In his work as an artist, Guariglia uses photography to observe the unobservable.
|
|
Getting as close as I could to the secret government complex was all about trying to observe the unobservable.
|
|
"We would be wrong to conclude that such massive objects in space-time should be unobservable," Dr. Lynden-Bell wrote.
|
|
"Our focus is not on the (unobservable) motivations or ethics of specific individuals," Kearns writes in an email to The Verge.
|
|
They thus conclude that other, unobservable, characteristics are at work—the sort of stuff that laymen refer to as "effort" or "grit".
|
|
Technology is being introduced into electoral processes to promote efficiency, but it also moves voting and counting into the unobservable digital realm.
|
|
I also wonder: What's with all the private "executive time" on his daily White House schedule, when he's off by himself, unobserved and unobservable?
|
|
The entering and exiting particles are the same as previously described, but the fact that those unobservable collisions happen can still have subtle effects on the outcome.
|
|
The rest is dark matter, an unobservable kind of matter that shapes galaxies, and dark energy, a force that is leading to the accelerating expansion of the universe.
|
|
Another of her grand subjects appears to be unobservable force-field energies and their pressures of attraction and repulsion and circulation that pass through and around the human body.
|
|
Pulsar monitoring could also potentially help confirm the existence and explain the nature of dark matter, unobservable matter that many scientists believe makes up most of the universe but nonetheless remains unconfirmed.
|
|
Astronomers announced on Wednesday that at last they had captured an image of the unobservable: a black hole, a cosmic abyss so deep and dense that not even light can escape it.
|
|
When this occurs, it's possible for the light emitted by background objects to be magnified by the foreground objects' intense gravitational field, giving astronomers a rare glimpse of normally unobservable stretches of the universe.
|
|
While some of this can be explained by the weakest scientists in the no-grant group giving up, the three researchers showed that other, unobservable, characteristics such as "effort" or "grit" are also at work.
|
|
Buried in the lower foreground of the landscape, it escaped notice for so long because the thickness of the paint makes it practically unobservable to the naked eye, as museum spokesperson Kathleen Leighton told Hyperallergic.
|
|
It also can't tell us if there's potentially some unobservable — and thus uncontrollable — difference between the kinds of poor people who move to big cities in rich, blue states and the kinds of poor people who don't.
|
|
In late June 2016, CNO initiated an audit of the valuation of Level 49473 assets in the trust, the value of which has historically been provided by a recognized valuation service based, in part, on unobservable inputs which CNO could not independently verify.
|
|
Superfast micrometeorites, miniature particles traveling at 33,19653 miles per hour, are bombarding the surface of the moon all the time, but they're so infinitesimal that they erode things only at the more or less unobservable rate of 0.04 inches every million years.
|
|
"Please secure all doors and windows (any additional actions such as shut down HVAC, turn off lights, move to unobservable part of the room, get on the floor, away from doors) and await further instructions or contact by first responders," a notice on the university's website said.
|
|
"There's a good chance that a significant part of star formation that occurred during the universe's infancy is obscured and can't be detected by tools we've been using, and GISMO will be able to help detect what was previously unobservable," said Staguhn in a press release.
|
|
Just as Smith's "invisible hand" alluded to the unobservable market forces that lead to equilibrium in a free market, so Howard's Pax Technica (the title of a book he wrote) evokes the cumulative stabilizing effect of the tens of billions of connected devices forming the Internet of Things (IoT).
|
|
" Georgia Tech computing professor Richard DeMillo attempted to explain to House members why ballot-marking devices were needless cybersecurity risks: "What we're concerned with is that some unobservable piece of technology will get between the formation of an intention in the voter's mind and the indelible transfer of that intention to a piece of paper.
|
|
We would argue that the biggest problem is the difficulty in applying a methodology developed in medicine, where test subjects share the same genetic blueprint and new treatments are developed at the molecular level, to the social sciences, where our models are nowhere close to the precision of theories in the natural sciences and where there are many unobserved and unobservable differences between human beings that can confound the best designed RCT.
|
|
Then an observational term cannot be applied to something unobservable. If this is the case, there are no observational terms. # With Carnap's classification, some unobservable terms are not even theoretical and belong to neither observational terms nor theoretical terms. Some theoretical terms refer primarily to observational terms.
|
|
The theta meson is expected to be physically unobservable, as top quarks decay too fast to form mesons.
|
|
In philosophy of science, anti-realism applies chiefly to claims about the non-reality of "unobservable" entities such as electrons or genes, which are not detectable with human senses. One prominent variety of scientific anti-realism is instrumentalism, which takes a purely agnostic view towards the existence of unobservable entities, in which the unobservable entity X serves as an instrument to aid in the success of theory Y and does not require proof for the existence or non- existence of X. Some scientific anti-realists, however, deny that unobservables exist, even as non-truth conditioned instruments.
|
|
In general, the degree to which a signal is thought to be correlated to unknown or unobservable attributes is directly related to its value.
|
|
Experience goods typically have lower price elasticity than search goods, as consumers fear that lower prices may be due to unobservable problems or quality issues.
|
|
Financial data analysis is based on data drawn from settings created for a purpose other than answering a specific research question. This results in the situation where any interpretation of the results may be challenged since it ignores other variables that have changed. Traditional data analysis issues include omitted-variables biases, self- selection biases, unobservable independent variables, and unobservable dependent variables.Bloomfield, Robert and Anderson, Alyssa.
|
|
A map satisfying Property 2 is sometimes called "chaotic in the sense of Li and Yorke". Property 2 is often stated succinctly as their article's title phrase "Period three implies chaos". The uncountable set of chaotic points may, however, be of measure zero (see for example the article Logistic map), in which case the map is said to have unobservable nonperiodicity or unobservable chaos.
|
|
Additionally, the signals coming from that location will have less and less energy and be less and less frequent until the location, for all practical purposes, becomes unobservable. In a universe that is dominated by dark energy which is undergoing an exponential expansion of the scale factor, all objects that are gravitationally unbound with respect to the Milky Way will become unobservable, in a futuristic version of Kapteyn's universe.
|
|
Stanley F. Schmidt developed the Schmidt–Kalman filter as a method to account for unobservable biases while maintaining the low dimensionality required for implementation in real time systems.
|
|
Mosterín, Jesús (2000). "Observation, Construction and Speculation in Cosmology". In The Reality of the Unobservable, ed. by E. Agazzi & M. Pauri, Dordrecht-Boston: Kluwer Academic Pub, pp. 219-231. .
|
|
Suddenly striking Western society, then, was Kuhn's landmark thesis, introduced by none other than Carnap, verificationism's greatest firebrand. Instrumentalism exhibited by scientists often does not even discern unobservable from observable entities.
|
|
This makes them able to observe all variables. Traditional data analysis may not be able to observe some variables, but sometimes experimenters cannot directly elicit certain information from subjects either. Without directly knowing a certain independent variable, good experimental design can create measures that to a large extent reflects the unobservable independent variable and the problem is therefore avoided. Unobservable dependent variables: In traditional data studies, extracting the cause for the dependent variable to change may prove to be difficult.
|
|
The probability of the outcome of an experiment is never negative, although a quasiprobability distribution allows a negative probability, or quasiprobability for some events. These distributions may apply to unobservable events or conditional probabilities.
|
|
The paper also considers that there are unobservable factors that attribute to weight and health that are otherwise unobservable within schools as well. The paper mentions genetics and the nurturing of children being a factor to weight gain and education. The paper finally concludes with the statement that there isn’t necessarily anything that would cause a child to gain weight during school periods. It is a situational scenario where certain schools lack in the provision of the proper food items they need to serve .
|
|
In probability and statistics, density estimation is the construction of an estimate, based on observed data, of an unobservable underlying probability density function. The unobservable density function is thought of as the density according to which a large population is distributed; the data are usually thought of as a random sample from that population. A variety of approaches to density estimation are used, including Parzen windows and a range of data clustering techniques, including vector quantization. The most basic form of density estimation is a rescaled histogram.
|
|
A nonsingular black hole model is a mathematical theory of black holes that avoids certain theoretical problems with the standard black hole model, including information loss and the unobservable nature of the black hole event horizon.
|
|
A dynamic unobserved effects model is a statistical model used in econometrics for panel analysis. It is characterized by the influence of previous values of the dependent variable on its present value, and by the presence of unobservable explanatory variables. The term “dynamic” here means the dependence of the dependent variable on its past history; this is usually used to model the “state dependence” in economics. For instance, for a person who cannot find a job this year, it will be harder to find a job next year because her present lack of a job will be a negative signal for the potential employers. “Unobserved effects” means that one or some of the explanatory variables are unobservable: for example, consumption choice of one flavor of ice cream over another is a function of personal preference, but preference is unobservable.
|
|
That is, if one of the eigenvalues of the system is not both controllable and observable, this part of the dynamics will remain untouched in the closed-loop system. If such an eigenvalue is not stable, the dynamics of this eigenvalue will be present in the closed-loop system which therefore will be unstable. Unobservable poles are not present in the transfer function realization of a state-space representation, which is why sometimes the latter is preferred in dynamical systems analysis. Solutions to problems of an uncontrollable or unobservable system include adding actuators and sensors.
|
|
Orbit of After it had been unobservable for almost three years, was recovered on 7 October 2018 by L. Buzzi at Schiaparelli Observatory (observatory code 204), at apparent magnitude 21. The 11 November 2018 flyby was about from Earth.
|
|
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on scientific realism, written by Richard Boyd, indicates that the modern concept owes its origin in part to Percy Williams Bridgman, who felt that the expression of scientific concepts was often abstract and unclear. Inspired by Ernst Mach, in 1914 Bridgman attempted to redefine unobservable entities concretely in terms of the physical and mental operations used to measure them. Accordingly, the definition of each unobservable entity was uniquely identified with the instrumentation used to define it. From the beginning objections were raised to this approach, in large part around the inflexibility.
|
|
After measuring several objective physical traits of the target participants, such as cranium size and eye width, Cleeton and Knight (1924) found that these physical traits were unrelated to close acquaintances' ratings of unobservable individual traits. However, they found that strangers' rating of an unfamiliar individual's traits were reliable; strangers tended to rate a target's personality similarly. Although these ratings were inaccurate, it became apparent that raters must be using similar indicators to make judgements about individual traits. Passini and Norman (1966) found comparable evidence that strangers provide similar ratings of unobservable personality traits of a target participant with no prior acquaintanceship.
