880 Sentences With "galls" | Random Sentence Generator

When the researchers dissected 51 love-vine-infested galls from one wasp species, they found that 45 percent contained a mummified adult wasp, compared with only 2 percent of uninfested galls.

It's just a myth, and one that particularly galls Mikkelson.

And I will tell you something that really galls me.

First of all, oak galls can dry up the vagina.

But eventually, they caught some living inside fallen tree galls.

The vine isn't just randomly attacking the galls, the researchers conjecture.

That is where galls of this particular wasp species form, however.

The plant puffs and swells, forming tumor-like growths called galls.

There the researchers found numerous instances of the vine entering the galls.

This, I think, is what galls so many about comics-based mega-franchises.

Trump galls him, and who also heads the giant commerce and services company

This obviously galls the majority of Americans who did not vote for Trump.

Yet, it is not the hypocrisy of department's budget that most galls me.

At this point, West's calling Swift "that bitch" is no longer what galls her.

How else are we going to use all those leftover oak galls and rainwater?

A reveler dressed as a "Harramacho" wears oak galls during the traditional Navalacruz Carnival on Feb.

Cruz is unsettling enough in isolation, but it's the combination of him and Trump that really galls.

Such clock-in-clock-out treatment galls the sort of ambitious workers drawn to the tech field.

There are four structural factors which contribute to the accelerated rises and galls in the Shanghai market.

We're told what especially galls Diddy ... he paid Alex to train his then-girlfriend and feels betrayed.

The size of a pin, the wasp locates smooth, dome-shaped galls created by the other wasps.

Leaves and galls from white oak trees were used to produce plant-based antiseptics during the U.S. Civil War.

Second of all, when we talk about being tough on Wall Street, and this galls me and the American people.

When it comes to products promising to tighten up vaginas, sadly, oak galls are just the tip of the iceberg.

What galls is Mr. Trump's cowardice paired with his condemnations of a heroic John McCain for being captured in Vietnam.

His team had hoped to learn about the diversity of gall wasp species and find galls that had been parasitized.

Using Porter's book as their guide, the researchers selected specific extracts from the bark, leaves, galls, and other parts of the plants.

But what galls many people, including Gonzalo, is that Preysler embodies the celebrity entertainment culture that Vargas Llosa long claimed to abhor.

Soon, he realized that in one patch, the oaks and their galls were threaded with a plant called the parasitic love vine.

Female gall wasps lay their eggs inside these hollow cavities (called galls, hence the name) which provide sustenance and shelter for the young.

Given that the average equity investment in a startup requires one document and a handshake, to spend upwards of $100,000 for documentation galls.

And the host tissue within dissected galls was twisted toward the vine's entry points, hinting that it was co-opting the gall's nutrients.

It's a tale as old as time: a maverick upstart galls a bigger, more established competitor, and the bigger guy strikes back in the courts.

In an interview with ABC Radio National, the official, Michael McCormack, said it "galls" him when people raise climate change in relation to bush fires.

The prospect of allowing commercial farming on reservations galls environmentalists and anthropologists who warn it will destroy native cultures and lead to exploitation of the Indians.

Between 2015 and 2018, Dr. Forbes's lab had collected more than 23,000 galls from oak trees in Iowa, the Midwest, New England, North Carolina and Texas.

What galls me is that many of the actresses whom Mr. Weinstein harassed have for the past two years been trashing President Trump for his comments over the years.

What really galls Glassnote is its claim that it has paid Donald nearly $8 MILLION and expects to pay him another $2 mil in royalties in the next 3 months.

Galls are like in-law apartments for parasites: swollen masses of plant tissue that route nutrients to wasp larvae, which grow and develop safely within until they are mature enough to leave.

What galls her most is that native people aren't often consulted, which is why she pushed for provisions to ensure that their consent is obtained for projects supported by the Green Climate Fund.

But it's important to recognize how your girlfriend experienced the posting of this tape in the first place, and why it so galls her: because she was given no choice in the matter.

The idea that he not only has to appear before Congress intermittently but also sit and take the slings and arrows (aka questions) thrown at him by the likes of Waters galls him.

Scientists studying wasps that target oak leaves found that a second parasite, a vine, can get its tendrils into the homes set up by the wasps, called galls, subverting their diversion of the host's resources.

The parasitoid crypt-keepers did have many different species of hosts, and all the hosts had one key thing in common: the galls they occupied were small, smooth, non-woody, lacking fuzz or sharp spines — defenseless.

At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the conservator Yana van Dyke has been creating experimental inks from plant extracts, including oak galls, or swollen tissue on oak trees infested by wasps, to compare with those used on manuscripts.

Read more " _____ Osita Nwanevu in Slate: "That ultimately may be what galls conservatives about Stoneman Douglas' teens most of all: They suggest the notions underpinning our status quo gun policy are infantile, beneath even them despite their youth.

Glass cases contain scores of primary materials: plants yielding yellows, blues and greens; oak galls from which black ink was extracted; and metals and minerals that would be processed to make reds, browns, pinks, purples, blues, greens, whites and blacks.

This spring, the mass media finally caught on to a disturbing trend in the world of DIY women's health: the powder of ground-up oak galls (tree growths that develop around wasp larvae laid in their branches) were being stuck in vaginas as a tightening agent.

Thankfully, critical minds quickly condemned this trend and debunked its apparent effectiveness, noting that while galls were historically used in parts of the world to treat vaginal infections and may have legitimate antibacterial properties, there's no traditional or medical basis for use of them in this way.

That Mr. McConnell could now blithely ask for a routine reception of a Trump nominee for the very seat that he managed to freeze unfilled for nearly a year galls Democrats to no end and demonstrates, more than ever, that it's impossible to match Mr. McConnell for sheer chutzpah.

In a city where people regularly pay $20 for European-style small plates, it galls me to hear grumblings about dishes that include complex chile powders made from individually toasted spices, some of them quite difficult to find; curries cooked with organic ingredients; and recipes culled from a lifetime of knowledge and multiple research trips.

Robert Shaprio (John Travolta) revels in his role as Simpson's lead attorney, and the attention and perks it entails, but knowing that he may not be entirely up to the task he assembles the titular dream team of high artillery legal firepower — even as it galls him to do so, and prompts him to lead by defending his role as the captain of the ship.

British Plant Galls. FSC Publications. . # Stubbs, F.B. ed. (1986). Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls.

Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 51 (4), 313–327. Species in Synergini usually make use of galls left by wasps in tribe Cynipini. Members of genus Periclistus reside in rose-cynipid galls, Synophromorpha on galls in Rubus plants, and the remainder in oak-cynipid galls.

Redfern, Margaret & Shirley, Peter (2002). British Plant Galls. Identification of galls on plants & fungi. AIDGAP. Shrewsbury : Field Studies Council. .

Spangles lying on the ground are often eaten by gamebirds and both of these galls are prone to being colonised by a variety of other organisms. Synergus spp. are inquilines which attack small galls, and the primary parasitoid Mesopolobus tibialis attacks medium size galls and Torymus auratus attacks large galls. The two parasitoids affect the final mature size of the spangle galls, highlighting the galling insects chemical influence upon the host plant.

Diseases associated with this genus include: WTV: galls (tumor). RDV: dwarf (or stunt) disease of rice. RGDV: dwarfing, stunting, and galls.

Identification of galls on plants & fungi. AIDGAP. Shrewsbury : Field Studies Council. . # Stubbs, F. B. Edit. (1986). Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls. Pub.

Identification of galls on plants & fungi. AIDGAP. Shrewsbury : Field Studies Council. . # Stubbs, F. B. Edit. (1986) Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls. Pub.

Apiomorpha is a genus of scale insect that induces galls on species of Eucalyptus. Galls are initiated by first-instar nymphs (crawlers) on new plant growth and, when mature, the galls exhibit marked sexual dimorphism. Those induced by females are among the largest and most spectacular of arthropod- induced galls whereas those of males are small and most are tubular.Gullan, P.J. 1984.

The midge causes galls to form on the terminal buds of native roses (Rosa spp.) The galls are tightly packed leafy rosettes with a central cavity.

The galls range in size from a 2–14 centimeters across and often contain multiple larvae as well as parasites and other species that form a mutual relationship by feeding off the galls themselves. The outer galls are hard in texture and are not easy to penetrate.

The tree is affected with many types of leaf galls caused by different types of insects. Many Cecidomyiidae genera such as Asphondylia, Lasioptera and Dasineura are known to cause plant galls. An unknown Itonididae (cecidomyiid) caused pouch leaf galls on the tree.Mishra, P., and V. Patni.

The larvae feed in galls on Acacia dealbata, caused by the rust fungus Uromycladium tepperianum and in galls on Acacia melanoxylon, caused by the fly Cecidomyia acaciaelongifoliae.

"The Spherical Gall Rust of Jack Pine." Mycologia 34.2 (1942): 120. Web. Galls can vary from small growths on branch extremities to grapefruit-sized galls on trunks.

Rhododendron ferrugineum infected by an Exobasidium fungus. Many rust fungi induce gall formation, including western gall rust, which infects a variety of pine trees and cedar-apple rust. Galls are often seen in Millettia pinnata leaves and fruits. Leaf galls appear like tiny clubs; however, flower galls are globose.

The hindwings are light fuscous. The larvae feed on Physalis virginiana var. spathulaefolia. They feed within galls on the upper stems. Pupation also takes place in these galls.

Andricus opertus, the fimbriate gall wasp, is a species of wasp in the family Cynipidae whose bisexual generation induces elongate, spiky galls on the leaves of various species of oaks in California, including valley oak and scrub oak. The galls of the bisexual generation form in spring, adults emerge in late spring, and galls persist on trees until the fall. The unisexual generation of this species forms aborted bud galls in the summer and fall.

Rose bedeguar galls and rose hips in autumn The galls occur more commonly on plants under stress, i.e. very dry conditions, waterlogging or hedge cutting, whereas vigorously growing plants are less commonly found to have galls. Whether the vigorous plant suppresses gall formation or is avoided by the wasp in favour of easier targets is unknown. Young and damaged plants tend to produce larger and more numerous galls than old and intact ones.

Galls Creek is a stream in the U.S. state of Oregon. It is a tributary to the Rogue River. Galls Creek was named in the 1850s after one Jacob Gall.

Nematodes are microscopic worms that live in the soil. Some nematodes (Meloidogyne species or root-knot nematodes) cause galls on the roots of susceptible plants. The galls are small, individual and beadlike in some hosts. In other plant species galls may be massive accumulations of fleshy tissue more than an inch in diameter.

Its larvae build galls on various species of the grape vine genus Vitis. They have been found on leaves of V. riparia, V. labrusca, and V. vulpina. Its galls have also been found on V. aestivalis bicolor. The galls are present in July and August, although have been documented as late as September 8.

The distances from margins of shrubs, however, affects neither the parasitoid ratio of galls nor the volume of the galls. Removing and destroying galls before they dry and the wasps emerge may help to reduce the infestation. While fairly large, and sometimes present in quite large numbers on scrub specimens, they cause no measurable harm.

This species has only been recorded from Scotland. It may occur in Sweden where similar looking galls (without larvae) have been found and on Kolguyev Island, where galls have also been found.

Quercus infectoria, the Aleppo oak, is a species of oak, bearing galls that have been traditionally used for centuries in Asia medicinally. Manjakani is the name used in Malaysia for the galls; these have been used for centuries in softening leather and in making black dye and ink. In India the galls are called majuphal among many other names.

Some species occur under the bark of the host plant and produce little or no ovisac secretion. The bodies of these are often pink or red. Many species produce galls, including Apiomorpha which feeds on various species of eucalypt and have a complex life cycle. It can produce separate male galls that are induced on existing female galls.

There can be up to 75 galls or even 135 galls on a single leaf. The galls are typically on the upper side of the leaf; their color is typically crimson, although they can be green when young or on the leaf's underside. They measure approximately long. The diameter of the gall at its base is .

Holcocera gargantuella is a moth in the family Blastobasidae. It is found in the United States, including Arizona. Larvae have been reared from galls found on Quercus alba, as well as Cynipidae-galls.

They form galls on the stems of their host plant.

The galls are pale- coloured with violet or red markings.

Rabdophaga roskami is a gall midge which may form galls on common ossier (Salix viminalis) or, the larva live in the galls formed by R. marginemtorquens. It was first described by H Stelter in 1989.

Galls may also provide the insect with physical protection from predators.

The females can reproduce asexually in galls of the oaks Quercus geminata, Quercus virginiana, and Quercus minima. These oak species are all in the Virentes subsection of Quercus. Galls are formed on the oaks' stem underneath the bark. Mature B. pallida come out of the galls in March or April, coinciding with the production of new leaves on the oak.

Trioza remota is a sap-sucking hemipteran bug in the family Triozidae which creates galls on the leaves of Quercus species.Redfern, Margaret; Shirley, Peter; Blxham, Michael (2011). British Plant Galls (Second ed.). Shrewsbury: FSC Publications. p. 246. .

As stated, two forms of galls exist for this species, the asexual phase inducing the acorn cup gall on the cups in late summer and the sexual phase inducing rounded galls on the oak catkins in spring.

They form large galls on the new stems of their host plant.

Galls may also provide the insect with some physical protection from predators.

As the plant senesces, the galls desiccate and the nematodes undergo anhydrobiosis.

In the winter, they have been recorded on galls from fusiform rust.

This hyperplasia in the roots caused the formation of galls (Vovlas 2005).

The gall wasp N. albipes, similar to N. quercusbaccarum The distribution and numbers of spangle galls on mature oak trees differs from that on young trees; the differences could be partly due to the earlier date of leaf opening on mature trees. No spatial zonation of spangle galls was apparent on the mature trees. Galls on catkins are less parasitised than those on leaves.

A crown gall on Kalanchoe infected with Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Galls can also appear on skeletal animals and in the fossil record. Two galls with perforations on a crinoid stem (Apiocrinites negevensis) from the Middle Jurassic of southern Israel. Galls (from Latin galla, 'oak-apple') or cecidia (from Greek kēkidion, anything gushing out) are a kind of swelling growth on the external tissues of plants, fungi, or animals.

Heteroecus pacificus, the beaked spindle gall wasp, is a species of gall wasp in the family Cynipidae. According to Ron Russo's book, Plant Galls of California and the Southwest, the galls appear on canyon live oak and huckleberry oak.

Brit Plant Gall Soc. ., p. 80Redfern, Margaret & Shirley, Peter (2002). British Plant Galls.

The larvae make large galls on the new stems of the host plant.

Phylloxera sp. winged adult Galls made by Phylloxera sp. on hickory (Carya) Galls made by Daktulosphaira vitifoliae on leaf of Vitis sp. Phylloxeridae is a small family of plant-parasitic hemipterans closely related to aphids with only 75 described species.

This applies particularly to some insect and mite plant galls. The study of plant galls is known as cecidology. In human pathology, a gall is a raised sore on the skin, usually caused by chafing or rubbing."gall", medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com.

Many of the agamic imagines emerge in October. After overwintering, Cynips develops eggs parthenogenetically and their eggs develop in live buds as 'red-wart galls'. The infested buds become yellow, orange or a russet colour and are about long. These red-wart galls appear in May and the males and females of the bisexual generation emerge in June and produce the fertilized eggs which undergo development in the red-pea galls.

It is possible that Triasacarus induced the formation of galls on the host plant.

Kansas Sci. Bull. 33: 3-167. # Redfern, Margaret & Shirley, Peter (2002). British Plant Galls.

Other acarine gall-mites, aphids, psyllids, and midges are often found within the galls.

Galls produced by the larvae of different insects that may be found on the trees have especially high tannin concentrations, are highly astringent and were used in the treatment of haemorrhage and diarrhea. Tannin from the galls are also used as dye.

The larvae feed on Acacia caffra and Acacia burkei, causing stem galls on the twigs.

The larvae make galls in young branches of Prunus cerasifera, Prunus dulcis and Prunus persica.

Galls on goldenrod Schizomyia racemicola is a species of gall midges in the family Cecidomyiidae.

Rabdophaga clavifex is a gall midge which forms galls on the buds of willow species.

Lipara is a genus of flies in the family Chloropidae. Among the Palearctic species, a specific community of bees and wasps make their nests in the galls of chloropid flies. Most frequently, they use the galls induced by Lipara lucens on common reed stems. Some of these aculeate hymenopteran species, such as the digger wasp Pemphredon fabricii (Crabronidae) or the solitary bee Hylaeus pectoralis (Colletidae) are specialized for nesting in galls induced by Lipara spp.

Sexual reproduction is thought to happen afterwards in galls formed on the midvein of new leaves.

Eriophyes padi is a gall-forming mite that causes cherry pouch galls on black cherry trees.

Rabdophaga nervorum is a gall midge which forms galls on the leaves of sallows (Salix species).

It is rare in eastern Canada. In Ontario, the galls are found mostly on Colorado spruce.

Growth of galls coincides with spring seasonal growth of sagebrush. There is one generation per year.

Rabdophaga karschi is a gall midge which forms galls on the twigs of sallows (Salix species).

The larvae seem to feed on both ant secretions and on the lining of the galls.

Rabdophaga degeerii is a gall midge which forms galls on the shoots of willows (Salix sp).

The dramatic tissue aberrations seen in present-day plant galls and gall-like structures in some invertebrates are direct physiological reactions to the presence of either metazoan parasites or microbial pathogens. Similar structures seen in fossil plant and invertebrate remains are often interpreted as evidence of paleoparasitism. Host-parasite interactions today are often exploited by other species, and similar examples have been found in the fossil record of plant galls and leaf mines. For example, there are species of wasps, called inquilines, which are unable to induce their own plant galls, so they simply take up residence in the galls that are made by other wasps.

The wasps emerging from the oak artichoke galls will be female; and these females will go on to lay a solitary egg in the male flowers of the oaks, which will cause the formation of the 'hairy catkin galls.' The flies that arise form these galls are of both sexes and the cycle then starts again after they have mated and eggs are laid in the oak buds. Once the oak artichoke gall has fallen to the ground the imago may leave the gall in the following spring, or may delay the emergence for 2–3 years. Galls may persist and exhibit opened scales curving outwards.

Rabdophaga clausilia is a gall midge which, depending on the source, forms galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species), or is an inquiline living in the galls of a Rabdophaga species, or a predator. It was first described by Johann Jacob Bremi-Wolf in 1847.

It has reduced the capacity of trees to reproduce throughout their range. It is possible that the galls also reduce the resilience of the host plants by absorbing nutrients and hence starving them. The galls are up to 3 cm in diameter and contain several grubs.

Aculops tetanothrix, also known as the willow gall mite, is a species of mite that belongs to the family Eriophydae. The mite is yellow, with brown or sometimes orange. Aculops tetanothrix creates galls on Salix (willow) species. The galls initially are green, and later turn red.

The species pupates sheltered in the bark. The thrips remain in the galls at night, wander about in the daytime and return in the evening, possibly to different galls about the tree. Psyllids have almost defoliated trees in the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney in spring.

P. 38. Sitka and Norway spruce are the main hosts, but A. abietis galls can be found on Colorado blue, white, and red spruces. The yellowish green galls pass through pink and then reddish-brown colour phases. On average, they measure 1.5 to 3.0 cm in length.

Andricus grossulariae is a gall wasp species inducing agamic acorn cup galls on oak tree acorn cups and sexual phase galls on catkins. Synonyms include Andricus fructuum (Trotter, 1899), Andricus gemellus (Belizin & Maisuradze, 1961), Andricus intermedius (Tavares, 1922), Andricus mayri (Wachtl, 1879) and Cynips panteli (Kieffer, 1897).

Science in schools Gall ink project Other waterproof formulae, better suited for writing on paper, became available in the 20th century. Iron gall ink is manufactured chiefly by artists enthusiastic about reviving old methods or possibly forgers of old documents. British galls have too little tannic acid (about 17%) for the best results; Aleppo galls have three times as much. Powdered galls mixed with hog's lard and applied to the posterior were said to be good for curing piles.

The galls are characterized by this pineapple- like form, with a length of 0.5 cm to 8 cm depending on the growth capacity of the tree. Most galls take on a pink, red, or even deep purple colour while the needles usually remain green. The segments of the new bud that have this gall form will die after the aphids leave in the summer. Once on Douglas fir, the adelgids consume the needles, but do not form galls.

Some herbivorous insects therefore create their own micro-habitats by forming usually highly distinctive plant structures called galls, made of plant tissue but controlled by the insect. Galls act as both the habitat, and food sources for the progeny of the gall wasp. The artichoke gall is formed entirely from the bud and is composed of nutritious starch and other tissues. Some galls act as "physiologic sinks", concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts.

Rabdophaga repenticornua is a gall midge which forms galls on the buds of creeping willow (Salix repens).

The midge Dasineura ulmariae causes pinkish-white galls on the leaves that can distort the leaf surface.

Galls may be so numerous that the leaf expansion is inhibited. The gall on the lower epidermis.

Gall appearance details.Darlington, Arnold (1968). The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in colour. Pub. Blandford Press. Dorset.

The Canadian Entomologist 43 (1): 4 The larvae feed on Solidago sempervirens, forming galls on the stalks.

The galls can be found on the leaves of osier (Salix viminalis) and purple willow (Salix purpurea).

Rabdophaga dubiosa is a gall midge which forms galls on the young shoots of willow (Salix species).

Rabdophaga albipennis is a gall midge which forms galls on the shoots of white willow (Salix alba).

The galls of Uromycladium tepperianum have been reported to be used by moths in the families Gracillariidae, Tortricidae, Tineidae, Pyralidae, and Stathmopodidae as food sources and domatium for their larvae in Australia.New, T. R. 1982. Lepidoptera from Uromycladium galls on Acacia. Australian Journal of Zoology 30(2): 357–364.

Neuroterus albipes is a gall wasp that forms chemically induced leaf galls on oak trees which has both bisexual and agamic generations and therefore forms two distinct galls, the smooth spangle gall and Schenck's gall.Darlington, Page 162 Neuroterus laeviusculus and Spathegaster albipes are previous binomials found in the literature.

The larvae have been recorded on Phaseolus lunatus, snap bean, Vigna unguiculata and Dahlia species. Young larvae feed on the leaves of their host. Older larvae bore into stems and hollow out cavities, resulting in galls. Silky frass tubes are attached to the entrance holes on the galls.

It is also commonly found hosting galls created by wasps in the family Cynipidae. 'Oak apples', green or yellow ball of up to 5 cm in size, are the most spectacular. They are attached to the undersides of leaves. One common species responsible for these galls is Cynips maculipennis.

This process differentiates the various generations primarily in their appearance and the form of the plant galls they induce. The larvae of most gall wasps develop in characteristic plant galls they induce themselves, but many species are also inquilines of other gall wasps, such as those of the genus Synergus. The plant galls mostly develop directly after the female insect lays the eggs. The inducement for the gall formation is largely unknown; discussion speculates as to chemical, mechanical, and viral triggers.

Most of these species occur in the tropics and sub-tropics, and the structures of the galls are diagnostic of the species involved. A radiation of thrips species seems to have taken place on Acacia trees in Australia; some of these species cause galls in the petioles, sometimes fixing two leaf stalks together, while other species live in every available crevice in the bark. In Casuarina in the same country, some species have invaded stems, creating long-lasting woody galls.

Taphrina johansonii is an ascomycete fungus that is a plant pathogen. It causes "tongue" galls on poplar trees.

Specifically in the family Gracillariidae the species Polysoma eumetalla and Conopomorpha heliopla are found feeding on the surface of various species of acacia rust galls. Erechthias mystacinella and Opogona comptella moth larvae from the family Tineidae have been reported to live and feed on the inside of Uromycladium tepperianum galls.

Specifically in the family Gracillariidae the species Polysoma eumetalla and Conopomorpha heliopla are found feeding on the surface of various species of acacia rust galls. Erechthias mystacinella and Opogona comptella moth larvae from the family Tineidae have been reported to live and feed on the inside of U. tepperianum galls.

Species of this family live within the galls on the host plants and also in the crevices of barks.

These galls are usually rare in vineyards, and therefore not harmful, nor are they particularly harmful towards wild plants.

"Rust fungi causing galls, witches' brooms, and other abnormal plant growths in northwestern Argentina". Mycologia 95(4): 728-755.

The larvae feed within galls found on Encelia farinosa. Full-grown larvae reach a length of about 12 mm.

There is one extended generation per year. The larvae feed on weevil galls on the flowers of Selago fruticosa.

Cecinothofagus species are thought to be parasitoids or lethal inhabitants of galls induced by species of Aditrochus on Nothofagus.

Digest with a gentle heat, then draw off 10 galls in a bath heat, and dulcify with fine sugar.

Fergusonina, the sole genus in the family of Fergusoninidae, are gall-forming flies. There are about 40 species in the genus, all of them producing galls on Eucalyptus, Melaleuca, Corymbia, and Metrosideros species (all in the family Myrtaceae) in Australia and New Zealand. These flies, considered closely related to Agromyzidae, are small and their larvae grow within galls formed on the leaf, shoot or flower buds. The galls themselves are induced by endosymbiotic nematodes in the genus Fergusobia (family Neotylenchidae) which are obligate mutualists of the flies.

Andricus curvator is a gall wasp which forms chemically induced leaf galls on oak trees and has both agamic and sexual generations. Agamic and sexual generations usually form two distinct galls on oak trees, but in the case of A. curvator there are six galls; the sexual generation usually on the leaf, occasionally in a twig or catkin, and the agamic generation in a bud. The wasp was first described by Theodor Hartig, a German biologist, in 1840 and is found in most of Europe.

M. mexicanus collects food mainly in the form of nectar from yucca plants (Yucca glauca) and sugary galls formed on scrub oaks (Quercus gambelii). The gall wasp (Holcaspis perniciosus) forms the galls (rotund growths) along scrub oak branches, and these galls leak a clear sugary liquid on which the ants feed. Additionally, these ants feed on a variety of flower nectars, cacti fruit, and the excretions of aphids feeding on yucca plants. Workers will also collect dead insects and attack small, soft bodied insects.

Galls act as both domatia (housing), and food sources for the gall maker. The interior of a gall is composed of edible nutritious tissue. Aphid galls in narrow leaf cottonwood (Populus angustifolia) act as “physiologic sinks,” concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts.Larson, K. C., and T. G. Whitham. 1991.

Eusocial colonies of Kladothrips cause and live in galls on Acacia trees. Some species of thrips create galls, almost always in leaf tissue. These may occur as curls, rolls or folds, or as alterations to the expansion of tissues causing distortion to leaf blades. More complex examples cause rosettes, pouches and horns.

This is the gall of the sexual generation which is pale green at first, thin-walled and as they mature, they become tinged with pink and later turn orange-brown. Mature sexual galls are about 2.5 mm long, egg-shaped with a pointed tip and can resemble the mature galls of Andricus kollari.

The larvae develop inside the protective gall structures and emerge from them as adults. The galls dry out and become woody. The galls can be very damaging to the tree. They occur on the new growth of the tree, disrupting the fruiting process, and can reduce a tree's yield up to 70%.

The formation of galls was originally thought to be limited to Salvia pomifera,Salvia pomifera, "apple-bearing sage". which led to the misidentification of many gall-bearing Salvia fruticosa plants. In 2001 it was discovered that the galls on Salvia fruticosa were caused by a previously undiscovered genus of Cynipid gall wasp.

Frequently, the determination of the species is much easier through observation of the galls produced rather than the insect itself.

Pupation also takes place in these galls. Larvae can be found from June to August. It overwinters as a pupa.

Hexomyza simplicoides is a species of fly in the family Agromyzidae and forms woody galls on many species of willow.

L. invasa was discovered in 2000 when river red gums in the Middle East and Mediterranean began developing disfiguring galls. The damage became severe enough to cause crop losses in tree plantations. Galls were collected and a previously undescribed species of chalcid wasp emerged. In 2004 it was described to science as Leptocybe invasa.

Large clones can grow from in several years. Within Anacardiaceae, staghorn sumac is not closely related to poison sumac (Toxicodendron vernix), although they share the name "sumac." In late summer some shoots have galls on leaf undersides, caused by the sumac leaf gall aphid, Melaphis rhois. The galls are not markedly harmful to the tree.

The meristems, where plant cell division occurs, are the usual sites of galls, though insect galls can be found on other parts of the plant, such as the leaves, stalks, branches, buds, roots, and even flowers and fruits. Gall-inducing insects are usually species-specific and sometimes tissue-specific on the plants they gall.

Pouch gall on nettle petiole The galls are irregularly shaped, smooth, often shiny, and coloured from purplish to pale green, exhibiting thickened walls, with a narrow slit-shaped opening, normally on the underside.Redfern, Page 467 The size is from 3–8 mm. A number of galls are often found next to each other on the same or different plant structures, and they may coalesce. The galls are mainly found around the growing apex and exhibit a wide range of forms, dependent on the organ in which they are situated.

Epichrysocharis burwelli larvae create small reddish or brownish galls on both sides of the leaves of Corymbia citriodora, showing no preference for any side of the leaf. Each gall produces a "blister" on either side of the leaf. When the adult emerges it creates a round hole in the centre of the gall. The galls can be quite numerous and more than 40 have been counted on a square centimetre of the surface of a leaf, with a mean density of 7 galls per square centimetre of leaf surface.

They went > thither, a great host, including Toirrdelbach son of Aed and Aed son of Aed, > and the Sheriff of Connacht was there to meet them, with many Galls. The > Galls asked for a truce on that day, on account of its sanctity; in honour > of Mary Mother whose day it was. The princes would not grant that truce to > honour Mary or the Crucifixion, but attacked the town, though Toirrdelbach > was unwilling. > When Jordan and the Galls saw this they issued from the town against the > princes.

The hatching larvae nourish themselves with the nutritive tissue of the galls, in which they are otherwise well-protected from external environmental effects. The host plants, and the size and shape of the galls are specific to the majority of gall wasps, with about 70% of the known species parasitizing various types of oak trees. Galls can be found on nearly all parts of such trees, including the leaves, buds, branches, and roots. Other species of gall wasps live in eucalyptus trees, rose bushes or maple trees, as well as many herbs.

Stone, G. N.; Schonrogge, K. (2003) "The adaptive significance of insect gall morphology", Trends in Ecology & Evolution 18(10): 512–522. . Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae of the insects into the plants, and possibly mechanical damage. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. In order to form galls, the insects must take advantage of the time when plant cell division occurs quickly: the growing season, usually spring in temperate climates, but which is extended in the tropics.

Rust mite, Aceria anthocoptes Eriophyes cerasicrumena, galls on cherry Aceria fraxini, galls Eriophyidae is a family of more than 200 genera of mites, which live as plant parasites, commonly causing galls or other damage to the plant tissues and hence known as gall mites. About 3,600 species have been described, but this is probably less than 10% of the actual number existing in this poorly researched family. They are microscopic mites and are yellow to pinkish white to purplish in color. The mites are worm like, and have only two pairs of legs.

Tannin, a substance contained in the galls of the Quercus infectoria, has been used for centuries for the tanning of leather.

They are released when galls come in contact with moist soil and hydrate. Total life cycle is completed in 113 days.

Gall wasps live in this area, often creating galls in oak trees by injecting their larva into their leaves and branches.

There is some uncertainty as to whether R. roskami makes galls on Salix viminalis or is an inquiline with the larva living in the galls of R. marginemtorquens. The possible gall is a short, downward, hairless, roll containing a cream or light-reddish larva on S. viminalis. Larvae of R. marginemtorquens are yellowish-red or orange.

The larvae feed on the leaves, and in very dense populations can cause defoliation. Small galls are formed on the leaves by a bladder mite, Aceria negundi. A gall midge, Contarinia negundinis joins and enlarges the galls of Aceria negundi. The midge sometimes creates a separate, tubular gall on the midrib or veins of the undersides of the leaves.

The hindwings are pale yellowish orange with several pale-brown irregular bands along the costa to the apex. The larvae feed on Ageratina ixiocladon. They induce galls near the apex of the stem of their host plant, near the nodes. The galls are globose or slightly elongate and about 6 mm wide and 7–18 mm long.

Members of Synergini have lost the ability to create their own galls, and instead make use of galls left behind by other wasps. As a result, they are classified as inquilines.Melika G, Ros-Farré P, Pénzes Z, Ács Z, Pujade-Villar J 2005. Ufo abei Melika et Pujade-Villar (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae: Synergini) new genus and new species from Japan.

The rust fungi in the genus Uromycladium typically form enlarged galls at the end of actively growing plant tissues. These galls can be a significant disease limiting the growth and survival of trees planted for commercial tree plantations and agroforestry.Lestari, P., Rahayu, S., & Widiyatno. 2013. Dynamics of gall rust disease on sengon (Falcataria moluccana) in various agroforestry patterns.

They create a stem gall. One or more galls may occur per stem, but only one larva inhabits each gall. The galls occur low on the stem. When full-grown, the larva chews a tunnel outwardly through almost the entire wall of the gall, leaving only the external epidermal layer as a round, externally visible window.

Trioza eugeniae or the syzygium leaf psyllid, lillypilly psyllid, and eugenia psyllid is a sap-sucking hemipteran bug in the family Triozidae which creates galls on the leaves of Syzygium paniculatum. This species is native to Australia and has been introduced into California. The nymphs form pit galls in the leaves and stunt the plants growth.

The invading larva may induce the plant to form a bulbous tissue mass called a gall around it, upon which the larva then feeds. Various parasitoid wasps find these galls and lay eggs in the larvae, penetrating the bulb with their ovipositors. Woodpeckers are known to peck open the galls and eat the insects in the center.

The wingtips are black.lepidoptera.butterflyhouse The larvae bore into the stems of Acacia perangusta and the galls of Eriosoma lanigerum on Malus pomone.

E. destricta feeds on bay willow (S. pentandra). In Great Britain, other Euura species do not form galls on these host plants.

Another example is the predation of plant galls or leaf mines, to eat the trapped insect larva inside the gall or mine.

Iteomyia capreae is a gall midge which forms galls on willows (Salix species). It was first described by Johannes Winnertz in 1853.

