Either way, that's why TAUTOLOGY is repeated in the grid.
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Politics right now is all just cycles upon cycles of tautology.
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That tautology can turn into a vicious cycle leading to tyranny.
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It's a tautology; it tells you nothing about why it happens.
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It exposes a tautology at the heart of current foreign policy commitments: We
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Plainly put, a berry is the fruition of a flower — the ultimate tautology.
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Party affiliation was a tautology for itself, not a rich signifier of principles and perspective.
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Indulge me in a tautology for a moment: Every sneaker Nike has ever made is a sneaker.
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But the argument is sort of a strange tautology at this point, as it's mostly their own fault.
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It's easy to read that as a tautology: Of course a politician's offenses will be political in nature.
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There is a Donald Trump tautology: If he did things like other candidates, he wouldn't be Donald Trump.
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A tautology—that the whole is the sum of its parts—is central to an understanding of why this is so.
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Unfortunately, this flawed tautology has driven policy that ignores fundamental best practices in pilot training and fails to advance aviation safety.
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At their root, then, all the historical stats really show is that periods of low volatility ends once volatility rises — a tautology.
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And what can you do with a line like "her face once again becomes a poker-face wall," except revel in its delicious tautology?
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By contrast, capacity for relations with other states is something of a tautology: In effect, the internationally recognized fact of statehood makes a state.
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There is no definition of what competition, or its absence, looks like, other than the near-tautology that it is whatever is good for consumers.
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In the proliferation of cultural signs and symbolism boiling in the undercurrent of the seemingly placid 1950s, wrestling operated as a tautology of American righteousness.
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His argument sets up a closed loop of partisan tautology: No Republican can or should vote for impeachment because no Republican is voting for impeachment.
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The reason he could remain so respected and beloved despite all his goofiness and more serious distractions is a pure tautology: because he was Prince.
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"Leveraged loans" are at first sight a tautology: in fact they are loans, usually arranged by banks among a syndicate of lenders, to highly indebted companies.
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And, because of the name, there's a logical tautology to why the wok-fried Chinese broccoli with XO sauce costs 50 percent more than the plain version.
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It may be a tautology to say that doing popular things will make a politician more popular, but it's one the president may just want to remember.
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She is an actress, who—if this is not a tautology—spends her time going to auditions, toiling in a café, and writing a play of her own.
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It's a great tautology and it's -- for what everyone is saying about the democrats, maybe they're feckless, maybe they focus too much on identify politics, or they're not fiscally responsible.
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The defense has been using a bit of a tautology in their arguments, saying that the House has no case because they don't have witnesses or documents to prove it.
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Perry makes much of NERC's warning that "premature retirements of fuel-secure baseload generating stations reduces resilience to fuel supply disruptions," but if you look at that language closely, it's practically a tautology.
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Leading up to the Iraq War, authors of the national intelligence estimate there relied on a tautology that the failure to prove weapons of mass destruction had been destroyed was proof they still existed.
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As John Maynard Keynes taught us 80 years ago, the accounting tautology that investment and savings must, after the fact, equal each other is only the bookkeeping determinate of our ecosystem, not the determinant.
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Still, you mustn't look at that idea too closely or you'll wind up trapped in a perplexing tautology: Because married people are their own worst enemies they had better learn to destroy themselves. What?
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A mixed-media, untitled painting from 1958 illustrates this passage from representation to a tautology of the material world: its simulacral sign for a tobacco stand is easily (and willfully) confused with the real thing.
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A century later, neon is no longer just a sign; it is a mythic object—a metonymy of contemporary identity and a metaphor for the present, signifying the ubiquity of commerce and the tautology of hypermodernity.
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Unfortunately, such preparations are good mostly for jobs that are thankless and don't pay because — yes, this is a tautology and totally messed up — women have historically filled such jobs, and so society undervalues them completely.
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If you are reading these words on paper, you might consider yourself a fan of "print newspapers", a term that would once have been a tautology but has become, in the era of digital publishing, a necessary retronym.
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It may be a tautology, but "at the most basic level, anyone interested in addressing climate change knows we have to limit greenhouse gas emissions," said Noah Kaufman, an economist at Columbia University's Center on Global Energy Policy.
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When National Enquirer did a cover on the work with "Earthlings or Aliens?" emblazoned across the photo of her and (inevitably) a prehistoric, bipedal reptile, there was a big spike in anonymous offensive emails (was that a tautology she wondered).
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As a result, the outcome in South Carolina will dominate the political news in the run-up to Super Tuesday, and it is not tautology to say that in presidential primary politics the best way to win is having just won.
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You can visit them and live an unforgettable experience for life," it drones on with wondrous banality hammered home by additional tautology — right before switching gears and dropping this unexpected last liner: "Jimmy Singh is connected with Wonders of The All World.