|
|
Chakravartty began his study with rough characterizations of realist and anti- realist valuations of theories. Anti-realists believe "that theories are merely instruments for predicting observable phenomena or systematizing observation reports;" they assert that theories can never report or prescribe truth or reality "in itself." By contrast, scientific realists believe that theories can "correctly describe both observable and unobservable parts of the world." Well-confirmed theories—"what ought to be" as the end of reasoning—are more than tools; they are maps of intrinsic properties of an unobservable and unconditional territory—"what is" as natural-but-metaphysical real kinds.
|
|
In regression analysis, the distinction between errors and residuals is subtle and important, and leads to the concept of studentized residuals. Given an unobservable function that relates the independent variable to the dependent variable – say, a line – the deviations of the dependent variable observations from this function are the unobservable errors. If one runs a regression on some data, then the deviations of the dependent variable observations from the fitted function are the residuals. If the linear model is applicable, a scatterplot of residuals plotted against the independent variable should be random about zero with no trend to the residuals.
|
|
Since prediction intervals are only concerned with past and future observations, rather than unobservable population parameters, they are advocated as a better method than confidence intervals by some statisticians, such as Seymour Geisser, following the focus on observables by Bruno de Finetti.
|
|
Myerson and Satterthwaite considered an asymmetric initial situation, in the sense that at the outset one party has 100% of the good and the other party has 0% of the good. It has been shown that ex post efficiency can be attained if initially both parties own 50% of the good to be traded. 3\. The latter result has been extended to settings in which the parties can make unobservable ex ante investments in order to increase their own valuations. Yet, ex post efficiency cannot be achieved if the seller's unobservable investment increases the buyer's valuation, even if only the buyer has private information about his or her valuation. 4\.
|
|
Seventy-five percent of Earth's crust is unobservable using solely electromagnetic energy-based geodetic techniques. Seafloor geodesy can now expand geodetic positioning to off-shore environments.Sato, Mariko; Ishikawa, Tadashi; Ujihara, Naoto; Yoshida, Shigeru; Fujita, Masayuki; Mochizuki, Masashi; Asada, Akira. Displacement Above the Hypocenter of the 2011 Tohoku-Oki Earthquake.
|
|
From its orbit of Venus, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter was able to observe Halley's Comet when it was unobservable from Earth due to its proximity to the sun during February 1986. UV spectrometer observations monitored the loss of water from the comet's nucleus at perihelion on February 9.
|
|
Pessimistic induction, one of the main arguments against realism, argues that the history of science contains many theories once regarded as empirically successful but which are now believed to be false. Additionally, the history of science contains many empirically successful theories whose unobservable terms are not believed to genuinely refer. For example, the effluvium theory of static electricity (a theory of the 16th Century physicist William Gilbert) is an empirically successful theory whose central unobservable terms have been replaced by later theories. Realists reply that replacement of particular realist theories with better ones is to be expected due to the progressive nature of scientific knowledge, and when such replacements occur only superfluous unobservables are dropped.
|
|
Colleague Hilary Putnam called Quine's indeterminacy of translation thesis "the most fascinating and the most discussed philosophical argument since Kant's Transcendental Deduction of the Categories". The central theses underlying it are ontological relativity and the related doctrine of confirmation holism. The premise of confirmation holism is that all theories (and the propositions derived from them) are under-determined by empirical data (data, sensory-data, evidence); although some theories are not justifiable, failing to fit with the data or being unworkably complex, there are many equally justifiable alternatives. While the Greeks' assumption that (unobservable) Homeric gods exist is false, and our supposition of (unobservable) electromagnetic waves is true, both are to be justified solely by their ability to explain our observations.
|
|
Some well-known behaviorists such as Edward C. Tolman and Clark Hull popularized the idea of operationism, or operational definition. Operational definition implies that a concept be defined in terms of concrete, observable procedures. Experimental psychologists attempt to define currently unobservable phenomena, such as mental events, by connecting them to observations by chains of reasoning.
|
|
The instrument can be valued indirectly using observable data. Another example would be using quoted prices for similar assets or liabilities in active markets. Level 3 is the most unobservable of the levels and indicates use of valuation techniques and data that may not be verifiable. These types of instruments involve a great deal of assumptions and estimates.
|
|
Empiricism is the theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses. Empiricists only study observable behaviour instead of unobservable mental representations, states and processes. They claim that sense and experience is the ultimate source of all concepts and knowledge. On the other hand, linguistic empiricism is a perspective where language is entirely learned.
|
|
Scardamalia & Bereiter distinguish between knowledge building and learning. They see learning as an internal, (almost) unobservable process that results in changes of beliefs, attitudes, or skills. By contrast, KB is seen as creating or modifying public knowledge. KB produces knowledge that lives ‘in the world’, and is available to be worked on and used by other people.
|
|
Pulse evaluation at the radial artery. Recommended points to evaluate pulse Claudius Galen was perhaps the first physiologist to describe the pulse.Temkin 165;BBC[a] The pulse is an expedient tactile method of determination of systolic blood pressure to a trained observer. Diastolic blood pressure is non-palpable and unobservable by tactile methods, occurring between heartbeats.
|
|
Rare-earth elements stand out far more than expected from the intensity spectrum. Other odd lines include Li I at 6708 Å which has 0.005% more polarization at its peak, but is almost unobservable in the intensity spectrum. The Ba II 4554 Å appears as a triplet in the second solar spectrum. This is due to differing isotopes and hyperfine structure.
|
|
In statistics, a proxy or proxy variable is a variable that is not in itself directly relevant, but that serves in place of an unobservable or immeasurable variable.Upton, G., Cook,I. (2002) Oxford Dictionary of Statistics. OUP In order for a variable to be a good proxy, it must have a close correlation, not necessarily linear, with the variable of interest.
|
|
During the reign of behaviorism in the mid-20th century, unobservable phenomena such as metacognition were largely ignored. One early scientific study of metamemory was Hart's 1965 study, which examined the accuracy of feeling of knowing (FOK). FOK occurs when an individual feels that they have something in memory that cannot be recalled, but would be recognized if seen.Radvansky, G. (2006).
|
|
On Generation and Corruption (; ), also known as On Coming to Be and Passing Away is a treatise by Aristotle. Like many of his texts, it is both scientific, part of Aristotle's biology, and philosophic. The philosophy is essentially empirical; as in all of Aristotle's works, the inferences made about the unexperienced and unobservable are based on observations and real experiences.
|
|
In the 1950s, research psychologists renewed their interest in attention when the dominant epistemology shifted from positivism (i.e., behaviorism) to realism during what has come to be known as the "cognitive revolution". The cognitive revolution admitted unobservable cognitive processes like attention as legitimate objects of scientific study. Modern research on attention began with the analysis of the "cocktail party problem" by Colin Cherry in 1953.
|
|
In hidden action models, there is a stochastic relationship between the unobservable effort and the verifiable outcome (say, the principal's revenue), because otherwise the unobservability of the effort would be meaningless. Typically, the principal makes a take-it-or-leave-it offer to the agent; i.e., the principal has all bargaining power. In principal–agent models, the agent often gets a strictly positive rent (i.e.
|
|
Ontological questions also feature in diverse branches of philosophy, including the philosophy of science, philosophy of religion, philosophy of mathematics, and philosophical logic. These include questions about whether only physical objects are real (i.e., Physicalism), whether reality is fundamentally immaterial (e.g., Idealism), whether hypothetical unobservable entities posited by scientific theories exist, whether God exists, whether numbers and other abstract objects exist, and whether possible worlds exist.
|
|
Loans are usually impaired because creditors will be unable to collect all amounts due. This was a reoccurring problem in the current financial crisis. Since the crisis unfolded, fair value assets held by banks increasingly became Level 3 inputs (unobservable). Ultimately, most of the assets held by financial institutions were either not subject to fair value, or did not impact the income statement or balance sheet accounts.
|
|
Although the ortho and para forms look identical chemically, the energy levels are different, meaning that the molecules have different spectroscopic transitions. When observing c-C3H2 in the interstellar medium, there are only certain transitions that can be seen. In general, only a few lines are available for use in astronomical detection. Many lines are unobservable because they are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere.
|
|
An alternative was presented by William of Ockham, following the manner of the earlier Franciscan John Duns Scotus, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or Occam's razor – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one, and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.Grant, p. 142; Nicholas, p. 134.
|
|
Instead, large starspots appear to be the cause for the dimming. Followup studies, reported on 31 March 2020 in The Astronomer's Telegram, found a rapid rise in the brightness of Betelgeuse. Betelgeuse is almost unobservable from the ground between May and August because it is too close to the Sun. Before entering its conjunction with the Sun, Betelgeuse had reached a brightness of +0.4 mag.
|
|
In statistics, a hidden Markov random field is a generalization of a hidden Markov model. Instead of having an underlying Markov chain, hidden Markov random fields have an underlying Markov random field. Suppose that we observe a random variable Y_i , where i \in S . Hidden Markov random fields assume that the probabilistic nature of Y_i is determined by the unobservable Markov random field X_i , i \in S .
|
|
This undermines the case for even a transient, unobservable existence for such virtual particles. The geometric nature of the theory suggests in turn that the nature of the universe, in both classical relativistic spacetime and quantum mechanics, may be described with geometry. Calculations can be done without assuming the quantum mechanical properties of locality and unitarity. In amplituhedron theory, locality and unitarity arise as a direct consequence of positivity.
|
|
Resource allocation within a household is central to the understanding of human behavior and the effectiveness of public policies. Yuk- fai Fong and Junsen Zhang (2001) prove that Pierre-André Chiappori's collective model of household decision making can be extended to allow the identification of independent and spousal leisure.Fong, Y., & Zhang, J. (2001). The Identification of Unobservable Independent and Spousal Leisure. Journal of Political Economy, 109(1), 191–202.
|
|
The term honesty in animal communication is controversial because in non- technical usage it implies intent, to discriminate deception from honesty in human interactions. However, biologists use the phrase "honest signals" in a direct, statistical sense. Biological signals, like warning calls or resplendent tail feathers, are honest if they truly convey useful information to the receiver. That is, the signal trait conveys to the receiver the presence of an otherwise unobservable factor.
|
|
A second category of reactions under Curtin–Hammett control includes those in which the less stable conformer reacts more quickly. In this case, despite an energetic preference for the less reactive species, the major product is derived from the higher- energy species. An important implication is that the product of a reaction can be derived from a conformer that is at sufficiently low concentration as to be unobservable in the ground state.
|
|
A number of periodic comets discovered in earlier decades or previous centuries are now lost comets. Their orbits were never known well enough to predict future appearances or the comets have disintegrated. However, occasionally a "new" comet is discovered, and calculation of its orbit shows it to be an old "lost" comet. An example is Comet 11P/Tempel–Swift–LINEAR, discovered in 1869 but unobservable after 1908 because of perturbations by Jupiter.