Synanthedon flaviventris, the sallow clearwing, is a moth of the family Sesiidae. The larvae form pear-shaped galls on sallows (Salix spp).

V, Pt VIII. 47\. Note on the Galls of Pistacia integessina by Puran Singh. Indian Forester (1917), Vol. XLII, No. 8. 48\.

Acalitus brevitarsus is an eriophyid mite which induces domed, blister like swellings, known as galls, on some species of alder (Alnus species).

They live in long twig-galls. Several larvae have been found in a single gall. Pupation occurs in the lumen of the gall.

Iteomyia major is a gall midge which forms galls on willows (Salix species). It was first described by Jean-Jacques Kieffer in 1889.

Proceedings of the United States National Museum 25 (1290): 405 The larvae feed on Ericameria pinifolia, forming false galls on the terminal twigs.

Cecidophyes is a mite genus in the family Eriophyidae. It is a plant parasite, causing galls or other damage to the plant tissues.

Galls form on damaged plant tissues, causing leaves to warp and curl and stems and roots to grow out stunted if at all.

Alessandro Trotter (26 July 1874 – 22 July 1967)) was an Italian botanist and entomologist who pioneered in cecidology, the study of plant galls.

Where colonies of E. lanigerum feed on twigs and roots the tree forms galls, which are small initially but increase in size over time and are most damaging when they are formed among the roots. Continued feeding in the roots can destroy the roots and consequently reduce the growth of the tree or kill it. The aphids are attracted to the sunken sites caused by the perennial canker fungus Cryptosporiopsis perennans and the galls are then the most frequent places on the tree for the fungus to re-infect it. The galls can also allow infection by Gloeosporium sp.

Common spangle galls on a Quercus robur leaf The spangle gall generation on the underside of the oak leaves are flat discs, with a distinct central elevation, slightly hairy, yellow-green at first and reddish later, attached by a short stalk. These galls are up to 6 mm in diameter, unilocular, unilarval with a whitish or yellow undersurface; they mature in September, detach and fall to the ground before the leaves themselves. The larva continue to develop in the fallen spangle and, protected by the leaf layer, they overwinter. Any Spangle galls that remain attached to the leaves dry up and die.

M. exigua causes galls on the root system, which are visible with the naked eye. Although, M. coffeicola does not produce galls it causes peeling and cracking of roots instead. Reduction of root system is observed, mostly because nematodes feed closer to xylem and phloem, where water and nutrients are transported into the plant. This blockage reduces root system development.

Vasates quadripedes, the maple bladder-gall mite, is an eriophyid mite in the genus Vasates, which causes galls on the leaves of silver maple (Acer saccharinum), red maple (A. rubrum), and sugar maple (A. saccharum). The gall is rounded, sometimes elongate, and has a short, thin neck. Typically, galls are in diameter, and may be numerous on the upper surfaces of leaves.

The male and female of the bisexual generation emerge in June from the currant galls and after mating the fertilised eggs are laid in the lower epidermis of the oak leaves. The spangle galls develop over the winter and the insects emerge in April, laying their eggs in the catkins or lower epidermis. The cycle, an alternation of generation, then begins again.

Mature galls are sometimes broken open by vertebrate predators to recover the larva or pupa. Woodpeckers, such as the lesser spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopus minor), as well as other birds or squirrels have been suggested.Marble Gall project. Suffolk Naturalists' Society In the territory of former Czechoslovakia, both bank voles and yellow-necked mice feed on larvae and pupae extracted from oak marble galls.

When A. vitis causes crown gall disease, several symptoms and tests can be used to identify its presence. On grapevines, young galls appear as soft green bumps, which later become brown and rough. Galls do not appear on all grapevines in which A. vitis is present. Steps can be taken to control crown gall disease and reduce the risk of infection.

The wasp Mesostoa kerri of the subfamily Mesostoinae within the family Braconidae causes stem galls on B. marginata in southeastern South Australia. The galls are either round to a diameter of , or cigar-shaped to . Their effect on the plant is unclear. B. marginata is a host plant for the larval and adult stages of the buprestid beetle Cyrioides imperialis.

Galls interfere with the natural formation of twigs and cause curling, stunting and the eventual death of new growth. Heavy infestations give the trees a ragged, unsightly appearance. Thus galls prevent twig growth and, if they are abundant, may affect entire trees. Individual trees vary in susceptibility to attack; some appear immune, others suffer growth reduction, and some are eventually killed.

The thrips begin feeding when the tree has flushes of new growth, and the life cycle is around six weeks. At other times, thrips reside on old leaves without feeding. The species pupates sheltered in the bark. The thrips remain in the galls at night and wander about in the daytime and return in the evening, possibly to different galls about the tree.

Diversity of colour of galls: They can be green, red, and purple. The infection is most noticeable on Cooley spruce in the spring, May to June, when the galls appear. This infection may be mistakenly diagnosed to be caused by worms, grubs, or even as a sex organ of the spruce. Spruce pollen, however, is released from a smaller structure that lacks needles.

By midsummer (August to September), the galls begin to dry out, the chambers open and winged forms of the adelgids emerge. These winged adult females have dark red-brown colour, with a heavily sclerotized thorax., These leave the original tree and most migrate to Douglas-fir trees. The abandoned galls continue to dry out and harden as the plant tissue dies.

Sectioned oak marble gall showing central "cell", inquiline chamber, and exit-hole with a possibly parasitised stunted gall specimen. Insect galls are the highly distinctive plant structures formed by some herbivorous insects as their own microhabitats. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect. Galls act as both the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall.

Pharmacognostic and phytochemical evaluation of leaf galls of Kakadshringi used in Indian system of medicine. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 69 700. Long, horn-shaped leaf galls that often develop on this tree are harvested and used to make kakadshringi, an herbal medicine for diarrhea in northern India. This tree is also used as a rootstock in the cultivation of commercial pistachios.

Two species of sawfly create similar galls on dwarf willow and the galls can only be told apart by examining the larva. The larvae of E. herbaceae have black spots (easiest to see in young larva) while the larvae of E. aquilonis does not. This species along with E. crassipes and E. arbusculae are part of the Euura crassipes subgroup.

Rabdophaga marginemtorquens is a gall midge which forms galls on willows (Salix species). It was first described by Johann Jacob Bremi-Wolf in 1847.

The hindwings are whitish-yellow.Can. Ent. 42 (10) : 347 The larvae feed on Pinaceae species, including Tsuga species and Pinus pentaphylla. They produce galls.

Taphrina ulmi is a species of fungus in the family Taphrinaceae. A plant pathogen, it causes leaf blister galls on elm (Ulmus sp.) trees.

The galls are found on almond willow (Salix triandra), Babylon willow (S. babylonica), bay willow (S. pentandra), common osier (S. viminalis), crack willow (S.

Small globular galls appear on the roots and after overwintering as larvae, another generation of wingless agamic females emerge and crawl up the trunk.

Rabdophaga salicis is a gall midge which forms galls on sallows (Salix species). It was first described by Franz von Paula Schrank in 1803.

Black cherry is a leading cause of livestock illness, and grazing animals' access to it should be limited. Galls made by the mite Eriophyes cerasicrumena.

Diplolepis fructuum (Rübsaamen, 1895) is a hymenopteran gall wasp which causes a galls on wild roses. The species is closely related to D. rosae and D. mayri but it produces its galls in the seeds of wild roses thus damaging its hips. The species is distributed mainly in the Northern regions of the Middle East, the Caucasus region and Northern shores of the Black Sea.

Eriophyes cerasicrumena on cherry Eriophyes cerasicrumena, closeup Eriophyes is a genus of acari that forms galls, specially on trees of the family Rosaceae. The blue butterfly Celastrina serotina has been reported to feed on these galls and also on the mites, making it one of the uncommon carnivorous Lepidoptera.Celastrina serotina (Lycaenidae: Polyommatinae): a New Butterfly Species from the Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada.

The abscission layer is a greenish-grayish color. Abscission can also occur in premature leaves as a means of plant defense. Premature leaf abscission has been shown to occur in response to infestation by gall aphids. By abscising leaves that have been made host to aphid galls, plants have been shown to massively diminish the pest population, as 98% of aphids in abscised galls died.

The abscission is selective, and the chance of dropping leaves increases as the number of galls increase. A leaf with three or more galls was four times more likely to abscise than a leaf with one, and 20 times as likely to be dropped as a leaf without any galls.Williams, A.G., & T.G. Whitham (1986). Premature leaf abscission: an induced plant defense against gall aphids.

Chemicals produced by both the adult and developing wasps cause the formation of a gall. Pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), sessile oak (Quercus petraea) and the hybrid Quercus × rosacea can all be parasitized.Redfern M., Shirley P., Bloxham M., British Plant Galls Second Edition, Field Studies Council, Shrewsbury, 2011 The host trees are often immature or retarded specimens; galls are rarer on older, healthier trees.Darlington, Arnold (1968).

The infection is caused by the bacterium Rathayibacter toxicus, which is introduced into the grass by the nematode Anguina funesta. This nematode causes galls on the grass flower spikes and it is in these that the bacteria multiply. Infected galls are present in the winter, but become more toxic as the inflorescence dies in spring. The disease occurs when the pasture is grazed at this toxic stage.

During late spring and summer, tubular growths up to long develop on the upper surface of lime tree leaves. These galls are yellow-green or red in color, may be very numerous, and predominantly occur on the lower leaves in some sub-species. The galls appear not to affect the health of the lime trees, and no way of controlling or preventing them exists.

The genus Salix supports many galls, some of which are difficult to identify, particularly those caused by the gall midges in the genus Rabdophaga. Rabdophaga nervorum forms galls on the midrib of leaves on sallows. The gall is an approximately 2–3 mm, spindle-shaped swelling on the underside of the midrib of a leaf. The swelling is not hard and contains a single, pale yellow larva.

Below ground, the roots experience cell proliferation due to increased auxin or growth hormone production from the plant as well as the pathogen. This causes the formation of galls that can grow big enough to restrict the xylem tissue inhibiting efficient water uptake by the plant. Galls appear like clubs or spindles on the roots. Eventually the roots will rot and the plant will die.

The primary use of the galls was as a mordant for black dyes; they were also used to make a high-quality ink. The gall was also used as a medication to treat fever and intestinal ailments. The larvae in galls are useful for a survival food and fishing bait; see the Indigenous Australian foods Bush coconut and Mulga apple. Nutgalls also produce purpurogallin.

In 1862, Carl Robert Osten-Sacken described this species, placing it in the genus Cecidomyia. He based the description on galls on Vitis and larvae found in the vicinity of Washington, D.C. The magazine The American Entomologist had a column where readers could ask for identifications. In 1869 a reader from Piermont, New York, asked the editors about the crimson galls found on a grape leaf. The editors, Benjamin Dann Walsh and Charles Valentine Riley, responded that in unpublished manuscripts of theirs they had given the galls the name Vitis lituus and noted they were made by a gall gnat in the genus Cecidomyia.

The Annals of Connacht for 1375 state- Cairbre and Eogan, sons of Mag Tigernain, made an expedition against the Galls and one of their own men turned traitor and sold them to the Galls for pelf. The Galls gathered round them, killed twenty-five of them, including the two sons of Mag Tigernain, and cut off their heads. In 1372 the poet Seán Mór Ó Dubhagáin wrote a poem about the tribes of Ireland- Triallam timcheall na Fodla. The McKiernans are mentioned as follows- MacTighearnain of cloaks, Support of the fair Gaoidhil; The purchaser of the poets, and their friend, Is over the vehement Teallach Dunchadha.

Nematodes cause galls (knots) to form on both roots and pods of the peanut, and these galls are highly diagnostic for root-knot nematode presence compared to other nematodes affecting peanut. The presence of galls on roots, pegs and pods appears as single or multiple wart-like growths that may or may not be discolored. As root knot nematode infection progresses, and generally later in the season, secondary root and pod rots cause further damage and eventual death of the plants. Many soil-borne fungi, especially Sclerotium rolfsii (which causes southern stem rot) and Sclerotinia minor (which causes Sclerotinia blight), will infect the weakened peanut plants and cause more plant death.

The galls induced appear not to affect the health of trees infected with these mite species and no practical way of controlling or preventing them exists.

A common gall; red, pink or orange larvae are sometimes also found within the pouch of the galls. These larvae are predator or inquiline cecids flies.

The hindwings are shining, brownish grey with greenish and cupreous iridescence toward the base. Larvae have been reared on the contents of Phylloxera galls on hickory.

Aculus gemmarum is a species of mite which causes galls on the buds of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1892.

Aculus craspedobius is a species of mite which causes galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1925.

Aculus magnirostris is a species of mite which causes galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1892.

Aceria erinea is a species of mite which causes galls on the leaves of walnut (Juglans regia). It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1891.

Rabdophaga saliciperda is a species of gall midges which forms galls on willows (Salix species). It was first described by Léon Jean Marie Dufour in 1841.

Aculus tetanothrix is a species of mite which causes galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1889.

Aculus laevis is a species of mite which causes galls on the leaves of sallows (Salix species). It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1892.

Synchytrium aureum infects many agricultural and horticultural plants. Synchytrium vaccinii creates galls on cranberry, azalea, chamaedaphne, gaultheira, and ledum.Galls 2013in: Westcott's Plant Disease Handbook. 8th edition.

A few species live under tree bark. Some form galls. Several species are pests in agriculture and horticulture. Chamaepsila rosae Fabricius, and Psila nigricornis Meigen are instances.

The larvae have been recorded on Acacia koa (in branches affected with rust galls), Pteralyxia (in dead twigs), Sophora tomentosa (in old pods), Wikstroemia (from dead wood).

E. oblita feeds on crack willow (S. fragilis) and white willow (S. alba). In Great Britain, other Euura species do not form galls on these host plants.

The galls have been found on many different species of hawthorn, including, C. coccinoides, C. laevigata, C. macrocarpa, C. monogyna, C. nigra, C. rhipidophylla and C. sanguinea.

Removing and destroying the galls may help to reduce the infestation. While fairly large, and sometimes present in quite large numbers specimens, they cause no measurable harm.

10: 203 Adults are on wing from June to October. The larvae feed on Aster corymbosus and Solidago species. They form spindle galls on their host plant.

Rhopalomyia chrysothamni is a species of gall midges, insects in the family Cecidomyiidae. The midge causes very small, conical-tubular stem galls on rubber rabbitbrush [Ericameria nauseosa].

Dasineura fraxini is a gall midge which forms galls on the leaves of ash (Fraxinus species). It was first described by Johann Jacob Bremi-Wolf in 1847.

Aculus truncatus is a species of mite which causes galls on the leaves of purple willow (Salix purpurea). It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1892.

Rabdophaga pierreana is a gall midge which forms galls on the young shoots of willow (Salix species). It was first described by Jean-Jacques Kieffer in 1909.

The fertilized female wasp enters the fig through the scion, which has a tiny hole in the crown (the ostiole). She crawls on the inflorescence inside the fig and pollinates some of the female flowers. She lays her eggs inside some of the flowers and dies. After weeks of development in their galls, the male wasps emerge before the females wasps do through holes they produce by chewing the galls.

Its essential oils are used in perfume industry. The leaves are rich in tannins, up to 20% in the galls caused by an aphid parasite, used as the raw material for tanning in the leather industry. The sap is dried and used as incense, and its smoke releases a pleasant smell to the local environment for celebrations and religious ceremonies, as "incense". The tannins from the galls were used for tanning.

Euura atra is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larvae feed internally on the shoots of willows (Salix species) and do not usually form galls, although it is included in plant gall literature such as British Plant Galls. It was first described by Louis Jurine in 1807. E. atra is one of a number of closely related species known as the Euura atra subgroup.

Quince rust infects the fruit of the apple trees but does not affect the leaves. Quince rust spores infect cedar trees and create cylindrical galls from which emerge spore horns the following spring. These galls may produce spores for up to twenty years. Quince rust is economically important primarily when an extended wetting period with a mean temperature above 10 °C occurs between the tight cluster and late pink bud stages.

Each crop responds to Meloidogyne hapla differently. Carrots typically undergo severe forking with galling of the roots, lettuce have beadlike galls, and grasses and onions have small and barely noticeable galls and symptoms. In potato tubers (special stems), brown spots will appear on areas of the tubers where the females have laid their eggs. If a field has a patchy distribution of symptoms, it usually indicates the presence of nematodes.

Symptom of nematode Meloidogyne hapla on carrot Symptoms can be seen in the roots, leaves, and the overall growth of the infected plant. In roots, there may be stunting, wilting, and the formation of abnormal growths called galls. Galls are usually small and spherical and are situated near many small roots. They are formed when the nematode enters the root and releases chemicals to enlarge root cells, on which they feed.

Trotter's first work on cecidology dated back to 1897, and he reported 124 galls of which 21 were caused by eriophyid mites. Trotter travelled around Italy between 1899 and 1909 and described 742 galls in 20 papers. At the age of 28, he founded a journal called Marcella in honour of Marcello Malpighi which dealt with cecidology.Bernini, Fabio (2002) Acarid Phylogeny and Evolution: Adaptation in Mites and Ticks. Springer. pp.

As plant cells die, nearby cells are induced into forming meristem tissue. A gall results and the leaves become distorted and curl over. The thrips remain in the galls at night and wander about in the daytime before returning in the evening, possibly to different galls about the tree. The thrips begin feeding when the tree has flushes of new growth, and the life cycle is around six weeks.

They are even known to kill trees. The presence of galls can also increase the likelihood of the tree's becoming infected with chestnut blight, a condition caused by the fungus Cryphonectria parasitica. The opened gall left by the wasp after it matures and departs may be an entrance through which the fungus can infest the tree's tissues. The galls can also become infected by the sweet chestnut pathogen Gnomoniopsis smithogilvyi.

At least one fossil from the One Mile Creek flora has a distinct fossil insect gall on the leaf midrib. The ovoid gall has multiple chambers and several circular exit holes along its margin. There have not been recorded galls on specimens of the living Davidia. The galls are most similar to those of the Cecidomyiidae gall midges, and its suggested the gall was caused by a cecidomyiid species.

The galls, formed of flattened projections, often enclose the immature acorn. The galls first appear pink in colour and as they mature they turn red, then green and finally brown during their development. Previously the causer of this stage was known as Andricus mayri (Wachtl). Although normally distinctive the asexual acorn cup gall can, under some growth conditions, be mistaken for the knopper gall, caused by the gall wasp Andricus quercuscalicis.

Rhopalomyia pomum, the sponge gall midge, is a species of gall midges, insects in the family Cecidomyiidae. The midges form leaf galls on Great Basin sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata).

The larvae feed on Tamarix aphylla. They live in galls made by Eriophyes species in the twigs of their host plant. Pupation also takes place in this gall.

The host species for the larvae of this moth is the kowhai tree, Sophora tetraptera. The larvae feed internally in woody galls on stems of their host tree.

Mikeius berryi is a species of wasp found in Australia. Species of Mikeius are thought to be associated with hosts that induce galls on Acacia and Eucalyptus species.

Mikeius gatesi is a species of wasp found in Australia. Species of Mikeius are thought to be associated with hosts that induce galls on Acacia and Eucalyptus species.

Mikeius grandawi is a species of wasp found in Australia. Species of Mikeius are thought to be associated with hosts that induce galls on Acacia and Eucalyptus species.

Adult males are small (about 3–5 mm long) and winged.Gullan P.J. (1978). Male insects and galls of the genus Cylindrococcus Maskell (Homoptera: Coccoidea). J. Aust. Entomol. Soc.

Jordan is first recorded in the Annals of Connacht in 1247, when: > A great war was waged by Toirrdelbach son of Aed O Conbhobair and Donnchad > son of Anmchad son of Donnchad O Gillapatraic of Ossory against the Galls of > Connacht. Toirrdelbach assembled the kings' sons of Connacht and they > reached Fid O nDiarmata and Muinter Fathaig, where they killed some people, > and passed on to Galway, where they burned the town and the castle and where > very many people were killed, Donnchad O Gillaptraic of Ossory killing Mac > Elgeit, the Seneschal of Connacht. The Galls followed them up and engaged > them, and they killed a [further] number of Galls and escaped in spite of > them, coming afterwards to Carra. Jordan D'Exeter and the children of Adam > [Standon] and the Galls of Carra (Carra, County Mayo) assembled and moved > against Toirrdelbach, but he left the country to them, not being strong > enough to oppose them.

Wasps from Lake Natimuk in Victoria were transported and released in Western Cape in 1987 and as no galls were seen the first summer, a second transfer — this time from Mount Compass, South Australia — was made in 1992 as scientists suspected the first cohort might have been incompatible with populations of golden wattle in Africa. The host species are golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha) and Acacia rivalis. The eggs are laid by short-lived adult wasps into buds of flower heads in the summer, before hatching in May and June when the larvae induce the formation of the grape-like galls and prevent flower development. The galls can be so heavy that branches break under their weight.

Some parasites leave marks or traces (ichnofossils) on host remains, which persist in the fossil record in the absence of structural remains of the parasite. Parasitic ichnofossils include plant remains which exhibit characteristic signs of parasitic insect infestation, such as galls or leaf minesScott, A.C., J. Stephenson, and M.E. Collinson (1994) The fossil record of leaves with galls. In: M.A.J. Williams (ed) Plant Gall - Organisms, Interactions, and Populations. Systematics Association Special Volume Series, Vol. 49. Clarendon Press: Oxford, pp. 447-470.Stone, G.N., R.W.J.M. van der Ham, and J.G. Brewer (2008) Fossil oak galls preserve ancient multitrophic interactions. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B. Biological Sciences 275(1648):2213-2219. and certain anomalies seen in invertebrate endoskeletal remains.

The blue spruce is attacked by two species of Adelges, an aphid- like insect that causes galls to form. Nymphs of the pineapple gall adelgid form galls at the base of twigs which resemble miniature pineapples and those of the Cooley's spruce gall adelgid cause cone-shaped galls at the tips of branches. The larva of the spruce budworm eat the buds and growing shoots while the spruce needle miner hollows out the needles and makes them coalesce in a webbed mass. An elongated white scale insect, the pine needle scale feeds on the needles causing fluffy white patches on the twigs and aphids also suck sap from the needles and may cause them to fall and possibly dieback.

Dasineura auritae is a gall midge which forms galls on the leaves of sallows (Salix species) and their hybrids. It was first described by Ewald Heinrich Rübsaamen in 1916.

Aceria iteina is a species of mite which causes galls on the leaves of sallows (Salix species) and their hybrids. It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1925.

Larvae develop in huge galls on the roots and at the base of young rods of the host plants. These gall-maker weevils can be found mainly in April.

Wise, Mike. "The Street Fighter Who Galls the N.B.A.", New York Times, August 2, 1998.Wojnarowski, Adrian. NBA players’ union leader takes bold stand. Yahoo!Sports. March 21, 2011.

Bactericera albiventris is a hemipteran bug in the family Triozidae, which causes galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Arnold Förster in 1848.

Biological control endeavours against Australian myrtle, Leptospermum laevigatum (Gaertn.) F.Muell. (Myrtaceae), in South Africa. African Entomology, 19, 349-355. The other described species of Callococcus do not induce galls.

When there are galls they can be pear-shaped, or a ″peculiar shape″ with the ″diameter of the stem above the gall greater than that below, which continues for some distance″. Galls can be similar to the sallow clearwing (Synanthedon flaviventris). The pupa is 12–14 mm long and does not make a cocoon. The emergence holes have a diameter of circa 2.5 mm and before pupation can be hidden by a thin cap.

Italian physician and anatomist Marcello Malpighi considered the tubers in legumes as galls. It was Eriksson who described that a fungus is responsible for the galls and therefore could be pathogenic in nature. Although now it's clear that a nitrogen fixing bacteria live in symbiosis with legumes but the work of Eriksson was valued at that time and his dissertation was published in Lund university year book and he was awarded with Zetterstedtska award.

Removing and destroying galls before they dry and the wasps emerge from a hole may help to reduce the infestation. While fairly large, spectacular, and sometimes present in quite large numbers, they cause no measurable harm. The galls were the subject of considerable press controversy in the mid-nineteenth century when it was thought that the acorn crop would be ruined and its rapid spread would deprive farmers of valuable pannage (fodder) for their pigs.

The aphid soldier exhibits its first distinguishing physical traits as a first larval instar, the phase following its complete maturation in the egg. There are two types of first instar larvae within galls: one type of larvae is thick-legged and attacks insects introduced into galls. Another type of larvae is normal-legged. Monomorphic first-instar larvae of Pemphigus dorocola attack moth larvae, a predator, when it is experimentally introduced to the gall.

The life- history and galls of a spruce gall midge, Phytophaga piceae Felt (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). Can. Entomol. 84:272–275. As many as 100 larvae per shoot have been reported. Larvae bore immediately into the twig and form cells, the galls forming by the swelling of tissues surrounding the larval cells. Gall formation becomes noticeable within 10 days as a series of small, semi-globose swellings, which render the infected twig twice its normal diameter.

They crawl around the inflorescenced interior of the fig, pollinating some of the female flowers, before laying eggs inside some of the flowers and dying. After several weeks' development in their galls, the male wasps emerge before the females. They chew holes in the galls containing females and fertilise them through the hole they have just chewed. Males return later to mated females, and enlarge the mating holes to enable the females to emerge.

The tight ostiolar enclosure at the apex of syconia makes them highly pollinator-specific. When receptive to pollen, the ostiole slightly loosens, allowing the highly specialized wasps to enter through it. The wasps lose their wings in the process, and once inside they pollinate female flowers as they lay their eggs in some ovules, which then form galls. The wasps then die and larvae develop in the galls, while seeds develop in the pollinated flowers.

Fig wasps are wasps of the superfamily Chalcidoidea which spend their larval stage inside figs. Most are pollinators but others simply feed off the plant. The non-pollinators belong to several groups within the superfamily Chalcidoidea, while the pollinators are in the family Agaonidae. While pollinating fig wasps are gall-makers, the remaining types either make their own galls or usurp the galls of other fig wasps; reports of them being parasitoids are considered dubious.

The genus Salix supports many galls, some of which are difficult to identify, particularly those caused by the gall midges in the genus Rabdophaga. R. karschi forms galls on the twigs of sallows. The gall is an approximately 3 mm wide, slender, spindle-shaped swelling of a twig. There is one red larva or a pupa and the larva makes an exit hole in the galled stem or occasionally in a bud.

In the latter, many eggs are laid, but the number of galls formed is relatively few. The relative number of parasitoids decreases with increasing gall volume. And the closer the gall is to the ground, the greater the total number of adults that emerge. Thus, it seems more effective for a female D. rosae to induce larger galls on lower branches of the shrubs to increase the survival probability of the offspring.

Gall's interior Witch Hazel Cone Galls At the start of spring, females or stem mothers crawl to leaf buds. As the leaf grows, the aphid injects it with a substance, possibly an enzyme or hormone, that causes that the galls to form around her. Once inside her gall the stem mother reproduces asexually and fills the gall with 50-70 female offspring. The second generation develops wings and disperses, repeating the process.

The female kermes scale causes galls to grow on kermes oak. Oaks are used as food plants by the larvae of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species such as the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, which can defoliate oak and other broadleaved tree species in North America. A considerable number of galls are found on oak leaves, buds, flowers, roots, etc. Examples are oak artichoke gall, oak marble gall, oak apple gall, knopper gall, and spangle gall.

Cigaritis tavetensis, the Taveta silverline, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in western Tanzania. The habitat consists of savanna. They feed on Acacia drepanolobium within galls.

In Limpopo, there is one main generation with adults on wing from April to June. The larvae feed on Acacia caffra and Acacia burkei, causing stem galls on the twigs.

The ash key gall is widespread in Britain; its numbers vary with the changes in annual seed production levels. In France and the Netherlands they are known as cauliflower galls.

The so-called "Aleppo tannin" is tannic acid gained from Aleppo pine galls, which displays unique chemical properties essential in the preparation of gold sols (colloids) used as markers in immunocytochemistry.

The moth flies from March to August and in December.mothphotographersgroup The larvae feed on Ceanothus species. Young larvae bore into the stem of their host plant. The feeding causes stem galls.

Daviesia corymbosa regenerates from bushfire by resprouting. It is a host plant for the jewel beetle species Ethonion jessicae. The beetle larvae live in galls on the stems of host plants.

Other grass species such as Agrostis avenacea (annual blown grass), Ehrharta longiflora (annual veldtgrass), and Polypogon monspeliensis (annual beard grass) were also susceptible to infection by nematode galls carrying R. toxicus.

Cydia servillana is a moth of the family Tortricidae which forms galls on the young shoots of willow (Salix species). It was first described by Philogène Auguste Joseph Duponchel in 1836.

Phyllocoptes goniothorax is a species of mite belonging to the genus Phyllocoptes, which causes galls on the leaves of hawthorns (Crataegus species). It was first described by Alfred Nalepa in 1889.

Kinne, O. (ed.). Vol. 1, p. 84, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. For example, plant galls have been characterized as tumors, but some authors argue that plants do not develop cancer.

The stem and needles of the host can continue growing beyond the position of the gall.Stubbs, F. B. Edit. (1986) Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls. Pub. Brit Plant Gall Soc. .

Galls result from hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the cells around the giant cells. Growth regulators (IAA) are thought to have a role in cell enlargement since they increases cell wall plasticity.

Rabdophaga rosaria is a gall midge which forms Camellia galls or terminal rosette gall on willow species.Darlington, page 169.Stubbs, page 61. It was first described by Hermann Loew in 1850.

Cydia millenniana, the larch gall moth, is a moth of the family Tortricidae which galls larch (Larix spp). It is found from Europe to Russia and the Korean Peninsula. This species is often confused with Cydia zebeana, which makes it difficult to be sure about the data published on the biology of both species. According to Whitebread (1975) and Booij and Diakonoff (1983), larvae of Cydia milleniana form galls, while larvae of Cydia zebeana do not.

The life cycle of P. cimiciformis is complex. For most of the year, wingless females are produced parthogenetically, but in the late summer on their secondary hosts (grass), winged males and females are produced which fly to their primary host, the terebinth tree. Here they mate and overwintering eggs are laid. In the spring these hatch and the wingless females that develop create swollen galls on the leaves; they live in these galls and reproduce asexually.

Raid vests are used for executing warrant searches and field assignments. The BPD Civil Disturbance Team wears black 5.11 Tactical two-piece tactical duty uniforms, Galls Upper Body Protection System foam chest protectors, Bell RS100 tactical helmets, MSA Advantage 1000 CBA/RCA gas masks, and Galls shin guards. Flex-cuffs are standard carry for riot situations. The BPD Bomb Squad wears Crye Precision MultiCam camouflage tactical response uniforms with coyote brown tactical department patches for operations involving the unit.

This oak species is threatened by a pathogenic honey fungus (Armillaria sp.), which has been noted to infect trees already stressed by the activity of feral herbivores, including goats and pigs. A new species of fungus was discovered growing in oak galls on this oak species and was named Penicillium cecidicola in 2004.Seifert, K. A., et al. (2004). Penicillium cecidicola, a new species on cynipid insect galls on Quercus pacifica in the western United States.

There are two types of galls on the leaves of hawthorns. The mites overwinter in a bud or in bark crevices, emerging to attack the new leaves as soon as the buds open, forming tight rolls on the edge of the leaves. The leaf can have many of these yellowish or red galls, which are hairy inside. The mite can also form an erineum on the underside of a leaf with reddish, violet or white hairs with swollen tips.

A few larvae overwinter inside the gall and don't emerge until the following fall. The reason for this is unknown. These wasps form an important role in the ecosystem, with more than 20 known species that are parasitoids, inquilines, and hyperparasites that live on its life cycle, while the galls form a persistent shelter for various forms of fungi as well as many other insects. Several birds are also known to feed from the galls and their inhabitants.

The ink was traditionally prepared by adding some iron(II) sulfate (FeSO4) to a solution of tannic acid, but any iron ion donor can be used. The gallotannic acid was usually extracted from oak galls or galls of other trees, hence the name. Fermentation or hydrolysis of the extract releases glucose and gallic acid, which yields a darker purple-black ink, due to the formation of iron gallate. The fermented extract was combined with the iron(II) sulfate.

The fungus infects all parts of the host plant by invading the ovaries of its host. The infection causes the corn kernels to swell up into tumor-like galls, whose tissues, texture and developmental pattern are mushroom-like. These galls are made up of hypertrophied cells of the infected plant, along with resulting fungal threads, and blue-black spores. Page 109 By Nicholas P. Money Professor of Botany Miami University, Ohio Publcihed by Oxford University Press, Aug 4, 2006.

Some herbivorous insects create their own microhabitats by forming a highly distinctive plant structure called a gall, made up of plant tissue, but controlled by the insect. Galls act as both the habitat, and food sources for the maker of the gall. The interior of a bedeguar gall is formed from the bud, and is composed of edible nutritious and structural tissues. Some galls act as "physiologic sinks", concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts.

Many species of Andricus including A. dentimitratus have a complex lifecyle. There is an agamic stage that produces only parthenocarpic females and a sexual stage where males are also produced. The agamic stage produces the large galls illustrated, however, although the sexual stage is known to occur, the galls of this stage have not been described for A. dentimitratus.J. Pujade-Villar, D. Bellido, G. Segú & G. Melika, Current state of knowledge of heterogony in cynipidae (hymenoptera, cynipoidea), Ses. Entom.

In the common fig, the inflorescence is a syconium, formed by an enlarged, fleshy, hollow receptacle with multiple ovaries on the inner surface. A female wasp enters through a narrow aperture, fertilizes these pistillate flowers, and lays its eggs in some ovaries, with galls being formed by the developing larvae. In due course, staminate flowers develop inside the syconium. Wingless male wasps hatch and mate with females in the galls before tunnelling their way out of the developing fruit.

This may be due to the poor flying abilities of N. quercusbaccarum or it may relate to the physiological age of the leaves. The spangle galls are sometimes misidentified as scale insects.

