . In Danish, there are no phonologically long consonants, so the opposition is between long and short vowels ( vs ). Both languages have a prosodic opposition between two "accents", derived from syllable count in Old Norse and determined partly phonologically, partly morphologically and partly lexically.

Lexical scope was used for the imperative language ALGOL 60 and has been picked up in most other imperative languages since then.Borning A. CSE 341 -- Lexical and Dynamic Scoping. University of Washington. Languages like Pascal and C have always had lexical scope, since they are both influenced by the ideas that went into ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68 (although C did not include lexically nested functions).

It is likely that the Cushitic speakers were assimilated fairly recently, since lateral obstruents in the loanwords were still pronounced as such within living memory. However, those consonants have now been replaced by Bantu sounds. The Taveta language was mistaken for Daw'ida by Jouni Maho in his (2009) classification of Bantu languages. However, it's a distinct language, lexically and grammatically closest to Chasu (Pare).

Toposa (also Akara, Kare, Kumi, Taposa, Topotha) is a Nilo-Saharan language (Eastern Sudanic, Nilotic) spoken in South Sudan by the Toposa people. Mutually intelligible language varieties include Jiye of South Sudan, Nyangatom of Ethiopia, Karimojong, JieJiye and Jie are the same name, but refer to different varieties and Dodos of Uganda and Turkana of Kenya. Teso (spoken in both Kenya and Uganda) is lexically more distant.

Turumsa is a possibly extinct Papuan language of Makapa village () in Gogodala Rural LLG, Middle Fly District, Papua New Guinea. It has been classified as a Bosavi language, and is 19% lexically similar with Dibiyaso, but this appears to be due to loans. It has a greater (61%) lexical similarity with Doso, its only clear relative. There were only five elderly speakers found in 2002.

Michel Ferlus's main discoveries relate to the effects of monosyllabicization on the phonological structure of Southeast Asian languages. Tonogenesis (the development of lexical tones), registrogenesis (the development of lexically contrastive phonation-type registers), the evolution of vowel systems all partake in a general (panchronic) model of evolution.Ferlus, Michel. 1979. “Formation Des Registres Et Mutations Consonantiques Dans Les Langues Mon- khmer.” Mon-Khmer Studies 8: 1–76.

Gupa-Abawa is a Nupoid language spoken in Niger State, Nigeria. It is named after its two ethnicities, Gupa and Abawa. Gupa is spoken in the villages of Gupa, Abugi-Jankara, Emirokpa, Favu, Kenigi, Kpotagi, Abete, Kuba, Avu, Dagbaje, Eji, Jihun, Yelwa, Cheku, Atsu, Alaba, Gbedu, and Kirikpo located to the south of Lapai. Lexically, it is most closely related to Kami and Dibo.

TIMIT is a corpus of phonemically and lexically transcribed speech of American English speakers of different sexes and dialects. Each transcribed element has been delineated in time. TIMIT was designed to further acoustic-phonetic knowledge and automatic speech recognition systems. It was commissioned by DARPA and corpus design was a joint effort between the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, SRI International, and Texas Instruments (TI).

Nepali nouns that denote male and female beings are sometimes distinguished by suffixation or through pairs of lexically differing terms. Thus one pattern involves masculine -o/ā vs feminine -ī suffixes (e.g. chorā "son" : chorī "daughter", buṛho "old man" : buṛhī "old woman"), while another such phenomenon is that of the derivational feminine suffix -nī (e.g. chetrī "Chetri" : chetrīnī "Chetri woman", kukur "dog" : kukurnī "bitch").

Most population speaks a Bawean dialect, which is regarded as the most lexically and phonetically peculiar dialect of Madurese language; Baweans living in Singapore and Malaysia speak its slight variation called . Virtually the entire population knows, to a various degree, the official language of the country – Indonesian. The predominant religion on the island is Sunni Islam, with some remnants of the traditional local beliefs.

This is especially common with syllabic nasals, for example in many Bantu and Kru languages, but also occurs in Serbo-Croatian. It is also possible for lexically contrastive pitch (or tone) to span entire words or morphemes instead of manifesting on the syllable nucleus (vowels), which is the case in Punjabi. Tones can interact in complex ways through a process known as tone sandhi.

Nouns have prefixes that show agreement with a possessor.Broadwell (2006:52-63) Agreement markers from class II are used on a lexically specified closed class of nouns, which includes many (but not all) of the kinship terms and body parts. This is the class that is generally labeled inalienable. :sanoshkobo 'my head' :sa-noshkobo' :1sII-head :chinoshkobo 'your head' :chi-noshkobo' :2sII-head :noshkobo 'his/her/its/their head' :noshkobo' :head :sashki 'my mother' :sa-ishki' :1sII-mother :chishki 'your mother' :chi-ishki' :2sII-mother Nouns that are not lexically specified for II agreement use the III agreement markers: :a̱ki 'my father' :a̱-ki' :1sIII-father :amofi 'my dog' :am-ofi' :1sIII-dog Although systems of this type are generally described with the terms alienable and inalienable, this terminology is not particularly appropriate for Choctaw, since alienability implies a semantic distinction between types of nouns.

Work, p. 366. The first part is eloquent and polished, while the latter part is mediocre, often attributed to the phrase a lei francesca, which is taken to indicate that the poet was composing in the manner of the Old French narrative lay. The poet himself narrates the final part with an air of disgust appropriate to the felonious content. Everywhere, however, his language is orthographically, lexically, and rhythmically consistent.

Kabui were originally called Inpui, but Rongmei in Imphal valley also used the name Kabui. Rongmei in the hills did not used the name. Inpui chong and Rongmei are sometimes considered to be the same language, despite being mutually unintelligible and only 68% lexically similar. The Inpui-speaking people are mainly concentrated in Tamenglong district of Manipur especially in Haochong areas, which is a cluster of about 10 villages.

After leaving the Indian subcontinent, Romani was heavily affected by contact with European languages. The most significant of these was Medieval Greek, which contributed lexically, phonemically, and grammatically to Early Romani (10th–13th centuries). This includes inflectional affixes for nouns, and verbs that are still productive with borrowed vocabulary, the shift to VO word order, and the adoption of a preposed definite article. Early Romani also borrowed from Armenian and Persian.

Schnitt, a German phrase meaning "he made a good profit from it" is interpreted with a popular Serbian saying, pala mu sekira u med (his axe fell into honey). Phonologically, morphologically, and lexically, vernacular Serbian used in the Avramović Dictionary reflects a dialect of the Serbs of Vojvodina. It also exhibits some archaic grammatical traits, and the usage of aorist is more common than in modern Serbian.Gudkov 1972, pp.

Children still grow up speaking Yupʼik as their first language in 17 of 68 Yupʼik villages, those mainly located on the lower Kuskokwim River, on Nelson Island, and along the coast between the Kuskokwim River and Nelson Island. The variety of Yup'ik spoken by the younger generations is being influenced strongly by English: it is less synthetic, has a reduced inventory of spatial demonstratives, and is lexically Anglicized.

The Noni language, also called Noone, is an Eastern Beboid language of the Niger–Congo family in Cameroon. The Noone, Ncane, and Mungong varieties are sometimes considered three distinct Noni languages. Ethnologue reports that Ncare is 88% lexically similar with Noone, and 84% with Saari (Nsari). Noni is the native language to 40,000 people in the country, particularly in the North West Province, the Bui Division and the northwest Kumbo Subdivision.

The Common Lisp GO operator also has this stack unwinding property, despite the construct being lexically scoped, as the label to be jumped to can be referenced from a closure. In Scheme, continuations can even move control from an outer context to an inner one if desired. This almost limitless control over what code is executed next makes complex control structures such as coroutines and cooperative multitasking relatively easy to write.

Some languages, like Perl and Common Lisp, allow the programmer to choose static or dynamic scoping when defining or redefining a variable. Examples of languages that use dynamic scoping include Logo, Emacs lisp, and the shell languages bash, dash, and the MirBSD Korn shell (mksh)'s "local" declaration. Most other languages provide lexically scoped local variables. In most languages, local variables are automatic variables stored on the call stack directly.

Lispkit Lisp is a lexically scoped, purely functional subset of Lisp ("Pure Lisp") developed as a testbed for functional programming concepts. It was first used for early experimentation with lazy evaluation. An SECD machine- based implementation written in an ALGOL variant was published by the developer Peter Henderson in 1980. The compiler and virtual machine are highly portable and as a result have been implemented on many machines.

Speakers of Sikkimese can understand some Dzongkha, with a lexical similarity of 65% between the two languages. By comparison, Standard Tibetan, however, is only 42% lexically similar. Sikkimese has also been influenced to some degree by the neighbouring Yolmowa and Tamang languages. Due to more than a century of close contact with speakers of Nepali and Tibetan proper, many Sikkimese speakers also use these languages in daily life.