|
|
There are also models that combine hidden action and hidden information. Since there is no data on unobservable variables, the contract-theoretic moral hazard model is difficult to test directly, but there have been some successful indirect tests with field data. Direct tests of moral hazard theory are feasible in laboratory settings, using the tools of experimental economics. In such a setup, Hoppe and Schmitz (2018) have corroborated central insights of moral hazard theory.
|
|
Together, these effects are called the inflationary "no- hair theorem"Kolb and Turner (1988). by analogy with the no hair theorem for black holes. The "no-hair" theorem works essentially because the cosmological horizon is no different from a black-hole horizon, except for philosophical disagreements about what is on the other side. The interpretation of the no- hair theorem is that the Universe (observable and unobservable) expands by an enormous factor during inflation.
|
|
The idea of centrifugal force is closely related to the notion of absolute rotation. In 1707 the Irish bishop George Berkeley took issue with the notion of absolute space, declaring that "motion cannot be understood except in relation to our or some other body". In considering a solitary globe, all forms of motion, uniform and accelerated, are unobservable in an otherwise empty universe. This notion was followed up in modern times by Ernst Mach.
|
|
Many of the things that people and animals want to know about each other, such as toughness, cooperativeness or fertility, are not directly observable. Instead, observable indicators of these unobservable properties must be used to communicate them to others. These are signals. Signaling theory deals with predicting the level of effort that individuals, the signalers, should invest to communicate their properties to other individuals, the receivers, and how these receivers interpret their signals.
|
|
Science has destroyed for many people the supernatural intrinsic value embraced by Weber and Ellul. But Chakravartty defended intrinsic valuations as necessary elements of all science—belief in unobservable continuities. He advances the thesis of semi-realism, according to which well-tested theories are good maps of natural kinds, as confirmed by their instrumental success; their predictive success means they conform to mind-independent, unconditional reality. > Causal properties are the fulcrum of semirealism.
|
|
All that we can know are the results of measurements and observations. It makes no sense to speculate about an ultimate reality that exists beyond our perceptions. Einstein's beliefs had evolved over the years from those that he had held when he was young, when, as a logical positivist heavily influenced by his reading of David Hume and Ernst Mach, he had rejected such unobservable concepts as absolute time and space. Einstein believed: :1.
|
|
The "probability" in coverage probability is interpreted with respect to a set of hypothetical repetitions of the entire data collection and analysis procedure. In these hypothetical repetitions, independent data sets following the same probability distribution as the actual data are considered, and a confidence interval is computed from each of these data sets; see Neyman construction. The coverage probability is the fraction of these computed confidence intervals that include the desired but unobservable parameter value.
|
|
The many-worlds interpretation is an interpretation of quantum mechanics in which a universal wavefunction obeys the same deterministic, reversible laws at all times; in particular there is no (indeterministic and irreversible) wavefunction collapse associated with measurement. The phenomena associated with measurement are claimed to be explained by decoherence, which occurs when states interact with the environment producing entanglement, repeatedly "splitting" the universe into mutually unobservable alternate histories—effectively distinct universes within a greater multiverse.
|
|
The observatory in the campus of the College of William & Mary is named in Harriot's honour. A crater on the Moon was belatedly named after him in 1970; it is on the Moon's far side and hence unobservable from Earth. In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars. The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names.
|
|
The laws of nature would have to be different in the frames of reference, and the relativity principle would not hold. Therefore, he argued that also in this case there has to be another compensating mechanism in the ether. Poincaré came back to this topic in 1904. This time he rejected his own solution that motions in the ether can compensate the motion of matter, because any such motion is unobservable and therefore scientifically worthless.
|
|
While summer growing seasons are expanding, winters are getting warmer and shorter, resulting in reduced winter ice cover on bodies of water, earlier ice-out, earlier melt water flows, and earlier spring lake level peaks. Some spring events, or "phenophases", have become intermittent or unobservable; for example, bodies of water that once froze regularly most winters now freeze less frequently, and formerly migratory birds are now seen year-round in some areas.
|
|
Douglas Coupland writes, "Anybody can describe a pre-moistened towelette to you, but it takes a good observational comedian to tell you what, exactly is the 'deal' with them." He adds that observational comedy first of all depends on a "lone noble comedian adrift in the modern world, observing the unobservable-those banalities and fragments of minutiae lurking just below the threshold of perception: Cineplex candy; remote control units." Observational comedy has been compared to sociology.
|
|
The Ten Commandments form the basis of Jewish law,Norman Solomon, Judaism, p. 17 . Sterling Publishing Company (2009) stating God's universal and timeless standard of right and wrong – unlike the rest of the 613 commandments in the Torah, which include, for example, various duties and ceremonies such as the kashrut dietary laws, and now unobservable rituals to be performed by priests in the Holy Temple.Wayne D. Dosick, Living Judaism: The Complete Guide to Jewish Belief, Tradition, and Practice, pp.
|
|
Stathis Psillos remarks that entity realism is indeed a realist position (since it defends the reality of unobservable entities), but it is a selective realist position, since "it restricts warranted belief to entities only, and suggests to fellow realists that they are wrong in claiming that the theoretical descriptions of these entities are approximately true." Psillos also remarks that to a certain extent "this scepticism about theories is motivated by none other than the argument from the pessimistic induction".
|
|
He found that prospective gang members signal their potential value to the gang by engaging in violent and criminal acts that are beyond the capacity of most people. Densley also used signaling theory to advance a model of disengagement from gangs that allows ex-gang members to communicate their unobservable inner change to others and satisfy community expectations that desistance from crime is real. For Densley, religious conversion in prison was one example of a disengagement signal.
|
|
The best feathers to use are those that have been molted, as they have less organic materials and less likely to deteriorate. A feather object can last indefinitely if it is preserved in a hermetically sealed case of inert gas, with a fixed humidity, darkness and low temperature. However, this renders the piece unobservable. These objects can be exhibited in galleries, museums and private collections with minimal decay if temperature and humidity are controlled and light kept to a minimum.
|
|
The best horses in a handicap race carry the largest weights, so the size of the handicap is a measure of the animal's quality. In 1975, Amotz Zahavi proposed a verbal model for how signal costs could constrain cheating and stabilize an "honest" correlation between observed signals and unobservable qualities, based on an analogy to sports handicapping systems. He called this idea the handicap principle. The purpose of a sports handicapping system is to reduce disparities in performance, making the contest more competitive.
|
|
Both PCA and factor analysis aim to reduce the dimensionality of a set of data, but the approaches taken to do so are different for the two techniques. Factor analysis is clearly designed with the objective to identify certain unobservable factors from the observed variables, whereas PCA does not directly address this objective; at best, PCA provides an approximation to the required factors.Jolliffe I.T. Principal Component Analysis, Series: Springer Series in Statistics, 2nd ed., Springer, NY, 2002, XXIX, 487 p.
|
|
Debris disks detected in HST archival images of young stars, HD 141943 and HD 191089, using improved imaging processes (24 April 2014). Under certain circumstances the disk, which can now be called protoplanetary, may give birth to a planetary system. Protoplanetary disks have been observed around a very high fraction of stars in young star clusters. They exist from the beginning of a star's formation, but at the earliest stages are unobservable due to the opacity of the surrounding envelope.
|
|
Of key importance to the value of the signal is the differing cost structure between "good" and "bad" workers. The cost of obtaining identical credentials is strictly lower for the "good" employee than it is for the "bad" employee. The differing cost structure need not preclude "bad" workers from obtaining the credential. All that is necessary for the signal to have value (informational or otherwise) is that the group with the signal is positively correlated with the previously unobservable group of "good" workers.
|
|
In statistics and econometrics, the maximum score estimator is a nonparametric estimator for discrete choice models developed by Charles Manski in 1975. Unlike the multinomial probit and multinomial logit estimators, it makes no assumptions about the distribution of the unobservable part of utility. However, its statistical properties (particularly its asymptotic distribution) are more complicated than the multinomial probit and logit models, making statistical inference difficult. To address these issues, Joel Horowitz proposed a variant, called the smoothed maximum score estimator.
|
|
In the idea of McCallum the Fed should stabilize the nominal GDP to achieve economic stability. Although the same monetary policy objectives can be reached by McCallum rule as by Taylor rule, the McCallum rule uses the precise financial data.Michael F. Gallmeyer Burton Hollifield Stanley E. Zin, Taylor Rules, McCallum Rules and the term structure of interest rates (April 2005), National Bureau Of Economic Research 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 Thus, the McCallum rule can overcome the problem of the unobservable variables.
|
|
Dehijia and Wahba (1999) examine LaLonde's (1989) data with additional non-experimental findings. They argue that when there is enough subject pool overlap and unobservable covariates do not impact outcomes, non-experimental methods can indeed estimate treatment impact accurately. Glazerman, Levy and Myers (2003) perform experimental benchmarking in the context of employment services, welfare and job training. They determine that non-experimental methods may approximate experimental estimates, however these estimations can be biased enough to impact policy analysis and implementation.
|
|
Notably, FASB indicates that assumptions enter into models that use Level 2 inputs, a condition that reduces the precision of the outputs (estimated fair values), but nonetheless produces reliable numbers that are representationally faithful, verifiable and neutral. ;Level Three: The FASB describes Level 3 inputs as “unobservable.” If inputs from levels 1 and 2 are not available, FASB acknowledges that fair value measures of many assets and liabilities are less precise. Within this level, fair value is also estimated using a valuation technique.
|
|
Meehl founded, along with Herbert Feigl and Wilfrid Sellars, the Minnesota Center for the Philosophy of Science, and was a leading figure in philosophy of science as applied to psychology. Early in his career Meehl was a proponent of Karl Popper's Falsificationism, and later amended his views as neo-Popperian. Arguably Meehl's most important contributions to psychological research methodology were in legitimizing scientific claims about unobservable psychological processes. In the first half of the 20th century, psychology was dominated by operationism and behaviorism.
|
|
The counterfactual or unobserved risk RA0 corresponds to the risk which would have been observed if these same individuals had been unexposed (i.e. X = 0 for every unit of the population). The true effect of exposure therefore is: RA1 − RA0 (if one is interested in risk differences) or RA1/RA0 (if one is interested in relative risk). Since the counterfactual risk RA0 is unobservable we approximate it using a second population B and we actually measure the following relations: RA1 − RB0 or RA1/RB0.
|
|
Seymour Geisser (October 5, 1929 – March 11, 2004) was an American statistician noted for emphasizing predictive inference. In his book Predictive Inference: An Introduction, he held that conventional statistical inference about unobservable population parameters amounts to inference about things that do not exist, following the work of Bruno de Finetti. He also pioneered the theory of cross-validation. With Samuel Greenhouse, he developed the Greenhouse–Geisser correction, which is now widely used in the analysis of variance to correct for violations of the assumption of compound symmetry.