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The definition of what qualifies as "chick lit" (an unpleasant term, besides which, I've personally always thought if you were going to coin a sexist word for women's books, chicktion has more pizzazz, but I digress) is, in its purest form, a stupid tautology.
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Once you accept that your solution at the top of the order is literally anyone good enough to hit at the top of the order—yes, it's a tautology, but yes, it's that simple—the problem of who bats first explodes in a puff of possibility.
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That may seem an obvious tautology, but it turns out to be highly contentious in a state where most cities and suburbs are still dominated by anti-growth politics that seek to maximize the construction of tax-generating offices while minimizing the number of budget-depleting residents.
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Most famously, Alexei Smertin, a former national team player and ambassador to the World Cup bid, set a world record for most efficient tautology by telling the BBC that "there's no racism in Russia because it does not exist," despite black players being routinely taunted and jeered using racial epithets.
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Article 50 of the Lisbon treaty, which determines the mechanism by which a member state can leave the EU, is a piece of meaningless tautology in the great European tradition: all it essentially says is that the procedure for any exit from the union is to be worked out within two years under Article 50.
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It feels as though Gunaratne wanted to sweep his readers up in a "mad and furious" rush of drama (and that semi-tautology in the novel's title gives an indication of the elaborate prose he sometimes employs in pursuit of this drama), when in fact his strengths are in the quieter details — of personal stories, nuanced characterizations and especially in his multivocal breadth of register.
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An axiomatization is sound when every theorem is a tautology, and complete when every tautology is a theorem.
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An axiomatic system is complete if every tautology is a theorem (derivable from axioms). An axiomatic system is sound if every theorem is a tautology.
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In this case, a useful technique is to presume that the formula is not a tautology and attempt to find a valuation which makes it false. If one succeeds, then it is indeed not a tautology. If one fails, then it is a tautology. Example of a non- tautology: Suppose [(A→B)→((C→A)→E)]→([F→((C→D)→E)]→[(A→F)→(D→E)]) is false.
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Sometimes logical tautologies like "Boys will be boys" are conflated with language tautologies, but a language tautology is not inherently true, while a logical tautology always is.
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A propositional formula is a tautology if it is true under every valuation (or interpretation) of its predicate symbols. If Φ is a tautology, and Θ is a substitution instance of Φ, then Θ is again a tautology. This fact implies the soundness of the deduction rule described in the previous section.
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Keep repeating this until all dependencies on propositional variables have been eliminated. The result is that we have proved the given tautology. Since every tautology is provable, the logic is complete.
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Negation, Logical biconditional, exclusive or, tautology, and contradiction are linear functions.
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Such a formula can be made either true or false based on the values assigned to its propositional variables. The double turnstile notation \vDash S is used to indicate that S is a tautology. Tautology is sometimes symbolized by "Vpq", and contradiction by "Opq". The tee symbol \top is sometimes used to denote an arbitrary tautology, with the dual symbol \bot (falsum) representing an arbitrary contradiction; in any symbolism, a tautology may be substituted for the truth value "true", as symbolized, for instance, by "1".
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What would happen if another axiom schema were added to those listed above? There are two cases: (1) it is a tautology; or (2) it is not a tautology. If it is a tautology, then the set of theorems remains the set of tautologies as before. However, in some cases it may be possible to find significantly shorter proofs for theorems.
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In literary criticism and rhetoric, a tautology is a statement which repeats an idea, using near-synonymous morphemes, words or phrases, effectively "saying the same thing twice". Tautology and pleonasm are not consistently differentiated in literature. Like pleonasm, tautology is often considered a fault of style when unintentional. Intentional repetition may emphasize a thought or help the listener or reader understand a point.
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There is a general procedure, the substitution rule, that allows additional tautologies to be constructed from a given tautology (Kleene 1967 sec. 3). Suppose that is a tautology and for each propositional variable in a fixed sentence is chosen. Then the sentence obtained by replacing each variable in with the corresponding sentence is also a tautology. For example, let be the tautology :(A \land B) \lor \lnot A \lor \lnot B. Let be C \lor D and let be C \to E. It follows from the substitution rule that the sentence :((C \lor D) \land (C \to E)) \lor \lnot (C \lor D) \lor \lnot (C \to E) is a tautology, too.
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In turn, a tautology may be substituted for the truth value "true".
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However, the term tautology is also commonly used to refer to what could more specifically be called truth- functional tautologies. Whereas a tautology or logical truth is true solely because of the logical terms it contains in general (e.g. "every", "some", and "is"), a truth-functional tautology is true because of the logical terms it contains which are logical connectives (e.g. "or", "and", and "nor").
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Candida albicans can be seen as a tautology. Candida comes from the Latin word candidus, meaning white. Albicans itself is the present participle of the Latin word albicō, meaning becoming white. This leads to white becoming white, making it a tautology.
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Dallas, TX :Tautology. Actual Size. Los Angeles, CA :Aroma. Elephant. Los Angeles, CA :Zimmerplatz.