Tone is not lexically significant in Portuguese, but phrase- and sentence-level tones are important. As in most Romance languages, interrogation on yes-no questions is expressed mainly by sharply raising the tone at the end of the sentence. An exception to this is the word oi that is subject to meaning changes: an exclamation tone means 'hi/hello', and in an interrogative tone it means 'I didn't understand'.

It has been suggested that these may have originally been non-Austronesian languages that have borrowed nearly all of their vocabulary from neighboring Austronesian languages, but no connection with the Papuan languages of Timor has been found. In general, the Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages are marked by a significant historical Papuan influence, lexically, grammatically, and phonologically, and this is responsible for much of the diversity of the Austronesian language family.

The roots of nouns in Sabanê can only exist as parts of larger words (they are bound morphemes), and must be followed either by a referential suffix in isolation or by a referential or derivational suffix in context. There is no system for identifying a noun’s gender morphologically, so gender must be inferred or indicated lexically. This is also the case for age and numbers. Possessive pronouns are not required.

Semantic Matching of concepts Semantic unification, in philosophy, linguistics, and computer science, is the process of unifying lexically different concept representations that are judged to have the same semantic content (i.e., meaning). In business processes, the conceptual Semantic unification is defined as “the mapping of two expressions onto an expression in an exchange format which is equivalent to the given expression”.Fawsy Bendeck,Automation of XML Documents Translators Generation.

Some, including J. R. R. Tolkien, have argued that Celtic has acted as a substrate to English for both the lexicon and syntax. It is generally accepted that linguistic effects on English were lexically rather poor aside from toponyms, consisting of a few domestic words, which may include _hubbub_ , _dad_ , _peat_ , _bucket_ , _crock_ , _crumpet_ (cf. Br. _krampouz_ ), _noggin_ , _gob_ (cf. Gaelic _gob_ ), _nook_ ; and the dialectal term for a badger, i.e.

As a result of immigration to Portugal various varieties of African Portuguese have influenced contemporary speech in Portugal. In the 1970s, it came from white people from the former colonies (referred to as ). More recent immigration from the PALOPs has had a similar influence. In Brazil, many of the indigenous African languages that influence African Portuguese had the same influence historically on the formation of Brazilian Portuguese during the colonial period, especially lexically.

The question of which language family Urarina belongs to is a controversial one among linguists as the language has been placed in a multitude of phyla by academics including Panoan, Tupian, Macro-Tucanoan, and Amerind. As of present, none of the proposals have any convincing linguistic arguments, and given the lack of resemblance Urarina has to any languages in the same area lexically or grammatically it is usually assumed that it is a language isolate.

They are characterized by special morphophonemic patterns, and make extensive use of sound symbolism. Unlike nouns and verbs, expressives are lexically non-discrete, in that they are subject to a virtually unlimited number of semantic nuancings that are conveyed by small changes in their pronunciation. For example, in Semai, various noises and movements of flapping wings, thrashing fish etc. are depicted by an open set of morphophonemically related expressives like parparpar, krkpur, knapurpur, purpurpur etc.

Thus stealing an NSEC5KEY would only result in the ability to more easily enumerate a zone. Due to the messy evolution of the protocol and a desire to preserve backwards compatibility, online DNSSEC signing servers return a "white lie" instead of authenticating a denial of existence directly. The technique outline in RFC 4470 returns a NSEC record in which the pairs of domains lexically surrounding the requested domain. For example, request for `k.example.

Changchun dialect is a member of the Changchun-Harbin sub-dialects. It is very close to Standard Chinese, but it also has distinct characteristics phonetically and lexically. In history Changchun was near the centre of Manchurian culture, so similar to other Northeastern Mandarin dialects, it has many words borrowed from the Manchu Language. After the foundation of the People's Republic of China, Changchun became heavily industrialized and the city grew considerably with migrant workers.

Both languages allow inner classes, where a class is defined lexically inside another class. However, in each language these inner classes have rather different semantics. In Java, unless the inner class is declared `static`, a reference to an instance of an inner class carries a reference to the outer class with it. As a result, code in the inner class has access to both the static and non-static members of the outer class.

Burate is a Papuan language of the Indonesian province of Papua, on the eastern shore of Cenderawasih Bay. The specific areas that the Burate language is spoken in include the Papua Provence, the Wapoga river mouth, one village of the Waropen Bawah subdistrict, and the Yapen Waropen regency. Burate is lexically similar to the East Geelvink Bay languages and presumably belongs in that family, but is too poorly attested to be sure.

Kroeber suggested that Sapir study the nearly extinct Yana language, and Sapir set to work. Sapir worked first with Betty Brown, one of the language's few remaining speakers. Later he began work with Sam Batwi, who spoke another dialect of Yana, but whose knowledge of Yana mythology was an important fount of knowledge. Sapir described the way in which the Yana language distinguishes grammatically and lexically between the speech of men and women.

Romanian has a stress accent, like almost all other Romance languages (with the notable exception of French). Generally, stress falls on the rightmost syllable of a prosodic word (that is, the root and derivational material but excluding inflections and final inflectional vowels). Although a lexically marked stress pattern with penultimate stress exists, any morphologically derived forms will continue to follow the unmarked pattern. : fráte ('brother'), copíl ('child') : strúgure ('grape'), albástru ('blue'), călătór ('voyager').

Bankan Tey Dogon, at first called Walo-Kumbe Dogon after the two main villages it is spoken in, also known as Walo and Walonkore, is a divergent, recently described Dogon language spoken in Mali. It was first reported online by Roger Blench, who reports that it is "clearly related to Nanga", which is only known from one report from 1953. A third village investigated at the time, Been, speaks a related but lexically distinct form, Ben Tey Dogon.

The Republic of the Marshall Islands contains 34 atolls that are split into two chains, the eastern Ratak Chain and the western Rālik Chain. These two chains have different dialects, which differ mainly lexically, and are mutually intelligible. The atoll of Ujelang in the west was reported to have "slightly less homogeneous speech", but it has been uninhabited since 1980. The Ratak and Rālik dialects differ phonetically in how they deal with stems that begin with double consonants.

Learning a new dialect is usually done informally through a process of immersion and recognizing sound shifts. Generally the differences are more pronounced lexically than grammatically. Typically, a speaker of one dialect of Chinese will need about a year of immersion to understand the local dialect and about three to five years to become fluent in speaking it. Because of the variety of dialects spoken, there are usually few formal methods for learning a local dialect.

In C, scope is traditionally known as linkage or visibility, particularly for variables. C is a lexically scoped language with global scope (known as external linkage), a form of module scope or file scope (known as internal linkage), and local scope (within a function); within a function scopes can further be nested via block scope. However, standard C does not support nested functions. The lifetime and visibility of a variable are determined by its storage class.

Hawaiian, like the Polynesian languages generally, is an isolating language, so its verbal grammar exclusively relies on unconjugated verbs. Thus, as with creoles, there is no real distinction between modal auxiliaries and lexically modal main verbs that are followed by another main verb. Hawaiian has an imperative indicated by e + verb (or in the negative by mai + verb). Some examples of the treatment of modality are as follows:Alexander, W. D., Introduction to Hawaiian Grammar, Dover Publ.

The Dictionary of Ukrainian Language in 11 volumes contains 135,000 entries. Lexical card catalog of the Ukrainian Institute of Language Studies has 6 million cards. The same Institute is going to publish the new Dictionary of Ukrainian Language in 13 volumes. As mentioned at the top of the article, Ukrainian is most closely related lexically to Belarusian, and is also closer to Polish than to Russian (for example, можливість, mozhlyvist, "possibility", and Polish możliwość, but Russian возможность, vozmozhnost).

The Safi, some of the Jaduns, and some other minor northern Gharghashti tribes speak the northern or "hard" Pashto variety. The Jaduns, living on the Mahabun mountain slopes around Swabi speak Pashto, while those living in Hazara speak Pashto and Hindko. Some clans of the Safi tribe speak the Pashayi languages but are mostly bilingual in Pashto. The Karlani speak some of the most distinctive Pashto dialects which are lexically different from standard Pashto varieties, and phonetically very varied.

Blocks bear a superficial resemblance to GCC's extension of C to support lexically scoped nested functions. However, GCC's nested functions, unlike blocks, must not be called after the containing scope has exited, as that would result in undefined behavior. GCC-style nested functions currently use dynamic creation of executable thunks on most architectures when taking the address of the nested function. On most architectures (including X86), these thunks are created on the stack, which requires marking the stack executable.