|
|
C.S. Peirce describes a form of inference called 'abduction' or 'inference to the best explanation'. This form of inference appeals to explanatory considerations to justify belief. One infers, for example, that two students copied answers from a third because this is the best explanation of the available data—they each make the same mistakes and the two sat in view of the third. Alternatively, in a more theoretical context, one infers that there are very small unobservable particles because this is the best explanation of Brownian motion.
|
|
In his 1881 work Mathematical Psychics, Francis Ysidro Edgeworth presented the indifference curve, deriving its properties from marginalist theory which assumed utility to be a differentiable function of quantified goods and services. Later work attempted to generalize to the indifference curve formulations of utility and marginal utility in avoiding unobservable measures of utility. In 1915, Eugen Slutsky derived a theory of consumer choice solely from properties of indifference curves.Слуцкий, Евгений Евгениевич (Slutsky, Yevgyeniy Ye.); "Sulla teoria del bilancio del consumatore", Giornale degli Economisti 51 (1915).
|
|
In the Neyman-Rubin "potential outcomes framework" of causality a treatment effect is defined for each individual unit in terms of two "potential outcomes." Each unit has one outcome that would manifest if the unit were exposed to the treatment and another outcome that would manifest if the unit were exposed to the control. The "treatment effect" is the difference between these two potential outcomes. However, this individual-level treatment effect is unobservable because individual units can only receive the treatment or the control, but not both.
|
|
Random assignment to treatment ensures that units assigned to the treatment and units assigned to the control are identical (over a large number of iterations of the experiment). Indeed, units in both groups have identical distributions of covariates and potential outcomes. Thus the average outcome among the treatment units serves as a counterfactual for the average outcome among the control units. The differences between these two averages is the ATE, which is an estimate of the central tendency of the distribution of unobservable individual-level treatment effects.
|
|
If a sample is randomly constituted from a population, the sample ATE (abbreviated SATE) is also an estimate of the population ATE (abbreviated PATE). While an experiment ensures, in expectation, that potential outcomes (and all covariates) are equivalently distributed in the treatment and control groups, this is not the case in an observational study. In an observational study, units are not assigned to treatment and control randomly, so their assignment to treatment may depend on unobserved or unobservable factors. Observed factors can be statistically controlled (e.g.
|
|
His methods assume that the reader is familiar with Kramers-Heisenberg transition probability calculations. The main new idea, non-commuting matrices, is justified only by a rejection of unobservable quantities. It introduces the non-commutative multiplication of matrices by physical reasoning, based on the correspondence principle, despite the fact that Heisenberg was not then familiar with the mathematical theory of matrices. The path leading to these results has been reconstructed in MacKinnon, 1977, and the detailed calculations are worked out in Aitchison et al.
|
|
At a distance of from Earth, its angular diameter was only 0.007 seconds of arc, far too small to see. Similarly, asteroid 30825 (1990 TG1) transited on April 14, 2005 but was again unobservable, having an angular diameter of about 0.05″, and 2101 Adonis transited on September 24, 2007 with an even smaller angular diameter of only 0.005″. In theory, if a transit took place during a very close approach by a near-Earth asteroid, it might be observable. However, no such asteroid transits have been observed up to the present time.
|
|
The Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) is a space-based telescope operated by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. FUSE was launched on a Delta II rocket on 24 June 1999, as a part of NASA's Origins program. FUSE detected light in the far ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 90.5–119.5 nanometres, which is mostly unobservable by other telescopes. Its primary mission was to characterize universal deuterium in an effort to learn about the stellar processing times of deuterium left over from the Big Bang.
|
|
Mental Management falls within the cognitive model of psychology and needs to be distinguished from the behaviourist model, which considers mental processes to be unobservable and therefore akin to a ‘black box’. More specifically, the behaviourist model assumes that the process linking behaviour to the stimulus cannot be studied. It therefore describes the conceptualisation of psychological disorders in terms of overt behaviour patterns produced by learning and the influence of reinforcement contingencies. Treatment techniques associated with this approach include systematic de-sensitisation and modelling and focusing on modifying ineffective or maladaptive patterns.
|
|
There are no objective methods for detecting the presence or absence of mental disease. Szasz argued that mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts. He has said "serious persons ought not to take psychiatry seriously -- except as a threat to reason, responsibility and liberty". Sociologists such as Erving Goffman and Thomas Scheff said that mental illness was merely another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists; behavioural psychologists challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena; and gay rights activists criticised the APA's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder.
|
|
Observations of the deuterated molecule, C2D, can test and extend fractionation theories (which explain the enhanced abundance of deuterated molecules in the interstellar medium). One of the important indirect uses for observations of the ethynyl radical is the determination of acetylene abundances. Acetylene (C2H2) does not have a dipole moment, and therefore pure rotational transitions (typically occurring in the microwave region of the spectrum) are too weak to be observable. Since acetylene provides a dominant formation pathway to ethynyl, observations of the product can yield estimates of the unobservable acetylene.
|
|
John B. Taylor, Discretion versus policy rules in practice (1993), Stanford University, y, Stanford, CA 94905) Besides, the formulate incorporates the unobservable parameters can be easily misevaluated. For example, the output-gap could not be precisely estimated by any bank. 2) The inaccuracy of predictable variables, such as the inflation and output gap that depend on the different scenarios of economic development. 3) Difficulty to assess the state of the economy in real-time 4) The discretionary optimization that leads to stabilization bias and a lack of history dependence.
|
|
An internationally renowned astronomer, he was one of the pioneers of infrared astronomy research. In 1968 he discovered through infrared analysis two galaxies, otherwise unobservable because their light emission in the visible frequencies is absorbed by the dust that fills the plane of the Milky Way. The two galaxies were named after him: Maffei-1 (a galaxy that, if directly observable, would become one of the most visible objects in the sky) and Maffei-2. The two galaxies are the main constituents of the group known as "Maffei's Group of galaxies 1".
|
|
The cemetery is currently unfenced, although physical evidence on site suggests that several fencing efforts have been previously undertaken to protect particular family plots. The practice of inscribing the names of several deceased family members on a single headstone has resulted in the twenty-two observable headstones actually representing 39 burials. The inscriptions on all but one of the headstones are observable. The twenty-two observable gravesites are spread over a wide area, suggesting the presence of unobservable graves, further evidenced by the lack of observable gravesites of deceased known to be located there.
|
|
Structural equation models are often used to assess unobservable 'latent' constructs. They often invoke a measurement model that defines latent variables using one or more observed variables, and a structural model that imputes relationships between latent variables. The links between constructs of a structural equation model may be estimated with independent regression equations or through more involved approaches such as those employed in LISREL. Use of SEM is commonly justified in the social sciences because of its ability to impute relationships between unobserved constructs (latent variables) from observable variables.
|
|
The cosmological horizon (also called the particle horizon or the light horizon) is the maximum distance from which particles can have traveled to the observer in the age of the universe. This horizon represents the boundary between the observable and the unobservable regions of the universe. The existence, properties, and significance of a cosmological horizon depend on the particular cosmological model. An important parameter determining the future evolution of the universe theory is the density parameter, Omega (Ω), defined as the average matter density of the universe divided by a critical value of that density.
|
|
In statistics, a pivotal quantity or pivot is a function of observations and unobservable parameters such that the function's probability distribution does not depend on the unknown parameters (including nuisance parameters). A pivot quantity need not be a statistic—the function and its value can depend on the parameters of the model, but its distribution must not. If it is a statistic, then it is known as an ancillary statistic. More formally, let X = (X_1,X_2,\ldots,X_n) be a random sample from a distribution that depends on a parameter (or vector of parameters) \theta .
|
|
Both quantum mechanics and special relativity begin their divergence from classical mechanics by insisting on the primacy of observations and a refusal to admit unobservable entities. Thus special relativity rejects the absolute simultaneity assumed by classical mechanics; and quantum mechanics does not permit one to speak of properties of the system (exact position, say) other than those that can be connected to macro scale observations. Position and momentum are not things waiting for us to discover; rather, they are the results that are obtained by performing certain procedures.
|
|
These values are also lower limits because ejections propagating away from Earth (backside CMEs) usually cannot be detected by coronagraphs. Current knowledge of coronal mass ejection kinematics indicates that the ejection starts with an initial pre-acceleration phase characterized by a slow rising motion, followed by a period of rapid acceleration away from the Sun until a near-constant velocity is reached. Some balloon CMEs, usually the slowest ones, lack this three-stage evolution, instead accelerating slowly and continuously throughout their flight. Even for CMEs with a well-defined acceleration stage, the pre-acceleration stage is often absent, or perhaps unobservable.
|
|
Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as "attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking". The origin of cognitive psychology occurred in the 1960s in a break from behaviorism, which had held from the 1920s to 1950s that unobservable mental processes were outside of the realm of empirical science. This break came as researchers in linguistics and cybernetics as well as applied psychology used models of mental processing to explain human behavior. Such research became possible due to the advances in technology that allowed for the measurement of brain activity.
|
|
The term of `stegomalware' was introduced by researchers in the context of mobile malware and presented at Inscrypt conference in 2014. However, the fact that (mobile) malware could potentially utilize steganography was already presented in earlier works: the use of steganography in malware was first applied to botnets communicating over probabilistically unobservable channels, mobile malware based on covert channels was proposed in the same year. Steganography was later applied to other components of malware engineering such as return- oriented programming and compile-time obfuscation, among others. The Europol- supported CUING initiative monitors the use of steganography in malware.
|
|
Lyra is bordered by Vulpecula to the south, Hercules to the east, Draco to the north, and Cygnus to the west. Covering 286.5 square degrees, it ranks 52nd of the 88 modern constellations in size. It appears prominently in the northern sky during the Northern Hemisphere's summer, and the whole constellation is visible for at least part of the year to observers north of latitude 42°S.While parts of the constellation technically rise above the horizon to observers between 42°S and 64°S, stars within a few degrees of the horizon are to all intents and purposes unobservable.
|
|
Properly designed experiments are able to avoid several problems: Omitted-variables bias: Multiple experiments can be created with settings that differ from one another in exactly one independent variable. This way all other variables of the setting are controlled, which eliminates alternative explanations for observed differences in the dependent variable. Self- selection: By randomly assigning subjects to different treatment groups, the experimenters avoid issues caused by self-selection and are able to directly observe the changes in the dependent variable by changing by altering certain independent variables. Unobservable independent variables: Experimentalists can create experimental settings themselves.