Ampelomyia viticola, the grape tube gallmaker, is a species of gall midge found in the eastern United States and Canada. It produces green or bright red galls on new world grape vines.

Banksia seed is predated by a birds and insects. Insects also feed on stems, leaves, flowers and cones. Some insects cause galls. Many species of fungi live on Banksia plants, including Banksiamyces.

They can infect corn plants (Zea mays) producing tumor-like galls that render the ears unsaleable. This corn smut, is also known as huitlacoche and sold canned for consumption in Latin America.

Dasineura is a genus of midges in the family Cecidomyiidae, some of which cause galls on plants such as Dasineura crataegi on hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and Dasineura fraxinea on ash (Fraxinus excelsior).

They defeated St. Galls of Antrim in the final by 0-07 to 0-06. Hanley was named Man Of The Match for his performance, repelling several of the Antrim side's attacks.

Euura amerinae is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larvae form galls on bay willow (Salix pentandra). It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.

The Cluan Immorrais is a 15th-century Irish battle that pitted the Kingdom of Uí Failghe against the Galls of Meath. The battle was fought in 1406, and Uí Falighe was victorious.

J. Zool., 32: 677-690. The galls of adult females (10–30 mm long) look somewhat similar to the cone-like "fruit" of the host plant and might be mistaken for such.

Gall became a laureate of the Institut de France. Five forgeries of Galls works were found at the Dominion Gallery of Max Stern in Canada. They had been sourced from Eastern Europe.

Cremastinae is a worldwide subfamily of the parasitic wasp family Ichneumonidae. Cremastinae are koinobiont endoparasitoids of Lepidoptera and, sometimes, Coleoptera larvae in tunnels, leaf rolls, buds and galls. There are 25 genera.

The unilarval chambers are set in a woody core which persists after the filaments have worn off.Stubbs, F. B. Edit. (1986) Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls. Pub. Brit Plant Gall Soc. .

The disease has been eradicated by seed sanitation methods. Seed certification programs get rid of galls (lighter and less dense than seed) by flotation, hot water treatments, winnowing or gravity table seed processing.

She also studied Cecidomyiid galls and reared many species, some of which were described by E.P. Felt; three named after her. She also made a study of caddis-fly larvae and their cases.

Saperda populnea, the small poplar borer, is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae which forms woody galls on twigs of poplars and willows. It was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.

D. 1114–1437) (Dublin, 1947), sub anno 1165.3. That these were Anglo-Irish sources is suggested by its reliance, for events in the very same year, on ‘books of the Galls [English]’: ibid.

Flora of North America, Encinitas false willow or baccharis, Baccharis vanessae R. M. Beauchamp Often found are elongated lepidopterian galls which Oscar Clarke of Riverside suggests indicates a very old relationship of evolution.

It is resistant to gypsy moths but is defoliated by another pest, the mimosa webworm. Spider mites, cankers, and galls are a problem with some trees. Many cultivated varieties do not have thorns.

The feeding causes large external masses of pitch. The species overwinters as an early instar larvae at the base of persistent cones, under bud scales or in fusiform galls on branches and stems.

The hindwings are shining, leaden grey.lepiforum.de Adults are on wing from September to the beginning of October. The larvae form galls on Teucrium fruticans. They are white without markings and a black head.

The glasswort gall mite, Aceria rubifaciens, was discovered in Auckland in 1948 and rediscovered in 2013 in an estuary near the Firth of Thames. This tiny, endemic mite only feeds on the glasswort, which the feeding causes pocket galls on the fresh, young stems. The mites live inside the galls which offer them protection from larger predators and weather conditions. There isn’t a lot known about these tiny mites, mainly because they have only been found on this particular species of glasswort.

A Eurosta solidaginis larva in a freshly dissected gall. Adult E. solidaginis emerge from their galls in the spring, with the males emerging prior to the females. The flies proceed to mate on goldenrod plants, and the females use their ovipositors to insert fertilized eggs into the buds of the goldenrod. Though E. solidaginis has been reported to form galls on seven different species of goldenrod, only three appear to be common targets: Solidago canadensis, S. gigantea and S. altissima.

Some herbivorous insects therefore create their own microhabitats by forming, in this case, a highly distinctive plant structure called a gall, made up of plant tissue, but controlled by the insect. Galls act as both the habitat, and food sources for the maker of the gall. The interior of a bedeguar gall is formed from the bud, and is composed of edible nutritious and structural tissues. Some galls act as "physiologic sinks", concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts.

When the Sheriff > reached the island he and his men, with those of the Galls who were ready > with him, went quickly ashore. But he was met and dealt with by Mac Somurli > and his men, being killed at once, together with Piers Accabard, an > excellent knight of his company, and other good men. The fleet of the Galls > retired after losing the best of their lords, and Mac Somurli went back to > his land, joyful and laden with spoil.

The whole plant emits a strong smell: bitter, resinous, or medicinal. In the vegetative period they develop "galls" shaped like a goat's horn (from which the plant gets the name "cornicabra", the common name in Spanish), that occur on the leaves and leaflets which have been bitten by insects. The species propagates by seeds and shoots. Although marred by the presence of galls, it is a very strong and resistant tree which survives in degraded areas where other species have been eliminated.

The benefits of settling basally are significant, with basal stem mothers producing 49-65% more offspring than their distally settled counterparts. The benefits of settling basally relate to the aphid's ability to manipulate the plant's food resources. The galls formed by sugarbeet root aphids act as physiologic sinks, diverting and intercepting the plant's normal transport of resources and nutrients. 14C labeling experiments have shown that their galls intercept resources being transported from the midvein to the distal parts of the leaf.

Euura is a genus of sawflies of the family Tenthredinidae, subfamily Nematinae. Some of the larvae feed externally on plants and some form plant galls on willows (Salix species). In the case of the gall-forming species, when the female lays her eggs she injects a stimulant and the gall start to form before the eggs hatch. Most sawfly galls are hard and individual larva tend to inhabit the gall, feeding on the tissue and leave the gall to pupate in the soil.

The environment of the host plant always determines the frequency and intensity of infection. Infection often occurs during the seedling stage and usually produces galls on the host plant. These galls can be the result of the infected cell enlarging or a combination of enlargement of the infected cell with the enlargement and division of neighboring cells. Infections are not usually destructive with the noted exceptions of Synchytrium endobioticum, S. vaccinnii, S. sesamicola, S. oxalydis, S. geranii, and S. cookii.

Prociphilus is an aphid genus of the subfamily Eriosomatinae, which cause the plants they attack to produce galls. The aphids reside and feed within the gall. There are over 30 species in this genus.

The males and females emerge from the unilocular and unilarval April-bud galls in the terminal or axillary buds around May; their fertilised eggs placed in the leaf lamina result in the Oyster gall.

The name comes from the French term acide ellagique, from the word galle spelled backwards because it can be obtained from noix de galle (galls), and to distinguish it from acide gallique (gallic acid).

The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in colour. Pub. Blandford Press. Dorset. P. 154. The Turkey oak (Quercus cerris), introduced into Britain in 1735, is required for the completion of the wasp's life cycle.

These knots can vary in size from anywhere to 0.5-12 in. long, and up to 2 in. wide. This fungus is typically diagnosed by these large black galls at the site of infection.

The larvae feed on Haplopappus squarrosa, Haplopappus menziesii var. vernonioides and Haplopappus acradenia. They create soft galls which vary in form. Pupation takes place in cocoons made in ground litter or in the soil.

Each contains a fly larva which feeds on fungus growing inside the gall, then pupates and emerges as an adult. The galls also contain several species of wasps, which are parasitoids on the fly.

Community associates of an exotic gallmaker, Dryocosmus kuriphilus (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), in Eastern North America. Ann Entomol Soc Am 100(2) 236-44. The galls are green or pinkish and up to 2 centimeters wide.

Aceria fraxinivora, also known as the cauliflower gall mite and the ash key gall, causes the growths, known as galls, found on the hanging seeds or "keys" of the common ash tree (Fraxinus excelsior).

Deudorix suk, the Suk playboy, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in eastern Uganda and western and central Kenya. The larvae feed on Acacia species. They feed within in galls.

Over 600 galls can be in a single stem.Tooker, J. F. and L. M. Hanks. (2006). Tritrophic interactions and reproductive fitness of the prairie perennial Silphium laciniatum Gillette (Asteraceae). Environmental Entomology 35(2), 537-45.

Euura mucronata is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larva feed within galls on the buds of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Theodor Hartig in 1837.

Diseased trees show vertical orange cankers on the trunk and galls on the lower branches. The disease does not tend to affect older trees.Blouin, Glen. An Eclectic Guide to Trees: east of the rockies. 2001.

Euura collactanea is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larva feed within galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Arnold Förster in 1854.

P. 151. The galls sometimes coalesce. The non-parasitised specimens are at the largest end of the size range. Fused and/or stunted specimens can be confused with Andricus lignicola (Hartig), the "Cola-nut gall".

Triglyphus primus is a species of hoverfly, from the family Syrphidae, in the order Diptera. The larvae seem to be host-specific to an aphid species Cryptosiphum artemisiae which creates galls on Mugwort Artemisia vulgaris.

Euura samolad is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larva feed within galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species). It was first described by René Malaise in 1920.

Anarsia guiera is a moth in the family Gelechiidae. It was described by John David Bradley in 1969 and is found in northern Nigeria. Larvae have been recorded feeding within galls made on Guiera senegalensis.

Anthene hodsoni, the Hodson's hairtail, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Kenya. The habitat consists of savanna. The larvae feed on Acacia drepanolobium from within galls.

Euura pedunculi is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larva feed within galls on the leaves of sallows (Salix species). It was first described by Theodor Hartig in 1837.

This shape, together with the dead-leaf colouration, complete with a "midrib", and markings which resemble patches of mould and leaf galls gives the butterfly a remarkable resemblance to an attached or fallen dead leaf.

The larvae develop and then overwinter as pupae in the now brown and dry-looking structure, emerging in May.Darlington, Arnold (1975) The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in Colour. Pub. Blandford Press. Poole. . P. 133.

The British Plant Gall Society is a voluntary organisation which encourages cecidology, the study of plant galls, in the British Isles. It was formed in 1985. Its biannual journal, Cecidology, is edited by Michael Chinery.

The galls, locally known as manjakani in Malaysia, are used in combination with other herbs as drinking remedies by women after childbirth to restore the elasticity of the uterine wall, and in many vaginal tightening products. The extract of manjakani was claimed by the Malay Kelantanese to be highly beneficial for postpartum women. Hazardous effects of the extract were not reported so far. In addition, the Arabs, Persians, Indians, Malays and Chinese have traditionally used the galls after childbirth to treat vaginal discharge and related postpartum infections.

The smooth surfaced currant gall generation appears in April and lay unfertilised eggs in the staminate catkins or occasionally the developing young leaves. The resulting spherical galls are around 4 mm in diameter, unilocular and unilarval, green at first, maturing through pink to red, therefore closely resembling redcurrants. Several different spangle type galls are found on oak leaves so close inspection is required for proper identification. The suckers at the base of older trees are often more heavily infested than the mature tree foliage.

Bird cherry (Prunus padus) with developing pocket plum galls Detail of the closely related T. pruni structure As a fungus, cool and wet weather conditions promote the germination of spores, while warm and dry weather results in infection rarely taking place. Removing and destroying the galls may help to reduce the infestation. Colonisation can become extensive and eradication very difficult. The disease can to some degree be controlled by carefully removing infected branches, witches' brooms and fruit before the infective air-borne spores are produced.

His published work includes over 250 original research papers, over 34 text books including his pioneering magnum opus, Ecology of Plant Galls. His outstanding Research work has been on Taxonomy of parasitic Hymenoptera (Chalcidoidea and Proctotrupoidea), gall midges (Itonididae: Diptera) and ecology and histogenesis of plant galls. He is remembered most for his pioneering work in high altitude entomology. He led the first three Entomological Expeditions to the North West Himalaya in 1954, 1955 and 1956 and brought back a large collection of insects.

Turkey oak introduction & gall distribution The oak marble gall is frequently conflated with the oak apple gall, caused by another gall wasp, Biorhiza pallida. Oak marble galls are also known as the bullet gall, oak nut or Devonshire gall.Lincolnshire Wildlife Trust website The developing spherical galls are green at first, brown later, and mature in August. Each gall contains a central chamber, with a single female wasp larva of the asexual generation, which emerges through a 'woodworm-like' hole as an adult winged gall-wasp in September.

This silk button spangle gall has a cover of golden hairs that give the impression of silk thread. The 0.3 cm button-shaped galls have a pronounced concavity and sit tightly against the leaf lamina. The similar gall wasp N. albipes Blister galls are about 0.3 cm in diameter and green or greyish in colour; well camouflaged with the leaf lamina. The gall has narrow ridges running downwards on all sides from a central papilla on the upper surface and sometimes on the lower surface as well.

Galls formed by alt=Round green ball-like galls among green phyllodes (leaves) Golden wattle occurs in south-eastern Australia from South Australia's southern Eyre Peninsula and Flinders Ranges across Victoria and northwards into inland areas of southern New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. It is found in the understorey of open eucalypt forests on dry, shallow soils. The species has become naturalised beyond its original range in Australia. In New South Wales it is especially prevalent around Sydney and the Central Coast region.

Once the leaves have fallen, the galls, filled with mites, are obvious and may remain for a year or more. Leaflets or entire leaves and petioles may also be involved, with additional distortions such as thickening and leaf lamina rolling, especially when the tree is heavily infested. Almost every inflorescence may be involved, the reproductive capacity therefore being reduced, however some seeds may still develop normally amongst the galls. The cause of the gall are mites, mainly female, the eggs being viable without fertilization.

Phytoptus avellanae is an acarine gall-mite species inducing big bud galls of up to across, sometimes slightly open, on the buds of hazel (Corylus avellana) and on filbert (Corylus maxima). Synonyms include Phytocoptella avellanae, Eriophyes avellanae, Calycophthora avellanae, Phytoptus coryli, Phytoptus pseudogallarum, and Acarus pseudogallarum. The mites are white, about 0.3 mm long, with numerous tergites and sternites. Two forms of P. avellanae exist, a gall causer and a vagrant form that has a more complex life-cycle and does not form galls.

Aceria pseudoplatani causes the sycamore felt gall that is found on the leaves of sycamores (Acer pseudoplatanus) or Norway maple (Acer platanoides),Plant Galls Retrieved : 2013-07-05 and is caused by an acarine gall-mite.

In comparison, the galls of A. magnirostris differ by a longer downward roll on the leaf edge. On the website Plant Parasites of Europe, photographs of A. magnirostris are similar to the description for A. craspedobius.

Euura arcticornis is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larva feed within galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Friedrich Wilhelm Konow in 1904.

Coleophora elephantella is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Turkestan and Uzbekistan. The larvae feed on Caroxylon species, including Caroxylon orientalis. They form large galls on the branches of their host plant.

One study identified twenty-four parasitoids from galls of A. grossulariae, such as Torymus auratus, Megastigmus dorsalis, Ormyrus pomaceus, Sycophila variegata, Sycophila biguttata, Mesopolobus xanthocerus, and Aulogymnus trilineatus. Ceroptres cerri is an inquiline of A. grossulariae.

Removing and destroying cola-nut galls before they dry and the wasps emerge may help to reduce an infestation. While fairly large, and sometimes present in quite large numbers on scrub specimens, they cause no measurable harm.

Ti plasmids in galls produce various opines that are then secreted from the gall. In a vitis, pTi codes for octopine and/or cucumopine. Tumorigenic strains also contain a plasmid that allows the bacterium to utilize tartrate.

Some species are gall-forming. One exception to the phytophagous lifestyle is Euphranta toxoneura (Loew) whose larvae develop in galls formed by sawflies.The adults sometimes have a very short lifespan. Some live for less than a week.

The wingspan is 17–21 mm. There is one generation per year with adults on wing from the beginning of May to mid July. The larvae feed on Picea species. They live on galls produced by Aphids.

Galls may also provide the insect with physical protection from predators.Weis, A. E.; Kapelinski, A. (1994). "Variable selection on Eurostas gall size. II. A path analysis of the ecological factors behind selection", Evolution 48(3): 734–745. .

Removing and destroying oak artichoke galls before they dry and the wasps emerge may help to reduce the infestation. While fairly large, and sometimes present in quite large numbers on scrub specimens, they cause no measurable harm.

Leptocybe invasa, the blue gum chalcid wasp or eucalyptus gall wasp, is a chalcid wasp which is the only species in the monotypic genus Leptocybe in the subfamily Tetrastichinae, of the family Eulophidae. It is a gall wasp which causes the formation of galls on a number of species of Eucalyptus, it was described in 2004 after galls were found in river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) in the Mediterranean and Middle East and has since been found to be a widespread species where its host trees are planted. It is indigenous to Australia.

During an infestation there are usually 3 to 6 galls per leaf, but up to 65 have been observed on a single leaf. The adult wasps emerge from the galls after growing inside for 3–4 months. In temperate areas there may be 2-3 generations of adults in a year but in the tropics there can be as many as 6 generations. The females can reproduce asexually by thelytokous reproduction and live for up to 7 days, males are rare and the asexual reproduction allows L. invasa to rapidly increase its population size.

There are two species currently recognised in Cylindrococcus, C. casuarinae (the type species) and C. spiniferus, which can be easily differentiated by the appearance of the galls induced by adult females. The galls of C. casuarinae are long, narrow and relatively smooth whereas those of C. spiniferus are broad and have prominent bracts. Two other species have been described in the past but are no longer recognised as distinct species: C. ampliorMaskell, W. M. (1893). Further notes: with descriptions of new species from Australia, India, Sandwich Islands, Demerara, and South Pacific. Trans.

Another requirement for the development of sociality is provided by the gall, a colonial home to be defended by the soldiers. The soldiers of gall forming aphids also carry out the job of cleaning the gall. The honeydew secreted by the aphids is coated in a powdery wax to form "liquid marbles" that the soldiers roll out of the gall through small orifices. Aphids that form closed galls use the plant's vascular system for their plumbing: the inner surfaces of the galls are highly absorbent and wastes are absorbed and carried away by the plant.

Despite retiring from this last position in 1934 he stayed on until Germany's WWII occupation of Strasbourg in 1940 made it prudent to leave. He travelled widely in Europe and North America, studying and gathering galls in herbaria and in nature, building up an extensive collection which is housed at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle in Paris. He published a series of 6 seminal books between 1908 and 1940 on gall structure, another on the galls of North America not seeing publication because of the manuscript's being lost during the occupation of Strasbourg.

The larvae of a number of butterfly species feed on the foliage including the fiery jewel, icilius blue, lithocroa blue and wattle blue. Trichilogaster wasps form galls in the flowerheads, disrupting seed set and Acizzia acaciaepycnanthae, a psyllid, sucks sap from the leaves. Acacia pycnantha is a host to rust fungus species in the genus Uromycladium that affect the phyllodes and branches. These include Uromycladium simplex that forms pustules and U. tepperianum that causes large swollen brown to black galls that eventually lead to the death of the host plant.

One hypothesis for the evolution of galls is, they may have started with the larvae of an ancestor that either folded or rolled leaves, culminating in E. atra; which does not usually induce a gall but taxonomically belongs to the gall species. The first publication of a sawfly gall was by Francesco Redi in 1668 with illustrations of E. proxima. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek wrote numerous letters to the Royal Society including one on ″growths on the leaves of willows″. The early researchers sometimes mistook parasitoids emerging from the galls as the gall-makers.

Plant galls are abnormal outgrowths"gall(4)", Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, accessed November 16, 2007: "an abnormal outgrowth of plant tissue usually due to insect or mite parasites or fungi and sometimes forming an important source of tannin". of plant tissues, similar to benign tumors or warts in animals. They can be caused by various parasites, from viruses, fungi and bacteria, to other plants, insects and mites. Plant galls are often highly organized structures so that the cause of the gall can often be determined without the actual agent being identified.

Genome, 34: 757-762. The species produce galls on the staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina), an eastern North American variety of sumac, and they are also found on the smooth sumac (Rhus glabra). The gall is variously called "sumac leaf gall" and "red pouch gall" as it sometimes appears red in colour.Red pouch gall, New Hampshire Garden Solutions. Accessed September 4, 2014 The galls occur when female aphids lay a single egg on the underside of the sumac leaf, inducing the leaf to form a sac over the egg.

Acorn cup galls develop as a chemically induced distortion of the growing acorn cups on oak trees, caused by gall wasps which lay eggs within the tissues of the acorn cup. The sexual phase appears on catkins as rounded structures (6 mm × 3–4 mm) possessing a characteristic point, and when young are covered with fine hairs. The galls, shiny and hard, turn red in colour and then black or dark purple. The asexual or parthenogenetic phase, about 10 mm across, develops on acorn cups of English oak Q. robur and sessile oak Q. petraea.

Author Ron Russo writes that Q. douglasii hosts the "largest number of known species" of gall wasps, at more than 50. The wasps trigger the formation of oak galls in a wide variety of shapes, colors, and sizes.

Euura nigricantis is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larvae feed within galls on the leaves of dark-leaved willow (Salix myrsinifolia). It was first described by Jens- Peter Kopelke in 1986.

The male has a small yellow subcostal brush on the hindwing. The larvae feed on Schinus terebinthifolius. They bore into the terminal parts of the host and form galls. The larval attack thus reduces flowering and seed formation.

185–186 The main pests for S. aucuparia are the apple fruit moth Argyresthia conjugella and the mountain-ash sawfly Hoplocampa alpina.Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 43Friedrich, Schuricht 1989, p. 44 The rust fungus Gymnosporangium cornutum produces leaf galls.

Hutchison, Leonard J., P. Chakravarty. "Sp.nov. from Black Galls and Cankers of Trembling Aspen and Its Potential Role as a Bioprotectant against the Aspen Decay Pathogen." Canadian Journal of Botany 72.10 (1994): 1424-431. Web. 2 Dec. 2014.

Melanagromyza sp. ovipositing on Anthriscus sylvestris Agromyzidae larvae are phytophagous, feeding as leaf miners, less frequently as stem miners or stem borers. A few live on developing seeds, or produce galls. Sometimes larvae in roots or under bark.

Sometimes it will cause galls and lesions. In the spring, there are yellow spots on the upper portion of the leaf and during the Spring and Summer there are orange spores on the abaxial surface of the leaf.

Ethnobotanical observations in the Mornaula Reserve Forest of Kumoun, West Himalaya, India. Ethnobotanical Leaflets 14 193. The leaf galls are used in traditional herbalism for cough, asthma, fever, vomiting, and diarrhea.Upadhye, A. S. and A. A. Rajopadhye. (2010).

Adults have been recorded on wing from early June to late July. The larvae feed on Silene saxifraga and Silene linoides. They feed in the shoots, causing terminal galls. Pupation takes place in a web on the ground.

Conotrachelus elegans, the pecan gall curculio, is a true weevil species in the genus Conotrachelus. It is found in North America where it feeds on galls of the hickory leaf stem gall phylloxera (Phylloxera caryaecaulis), found also on pecan.

Elsewhere it has been found on weeping willow (S. babylonica) and almond willow (S. triandra). Redfern et al. state that, in Great Britain, it is safe to identify the galls of this species and Euura destricta by the foodplants.

Trifurcula oishiella is a moth of the family Nepticulidae. It was described by Shōnen Matsumura in 1931. It is known from the main Japanese island of Honshu.Nepticulidae and Opostegidae of the World The larvae form galls in Prunus species.

Iteomyia capreae galls are small, hard, green pouches, up to 4 mm in diameter and, as they mature, have a reddish or purplish tinge. They are not as prominent on the lower leaf surface, having red-rimmed conical pores.

They feed on seeds, fruit, and on wasp larvae in galls. Foraging occurs high in canopy or just below the canopy. They also visit clay banks to consume antacid-like soil which neutralizes the acids found in their food.

P. 56. The bedeguar may also develop on Rosa rubiginosa, R. dumalis, or R. rubrifolia. The gall induced by D. mayri differs in being more sparsely covered in short, unbranched filaments and the galls usually develop on the twigs.

They nest in pre-existing cavities (twigs, stems, galls, old nests of other Hymenoptera, hollows in the wood). Adult females prey on caterpillars and larvae of beetles (Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae) to lay eggs in them. Adults fly from May to July.

Carmenta querci is a moth of the family Sesiidae. It was described by Henry Edwards in 1882, and is known from the United States, including Colorado and Arizona. Larvae have been reared from galls on Quercus arizonica and Quercus oblongifolia.

Plasmodiophorids and Halosporidians are two examples of parasitic Rhizaria. Plasmodiophorids cause infections in crops such as Spongospora subterranea. They cause powdery scabs and galls and disrupt growth. Halosporidians cause infections in marine invertebrates such as Mikrocytos mackini in Pacific oysters.

Nepticulidae and Opostegidae of the world The length of the forewings is 3.1-3.9 mm for males and 3.2-4.0 mm for females. Adults have been recorded from May to August. The larvae possibly make galls in branches of Prunus species.

The poplar petiole gall moth (Ectoedemia populella) is a moth of the family Nepticulidae. It is found in North America, including Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Ohio. The wingspan is 7-8.5 mm. The larvae make petiole-galls in several Populus species.

However, in this study, Foster and Rhoden found that such protection could also take place in the field. Five different predators attack the P. spyrothecae galls: specialist A. minki, generalists S. ribesii and A. nemoralis and two other unidentified generalist predators.

Leaf-tying by tortricid larvae as an adaptation for feeding on phototoxic Hypericum perforatum. Journal of Chemical Ecology 15:875 – 885. Herbivores also manipulate their microhabitat by forming galls, plant structures made of plant tissue but controlled by the herbivore.

Mapulation of food resources by a gall-forming aphid: the physiology of sink- source interactions. Oecologia 88:15 – 21. Galls may also provide the herbivore protection from predators.Weis, A. E., and A. Kapelinski. 1994. Variable selection on Eurosta’s gall size.

Larson, K. C., and T. G. Whitham. 1991. Manipulation of food resources by a gall-forming aphid: the physiology of sink-source interactions. Oecologia 88, P.15 – 21. Galls may also provide the insect with some physical protection from predators.

There are three long, thick yellow stamens with curling anthers and one yellow style. The fruit is a capsule containing many winged seeds. The plant sometimes has galls in its tissue, which are caused by the parasitic fungus Membranosorus heterantherae.

Protomyces macrosporus has a complex life cycle including ascospores and chlamydospores. Spores reach the hosts via air movements and are spread from the galls that develop on the petioles, midrib veins, and lamina; they will only germinate on the correct host.

The larvae feed on Macairea radula and Macairea thyrsiflora. They create a prosoplasmatic histioid gall on their host plants. The species may create three different types of soft, fleshy galls. The larvae are pale gray and 5.2-8.7 mm long.

Gnathifera acacivorella is a moth in the family Epermeniidae. It was described by Reinhard Gaedike in 1968. It is found in Australia, where it has been recorded from Tasmania.Australian Faunal Directory Larvae have been reported feeding in galls on Acacia species.

"Wood White (Leptidea sinapis)". Butterfly Conservation Project. When the host is itself a parasitoid, they are referred to as hyperparasitoids. A small percentage are phytophagous and the larvae feed inside seeds, stems, and galls, including some that act as pollinators (e.g.

In addition, fresh Rhizobium nodules have a milky pink-to-brown liquid inside them, while root- knot galls have firmer tissues and contain female root-knot nematodes (creamy white beads less than 1/32-inch in diameter) inside the gall tissues.

Tannins comprise a large group of natural products widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They have a great structural diversity, but are usually divided into two basic groups: the hydrolyzable type and the condensed type. Hydrolyzable tannins include the commonly occurring gallic and ellagic acid contained in the nut galls. Hydrolyzable tannins are present in many different plant species but are found in particularly high concentrations in nut galls growing on Rhus semialata (Chinese and Korean gallotannins) and Quercus infectoria (Turkish and Chinese gallotannins), the seedpods of Caesalpinia spinosa (Tara tannins), and the fruits of Terminalia chebula.

Quadrastichus erythrinae Kim, 2004, (quadra=four, stichus=line, erythrinae=of erythrina) is a small parasitoid wasp belonging to the family Eulophidae, but also a secondary phytophage by way of inducing galls on the leaves, stems, petioles and young shoots of various Erythrina species. Q. erythrinae was identified in 2004 in Erythrina galls collected in Singapore, Mauritius and Réunion. Eurytoma is a genus of wasps belonging to the family Eurytomidae of which some are parasitoids of Quadrastichus species; a parasitoid from the Eulophidae is Aprostocetus exertus. The worldwide spread of Erythrina gall wasp (EGW) stem from a location in East Africa.

His most famous exploit was leading the cavalry charge that won the First Battle of Athenry in 1249. The Annals of Connacht relate that: > The kings' sons of Connacht made another hosting, to burn and pillage > Athenry, at the feast of Mary in mid-autumn. They went thither, a great > host, including Toirrdelbach son of Aed and Aed son of Aed, and the Sheriff > of Connacht was there to meet them, with many Galls. The Galls asked for a > truce on that day, on account of its sanctity; in honour of Mary Mother > whose day it was.

Galls (upper left and right) formed on acorns on the branch of a pedunculate (or English) oak tree by the parthenogenetic generation Andricus quercuscalicis. The large 2 cm gall growth appears as a mass of green to yellowish-green, ridged, and at first sticky plant tissue on the bud of the oak, that breaks out as the gall between the cup and the acorn. If only a few grubs are developing within, then it may appear only as a group of bland folds. Where several grubs are competing for space the shape may become much more contorted, with several tightly bunched galls.

Andricus quercuscalicis is a gall wasp species inducing knopper galls. Knopper galls develop as a chemically induced distortion of growing acorns on pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) trees, caused by gall wasps, which lay eggs in buds with their ovipositor. The gall thus produced can greatly reduce the fecundity of the oak host, making this gall potentially more of a threat to the reproductive ability of the tree than those that develop on leaves, buds, stems, etc. The Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.), introduced into Britain in 1735, is required for the completion of the life cycle of the gall.

When M. javanica infects wheat, galls are produced on young and old roots. The roots infested with the pathogen contain 5-6 giant cells with hypertrophic nuclei causing the interruption of vascular bundles in the stellar area (Kheir 1979). Because the nematode body expands when it feeds on the cells, the cortical cells get compressed and the stele structure is modified, causing gall formation (Kheir 1979). Overall, when M. javanica infects a plant, the plant is instructed by the pathogen to produce giant cells, which modifies the structure of the stele tissue and causes the formation of galls.

Sugarbeet root aphids are closely synchronized with their hosts Populus augustifolia, with the majority of stem mothers colonizing leaves within three days after the leaf buds burst. There is intense competition between Pemphigus stem mothers over leaf choice - galls formed on larger leaves have higher stem mother weight, more aphids overall, and a lower probability of being aborted. Moreover, galls formed closer to the leaf stem-and thus closer to the source of nutrients flowing into the leaf-also benefit in the same way. During the aphids' emergence in the spring, large Populus leaves are colonized first.

Some ectoparasitic nematodes (nematodes that live outside the plant in the soil), such as sting and stubby-root nematodes, may cause root tips to swell. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium species) cause swellings on the roots of most legumes (such as clover, peas and beans). These swellings, called nodules, are easily distinguished from root-knot galls by differences in how they are attached to the root and their contents. Nodules are loosely attached to the root, while root-knot galls originate from infection at the center of the root, so they are an integral part of the root.

These were recommended for treatment of inflammation and ulceration, including topical application for skin diseases and internal use for intestinal ulceration and diarrhea. In China, tannin- containing substances, such as galls, pomegranate rinds, and terminalia fruits, are used in several medicinal preparations.

Above-ground symptoms on tea are pale, dull leaves or abnormal leaf fall. Infestations are more apparent in bushes recovering from pruning. Severely attacked bushes may fail to recover. The infected roots have large, characteristic galls, many of which have pinhole pits.

Many species complete their life cycle inside the bodies of their hosts. The larvae of a few fly groups (Agromyzidae, Anthomyiidae, Cecidomyiidae) are capable of inducing plant galls. Some dipteran larvae are leaf-miners. The larvae of many brachyceran families are predaceous.

Euura weiffenbachiella is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larvae forms galls on creeping willows (Salix repens). E. weiffenbachiella is one of a number of closely related species which is known as the Euura atra subgroup.

Flowers appear from October to November. Cream, fragrant, in panicles at the ends of branchlets or in the forks of leaves near the ends of the branchlets. The fruit is a blue-black or black oval, shiny, aromatic drupe. Often with galls.

Larvae are internal feeders that may induce galls, and pupate within the host. The only known host plant records are in Capparaceae. In Costa Rica, larvae have been reared from Podangrogyne decipiens. Cleome spinosa has been reported as host for S. chanesalis.

Several other species are known colloquially as "gall oaks;" indeed, galls can be found on a large percentage of oak species. The specific epithet "lusitanica" refers to the ancient Roman Province of Lusitania, corresponding roughly to present-day Portugal and Extremadura in Spain.

Trioza centranthi is a sap-sucking hemipteran bug in the family Triozidae which creates galls on the leaves and flowers of Centranthus and Valerianella species. It was first described by Jean Nicolas Vallot, a French entomologist in 1829 and is found in Europe.

Ceratopemphigus zehntneri, is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is known to form galls on Ligustrum robustum. It is one of two endemic aphids on Sri Lanka.

Coleophora caroxyli is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Uzbekistan. The larvae live in galls on Caroxylon species constructed by flies of the family Cecidomyiidae. They are yellow with a chocolate-brown head and about 4 mm in length.

Coleophora gallivora is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Turkestan and Uzbekistan. The larvae feed on galls made by other insects (flies of the family Cecidomyiidae). They can be found on Arbuscula arbuscula, Arbuscula richteri, and Haloxylon species.

The three species of Cecinothofagus inhabit galls induced by Aditrochus species on Nothofagus. Cecinothofagus species are thought not to be the gall inducers but rather parasitoids of the Aditrochus larvae. The adult Cecinothofagus is observed to emerge from the solitary central host cell.