Bernard Spolsky,The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History, Cambridge University Press, 2014 pp.157,180ff. p.183 Esperanto has been described as "a language lexically predominantly Romanic, morphologically intensively agglutinative, and to a certain degree isolating in character". Typologically, Esperanto has prepositions and a pragmatic word order that by default is subject–verb–object. Adjectives can be freely placed before or after the nouns they modify, though placing them before the noun is more common.

The character U+4039 (䀹) was a unification of two different characters (one with jiā 夾 phonetic and one with shǎn 㚒 phonetic) until Unicode 5.0. However, they were lexically different characters that should not have been unified; they have different pronunciations and different meanings. The proposal of disunification of U+4039Andrew West and John Jenkins, proposal of disunification of U+4039 was accepted and the new character is encoded at U+9FC3 (鿃) in Unicode 5.1.

Irarutu, Irahutu, or Kasira, is an Austronesian language of most of the interior of the Bomberai Peninsula of north-western New Guinea in Teluk Bintuni Regency. The name “Irarutu” comes from the language itself, where “ira” conjoins with “ru” to create “their voice”. When put together with “tu”, which on its own means “true”, the meaning of the name becomes “Their true voice” or “The people’s true language”. Kuri is very close lexically, but has not been formally classified.

In particular, one chapter of the book Apresjan allots to the description of lexicographic reconstruction of the language picture of the human being in the Russian language. Later on, Apresjan's work laid basis for Sergey Golubkov's further attempts to build "the language personality theory" which would be different from other lexically-based personality theories (e.g. by Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, etc.) due to its meronomic (partonomic) nature versus the taxonomic nature of the previously mentioned personality theories.

Gongduk or Gongdu (, it is also known as Gongdubikha) is an endangered Sino- Tibetan language spoken by about 1,000 people in a few inaccessible villages located near the Kuri Chhu river in the Gongdue Gewog of Mongar District in eastern Bhutan. The names of the villages are Bala, Dagsa, Damkhar, Pam, Pangthang, and Yangbari (Ethnologue). Gongduk has complex verbal morphology, which Ethnologue considers a retention from Proto-Tibeto-Burman, and is lexically highly divergent.Blench, R. & Post, M. W. (2013).

The Bahnaric languages are a group of about thirty Austroasiatic languages spoken by about 700,000 people in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Paul Sidwell notes that Austroasiatic/Mon–Khmer languages are lexically more similar to Bahnaric and Katuic languages the closer they are geographically, independently of which branch of the family they belong to, but that Bahnaric and Katuic do not have any shared innovations that would suggest that together they form a branch of the Austroasiatic family, rather forming separate branches.

Lexically nested function definitions are a form of information hiding and are useful for dividing procedural tasks into subtasks which are only meaningful locally. This avoids cluttering other parts of the program with functions and variables that are unrelated to those parts. They are typically used as helper functions or as recursive functions inside another function (as in the quicksort example above). This has the structural benefit of organizing the code, avoids polluting the scope, and also allows functions to share state easily.

It is formed from the feminine form of a noun containing the -in suffix (singular) or -innen suffix (plural). For example, Lehrerinnen (women teachers) would be written LehrerInnen, with the meaning (men and women) teachers, without having to write out both gender forms, or use the lexically unmarked masculine. A pedestrian zone sign on the main street of Vienna's Meidling district, using internal-I FußgängerInnenzone. Other gender- inclusive typographic conventions exist in German that perform a similar function, such as the gender star.

Lexically, Eskayan shows no clear relationship with any known language (however, considered to be an encryption of Cebuano) although there is strong but inconsistent Spanish influence. A striking feature of the language is its unusual phonotactics. The Eskayan writing system takes the form of a syllabary of over 1,000 characters, all modeled on parts of the human body including internal organs. This unique script has been compared variously to Phoenician, Etruscan, Hebrew, and even the undeciphered script of the Butuan paleograph.

Nowadays there are approximately 18 extant Slavic languages and 400 million speakers of those. Slavic communities are quite fragmented and loosely connected linguistically. In order to communicate with other Slavic speakers they often use English as a lingua franca. But since Slavic languages are closely related lexically and grammatically and are comparatively easy to learn when another Slavic language is already known, there have been numerous attempts to construct a language that could act as a common language for slavophones instead of English.

Initially, it served the role of a cant, or "secret language", but in the late 19th century, it became a standard sociolect of criminals. Grypsera is constantly evolving to maintain the status of a language understood only by a select group of inmates and not by the wardens or informers. That makes it currently one of the lexically richest dialects of Polish. Also, it is not possible to prepare a comprehensive dictionary of the dialect since it differs from prison to prison.

For example, below is a snippet of code that prints out "hello world" to the current output stream: "hello world" print `print` is a word in the `io` vocabulary that takes a string from the stack and returns nothing. It prints the string to the current output stream (by default, the terminal or the graphical listener). Not all data has to be passed around only with the stack. Lexically scoped local variables let you store and access temporaries used within a procedure.

Japanese is the official and primary language of Japan. Japanese has a lexically distinct pitch-accent system. Early Japanese is known largely on the basis of its state in the 8th century, when the three major works of Old Japanese were compiled. The earliest attestation of the Japanese language is in a Chinese document from 256 AD. The Japanese language has no genetic relationship with Chinese, belonging instead to a completely different family of languages known as the Japonic languages.

Tones may be used lexically; for example: ::K _u_ u to be ::Ku _u_ to die In some varieties of Mixtec, tone is also used grammatically since the vowels or whole syllables with which they were associated historically have been lost. In the practical writing systems the representation of tone has been somewhat varied. It does not have a high functional load generally, although in some languages tone is all that indicates different aspects and distinguishes affirmative from negative verbs.

Following the end of Japan's self-imposed isolation in 1853, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly. English loanwords, in particular, have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a pure vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length, and a lexically significant pitch-accent. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, and sentence structure is topic–comment.

For example, in Erlang, all arguments and variables are allocated on the heap, but references to them are additionally stored on the stack. After a function returns, references are still valid. Heap cleaning is done by incremental garbage collector. In ML, local variables are lexically scoped, and hence define a stack-like model, but since they are bound to values and not to objects, an implementation is free to copy these values into the closure's data structure in a way that is invisible to the programmer.

The explanation is that Spanish has lexically contrastive stress, as evidenced by the minimal pairs like ("mole") and ("[he/she/it] met"), while in French, stress does not convey lexical information and there is no equivalent of stress minimal pairs as in Spanish. An important case of stress "deafness" relates to Persian. The language has generally been described as having contrastive word stress or accent as evidenced by numerous stem and stem-clitic minimal pairs such as /mɒhi/ [mɒ.hí] ("fish") and /mɒh-i/ [mɒ́.

They observed grey and white matter in the brain and found that the processing of function morphemes occurs in the left temporoparietal junction (TPJ). They also discovered that if the adult had received damage to their post-superior temporal gyrus (P-STG), then they would have problems producing functional morphemes in the future. Lee et.al. concluded that functional morphemes are required for producing lexically complex words and sentences, and that damage to the P-STG can result in adults having issues with these processes.

In those languages reserved words can be used as column, table, or variable names by lexically delimiting them. The standard specifies enclosing reserved words in double quotes, but in practice the exact mechanism varies by implementation; MySQL, for example, allows reserved words to be used in other contexts by enclosing them in backticks, and Microsoft SQL Server uses square brackets. Stropping can also be used in the Nim programming language. In Nim, a reserved word can be used as an identifier by enclosing it in backticks.

In the 1980s and 1990s, the Eskaya community attracted the interest of local mystics who promoted the notion that their language was of exotic origin.Piers Kelly. Visayan-Eskaya Secondary Source Materials: Survey & Review Part One: 1980–1993 Produced for the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, Bohol, Philippines. 2006 Today, the few linguists who have examined Eskayan generally concur that it is structurally Cebuano but lexically innovative, suggesting that Eskayan is an auxiliary language or a highly sophisticated form of disguised speech encoded from Cebuano.

Besides the lexical function of tone, tone may also function morphologically and syntactically. Consider the examples below, the first being morphological and the second being syntactical, showing how tone is used in a derivative manner and how tone is used to differentiate intransitive from transitive verbs. : "to eat" : "food" : "to bathe (oneself)" : "to bathe (someone)" Vowel length is predictable and present in Dâw, yet not distinctive lexically. All vowels with a rising or falling tone are long, while all vowels without a tone are short.

Dida uses tone as a grammatical device. Morpho-tonology plays a greater role in verb and pronominal paradigms than it does in nouns, and perhaps because of this, Dida verbs utilize a simpler tone system than nouns do: Noun roots have four lexically contrastive tones, subject pronouns have three, and verb roots have just two word tones. There are three level tones in Abou Dida: , , and , with about twice as common as the other two. Speaker intuition hears six contour tones: rising and falling .