|
|
Initially his work with children was supervised by Esther Bick, who was creating a new and influential mode of psychoanalytic training at the Tavistock Clinic based on mother-child observation and following the theories of Melanie Klein.M. Rustin, “Dr Meltzer’s contribution to child psychotherapy”, The Bulletin of the Association of Child Psychotherapists 149, Nov 2004, 9–11; M. Harris, "The Tavistock training and philosophy", Collected Papers of Martha Harris and Esther Bick (Clunie Press, 1987); A. Sowa, “Observing the unobservable: the Tavistock Infant Observation Course and its relevance to clinical training”, Fort Da, spring 1999 Vol. 1(1).
|
|
Their [intrinsic] > relations compose the concrete structures that are the primary subject > matters of a tenable scientific realism. They regularly cohere to form > interesting units, and these groupings make up the particulars investigated > by the sciences and described by scientific theories. Scientific theories > describe [intrinsic] causal properties, concrete structures, and particulars > such as objects, events, and processes. Semirealism maintains that under > certain conditions it is reasonable for realists to believe that the best of > these descriptions tell us not merely about things that can be experienced > with the unaided senses, but also about some of the unobservable things > underlying them.
|
|
From the fly-by trajectories they measured the planetary magnetic field, plasma composition and density, high energy particle energy and spatial distribution, plasma waves and radio emissions. Cassini spacecraft was launched in 1997, and arrived in 2004, making the first measurements in more than two decades. The spacecraft continued to provide information about the magnetic field and plasma parameters of the saturnian magnetosphere until its intentional destruction on September 15, 2017. In the 1990s, the Ulysses spacecraft conducted extensive measurements of the Saturnian kilometric radiation (SKR), which is unobservable from Earth due to the absorption in the ionosphere.
|
|
Whereas traditional scientific realism argues that our best scientific theories are true, or approximately true, or closer to the truth than their predecessors, entity realism does not commit itself to judgments concerning the truth of scientific theories. Instead, entity realism claims that the theoretical entities that feature in scientific theories, e.g. 'electrons', should be regarded as real if and only if they refer to phenomena that can be routinely used to create effects in domains that can be investigated independently. 'Manipulative success' thus becomes the criterion by which to judge the reality of (typically unobservable) scientific entities.
|
|
This can enable the use of filtering in real-time systems. Another usage of Schmidt–Kalman is when residual biases are unobservable; that is, the effect of the bias cannot be separated out from the measurement. In this case, Schmidt–Kalman is a robust way to not try and estimate the value of the bias, but only keep track of the effect of the bias on the true error distribution. For use in non-linear systems, the observation and state transition models may be linearized around the current mean and covariance estimate in a method analogous to the extended Kalman filter.
|
|
An alternative account of probability emphasizes the role of prediction – predicting future observations on the basis of past observations, not on unobservable parameters. In its modern form, it is mainly in the Bayesian vein. This was the main function of probability before the 20th century, but fell out of favor compared to the parametric approach, which modeled phenomena as a physical system that was observed with error, such as in celestial mechanics. The modern predictive approach was pioneered by Bruno de Finetti, with the central idea of exchangeability – that future observations should behave like past observations.
|
|
Anti-realism is the view of idealists who are skeptics about the physical world, maintaining either: (1) that nothing exists outside the mind, or (2) that we would have no access to a mind-independent reality even if it may exist. Realists, in contrast, hold that perceptions or sense data are caused by mind-independent objects. An "anti-realist" who denies that other minds exist (i. e., a solipsist) is different from an "anti- realist" who claims that there is no fact of the matter as to whether or not there are unobservable other minds (i. e.
|
|
Though the term noumenon did not come into common usage until Kant, the idea that undergirds it, that matter has an absolute existence which causes it to emanate certain phenomena, had historically been subjected to criticism. George Berkeley, who pre-dated Kant, asserted that matter, independent of an observant mind, is metaphysically impossible. Qualities associated with matter, such as shape, color, smell, texture, weight, temperature, and sound are all dependent on minds, which allow only for relative perception, not absolute perception. The complete absence of such minds (and more importantly an omnipotent mind) would render those same qualities unobservable and even unimaginable.
|
|
As outlined in Bridgman's The Logic of Modern Physics if two researchers had different operational definitions, they had different concepts. There was no “surplus meaning.” If, for example, two researchers had different measures of “Anomia” or “Intelligence,” they had different concepts. Behaviorists focussed on Stimulus-Response laws and were deeply skeptical of "unscientific" explanations in terms of unobservable psychological processes. Behaviorists and operationists would have rejected as unscientific any notion that there was some general thing called “intelligence” that existed inside a person’s head and that might be reflected almost-equivalently in Stanford- Binet I.Q. tests or Weschler tests.
|
|
Dihalophospaalkenes of the general form R-P=CX2, where X is Cl, Br, or I undergo lithium-halogen exchange with organolithium reagents to yield intermediates of the form R-P=CXLi. These species then eject the corresponding lithium halide salt, LiX, to putatively give a phospha-isonitrile, which can rearrange, much in the same way as an isonitrile, to yield the corresponding phosphaalkyne. This rearrangement has been evaluated using the tools of computational chemistry, which has shown that this isomerization process should proceed very rapidly, in line with current experimental evidence showing that phosphaisonitriles are unobservable intermediates, even at –85 °C (–121 °C).
|
|
Lowered numbers of grazing species after coral bleaching in the Caribbean has been likened to sea-urchin- dominated systems which do not undergo regime shifts to fleshy macroalgae dominated conditions. There is always the possibility of unobservable changes, or cryptic losses or resilience, in a coral community's ability to perform ecological processes. These cryptic losses can result in unforeseen regime changes or ecological flips. More detailed methods for determining the health of coral reefs that take into account long-term changes to the coral ecosystems and better-informed conservation policies are necessary to protect coral reefs in the years to come.
|
|
This form of inference appeals to explanatory considerations to justify belief. One infers, for example, that two students copied answers from a third because this is the best explanation of the available data—they each make the same mistakes and the two sat in view of the third. Alternatively, in a more theoretical context, one infers that there are very small unobservable particles because this is the best explanation of Brownian motion. Let us call 'liberal inductivism' any view that accepts the legitimacy of a form of inference to the best explanation that is distinct from enumerative induction.
|
|
Thomas Kuhn's 1962 book, a cultural landmark, explains that periods of normal science as but paradigms of science are each overturned by revolutionary science, whose radical paradigm becomes the normal science anew. Kuhn's thesis dissolved logical positivism's grip on Western academia, and inductivism fell. Besides Popper and Kuhn, other postpositivist philosophers of science—including Paul Feyerabend, Imre Lakatos, and Larry Laudan—have all but unanimously rejected inductivism. Among them, those who have asserted scientific realism—that scientific theory can reliably approximate true understanding of nature's unobservable aspects—have tended to claim that scientists develop approximately true theories about nature through IBE.
|
|
The rationalistic agnosticism of Kant and the Enlightenment only accepts knowledge deduced with human rationality; this form of atheism holds that gods are not discernible as a matter of principle, and therefore cannot be known to exist. Skepticism, based on the ideas of Hume, asserts that certainty about anything is impossible, so one can never know for sure whether or not a god exists. Hume, however, held that such unobservable metaphysical concepts should be rejected as "sophistry and illusion". The allocation of agnosticism to atheism is disputed; it can also be regarded as an independent, basic worldview.
|
|
Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than philosophy of science. There is no consensus among philosophers about many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science, including whether science can reveal the truth about unobservable things and whether scientific reasoning can be justified at all. In addition to these general questions about science as a whole, philosophers of science consider problems that apply to particular sciences (such as biology or physics). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself.
|
|
By analogy, if peacock 'tails' (large tail covert feathers) act as a handicapping system, and a peahen knew nothing about two peacocks but the sizes of their tails, she could "infer" that the peacock with the bigger tail has greater unobservable intrinsic quality. Display costs can include extrinsic social costs, in the form of testing and punishment by rivals, as well as intrinsic production costs. Another example given in textbooks is the extinct Irish elk, Megaloceros giganteus. The male Irish elk's enormous antlers could perhaps have evolved as displays of ability to overcome handicap, though biologists point out that if the handicap is inherited, its genes ought to be selected against.
|
|
Observability instead is related to the possibility of observing, through output measurements, the state of a system. If a state is not observable, the controller will never be able to determine the behavior of an unobservable state and hence cannot use it to stabilize the system. However, similar to the stabilizability condition above, if a state cannot be observed it might still be detectable. From a geometrical point of view, looking at the states of each variable of the system to be controlled, every "bad" state of these variables must be controllable and observable to ensure a good behavior in the closed- loop system.
|
|
The cells are put in petri dishes or in plates which contain several circular "wells." Particular numbers of cells are plated depending on the experiment; for an experiment involving irradiation it is usual to plate larger numbers of cells with increasing dose of radiation. For example, at a dose of 0 or 1 gray of radiation, 500 cells might be plated, but at 4 or 5 gray, 2500 might be plated, since very large numbers of cells are killed at this level of radiation and the effects of the specific treatment would be unobservable. Counting the cell colonies is usually done under a microscope and is quite tedious.
|
|
Given observations of the system, the diagnosis system simulates the system using the model, and compares the observations actually made to the observations predicted by the simulation. The modelling can be simplified by the following rules (where Ab\, is the Abnormal predicate): eg Ab(S) \Rightarrow Int1 \wedge Obs1 Ab(S) \Rightarrow Int2 \wedge Obs2 (fault model) The semantics of these formulae is the following: if the behaviour of the system is not abnormal (i.e. if it is normal), then the internal (unobservable) behaviour will be Int1\, and the observable behaviour Obs1\,. Otherwise, the internal behaviour will be Int2\, and the observable behaviour Obs2\,.
|
|
This simple problem illustrates the importance of a reference frame: a reference frame is quintessential in a clear description of a system, whether it is included implicitly or explicitly. When speaking of a car moving towards east, one is referring to a particular point on the surface of the Earth; moreover, as the Earth is rotating, the car is actually moving towards a changing direction, with respect to the Sun. In fact, this is the best one can do: describing a system in relation to some reference frame. Describing a system with respect to an absolute space does not make much sense because an absolute space, if it exists, is unobservable.
|
|
Certain neutrino-less decay modes are kinematically allowed but are, for all practical purposes, forbidden in the Standard Model, even given that neutrinos have mass and oscillate. Examples forbidden by lepton flavour conservation are: : → + and : → + + . To be precise: in the Standard Model with neutrino mass, a decay like → + is technically possible, for example by neutrino oscillation of a virtual muon neutrino into an electron neutrino, but such a decay is astronomically unlikely and therefore should be experimentally unobservable: Less than one in 1050 muon decays should produce such a decay. Observation of such decay modes would constitute clear evidence for theories beyond the Standard Model.