Adelges abietis (Linnaeus, 1758) is one of the most common species; synonyms are A. gallarum-abietis, Chermes abietis and Sacciphantes abietis. The pineapple or pseudocone gallDarlington, Arnold (1975) The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in Colour. Pub. Blandford Press. Poole. . P. 114.

Science Publishers New Hampshire, pp. 159-229. in the myrtle family Myrtaceae. Callococcus leptospermi induces stem-swelling galls on some species of Leptospermum, and it is considered to be a potential biological control agent of Leptospermum laevigatum in South Africa.Gordon A.J. (2011).

Euura viminalis is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larva feed within galls on the leaves of willows (Salix species). It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.

Diplolepis rosae is a gall wasp which causes a gall known as the rose bedeguar gall, Robin's pincushion, mossy rose gall, or simply moss gall.Darlington, Arnold (1975) The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in Colour. Pub. Blandford Press. Poole. . P. 133 - 135.

Teleiodes excentricella is a moth of the family Gelechiidae. It is found in Libya,Teleiodes at funet Armenia and Turkmenistan. The larvae forms galls on the branches of Tamarix species,Advances in Holocene Palaeoecology in Bulgaria including Tamarix ramosissima and Tamarix araratica.

However, nuclei division start happening and many nuclei are produced inside generating giant cells. Surrounding cells will suffer hyperplasia and start cellular division wildly. For M. exigua, these cells will become galls, but not for M. coffeicola.Campos, V. P., Sivapalan, P. & Gnanapragasam, N. C. 1990.

The larvae feed on Crotalaria juncea, Phaseolus mungo, Dolichos lablab, Dolichos biflorus and Tephrosia purpurea. The larvae bore into the shoots of young Crotolaria juncea plants, causing stem galls. In later stages of the plant, the attack takes place at the axils of the leaves.

They are narrow and conical, and sometimes have a slight curve at the tip. The galls each contain a single chamber, which is smooth inside. Common names for the gall include the grape-leaf trumpet-gall, the conical grape gall, and the grape tube gall.

The costal margin is brown and the costal strigulae (fine streaks) silver. The hindwings are pale grey, but slightly darker along the anterior margin. The larvae feed on Monnina species. They induce galls, which are about 11 mm wide and about 20 mm long.

The bark is a smooth pale gray or yellow brown that flakes with age to expose pale bark patches with large lumps (note: not galls) which sometimes occur on older trunks and main branches. The coarse wood shows little distinction between sapwood and heartwood.

Twigs: Twigs are thick and brown or gray, hairy when young. The buds are egg-shaped with a pointed tip, angular, and hairy. In some regions, the twigs commonly bear galls. Bark: The name 'cherrybark' comes from its similarity to the bark of black cherry.

Anabremia inquilina is a gall midge and a member of the genus Anabremia. The scientific name was published for the first time by Solinas in 1965. The species was discovered in Italy.Catalogue of life: consulted at 20 August 2013 It makes galls on Jaapiella medicaginis.

The basal part and dorsal edge of the wing are least suffused with dark scales. The hindwings are light fuscous.Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 17 (2): 82 The larvae feed on Solidago rigida, forming galls just above or close to the ground.

Cylindrococcus is a genus of scale insects that induces galls on plants of the genus Allocasuarina. There are two described species of Cylindrococcus, both of which occur only in Australia.Gullan P.J. (1984). A revision of the gall- forming coccoid genus Cylindrococcus Maskell (Homoptera: Eriococcidae). Aust.

Dasineura gleditchiae, the honeylocust podgall midge, is a species of gall midges, insects in the family Cecidomyiidae. Native to North America it is an invasive species in parts of Europe. Honeylocust podgall midge is a pest of honey locust, forming galls on the foliage.

Rabdophaga is genus of flies in the family of gall midges Cecidomyiidae. There are 105 species distributed through Africa, Asia, Europe and North America. Most species of Rabdophaga gall willows (Salix sp.); one exception is R. giraudiana which galls the stems of poplars (Populus sp.).

Adults are generally on wing from the beginning of April to the end of September. The larvae feed on insect remains, found in spider webs or nest of Lepidoptera larvae. They have also been recorded feeding on dried plant material and galls on various plants.

Mike Weaver, Henry Fox Talbot; Selected Texts and Bibliography (Oxford: Clio Press, Ltd., 1992): Michael Gray, Secret Writing Reade's images darkened quickly because the tannic acid component of the"extract of galls" has the power to spontaneously reduce silver nitrate to its metallic state.

In South Africa at least, the Pteromalid wasp Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae has been introduced from Australia, and has spread rapidly, achieving substantial control.Dennill, G.B. ; The effect of the gall wasp Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) on reproductive potential and vegetative growth of the weed Acacia longifolia; Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, Volume 14, Issues 1-2, November 1985, Pages 53-61 The effect on the trees has been described as drastic seed reduction (typically over 90%) by galling of reproductive buds, and indirect debilitation of the affected plant by increased abscission of inflorescences adjacent to the growing galls. The presence of galls also caused leaf abscission, reducing vegetative growth as well as reproductive output.

Cola-nut gall cut open to show the unilocular cavity Oak marble galls showing two stunted and two normal-sized examples The galls are found in small groups, which however do not coalesce, helping to prevent mis-identification with the oak marble gall (Andricus kollari), in addition the shape is ovoid rather than spherical and it is scaly rather than smooth. It grows up to about 10 x 8 mm and is at first green, rapidly changing to grey-brown, with light red patches where the original bud scales have separated. It is hard and firm, but does not always persist on the tree for very long.Stubbs, F. B. Edit.

In South Africa, where it had been introduced between 1858 and 1865 for dune stabilization and tannin production, it had spread along waterways into forest, mountain and lowland fynbos, and borderline areas between fynbos and karoo. The gall-forming wasp Trichilogaster signiventris has been introduced in South Africa for biological control and has reduced the capacity of trees to reproduce throughout their range. The eggs are laid by adult wasps into buds of flower heads in the summer, before hatching in May and June when the larvae induce the formation of the grape-like galls and prevent flower development. The galls can be so heavy that branches break under their weight.

Galls are rich in resins and tannic acid and have been used in the manufacture of permanent inks (such as iron gall ink) and astringent ointments, in dyeing, and in tanning. The TalmudBavli, tractate Gittin:19a records using gallnuts as part of the tanning process as well as a dye-base for ink. Medieval Arabic literature records many uses for the gall, called ˁafṣ in Arabic. The Aleppo gall, found on oak trees in northern Syria, was among the most important exports from Syria during this period, with one merchant recording a shipment of galls from Suwaydiyya near Antioch fetching the high price of 4½ dinars per 100 pounds.

A gall in late autumn prior to the emergence of the gall flies Closeup of vacated or predated galls cells Mature galls are sometimes broken open by vertebrate predators to recover the larvae or pupae. The large size of the emergence holes of the individual cells sometimes suggests predation by birds or small mammals has taken place. The bedeguar is a good example of a complex community of insects. The cynipid wasp Periclistus brandtii is an inquiline that lives harmlessly within the bedeguar gall and like Diplolepis rosae itself, is often parasitised by insects referred to as parasitoids or even by hyperparasitoids in some cases.

Upper surface of galled leaf From 80 to 100 spangle galls can develop on the underside of each leaf and therefore vast numbers fall onto the ground in September, sometimes completely colouring and covering the ground. Infestations do not have any serious effect upon galled trees.

Many species are arboreal, living within hollow stems, old beetle or termite galleries, or in galls. Temnothorax species appear to be trophic generalists, feeding on a wide variety of scavenged items, including the elaiosomes of seeds. None have been documented to be active or aggressive predators.

Bird cherry (Prunus padus) with developing pocket plum galls. Detail of T. pruni structure. As a fungus, cool and wet weather conditions promote the germination of spores, whilst warm and dry weather results in infection rarely taking place. Colonisation can become extensive and eradication very difficult.

The host plants for the larva are hawksbeards (Crepis virens), cat's ear (Hypochaeris radicata) and sow-thistle (Sonchus olearius, Sonchus aspera, Sonchus arvensis).George C. Steyskal [Keys to The Insects of The European Part of The USSR] Larvae invade the flower heads, causing galls to form.

Knopper galls were first noted in Scotland at Canonbie in 1995; their distribution is often restricted to old country and urban estates where the Turkey oak has been previously planted.Tait, Norman & Pearl. The Spread of Knopper Gall Wasps into the Clyde area. Glasgow Naturalist 2004, Vol.

Symptoms causing enlargement of stems and roots are termed differently based on their nature. Excessive accumulation of food material in stems, above a constricted area produces a swelling termed sarcody. Localized swellings that involve entire organs are termed tumefaction. Commonly exhibited tumefactions are galls, clubs, and knots.

Propagation of diseased wood often transmits A. vitis. Injuries to a grapevine caused by cutting or freezing may also make the plant more susceptible to crown gall infection. However, galls grow only on trunks or canes, and do not appear on the roots of infected plants.

In comparison, the galls of A. craspedobius differ by a shorter downward roll on the leaf edge. On the website Plant Parasites of Europe, photographs of A. magnirostris are similar to the description for A. craspedobius, but also shown is a longer downward roll in one photograph.

The gall is a short, narrow twisted, downward roll on the leaves of purple willow (S. purpurea). It is lined with red hairs and contains mites. Similar looking galls have also been found on common osier (S. viminalis) and on sallows, which could also be A. truncatus.

Adults can be found from June to August. They made their nest in a variety of locations, mainly in hollow stems, e.g. bramble and elder, but also in cavities in walls and disused plant galls. In these existing cavities the females makes several cells, divided by clay.

These include: M. javanica, M. incognita and M. arenaria. Second-stage juveniles attack the plant and settle in the roots. However, infestation seems to occur at lower populations compared to other cruciferous plants. Root symptoms include deformation (galls) and injury that prevent proper water and nutrient uptake.

The mites live between the layers of the garlic cloves and inside the leaves, and form small galls. The garlic bulbs may fail to develop and the leaves may turn yellow. The mites can be dispersed by wind, having climbed to the upper parts of the plant.

These mall solitary wasp can reach a length of about . They nest in pre-existing cavities (twigs, stems, galls, old nests of other Hymenoptera, hollows in the wood). Partitions between cells are made of mud. Adult females prey on caterpillars and larvae of beetles to lay eggs in them.

Control is possible with regular and effective spraying of insecticide. A leaf-eating caterpillar and the green slug caterpillar attack the foliage. Mites form scale-like galls on twigs, retarding growth and reducing the fruit crop. Lesser pests include a small caterpillar, Meridarches scyrodes, that bores into the fruit.

Conopomorpha heliopla is a moth of the family Gracillariidae. It is known from the Australian states of Tasmania, Queensland and Western Australia.Global Taxonomic Database of Gracillariidae (Lepidoptera) The larvae feed on Acacia species. They feed in the surface of galls produced by the rust Uromycladium and other organisms.

First instar larvae mine young stems and shoots of their host plant, causing it to produce a gall. The later instars are stem borers, primarily within the galls. There are probably five larval instars. Pupation occurs within the hollowed- out gall chamber formed by larval feeding on gall tissue.

The leaves and branches often have galls when the tree is infested with gall-producing species of aphids, including Pemphigus utricularis, Slavum wertheimae, and Forda riccobonii.Martinez, J. J. I. (2008). Impact of a gall- inducing aphid on Pistacia atlantica Desf. trees. Arthropod-Plant Interactions 2:3 147-51.

They create a stem gall. The galls are somewhat variable in shape often appearing as a swelling on the side of the stem. The larvae are full-grown in fall, overwintering in the larval stage within the gall. Pupation takes place in a white to light grey cocoon.

The larva has been reported to feed on galls of eriophyid mites (e. g. Eriophyes cerasicrumena) and apparently also on the mites themselves, making them one of the rare species of carnivorous Lepidoptera.Celastrina serotina (Lycaenidae: Polyommatinae): a New Butterfly Species from the Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada.

Mikeius is a genus of wasps found in Australia. Species of Mikeius are thought to be associated with hosts that induce galls on Acacia and Eucalyptus species. The genus and six species were first described in 2008. In 2011, several alterations were made to the taxonomy of Mikeius.

The colour varies from bright red to a red-tinged green. Redfern et al (2011) describe the gall as having brown warts and either no hairs or slightly hairy. The galls can be found on the leaves of creeping willow (Salix repens) and rosemary-leaved willow (Salix rosmarinifolia).

U.S. Cavalry filed for bankruptcy in 2013 and was purchased by Aegis Brand Group, a privately owned facilities services company headquartered in Tennessee. After struggling to restore the brand, ERMC, under the parent company Aegis Brand Group, sold U.S. Cavalry and USCAV's assets to Galls LLC in March 2016.

The Anguina- Corynebacterium Association. Pages 303-323 in: Plant Parasitic Nematodes, B.M. Zuckerman and R.A. Rohde, eds. Academic Press, New York, NY, USA. Galls caused by A. agrostis have glumes that are 4-5 times longer than normal and can cause yield losses of up to 40-70%.

Use of a Seed Scarifier for Detection and Enumeration of Galls of Anguina and Rathayibacter Species in Orchard Grass Seed. Plant disease 87:320-323. In addition to crop loss, A. agrostis associates with pathogenic bacteria Rathayibacter rathayi (formerly Corynebacterium rathayi) to cause annual ryegrass toxicity in Australia.

The environment and location of the fungus does not differentiate its functionality. Symptoms that appear on willows are commonly seen as galls. M. amygdalinae distorts the blades and veins of willow, causing irregular spots, bearing the orange yellow uredinia, which is the lesion that forms on the leaf surface.

B. cylindrica is wind pollinated, so plants are fertilized by pollen carried by the wind. Thus, the flowers do not attract many insects. Larvae of the fly Neolasioptera boehmeriae, form small galls in the shape of spindles. Flowering season for B. cylindrica is during the summer to fall.

The galls can be found from June to October and can also be found on the petiole and rachis. It is found on Fraxinus angustifolia & subsp., F. excelsior, F. ornus and F. oxycarpa. ;Inquiline The larvae of Clinodiplosis botularia are reddish-yellow and outcompete the gall maker, which perish.

Gallacoccus is a genus of the scale insects commonly known as beesoniids. They typically cause galls on their plant hosts. Gallacoccus anthonyae is the type species. Female members of the genus Gallacoccus have only three instars, in contrast to the other beesoniid genera where the females have four.

Meloidogyne chitwoodi is a plant pathogenic root-knot nematode that is a crop pest of potatoes, carrots, and black salsify. Root-knot nematodes such as M. chitwoodi cause the production of root-knot galls when their larvae infect the plant's roots and capture nutrients stored in the roots.

Bees produce excellent honey with a mildly spicy flavor from its blossoms. The inner bark was used historically as a fiber source for making baskets, rope, and fishing nets. Basswood attracts many insect pests including Japanese beetles and skeletonized leaves are common. Mite galls commonly form on the foliage.

Oviposition occurs in the summer. Larvae hatch from the eggs but do not begin growing immediately. Their growth begins the following spring, when the tree buds begin to develop. At this time, the larvae induce the formation of galls on the tree.Cooper, W. R. and L. K. Rieske. (2007).

However, in 2005, the 2000 title was awarded to Cargin. Following its 2009 success, St. Galls captured the 2009 Ulster Championship and on St. Patrick's Day 2010 defeated Kilmurry-Ibrickane of Clare in Croke Park to win the All-Ireland title, becoming the first Antrim club to do so.

Fijivirus is a genus of viruses, in the family Reoviridae, in the subfamily Spinareovirinae. There are currently nine species in this genus including the type species Fiji disease virus. Diseases associated with this genus include: galls (tumours) in infected plants. FDV: Fiji disease, with severe stunting, deformation and death.

" It was a sign of things to come. Aedh mac Cathal was murdered by the Normans in 1228 and Aedh mac Ruaidri Ua Conchobair was chosen by the Normans and the chiefs of Connacht to take his place. Yet in 1230 Aedh and his vassals turned on the Normans, vowing "they would never own a lord who should bring them to make submission to the Galls. They made then great raids on the Galls, Aed son of Ruaidri and the men of West Connacht plundering the young son of William and Adam Duff, while Donn Oc and the sons of Magnus with the new levies of Sil Murray plundered Mac Gosdelb and Tir Maine as far as Athlone.

Adults lay their eggs on various species of oak, including Quercus robur, Q. petraea, Q. pubescens and Q. cerris, The developing larvae cause the trees to create an elongated gall, reminiscent of a ram's horn, hence the epithet aries and the vernacular name "Ram's Horn Gall Wasp". Green at first, the gall can be reduced to a single strap or can just be 5 mm long. It later hardens, turns brown and is especially variable when the gall contains inquilines (Synergus species). A. aries is does not cause galls to form on acorns but causes galls to develop on leaf buds on twigs, these have a variety of forms which are due to the activities of parasites and inquilines.

Most scales in this family have four female instars and five male instars. Members of the genus Gallacoccus have only three female instars however. The females form galls which are often quite ornate. In some species the first instars seem to act as soldiers and attempt to guard the gall.

Microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are important as plant pathogens, causing disease to crop plants. Fungi cause serious crop diseases such as maize leaf rust, wheat stem rust, and powdery mildew. Bacteria cause plant diseases including leaf spot and crown galls. Viruses cause plant diseases such as leaf mosaic.

Euura auritae is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larvae forms galls on willows (Salix species). It was first described by Jens-Peter Kopelke in 2000. E. auritae is one of a number of closely related species which is known as the Euura atra subgroup.

Synanthedon formicaeformis, the red-tipped clearwing, is a moth of the family Sesiidae and can be found in all of Europe, the eastern Palearctic realm, and the Near East. The larvae sometimes form pear-shaped galls on willows (Salix spp). It was first described by Eugenius Johann Christoph Esper in 1783.

Khaghaninia, S., et al. (2011). A new species of Tephritis Latreille (Diptera: Tephritidae) with an unusual wing pattern from Iran and its taxonomic implications. Zootaxa 3047 54-62. Most species inhabit the inflorescences of plants from several tribes in the family Asteraceae, and a few species cause galls to form.

Infective second stage juveniles colonize plants during the vegetative growth stage and may feed ectoparasitically during this time. When the inflorescence begins to form, the J2s invade the flower ovule and begin to feed endoparasitically.Stynes, B.A., and Bird, A.F. 1982. Development of galls induced in Lolium rigidum by Anguina agrostis.

A related wasp species, A. kingi, produces small galls shaped like Hershey's kisses on leaf surfaces. The valley oak is the only known food plant of Chionodes petalumensis caterpillars. Like many oaks, valley oaks can tolerate wild fires. Although smaller individuals may be top- killed, most resprout from the root crown.

The gall adelgid (Adelges cooleyi) is an adelgid species that produces galls in spruce trees. They infect the new buds of native spruce trees in the[foothills of the Rocky Mountains in the spring. They also attack blue spruce to a lesser degree. The insects complete two generations within the year.

Only one predator of the Chondrilla gall mite has been observed in nature. The Phytoseiid predatory mite, Amblyseius sp., lives in the galls made by Aceria chondrillae and exists in all Mediterranean areas where Aceria chondrillae has been found. Populations are small and have little effect on A. chondrillae numbers.

It is known from Talca, Chile, up to Villarrica, being associated to Nothofagus obliqua forests, as is the case with P. perplexa. It is associated with galls induced by Espinosa species on N. obliqua. It has a flight period during late winter and early spring, similar to P. perplexa as well.

Blastodacna pyrigalla, the pear shoot gall moth or pear fruit borer, is a moth in the family Elachistidae. It was described by Yang in 1977. It is found in KoreaBlastodacna at funet and China.A study on the occurrence of sinitinea pyrigalla yang and its control The larvae feed within galls on Prunus persica.

Few of the provinces proved more enthusiastically loyal to Rome. Josephus related the Biblical figure Gomer to Galatia (or perhaps to Gaul in general): "For Gomer founded those whom the Greeks now call Galatians, [Galls], but were then called Gomerites."Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews, I:6. Others have related Gomer to Cimmerians.

Adults are greenish or greyish, with camouflage patterns, night flying and attracted to lights. Caterpillars live within leaves, flowers, fruits or buds, or also in galls within plant tissue. The larvae pupate with the larval shelter or descend to the ground and make a cocoon covered in detritus (Dugdale et al., 1999).

Quercus lusitanica, commonly known as gall oak, Lusitanian oak, or dyer's oak, is a species of oak native to Portugal, Spain (Galicia and western Andalucia) and Morocco. Quercus lusitanica is the source of commercial nutgalls. These galls are produced by the infection from the insect Cynips gallae tinctoriae. They are used for dyeing.

In appearance it is glossy and somewhat flattened sphere and from ten to fifteen or so may occur on a single leaf. The average size is and the colouring starts as green, passing to yellow, orange and then red-brown; the season is midsummer onwards. Circular emergence holes appear in the galls.

Mikeius hartigi is a species of wasp found in Australia, the type species of its genus. Species of Mikeius are thought to be associated with hosts that induce galls on Acacia and Eucalyptus species. Mikeius hartigi (Girault 1930) (Amblynotus hartigi Girault 1930: replacement name for Amblynotus parvus Girault 1929, not Hartig 1840).

Many species can be found in cryptic habitats such as galls, but can also be present in open surface environments. They can often be found in many agricultural crops. They can feed on plant material, but mostly feed on other small soft-bodied arthropods. Anthocorids are often predacious both as nymphs and adults.

Male gnats often assemble in large mating swarms, or ghosts, particularly at dusk. Gnat larvae are mostly free-living, and some are aquatic. Many feed on plants, though some are carnivorous. Larval plant feeders (such as the Hessian fly larva) cause root, stem, or leaf galls to be formed by the host plant.

Detail of sectioned galls showing the chambers. An old pineapple pseudocone gall on a Norway spruce branch. The gall is formed from the swelling of the bases of the needles punctured by the feeding activity and activated by the saliva of the insect. The unilarval chambers are set in a woody core.

7–8 He later became professor of plant pathology at the University of Naples and wrote more than 400 publications with nearly 110 on plant galls. He described several new species of Cynipidae and Cecidomyiidae some with Jean-Jacques Kieffer. Trotter was the son-in-law of Pier Andrea Saccardo (1845–1920).

The wingspan is 23–32 mm.Harvester, Butterflies of Canada Another butterfly which is possibly carnivorous is Celastrina serotina. It feeds on galls on black cherry and possibly also on the eriophid mites that make the galls.Pavulaan, H. Celastrina serotina (Lycaenidae: Polyommatinae): a New Butterfly Species from the Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada.

These parasitoids may in turn be attacked by hyperparasitoids such as the chalcids Caenacis inflexa and Pteromalus bedeguaris. The mossy and sticky filaments of the gall are clearly ineffective in preventing the entry of inquilines, predators, parasitoids and hyperparasitoids.Darlington, Arnold (1975) The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in Colour. Pub. Blandford Press. Poole. .

Madder was also used to dye the "hunting pinks" of Great Britain. Turkey red was a strong, very fast red dye for cotton obtained from madder root via a complicated multistep process involving "sumac and oak galls, calf's blood, sheep's dung, oil, soda, alum, and a solution of tin".Goodwin (1982), p. 65.

Euura aquilonis is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larvae feed internally in a gall formed on the leaves of dwarf willow (Salix herbacea) and polar willow (Salix polaris). Galls of E. herbaceae are similar and the larvae need to be examined to tell them apart.

Euura herbaceae is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larvae feed internally in a gall formed on the leaves of dwarf willow (Salix herbacea) and polar willow (Salix polaris). Galls of E. aquilonis are similar and the larvae need to be examined to tell them apart.

Fine detail of the branched filaments of the gall A section through a young gall showing the larvae and cells Rose bedeguar showing the emergence and / or possible predation holes of the gall fly 'cells' An early stage in the development of the gall Some herbivorous insects therefore create their own microhabitats by forming, in this case, a highly distinctive plant structure called a gall, made up of plant tissue, but controlled by the insect. Galls act as both the habitat and food sources for the maker of the gall. The interior of a bedeguar gall is formed from the bud, and is composed of edible nutritious and structural tissues. Some galls act as "physiologic sinks", concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts.

Due to this, it is difficult to be sure about the data published on the biology of both species. According to Whitebread (1975) and Booij and Diakonoff (1983), larvae of Cydia millenniana form galls, while larvae of Cydia zebeana do not. The wingspan is 14–18 mm. Adults are on wing in May and June.

The distal half of the wing has a patch of large black spots near the inner margin and small black spots at the middle of the wing. The hindwings are uniformly brownish-orange. Adults are on wing from June to July. Larvae found in petiole galls on Parthenocissus quinquefolia might belong to this species.

Bassettia pallida is a species of gall wasp found in the Southern United States. This species was described by American entomologist William Harris Ashmead in 1896. B. pallida reproduces asexually in galls it induces on oak trees. The parasite Euderus set, a chalcid wasp, has B. pallida as a host and manipulates its behavior.

If compared to normal wheat seeds, galls are smaller in size, lighter, and their color ranges from light brown to black (normal wheat seeds are tan in color).Esser, R.P., O’Bannon, J.H., and Clark R.A. 1991. Procedures to detect wheat seed gall nematode (Anguina tritici) should an infestation appear in Florida. Nematology Circular No. 186.

The Shinumo Quartzite exhibits a variety of sedimentary structures. The sandstones of the lower and lower-middle members exhibit centimeter- to meter-scale planar tabular cross-stratification and trough cross-beds. These cross beds record north-directed paleocurrents along with subordinate bidirectional paleocurrents. The upper-middle member exhibits abundant cross beds, clay galls, and mudcracks.

These swellings, or galls, can reach over 18 centimeters wide. The tuber can resemble a rhizome, but there is no true rhizome. The stem is coated with spirals of scale-like leaves. The leaves are not green; there is no chlorophyll, as the plant obtains nutrients from hosts and does not need to photosynthesize.

Leprosa milga is a species of Afrotropical chalcid wasp in a monotypic genus from the family Eulophidae. It is a species of gall wasp which induces the production of galls on the seed pods of species in the genus Eucalyptus. It probably originated in Australia but has been recorded from South Africa and Italy.

Euura dolichura is a species of sawfly belonging to the family Tenthredinidae (common sawflies). The larvae feed within galls on the leaves of willow (Salix species). Some of the Euura species of sawfly are closely related and placed in groups of similar species. E. dolichura is a member of the Euura dolichura species group.

The forewings are white, marked with ocherous streaks, which are sometimes slightly dusted with brown. The hindwings are brownish ochreous. Adults have been recorded on wing from April to July. The larvae feed on Helianthus trachelifolius, creating slender spindle-shaped galls on the stems, they are usually found toward the upper part of the stem.

Pp. 28-29. Smuts are cereal and crop pathogens that most notably affect members of the grass family (Poaceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae). Economically important hosts include maize, barley, wheat, oats, sugarcane, and forage grasses. They eventually hijack the plants' reproductive systems, forming galls which darken and burst, releasing fungal teliospores which infect other plants nearby.

These alder pseudocones may carry several tongue galls, each of which usually appear to come from the same position; those curling down usually come from the bracteoles tissues and those projecting upwards usually come from ovarian tissues.Ellis, Hewett A. (2001). Cecidology. Vol.16, No.1. p. 28. Alder pseudocone and tongue gall in winter.

The tree/shrub genus Salix supports many galls, some of which are difficult to identify, particularly those caused by the gall midges in the genus Rabdophaga. R. clavifex causes a cluster of hairy buds with a club-like swelling at the tip of the shoot on sallows. Each bud contains a red or orange larva.

Turcmenigena varentzovi (saxaul longhorn beetle, Varentsov's longhorn beetle) is a pest of the black saxaul tree in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Dark cone-like galls are often found on the plants. A parasitic plant, Cistanche deserticola, that grows on the roots of the saxaul is prized in Chinese medicine as the 'ginseng of the desert'.

Coleophora galligena is a moth of the family Coleophoridae. It is found in Central Asia (including Turkestan and Uzbekistan), Jordan and Pakistan.A Taxonomic Review of the Coleophoridae (Lepidoptera) Of The Indian Subcontinent and Sri Lanka Described by Edward Meyrick The larvae feed on Haloxylon persicum. They form galls on the branches of their host plant.

The midge causes the development of galls in the apical meristem. Destruction of tissue in this part of the plant can stop its growth, prevent its flowering, and kill the whole stem. There is usually one gall per plant, but each may have several chambers, usually no more than three, but sometimes up to eight.

Because there are so many different hosts for this pathogen, the symptoms are very variable. Common symptoms include abnormal leaf color, abnormal leaf form, wilting leaves, galls, swollen roots, reduced root system, dwarfing and senescence (Cabi 2018). This pathogen does the most damage when present in light soils with hot weather conditions (Alford 2012).

Some Doryctinae are known to form galls on plants similar to the Mesostoinae (a small subfamily endemic to Australia). Some species in the genus Allorhogas feed on seeds. The large majority of doryctines are idobiont ectoparasitoids of the larvae of wood- boring beetles - such as jewel beetles (Buprestidae). Some species parasitize lepidopteran or symphytan larvae.

Developing Pineapple pseudocone galls on Norway Spruce. Pseudocone on Sitka Spruce Norway and Sitka spruce are prone to the formation of Pineapple gall pseudocones caused by the woolly aphid, Adelges abietis. These are not cones, although they closely resemble them. While Alder trees are not conifers, their mature seed bearing structures closely resemble cones.

These dead galls are remnants that are never used again. The gall portion of partial infections dies, while the uninfected segment can continue growth, resulting in curved and convoluted shapes. On Douglas fir, eggs are laid on the needles and several generations of adelgids are produced. Yellow spots and bent needles result from feeding damage.

The interior of a gall can contain edible nutritious starch and other tissues. Some galls act as "physiologic sinks", concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts.Larson, K. C.; Whitham, T. G. (1991). "Manipulation of food resources by a gall- forming aphid: the physiology of sink-source interactions", Oecologia 88(1): 15–21. .

Three weevils have been found living in the galls, Melanapion mininum, Archarias crux and A. salicivorus. The larva of the chalcid wasp, Eurytoma aciculata lives in the gall and kills the sawfly larvae. The tortricid moth, Gypsonoma dealbana usually feeds on various parts of willow but have been found inside the gall, killing the larvae.

Boydell Press, 2011. First, cows or sheep had to be slaughtered and their skins tanned. The leather was then scraped, stretched, and cut into sheets, which were sewn into books. Then inks had to be made from oak galls and other ingredients, and the books had to be hand written by monks using quill pens.

Cynips is a genus of gall wasps in the tribe Cynipini, the oak gall wasps. One of the best known is the common oak gall wasp (Cynips quercusfolii), which induces characteristic spherical galls about two centimeters wide on the undersides of oak leaves. As of 2008, there are about 39 species in this genus.Liljeblad, J., et al. (2008).

Hakea vittata has two characteristics that distinguish it from other species in the genus, the presence of "witches broom" galls where it has a mass of dense shoots growing from a single point. Secondly the fruit splitting past the seed tip only on the side of the red-brown wood zone. Flowering occurs from August to November.

Adults of T. unicolor feed at honeydew secretions and flowers. Females have been captured at honeydew from galls of Disholcapsis eldoradensis on Quercus lobata and at flowers of Asclepias erosa, Baccharis sarothroides, Chrysothamnus sp., Lepidospartum squamatum, and Wislizenia refracta. Males have been taken on the flowers of Calochortus catalinae, Hemizonia fasciculata, Rhamnus californica, and Xanthium spinosum.

Beesoniidae is a family of scale insects commonly known as beesoniids. They typically cause galls on their plant hosts. Members of this family mostly come from southern Asia.UDSA Agricultural Research Service The family name comes from the type genus Beesonia which is named after the entomologist C.F.C. Beeson who obtained the specimens from which they were described and named.

It is an ectoparasite that becomes endoparasitic invading inflorescence and developing seeds. It causes a disease called "ear- cockle", "gout" or seed gall on wheat and rye. It is not a host of oat, maize and sorghum. On wheat it causes stunted plants, distorted leaves, seeds are transformed into galls which contain a dried mass of nematodes.

Chirosia betuleti is a species of fly, which causes knotting gall in ferns. The gall develops in the terminal shoots of ferns, such as broad buckler fern (Dryopteris dilatata), male fern (Dryopteris filix-mas), lady fern (Athyrium filix-femina), and ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris).Stubbs, F. B. Edit. (1986) Provisional Keys to British Plant Galls. Pub.

OLIVEIRA, P.S. & FREITAS, A.V.L. 2004. Ant-plant-herbivore interactions in the neotropical cerrado savanna. Naturwissenschaften 91: 557–570 The highest diversity of galling insects (insects that build galls) in the world is also found in the Cerrado, with the most species (46) found at the base of the Serro do Cipó in southeast Brazil.LARA, A.C.F. & FERNANDES, G.W. 1996.

They end up tillering much more than normal and this results in leaves that are more slender and much weaker. They sometimes appear more grass-like than non-infected plants. Less common symptoms of the disease are stem or leaf galls and proliferating buds.Que Youxiong, Xu Liping, Lin Jianwei, Ruan Miaohong, Zhang Muqing and Chen Rukai.

The forewings are pale fawn-ochreous, unmarked, except for a very slight sprinkling of minute brown scales toward the apex, and sometimes a few groups of the same around the end of the cell. The hindwings are shining, pale brassy ochreous. The larvae feed on Tamarix species. They make galls on the branches of their host plant.

Andricus kollari, also known as the marble gall, is a parthenogenetic species of wasp which causes the formation of marble galls on oak trees. Synonyms for the species include Cynips kollari, Andricus quercusgemmae, A. minor, A. indigenus and A. circulans. Confusingly, the term "marble gall" is used to describe both the species of wasp and the gall it causes.

Andricus quercuscalifornicus is believed to reproduce strictly by parthenogenesis, and no male specimens have ever been recovered. The adult female lays eggs in the cambium layer of oak twigs during the fall using her ovipositor. More vigorous twigs will have more galls. The eggs overwinter on the twig, and then hatch in the spring, usually in early April.