Peter J. Landin defined the term closure in 1964 as having an environment part and a control part as used by his SECD machine for evaluating expressions. Joel Moses credits Landin with introducing the term closure to refer to a lambda expression whose open bindings (free variables) have been closed by (or bound in) the lexical environment, resulting in a closed expression, or closure. This usage was subsequently adopted by Sussman and Steele when they defined Scheme in 1975, a lexically scoped variant of LISP, and became widespread.

The lexical density for an individual evolves with age, education, communication style, circumstances, unusual injuries or medical condition, and his or her creativity. The inherent structure of a human language and one's first language may impact the lexical density of the individual's writing and speaking style. Further, human communication in the written form is generally more lexically dense than in the spoken form after the early childhood stage. The lexical density impacts the readability of a composition and the ease with which the listener or reader can comprehend a communication.

There are several ways to implement nested procedures in a lexically scoped language, but the classic way is as follows: :Any non-local object, X, is reached via access-links in the activation frames on the machine stack. The caller, C, assists the called procedure, P, by pushing a direct link to the latest activation of P's immediate lexical encapsulation, (P), prior to the call itself. P may then quickly find the right activation for a certain X by following a fixed number (P.depth – X.depth) of links (normally a small number).

Pragmatics just becomes the cognitive semantics of communication—the modern version of the old Ross-Lakoff performative hypothesis from the 1960s. The form and content are symbolically linked in the sense advocated by Langacker. Thus a construction is treated like a sign in which all structural aspects are integrated parts and not distributed over different modules as they are in the componential model. Consequentially, not only constructions that are lexically fixed, like many idioms, but also more abstract ones like argument structure schemata, are pairings of form and conventionalized meaning.

The Khoe mainly occupy the Okavango Delta of Botswana. Specifically, Khwe speakers primarily live in the western Caprivi area in Namibia, however, the entirety of the Khoe population occupies a much larger geography. Khwe speakers in the western Caprivi are somewhat distant, lexically, from other similar Khoe languages, such as Damara. According to a dialect survey conducted by the University of Namibia's Department of African Languages, it was revealed that proto-Damara most likely migrated through the western Caprivi area before the Khwe settled the area, as there is little lexical overlap.

In all the inscription records the virtues and highlights of the first seven Zhou kings. Slightly before the midpoint of the passage, the inscription begins describing the caster's own family, beginning with how his high ancestor had been moved from a more eastern location to the Zhou homeland at the time of the conquest of Shang by Zhou. The account touches on such subjects as the appropriateness of Qiang's grandfather's sacrifices, as well as the agricultural success of Qiang's father. The language of the inscription is difficult both graphically and lexically.

Historically, Bumthang and its speakers have had close contact with speakers of the Kurtöp, Nupbi and Kheng languages, nearby East Bodish languages of central and eastern Bhutan, to the extent that they may be considered part of a wider collection of "Bumthang languages." Bumthang language is largely lexically similar with Kheng (92%), Nyen (75%–77%), and Kurtöp (70%–73%); but less so with Dzongkha (47%–52%) and Tshangla (40%–50%, also called "Sharchop"). It is either closely related to or identical with the Tawang language of the Monpa people of Tawang in India and China.

Extent of the Kaiwá language in the northeast Argentine panhandle shown in teal. Kaiwá is a Guarani language spoken by about 18,000 Kaiwá people in Brazil in the state of Mato Grosso do Sul and 510 people in northeastern Argentina. Literacy is 5-10% in Kaiwá and 15–25% in Portuguese. Kaiwá proper is 70% lexically similar with the Pai Tavytera language, and its similarity to its linguistic cousin Guaraní, one of the two national-languages of Paraguay alongside the Spanish language, means it is even sometimes considered mutually intelligible.

Koti, like most Bantu languages, is a register tone language with two tones: High and Low. Tone is not lexically distinctive for verbs, but it is very important in verbal inflection and in some other parts of grammar. Contour tones (falling and rising tones) do occur, but only on long vowels, therefore they are analysed as sequences of the H and L level tones. There is a process of High Doubling which spreads any H tone to the following tone bearing unit, and a process of Final Lowering which deletes any utterance-final High tone.

Press, 1985. Eu tenho comido translates "I have been eating" rather than "I have eaten". (However, other tenses are still as in Spanish: eu tinha comido means "I had eaten" in modern Portuguese, like Spanish yo había comido.) The perfect aspect may be indicated lexically by using the simple past form of the verb, preceded by "já" (already): Eu já comi (Lit: "I already ate") connotes "I have already eaten". E.g.: Ele já foi, como sabem, duas vezes candidato ao Prémio Sakharov, que é atribuído anualmente por este Parlamento.

The Atwot people speak the Atwot language (Atwot: Thok Reel), which was first recognized as a separate language from Dinka by anthropologist John Burton in 1987. It is a Western Nilotic language of the Dinka-Nuer group, closely related to the Nuer language and more distantly to the Luo languages. SIL International estimate that the number of Atuot speakers is 50,000. Atwot speakers distinguish two dialects to their language, Thok Reel Cieng Luai and Thok Reel Cieng Nhyam with Thok Reel Cieng Nhyam being the more lexically conservative of the two.

Mainz University. The language is geographically concentrated around Lake Zway; specifically, in Herera, Meki, Ziway, and the five islands: Fundurro Island (Famat or Getesemani Island) the smallest island; Tsedecha Island (Aysut Island), next to the biggest island; Debre-Tsion Island, the largest island; Gelila Island; and Debre Sina Island. It is an endangered language, with speakers migrating to the mainland adopting the Oromo language, and increasing use of Oromo by the younger generations on the Zay islands. Zay is 70% lexically similar with the Siltʼe language, and 60% with Harari.

The Lurish dialects are descended from Middle Persian (Pahlavi). They belong to the Persid or Southern Zagros group, and are lexically similar to modern Persian, differing mainly in phonology. According to the Encyclopædia Iranica, "All Lori dialects closely resemble standard Persian and probably developed from a stage of Persian similar to that represented in Early New Persian texts written in Perso-Arabic script. The sole typical Lori feature not known in early New Persian or derivable from it is the inchoative marker (see below), though even this is found in Judeo- Persian texts".

All variables are lexically scoped at the subroutine or module level, but unlike most structured languages, ICI allows the current scope to be adjusted (Tcl also allows this, for example). ICI is not object-based, many object programming features can be emulated in the language by using a data structure inheritance feature called super- structures. To support application development, ICI has C-like file I/O and system interface support, as well as a high-level event trigger facility. The language also has a modest standard library of built-in functions.

C# (pronounced see sharp, like the musical note C♯, but written with the number sign) is a general-purpose, multi-paradigm programming language encompassing strong typing, lexically scoped, imperative, declarative, functional, generic, object-oriented (class-based), and component-oriented programming disciplines. It was developed around 2000 by Microsoft as part of its .NET initiative and later approved as an international standard by Ecma (ECMA-334) in 2002 and ISO (ISO/IEC 23270) in 2003. Mono is the name of the free and open-source project to develop a compiler and a runtime environment (i.e.

However, Owen pointed out that there was no trace of Flemish custom or language in his time. In fact, traditional Pembrokeshire English is lexically related to the Early English of southwest England, and in all probability the anglicisation of the south Wales coast paralleled the anglicisation of Devon and Cornwall, perhaps concurrently. A 2003 DNA studyC Capelli et al., “A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles”, Current Biology,3, 979-984 (2003) showed that people in 'Little England' are genetically indistinguishable from the people of southern England.

17 However it is clear that Scottish island names have involved frequent etymological reinterpretation and some of them are pre-Celtic in origin - perhaps even pre-Indo-European - which "leaves us with the thought that practically all the major islands in the Northern and Western Isles have very old names, so old and so linguistically and lexically opaque that we do not have any plausible referents for them elsewhere. They are linguistic fossils, perhaps some three thousand years old or even older."Broderick (2103) p. 21 quoting Nicolaisen (1992) "Arran Place-Names: a fresh look".

Wappo and Yuki are quite divergent grammatically and lexically (Goddard 1996: 83), which has led to contested theories about their relationship. Additionally, the Wappo and Yuki people were quite distinct culturally and even in physical type (Goddard 1996: 83). The Yuki–Wappo languages appear to belong to the very earliest strata of languages in California, even predating Hokan (Goddard 1996: 84). Yuki is associated with the Mendocino Complex around Clear Lake (3000 BCE), while Wappo of the Napa Valley is associated with the St. Helena Aspect of the Augustine Pattern.