|
|
' is an Apollo asteroid and near-Earth object discovered on 6 October 2013 by the Catalina Sky Survey, during which it was near a close approach of 5.4 Lunar distances (LD) from the Earth. The asteroid only has a 10-day observation arc which makes long-term predictions of its position less certain. It was observed for three days as it approached Earth in the night sky starting with the sixth of October, 2013. Then it became unobservable by being between the Earth and the Sun,Small Asteroid to Pass Close to Earth March 8 then not recovered due to its small size and dimness.
|
|
Critcher and Gilovich looked at whether people also rely on the unobservable behavior that is their mindwandering when making inferences about their attitudes and preferences. They found that "Having the mind wander to positive events, to concurrent as opposed to past activities, and to many events rather than just one tends to be attributed to boredom and therefore leads to perceived dissatisfaction with an ongoing task." Participants relied on the content of their wandering minds as a cue to their attitudes unless an alternative cause for their mindwandering was brought to their attention. Similarly, Goldstein and Cialdini published work related to self-perception theory in 2007.
|
|
Confusing the epistemic with the ontic, like if one were to presume that a general law actually "governs" outcomes—and that the statement of a regularity has the role of a causal mechanism—is a category mistake. In a broad sense, scientific theory can be viewed as offering scientific realism—approximately true description or explanation of the natural world—or might be perceived with antirealism. A realist stance seeks the epistemic and the ontic, whereas an antirealist stance seeks epistemic but not the ontic. In the 20th century's first half, antirealism was mainly logical positivism, which sought to exclude unobservable aspects of reality from scientific theory.
|
|
Such costs are separated into a firm's cost of debt and cost of equity and attributed to these two kinds of capital sources. While a firm's present cost of debt is relatively easy to determine from observation of interest rates in the capital markets, its current cost of equity is unobservable and must be estimated. Finance theory and practice offers various models for estimating a particular firm's cost of equity such as the capital asset pricing model, or CAPM. Another method is derived from the Gordon Model, which is a discounted cash flow model based on dividend returns and eventual capital return from the sale of the investment.
|
|
It is possible to apple a criticism similar to Nietzsche's criticism of Kant's "thing in itself" to qualia: Qualia are unobservable in others and unquantifiable in us. We cannot possibly be sure, when discussing individual qualia, that we are even discussing the same phenomena. Thus, any discussion of them is of indeterminate value, as descriptions of qualia are necessarily of indeterminate accuracy. Qualia can be compared to "things in themselves" in that they have no publicly demonstrable properties; this, along with the impossibility of being sure that we are communicating about the same qualia, makes them of indeterminate value and definition in any philosophy in which proof relies upon precise definition.
|
|
The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors, and this means Hubble's predicted position for six weeks' time could be in error by up to . Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance, as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed. Engineering support for HST is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, south of the STScI. Hubble's operation is monitored 24 hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble's Flight Operations Team.
|
|
Analyses have uncovered some of the underlying influences in the improvements of the black-white wage gap. During the decades of progress (the 1970s and 1990s), 30 percent of the wage gap convergence can be attributed to changes in black education and experience. More equalization in employment distribution also influenced the convergence during those decades. Factors identified as contributing to decreases in wage gap convergence include "shifts in industry demand, greater occupational crowding, relative deterioration of unobservable skills in blacks, and rising overall male wage inequality". The decline of the black-white wage gap in the 1990s was greatest for those who have less than 10 years of potential experience, for whom it decreased 1.40 percent per year.
|
|
If such a solenoid were to carry a flux of , when the flux leaked out from one of its ends it would be indistinguishable from a monopole. Dirac's monopole solution in fact describes an infinitesimal line solenoid ending at a point, and the location of the solenoid is the singular part of the solution, the Dirac string. Dirac strings link monopoles and antimonopoles of opposite magnetic charge, although in Dirac's version, the string just goes off to infinity. The string is unobservable, so you can put it anywhere, and by using two coordinate patches, the field in each patch can be made nonsingular by sliding the string to where it cannot be seen.
|
|
An expanding universe generally has a cosmological horizon, which, by analogy with the more familiar horizon caused by the curvature of Earth's surface, marks the boundary of the part of the Universe that an observer can see. Light (or other radiation) emitted by objects beyond the cosmological horizon in an accelerating universe never reaches the observer, because the space in between the observer and the object is expanding too rapidly. History of the Universe – gravitational waves are hypothesized to arise from cosmic inflation, a faster-than-light expansion just after the Big Bang (17 March 2014). The observable universe is one causal patch of a much larger unobservable universe; other parts of the Universe cannot communicate with Earth yet.
|
|
In a lecture at Willamette University in Oregon in 2015, Hahnel responded to this criticism by explaining that these jobs could be filled by machines, which are underutilized in capitalist economic systems due to the lowered rates of profit, and also division of labor wouldn't exist under a participatory economic system as much as it does under capitalism, so people would not always have the same jobs. Theodore Burczak argues that it is impossible for workers to give the unbiased assessments of the "largely unobservable" characteristics of effort proposed as the basis for salary levels, and the absence of market exchange mechanisms likewise makes calculating social costs of production and consumption impossible.
|
|
Garry Runciman, sociologist at Trinity College, Cambridge, asked "Are we hardwired for God?" > The diverse beliefs which Boyer cites extend from Apollo and Athena, to > shamanism among the Panamanian Cuna, to aliens from remote galaxies > allegedly landing in New Mexico. But his central agenda is the particular > set of unobservable causal agencies cited in his subtitle, and his primary > concern is with the question of how we are to account for beliefs that > involve the attribution of conscious agency to beings other than humans and > animals of the normal and familiar kind. Such beliefs are, as Boyer says, > remarkably widespread, and for all their variant forms the variation is > neither limitless nor random.
|
|
The particle horizon (also called the cosmological horizon, the comoving horizon, or the cosmic light horizon) is the maximum distance from which light from particles could have traveled to the observer in the age of the universe. It represents the boundary between the observable and the unobservable regions of the universe, so its distance at the present epoch defines the size of the observable universe. Due to the expansion of the universe it is not simply the age of the universe times the speed of light, as in the Hubble horizon, but rather the speed of light multiplied by the conformal time. The existence, properties, and significance of a cosmological horizon depend on the particular cosmological model.
|
|
The study of zero-acquaintance personality judgments developed from Cleeton and Knight's (1924) intent to demonstrate the futility of using physical criteria to predict unobservable individual traits. In order to accomplish this, Cleeton and Knight (1924) recruited 30 target participants from national fraternities and sororities, so that a large group of close acquaintances from these organizations could rate eight traits (i.e. individual traits included sound judgment, intellectual capacity, frankness, willpower, ability to make friends, leadership, originality, and impulsiveness) of the target participants. Cleeton and Knight (1924) then asked a group of strangers to rate these eight traits of each target participant after viewing the target participant from a distance for only a few minutes.
|
|
In statistical inference, specifically predictive inference, a prediction interval is an estimate of an interval in which a future observation will fall, with a certain probability, given what has already been observed. Prediction intervals are often used in regression analysis. Prediction intervals are used in both frequentist statistics and Bayesian statistics: a prediction interval bears the same relationship to a future observation that a frequentist confidence interval or Bayesian credible interval bears to an unobservable population parameter: prediction intervals predict the distribution of individual future points, whereas confidence intervals and credible intervals of parameters predict the distribution of estimates of the true population mean or other quantity of interest that cannot be observed.
|
|
Values in a data set are missing completely at random (MCAR) if the events that lead to any particular data-item being missing are independent both of observable variables and of unobservable parameters of interest, and occur entirely at random. When data are MCAR, the analysis performed on the data is unbiased; however, data are rarely MCAR. In the case of MCAR, the missingness of data is unrelated to any study variable: thus, the participants with completely observed data are in effect a random sample of all the participants assigned a particular intervention. With MCAR, the random assignment of treatments is assumed to be preserved, but that is usually an unrealistically strong assumption in practice.
|
|
Drever paid particular attention to the behavior of the spectral line as the magnetic field crossed the center of the galaxy. Neither Hughes nor Drever observed any frequency shift of the energy levels, and due to their experiments' high precision, the maximal anisotropy could be limited to 0.04 Hz = 10−25 GeV. Regarding the consequences of the null result for Mach's principle, it was shown by Robert H. Dicke (1961) that it is in agreement with this principle, as long as the spatial anisotropy is the same for all particles. Thus the null result is rather showing that inertial anisotropy effects are, if they exist, universal for all particles and locally unobservable.
|
|
A hidden semi-Markov model (HSMM) is a statistical model with the same structure as a hidden Markov model except that the unobservable process is semi-Markov rather than Markov. This means that the probability of there being a change in the hidden state depends on the amount of time that has elapsed since entry into the current state. This is in contrast to hidden Markov models where there is a constant probability of changing state given survival in the state up to that time.. For instance modelled daily rainfall using a hidden semi-Markov model.. If the underlying process (e.g. weather system) does not have a geometrically distributed duration, an HSMM may be more appropriate.
|
|
Bas van Fraassen is nearly solely responsible for the initial development of constructive empiricism; its historically most important presentation appears in his The Scientific Image (1980). Constructive empiricism states that scientific theories are semantically literal, that they aim to be empirically adequate, and that their acceptance involves, as belief, only that they are empirically adequate. A theory is empirically adequate if and only if everything that it says about observable entities is true (regardless of what it says about unobservable entities). A theory is semantically literal if and only if the language of the theory is interpreted in such a way that the claims of the theory are either true or false (as opposed to an instrumentalist reading).
|
|
A major theme of Orphanides' research on monetary economics has been the evaluation and design of monetary policy in real time. He argued that since the data available to policy makers at the time policy decisions are made are imperfect and subject to substantial revisions, the historical analysis of monetary policy decisions as well as the evaluation of alternative policy strategies must be based on the information available in real time (Orphanides, 2001, Orphanides, 2003).Orphanides Athanasios (2001) 'Monetary policy rules based on real-time data', "American Economic Review", 91(4), September 2001, pp. 964–985 His work has documented significant problems arising from policy decisions drawing on unobservable concepts such as the output gap.
|
|
Measurement reduces an observation to a number which can be recorded, and two observations which result in the same number are equal within the resolution of the process. Human senses are limited and subject to errors in perception, such as optical illusions. Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters, and radio receivers. One problem encountered throughout scientific fields is that the observation may affect the process being observed, resulting in a different outcome than if the process was unobserved.