The imago of the agamic phase emerges in early summer following the gall's inception. The bisexual generation gall is very similar to that of A. kollari, effecting the live bud of Quercus species and has only been seen under culture conditions (1975).Darlington, Arnold (1975) The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in Colour. Pub. Blandford Press. Poole. . p. 155.

In An Advanced Treatise on Meloidogyne. Edited by: Sasser JN, Carter CC. Raleigh: North Carolina State University Graphics; 1985:19-24. Root-knot nematode larvae infect plant roots, causing the development of root-knot galls that drain the plant's photosynthate and nutrients. Infection of young plants may be lethal, while infection of mature plants causes decreased yield.

Redfern, Page 315 The gall is occasionally found on isolated plants, but infestation is more commonly in hedges, with the new growth resulting from hedge cutting being the site of high density populations. The rosettes stand out prominently against the sky. Old galls persist and new shoots grow from unaffected buds lying well behind the terminal bud.

The yellowish-green gall is found on the underside of a leaf of the host plant. It is pear-shaped, sometimes has two or three lobes and is formed at an angle to the midrib. It can be smooth or hairy. The galls can be found on the leaves of tea-leaved willow (Salix phylicifolia) or its hybrids.

Similar galls are produced by other aphids: on Sitka spruce, by the Cooley spruce gall adelgid, Gilletteela cooleyi, some generations of which migrate to Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia); and on spruce by Cnaphalodes sp., which is heteroecious with larch. The Cooley spruce gall adelgids form a larger gall, long, which usually covers the entire tip of infested new growth.

The nymphs overwinter under wax threads at the base of buds.The eastern spruce gall adelgid They die shortly afterwards, leaving the eggs, which resemble white, cottony twigs, protected beneath their bodies.Forest Pests. In late summer (July–September) the fully developed nymphs emerge from the galls and crawl out onto the needles, where they molt and develop wings.

Journal of Biological Sciences 4(2) 246–52. Zizania latifolia is grown as an agricultural crop across Asia. The success of the crop depends on the smut fungus. The grass is not grown for its grain, as are other wild rice species, but for the stems, which swell into juicy galls when infected with the smut.

The round white hairy galls are 5–7 mm in diameter and generally contain one larva, or up to five on severely infested plants. The larvae moult and feed until January to March, when they reduce activity until early October. Although these are not harmful to the plant, they disfigure the cut foliage and hence reduce its value.

Rabdophaga rosacea is a species of gall midge that creates rosette galls on roses found in the central plains of North America. The species was first described in 1908 by Ephraim Porter Felt from a collection made in Aweme, Manitoba, Canada. The holotype, an adult male, is in the collection of the New York State Museum.

His work on the Tipulidae included a classification of the family. He also studied insect galls and worked on the Tabanidae. Osten-Sacken corresponded with Hermann Loew, supplying him with specimens, and translated and published Loew's work in the "Monographs of the Diptera of North America", (1862-1873), Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Nos. 6, 171, 219, 256.

The caps have deep stippling and are found most often as singlets, but occasionally as doublets. The Concow tribe call the acorns lō-ē’ (Konkow language). Globular galls up to several centimeters in diameter are frequently attached to twigs of mature specimens of valley oak. These house the larval stage of small indigenous wasps Andricus quercuscalifornicus.

Exobasidium often induces spectacular galls on its hosts. The fungus Ustilago esculenta associated with Zizania latifolia, a wild rice, produces an edible gall highly valued as a food source in the Zhejiang and Jiangsu provinces of China.Terrell, E. E.; Batra, L. R. "Zizania latifolia and Ustilago esculenta, a grass-fungus association", Economic Botany 36(3): 274–285. .

Pachypsylla celtidisvesiculum, commonly called the hackberry blistergall psyllid, is a species of aphalarid psyllid found in North America. The nymphs of this species forms blister-like galls on the leaves of various hackberries (Celtis spp.) throughout its range. It closely related to the more common hackberry nipplegall psyllid (Pachypsylla celtidismamma), which it strongly resembles as an adult.

The woody gall is a spindle-shaped swelling tapering into the stem. It is about 2 cm long and at its widest 0.5 cm, but can be indistinct, with the stem barely swollen. Several galls may form around the stem. During the summer there is one white larva in a spherical chamber, which pupates and overwinters in the gall.

Cynipini is a tribe of gall wasps. These insects induce galls in plants of the beech and oak family, Fagaceae.Nieves-Aldrey, J. L., et al. (2009). Revision and phylogenetics of the genus Paraulax Kieffer (Hymenoptera, Cynipidae) with biological notes and description of a new tribe, a new genus, and five new species. Zootaxa 2200 1-40.

Vegetables: Zizania latifolia stems peeled and unpeeled. Zizania latifolia is grown as an agricultural crop across Asia. The success of the crop depends on the smut fungus Ustilago esculenta. The grass is not grown for its grain, as are other wild rice species, but for the stems, which swell into juicy galls when infected with the smut.

The larvae feed on Petrorhagia saxifraga, Dianthus carthusianorum, Dianthus sylvestris and possibly Dianthus gratianopolitanus and Dianthus seguieri. They have been recorded feeding in shoots, but also boring the stem, creating small stem-galls. Pupation takes place in a cocoon on the ground at the end of April. Larvae can be found from the beginning of May to June.

Juveniles find host and move up the plant in a film of water, they invade meristems and penetrate inflorescence. Once in the developing seed they molt, become adults, mate, and reproduce. Eggs laid by the female develop and hatch as J2 within the seed gall where they desiccate and become dormant. Dormant J2 overwinter in the seed galls until spring.

He is also a director of CI Capital Partners' portfolio companies including Transplace, Tech Air, Interactive Health Solutions, Galls, IntraPac, A-T Solutions, Foundation Building Materials, and Total Fleet Solutions. Iseman is also a member of the advisory board of investment firm STAR Capital in London. Iseman was the chairman of Anteon International Corp. until Anteon's sale to General Dynamics Corp.

Common pests of this plant include various aphids, mites, and leafhoppers, the cotton cushiony scale (Icerya purchasi), and root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). It can be attacked by the pit-making pittosporum scale (Planchonia arabidis).UC Davis IPM It is vulnerable to the fungal plant pathogen Erythricium salmonicolor, which causes galls and the dieback disease known as pink limb blight.

There are numerous scattered undefined dots and dashes of black scales irrorated with whitish. The hindwings are fuscous, thinly scaled and semitransparent towards base, darker posteriorly. The larvae have been recorded feeding on the phyllodes and in galls on Acacia species in Australia, and in New Zealand they have been reared from the foliage of Acacia longifolia, Acacia melanoxylon and Albizzia julibrissin.

Opines and opine-like substances are not restricted to crown galls tumors. The very first opine discovered, octopine, was initially isolated from octopus muscle. Similar derivatives have been isolated from muscle tissue of certain marine invertebrates: alanopine, strombine, and tauropine. Opines like acetopine and nopaline can also be formed in normal callus and plant tissue as a result of arginine metabolism.

However, as State Entomologist for New York, the scope of his work included all insects of economic or medical significance. He wrote Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees (New York State Museum Memoir 8, 1905-1906) and Plant Galls and Gall Makers (Ithaca, N.Y., Comstock Pub. Co., 1940), and described over 1,000 species in scientific journals. He described the mosquito genus Culiseta.

Among his works, about 40 deal with the Hymenoptera Chalcididae and the production of galls. He described about one hundred species of Hymenoptera, many of them still considered valid species. He also devoted himself to the study of Coleoptera and Orthoptera, and to the Ornithology and fauna of Sicily. In 1893 he produced the first descriptive catalog of the European species of Hymenoptera.

Opogona comptella is a moth of the family Tineidae. It is found from southern Queensland to Tasmania as well as in New Zealand. The wingspan is about 15 mm. The larvae feed on the bark of Salix vitellina and the galls of Acacia dealbata (caused by the rust fungus Uromycladium tepperianum) and Acacia melanoxylon (caused by the fly Cecidomyia acaciaelongifoliae).

These are simple galls with the leaf rolled downwards affecting only one side of the leaf. The female forms the gall before she lays her eggs, with the caterpillar feeding inside the fold. It will also feed on ungalled parts of the leaf, or other leaves. In Great Britain the gall is found on white willow (Salix alba) and crack willow (S. fragilis).

Orseolia oryzae, also called the Asian rice gall midge, is a species of small fly in the family Cecidomyiidae. It is a major insect pest of rice. The damage to the crop is done by the larvae which form galls commonly known as "silver shoots" or "onion shoots". The rice plant is stunted and the seed heads fail to develop.

The fungi form globose woody galls on their host trees, though they do not appear to spread through them. They are perennial and produce crops of fruit bodies annually. Said to resemble bunches of grapes, the fruit bodies appear in clusters in late spring and summer (November to January). Globular or pear-shaped, these can reach 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter.

These asexual (agamic) females lay unfertilized eggs in the embryonic bud leaves of the Turkey oak, with galls slowly developing during winter, and are visible in March and April as small oval structures between the bud scales, looking like ant's eggs or pupae.The British Oak. Its History and Natural history. Ed. Morris, M.G. & Perring, F.H (1974) . Pub. Bot. Soc. Brit. Isles.

P. 309. The emerging adult gall-wasps in spring are the sexual generation, producing both males and females, which fly to the common oaks to initiate the formation of the summer marble gall. The abnormal buds develop during the summer and the bud is wholly replaced by the growing gall. Marble galls may remain attached to the tree for several years.

Egg laying can result in distinct oval galls forming in the shrub's bark. The eggs develop rapidly for a few weeks and then enter a diapause state. In this state the eggs development is very slow and it is in this state that the eggs overwinter. The following spring the eggs hatch, the larvae drop into the water and start to develop.

Andricus quercuscalifornicus (occasionally Andricus californicus), or the California gall wasp, is a small wasp species that induces oak apple galls on white oaks, primarily the Valley Oak (Quercus lobata) but also other species such as Quercus berberidifolia. It is found from Washington, Oregon, and California to northern regions of Mexico. Often multiple wasps in different life stages occupy the same gall.

Northern root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne hapla) is a species of vegetable pathogens which produces tiny galls on around 550 crop and weed species. They invade root tissue after birth. Females are able to lay up to 1,000 eggs at a time in a large egg mass. By surviving harsh winters, they can survive in cold climates (hence, the name, Northern).

The roots become defective and therefore cannot transport water and nutrients properly. The end result is stunted, wilted, and yellowing plants (characteristic of nutrient deficiency) and a decreased yield. Severity of the symptoms depends on nematode population density and host plant species and cultivar. As the number of nematodes increase in the area, the number and size of root galls increase as well.

Silver vine is an alternative to catnip, and many cats which do not react to catnip will respond positively to silver vine powder made from dried fruit galls. Typical behaviors include rolling, chin and cheek rubbing, drooling, and licking. The effect usually lasts between five and 30 minutes, and cats will usually visit silver vine again after about 20–30 minutes.

In contrast, adult males of Apiomorpha are small (about 1 mm in length) and winged. Like males of other eriococcids, they do not have a mouth and, instead, have an extra pair of eyes on the underside of their head (i.e., they have four eyes, two on top and two underneath). Males leave their galls as adults and search for females.

Cola-nut gallsDarlington, Arnold (1975) The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in Colour. Pub. Blandford Press. Poole. . P. 155. develop as a chemically induced distortion of leaf axillary or terminal buds on pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) or sessile oak (Quercus petraea) trees, caused by the agamic gall wasp Andricus lignicola (Hartig, 1840) which lays single eggs within leaf buds using their ovipositor.

The galls typically mature in late August to early September and change color from green to red over the course of maturation. At this stage, the alatae exit the gall through many small pores along the spirals' seams. In terms of geographical distribution, P. spyrothecae are distributed across Europe, North Africa (Tunisia), western Siberia, Pakistan and some locations within Canada.

McDonald became a judge in Portage la Prairie in 1962. He was criticized in 1987 for issuing only a $500 fine in a drunk driving case that resulted in a man's death."$500 FINE IN MAN'S DEATH GALLS SISTERS", Toronto Star, 7 July 1987, A9. By the 1990s, he was one of the last small-town resident judges in the province.

The 2007 Ulster Senior Club Football Championship was the 2007 installment of the annual Ulster Senior Club Football Championship which is administered by Ulster GAA. The holders were Crossmaglen Rangers of Armagh. They defeated St Galls of Antrim in the final. Crossmaglen received the Séamus McFerran Cup and went on to represent Ulster in the All-Ireland Senior Club Football Championship.

Fauna Europaea The wingspan is 13–24 mm. Adults are on wing from mid May to the end of July. Adults feed on the nectar of various flowers, including Sambuccus nigra, Frangula alnus, Sambuccus ebulus, Rubus and Ligustrum species. The larvae feed within galls on Juniperus communis, Juniperus chinensis, Juniperus phoenicea, Abies alba, Populus, Salix, Betula, Carpinus, Fagus, Corylus, Quercus, Acer and Ulmus.

The wood is used in East Asia for boat building and wood flooring for houses. The seeds can be crushed into a powder and used as a soup thickener and for mixing into cereals and breads. The seeds when roasted can also be used as a substitute for coffee. Galls produced by the larvae of insects are a rich source of tannin.

4–6 weeks after egg laying, the wingless males emerge, mate with the females still in their galls, and cut a tunnel out of the syconium. As the females emerge, they collect pollen from male flowers, which ripen later. After the wasps emerge, chemical changes in the fig follow as the fig develops into 'fruit'.Shanahan, M. et al. (2001).

Protomyces macrosporus is an ascomycete fungus that forms galls on Aegopodium podagraria, Anthriscus sylvestris, Angelica sylvestris, Daucus carota and some other members of the family Umbelliferae or Apiaceae, commonly known as umbellifers. Fourteen genera within the Asteraceae are also galled by P. macrosporus. The description of the genus was based on Protomyces macrosporus as the type genus for the family Protomycetaceae.

As well as providing food and protection to the wasp larvae, the galls provide shelter for several inquiline species of gall wasp including Synergus gallaepomiformis and Synergus umbraculus. These share the tissues that provide food for the wasp larvae. About twenty other species of gall wasps are hyperparasites and live inside the gall and parasitise the rightful owners, the Biorhiza pallida larvae.

In addition, these galls are able to divert 14C from neighboring leaves. One study showed that, on average, 29% of the 14C accumulating inside a basal gall was supplied by a neighboring leaf and not the leaf the gall itself was on. In contrast, neighboring leaves only supplied 7% of a distal gall's 14C, illustrating the importance of settling basally.

The lifecycle of sugarbeet root aphids involves primary and secondary host plants. Galls are formed on the primary host, cottonwood, in the spring by the stem mother. Her wingless offspring, called apterae, feed on the gall until giving rise to winged individuals called alatae. These alatae break out of the gall and colonize the roots of their secondary hosts, sugarbeet.

There are several diseases that can reduce the yield and market value of carrots. The most devastating carrot disease is Alternaria leaf blight, which has been known to eradicate entire crops. A bacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas campestris can also be destructive in warm, humid areas. Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species) can cause stubby or forked roots, or galls.

They require two different trees for its life cycle, the second being the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. They may also attack Sitka, Engelmann, or white spruce. The many different species of adelgids produce different galls on different spruce species. The Cooley spruce gall adelgid (Adelges cooleyi Gillette) is mainly a western species that usually alternates between white spruce and Douglas fir.

There is at least one known species that infects the roots of the host plant rather than the above- ground parts. Infections can cause discoloration, warts, or galls. Physoderma species can be highly specific in both host choice and area of infection. An example is P. dulichii, which only infects the upper epidermal cells on young leaves of Dulichium arundinaceum.

Bajo de Véliz contains a wide array of fossilized flying insects, such as the Rigattoptera (a pterygote classified in the order Protorthoptera), Megasecoptera, Velisoptera, and others. Trace activity of herbivorous invertebrates also survives. Insects fed on plants forming galls and oviposition traces, and to a lesser extent marginal damage from piercing and sucking mouthparts. There is also a trace fossil Meanderovaleichnus huenickeni.

The woody, irregular swellings are on the twigs of willows with the larval chambers just below the bark. Larva are in individual chambers and are described as yellowish-orange, or greenish yellow to white or reddish depending on the authority. Larvae prepare emergence windows before pupating. Galls have been recorded on Salix alba, S. aurita, S. aurita x cinerea, S. cinerea subsp.

These methods are not practical for large numbers of trees, such as commercial orchards. Pesticides are generally not effective because the insects take cover inside the galls. One gall wasp control method which has been successful is the introduction of the torymid wasp Torymus sinensis. This parasitoid is used as an agent of biological pest control against the gall wasp in Japan.

The gall is a 1–2 mm pouch on the upper side of the leaves of sallows and their hybrids. At first they are yellowish-green and turn to a reddish-brown later. On the underside of the leaf is an elliptical opening which has protruding hairs and contains a single mite. There can be up to thirty galls on a leaf.

Palumbina guerinii is a moth of the family Gelechiidae. It is found in southern Europe, from the Iberian Peninsula north to France, east to Italy and Greece.funet.fi Pod-like galls formed by aphids on twigs of Pistacia terebinthus and inhabited by the larvae Larva The wingspan is about 11 mm.lepiforum.de The forewings are pale olive grey, a little darker posteriorly.

Cigaritis avriko, the fine silverline, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Guinea (the Nimba Range), Sierra Leone (the Loma Mountains), southern Burkina Faso, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Uganda, western Kenya and Ethiopia. The habitat consists of savanna. The larvae are tended by ants of the genus Pheidole, which transport them into galls on Acacia drepanolobium in which they live.

Characteristic evidence of feeding sites is drying of the surrounding areas, with brown colour appearing and the area becoming callous and suberized. Damage to citrus is more severe. When cholorotic spots are great in number, production of the host plants may be severely reduced. Characteristic galls at the nodes may be observed, and the buds may be unable to sprout.

They advanced as far as Muirthemne and Dundalk and from that position demanded hostages and sureties from the sons of Hugo and Aed O Neill. But he moved out with his Galls and Gaels, and they posted themselves in parties on the passes of Sliab Fuaid and the doorways of Emain and Fid Conaille and challenged attack in these positions. But the Galls of Ireland, when they saw they were to have protection, determined to make peace and settlement with William [de Lacy] and the Earls and to accept the award of the King of England as to the conditions of peace: so they disbanded and left their positions without having extracted terms or tribute from Aed O Neill for the nonce." "Aed mac Cathail Chrobdeirg marched with a great force to the castle of Ard Abla in Tethba.

Xiphinema diversicaudatum at Nemaplex, University of California They have a wide host range with some of the extensively studied ones being strawberry, hops and raspberry, due to their economic importance.Whitehead, A.G. 1998. Plant Nematode Control. The direct root damage caused through penetration near the root tip and formation of galls is a secondary concern when compared with the damage caused by vectoring the arabis mosaic virus.

Cyttaria hariotii is an edible mushroom commonly called llao llao, llaullao and pan de indio. The fungus, found in Patagonia, southern Chile and Argentina, is parasitic on Nothofagus (Southern beech) trees. The fungus affects its hosts internally in its sap ducts; the tree defends itself by generating galls to bypass the sap blockages. The fungus expands out of the gall to other parts of the tree.

The Exobasidiomycetes are a class of fungi sometimes associated with the abnormal outgrowths of plant tissues known as galls. The class includes Exobasidium camelliae Shirai, the camellia leaf gall and Exobasidium vaccinii Erikss, the leaf and flower gall. There are eight orders in the Exobasidiomycetes, including the Ceraceosorales, Doassansiales, Entylomatales, Exobasidiales, Georgefischeriales, Malasseziales, Microstromatales and the Tilletiales. Four of the eight orders include smut fungi.

Meanwhile, her father meets and falls in love with another woman, Safia (Myriam Fakhr Eddine). He decides to marry her, which Nadia is forced to accept. However, her father gradually starts spending more time with his new wife, which galls and displeases Nadia who does not receive an equal amount of love and attention anymore. This compels and drives her to step in and ruin their relationship.

These include aphids, whiteflies and scale insects. Apart from weakening the plant, they encourage the growth of sooty mould on the honeydew the insects produce, which cuts out the light and reduces photosynthesis, stunting the plant's growth. They often transmit serious viral diseases between plants. Galls on cherry caused by a mite, Eriophyes cerasicrumena The mites that cause most trouble in the field are the spider mites.

The gall's appearance on the upper surface is sub-spherical, smooth and may vary in colour from pale yellow-green to deep red. The adult mite lives on alder tree sap, sucked from the cell tissues. The galls cluster along the midrib in the angle of the veins. The wide opening and interior on the lower epidermis and is lined with large numbers of small hairs.

The caterpillars feed inside almost any plant parts (fruits, seeds, galls, leaves or flowers), sometimes in a mine or sometimes exposed or under silk on the leaf surface; unlike some Lepidoptera the pupa is not extruded from the cocoon (Robinson et al., 1994) and may be found in its fine open-network cocoon on the plant or amongst debris on the ground (Common, 1990).

The dark-red sausage shaped gall (10 mm x 2 mm), is usually in pairs, either side of the midrib and on the upper side of the leaf. On the lower side of the leaf, it is flush with the surface. Inside the gall is a single caterpillar, along with frass. The galls are formed on the leaves of dark-leaved willow (S. myrsinifolia).

The gall is a globular swelling, up to wide and long, on the shoots of bay willow (Salix pentandra). As the gall matures the surface becomes cracked. According to Redfern et al. (2011) the gall contains one or several larvae in indistinct chambers, while the website Plant Parasites of Europe suggests the galls have circa four cells, each with a single larva and Liston et al.

Mesquite seeds and broom snakeweed seeds together made up 75% of the winter diet. Grasshoppers were a summer staple. Insect galls, cicadas, scarab beetles, spurge (Euphorbia spp.), plains bristlegrass (Setaria macrostachya) seeds, and white ratany (Krameria grayi) were consumed in a less pronounced seasonal pattern. Another study reported substantial amounts of prairie sunflower seeds (Helianthus petiolaris) and pigweed (Amaranthus spp.) seeds in the diet of scaled quail.

Adult Andricus kollari are dark brown, and about in length. It has alternating sexual and asexual generations, each often taking two years to complete. Like all gall wasps, it causes the formation of parasitic galls on trees in which it lays its larvae. In May or June, a sexual female lays her eggs in the developing buds of susceptible oak trees using her ovipositor.

Once the larvae hatch, typically between 5 and 8 days after the egg is laid, the larva eats its way to the base of the goldenrod bud and induces a gall. These galls serve as food sources and shelters from rain, wind and ice. Despite being the larva's overwintering structure, the gall itself does not provide significant insulation. Instead, the larva itself has robust freezing tolerance.

Thus, it is important for there to be a defense system that enables the aphids to retain their galls. The need for defense arises when the gall is opened up to allow winged aphid migrants to leave and to release any waste. The process of repairing the holes can take up to 10 days; during this time, the gall is susceptible to intruding predators.

Pemphigus spyrothecae P. spyrothecae is capable of fortress defense through manipulation of the composition of aphids in galls. When introduced to a single predator, colonies with soldiers usually killed the predator, incurring the loss of a few soldiers. In colonies with only non- soldiers, predators killed the aphids and ate them. In a later study, Foster and Rhoden (1997) examined the effectiveness of soldiers in fortress defense.

W. A. Foster outlined the effectiveness and methods of gall defense. He selected galls and placed them in laboratory conditions so that the predators and number of aphids could be controlled. Anthocoris minki was identified as the primary predator. It was shown that the first instar soldiers alone were responsible for the defense; they were successful in preventing predators from entering and killing them if they did.

Indian mealmoth (Plodia interpunctella) caterpillar infesting chocolate sprinkles South American cactus moth (Cactoblastis cactorum), Dalby, Queensland, Australia Phycitinae caterpillars are mostly leaf rolling, but some are inquilines in plant galls or seed feeders, and a wide range of habitats are utilized. This subfamily even features some aquatic and predatory caterpillars. The latter, e.g. Laetilia, can be beneficial in agriculture, as they eat small Hemiptera such as Sternorrhyncha.

Midges: Ficiomyia perarticulata (Cecidomyiidae) oviposits in the walls of syconia of F. citrifolia, and the developing larvae induce the plant to form galls there. Rove beetles: Charoxus spinifer is a rove beetle (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) whose adults enter late-stage syconia of F. aurea and F. citrifolia. Adults eat fig wasps; larvae develop within the syconia and prey on fig wasps, then pupate in the ground.

The Tanaostigmatidae are a small family of parasitic wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. They are almost exclusively phytophagous insects, forming galls in plant stems, leaves, or seeds. The some 90 species in 9 genera are primarily tropical and subtropical. They are typically short, squat wasps, best recognized by a protruding prepectus, and the mesonotum is often strongly arched, so the pronotum is nearly vertical.

He founded a horticultural association with Barthélemy Dumortier in Tournai in 1860. In 1862, he was a founding member of the Royal Belgian Botanical Association. He collected a number of plants unknown to science, which were described by other botanists such as Gérard Daniel Westendorp. Tosquinet collected many plant galls on his excursions, which led to the collection and study wasps in the superfamily Cynipoidea.

A number of insect inquilines live harmlessly within the knopper gall and some of these, as well as A. quercuscalicis itself, are parasitised by insects referred to as parasitoids.Randolph, S. Parasitism by Cecidostiba fungosa (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) on the inquiline Synergus gallaepomiformis and observations on other community members of the agamic (knopper) galls of Andricus quercuscalicis in the Bristol area. Cecidology, 2003 (Vol. 18) (No.

D. dipsaci is a migratory endoparasite that has a five-stage lifecycle and the ability to enter into a dormancy stage. D. dipsaci enters through stomata or plant wounds and creates galls or malformations in plant growth. This allows for the entrance of secondary pathogens such as fungi and bacteria. Management of disease is maintained through seed sanitation, heat treatment, crop rotation, and fumigation of fields.

Biorhiza is a genus of gall wasps in the family Cynipidae in the tribe Cynipini: the oak gall wasp tribe. Cynipini is the tribe partially responsible for the formation of galls known as oak apples on oak trees. These are formed after the wasp lays eggs inside the leaf buds and the plant tissues swell as the larvae of the gall wasp develop inside.

They parasitize certain species of the fig wasp genera Apocryptophagus and Ceratosolen. The long ovipositor is pierced through the fig wall to infect the fig wasp larvae during their development inside the flower galls. Penetration of the syconium wall may last from 6 to 55 minutes, depending on the wasp and fig species. Ceratosolen wasps are key pollinator species, and their production is consequently reduced.

The large growths on these roots are galls induced by Agrobacterium sp. Agrobacterium tumefaciens causes crown-gall disease in plants. The disease is characterised by a tumour-like growth or gall on the infected plant, often at the junction between the root and the shoot. Tumors are incited by the conjugative transfer of a DNA segment (T-DNA) from the bacterial tumour- inducing (Ti) plasmid.

Galls on UK SafariThe Virtual Filed Guide UK A yew artichoke gall caused by the fly Taxomyia taxi also exists, but is unrelated to the oak-borne species. Previous names or synonyms for the species A. fecundator are A. fecundatrix, A. pilosus, A. foecundatrix (see below), A. gemmarum, A. gemmae, A. gemmaequercus, A. gemmaecinaraeformis and A. quercusgemmae. The scientific name is now once again Andricus foecundatrix.

Being so prominent and interesting in appearance, this gall has more folklore attached to it than most. The term 'Bedeguar, Bedegar or Bedequar' comes from a French word, bédégar, and is ultimately from the Persian, bād-āwar, meaning 'wind- brought'. Robin in Robin's pincushion refers to the woodland sprite of English folklore, Robin Goodfellow.Darlington, Arnold (1975) The Pocket Encyclopaedia of Plant Galls in Colour. Pub.

Erechthias mystacinella, the curve-winged apple moth, is a moth of the family Tineidae. It is found in the Australian Capital Territory, Tasmania and Victoria. The wingspan is about 14 mm. The larvae have been found feeding and living inside galls and damaged stems caused by Uromycladium tepperianum, Cecidomyia acaciaelongifoliae and Schizoneura lanigera and on various plants and trees, including Malus domestica, Acacia dealbata and Acacia melanoxylon.

Amblypalpis olivierella, the tamarix spindle-gall moth, is a species of moth in the family Gelechiidae. It was described by Émile Louis Ragonot in 1886.funet.fi It is found in Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, the Sinai, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, northern Yemen and the United Arab Emirates, Iran, India and Pakistan. The larvae have been recorded inducing galls on Tamarix brachystylis, Tamarix bounopaea, Tamarix articulata and Tamarix africana.

The larvae live within the dried galls of Atrusca wasps which occur on gray oak (Quercus grisea). Young larvae feed just inside the outer covering of the gall on the fibrous material that constitutes most of the internal structure. Older larvae also feed on these fibers but may also tunnel through the center of the gall. Pupation takes place in a loosely woven silk cocoon within the gall.

Quercitannic acid is one of the two forms of tannic acidL'Energie Homo- Hydrogne By Patricia Le Roux (French) found in oak bark and leaves.Quercus on www.henriettesherbal.com The other form is called gallotannic acid and is found in oak galls. The quercitannic acid molecule is also present in quercitron, a yellow dye obtained from the bark of the Eastern black oak (Quercus velutina), a forest tree indigenous in North America.

Daphnephila truncicola is a species of gall midges first associated with stem galls on Lauraceae species, particularly Machilus thunbergii in Taiwan. Based on analysis on sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, it has been suggested that in this genus, the stem-galling habit is a more ancestral state as opposed to the leaf-galling habit. This genus appears to have originated tropically and dispersed to Japan through Taiwan.

Daphnephila taiwanensis is a species of gall midges first associated with leaf galls on Lauraceae species, particularly Machilus thunbergii in Taiwan. Based on analysis on sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, it has been suggested that in this genus, the stem-galling habit is a more ancestral state as opposed to the leaf-galling habit. This genus appears to have originated tropically and dispersed to Japan through Taiwan.

Daphnephila sueyenae is a species of gall midges first associated with leaf galls on Lauraceae species, particularly Machilus thunbergii in Taiwan. Based on analysis on sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, it has been suggested that in this genus, the stem-galling habit is a more ancestral state as opposed to the leaf-galling habit. This genus appears to have originated tropically and dispersed to Japan through Taiwan.

Daphnephila ornithocephala is a species of gall midge first associated with leaf galls on Lauraceae species, particularly Machilus thunbergii in Taiwan. Based on analysis on sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, it has been suggested that in this genus, the stem-galling habit is a more ancestral state as opposed to the leaf-galling habit. This genus appears to have originated tropically and dispersed to Japan through Taiwan.

Daphnephila stenocalia is a species of gall midges first associated with leaf galls on Lauraceae species, particularly Machilus thunbergii in Taiwan. Based on analysis on sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, it has been suggested that in this genus, the stem-galling habit is a more ancestral state as opposed to the leaf-galling habit. This genus appears to have originated tropically and dispersed to Japan through Taiwan.

The larvae make galls on their host plant. The egg is deposited on the stem where later the gall forms and is usually difficult to see. The larva first bores into the parenchyma and then feeds in a spiral gallery around the stem, successively moving upwards, also partly boring in the central woody part of the stem. The stem is thickened more or less considerably by the larval activity.

The name opine comes from octopine, the first opine discovered in 1927, not in crown galls, but in octopus muscle. Nopaline comes from the identification of this molecule in tumors that appeared on "nopal", the Spanish and French names of Opuntia spp. cactus. According to Oxford English Dictionary, the word opine was first used in print in 1977. Usually, the name of newly discovered opines has the ending "-opine".

Dryocosmus are a genus of gall wasps. They are cyclically parthenogenetic insects that induce galls on plants in the family Fagaceae. According to recent studies, the genus includes some species previously considered as belonging to the genus Chilaspis, whereas Dryocosmus favus should be excluded of the genus. Dryocosmus and Chilaspis are closely related to the other oak gall wasp taxa (Aphelonyx, Plagiotrochus, Pseudoneuroterus, Trichagalma, and some Neuroterus species) Z.Acs et al.

Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histological damages to roots, including the formation of visible galls (e.g. by root-knot nematodes), which are useful characters for their diagnostic in the field. Some nematode species transmit plant viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of them is Xiphinema index, vector of grapevine fanleaf virus, an important disease of grapes, another one is Xiphinema diversicaudatum, vector of arabis mosaic virus.

Eusocial thrips appear to satisfy these requirements. Gall thrips maintain galls around Acacia phyllodes, a singular and vast resource for them, satisfying the first criterion. The prevalence of other, aggressive, parasitic thrips species (Koptothrips) with known instances of hostile takeover and killing of gall thrips indicates strong selection for defense. The final criterion is satisfied by soldier micropterous thrips with large barbed forelegs that assist them in defending against episodic attacks.

They hatch after 7 to 14 days, and the first-instar nymphs start to feed on the underside of the leaves where they begin to form galls. The feeding of a large number of nymphs causes curling of the leaves, distortion of shoots, and even cessation of growth. The nymphs moult five times before becoming winged adults. The nymphal development stage lasts between 20 and 40 days depending on temperature.

The gall growth first appears as a rounded mass of green plant tissue on the leaf buds of the oak, later becoming hard and brown, being up to approximately in diameter. Although nearly spherical, the galls often have a number of little flattened nodules. The rounded growths are filled with a spongy mass and a single wasp larva is located in a hard, seed-like cell in the centre.Gall Growth details.

It is useful for securing uninhabited sand in coastal areas, primarily where there are not too many hard frosts. In Tasmania the ripening pods were roasted and the seeds removed and eaten. Young galls of Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae, still showing the branch morphology of the galled buds. One of the phyllodes already seems to be showing stress and might be expected to drop within a few weeks or months.