In the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, they are called Kalaktang Monpa (and are lexically distinct). whereas about 7,000 Tshangla-speaking people also live in Pemako (Bomê and Mêdog County) in southeastern Tibet, China and India. There are about 8,000 Kalaktang Monpa speakers in Khalaktang, Balimu, and Tomko villages, Kalaktang administrative center, West Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh, India (Ethnologue). About 1000 to 15000 Tsangla speakers are also live in Tuting Town, Kopu, Bona, Gelling, Bishing along the Tsangpo (Siang) river and Nyering, Payingdem, Nyukong, Yortong, Mankota, Tashigong, Singa along the Yangsang Chu river, Upper Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh, India.

Most modern languages use lexical scope for variables and functions, though dynamic scope is used in some languages, notably some dialects of Lisp, some "scripting" languages, and some template languages. Perl 5 offers both lexical and dynamic scope. Even in lexically scoped languages, scope for closures can be confusing to the uninitiated, as these depend on the lexical context where the closure is defined, not where it is called. Lexical resolution can be determined at compile time, and is also known as early binding, while dynamic resolution can in general only be determined at run time, and thus is known as late binding.

One important discovery of meaning–text linguistics was the recognition that LUs in a language can be related to one another in an abstract semantic sense and that this same relation also holds across many lexically-unrelated pairs or sets of LUs. These relations are represented in MTT as lexical functions (LF). An example of a simple LF is Magn(L), which represents collocations used in intensification such as heavy rain, strong wind, or intense bombardment. A speaker of English knows that for a given lexeme L such as RAIN the value of Magn(RAIN) = HEAVY, whereas Magn(WIND) = STRONG, and so on.

Written Chinese is not based on an alphabet or syllabary, so Chinese dictionaries, as well as dictionaries that define Chinese characters in other languages, cannot easily be alphabetized or otherwise lexically ordered, as English dictionaries are. The need to arrange Chinese characters in order to permit efficient lookup has given rise to a considerable variety of ways to organize and index the characters. A traditional mechanism is the method of radicals, which uses a set of character roots. These roots, or radicals, generally but imperfectly align with the parts used to compose characters by means of logical aggregation and phonetic complex.

Cruijff's Dutch was not the generally accepted variation (Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands or ABN), according to linguist Jan Stroop. Lexically, Cruijffiaans is noted for its syncretism of highly diverse linguistic registers, and combines a working class Amsterdam dialect and football lingo with words not frequently found in the language of football. Semantically, Cruijffiaans contains many tautologies and paradoxes that, while appearing mundane or self-evident, suggest a deeper level of meaning, a mysterious layer not normally attainable for the average speaker or listener. Syntactically, it uses the rules of Dutch grammar selectively and freely reorganizes word order.

Various types of PSE exist, ranging from highly English-influenced PSE (practically relexified English) to PSE which is quite close to ASL lexically and grammatically, but may alter some subtle features of ASL grammar. Fingerspelling may be used more often in PSE than it is normally used in ASL. There have been some constructed sign languages, known as Manually Coded English (MCE), which match English grammar exactly and simply replace spoken words with signs; those systems are not considered to be varieties of ASL. Tactile ASL (TASL) is a variety of ASL used throughout the United States by and with the deaf-blind.

Watters argued that Kusunda is indeed a language isolate, not just genealogically but also lexically, grammatically, and phonologically distinct from its neighbors. This would imply that Kusunda is a remnant of the languages spoken in northern India before the influx of Tibeto- Burman- and Indo-Iranian-speaking peoples, however it is not classified as a Munda or a Dravidian language. It thus joins Burushaski, Nihali and (potentially) the substrate of the Vedda language in the list of South Asian languages that do not fall into the main categories of Indo-European, Dravidian, Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic.

Also shared with Lisp are the implicit return of the last value in a block, and the fact that all statements have a value, and thus are also expressions and can be used in larger expressions themselves. Perl 5 added features that support complex data structures, first-class functions (that is, closures as values), and an object-oriented programming model. These include references, packages, class-based method dispatch, and lexically scoped variables, along with compiler directives (for example, the `strict` pragma). A major additional feature introduced with Perl 5 was the ability to package code as reusable modules.

Around seven Tanzanian sign languages were developed independently among deaf students in separate Tanzanian schools for the deaf starting in 1963, though use of several are forbidden by their schools. In 1984, a standardized Tanzanian Sign Language was proposed by the Tanzania Association for the Deaf, using common or similar signs where these exist in the schools which allowed research, but it has not been officially implemented, and there remains little influence between the languages. A dictionary has been produced. Lexically, the variety that developed in the oralist deaf school in Tabora is significantly different from the dictionary, and is under investigation.

Hlonipha, or isihlonipho, is a traditional system of avoidance speech in Nguni Bantu languages and Sotho of southern Africa including Zulu, Xhosa and Swazi and Sotho. This special speech style and correlating respectful behaviors may be used in many contexts, but is most strongly associated with married women in respect to their father-in-law and other senior male relatives. Women who practice hlonipha may not say the names of these men or any words with the same root as their names. They avoid the taboo words phonologically (substituting sounds) or lexically (substituting words with synonyms, etc.).

In linguistics, semelfactive is a class of aktionsart or lexical aspect (verb aspects that reflect the temporal flow of the denoted event, lexically incorporated into the verb's root itself rather than grammatically expressed by inflections or auxiliary verbs). The event represented by a semelfactive verb is punctual (instantaneous, taking just a moment), perfective (treated as a complete action with no explicit internal temporal structure), and atelic (not having an end). Semelfactive verbs include "blink", "sneeze", and "knock". The idea of semelfactive as a category of lexical aspect was first posited by Bernard ComrieBernard Comrie, 1976. Aspect.

Roïdis pointed out that it was not simply a matter of spoken versus written forms, since both were being spoken, and on exactly the same topics; or of social class or educational level, since the same men were using both. Instead of gradually moving to a more informal style or register, as in other languages, the speakers were switching out of one language and into another, lexically and grammatically distinct, with nothing in between. Translated in Mackridge 2009 p. 27. In the same year he began work on a longer treatment of the language question, The Idols, which was substantially complete by 1888.

Many Japantowns will exhibit the use of the Japanese language in signage existing on road signs and on buildings as Japanese is the official and primary language of Japan. Japanese has a lexically distinct pitch-accent system. Early Japanese is known largely on the basis of its state in the 8th century, when the three major works of Old Japanese were compiled. The earliest attestation of the Japanese language is in a Chinese document from 252 AD. Japanese is written with a combination of three scripts: hiragana, derived from the Chinese cursive script, katakana, derived as a shorthand from Chinese characters, and kanji, imported from China.

Aklanon (Akeanon), also known as Aklan, is an Austronesian language of the Bisayan subgroup spoken by the Aklanon people in the province of Aklan on the island of Panay in the Philippines. Its unique feature among other Bisayan languages is the close-mid back unrounded vowel [ɤ] occurring as part of diphthongs and traditionally written with the letter E such as in the name Akeanon (Aklanon). However, this phoneme is also present in sister Philippine languages, namely Itbayat, Isneg, Manobo, Samal and Sagada. The Malaynon dialect is 93% lexically similar to Aklanon and retained the "l" sounds, which elsewhere are often pronounced as "r".

Mental lexicon refers to the permanent store of words in an individual's memory, and is thought to be organized in a semantic network. This network is related to the spreading activation model purposed by Collins and Loftus, as one word (node) is activated, words that are semantically and lexically related will also be activated. Mental Lexicon Model Evidence has been found to support the view that a bilingual individual has the same conceptual system for both of their languages. Dong, Gui, and Macwhinney have demonstrated the convergence of a new language into a preexisting mental lexicon in their article "Shared and Separate Meanings in the Bilingual Mental Lexicon".

These examples all only require lexical context, and while they complicate a lexer somewhat, they are invisible to the parser and later phases. A more complex example is the lexer hack in C, where the token class of a sequence of characters cannot be determined until the semantic analysis phase, since typedef names and variable names are lexically identical but constitute different token classes. Thus in the hack, the lexer calls the semantic analyzer (say, symbol table) and checks if the sequence requires a typedef name. In this case, information must flow back not from the parser only, but from the semantic analyzer back to the lexer, which complicates design.

Hangzhou dialect (, Rhangzei Rhwa) is spoken in the city of Hangzhou and its immediate suburbs, but excluding areas further away from Hangzhou such as Xiāoshān (蕭山) and Yúháng (余杭) (both originally county-level cities and now the districts within Hangzhou City). The number of speakers of the Hangzhou dialect has been estimated to be about 1.2 to 1.5 million. It is a dialect of Wu, one of the Chinese varieties. The Hangzhou dialect is of immense interest to Chinese historical phonologists and dialectologists because phonologically, it exhibits extensive similarities with the other Wu dialects; however, grammatically and lexically, it shows many Mandarin tendencies.