|
|
The spin- baryon, a member of the ground-state decuplet, was a crucial prediction of that classification. After it was discovered in an experiment at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Gell-Mann received a Nobel prize in physics for his work on the Eightfold Way, in 1969. Finally, in 1964, Gell-Mann, and, independently, George Zweig, discerned what the Eightfold Way picture encodes: They posited three elementary fermionic constituents – the “up”, “down”, and “strange” quarks – which are unobserved, and possibly unobservable in a free form. Simple pairwise or triplet combinations of these three constituents and their antiparticles underlie and elegantly encode the Eightfold Way classification, in an economical, tight structure, resulting in further simplicity.
|
|
The company's research on models and simulations in education has focused on molecular literacy and making complex topics understandable and accessible at earlier grades. The organization has developed interactive computational models that manipulate unobservable events, such as atoms and molecules, chemical reactions, gene and DNA manipulation and evolution, and manipulate virtual environments in order to understand complex topics such as climate change. Molecular Workbench software, which won Science Magazine's 2011 SPORE Prize, provides hundreds of interactive simulations for teaching and learning physics, chemistry, biology and nanotechnology. Concord Consortium modeling software also supports topics such as evolution, Earth and space science, energy efficiency, heredity, and other topics for which computer simulations connect the real and virtual worlds.
|
|
11P/Tempel–Swift–LINEAR is a periodic Jupiter-family comet in the Solar System. Ernst Wilhelm Leberecht Tempel (Marseille) originally discovered the comet on November 27, 1869, it was later observed by Lewis Swift (Warner Observatory) on October 11, 1880, and realised to be the same comet. After 1908 the comet became an unobservable lost comet, but on December 7, 2001, an object was found by the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) program, and confirmed by previous images from September 10 and October 17 as being the same comet. The comet was not observed during the 2008 unfavorable apparition because the perihelion passage occurred when the comet was on the far side of the Sun.
|
|
The Beveridge curve, or UV curve, was developed in 1958 by Christopher Dow and Leslie Arthur Dicks-Mireaux. They were interested in measuring excess demand in the goods market for the guidance of Keynesian fiscal policies and took British data on vacancies and unemployment in the labour market as a proxy, since excess demand is unobservable. By 1958, they had 12 years of data available since the British government had started collecting data on unfilled vacancies from notification at labour exchanges in 1946. Dow and Dicks-Mireaux presented the unemployment and vacancy data in an unemployment-vacancy (UV) space and derived an idealised UV-curve as a rectangular hyperbola after they had connected successive observations.
|
|
Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysical, emotive, or such—not worthy of further review by philosophers, who were newly tasked to organize knowledge rather than develop new knowledge. Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific language should never refer to anything unobservable—even the seemingly core notions of causality, mechanism, and principles—but that is an exaggeration. Talk of such unobservables could be allowed as metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws, while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules.
|
|
Milgrom, together with Bengt Holmstrom, asked what features of a contracting problem would give rise to a simpler, say, linear, incentive scheme (that is, a scheme in which the wage consisted of a base amount plus amounts that were directly proportional to specific performance measures). Previously, most theoretical papers in agency theory assumed that the main problem was to provide an incentive for an agent to exert more effort on just one activity. But in many situations, agents can actually exert unobservable efforts on several different activities. In such contexts, new kinds of incentive problems can arise, since giving an agent more incentive to exert effort on one dimension could cause the agent to neglect other important dimensions.
|
|
This is necessarily so, since to stay outside a horizon requires acceleration which constantly Doppler shifts the modes. An outgoing Hawking radiated photon, if the mode is traced back in time, has a frequency which diverges from that which it has at great distance, as it gets closer to the horizon, which requires the wavelength of the photon to "scrunch up" infinitely at the horizon of the black hole. In a maximally extended external Schwarzschild solution, that photon's frequency stays regular only if the mode is extended back into the past region where no observer can go. That region seems to be unobservable and is physically suspect, so Hawking used a black hole solution without a past region which forms at a finite time in the past.
|
|
Hale–Bopp's orbital position was calculated as 7.2 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, placing it between Jupiter and Saturn and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered by amateurs. Most comets at this distance are extremely faint, and show no discernible activity, but Hale–Bopp already had an observable coma. A precovery image taken at the Anglo-Australian Telescope in 1993 was found to show the then-unnoticed comet some 13 AU from the Sun, a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable. (Halley's Comet was more than 100 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun.) Analysis indicated later that its comet nucleus was 60±20 kilometres in diameter, approximately six times the size of Halley.
|
|
In the 1960s, there were many challenges to the concept of mental illness itself. These challenges came from psychiatrists like Thomas Szasz, who argued mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts; from sociologists such as Erving Goffman, who said mental illness was another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists; from behavioural psychologists who challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena; and from gay rights activists who criticised the APA's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder. A study published in Science, the Rosenhan experiment, received much publicity and was viewed as an attack on the efficacy of psychiatric diagnosis. The APA was closely involved in the next significant revision of the mental disorder section of the ICD (version 8 in 1968).
|
|
B.F. Skinner at the Harvard Psychology Department, circa 1950 B.F. Skinner (1904–1990) is referred to as the father of operant conditioning, and his work is frequently cited in connection with this topic. His 1938 book "The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis",Skinner, B. F. "The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis", 1938 New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences. Skinner believed that classical conditioning was too simplistic to be used to describe something as complex as human behavior.
|
|
Since the 1950s, antirealism is more modest, usually instrumentalism, permitting talk of unobservable aspects, but ultimately discarding the very question of realism and posing scientific theory as a tool to help humans make predictions, not to attain metaphysical understanding of the world. The instrumentalist view is carried by the famous quote of David Mermin, "Shut up and calculate", often misattributed to Richard Feynman.For a discussion of the provenance of the phrase "shut up and calculate", see Other approaches to resolve conceptual problems introduce new mathematical formalism, and so propose alternative theories with their interpretations. An example is Bohmian mechanics, whose empirical equivalence with the three standard formalisms—Schrödinger's wave mechanics, Heisenberg's matrix mechanics, and Feynman's path integral formalism—has been demonstrated.
|
|
In statistics and optimization, errors and residuals are two closely related and easily confused measures of the deviation of an observed value of an element of a statistical sample from its "theoretical value". The error (or disturbance) of an observed value is the deviation of the observed value from the (unobservable) true value of a quantity of interest (for example, a population mean), and the residual of an observed value is the difference between the observed value and the estimated value of the quantity of interest (for example, a sample mean). The distinction is most important in regression analysis, where the concepts are sometimes called the regression errors and regression residuals and where they lead to the concept of studentized residuals.
|
|
The mean squared error of a regression is a number computed from the sum of squares of the computed residuals, and not of the unobservable errors. If that sum of squares is divided by n, the number of observations, the result is the mean of the squared residuals. Since this is a biased estimate of the variance of the unobserved errors, the bias is removed by dividing the sum of the squared residuals by df = n − p − 1, instead of n, where df is the number of degrees of freedom (n minus the number of parameters (excluding the intercept) p being estimated - 1). This forms an unbiased estimate of the variance of the unobserved errors, and is called the mean squared error.
|
|
The particle horizon (also called the cosmological horizon, the comoving horizon (in Dodelson's text), or the cosmic light horizon) is the maximum distance from which light from particles could have traveled to the observer in the age of the universe. Much like the concept of a terrestrial horizon, it represents the boundary between the observable and the unobservable regions of the universe, so its distance at the present epoch defines the size of the observable universe. Due to the expansion of the universe, it is not simply the age of the universe times the speed of light (approximately 13.8 billion light-years), but rather the speed of light times the conformal time. The existence, properties, and significance of a cosmological horizon depend on the particular cosmological model.
|
|
In 1905, Albert Einstein published his paper on what is now called special relativity.Einstein (1905a) In this paper, by examining the fundamental meanings of the space and time coordinates used in physical theories, Einstein showed that the "effective" coordinates given by the Lorentz transformation were in fact the inertial coordinates of relatively moving frames of reference. From this followed all of the physically observable consequences of LET, along with others, all without the need to postulate an unobservable entity (the aether). Einstein identified two fundamental principles, each founded on experience, from which all of Lorentz's electrodynamics follows: 1\. The laws by which physical processes occur are the same with respect to any system of inertial coordinates (the principle of relativity) 2\.
|
|
However, significant assumptions or inputs used in the valuation technique are based upon inputs that are not observable in the market and, therefore, necessitates the use of internal information. This category allows “for situations in which there is little, if any, market activity for the asset or liability at the measurement date.” FASB explains that “observable inputs” are gathered from sources other than the reporting company and that they are expected to reflect assumptions made by market participants. In contrast, “unobservable inputs” are not based on independent sources but on “the reporting entity’s own assumptions about the assumptions market participants would use.” The entity may only rely on internal information if the cost and effort to obtain external information is too high.
|
|
Heisenberg's paper did not admit any unobservable quantities like the exact position of the electron in an orbit at any time; he only allowed the theorist to talk about the Fourier components of the motion. Since the Fourier components were not defined at the classical frequencies, they could not be used to construct an exact trajectory, so that the formalism could not answer certain overly precise questions about where the electron was or how fast it was going. In March 1926, working in Bohr's institute, Heisenberg realized that the non-commutativity implies the uncertainty principle. This implication provided a clear physical interpretation for the non-commutativity, and it laid the foundation for what became known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics.
|
|
The effort to discover how costs can constrain an "honest" correlation between observable signals and unobservable qualities within signallers is built on strategic models of signalling games, with many simplifying assumptions. These models are most often applied to sexually selected signalling in diploid animals, but they rarely incorporate a fact about diploid sexual reproduction noted by the mathematical biologist Ronald Fisher in the early 20th century: if there are "preference genes" correlated with choosiness in females as well as "signal genes" correlated with display traits in males, choosier females should tend to mate with showier males. Over generations, showier sons should also carry genes associated with choosier daughters, and choosier daughters should also carry genes associated with showier sons. This can cause the evolutionary dynamic known as Fisherian runaway, in which males become ever showier.
|
|
Berlin 1992, In the 1960s there were many challenges to the concept of mental illness itself. These challenges came from psychiatrists like Thomas Szasz who argued that mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts; from sociologists such as Erving Goffman who said that mental illness was merely another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists; from behavioral psychologists who challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena; and from gay rights activists who criticised the APA's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder. A study published in Science by Rosenhan received much publicity and was viewed as an attack on the efficacy of psychiatric diagnosis. Deinstitutionalization gradually occurred in the West, with isolated psychiatric hospitals being closed down in favor of community mental health services.