Gall wasps, also called gallflies, are a family (Cynipidae) in the wasp superfamily Cynipoidea within the suborder Apocrita of the order Hymenoptera. Their common name comes from the galls they induce on plants for larval development. About 1,300 species of this generally very small creature (1–8 mm) are known worldwide, with about 360 species of 36 different genera in Europe and some 800 species in North America.

Landed with 3 galls [14 litres] petrol, tail wheel broke off when I touched down. Goldsmith's reference to having only three gallons of fuel left was a warning which went unheeded. The 49th Fighter Group had learnt through experience that there was nothing to be gained by dogfighting with a Zero. This type of combat resulted in increased fuel consumption which if left unchecked could lead to fuel starvation.

Quercitannic acid is one of the two forms of tannic acid found in oak bark and leaves.Quercus. henriettes-herb.com The other form is called gallotannic acid and is found in oak galls. The quercitannic acid molecule is also present in quercitron, a yellow dye obtained from the bark of the Eastern black oak (Quercus velutina), a forest tree indigenous in North America. It is described as a yellowish-brown amorphous powder.

The spangle gall generation in particular is affected by inquilines and parasites. Synergus albipes is an inquiline on the blister gall, while common hyperparasites include Aulogymnus arsames, Aprostocetus aethiops, Eurytoma brunniventris, Mesopolobus fasciiventris, M. fuscipes, M. sericeus, M. tibialis and Torymus flavipes. Silk button galls also have Synergus albipes as an inquiline and examples of hyperparasites include; Aulogymnus gallarum, Mesopolobus fasciventris, M. tibialis, Pediobius lysis and Torymus flavipes.

A pineapple pseudocone gall on a Norway spruce branch. The Pineapple gall adelgid (Adelges abietis) is a type of conifer-feeding insect that forms pineapple-shaped plant galls on its host species, commonly Norway and Sitka spruce. The adelgids (genus Adelges) are pear-shaped, soft-bodied green insects with long antennae, closely related to the aphid. "Adelges" lays up to one hundred eggs at a time, one on each needle.

New discoveries have also been made about the subsequent history of the map. Grey stains over many of the place names have been found to be caused by a reagent (made from oak galls and madeira wine) applied at Richard Gough's request, that he had hoped would make faded writing more legible. On-going research extends the number of regional case studies already carried out (Northwest England, North Norfolk coast).

Biorhiza pallida is a gall wasp species in the family Cynipidae. This species is a member of the tribe Cynipini: the oak gall wasp tribe. Cynipini is the tribe partially responsible for the formation of galls known as oak apples on oak trees. These are formed after the wasp lays eggs inside the leaf buds and the plant tissues swell as the larvae of the gall wasp develop inside.

Ferrous sulfate was used in the manufacture of inks, most notably iron gall ink, which was used from the middle ages until the end of the eighteenth century. Chemical tests made on the Lachish letters (588–586 BCE) showed the possible presence of iron.Torczyner, Lachish Letters, pp. 188–95 It is thought that oak galls and copperas may have been used in making the ink on those letters.

They died whilst fighting the men of Munster in 860.O'Donovan (1860) pp. 145–47 Gnimbeolu, chief of the Galls of Cork, was killed in 865, possibly the same person as Gnim Cinnsiolla, chief of the Lochlanns who is recorded as dying in similar circumstances.O'Donovan (1860) pp. 168–169 In 869 Tomrark the Earl is described as a "fierce, rough, cruel man of the Lochlanns"O'Donovan (1860) p.

However, many traditional doctors still consider natural (but farmed) UDCA a superior product. In Japan, UDCA has been synthesised from cow galls, as a by-product of the meat industry, since 1955. It is also produced in the U.S. by Ciba-Geigy. In 2014, Kaibao Pharmaceuticals, which supplies approximately half of the bear bile consumed in China, stated it is developing another synthetic source derived from poultry bile.

According to Illinois Wildflowers, M. frondosa is associated with a variety of animals that feed on or use it as refuge. It is preyed on by insects from dipterans to true bugs. Larvae of a gall fly, Astictoneura agrostis, form scaly galls on this plant. Other larvae that feed on this grass include that of gall wasp (Eurytomocharis muhlenbergiae), grass fly (Homaluroides ingratus), and stink bug (Hymenarcys nervosa).

Eutreta diana is a species in the family Tephritidae, known as fruit flies in North America and picture wing flies in Europe. Females lay eggs in vegetative buds of several species and subspecies of sagebrush in western North America. Larvae induce woody galls near their oviposition site and feed on the plant internally until they mature. Adults have "pale green eyes, white-dotted black wings, and bright red abdomens" (Goeden 1990).

Galls may also provide the insect with some physical protection from predators. The bedeguar gall is surrounded by a dense mass of sticky branched filaments. This structure gives the appearance of a ball of moss, and its filaments are often brightly coloured, being at their best around September; starting off green and then passing through pink and crimson to reddish brown. A large specimen can be up to in width.

The upper surface of a coltsfoot leaf galled by P. poarum. Puccinia poarum may be confused with a different rust on T. farfara (coltsfoot), Coleosporium tussilaginis. Coleosporium tussilaginis usually appears later in the season, does not form galls or aecia, but instead forms diffuse uredinia with powdery orange spores on the lower leaf surface; it is less obvious on the upper leaf surfaceWild About Britain. Accessed : 2010-08-17.

The eggs are laid between the bud scales in the spring. The gall is a short or long downward, hairless, roll containing one or several yellowish-red or orange larvae. The galls are of varying lengths, often run together and often have orange, red or white patches. There are two or three generations in a year, with the summer generations pupating in the gall and the autumn generation pupating in the soil.

According to Redfern et al (2011), the gall is found on leaves and is a short, downward, hairless, roll containing one yellowish-red larva. The roll is half-moon shaped and several rolls may run together containing several larvae. In Great Britain the gall is found on white willow (Salix alba) and looks similar to the galls of D. auritae and R. marginemtorquens. Elsewhere it has been recorded on goat willow (S.

The species is visited by a wide variety of pollinating insects, including bees, flies, moths and wasps. Cross-fertilisation is usually required to produce viable seed, and as such large clones may have low seed production. Several gall midge species are known to form galls on S. lanceolatum, including Rhopalomyia asteriflorae and Asteromyia paniculata. Leaf-mining insects known to feed on this species include Anoplitis inaequalis, Agromyza curvipalpis, Phytomyza albiceps, Microrphopala xerene, and Sumitrosis inaequalis.

The cones are an important food for several birds, including American robin, Clark's nutcracker, phainopepla and cedar waxwing; these digest the fleshy cone scales and disperse the seeds in their droppings. The plants often bear galls caused by the juniper tip midge, Oligotrophus betheli. These are violet-purple fading to brown, 1–2 cm diameter, with dense modified spreading scale-leaves 6–10 mm long and 2–3 mm broad at the base.

Cecidophyopsis ribis is an eriophyid mite which is best known for being a plant parasite, a pest of Ribes species, the genus that includes gooseberries and blackcurrants. It is commonly known as the blackcurrant gall mite or big bud mite. It feeds on the plants' buds, forms galls, and transmits a virus which causes blackcurrant reversion disease. The mite is a serious pest of blackcurrant crops in Europe, but rarely on other continents.

The body is sparsely covered in yellow hairs, and there is a large tuft of dark brown hairs on the tip of the abdomen. The larvae bore in the inner bark of Alphitonia excelsa, the injured bark of Eucalyptus species, in branches of Ficus species, stems of Wisteria species and in woody galls on branches of Exocarpos cupressiformis. They are considered a pest on Diospyros kaki, of which they feed on the bark.

Epichrysocharis burwelli was first recorded from California where specimens emerged from galls on the leaves of Corymbia citriodora collected in the Los Angeles area, it has subsequently been recorded in Brazil and Portugal where its food plant C. citriodora is also grown. It is thought that the species originated in Australia where C. citriodora is native although there are no records of this species from Australia, the other species of Epichrysocharis are found in Australia.

A number of insect inquilines live harmlessly within the oak marble gall. Some of these, as well as Andricus itself, are parasitised by insects referred to as parasitoids. The chalcid wasp Torymus nitens is an example of a parasitoid in oak marble galls.A parasitoid wasp The presence of these inquilines and parasites is often visible on older galls by the presence of fine exit-holes, smaller than that of the gall wasp itself.

Early in the season the flag is fresh and green, but the colours soon start to vary from pale green to yellow, pink, red, purple and orange. Later the galls turn brown or black and remain on the tree for a long time (until the next season).Gall Fungi The gall is therefore very persistent and remains attached to the pseudocone throughout its existence, even remaining attached after storms have detached branches and pseudocones.

The gall has also been recorded as green, purple, red or pink. Schenck's gall is an oval shaped structure, about 0.1 × 0.2 cm and a light green colour, well camouflaged with the leaf lamina. A distinct indentation of the lamina margin is apparent through the inhibition of the normal growth of the leaf by the developing gall; the gall may also appear on the midrib.Stubbs, Page 48 Both galls are both unilocular and unilarval.

The rebellion started in Ulster and spread all over Ireland to become the Nine Years' War. The Galls and the Gaels hoped for help from Catholic Spain but it was slow in coming. In September 1601, after seven years war in Ireland, the Spanish Armada sent 4,000 men to help Hugh O'Neill and Hugh O'Donnell. But the Armada landed at Kinsale in the South, while O'Neill and O'Donnell's strongholds were way up in the North.

White rust pathogens create chlorotic (yellowed) lesions and sometimes galls on the upper leaf surface and there are corresponding white blister-like dispersal pustules of sporangia on the underside of the leaf. Species of the Albuginaceae deform the branches and flower parts of many host species. Host species include most if not all plants in the family Brassicaceae, common agricultural weeds, and those specified below."White Rusts of Vegetables" (PDF), RPD No. 960, Univ.

Stages of creosote flower development, from bud (left) to seeds (right) Larrea tridentata is an evergreen shrub growing to tall, rarely . The stems of the plant bear resinous, dark green leaves with two opposite lanceolate leaflets joined at the base, with a deciduous awn between them, each leaflet long and broad. The flowers are up to in diameter, with five yellow petals. Galls may form by the activity of the creosote gall midge.

Margaret Massey Hutchinson (1904–1997) was an English educator, naturalist and author. Hutchinson was closely involved with Haslemere Educational Museum which was founded by her grandfather Sir Jonathan Hutchinson and she established and ran a Froebel school in West Sussex for 25 years. She was a lifelong observer of nature, including a specialist study of plant galls, and had a particular interest in the education of children in the context of the natural world.

Several genera of uncommon larger wasp species enter the immature figs before other wasps and induce galls, which may impact on numbers of pollinator wasps in the fig later. An example of this is Pseudidarnes minerva, a metallic green wasp species. Nematodes of the genus Schistonchus are found in the syconia (and the pollinator wasps) of many species of fig, with F. rubiginosa hosting two species. They appear to be less species-specific than wasps.

Its thorny thickets and numerous, persistent hips provide shelter and food for birds and other small wildlife. Deer browse new stems and foliage. Rosa pisocarpa hosts gall-making wasps of the family Cynipidae, genus Diplolepis, in the insect class Hymenoptera. Two species are D. polita, which makes bristly round red or green galls on leaves, and D. rosae, the mossy rose gall, which makes large, mossy, feathery, greenish or yellowish growths on stems.

These adult adelgids may fly to other susceptible conifers, such as larch (Larix), pine (Pinus) and silver fir (Abies alba) or may continue the cycle on the same tree, as some are poor flyers.Eastern Spruce Gall Adelgid - Ohio University. Several generations are raised on these secondary hosts, however no galls are formed. In July of the following year winged adelgid appear and fly to the spruces to breed there again, completing the life cycle.

The secondary infection by the zoospores can infect the first host or surrounding hosts. These secondary zoospores can be transmitted to other fields through farm machinery or water erosion. They form a secondary plasmodium that affects plant hormones to cause swelling in root cells. These cells eventually turn into galls or “clubs”. The secondary plasmodium forms the overwintering resting spores which get released into the soil as the “clubs” rot and disintegrate.

Cabbage clubroot is a disease of Brassicaceae (mustard family or cabbage family) caused by the soil-borne Plasmodiophora brassicae. The disease first appears scattered in fields, but in successive seasons it will infect the entire field, reducing the yield significantly and sometimes resulting in no yield at all. Symptoms appear as yellowing, wilting, stunting, and galls on the roots. It is transmitted by contaminated transplants, animals, surface water runoff, contaminated equipment, and irrigation water.

A triterpene has been extracted from these galls. In Turkey, it is known as menengiç or bıttım. A coffee-like beverage, Kurdish coffee or menengiç kahvesi, is made from the roasted fruit, and a soap is made from the oil. Terebinth resin was used as a wine preservative in the entire ancient Near East, as proven by many findings in areas such as the foot of the Zagros Mountains and Middle Bronze Age Galilee.

Other species create galls on stems and leaves. Shapes vary from spheres to mushroom-shaped to pencil-shaped. Garry oak leaves In British Columbia, the Garry oak can be infested by three nonnative insects: the jumping gall wasp Neuroterus saltatorius, the oak leaf phylloxeran, and the gypsy moth. While the invasive plant disease commonly called Sudden Oak Death attacks other Pacific Coast native oaks, it has not yet been found on the Garry oak.

Pemphigus betae, also known as the sugarbeet root aphid, is a species of gall- forming aphid that forms galls specifically on the commonly found narrowleaf cottonwood (aka the willow-leaved poplar tree), Populus angustifolia. Sugarbeet root aphids have been found in North America and Europe. They infect sugarbeets, but also other plants like tablebeets and Swiss chard. Their size has been likened to that of a pinhead, and are pale white-yellow in color.

For example, Trigona corvina workers have been found with mites attached to the outer face of their hind tibiae. Some are thought to be parasites, while others are beneficial symbionts. Mites also parasitize some ant species, such as Eciton burchellii. Lime nail galls on Tilia × europaea, caused by the mite Eriophyes tiliae Plant pests include the so-called spider mites (family Tetranychidae), thread-footed mites (family Tarsonemidae), and the gall mites (family Eriophyidae).

A leper hospital was established at Harehope. Eglingham village was situated on the historic route from Alnwick to Wooler. In addition to agriculture, the parish's population was also engaged in mining coal and quarrying limestone and freestone, all of which are described as being available in abundance.National Gazetteer , 1868, from the Genuki website A nineteenth-century travellers' guide describes a stream of water which "is turned black as common ink by an infusion of galls".

Infections by this species can be found by the changes it makes to the leaves of A. altissima. Compared to healthy leaves, leaves infected by A. ailanthii have somewhat undercurled, wrinkled and somewhat glossier. This can be difficult to detect compared to the conspicuous galls made by many other members of Eriophyidae, possibly contributing to the poorly known status. The whitish mites themselves are tiny and hard to find on the underside of the leaves.

Insects, such as psyllids and Christmas beetles from the genus Anoplognathus and the eucalyptus chafer (Xylonychus eucalypti) commonly eat the leaves. The rectangular-lerp forming psyllid Glycaspis siliciflava eats only this species. The scale insects Brachyscelis munita and Opisthoscelis pisiformis form galls. The adult double drummer cicada (Thopha saccata) lives in the tree, while larvae of the small staghorn beetle species Ceratognathus froggattii and another beetle Moechidius rugosus live and pupate within the thick bark.

Oak bark is also rich in tannin, and is used by tanners for tanning leather. Acorns are used for making flour or roasted for acorn coffee. Oak forest in Estonia Oak on sandy earth Njivice, Croatia Oak galls were used for centuries as a main ingredient in iron gall ink for manuscripts, harvested at a specific time of year. In Korea, oak bark is used to make shingles for traditional roof construction.

Phylloxerans are aphid-like insects that are parasitic hemipterans on deciduous trees and perennial fruit crops. They feed on leaves and roots and are cecidogenic which means they induce galls to form. They have very complex life cycles with cyclical parthenogenesis and host alternation. In outline, a female fundatrix hatches from an overwintering egg on the primary host which is usually a woody plant before bud burst stimulating a gall to form on the young leaves.

The galls from Quercus infectoria contain the highest naturally occurring level of tannin, approx. 50–70%, syringic acid, β-sitosterol, amentoflavone, hexamethyl ether, isocryptomerin, methyl betulate, methyl oleanate and hexagalloyl glucose. They also contain 2-4% each of gallic and ellagic acid that are polymerized to make tannins.PubMed Tannins have been used for hundreds of years for medical purposes and are currently indispensable in dermatology Wiley Online Library and have been used for tanning of leather.

Leaf galls formed by plant lice (Psyllidae), Chamaesyce celastroides var. stokesii Most hemipterans are phytophagous, using their sucking and piercing mouthparts to feed on plant sap. These include cicadas, leafhoppers, treehoppers, planthoppers, froghoppers, aphids, whiteflies, scale insects, and some other groups. Some are monophages, being host specific and only found on one plant taxon, others are oligophages, feeding on a few plant groups, while others again are less discriminating polyphages and feed on many species of plant.

The Torymidae are a family of wasps that consists of attractive metallic species with enlarged hind legs, and generally with long ovipositors in the females. Many are parasitoids on gall-forming insects, and some are phytophagous (plant-eating) species, sometimes usurping the galls formed by other insects. Over 960 species in about 70 genera are found worldwide. They are best recognized in that they are one of the few groups of Chalcidoidea in which the cerci are visible.

Xiphinema diversicaudatum was initially characterized in 1927 by Micoletzky. It had been speculated that the Xiphinema species were pathogenic to plants since Xiphinema americanum was first identified in 1913 by Nathan Cobb. The experimental proof for this was provided by Steiner 1949 and 1952, and Christie 1952b. In 1957 the connection between Xiphinema diversicaudatum and the formation of root galls on host plants was proved using roses and strawberries, both of which are known host crops.

Cecidosidae is a little-known family of primitive monotrysian moths in the order Lepidoptera which have a piercing ovipositor used for laying eggs in plant tissue in which they induce galls, or they mine in bark (Davis, 1999; Hoare and Dugdale, 2003). Nine species occur in southern Africa, five species in South America (Parra, 1998) and Xanadoses nielseni was recently described from New Zealand (Hoare and Dugdale, 2003). Some minute parasitoid wasps are known (Burks et al., 2005).

The Cambro-Normans called it Fyngallestoun, the township of Fingal, but the indigenous Gaels called it the town of the Galls, or foreigners, hence in Gaelic, Baile na nGall. Whether from the Normans or the Gaels, it was abbreviated later in old charters to Gallstoun. It seems to have been originally settled by a man called Arthur, hence it appears also as Arthurstoun. It seems to have morphed from Gallstoun to Ballygall sometime in the 16th century.

After teaching science in Michigan and Florida high schools for 5 years, Brown became a scientific investigator in Plant Pathology at the U.S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Plant Industry from 1906–1910.Staff report (Mar 11, 1917). Varied Activities of Women. Chicago Tribune Brown was appointed assistant plant pathologist from 1910 to 1925 and appeared as the second author of two major studies on crown-galls in plants conducted by Erwin Frink Smith in 1911 and 1912.

The figures are passive and unthreatening, but also generate frissons of evil and madness and exert a horrid fascination. Mud was the medium of Orjis' graduation show in 2006, My Empire of Dirt. Using mud and water, he did a fey series of works on paper depicting semi-clad figures singly and in groups. Some scenes were set in woodland, and the heads of some figures seemed to have morphed into grotesque wood galls while others wore helmets.

A number of wild bees collect pollen from this plant, including Anthophora furcata, Anthidum manicatum, Anthophora plumipes, Anthophora quadrimaculata, Osmia aurulenta, Osmia caerulentes, and Osmia uncinata. The plant is also galled by several insects,"A Nature Observer′s Scrapbook" galls found on herbaceous, soft stemmed plants including Rondaniola bursaria (Lighthouse Gall), Liposthenes glechomaeLeafminers of Europe - Liposthenes glechomae or Liposthenes latreillei (Kieffer, 1898) (a gall wasp). Despite its name, it is not related to true ivy (Hedera).

These can be seen in the 1825 drawing and although the main growth was killed off by severe winters, new growths always appeared. Old wisteria trees are a feature of the verandah, together with passion flowers and banksia roses. The New Zealand cabbage tree in flower with Mr.J.Ll. Griffith in the foreground Galls (upper left and right). A knopper gall formed on an acorn on the branch of an English oak tree by the parthenogenetic gall wasp Andricus quercuscalicis.

The insect concerned (Andricus quercuscalicis) came from the continent to Devon via the Channel Islands. Large numbers of knopper galls were sent from Woodway for research purposes in the late 1970s when the infestation first struck (Griffith 2006). A feature of the old hedge forming a boundary by the garage was the pennywort (Umbilicus rupestris) a typical plant of Devon country lanes. The winter heliotrope is a distinctive weed species and lady's smock is an early spring flower.

The resulting mastication and digestion of the fruits would induce seed coat abrasion, which would help seed germination. Nowadays this role of mastication and dispersal has been taken up primarily by horses and cattle. An insect pest, common to guanacaste trees of the Costa Rican Central Valley, produces spherical green galls of 1.5 cm diameter on new shoots in February and March. Similar parasitism seems to occur on guanacaste trees of the wet, southwestern lowlands (around Palmar Sur).

Pemphigus spyrothecae, or the poplar spiral gall aphid, is a social insect which exhibits apparent altruistic behaviors. The aphids form galls and act as colony defenders, at times sacrificing their own lives to do so. It has been shown that colony defense is more likely in habitats that are difficult to obtain and can hold a large number of individuals. These gall locations are crucial because plants have a short window in which a gall can be produced.

It may eat insect larvae and insects such as psyllids of the genus Schedotrioza, which they extract from leaf galls on the black peppermint (Eucalyptus amygdalina). Green rosellas generally forage in the canopy or understory of forested areas, or in hedges, shrubs and trees in more open areas. They come to the ground to eat fallen fruit or spilt grain in orchards or farmland. They keep quiet while on the ground, and are quite noisy when in trees.

"The Street Fighter Who Galls the N.B.A.", New York Times, August 2, 1998. Following his football career, Hunter attended law school at UC Berkeley School of Law and became an attorney. One of the youngest United States Attorneys in history, he was appointed to serve the Northern District of California, where he prosecuted high-profile federal defendants including members of Hells Angels and the Black Panther Party. Hunter was named the executive director of the NBPA in 1996.

The larvae of all Xyelidae are phytophagous and associated with trees. Larvae of the comparatively species- rich Xyela live inside the growing staminate cones of pines and feed on the sporophylls and the pollen. The North American Xyela gallicaulis is exceptional in causing galls on fresh shoots of some pine species, inside which the larva feeds.Yates, H.O. III & Smith, D.R. 2009: History, Distribution, Damage, and Life Cycle of a Pine Shoot Gall Sawfly, Xyela gallicaulis (Hymenoptera: Xyelidae).

The Eurytomidae are a family within the superfamily Chalcidoidea. The group is apparently polyphyletic, though the different subfamilies may each be monophyletic, and may be elevated to family status in the near future. As presently defined, some 1420 species in 87 genera are described. Unlike most chalcidoids, the larvae of many are phytophagous (feeding in stems, seeds, or galls), while others are more typical parasitoids, though even then the hosts are usually found within plant tissues.

Larvae are mainly phytophages of Poaceae, Cyperaceae, and Typhaceae; they develop inside the vegetative or reproductive parts, sometimes directly in the inflorescence or seeds. Some species cause the formation of unusual cigar-shaped galls on stems. Many species are known as serious pests of grain cereals. These include Oscinella frit L. and O. pusilla Mg., Chlorops pumilionis Bjerkander, Chlorops oryzae Matsumura an important pest of rice in eastern Asia and Meromyza saltatrix L., and M. nigriventris Mcq.

Cabbage Clubroot affects cabbage, Chinese cabbage, and Brussels sprouts most severely, but it has a range of hosts that it affects less severely like kohlrabi, kale, cauliflower, collards, broccoli, rutabaga, sea kale, turnips, and radishes. Wilting and yellowing of plants in cabbage field. Galls on plant roots. Developing plants may not show any symptoms but as the plants get older they will start to show symptoms of chlorosis or yellowing, wilting during hot days, and exhibit stunted growth.

Reaching as much as in diameter, it is soft and pudgy at first, but later becomes dry and papery. The gall provides a nutritious, protective environment and there may be as many as thirty larvae developing inside. Males and females emerge from different galls after two to three months. After mating, the females descend to the ground where they make their way into the soil and lay their eggs singly inside the small rootlets of the oak.

In Crete, where the plant is called tsikoudia, it is used to flavor the local variety of pomace brandy, also called tsikoudia. In the Northern Sporades the shoots are used as a vegetable (called tsitsíravla). The plant is rich in tannins and resinous substances and was used for its aromatic and medicinal properties in classical Greece. A mild sweet scented gum can be produced from the bark, and galls often found on the plant are used for tanning leather.

Agromyza is a genus of flies belonging to the family Agromyzidae. The adults of these flies can be recognised by the presence of stridulatory files on the first two abdominal tergites in both males and females. Another useful identifying feature is the halteres which are usually white or yellow, although they are darker in a few tropical species. The larvae of these flies are mostly leaf miners on a wide range of plants, although a few form galls.

Several non-pollinating wasp species of the Chalcidoidea exploit the mutualism. Sycophaga sycomori oviposits inside the short-style flowers, thereby stimulating the growth of endosperm tissue and the enlargement and ripening of the syconium which holds the wasp-bearing drupelets, without pollination taking place. The parasitic species Apocrypta guineensis and Sycoscapter niger use long ovipositors to pierce the fig wall to infect the larvae during their development inside the flower galls, and consequently reduce pollinator production.

The flowers are tiny, green, produced in dense erect panicles tall, in the spring, later followed by large panicles of edible crimson berries that remain throughout the winter. The buds are small, covered with brown hair and borne on fat, hairless twigs. The bark on older wood is smooth and grey to brown. Fruit In late summer it sometimes forms galls on the underside of leaves, caused by the parasitic sumac leaf gall aphid, Melaphis rhois.

Springer, New York, 2005, Volume 2: The Proteobacteria, Part B: The GammaproteobacteriaJoseph M. Ogawa, Harley English: Diseases of temperate zone tree fruit and nut crops The pathovar of greatest economical significance is Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. savastanoi, which causes the disease olive knot. Symptoms include formation of galls on infected trees; tumour formation is induced by indoleacetic acid biosynthesis by the bacteria, in a similar manner to the well-studied crown gall pathogen, Agrobacterium tumefaciens.Hosni T, et al. 2011.

Ophelimus maskelli is a species of chalcid wasp about 1mm long, known as the eucalyptus gall wasp, found in Australia, Mediterranean Region, and the Middle East. It is considered a plant pest as females lay eggs on immature eucalyptus leaves; the larvae produce galls on the leaves. Heavy infestations induce much galling which causes widespread defoliation and loss of growth. Wasps may emerge in large numbers in the spring, forming clouds which are a nuisance to humans.

At times there is a small second generation in August. They frequent pine forests and plantations and are most active in hot sunshine at midday and in the afternoon. The larvae primarily feed on Pinus sylvestris, but have also been recorded on Pinus strobus, Picea excelsa and Juniperus communis. The larvae live in resinous nodules and excrescences on the bark of the trunk and branches of the host plant, and also in galls and mines of other Tortricidae and Pyralidae species.

Other insects found in the plant include several species of parasitoid wasps that attack A. rufus larvae in the galls, the two most common being Eurytoma luta and Ormyrus labotus. Others include Eupelmus vesicularis and species of the genera Brasema and Homoporus. The beetle Mordellistena aethiops lives on the plant, its larvae boring into the stems, and it is attacked by parasitoid wasps of the genera Schizopyramnus, Heterospilus, and Tetrastichus. Many birds and mammals feed on the fruits of the plant.

Cotesia ruficrus illustrated by Des Helmore The larvae of most braconids are internal or external primary parasitoids of other insects, especially the larval stages of Coleoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera, but also some hemimetabolous insects such as aphids, Heteroptera, or Embiidina. Most species kill their hosts, though some cause the hosts to become sterile and less active. Parasitoidy on adult insects (particularly on Hemiptera and Coleoptera) also occurs. Members of two subfamilies, the Mesostoinae and Doryctinae are known to form galls on plants.

In late autumn only primary-type first instar nymphs are produced and these overwinter in cracks in the bark or among moss. It is not known whether these are the source of the following year's colonies, or whether the migratory insects are. Further research has disclosed that the primary host for this social aphid is a plant in the family Ulmaceae, often Zelkova. On this host the aphids form galls and some of the second instar nymphs form a soldier caste.

Devine played for the Western Suburbs Magpies between 1990 and 1993 in the NSWRL Premiership. In 1994 he played for the Rockingham Coastal Sharks in the Western Australia Rugby League competition.Rockingham Rugby League Honour Board Rockingham Coastal Sharks He then played for the new Western Reds franchise between 1995 and 1997.Paris surrender galls Goodway The Independent, 28 July 1997 In 2008 he was involved in the formation of the Hinterland Storm club in the Bycroft Cup on the Gold Coast.

Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode - RKN), also known as the "southern root-nematode" or "cotton root-knot nematode" is a plant-parasitic roundworm in the family Heteroderidae. This nematode is one of the four commonest species worldwide and has numerous hosts. It typically incites large, usually irregular galls on roots as a result of parasitism. M. incognita can move along shallower temperature gradients (0.001C/cm) than any other known organism,Pline, Diez, and Dusenbery, J. Nematology, 20:605-608 (1988).

The gall is a green or reddish, toadstool shaped pouch, 2–4 mm high with a narrow neck, protruding on the upper-side of a leaf. On the underside the gall also protrudes and there are mites and hairs inside a narrow slit. The gall has been found on eared willow (Salix aurita), goat willow (Salix caprea), grey willow (Salix cinerea) and their hybrids. ;Similar species Identification of mite galls on Salix species is tentative and need to be verified by an expert.

Philo of Byzantium may be the first writer known to describe an invisible ink using a reagent around 217218 BCE, with oak galls and vitriol. These ingredients were used to make oak gall ink. People soon discovered that they could write invisibly with one of the ingredients and then cause the writing to appear by adding the other. Pliny the Elder and the Roman poet Ovid gave advice on the use of plant juices and milk to write secret messages.

The two exhaust valves enabled the motorcycle to be fitted with two separate exhaust systems. The motorcycle had both an electric start and a kick start. On earlier models, the kick start was linked by a cable to an exhaust valve decompressor to reduce cylinder compression during manual engine starting. The fuel-efficient engine combined with the large fuel tank capacity (20 litres/5,28 galls) provided the bike with a long range (typically well in excess of 200 miles) between refueling.

False smut damages the rice plant by infecting the ovaries of the rice kernel in its early development. Once inside the disease takes over the ovary and replaces it with spores that burst, producing a large orange ball between the glumes. These galls not only are covered in spores that spread the disease but when harvested result in rice that must be cleaned before it can be sold. Use of propiconazole can reduce false smut by as much as 75%.

Haskins was among the group, which included Nellie A. Brown, Clara H. Hasse, Florence Hedges, Agnes J. Quirk, Della Watkins, and Mary K. Bryan working on such agricultural problems as crown galls, citrus cankers, and corn and chestnut blight. In 1906, she married Swingle, a fellow botanist and laboratory colleague, then moved to Bozeman, Montana, where Swingle became Professor of Botany and Bacteriology at Montana State College of Agriculture (later Montana State University). Haskins died on 16 October 1971, in Santa Clara, California.

The galls contain large amounts of tannic acid, which was used for making iron gall ink and for dyeing cloth.Oak Apple Gall details According to recent research, traces of iron-gall ink have been found on the Dead Sea scrolls and on the 'lost' Gospel of Judas. Iron-gall ink may have been used for 1,800 years, but it does not withstand the test of time well. Over the course of centuries, the ink fades, and discolours and damages the paper.

Ahausen was first mentioned in a donation on 10 May 752 as Hahahusir to St Galls' Abbey. The village later passed to the Schenks von Ittendorf, Lindau Abbey, the Free City of Überlingen in 1434, Fahr Abbey in 1651, temporarily to Weingarten Abbey in 1693, and finally to the Prince-Bishopric of Constance later that year. The Prince-Bishopric administered Ahausen with neighbouring town Ittendorf (in Markdorf commune). Ahausen passed to the Electorate of Baden in the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss in 1803.

A cecidomyiid laying eggs on grass Cecidomyiid in copula Cecidomyiid oviposting into boreholes of bark beetles on a fallen beech Cecidomyiidae is a family of flies known as gall midges or gall gnats. As the name implies, the larvae of most gall midges feed within plant tissue, creating abnormal plant growths called galls. Cecidomyiidae are very fragile small insects usually only in length; many are less than long. They are characterised by hairy wings, unusual in the order Diptera, and have long antennae.

Since trapping data confirmed that all migrants are soldiers, Johnson et al. infer that these aphids can grow and produce winged emigrants in galls as an adaptive strategy of cloning instead of a chance event. This confirms the earlier belief that soldiers had evolved from specialized migrants. However, further studies on colonies where the level of clonal mixing is predicted to be high would enable researchers to gain a better understanding of the relationships between the degree of clonal mixing and soldier investment.

The hawthorn-carrot aphid migrates to its primary host in late summer and forms red, curling galls on its leaves. The following spring, females move to its secondary host, an umbellifer in the family Apiaceae, and produce live offspring, When these nymphs are sufficiently mature, they produce further live young. Most offspring are wingless, but some winged females are produced which are able to colonize new secondary hosts. In late summer winged females and males are produced and migrate to hawthorn trees.

Pine-pine gall rust has characteristically brown to yellow-orange sori visible on large globular galls on pines. Gall formation on trunks occurs over 2–4 years and is stimulated by the pathogen, which causes cells to grow and divide quickly at the site of initial infection. When mature, the gall splits open and the yellow-orange aeciospores are dispersed and carried to new hosts by wind. Because P. harknessii does not require an alternate host, the aeciospores can infect another pine directly.