The concept of automatic variables in recursive (and nested) functions in a lexically scoped language was introduced to the wider audience with ALGOL in the late 1950s, and further popularized by its many descendants. The term local variable is usually synonymous with automatic variable, since these are the same thing in many programming languages, but local is more general – most local variables are automatic local variables, but static local variables also exist, notably in C. For a static local variable, the allocation is static (the lifetime is the entire program execution), not automatic, but it is only in scope during the execution of the function.

Red areas are where English dialects of the late 20th century were rhotic.Based on P. Trudgill, The Dialects of England. The earliest traces of a loss of in English appear in the early 15th century and occur before coronal consonants, especially , giving modern "ass (buttocks)" (Old English ears, Middle English ers or ars), and "bass (fish)" (OE bærs, ME bars). A second phase of -loss began during the 15th century and was characterized by sporadic and lexically variable deletion, such as monyng "morning" and cadenall "cardinal". These -less spellings appeared throughout the 16th and the 17th centuries but are uncommon and are restricted to private documents, especially ones written by women.

ISWIM is an imperative programming language with a functional core, consisting of a syntactic sugaring of lambda calculus to which are added mutable variables and assignment and a powerful control mechanism: the program point operator. Being based on lambda calculus, ISWIM has higher-order functions and lexically scoped variables. The operational semantics of ISWIM are defined using Landin's SECD machine and use call-by-value, that is eager evaluation. A goal of ISWIM was to look more like mathematical notation, so Landin abandoned ALGOL's semicolons between statements and `begin` ... `end` blocks and replaced them with the off-side rule and scoping based on indentation.

Experimental recordings of RP-speaking Cambridge University undergraduates has indicated that after coarticulatory effects are taken into account, words such as bag, that, gab, Ann, ban, damp, mad, bad, and sad may have slightly longer vowels than relatively shorter words such as lad, snag, pad, Pam, and plan. However, no evidence of consistent duration differentiation was found in the possible minimal pairs adder/adder, cad/CAD, can (noun)/can (verb), dam/damn, jam/jam, lam/lamb, manning/Manning, mass/mass, sad/SAD. This casts doubt on its status as a true phonemic split, and has been described instead as diachronically stable, lexically-specific sub-phonemic variation.

Both languages are historically related to Sranan Tongo, the creole language of coastal Suriname. About 50 percent of the Saramaccan lexicon derives from various West and Central African languages, 20 percent from English (the language of the original colonists in Suriname), 20 percent from Portuguese (the language of the overseers and slave masters on many Suriname plantations), and the remaining 10 percent from Amerindian languages and Dutch (the latter were later colonists).Richard Price, Travels with Tooy: History, Memory, and the African American Imagination, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008, p. 436. Although lexically different, the grammar resembles that of the other Atlantic creoles and derives from West African models.

Internet Science Fiction Database In 2012, the novel was included in the Library of America two-volume boxed set American Science Fiction: Nine Classic Novels of the 1950s, edited by Gary K. Wolfe. The novel was also included in David Pringle's list of 100 best science fiction novels. As with many significant works of science fiction, it was lexically inventive. The novel is cited by the Oxford English Dictionary as the first recorded source for a number of new words, including "soyaburger", "moon suit", "tri- di" for "three-dimensional", "R and D" for "research and development", "sucker-trap" for a shop aimed at gullible tourists, and one of the first uses of "muzak" as a generic term.

In perfect constructions apparently requiring the verb go, the normal past participle gone is often replaced by the past participle of the copula verb be, namely been. This gives rise to sentences of contrasting meaning. When been is used, the implication is that, at the time of reference, the act of going took place previously, but the subject is no longer at the place in question (unless a specific time frame including the present moment is specified). When gone is used, the implication is again that the act of going took place previously, but that the subject is still at (or possibly has not yet reached) that place (unless repetition is specified lexically).

This distinction applies particularly in languages like English that use definite and indefinite articles, frequently as a necessary component of noun phrases – the determiners may then be taken to be a class of words that includes the articles as well as other words that function in the place of articles. (The composition of this class may depend on the particular language's rules of syntax; for example, in English the possessives my, your etc. are used without articles and so can be regarded as determiners, whereas their Italian equivalents ' etc. are used together with articles and so may be better classed as adjectives.) Not all languages can be said to have a lexically distinct class of determiners.

Automatic local variables primarily applies to recursive lexically-scoped languages.although they exist in a somewhat similar, but not identical, form also in recursive languages with dynamic scoping, such as older variants of LISP Automatic local variables are normally allocated in the stack frame of the procedure in which they are declared.unless otherwise specified, such as static or heap-based data, which are specifiable in some languages This was originally done to achieve re- entrancy and allowing recursion,When the reentrant property of the routine is used, for recursion or otherwise, the optimizer must not try to allocate such variables in processor registers (for efficiency) as this would break the reentrancy. a consideration that still applies today.

700 Under the strictest definition, an argot is a proper language with its own grammatical system. But such complete secret languages are rare because the speakers usually have some public language in common, on which the argot is largely based. Such argots are lexically divergent forms of a particular language, with a part of its vocabulary replaced by words unknown to the larger public; argot used in this sense is synonymous with cant. For example, argot in this sense is used for systems such as verlan and louchébem, which retain French syntax and apply transformations only to individual words (and often only to a certain subset of words, such as nouns, or semantic content words).

They also formed the literary ideal to be followed, quoted, and imitated in solemn texts and speeches. Lexically, Classical Arabic may retain one or more of the dialectal forms of a given word as variants of the standardized forms, albeit often with much less currency and use. Various Arabic dialects freely borrowed words from Classical Arabic, a situation similar to the Romance languages, wherein scores of words were borrowed directly from Classical Latin. Arabic-speakers usually spoke Classical Arabic as a second language (if they spoke the colloquial dialects as their first language) or as a third language (if they spoke another language as their first language and a regional variety of colloquial Arabic as their second language).

Indonesian Sign Language, or Bahasa Isyarat Indonesia (BISINDO), is any of several related deaf sign languages of Indonesia, at least on the island of Java. It is based on American Sign Language (perhaps via Malaysian Sign Language), with local admixture in different cities. Although presented as a coherent language when advocating for recognition by the Indonesian government and use in education, the varieties used in different cities may not be mutually intelligible. Specifically, the only study to have investigated this, Isma (2012),Silva Tenrisara Pertiwi Isma, 2012, "Signing Varieties in Jakarta and Yogyakarta" found that the sign languages of Jakarta and Yogyakarta are related but distinct languages, that they remain 65% lexically cognate but are grammatically distinct and apparently diverging.

However, if a variable is assigned to, it defaults to declaring a variable whose scope starts at the start of the level (function, module, or global), not at the assignment. Both these rules can be overridden with a `global` or `nonlocal` (in Python 3) declaration prior to use, which allows accessing global variables even if there is a masking nonlocal variable, and assigning to global or nonlocal variables. As a simple example, a function resolves a variable to the global scope: >>> def f(): ... print(x) ... >>> x = "global" >>> f() global Note that `x` is defined before `f` is called, so no error is raised, even though it is defined after its reference in the definition of `f`. Lexically this is a forward reference, which is allowed in Python.

Lexemes with purely grammatical function such as lexically-governed prepositions are not included at this level of representation; values of inflectional categories that are derived from SemR but implemented by the morphology are represented as subscripts on the relevant lexical nodes that they bear on. DSyntR is mapped onto the next level of representation by rules of the deep-syntactic component. The surface-syntactic representation (SSyntR) represents the language-specific syntactic structure of an utterance and includes nodes for all the lexical items (including those with purely grammatical function) in the sentence. Syntactic relations between lexical items at this level are not restricted and are considered to be completely language-specific, although many are believed to be similar (or at least isomorphic) across languages.

Main facade New wing Gare du Nord as seen from the Thalys platform Panoramic view of the arrival hall Departure board showing typical destinations Eurostar, Thalys and TGV trains fill the platforms The Gare du Nord () (literally Station of the North, or more simply North Station, lexically), officially Paris-Nord, is one of the six large terminus stations of the SNCF mainline network for Paris, France. It serves train services toward regions north of Paris, along the Paris–Lille railway. Near Gare de l'Est in the 10th arrondissement, the Gare du Nord offers connections with several urban transport lines, including Paris Métro, RER and buses. By the number of travelers, around 222 million per year, it is the busiest railway station in Europe by total passenger numbers.