|
|
This is necessarily so, since to stay outside a horizon requires acceleration that constantly Doppler shifts the modes. An outgoing photon of Hawking radiation, if the mode is traced back in time, has a frequency that diverges from that which it has at great distance, as it gets closer to the horizon, which requires the wavelength of the photon to "scrunch up" infinitely at the horizon of the black hole. In a maximally extended external Schwarzschild solution, that photon's frequency stays regular only if the mode is extended back into the past region where no observer can go. That region seems to be unobservable and is physically suspect, so Hawking used a black hole solution without a past region that forms at a finite time in the past.
|
|
Scholars continue to perfect their explanations of intrinsic value, as they deny the developmental continuity of applications of instrumental value. > Abstraction is a process in which only some of the potentially many relevant > factors present in [unobservable] reality are represented in a model or > description with some aspect of the world, such as the nature or behavior of > a specific object or process. ... Pragmatic constraints such as these play a > role in shaping how scientific investigations are conducted, and together > which and how many potentially relevant factors [intrinsic kinds] are > incorporated into models and descriptions during the process of abstraction. > The role of pragmatic constraints, however, does not undermine the idea that > putative representations of factors composing abstract models can be thought > to have counterparts in the [mind-independent] world.
|
|
The Buddha responds, considering this view to be inadequate, stating that even a habitual sinner spends more time "not doing the sin" and only some time actually "doing the sin." In another Buddhist text Majjhima Nikāya, the Buddha criticizes Jain emphasis on the destruction of unobservable and unverifiable types of karma as a means to end suffering, rather than on eliminating evil mental states such as greed, hatred and delusion, which are observable and verifiable. In the Upālisutta dialogue of this Majjhima Nikāya text, Buddha contends with a Jain monk who asserts that bodily actions are the most criminal, in comparison to the actions of speech and mind. Buddha criticises this view, saying that the actions of mind are most criminal, and not the actions of speech or body.
|
|
Modern substance theory differs. For example Kant's "Ding an sich", or "thing in itself", is generally described as whatever is its own cause, or alternatively as a thing whose only property is that it is that thing (or, in other words, that it has only that property). However, this notion is subject to the criticism, as by Nietzsche, that there is no way to directly prove the existence of any thing which has no properties, since such a thing could not possibly interact with other things and thus would be unobservable and indeterminate. On the other hand, we may need to postulate a substance that endures through change in order to explain the nature of change—without an enduring factor that persists through change, there is no change but only a succession of unrelated events.
|
|
When the consumer's preference set is non-convex, then (for some prices) the consumer's demand is not connected. A disconnected demand implies some discontinuous behavior by the consumer as discussed by Hotelling: > If indifference curves for purchases be thought of as possessing a wavy > character, convex to the origin in some regions and concave in others, we > are forced to the conclusion that it is only the portions convex to the > origin that can be regarded as possessing any importance, since the others > are essentially unobservable. They can be detected only by the > discontinuities that may occur in demand with variation in price-ratios, > leading to an abrupt jumping of a point of tangency across a chasm when the > straight line is rotated. But, while such discontinuities may reveal the > existence of chasms, they can never measure their depth.
|
|
Obfuscation, the automated generation of "fake" signals that are indistinguishable from users' actual online activities, providing users with a noisy "cover" under which their real information and communication behavior remains unobservable. Obfuscation has received more attention as a method to protect users online recently. TrackMeNot is an obfuscation tool for search engine users: the plugin sends fake search queries to the search engine, affecting the ability of the search engine provider to build an accurate profile of the user. Although TrackMeNot and other search obfuscation tools have been found to be vulnerable to certain attacks that allow search engines to distinguish between user-generated and computer-generated queries, further advances in obfuscation are likely to play a positive role in protecting users when disclosure of information is inevitable, as in the case of search or location-based services.
|
|
Of course, a contemporary zoo-keeper does not want to purchase half of an eagle and half of a lion. Thus, the zoo-keeper's preferences are non-convex: The zoo-keeper prefers having either animal to having any strictly convex combination of both. equilibrium: Consumers can jump between two separate allocations (of equal utility). When the consumer's preference set is non-convex, then (for some prices) the consumer's demand is not connected; A disconnected demand implies some discontinuous behavior by the consumer, as discussed by Harold Hotelling: > If indifference curves for purchases be thought of as possessing a wavy > character, convex to the origin in some regions and concave in others, we > are forced to the conclusion that it is only the portions convex to the > origin that can be regarded as possessing any importance, since the others > are essentially unobservable.
|
|
Propensity score matching (PSM) uses a statistical model to calculate the probability of participating on the basis of a set of observable characteristics and matches participants and non-participants with similar probability scores. Regression discontinuity design exploits a decision rule as to who does and does not get the intervention to compare outcomes for those just either side of this cut-off. Difference in differences or double differences, which use data collected at baseline and end-line for intervention and comparison groups, can be used to account for selection bias under the assumption that unobservable factors determining selection are fixed over time (time invariant). Instrumental variables estimation accounts for selection bias by modelling participation using factors ('instruments') that are correlated with selection but not the outcome, thus isolating the aspects of program participation which can be treated as exogenous.
|
|
The time scale of the stochastic process may be calendar or clock time or some more operational measure of time progression, such as mileage of a car, accumulated wear and tear on a machine component or accumulated exposure to toxic fumes. In many applications, the stochastic process describing the system state is latent or unobservable and its properties must be inferred indirectly from censored time-to-event data and/or readings taken over time on correlated processes, such as marker processes. The word ‘regression’ in threshold regression refers to first-hitting-time models in which one or more regression structures are inserted into the model in order to connect model parameters to explanatory variables or covariates. The parameters given regression structures may be parameters of the stochastic process, the threshold state and/or the time scale itself.
|
|
In an accelerating universe, there are events which will be unobservable as t \rightarrow \infin as signals from future events become redshifted to arbitrarily long wavelengths in the exponentially expanding de Sitter space. This sets a limit on the farthest distance that we can possibly see as measured in units of proper distance today. Or, more precisely, there are events that are spatially separated for a certain frame of reference happening simultaneously with the event occurring right now for which no signal will ever reach us, even though we can observe events that occurred at the same location in space that happened in the distant past. While we will continue to receive signals from this location in space, even if we wait an infinite amount of time, a signal that left from that location today will never reach us.
|
|
Definitions of various psychiatric disorders stem, according to philosophers who draw on the work of Michel Foucault, from a belief that something unobservable and indescribable is fundamentally "wrong" with the mind of whoever suffers from such a disorder. Proponents of Foucault's treatment of the concept of insanity would assert that one need only try to quantify various characteristics of such disorders as presented in today's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (e.g., delusion, one of the diagnostic criteria which must be exhibited by a patient if he or she is to be considered to have schizophrenia) in order to discover that the field of study known as abnormal psychology relies upon indeterminate concepts in defining virtually each "mental disorder" it describes. The quality that makes a belief a delusion is indeterminate to the extent to which it is unquantifiable; arguments that delusion is determined by popular sentiment (i.e.
|
|
The Dollond heliometer of the late 1700s Stellar parallax is so small that it was unobservable until the 19th century, and its apparent absence was used as a scientific argument against heliocentrism during the early modern age. It is clear from Euclid's geometry that the effect would be undetectable if the stars were far enough away, but for various reasons, such gigantic distances involved seemed entirely implausible: it was one of Tycho Brahe's principal objections to Copernican heliocentrism that for it to be compatible with the lack of observable stellar parallax, there would have to be an enormous and unlikely void between the orbit of Saturn and the eighth sphere (the fixed stars).See p.51 in The reception of Copernicus' heliocentric theory: proceedings of a symposium organized by the Nicolas Copernicus Committee of the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science, Torun, Poland, 1973, ed.
|
|
Just as a gun recoils when a bullet is fired, conservation of momentum requires a nucleus (such as in a gas) to recoil during emission or absorption of a gamma ray. If a nucleus at rest emits a gamma ray, the energy of the gamma ray is slightly less than the natural energy of the transition, but in order for a nucleus at rest to absorb a gamma ray, the gamma ray's energy must be slightly greater than the natural energy, because in both cases energy is lost to recoil. This means that nuclear resonance (emission and absorption of the same gamma ray by identical nuclei) is unobservable with free nuclei, because the shift in energy is too great and the emission and absorption spectra have no significant overlap. Nuclei in a solid crystal, however, are not free to recoil because they are bound in place in the crystal lattice.
|
|
The fact that stellar parallax was so small that it was unobservable at the time was used as the main scientific argument against heliocentrism during the early modern age. It is clear from Euclid's geometry that the effect would be undetectable if the stars were far enough away, but for various reasons such gigantic distances involved seemed entirely implausible: it was one of Tycho's principal objections to Copernican heliocentrism that in order for it to be compatible with the lack of observable stellar parallax, there would have to be an enormous and unlikely void between the orbit of Saturn (then the most distant known planet) and the eighth sphere (the fixed stars). In 1989, the satellite Hipparcos was launched primarily for obtaining improved parallaxes and proper motions for over 100,000 nearby stars, increasing the reach of the method tenfold. Even so, Hipparcos is only able to measure parallax angles for stars up to about 1,600 light-years away, a little more than one percent of the diameter of the Milky Way Galaxy.
|
|
He began with the mainstream understanding of culture as the product of human cognitive activity, and the Boasian emphasis on the subjective meanings of objects as dependent on their cultural context. He defined culture as "a mental phenomenon, consisting of the contents of minds, not of material objects or observable behavior." He then devised a three-tiered model linking cultural anthropology to archeology, which he called conjunctive archaeology: # Culture, which is unobservable (behavior) and nonmaterial # Behaviors resulting from culture, which are observable and nonmaterial # Objectifications, such as artifacts and architecture, which are the result of behavior and material That is, material artifacts were the material residue of culture, but not culture itself. Taylor's point was that the archaeological record could contribute to anthropological knowledge, but only if archaeologists reconceived their work not just as digging up artifacts and recording their location in time and space, but as inferring from material remains the behaviors through which they were produced and used, and inferring from these behaviors the mental activities of people.
|
|
In physics, hidden-variable theories are proposals to provide deterministic explanations of quantum mechanical phenomena, through the introduction of unobservable hypothetical entities. The existence of indeterminacy for some measurements is assumed as part of the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics; moreover, bounds for indeterminacy can be expressed in a quantitative form by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Albert Einstein objected to the fundamentally probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics,, (Private letter from Einstein to Max Born, 3 March 1947: "I admit, of course, that there is a considerable amount of validity in the statistical approach which you were the first to recognize clearly as necessary given the framework of the existing formalism. I cannot seriously believe in it because the theory cannot be reconciled with the idea that physics should represent a reality in time and space, free from spooky actions at a distance.... I am quite convinced that someone will eventually come up with a theory whose objects, connected by laws, are not probabilities but considered facts, as used to be taken for granted until quite recently".) and famously declared "I am convinced God does not play dice".
|
|