Like all figs, the fruit is in the form of a syconium, an inverted inflorescence with the flowers lining an internal cavity. F. rubiginosa is exclusively pollinated by the fig wasp species Pleistodontes imperialis, which may comprise four cryptospecies. The syconia are also home to another fourteen species of wasp, some of which induce galls while others parasitise the pollinator wasps, and at least two species of nematode. Many species of bird, including pigeons, parrots and various passerines, eat the fruit.

Oak galls and iron(II) sulfate, ingredients of iron gall ink Iron gall ink (also known as common ink, standard ink, oak gall ink or iron gall nut ink) is a purple-black or brown-black ink made from iron salts and tannic acids from vegetable sources. It was the standard ink formulation used in Europe for the fourteen-hundred-year period between the 5th and 19th centuries, remained in widespread use well into the 20th century, and is still sold today.

No traditional pollinators have been found to be associated with this plant - however, it does host a diverse suite of other arthropod interactions. Notably, they are visited by Trigonoscuta (Sand weevil) species which are potentially rare and endemic to sand dunes. Furthermore, - it was found that they are negatively impacted by, a gall maggot from the family Anthomyiidae, Delia lupini. D. lupini creates galls on the plant and when vacated, have been observed to host other pests such as Scaphomorphus beetles.

The stem canker (Nectria galligena) produces depressed areas with concentric bark rings that develop on the trunk and branches. Affected trees are sometimes eliminated through breakage or competition and sometimes live to reach merchantable size with cull section at the canker. No special control measures are required, but cankered trees should be harvested in stand improvement operations. A gall- forming fungus species of Phomopsis can produce warty excrescences ranging from small twig galls to very large trunk burls on northern hickories and oaks.

Anthomyza sp. ovipositing on an old (empty) head of grass Larvae have been reported from decaying dicotyledonous plants, from fungi, and in Europe from leaf sheaths of various grasses and of Typha, Scirpus, and Juncus, from Lipara galls on Phragmites. They may be either phytophagous or saprophagous, but damage to cereals or other plants has not been reported. Adults are usually found in moist habitats such as damp meadows, marshes, bogs, and damp deciduous or mixed forests with rich undergrowth.

Daphnephila is a genus of gall midge that appears in the Palearctic and Oriental biogeographic realms. Daphnephila species create leaf and stem galls on species of laurel plants, particularly in Machilus. Based on analysis on sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, it has been suggested that in this genus, the stem-galling habit is a more ancestral state as opposed to the leaf-galling habit. Daphnephila was first described in 1905 by French entomologist Jean-Jacques Kieffer.

The scientific discipline devoted to the study of ticks and mites is called acarology. Most mites are tiny, less than in length, and have a simple, unsegmented body plan. Their small size makes them easily overlooked; some species live in water, many live in soil as decomposers, others live on plants, sometimes creating galls, while others again are predators or parasites. This last type includes the commercially important Varroa parasite of honey bees, as well as the scabies mite of humans.

Oak galls on a Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica) in León, Spain. An oak apple on a tree in Worcestershire, England Oak apple or oak gall is the common name for a large, round, vaguely apple-like gall commonly found on many species of oak. Oak apples range in size from in diameter and are caused by chemicals injected by the larva of certain kinds of gall wasp in the family Cynipidae. The adult female wasp lays single eggs in developing leaf buds.

Oak galls have been used in the production of ink since at least the time of the Roman Empire. From the Middle Ages to the early twentieth century, iron gall ink was the main medium used for writing in the Western world. Gall nuts are a source of tannin in the production of iron gall ink. Tannins belong to a group of molecules known as polyphenols and can be taken from different parts of plants such as leaves, pods, fruits, and gall nuts.

Galls caused by Dryocosmus kuriphilus on sweet chestnut Dryocosmus kuriphilus is a species of gall wasp known by the common names chestnut gall wasp, Oriental chestnut gall wasp, and Asian chestnut gall wasp. It is native to China and it is known in many other parts of the world, particularly the Northern Hemisphere, as an introduced species and an invasive horticultural pest. It attacks many species of chestnut (genus Castanea), including most cultivated varieties. It is considered the world's worst pest of chestnuts.

The adults inject the eggs into a host, which they begin to consume after hatching. For example, the eggs of the endangered Papilio homerus are parasitized at a rate of 77%, mainly by Hymenoptera species. Some species are even hyperparasitoid, with the host itself being another parasitoid insect. Habits intermediate between those of the herbivorous and parasitoid forms are shown in some hymenopterans, which inhabit the galls or nests of other insects, stealing their food, and eventually killing and eating the occupant.

The galls are internal in this species, and generally not visible. The adult female A. rufus locates an appropriate site to oviposit by detecting plant volatiles emitted by the fresh growing stem of its host plant, a mix of monoterpenes. The male A. rufus also uses the volatiles in his search for mates. Females mate immediately upon emergence from the gall, and the male uses volatiles to find a gall containing a female, as evidenced by the movements of his antennae upon the plant's surface.

Ann married Jim in hopes that he eventually would gain wealth and stardom, and so his lack of success galls her. Her mockery and nagging led Jim to a suicide attempt when he swallowed a bottle of sleeping pills. The play opens with Jim's being admitted to the hospital, where doctors manage to save his life. Upon waking, Jim discovers that he is legally trapped in the hospital because the psychiatrists deem him a threat to himself and others and are unwilling to release him.

The bark of the common alder has long been used in tanning and dyeing. The bark and twigs contain 16 to 20% tannic acid but their usefulness in tanning is limited by the strong accompanying colour they produce. Depending on the mordant and the methods used, various shades of brown, fawn, and yellowish-orange hues can be imparted to wool, cotton and silk. Alder bark can also be used with iron sulphate to create a black dye which can substitute for the use of sumach or galls.

Cora Huidekoper Clarke (February 9, 1851 – April 2, 1916) was an American amateur entomologist, science educator and botanist specializing in bryophytes. Her chief entomological studies were on galls caused by wasps (Cynipidae) and flies (Cecidomyiidae), which she reared, photographed and documented, with several new species being described from the collections that she made. Cora was born in Meadville, Pennsylvania to Anna (Huidekoper) and Reverend James Freeman Clarke, a Unitarian minister and anti-slavery activist. Her grandfather, Harm Jan Huidekoper, was the founder of the Meadville Theological School.

Gall, had a sporadically successful playing career in Denmark and a spell, with Shrewsbury Town in England when they were in Division Three. Galls first club was BK Fremad Amager near his home town of Copenhagen. Spells at Brønshøj BK Dordrecht 90 and De Graafschap followed, before he moved across to England to join up with Jake Kings Shrewsbury Town. While not an overly successful period in the club's history, Gall managed almost 40 appearances as he battled for the 1st team jersey with Paul Edwards.

Tapinoma (from Greek ταπείνωμα low position) is a genus of ants that belongs to the subfamily Dolichoderinae. The genus currently comprises 74 described species distributed worldwide in tropical and temperate regions. Members of are generalized foragers, nesting in a wide variety of habitats, ranging from grasslands, open fields, woodlands, to inside buildings. The majority of species nest in the ground under objects such as stones or tree logs, other species build nests under bark of logs and stumps, in plant cavities, insect galls or refuse piles.

The Rhizobiaceae is a family of proteobacteria comprising multiple subgroups that enhance and hinder plant development. Some bacteria found in the family are used for plant nutrition and collectively make up the rhizobia. Other bacteria such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens and A. rhizogenes severely alter the development of plants in their ability to induce crown galls or hairy roots found on the stem. The family has been of an interest to scientists for centuries in their ability to associate with plants and modify plant development.

Small males may sneak in to mate while the larger males are busy fighting. In the Merothripidae and in the Aeolothripidae, males are again polymorphic with large and small forms, and probably also compete for mates, so the strategy may well be ancestral among the Thysanoptera. Many thrips form galls on plants when feeding or laying their eggs. Some of the gall-forming Phlaeothripidae, such as genera Kladothrips and Oncothrips, form eusocial groups similar to ant colonies, with reproductive queens and nonreproductive soldier castes.

Oak artichoke gall in winter Mature galls are sometimes broken open by vertebrate predators to recover the larva or pupa. A number of insect inquilines live harmlessly within the oak artichoke gall and some of these, as well as Andricus itself, are parasitised by insects referred to as parasitoids. Some fungi may infect and kill the A. fecundator larvae. Andricus curvator, the causative agent of the 'collared-bud gall' shows a marked preference for depositing its eggs on buds already colonised by A. fecundator.

Galls Melaphis rhois is an aphid species first identified by Asa Fitch in 1866.Catalogue of Life citation Known as the staghorn sumac aphid, it is the only species in the genus Melaphis. Colin Favret, et al, Aphid Species File, Accessed September 10, 2014 It is a type of woolly aphid and one of the few aphids that induce the formation of galls.Paul D. N. Hebert, Terrie L. Finston and Robert Foottit, Patterns of genetic diversity in the sumac gall aphid, Melaphis rhois. 1991.

The gall is a smooth, globular or spindle-shaped swelling, usually on a twig or stem and contains larvae or pupae in up to fifty separate chambers. The galls are usually 10–40 mm long and about 10 mm wide and the larvae feed on the pith inside the gall. The gall, does not contain frass, and occasionally occurs on the petiole, midrib, or side veins of a leaf. The larva are pale orange or reddish, over-winter in the gall and pupate in the spring.

Each rosette contains a single pinkish-coloured larva which, unusually, pupates within the gall. Rabdophaga strobilina is closely related and is an inquiline of R. rosaria. One or more larva live under the modified leaves of the rosette and depending on the number of strobilina they can change the shape of the gall from a rosette to a 30–40 mm long cone-shaped artichoke. A common inquiline is another gall midge, Perrisia iteophila and the gall mite Eriophyes marginatus often appears on Camellia galls.

It also has a long tradition of use in various Muslim rituals—for newborn children, at weddings, in funerals, and burnt as incense. A cross between S. fruticosa and Salvia officinalis developed in the middle east is called "silver leaf sage" or Salvia" Newe Ya'ar'", and is used in cooking. In its native habitat, it frequently develops woolly galls about 1 inch in diameter which are called 'apples'. These 'apples' are peeled and eaten when they are soft, and are described as being fragrant, juicy, and tasty.

Moody, Martin and Byrne, Map, Genealogies and Lists, p. 212; Simms, "Late Medieval Tír Eoghain", p. 135; Simms, "Ó Néill, Aodh" The Annals of Connacht recorded his death, styling him: > [D]efender of Leth Cuind Chetchathaig against the Galls and against Leth > Moga Nuadat, a prince eligible de jure for the kingship of Ireland, died > this year; a king who never gave pledge or hostage or tribute to Gall or > Gael; a king who wrought slaughterings and great routs on the Galls; a king > who was the support of any Gaels who were in banishment or homeless; a king > who was the most generous and excellent of all the men of Ireland who ever > lived.Annals of Ulster 1230.9 (Gaelic) In the face of Ó Lochlainn opposition, Aodh's son Domhnall Óg (died 1234) ruled for four years after his death.Moody, Martin and Byrne, Map, Genealogies and Lists, p. 212; Simms, "Late Medieval Tír Eoghain", p. 136 Following yet another decade of strife, Aodh's nephew Brian Ruadh once again established Ó Néill dominance in the province, a dominance that would last until the end of the kingdom in the 17th century.

It was in response to this in 1310 that Feidhlimid was installed as King of Connacht with the backing of his foster father as explained by the Annals of Connacht, Maelruanaid Mac Diarmata, seeing the exclusion of his foster-son from his patrimony and the heavy exactions on each tuath about him, and much resenting the action of the Galls (Burke) in restricting and diminishing his power—for the Galls felt sure that if this one man were weak the whole province of Connacht would be in their own hands—determined, like the warrior he was, to take his foster-son boldly and make him king by force. The next we hear of Feidhlimid is in 1311 when he makes a raid on his rivals the Clan Murtagh killing several. In 1315 Feidhlimid was marching in Richard Og de Burgh, the 2nd Earl of Ulster's army against Edwurd Bruce's forces in Ulster ravaging the land as they went. Edwurd Bruce then secretly sent messengers to Feidhlimid offering him all of the ancient kingdom of Connacht undivided if he would recognize Bruce as High King of Ireland and fight beside him, to which Feidhlimid agreed.

Quercus infectoria is a small tree native of Greece and Asia Minor, with in height. The stems are crooked, shrubby looking with smooth and bright-green leaves borne on short petioles of long. The leaves are bluntly mucronate, rounded, smooth, unequal at the base and shiny on the upper side. The galls arise on young branches of the Quercus infectoria tree when gall wasps sting the oak tree and deposit their larvae the chemical reaction causes an abnormality in the oak tree causing hard balls to be formed.

Quercus infectoria can be used as a thickener in stews or mixed with cereals for making bread. Also known as Majuphal in Indian traditional medicine, manjakani has been used as dental powder and in the treatment of toothache and gingivitis. The so-called "Aleppo tannin" is Tannic acid gained from Aleppo oak galls, which displays unique chemical properties essential in the preparation of gold sols (colloids) used as markers in Immunocytochemistry. Nowadays, gallnut extracts are also widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and feed additives, dyes, inks, and metallurgy.

The galls are more sensitive to cold weather than the surrounding tissue and burst at -18 °C(0 °F), the resulting damage providing the fungus with an entry site for reinfection. As the aphids feed they produce a honeydew which drips onto the fruit allowing the growth of sooty mould which has an impact on the saleability of the fruit. The honeydew can also create unpleasant conditions for orchard workers to work in due to high levels of sticky honeydew excreted. The honeydew can also cover the leaves allowing the mould to grow there too.

This feeding action prompts the formation of galls on lateral roots, in turn leading to a stunted root system. Above ground symptoms may not always be present in low-level infections but could include: reduced vigor, and chlorosis of leaves. It is often not just the presence of nematodes that is a concern but it is their ability to serve as a virus vector, in this case for the arabis mosaic virus. The odontophore and esophagus are lined with cuticle, which has been shown to retain virus particles as a monolayer.

Nodules on the roots caused by the bacterium Frankia alni Galls on the leaves caused by the mite Eriophyes inangulis The common alder is most noted for its symbiotic relationship with the bacterium Frankia alni, which forms nodules on the tree's roots. This bacterium absorbs nitrogen from the air and fixes it in a form available to the tree. In return, the bacterium receives carbon products produced by the tree through photosynthesis. This relationship, which improves the fertility of the soil, has established the common alder as an important pioneer species in ecological succession.

They mate with the females, which have not yet emerged from their galls. Males cut exit holes in the outer wall of the syconium, through which the females exit the fig. The male flowers mature around the same time as the female wasps emerge and shed their pollen on the newly emerged females; like about one third of figs, F. maxima is passively pollinated. The newly emerged female wasps leave through the exit holes the males have cut and fly off to find a syconium in which to lay their eggs.

Agathomyia wankowiczii ovipositing on an Artist's Bracket fungus galls (black objects) of Agathomyia wankowiczii on an Artist's Bracket fungus (Ganoderma applanatum) Platypezidae is a family of true flies of the superfamily Platypezoidea. The more than 250 species are found worldwide primarily in woodland habitats. A common name is flat-footed flies, but this is also used for the closely related Opetiidae which were included in the Platypezidae in former times. Some other genera formerly included here have been recognized as quite more distant and are nowadays placed in the asilomorph family Atelestidae.

The male cones are long, and shed their pollen in early spring. It is largely dioecious with both sexes on the same plant, but around 10% of plants are monoecious, producing cones of only one sex. Utah Juniper gallsThe plants frequently bear numerous galls caused by the Juniper Tip Midge Oligotrophus betheli (Bibionomorpha: Cecidomyiidae); these are conspicuous pale violet-purple, produced in clusters of 5–20 together, each gall diameter, with dense modified spreading scale-leaves long and broad at the base. Seeds are dispersed by a variety of mammals and birds.

In the final, they outclassed a Meath team by 0–17 to 0–08. Donnellan went on to win an All-Ireland Senior Club Football Championship with his adopted club Salthill-Knocknacarra in 2005. He gave a man of the match performance in the final where Salthill narrowly edged out Antrim club St. Galls. After being hampered by injury in recent years, Donnellan pulled the curtain down on a career at the end of the 2006 season, a career during which he won nearly ever honour in the game.

With the Norman invasion of Connacht in 1236 AD by the French speaking Cambro-Norman knights, known as Galls (Gauls) to the Irish came a new type of settlement. The Normans brought the European urban model based on trade and a money economy. Sligo, accessible by sea, and a sheltered port was ideal for Norman military strategy as they, descendants of Vikings, relied on amphibious operations to supply and reinforce their armies. The Normans took advantage of political divisions inherent in Cairbres position on the frontier between the ancient provinces of Ulster and Connacht.

The growth of leaves seems little affected by the parasite but flowering of the seagrass does not take place. The galls contain a large number of thick-walled, dormant spores 4-6 μm in diameter that are separate from one another. The infection of seagrasses by this parasite has been little studied but it is possible that it is a vector, able to transmit disease-causing viruses between plants as happens in some terrestrial species in this genus. This has not yet been observed in the marine environment.

Adults emerge during the morning, peaking around 9am and the adults live longer when they have access to high energy food such as nectar. The sex ratio is heavily skewed towards females being as high as 165 females for every male in Brazil. The life cycle takes 75 days rom egg laying to the adult emergence and the galls show five stages of morphological changes, which probably reflect changes in the larvae within. In Brazil the wasps are multivoltine with overlapping generations and adults can be seen all year.

The female Euderus set searches for the galls or "crypts" in the growing stems of the live oaks Quercus virginiana and Q. geminata, which are created by the asexual generation of the gall-wasp Bassettia pallida. The female E. set then oviposits in the chamber of the gall. When the egg hatches, the larva of E. set burrows into the larva of B. pallida. It then manipulates the host so that it speeds up its development, metamorphoses into an adult and chews its way up to the surface months earlier than normal.

The timber from both trees is known as "iroko" and is used in construction, joinery, furniture making and the creation of mortars for grinding food. Attempts to grow the tree in plantations have been unsuccessful because the buds are attacked by the psyllid fly Phytolyma lata. The larvae of this insect create galls that weaken the young tree, causing dieback and even death, with seedlings being particularly affected. Natural regeneration of the tree is poor and because large numbers of trees are being felled each year, its future for commercial timber production is in doubt.

A gall can contain the cynipid wasp as the host that made the gall; up to five species of inquilines (Ceroptres clavicornis, Synergus gallaepomiformis, S. pallidipennis, S. reinhardi and S. umbraculus) eating the hosts food; as well as up to thirteen parasitoid species (Eurytoma brunniventris, Sycophila biguttata, S. variegata, Megastigmus dorsalis, M. stigmatizans, Torymus geranii, T. auratus, Caenacis lauta, Hobbya stenonota, Mesopolobus amaenus, M. fasciiventris, M. sericeus, Eupelmus urozonus) living on the host, inquilines and each other.A Checklist of British Species. Many old galls bear numerous dark brown excrescences, due to the fungus Phoma gallorum.

The resulting larvae induce galls immediately, where they can seem to balloon almost overnight onto the tree. This is the point where most of the parasitoids enter the gall, while it is still soft and small enough for their ovipositor to reach the larvae. After anywhere from a few weeks to two months, the gall stops growing and begins to desiccate, turning tan or brown. The larvae pupate and then bore their way out of the gall in late summer or early fall and fly off to lay eggs in other trees.

The larva feeds on the tissues of the gall and molts twice before excavating a narrow exit tunnel out of the gall in mid-September. After digging its tunnel, without actually opening up the gall to the outside, the larva overwinters and, if it survives, molts into an adult and leaves the gall the following spring. A number of predators and parasites prey on the larvae of E. solidaginis. The black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus) and the downy woodpecker (Picoides pubescens) target large galls, breaking them open and removing the larva living inside.

They manipulated the numbers of soldiers and non-soldiers in sets of galls that remained in contact with poplar trees at the research site. When there was a combination of soldiers and non-soldiers, the gall was ten times less likely to be attacked by a predator compared to a gall with only non-soldier aphids. These results led Foster and Rhoden to conclude that soldiers effectively defend against predation under natural conditions. Earlier laboratory experiments demonstrated that soldiers could prevent specialist gall predators from attacking the gall.

Since P. spyrothecae clonally reproduce, genetic relatedness within colonies is rather simple: an individual aphid is either a clone of its neighbors or it is not. Since every generation within the gall displays a high degree of relatedness due to cloning, any deviation from a colony's genetic uniformity (excluding mutation) can be traced back to intergall migration. The ease of intergall migration is rooted in the fact that the colonies are present in the galls on the primary host for a long period of time, only migrating once the summer has passed.

Plants with severe rust infection may appear stunted, chlorotic (yellowed), or may display signs of infection such as rust fruiting bodies. Rust fungi grow intracellularly, and make spore- producing fruiting bodies within or, more often, on the surfaces of affected plant parts. Some rust species form perennial systemic infections that may cause plant deformities such as growth retardation, witch's broom, stem canker, galls, or hypertrophy of affected plant parts. Rusts get their name because they are most commonly observed as deposits of powdery rust-coloured or brown spores on plant surfaces.

Many species of Cynipidae were described by von Schlechtendal or their generation sequence was clarified. His collection of Cynipidae with their galls is shared by the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin and the Zoological Institute of the University of Halle-Wittenberg which also conserves his collections of Blattidae and Lepidoptera. Dietrich von Schlechtendal was an honour member of the Entomological Society of Halle and a member of the Stettin Entomological Society. As well as many short scientific papers he wrote Die Gallbildungen (Zoocecidien) der Deutschen Gefässpflanzen, 1891, R. Zückler.

Anguina agrostis was one of the first plant parasitic nematodes to be taxonomically described by J.G. Steinbuch in 1799. While on a “botanical walk”, Steinbuch collected samples from a grass that resembled Agrostis silvatica. He examined the samples and discovered that the grass was not A. silvatica but was rather a degenerate form of Agrostis capillaris; he further discovered that A. silvatica is not a true species (or variety) but that the misclassification of the grass was due to the formation of galls by A. agrostis parasitism.Bird, A.F. 1981.

Thrips are believed to have descended from a fungus-feeding ancestor during the Mesozoic, and many groups still feed upon and inadvertently redistribute fungal spores. These live among leaf litter or on dead wood and are important members of the ecosystem, their diet often being supplemented with pollen. Other species are primitively eusocial and form plant galls and still others are predatory on mites and other thrips. Two species of Aulacothrips, A. tenuis and A. levinotus, have been found to be ectoparasites on aetalionid and membracid plant-hoppers in Brazil.

Haustoria extend through neighboring cells and the cortex to reach the vascular cambium before the host becomes dormant follow the first infection season. The cambium is invade inwardly through the phloem and cortex, as opposed to a vertical or peripheral hyphael growth. Initiation of gall formation is through exogenous stimulation of the cambium and pith rays, causing an increased production of ray parenchyma. The host reacts by hyperplasia (increased division) providing the resources needed for further hyphae proliferation in the cortex, phloem, and cambium until the galls death.

Prominent in appearance, the pineapple or pseudocone gall is often confused with the actual cone of the tree, due to their superficial resemblance. Pineapple galls are distinguishable by their small size, position on the base of budding twigs, and habit of the branch growing on and extending past the gall. The pineapple gall adelgid is endemic to Europe, belonging to the 'woolly adelgid' group; it is also widely distributed in the north-eastern United States. Spruce gall aphid, eastern spruce pineapple gall adelges and eastern spruce gall aphid are alternative names.

The asexual generation is a 10–20 mm spherical gall, found from late-May through to October when it matures. Found on the terminal bud of a branch, it is initially green and as it matures darkens to dark brown; falling to the ground in the winter. The gall is found on Hungarian oak (Quercus frainetto), sessile oak (Quercus petraea), downy oak (Quercus pubescens) and pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). Oak gall wasps often have two generations per cycle, with one sexual and one asexual; each creating different galls.

As of 2015, cat meat is eaten in Vietnam, even though it is technically illegal.Việt Báo Thịt mèo It is generally seen on menus with the euphemism "tiểu hổ", literally "baby tiger" rather than the literal "thịt mèo". Cat galls have aphrodisiacal properties according to people in North Vietnam. In 2018, however, officials in the city of Hanoi urged citizens to stop eating dog and cat meat, citing concerns about the cruel methods with which the animals are slaughtered and the diseases this practice propagates, including rabies and leptospirosis.

Dry fruit of Pistacia terebinthus (MHNT collection). Aphid Baizongia pistaciae galls on the leaflets. The terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus), also called the turpentine tree, is a deciduous tree species of the genus Pistacia, native to the Mediterranean region from the western regions of Morocco, Spain and Portugal to Greece and western and southeastern Turkey, as well Iran. At one time terebinths growing on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (in Syria and Lebanon) were regarded as a separate species, Pistacia palaestina, but these are now considered to be a synonym of P. terebinthus.

Venus Verticordia – Dante Gabriel Rossetti – 1866 Apples appear in many religious traditions, often as a mystical or forbidden fruit. One of the problems identifying apples in religion, mythology and folktales is that as late as the 17th century, the word "apple" was used as a generic term for all (foreign) fruit other than berries, but including nuts. This term may even have extended to plant galls, as they were thought to be of plant origin (see oak apple). For instance, when tomatoes were introduced into Europe, they were called "love apples".

Those horses which had been in the field, even with light condition, survived the long marches carrying about and rapidly picked up afterwards while those which had recently arrived did not do so well. During the Battle of Megiddo and Capture of Damascus; from 15 September to 5 October, 1,021 horses were killed in action, died or were destroyed. Out of a total of 25,618 horses involved in the campaigns, 3,245 were admitted to veterinary hospitals and mobile veterinary sections. They mainly suffered galls, debility, fever and colic or diarrhoea.

The lifecycle of the gall adelgid requires six generations to complete, only two of which cause damage (nymph stages) and has two migration phases between the spruce and the Douglas fir. On Douglas fir, adults are about 0.1 cm long, oval, and light to dark brown in colour. At maturity, they are completely covered with white, waxy wool and appear, from spring to fall, as stationary wool tufts on the underside of needles. While the chambers of the galls are closed, the nymphs actively feed and increase in size.

A. tumefaciens is an alphaproteobacterium of the family Rhizobiaceae, which includes the nitrogen-fixing legume symbionts. Unlike the nitrogen-fixing symbionts, tumor- producing Agrobacterium species are pathogenic and do not benefit the plant. The wide variety of plants affected by Agrobacterium makes it of great concern to the agriculture industry. Economically, A. tumefaciens is a serious pathogen of walnuts, grape vines, stone fruits, nut trees, sugar beets, horse radish, and rhubarb, and the persistent nature of the tumors or galls caused by the disease make it particularly harmful for perennial crops.

Silver nitrate is not a halide and unlike the chloride and fluoride of silver it has not the potential to develop the latent image. In addition Reade failed to understand or to make a distinction between tannic acid and gallic acid, referring to either "tincture, infusion of, or a decoction of galls" and gallic acid as though all were interchangeable. Any of these solutions would contain little more than 3% gallic acid, which is relatively slow acting. Tannic acid, on the other hand, which constitutes between 60 and 79% is fast acting.

Feidhlimid afterwards recovered his kingship and turned on his former allies the English of West Connacht killing many knights, and rallying a large army consisting of his own forces from Connacht as well as armies from the Kingdoms of Thomond, Breifne and Meath to oppose William Burke and the other Galls (foreigners) of Connacht. They meet at the Second Battle of Athenry where the Irish forces were defeated and Feidhlimid killed, being at the time only twenty three and described in the Annals of Connacht as entitled to become King of Ireland.

In the following February or March, the prepupa undergoes a final moult and becomes a pupa. Through the thin, transparent skin of the pupa, it is possible to see the fully formed antennae, legs, wings and body segments of the adult wasp. As stated earlier, the adult wasps which start to emerge from the rose bedeguar will be mostly female, and these females will go on to lay eggs through parthenogenesis. The adults begin to emerge from the old galls, which are still attached to the rose, in May.

With him and other colleagues, Moser got his first scientific publication as a junior author:"Dephosphorylation of ATP by tissues of the American cockroach", which was considered cutting edge science. Before Moser was released from the Army in 1953, he described his new species of Torymus together with other new parasitoids from his hackberry galls in Columbus. His mentor for this work was Barnard D. Burks, who encouraged him for his further scientific career. John C. Moser completed later his master's degree at the OSU in biological control under Professor Alvah Peterson.

Entorrhizomycetes is the sole class in the phylum Entorrhizomycota within the Fungi subkingdom Dikarya along with Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. It contains three genera and is are small group of teliosporic root parasites that form galls on plants in the Juncaceae (rush) and Cyperaceae (sedge) families. Prior to 2015 this phylum was placed under the subdivision Ustilaginomycotina. A 2015 study did a "comprehensive five-gene analyses" of Entorrhiza and concluded that the former class Entorrhizomycetes is possibly either a close sister group to the rest of Dikarya or Basidiomycota.

A healthy Arabidopsis thaliana plant (left) next to an auxin signal-transduction mutant with a repressed response to auxin. Crown galls are caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacteria; they produce and excrete auxin and cytokinin, which interfere with normal cell division and cause tumors. Auxin participates in phototropism, geotropism, hydrotropism and other developmental changes. The uneven distribution of auxin, due to environmental cues, such as unidirectional light or gravity force, results in uneven plant tissue growth, and generally, auxin governs the form and shape of the plant body, direction and strength of growth of all organs, and their mutual interaction.

Hence, tumors in plants (known as galls) are generally limited to a small part of the plant. Allorecognition acts as an agent of kin selection by restricting fusion and community acceptance to related individuals. If related individuals fuse, the benefits of fusion will still apply, while the costs of competition for shared resources or reproductive opportunities will be reduced by a fraction proportional to the degree of relatedness between the fusing partners. If unrelated individuals fuse, or if a mutated cell arises within an organism that is distinguishable from self by the allorecognition system, a rejection response will be activated.

The nematodes (eelworms) that attack plants are minute, often too small to be seen with the naked eye, but their presence is often apparent in the galls or "knots" they form in plant tissues. Vast numbers of nematodes are found in soil and attack roots, but others affect stems, buds, leaves, flowers and fruits. High infestations cause stunting, deformation and retardation of plant growth, and the nematodes can transmit viral diseases from one plant to another. When its populations are high, the potato cyst nematode can cause reductions of 80% in yield of susceptible potato varieties.

When a material galls, some of it is pulled with the contacting surface, especially if there is a large amount of force compressing the surfaces together. Galling is caused by a combination of friction and adhesion between the surfaces, followed by slipping and tearing of crystal structure beneath the surface. This will generally leave some material stuck or even friction welded to the adjacent surface, whereas the galled material may appear gouged with balled-up or torn lumps of material stuck to its surface. Galling is most commonly found in metal surfaces that are in sliding contact with each other.

In the following year, 1248, the same annals state that: > The sons of Magnus, and the son of Conchobar Ruad made a hosting and > revolted against the Galls. They burned Mac Henry's castle and captured its > warden and carried the preys of North Umall onto the islands of Clew Bay. > Then Jordan D'Exeter and John Butler and Robin Laigles and many others > assembled and marched first to Ballintober and thence to Aghagower, and next > day they plundered Umall, north and south. Then [Mac] Henry came into Umall > with a great army, for Umall belonged to him and he lived there.

The normally cream coloured saucer of the smooth spangle gall has a small cone elevated in its centre, a pronounced rim and they are sometimes found almost folded in two. The gall may have streaks of purple, red or other colours through it. Typically found on the lower surface, this gall is found more often on the upper surface than other spangle galls and although often grouped together, the numbers on each leaf are far fewer than in species such as Neuroterus quercusbaccarum. The gall is observed to swell appreciably once it has detached and fallen in late autumn.

The Rogue receives Galls Creek from the left and Sardine Creek from the right before passing under Route 99, which continues parallel to it on the left. Crossing under I-5, the river flows between it, now on the right, and Highway 99 along the edge of Valley of the Rogue State Park to about RM 110 (RK 180), where it receives Foots and Birdseye creeks from the left and passes the city of Rogue River, which is on the right bank. Further on, it receives Ward and Evans creeks from the right and Little Savage and Savage creeks from the left.

Corn smut is a plant disease caused by the pathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis that causes smut on maize and teosinte. The fungus forms galls on all above- ground parts of corn species. It is edible, and is known in Mexico as the delicacy huitlacoche;Vegetables, Revised: The Most Authoritative Guide to Buying, Preparing, and Cooking, with More than 300 Recipes (Google eBook) Page 184, by James Peterson, Random House LLC, Mar 27, 2012 Accessed October 24, 2013 via Google Books which is eaten, usually as a filling, in quesadillas and other tortilla-based foods, and soups.

Instead the goal should be to maintain uniform, well-stocked stands and harvest the whole stand before the decay becomes excessive. Another possible management strategy would be to use the fungus Phoma etheridgei as an inhibitory agent against Phellinus tremulae. In a study published in the Canadian Journal of Botany the occurrence of black galls on aspen trees produced by Phoma etheridgei resulted in a significant decrease or absence of infection by Phellinus tremulae. Further studies on using the antifungal compounds produced by Phoma etheridgei to control aspen trunk rot may play a key role in controlling Phellinus tremulae.

Cyttaria espinosae (Lloyd), also known by its local name Digüeñe, Lihueñe or Quideñe, is an orange-white coloured and edible ascomycete fungus native to south-central Chile. The Digüeñe is a strict and specific parasite of Nothofagus, mainly Nothofagus obliqua trees and cause canker-like galls on branches from which the fruiting bodies emerge between spring and early summer. The pitted surface generates air turbulence, preventing a build-up of static air around the fruitbodies, thus facilitating wind-borne spore dispersal. In Chilean cuisine, the Digüeñe is usually consumed fresh in salads or fried with scrambled eggs.

P. macrosporus galls on a petiole and mid-rib of A. podagraria The gall develops as a chemically induced swelling, arising from the surface of the leaf lamina, veins, mid-ribs, and petiole. On the leaf lamina it forms yellowish bulges standing out on the upper surface, but missing the black sori that are typical of an otherwise similar gall caused by the rust fungus Puccinia aegopodii. On veins, mid-ribs and petioles the gall appears as translucent yellow-white swellings that are often elongated and blister-like. It is particularly apparent in early spring when the greatly distorted leaves first appear.