In 1958, one of the earliest studies of the relationship between social differences and dialect differences was published by John Gumperz, who studied the speech patterns in Khalapur, a small, highly stratified village in India. In all, the village has 31 castes, ranging from Brahmins and Rajputs at the top, to Chamars and Bhangis at the bottom, and 90% of the overall population was Hindu, with the remaining 10% Muslim. Gumperz observed that the different castes were distinguished both phonologically and lexically, with each caste having a vocabulary specific to their subculture. Remarkably, the speech differences between Hindus and Muslims "are of the same order as those between individual touchable castes and certainly much less important than the variation between touchables and untouchables".

Revista Española de Lingüística de Lengua de Signos (RELLS), Madrid 2001. Promotora Española de Lingüística (PROEL) Mutual intelligibility with the rest of the sign languages used in Spain is generally high due to a highly shared lexicon. However, Catalan Sign Language, Valencian Sign Language as well as the Spanish Sign Language dialects used in eastern Andalusia, Canary Islands, Galicia and Basque Country are the most distinctive lexically (between 10 and 30% difference in the use of nouns, depending on the case). Only the Catalan and Valencian Sign Languages share less than 75% of their vocabulary with the rest of the Spanish dialects, which makes them particularly marked, distinct dialects or even languages separate from Spanish Sign Language, depending on the methods used to determine language versus dialect.

However, the variable is visible to any function called from within the block.perldoc.perl.org: perlsub: Temporary Values via `local()` To create lexically-scoped local variables, use the `my` operator instead.perldoc.perl.org: perlsub: Private Variables via `my()` To understand how it works consider the following code: $a = 1; sub f() { local $a; $a = 2; g(); } sub g() { print "$a "; } g(); f(); g(); this will output: 1 2 1 This happens since the global variable $a is modified to a new temporary (local) meaning inside , but the global value is restored upon leaving the scope of . Using `my` in this case instead of `local` would have printed 1 three times since in that case the `$a` variable would be limited to the static scope of the function and not seen by .

Eastern Newfoundland was one of the few places outside Ireland where the Irish language was spoken by a majority of the population as their primary language. Newfoundland Irish was of Munster derivation and was still in use by older people into the first half of the twentieth century. It has influenced Newfoundland English both lexically (in words like angishore and sleveen) and grammatically (the after past-tense construction, for instance). The family names, the features and colouring, the predominant Catholic religion, the prevalence of Irish music – even the dialect and accent of the people – are so reminiscent of rural Ireland that Irish author Tim Pat Coogan has described Newfoundland as "the most Irish place in the world outside of Ireland".

Either of two surface tone distinctions, H (high) or L (low), is possible for each syllable (and in certain limited cases rising (LH) and falling (HL) tones are possible too). There is a subtype within the L tone category: when a syllable is 'depressed' (that is, from a depressor consonant in the onset position, or a morphologically or lexically imposed depression feature in the syllabic nucleus), the syllable is produced phonetically at a lower pitch. This system of tone depression is phonologically regular (that is, the product of a small number of phonological parameters), but is highly complex, interacting extensively with the morphology (and to some extent with the lexicon). Phonologically, Phuthi is argued to display a three-way High/Low/toneless distinction.

Using this information, the previous code fragment may be safely transformed into: w := 3 x := w y := w + 4 z := y Depending on the code following this fragment, copy propagation may be able to remove the assignments to `x` and to `z` The reason that GVN is sometimes more powerful than CSE comes from the fact that CSE matches lexically identical expressions whereas the GVN tries to determine an underlying equivalence. For instance, in the code: a := c × d e := c f := e × d Without copy propagation, CSE would not eliminate the recomputation assigned to `f`, but even a poor GVN algorithm should discover and eliminate this redundancy. SSA form is required to perform GVN so that false {variable name → value name} mappings are not created.

Clark (2009) groups the North Vanuatu and Central Vanuatu languages together into a North–Central Vanuatu (NCV) group and also reconstructs Proto-North–Central Vanuatu, but this is not accepted by Lynch (2018). In addition to the Reefs – Santa Cruz languages and the Meso- Melanesian languages of the western Solomon Islands, Geraghty (2017) notes that many Southern Oceanic languages are often lexically and typologically aberrant languages likely with Papuan substrata – particularly the Santo, Malakula, South Vanuatu, and New Caledonian languages, and perhaps also some Central Vanuatu languages of Ambrym and Efate. Nevertheless, languages in the eastern Solomon Islands, including Guadalcanal, Malaita, Makira, and adjcacent islands, are much more conservative, and not as lexicaly aberrant as the Temotu languages and languages of the western Solomons.

The first word of each Biblical book is also as a rule surrounded by notes. The latter are called the Initial Masorah; the notes on the side margins or between the columns are called the Small (Masora parva or Mp) or Inner Masorah (Masora marginalis); and those on the lower and upper margins, the Large or Outer Masorah (Masora magna or Mm[Mas.M]). The name "Large Masorah" is applied sometimes to the lexically arranged notes at the end of the printed Bible, usually called the Final Masorah, (Masora finalis), or the Masoretic Concordance. The Small Masorah consists of brief notes with reference to marginal readings, to statistics showing the number of times a particular form is found in Scripture, to full and defective spelling, and to abnormally written letters.

There is some linguistic continuity between the earliest and modern names for many of the larger islands surrounding Scotland. However, the derivations of many of these names are obscure "suggesting that they were coined very early on, some perhaps by the earliest settlers after the Ice Age." Even when names used both in the historic past and the present have some apparent meaning this may indicate a phonetic resemblance to an older name, but one that may be "so old and so linguistically and lexically opaque that we do not have any plausible referents for them." Fast-flowing sea water under the 18th-century Clachan Bridge that links Seil to mainland Scotland The Ravenna Cosmography, which was compiled by an anonymous cleric in Ravenna around 700, mentions various Scottish island names.

For most such languages, the case of the intransitive argument is lexically fixed for each verb, regardless of the actual degree of volition of the subject, but often corresponding to the most typical situation. For example, the argument of swim may always be treated like the transitive subject (agent-like), and the argument of sleep like the transitive direct object (patient-like). In Dakota, arguments of active verbs such as to run are marked like transitive agents, as in accusative languages, and arguments of inactive verbs such as to stand are marked like transitive objects, as in ergative languages. In such language, if the subject of a verb like run or swallow is defined as agentive, it will be always marked so even if the action of swallowing is involuntary.

The Yorta Yorta language may be a language isolate within the Pama-Nyungan language family, though it is often treated as a member of the Yotayotic branch of that family along with Yabula Yabula, which is not particularly close. It is a dialect continuum of closely related languages traditionally spoken on either side of the Murray River from west of Echuca to east of the Cobram/Tocumwal area, and south-east along the Goulburn River as far as the Mooroopna/Shepparton. It was a first language for many of these groups down to around 1960 but elements of the language are still transmitted in families by descendants to this day. It shares few similarities in vocabulary with the languages used by neighbouring tribes, and lexically seems closest to Pallanganmiddang.

Discourse in Nepalese Sign Language shares many features with discourse in other sign language: # Discourse tends to be firmly "anchored" deictically, both within the space-time of the speech situation and also within the space-time of the narrative situation. As space in front of and around the signer can both represent real world space, but also the narrative world space, in addition to being used grammatically, index points and other spatial references are frequent, and may shift between the various frames. # Clause length in discourse tends to be rather short, so that, for example, clauses with transitive verbs will very rarely have both agent and patient expressed lexically. # What would in spoken discourse be called "co-speech gesture" in fact is fully integrated into the communicative semiotic of sign language discourse.

GL was initially developed as a theoretical framework for encoding selectional knowledge in natural language. This in turn required making some changes in the formal rules of representation and composition. Perhaps the most controversial aspect of GL has been the manner in which lexically encoded knowledge is exploited in the construction of interpretations for linguistic utterances. The computational resources available to a lexical item within this theory consist of the following four levels: #Lexical typing structure: giving an explicit type for a word positioned within a type system for the language; #Argument structure: specifying the number and nature of the arguments to a predicate; #Event structure: defining the event type of the expression and any subeventual structure it may have; with subevents; #Qualia structure: a structural differentiation of the predicative force for a lexical item.

The root of the name is the old Slavic word for fur, кърьзно, which can be transliterated as "kyrizno" or "kurizno" ("ъ" is the Slavic letter designating an ultra-short vowel, as for instance the "y" in "Katyusha"). The Polish word for furrier is Kuśnierz, also used as a surname, with similar words and names found in Serbian and Croatian. Through the Slavic fur merchants, the word was also adopted into Germanic languages and evolved for instance into the modern German and Swedish words for furrier, Kürschner and körsnär respectively. Yiddish is a language lexically based to a large degree on German, and therefore a Yiddish-speaking Jew living in Ukraine or Poland could relate to the local word for furrier both through the local Slavic language, as through his mother tongue.

In order for local functions with lexically scoped nonlocals to be passed as results, the language runtime code must also implicitly pass the environment (data) that the function sees inside its encapsulating function, so that it is reachable also when the current activation of the enclosing function no longer exists.Such a combination of function code and its environment is sometimes called a closure. This means that the environment must be stored in another memory area than (the subsequently reclaimed parts of) a chronologically based execution stack, which, in turn, implies some sort of freely dynamic memory allocation. Many older Algol based languages (or dialects thereof) does therefore not allow local functions that access nonlocals to be passed as return values, or do they not allow functions as return values at all, although passing of such functions as arguments may still be possible.

Variables are lexically scoped at function level (not block level as in C), and this does not depend on order (forward declaration is not necessary): if a variable is declared inside a function (at any point, in any block), then inside the function, the name will resolve to that variable. This is equivalent in block scoping to variables being forward declared at the top of the function, and is referred to as '."JavaScript Scoping and Hoisting", Ben Cherry, Adequately Good, 2010-02-08 However, the variable value is `undefined` until it is initialized, and forward reference is not possible. Thus a statement in the middle of the function is equivalent to a declaration statement at the top of the function, and an assignment statement at that point in the middle of the function – only the declaration is hoisted, not the assignment.

Brewer began her research career as a medievalist, with publications on the late Middle English poem Piers Plowman and its textual and editing history. The poet appears to have produced several versions of Piers Plowman at different times. Brewer's book Piers Plowman: the Z version (edited with A.G. Rigg, Toronto 1983) advanced the view that a disregarded manuscript in Oxford's Bodley Library (Bodley 851) might be an early, or even first, iteration of the poem rather than a conflation of two other versions. In a later book, Piers Plowman: the Evolution of the Poem (Cambridge University Press, 1996; reprinted 2006), Brewer looked at how editors producing single printed texts of the poem over the last five centuries assessed the evidence of the poet's original intent from the numerous and lexically varied scribal manuscripts available for scholarly interpretation.

These languages generally include signs derived from gestures used by the hearing population, so that neighboring village sign languages may be lexically similar without being actually related, due to local similarities in cultural gestures which preceded the sign languages. Most village sign languages are endangered due to the spread of formal education for the deaf, which use or generate Deaf-community sign languages, such as a national or foreign sign language. When a language is not shared with the village or hearing community as a whole, but is only used within a few families and their friends, it may be distinguished as a family sign language. In such cases, most of the hearing signers may be native speakers of the language, if they are members of one of these families, or acquired it at a young age.

O'Grady trained as a jackaroo and worked as a stockman at Wallal Downs station pastoral lease some north-east of Port Hedland from 1949 to 1955. From 1952 he carried out linguistic studies, focusing particularly on the Nyangumarta language and people. Challenging the received notion that Aboriginal languages were lexically impoverished, O'Grady gathered some 4,000 roots which, together with Helmut Petri and Gisela Odermann's list of 6,550 words compiled at Anna Plains, gave proof of a rich language that could appropriate by assimilation and grammatical modification many concepts that were exclusive to the domain of Western civilisation. Over two months in March/April 1961, O'Grady and the visiting American linguist Ken Hale made a sweeping survey tour of coastal languages spoken from Port Augusta in South Australia to Broome in Western Australia, and managed to record significant quantities of material from 26 languages.

Within the indicative mood, there is a present tense habitual aspect form (which can also be used with stative verbs), a past tense habitual aspect form (which also can be used with stative verbs), a near past tense form, a remote past tense form (which can also be used to convey past perspective on an immediately prior situation or event), a future-in-the-past form (which can also be used modally for a conjecture about the past or as a conditional result of a counterfactual premise), and a future tense form (which can also be used for the modality of present conjecture, especially with a lexically stative verb, or of determination/intention). There are also some constructions showing an even greater degree of periphrasis: one for progressive aspect and ones for the modalities of volition ("want to"), necessity/obligation ("have to", "need to"), and ability ("be able to").

Certain areas outside of this core also clearly demonstrate a Midland accent, including Charleston, South Carolina; the Texan cities of Abilene, Austin, and Corpus Christi; and central and southern Florida. Twentieth-century dialectology was the first to identify the "Midland" as a region lexically distinct from the Northern and Southern U.S., later even focusing on an internal division (North Midland versus South Midland); however, 21st-century studies now reveal increasing unification of the South Midland with a larger, newer Southern accent region, while much of the North Midland retains a more "General American" accent. Early 20th-century boundaries established for the Midland dialect region are being reduced or revised, since several previous sub-regions of Midland speech have since developed their own distinct dialects. Pennsylvania, the original home state of the Midland dialect, is one such area, having now formed such unique dialects as Philadelphia and Pittsburgh English.

When a function is called, the computer must "remember" the place it was called from, the return address, so that it can return to that location with the result once the call is complete. Typically, this information is saved on the call stack, a simple list of return locations in order of the times that the call locations they describe were reached. For tail calls, there is no need to remember the caller - instead, tail call elimination makes only the minimum necessary changes to the stack frame before passing it on, and the tail-called function will return directly to the original caller. The tail call doesn't have to appear lexically after all other statements in the source code; it is only important that the calling function return immediately after the tail call, returning the tail call's result if any, since the calling function is bypassed when the optimization is performed.

Lexically, Panamanian Spanish presents a variety of new terms introduced and being incorporated into the daily language all the time. The following quotation shows some common Panamanian expressions: > "Vecina, yo no soy vidajena, y no me gusta esa vaina ... pero te voy a > contar un bochinche... > pero si me das de comer un poco de chicheme, concolón, carimañola, sancocho > y mondongo.... > Ese man flacuchento y ñato vestido de guayabera azul y sombrero montuno que > viene allí ... Su motete ya no tiene ñame, guineo ni guandú. Lo que tiene es > un pocotón de chécheres. Según la comadre fula radiobemba, el cambio en ese > laopé no se debe a una macuá ..." ¹ ¹ From Carlos "Cubena" Guillermo Wilson, "El aporte cultural de la etnia negra en Panamá" [Note: laopé = pelao ("boy") (vesre)] Panamanians sometimes use loanwords from English, partly due to the prolonged existence of the Panama Canal Zone.

British linguist Michael K. Halliday proposes a useful dichotomy of spoken and written language which actually entails a shift in paradigm: while linguistic theory posits the superiority of spoken language over written language (as the former is the origin, comes naturally, and thus precedes the written language), or the written over the spoken (for the same reasons: the written language being the highest form of rudimentary speech), Halliday states they are two entirely different entities. He claims that speech is grammatically complex while writing is lexically dense. In other words, a sentence such as "a cousin of mine, the one about whom I was talking the other day—the one who lives in Houston, not the one in Dallas—called me up yesterday to tell me the very same story about Mary, who..." is most likely to be found in conversation, not as a newspaper headline. "Prime Minister vows conciliation", on the other hand, would be a typical news headline.

The Andronikov Gospels were made in the Andronikov Monastery, Moscow in the early 15th century Christ in majesty in a mandorla, surrounded by emblems of the evangelists: ivory plaques on a wooden coffret, Cologne, first half of the 13th century (Musée de Cluny) Christ in Majesty or Christ in Glory ()The lexically similar Maestà, Italian for "majesty", conventionally designates an iconic formula of the enthroned Madonna with the child Jesus. is the Western Christian image of Christ seated on a throne as ruler of the world, always seen frontally in the centre of the composition, and often flanked by other sacred figures, whose membership changes over time and according to the context. The image develops from Early Christian art, as a depiction of the Heavenly throne as described in 1 Enoch, Daniel 7, and The Apocalypse of John. In the Byzantine world, the image developed slightly differently into the half-length Christ Pantocrator, "Christ, Ruler of All", a usually unaccompanied figure, and the Deesis, where a full-length enthroned Christ is entreated by Mary and St. John the Baptist, and often other figures.

22 and published sections of the book in serial form in their literary magazine transition, under the title Work in Progress. For the next few years, Joyce worked rapidly on the book, adding what would become chapters I.1 and I.6, and revising the already written segments to make them more lexically complex.quoted in Crispi, Slote 2007, p. 22 By this time some early supporters of Joyce's work, such as Ezra Pound and the author's brother Stanislaus Joyce, had grown increasingly unsympathetic to his new writing.Ellmann 1983, pp. 577–585, 603 In order to create a more favourable critical climate, a group of Joyce's supporters (including Samuel Beckett, William Carlos Williams, Rebecca West, and others) put together a collection of critical essays on the new work. It was published in 1929 under the title Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress.The Cambridge Companion to James Joyce, Derek Attridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990, , p 174 In July 1929, increasingly demoralised by the poor reception his new work was receiving, Joyce approached his friend James Stephens about the possibility of his completing the book.