Afterwards Fingen Mac Carthaig was killed by the Galls and the kingship of Desmond was assumed by his brother, the Ex-cleric Mac Carthaig. ;Annals of Ulster: 1261.4 John fitz (son of) Thomas and the Barrymore were killed by Finghin Mag Carrthaigh and by the Desmonians likewise and a large number of other Foreigners were killed. 1261.5 Finghin Mac Carrthaigh was killed by the Foreigners. ;Annals of the Four Masters: 1261.5 A great war was waged, and many injuries were inflicted, by Fineen Mac Carthy, son of Donnell Mac Carthy, and his brothers, on the English.

Poison ivy gall mites form small red pouch galls on the upper surface of the leaves of their host. The mites themselves are extremely small and are usually found in the interior of the pouch (on the underside). The bright coloration they create in their host plant, however, makes this species fairly conspicuous and easy to detect compared to other members of Aculops (such as Aculops ailanthii in trees-of-heaven). Due to this, this species is one of the more widely reported species in its genus although like many of its relatives it is still poorly known.

The wasp larvae feed on the gall tissue resulting from their secretions, which modify the oak bud into the gall, a structure that protects the developing larvae until they undergo metamorphosis into adults. Considerable confusion exists in the general "literature" between the oak apple and the oak marble gall. The oak marble is frequently called the oak apple due to the superficial resemblance and the preponderance of the oak marble gall in the wild. Other galls found on oak trees include the oak artichoke gall and the acorn cup gall, but each of these has its own distinctive form.

A particularly aggressive form of white plague known as WPL III has so far been documented attacking only very large colonies of C. natans and Montastraea annularis. Other hosted diseases include white plague types I and II, dark spot, and skeletal anomalies, such as tumours and galls. Another pathogen, so far unidentified, killed in one year, between 2001 and 2002, approximately half of the corals present in Bird Key Reef of the Dry Tortugas. Despite this susceptibility to disease, the boulder brain coral is long-lived, with specimens capable of living for more than two hundred years.

John C. Moser graduated from high school in 1947 and finally studied at the Ohio State University (OSU), where he soon recognized his interest in entomology. His undergraduate professor was Ralph Davidson, who supported and motivated Moser to perform studies on galls on leaves of a hackberry tree (Celtis occidentalis), which was growing in Moser's front yard, where he at once detected a new wasp species of the genus Torymus. This finding inspired his further research a lot. He was cited with: "I had observed something that no one else in the world had ever seen" (Moser 2000).

For it is then that they sent envoys to the Connacht Galls, Macwilliam Burke and Mac Gosdelb, [inviting them] to destroy Connacht and Brefne. The Annals of Loch Cé for the year 1256 state- Another great hosting, after this battle, by Fedhlim O'Conchobhair and his son, i.e. Aedh-na-nGall, accompanied by the Connachtmen, and by Conn, son of Tighernan, with the men of Breifne; and these two hosts came, moreover, to Loch-an-trein, and attacked the churches of Breifne except Fidhnacha alone, and turned back to their houses, taking with them the hostages of the men of Breifne, viz.

His main focuses were phytopathology, cecidogenesis (the forming of galls), non-pathogenic cancer growth, non-pathogenic nodule growth, facultative and obligatory nodosities (root deformations), mycotic causes of wilting of some fruit tree species, and the problem of early death of apricot trees. He was a knowledgeable expert in the research field of flaws of timber, especially the red heartwood core of beeches and the variegation of beech wood. Throughout his life, Paclt worked on various groups of hexapods. His main groups of interest were springtails, proturans, diplurans, jumping bristletails, silverfish, butterflies and moths, beetles and mayflies, of which he studied the morphology, taxonomy, systematics, ecology and zoogeography.

The tree may also be attacked by the horse chestnut scale insect (Pulvinaria regalis) which sucks sap from the trunk and branches, but does not cause serious damage to the tree. Sometimes squirrels will strip the bark off branches, girdling the stem; as a result whole branches may die, leaving brown, wilted leaves. The sycamore gall mite Eriophyes macrorhynchus produces small red galls, similar to those of the nail gall mite Eriophyes tiliae, on leaves of sycamore and field maple, Acer campestris from April onwards. Another mite, Aceria pseudoplatani causes a 'sycamore felt gall' on the underside of leaves of both sycamore and Norway maple (Acer platanoides).

Theodosio De Stefani Perez mainly applied himself to the study of Hymenoptera Chalcididae and their galls, with particular attention to their relation with the host plants and the agricultural processes. He produced more than 180 works between 1881 and 1929, published in various Italian and foreign magazines, especially German. He was a pioneer in the study of the Hymenoptera, but this was not confined to their external descriptions and systematics, as was the common practise of the scientists of his time. In fact he was seeking an understanding of biological phenomena and function of species in their natural environment, dealing with their biology, ecology and behaviour.

Utah Juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) leaves, female cones and male cones, and (center) galls The shoots are fairly thick compared to most junipers, 1.5–2 mm diameter. The leaves are arranged in opposite decussate pairs or whorls of three; the adult leaves are scale-like, 1–2 mm long (to 5 mm on lead shoots) and broad. The juvenile leaves (on young seedlings only) are needle-like, 5–10 mm long. The cones are berry-like, in diameter, blue-brown with a whitish waxy bloom, and contain a single seed (rarely two); they mature in about 18 months and are eaten by birds and small mammals.

These fertile pinnae can be described as "acrostichoid", given that the sporangia occupy most of the lower surface of the pinna. Christmas fern resembles the Pacific Coast sword fern, Polystichum munitum, although forming less expansive tufts and differing from it and from almost all other ferns in that fertile pinnae of the Christmas fern are noticeably reduced in size relative to the sterile pinnae, while being located on the same frond. P. acrostichoides is known to hybridize with Polystichum braunii in areas where their ranges overlap. P. acrostichoides is parasitized by the fungus Taphrina polystichi, which causes yellowish to whitish galls on the fronds.

They have whiplash flagella and can swim to reach new seagrass plants and can also crawl on the surface of the leaves in an amoeboid way by extending pseudopodia forward. This parasite causes galls to form in the internodes of the rhizomes of its host seagrasses, species of the genus Zostera. The condition is known as wasting disease, the nodes bunch up together and root development is poor so the plants are more easily uprooted in storms. Detached floating plants may spread the infection to new areas and when the seagrass has been planted for erosion control, the target seabed cover may not be achieved.

Eastern chimpanzees, feeding on Ficus sur fruit in Kibale National Park, Uganda Lepidopteran larvae of the African map butterfly, fig tree moth, accented hawk moth, specious tiger, common fig-tree blue and lesser fig-tree blue feed on the leaves or roots of this species. Pollination is performed by three species of Ceratosolen wasp. The Ceratosolen wasps are parasitised by Apocrypta guineensis and Sycoscapter niger wasps during their larval development inside the flower galls. As of 2006, 19 species of fig wasp were known to associate with the Cape fig, these belonging to genera Acophila, Apocrypta, Apocryptophagus, Ceratosolen, Eukoebelea, Idarnes, Sycomacophila, Sycophaga, Sycophila, Sycoscapter and Watshamiella.

Dalgarven Mill in Ayrshire, Scotland Distorted stem on bird cherry, possibly caused by T.padi Corrugated pocket plums with ascospore bloom These galls are usually known as 'pocket plums', however alternatives are 'starved plums'; 'bladder bullace; and 'mock plums'. The gall appears on the developing fruit, rendering it inedible and resulting in an elongated, curved, hollow, stone-less gall, usually light green in colour at first; turning brown as the gall develops. In T. padi an identification characteristic is that the style persists at the tip of the gall. The surface of the gall eventually becomes corrugate and coated with the fungus, showing as a white bloom of ascospore producing hyphae.

In other genera it is the ecological or behavioural traits of the host which are important, the Minotetrastichus species parasitise leaf miners whether these are Coleoptera, Hymenoptera or Lepidoptera; while other groups target galls irrespective of the nature of the gall former. In many species reproduction is solely through thelytoky, i.e. female eggs are produced by parthenogenesis, while in others varying proportions of males are produced from unfertilised eggs while females are produced from fertilised eggs. This can differ within species, for example there are no records of males in North American specimens of Tetrastichus asparagi but are recorded in small numbers in European samples.

M. unicolor typically kills the E. solidaginis larva inhabiting the gall, but this does not appear to be an essential part of its life cycle. One of the upshots of these interactions is that larvae that produce galls of a moderate size – that is, not small and thin enough for wasps to easily penetrate, but not large enough to attract the attention of birds – have a fitness advantage. In addition to these direct, predatory interactions, a negative correlation has been observed between goldenrod defoliation by Trirhabda beetles, suggesting that competition for plant resources may also have an important role to play in the Eurosta/Solidago system. Adult emerging from gall.

The mites move onto the foliage in the spring, having overwintered in the bark crevices or around buds. These gall inducers are less than 0.2 mm long, however the chemicals they release while sucking the sap from the lower leaf epidermis have a dramatic, consistent and colourful effect, causing upward growing, hollow, yellow, red or pink, finger-like extensions. Before the autumn, the mites, which up to now have been actively feeding and growing inside the galls, depart from these shelters and seek protected sites elsewhere on the lime tree. The mites will pass the winter in such locations and then the cycle will be repeated.

Galls (upper left and right) A knopper gall formed on an acorn on the branch of an English oak tree by the parthenogenetic gall wasp Andricus quercuscalicis. Herbivores are unable to digest complex cellulose and rely on mutualistic, internal symbiotic bacteria, fungi, or protozoa to break down cellulose so it can be used by the herbivore. Microbial symbionts also allow herbivores to eat plants that would otherwise be inedible by detoxifying plant secondary metabolites. For example, fungal symbionts of cigarette beetles (Lasioderma serricorne) use certain plant allelochemicals as their source of carbon, in addition to producing detoxification enzymes (esterases) to get rid of other toxins.

The sexual generation develops in spring in small conical galls that form on the male catkins of the Turkey oak.Royal Horticultural Society website. Woodway House gardens in Devon have both the required host species and indeed Woodway House was one of the first places in Devon to record and send off for research purposes specimens of both life-cycle stages of this invasive species. Long known in western and northern Europe, having spread from southern and eastern Europe over the last 400 years, A. quercuscalicis came from the continent to Devon via the Channel Islands, the first recorded sightings being in Devon in the 1950s.

Details of its spread to the UK. Knopper galls were first noted at Canonbie in southern Scotland in 1995 and their distribution is often restricted to old country and urban estates where the Turkey oak has been previously planted. The abnormal acorns develop during summer and the acorn is either wholly or partially replaced by the gall growth. The knoppers become woody and brown in early autumn, after which they fall from the tree and the adult sexual female gall wasp emerges through a vent in the top of the gall in spring. The level of attack by the insect varies greatly from year to year.

All of the following excerpts were taken from the University College of Cork's Corpus of Electronic Texts (CELT), which can be found online.CELT index ;Annals of Connacht: 1261.5 Very destructive war was waged against the Galls this year by Fingen son of Domnall Mac Carthaig and his kinsmen. 1261.6 A great hosting was made by the Fitz Geralds into Desmond, to attack Mac Carthaig; but he attacked them and routed them and fitz Thomas, John by name, and his son killed there, as well as fifteen knights, besides eight noble barons and many young squires and countless soldiery. He killed Barrach Mor (Barry More) also.

The great Swedish botanist Linnaeus named the genus Malpighia in honor of Malpighi's work with plants; Malpighia is the type genus for the Malpighiaceae, a family of tropical and subtropical flowering plants. Because Malpighi was concerned with teratology (the scientific study of the visible conditions caused by the interruption or alteration of normal development) he expressed grave misgivings about the view of his contemporaries that the galls of trees and herbs gave birth to insects. He conjectured (correctly) that the creatures in question arose from eggs previously laid in the plant tissue. Malpighi's investigations of the lifecycle of plants and animals led him into the topic of reproduction.

A 2020 study which analysed the COI gene of mitochondrial DNA extracted from Rabdophaga larvae that induce rosette galls on Salix in the Holarctic Region showed that R. rosaria could be divided into 2 clades, 1 and 2, and the latter further divided into subclades 2A and 2B. Clade 1 consists of populations on Salix species of section Cinerella in subgenus Vetrix in Georgia and the UK, subclade 2A contains populations on Salix alba (section Salix, subgenus Salix) in The Netherlands and the UK, and subclade 2B consists of populations on section Helix in Poland, Phylicifoliae in Alaska, and Salix species in the Eastern Palaearctic Region.

Oak powdery mildew on pedunculate oak Sudden oak death (Phytophthora ramorum) is a water mould that can kill oaks within just a few weeks. Oak wilt, caused by the fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum (a fungus closely related to Dutch elm disease), is also a lethal disease of some oaks, particularly the red oaks (the white oaks can be infected but generally live longer). Other dangers include wood-boring beetles, as well as root rot in older trees which may not be apparent on the outside, often being discovered only when the trees come down in a strong gale. Oak apples are galls on oaks made by the gall wasp.

O'Reilly, the English, and the people of Teallach-Dunchadha, the Mac Kernans, opposed them at Beal-atha-Chonaill, where Edmond, the son of Hugh O'Reilly, and the son of the Bishop O'Gallagher, were slain, and many men and horses wounded. O'Donnell and his army returned, being prevented from going to Cruachan on this occasion. The Annals of Connacht for 1470 state- O Ruairc and O Domnaill raised an army to go to Croaghan to make O Ruairc king. O Raigillig, the Galls and the Tellach Dunchada met them both and the son of Aed O Raigillig and the sons of Bishop O Gallchobair were killed in the fighting and horses and men were wounded.

Many hemipterans including aphids, scale insects and especially the planthoppers secrete wax to protect themselves from threats such as fungi, parasitoidal insects and predators, as well as abiotic factors like desiccation. Hard waxy coverings are especially important in the sedentary Sternorrhyncha such as scale insects, which have no means of escaping from predators; other Sternorrhyncha evade detection and attack by creating and living inside plant galls. Nymphal Cicadoidea and Cercopoidea have glands attached to the Malpighian tubules in their proximal segment that produce mucopolysaccharides, which form the froth around spittlebugs, offering a measure of protection. Parental care is found in many species of Hemiptera especially in members of the Membracidae and numerous Heteroptera.

When first I came to Stewart Kyle; Har'ste—A Fragment --- Tune --- Foregoing --- Now breezy win's and slaughtering guns; Sept } Comments on .. a certain irregularity in the old Scotch Songs..; Burns uses a cypher for two words at Line 18, probably Jeany Armour; Syme comments The following remarks may be introduced somewhere when Thomsons letters are noticed. 38\. Continuation of comments on Scottish song and tunes; Burns deleted Nature and substituted native genius Line 18. 39\. Completion of comments on poets, verse and love; Sept } comments on McMillan's Peggy and his My Montgomerie's Peggy; Syme comments perhaps the above would take with many readers Line 11 and This explains the love letters to Peggy. 40\. Fragment - Tune - Galls water.

The genetic relationships within aphid colonies help explain the evolution of the altruistic soldier hierarchy of P. spyrothecae. More specifically, with the utilization of field trapping and microsatellites, the researchers were able to examine the degree of clonal mixing in the colony. Clonal mixing is defined as the "mixing" of genes "individual from different clones… which will dilute the benefit of cooperation by wasting it on unrelated clones" (Johnson 1525). The researchers predicted that the reason that galls were a critical factor to the evolution of soldiers... Given the fact that a gall was defendable and valuable, the authors anticipated that this served as a barrier to the intrusion of other foreign clones via clonal mixing.

The ordinary commerce of this company employed from 20 to 25 vessels, of between 25 and 30 pieces of cannon. The merchandises exported there were limited in quality and range, suggesting an imbalance of trade; they included traditional cloths, especially shortcloth and kerseys, tin, pewter, lead, pepper, re- exported cochineal, black rabbit skins and a great deal of American silver, which the English took up at Cadiz. The more valuable returns were in raw silk, cotton wool and yarn, currants and "Damascus raisins", nutmeg, pepper, indigo, galls, camlets, wool and cotton cloth, the soft leathers called maroquins, soda ash for making glass and soap, and several gums and medicinal drugs. Velvet, carpets, and silk were bought by the traders.

Research on nematode pests of cassava is still in the early stages; results on the response of cassava is, therefore, not consistent, ranging from negligible to seriously damaging. Since nematodes have such a seemingly erratic distribution in cassava agricultural fields, it is not easy to clearly define the level of direct damage attributed to nematodes and thereafter quantify the success of a chosen management method. The use of nematicides has been found to result in lower numbers of galls per feeder root compared to a control, coupled with a lower number of rots in the storage roots. The organophosphorus nematicide femaniphos, when used, did not affect crop growth and yield parameter variables measured at harvest.

The Sevens team went one step further in Dublin this year, beating St Galls in the final of the Kilmacud Crokes All-Ireland 7s competition. The U-16 football team lost in the final of the league to a strong Attical/Glasdrumman team. The Camogie team lost in the Division 4 league championship final, while the U-16 Camogie team lost in the league final to Ballycran, after a replay. The club continued to run their annual underage tournaments, with U-14, U-12 and U-10 competing in Longstone Park, while on another day, the U-8s enjoyed a day of indoor football due to heavy rainfall on the day of the tournament.

As a result of the importance of leaf choice in their reproductive success, sugarbeet root aphid stem mothers are highly territorial and will compete with each other for the chance to form galls at the bases of the largest leaves. This competition usually takes the form of kicking and shoving contests; two stem mothers will align rear-to-rear and push against the other forcefully using their hind legs. The winner of these contests then settles closest to the leaf base, and the loser settles more distally. If the basal stem mother dies or is removed, the distal stem mother often moves down to the base of the gall to replace her.

Andricus foecundatrix (formerly Andricus fecundator) is a parthenogenetic gall wasp which lays a single egg within a leaf bud, using its ovipositor, to produce a gall known as an oak artichoke gall, oak hop gall, larch-cone gall or hop strobileA Nature Observer's Scrapbook The gall develops as a chemically induced distortion of leaf axillary or terminal buds on pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) or sessile oak (Quercus petraea) trees. The larva lives inside a smaller hard casing inside the artichoke and this is released in autumn. The asexual wasp emerges in spring and lays her eggs in the oak catkins. These develop into small oval galls which produce the sexual generation of wasps.

The inner hairy and distorted proto-leaf structure Hazel big bud galls are generally common, resembling the big bud gall (Cecidophyopsis ribis) on currants (Ribes spp.), develop as a chemically induced distortion of the expanding leaf buds or female flowers on hazel shrubs, caused by the mite Phytoptus avellanae, several hundred of which can live in a single gall within the 20–40 scale leaves. The inner scale-leaves become thickened and distorted, developing a covering of hairs, in amongst which the mites live. Galled buds appear light green at first and turn brown later in the year. If affected the leaves or female flowers fail to develop as a result of the feeding by the gall-mites.

Based on this information, a search was initiated and resulted in the discovery of Pyemotes herfsi preying on midge larvae in leaf galls on pin oak trees. The United States Centers for Disease Control estimated that during an outbreak in August 2004, 54% of the population of Crawford County, Kansas, or about 19,000 people, suffered from its bites. Other states in the US where humans have been affected during the 2000s are Nebraska, Oklahoma, Missouri, Tennessee Shelby County, Texas,University of Nebraska, May 2, 2005 and Illinois.Chicago Tribune, August 14, 2007 In August 2008 an outbreak was reported in the northern suburbs of Cincinnati, Ohio by the Hamilton County Public Health Department.

A hairless foveole domatium in the leaf underside of Guioa acutifolia Eriophyoid inside domatium of Cinnamomum camphora Mite inside domatium of Cinnamomum camphora A domatium (plural: domatia, from the Latin "domus", meaning home) is a tiny chamber produced by plants that houses arthropods. Ideally domatia differ from galls in that they are produced by the plant rather than being induced by their inhabitants, but the distinction is not sharp; the development of many types of domatia is influenced and promoted by the inhabitants. Most domatia are inhabited either by mites or ants, in what can be a mutualist relationship, but other arthropods such as thrips may take parasitic advantage of the protection offered by this structure. Domatia occupied by ants are called myrmecodomatia.

Carya ovata fruit Carya ovata spring leaf cluster Phylloxera galls on C. ovata leaves The nuts are edible with an excellent flavor, and are a popular food among people and squirrels alike. They are unsuitable to commercial or orchard production due to the long time it takes for a tree to produce sizable crops and unpredictable output from year to year. Shagbark hickories can grow to enormous sizes but are unreliable bearers. The nuts can be used as a substitute for the pecan in colder climates and have nearly the same culinary function. C. ovata begins producing seeds at about 10 years of age, but large quantities are not produced until 40 years and will continue for at least 100.

Symmorphus bifasciatus is a tube-nesting wasp, utilising existing cavities including the hollow stems of plants and the disused plant galls of Cynips kollari, where the female wasp constructs a number of cells, separated from each other by walls made of clay. S. bifasciatus hunts for the larvae of the leaf beetle Phyllodecta vulgatissima, which are immobilised by stinging and carried back to the nest by the mandibles and forelegs to supply the cells. Once there is sufficient food in the cell, usually between 10 and 17 grubs which are tightly packed, the female lays an egg in the cell. The egg hatches in two or three days after laying, while the larvae mature in one or two weeks undergoing a probable five instars.

However, unlike Teb, he enjoys the respect of the military hierarchy and the common Mardukans which has made him a leading contender for the position of high-priest and is bitterly opposed to Sor Teb's ascension to the High Priest's throne (the idea of a slave-raider as High Priest galls him). Once Teb's attempt to force the humans to hand over one of their numbers fails miserably, Tral sees an opportunity to subdue the Shin once and for all, and place himself upon the High Priest's throne in the process. Werd Ras is the head of the Kirsti secret police. Known as "The Flail" he has eyes and ears everywhere throughout the satrapy but remains neutral in the power struggle between Teb and Tral who are vying for the position of the high-priest.

Winning the senior championship at his first attempt, beating St Galls in a pulsating high scoring semi-final and then beating parish neighbours Creggan, where the rivalry is intense, in a low scoring championship final. In the same season, Cassidy also lead Wolfe Tones, Bellaghy to their first minor championship win since 1994, by beating close rivals Lavey Gac in the Derry minor championship final at Derry GAA Centre of Excellence, Owenbeg. He followed this up by leading the 'Tones' to the Ulster minor club championship, hosted by Belfast club St Pauls on New Years Day, by heavily defeating Crossmaglen Rangers Gac in the final. Cassidy won his second senior club championship with Cargin in 2019 by beating Lamh Dhearg in a final replay and then extra time in a pulsating final.

The goldenrod gall fly (Eurosta solidaginis), also known as the goldenrod ball gallmaker, is a species of fly native to North America. The species is best known for the characteristic galls it forms on several species in the Solidago, or goldenrod, genus. The fly's eggs are inserted near the developing buds of the plant. After hatching, the larvae migrate to an area below the plant's developing buds, where they then induce the plant's tissues to form into the hardened, bulbous chamber referred to as a gall. E. solidaginis’s interactions with its host plant(s) and insect, as well as avian, predators have made it the centerpiece of much ecological and evolutionary biology research, and its tolerance of freezing temperatures has inspired studies into the anti-freeze properties of its biochemistry.

Aphids are familiar to farmers and gardeners, mainly as pests. Peter Marren and Richard Mabey record that Gilbert White described an invading "army" of black aphids that arrived in his village of Selborne, Hampshire, England, in August 1774 in "great clouds", covering every plant, while in the unusually hot summer of 1783, White found that honeydew was so abundant as to "deface and destroy the beauties of my garden", though he thought the aphids were consuming rather than producing it. Infestation of the Chinese sumac (Rhus chinensis) by Chinese sumac aphids (Schlechtendalia chinensis) can create "Chinese galls" which are valued as a commercial product. As "Galla Chinensis", they are used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat coughs, diarrhoea, night sweats, dysentery and to stop intestinal and uterine bleeding.

She was active at Haslemere Educational Museum as committee member, Honorary Librarian and trustee, where she often enthused parties of local school children about nature. Penny Hollow, in a postscript to the centenary edition of Margaret Hutchinson's memoirs remembered: :"A tall and imposing figure, she was greatly respected and everyone at the Museum was slightly in awe of her, always ensuring that her requests (polite notes signed with the characteristic "MMH") were quickly acted upon." Hutchinson was also a member of Haslemere Natural History Society for 74 years, wrote a column for the local newspaper, The Haslemere Herald, for over 20 years and contributed to journals. In her 60s Hutchinson took up the study of plant galls (cecidology), soon becoming an expert and contributing to the Journal of the British Plant Gall Society.

A parasitoid wasp (Trioxys complanatus, Aphidiidae) ovipositing into the body of a spotted alfalfa aphid, a behaviour that is used in biological pest control In evolutionary ecology, a parasitoid is an organism that lives in close association with its host at the host's expense, eventually resulting in the death of the host. Parasitoidism is one of six major evolutionary strategies within parasitism, distinguished by the fatal prognosis for the host, which makes the strategy close to predation. Among parasitoids, strategies range from living inside the host (endoparasitism), allowing it to continue growing before emerging as an adult, to paralysing the host and living outside it (ectoparasitism). Hosts can include other parasitoids, resulting in hyperparasitism; in the case of oak galls, up to five levels of parasitism are possible.

In addition, a number of non-metal salt substances can be used to assist with the molecular bonding of natural dyes to natural fibres - either on their own, or in combination with metal salt mordants - including tannin from oak galls and a range of other plants/plant parts, 'pseudo-tannins', such as plant-derived oxalic acid, and ammonia from stale urine. Plants that bio-accumulate aluminum have also been used, including club mosses, which were commonly used in parts of Europe, but are now endangered in many areas. The Symplocos genus of plants, which grows in semi-tropical regions, also bioaccumulates aluminum, and is still popular with natural dyers. Some mordants, and some dyes themselves, produce strong odors, and large-scale dyeworks were often isolated in their own districts.

The princes would not grant that truce to honour Mary or > the Crucifixion, but attacked the town, though Toirrdelbach was unwilling. > When Jordan [D'Exeter] and the Galls saw this they issued from the town > against the princes. Mary wrought a miracle then; for when the princes and > their followers saw the horsemen in arms and armour making towards them, > horror and dread seized them and they were put to flight. Aed son of Aed O > Conchobair was killed there, and Diarmait Ruad son of Cormac O > Mailsechlainn, O Cellaig's two sons, Brian of the Wood son of Magnus, > Carrach Insiubail son of Niall O Conchobair, Baethgalach Mac Aedacain, > Mathgamain son of Tadc son of Diarmait Bachlach O Conchobair, Lochlainn O > Conchobair's two sons, Domnall son of Cormac Mac Diarmata, Findanach Mac > Branain, Cu Muman Mac Casurlaig and many others.

Female eating Banksia integrifolia The diet of the yellow-tailed black cockatoo is varied and available from a range of habitats within its distribution, which reduces their vulnerability to degradation or change in habitat.Cameron, p. 74. Much of the diet comprises seeds of native trees, particularly she-oaks (Allocasuarina and Casuarina, including A. torulosa and A. verticillata), but also Eucalyptus (including E. maculata flowers and E. nitida seeds), Acacia (including gum exudate and galls), Banksia (including the green seed pods and seeds of B. serrata, B. integrifolia, and B. marginata), and Hakea species (including H. gibbosa, H. rugosa, H. nodosa, H. sericea, H. cycloptera, and H. dactyloides). They are also partial to pine cones in plantations of the introduced Pinus radiata and to other introduced trees, including Cupressus torulosa, Betula pendula and the buds of elm Ulmus species.

In 1134 Ua Dubhthaigh acted as ambassador of King Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair to Cormac Mac Carthaigh, King of Munster, who had "again assembled the Munstermen, Leinstermen, Conmhaicne, the men of Midhe, the Galls of Dublin, Waterford, Wexford and Cork, and the Uí Eachach and Corca Laoighdhe on sea, to proceed into Connacht." Ua Dubhthaigh was successful in brokering a peace deal "between Leath Cuinn and Leath Mogha. Cormac made peace with Toirdhealbhach in honour of the archbishop, and he himself went to Abhall Ceithearnaigh to confirm the peace with Toirdhealbhach." This Treaty of Abhall Ceithearnaigh brought an end to a bitter war for supremacy between Connacht and Munster that had been on-going since the 1120s, and had the previous year resulted in the destruction of the castle and fleet of Dun Gallimhe, and Mac Carthaigh's defeat of Conchobhar Ua Flaithbheartaigh at the battle of An Cloidhe.

Many species are economically significant, especially the Hessian fly, a wheat pest, as the galls cause severe damage. Other important pests of this family are the wheat blossom midge Sitodiplosis mosellana, the asian rice gall midge (Orseolia oryzae) and the African rice gall midge O. oryzivora. Other pests are the coffee flower midge (Dasyneura coffeae), Soybean pod gall midge, (Asphondylia yushimai) pine needle gall midge (Thecodiplosis japonensis), the lentil flower midge (Contarinia lentis), the lucerne flower midge (C. medicaginis), and the alfalfa sprout midge (Dasineura ignorata) on the Leguminosae; the black locust tree gall midge (Obolodiplosis robiniae), the swede midge (Contarinia nasturtii), and the brassica pod midge (Dasineura brassicae) on the Cruciferae; the pear midge (Contarinia pyrivora) and the raspberry cane midge (Resseliella theobaldi) on fruit crops; Horidiplosis ficifolii on ornamental figs, and the rosette gall midge (Rhopalomyia solidaginis) on goldenrod stalks, Porricondylini spp.

E. insularis females hunt, usually in sunshine for retreat-making spiders in the concealed places where female spiders retreat to, such as rolled dead leaves; hollow plant stems; flax bushes; dead rolled fronds of tree-ferns; the abandoned cocoons of the bag- moth Liothula omnivora; deserted galleries of wood-boring beetles; and even the empty hatched galls of the moth Morova subfasciata in Muehlenbeckia australis and beneath loose bark on tree trunks. When she finds a female prey spider the female E. insularis runs at it and as the spider lifts its legs to adopt a defensive posture she stings it and lays her egg before moving away. The paralysis is light and the host usually recovers quickly and resumes movement. E. insularis does not normally build a nest but the host is usually parasitised on or near its retreat or some time after being parasitised spins its own retreat, the wasp larva being quite tolerant of the host spider's movement.

Narrated in four parts, the novel describes Watt's journey to, and within, Mr Knott's house, where he becomes the reclusive owner's manservant, replacing Arsene, who delivers a long valedictory monologue at the end of section one. In section two Watt struggles to make sense of life at Mr Knott's house, experiencing deep anxiety at the visit of the piano-tuning Galls, father and son, and a mysteriously language- resistant pot, among other incidents. In section three, which has a narrator called Sam, Watt is in confinement, his language garbled almost beyond recognition, while the narrative veers off on fantastical tangents such as the story of Ernest Louit's account, to a committee at Beckett's old university, Trinity College, Dublin, of a research trip in the West of Ireland. The shorter fourth section shows Watt arriving at the railway station from which, in the novel's skewed chronology, he sets out on a journey to the institution he has already reached in section three.

With the exception of some aphids and thrips, all eusocial species live in a communal nest which provides both shelter and access to food resources. Mole rats, many bees, most termites, and most ants live in burrows in the soil; wasps, some bees, some ants, and some termites build above-ground nests or inhabit above-ground cavities; thrips and aphids inhabit galls (neoplastic outgrowths) induced on plants; ambrosia beetles and some termites nest together in dead wood; and snapping shrimp inhabit crevices in marine sponges. For many species the habitat outside the nest is often extremely arid or barren, creating such a high cost to dispersal that the chance to take over the colony following parental death is greater than the chance of dispersing to form a new colony. Defense of such fortresses from both predators and competitors often favors the evolution of non-reproductive soldier castes, while the high costs of nest construction and expansion favor non-reproductive worker castes.

However, all the Connachtmen elected Aed son of Ruaidri in the presence of Galls and Gaels; and when they had reached the assembly he and the men of Connacht made for Carnfree, where he was installed, as was customary with every king who had ruled over Connacht before him." For the year 1233: "Fedlim son of Cathal Crobderg marched into Connacht and Cormac son of Tomaltach [Mac Diarmata], king of Moylurg, came to meet him and brought him into Moylurg and they encamped at Druim Grecraige—[Fedlim], Cormac and his son Conchobar, the three Tuatha and Donnchad and Muirchertach sons of Muirchertach Mac Diarmata. They all determined to go after Aed mac Ruaidri king of Connacht and the rest of Ruaidri's descendants; and they inflicted on them such a routing and scattering that the kingship and sovranty of the province of Connacht was taken from the seed of Ruaidri on that day. Aed mac Ruaidri king of Connacht, Aed Muimnech mac Ruaidri and his son, Donnchad Mor son of Diarmait mac Ruaidri and many others not here recorded were slain there.

1256.5 A huge army was raised by Walter son of Richard Burke to attack Fedlim mac Cathail Chrobdeirg and Aed his son and Conchobar son of Tigernan O Ruairc, an army which for might and multitude had never been surpassed in Ireland, for it numbered twenty thousand to a man. They came to Mayo and Balla and passed through Leyney, which they plundered on all sides, to Achonry; and from there they sent messengers to the Ui Raigillig, bidding them to come and meet them at Cros Dairi Cain at the eastern end of the Brauslieve mountains in Tir Thuathail. The Ui Raigillig came to Clachan Mucada on Slieve Anierin, but turned back from there, not having effected a meeting with the Galls, and came to Soltin Gasain. And on that same day—a friday, and the feast of Crosses in fact—Conchobar son of Tigernan O Ruairc mustered the men of Brefne and Conmaicne and all whom he could get, including Aed son of Fedlim O Conchobair and the chiefs of the Sil Murray and the rest of the men of Connacht.