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In the context of first-order logic, a distinction is maintained between logical validities, sentences that are true in every model, and tautologies, which are a proper subset of the first-order logical validities. In the context of propositional logic, these two terms coincide. A tautology in first-order logic is a sentence that can be obtained by taking a tautology of propositional logic and uniformly replacing each propositional variable by a first-order formula (one formula per propositional variable). For example, because A \lor \lnot A is a tautology of propositional logic, (\forall x ( x = x)) \lor (\lnot \forall x (x = x)) is a tautology in first order logic.
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The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein first applied the term to redundancies of propositional logic in 1921, borrowing from rhetoric, where a tautology is a repetitive statement. In logic, a formula is satisfiable if it is true under at least one interpretation, and thus a tautology is a formula whose negation is unsatisfiable. Unsatisfiable statements, both through negation and affirmation, are known formally as contradictions. A formula that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is said to be logically contingent.
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According to Ayer, analytic statements are tautologies. A tautology is a statement that is necessarily true, true by definition, and true under any conditions. A tautology is a repetition of the meaning of a statement, using different words or symbols. According to Ayer, the statements of logic and mathematics are tautologies.
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Murrayfield's media centre, the usual home for the tautology and tortuousness of Scottish rugby-speak, was never like this.
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Indeed, in propositional logic, there is no distinction between a tautology and a logically valid formula. In the context of predicate logic, many authors define a tautology to be a sentence that can be obtained by taking a tautology of propositional logic, and uniformly replacing each propositional variable by a first-order formula (one formula per propositional variable). The set of such formulas is a proper subset of the set of logically valid sentences of predicate logic (i.e., sentences that are true in every model).
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In logic, a tautology (from ) is a formula or assertion that is true in every possible interpretation. An example is "x=y or x≠y". A less abstract example is "The ball is all green, or the ball is not all green". This would be a tautology regardless of the color of the ball.
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A formula R is said to tautologically imply a formula S if every valuation that causes R to be true also causes S to be true. This situation is denoted R \models S. It is equivalent to the formula R \to S being a tautology (Kleene 1967 p. 27). For example, let S be A \land (B \lor \lnot B). Then S is not a tautology, because any valuation that makes A false will make S false. But any valuation that makes A true will make S true, because B \lor \lnot B is a tautology.
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But neither of these expressions is a tautology in isolation. It is the disjunction of these two expressions which is a tautology. Similarly, a sequent of the form ' α, β ⊢ ', for logical formulas α and β, means that either α is false or β is false. But it does not mean that either α is a contradiction or β is a contradiction.
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One example of a co-NP-complete problem is tautology, the problem of determining whether a given Boolean formula is a tautology; that is, whether every possible assignment of true/false values to variables yields a true statement. This is closely related to the Boolean satisfiability problem, which asks whether there exists at least one such assignment, and is NP-complete.
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A sequent of the form ' ⊢ α, β ', for logical formulas α and β, means that either α is true or β is true (or both). But it does not mean that either α is a tautology or β is a tautology. To clarify this, consider the example ' ⊢ B ∨ A, C ∨ ¬A '. This is a valid sequent because either B ∨ A is true or C ∨ ¬A is true.
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A propositional proof system is given as a proof-verification algorithm P(A,x) with two inputs. If P accepts the pair (A,x) we say that x is a P-proof of A. P is required to run in polynomial time, and moreover, it must hold that A has a P-proof if and only if it is a tautology. Examples of propositional proof systems include Sequent calculus, Resolution, Cutting Planes and Frege system. Strong mathematical theories such as ZFC induce propositional proof systems as well: a proof of a tautology \tau in a propositional interpretation of ZFC is a ZFC-proof of a formalized statement '\tau is a tautology'.
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Were I to refuse to come at the problem by way of moral self-acceptance, I could easily reduce the cogito to either tautology or antilogy.
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Linguistically, "Schloss Burg" would be translated as "palace castle" - a tautology, yet in German "Schloss" refers to a representative building and "Burg" to a fortification - an oxymoron.
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Persigar, an acronym for Persatuan Sepak Bola Indonesia Garut, is an Indonesian football club based in Garut, West Java. In media, the tautology Persigar Garut is often used.
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Persiga, an acronym for Persatuan Sepak Bola Indonesia Trenggalek is an Indonesian football club based in Trenggalek, East Java. In media, the tautology Persiga Trenggalek is often used.
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Summing up, the valuation which sets B, C and D to be true and A, E and F to be false will make [(A→B)→((C→A)→E)]→([F→((C→D)→E)]→[(A→F)→(D→E)]) false. So it is not a tautology. Example of a tautology: Suppose ((A→B)→C)→((C→A)→(D→A)) is false. Then (A→B)→C is true; C→A is true; D is true; and A is false.
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Proof complexity measures the efficiency of the proof system usually in terms of the minimal size of proofs possible in the system for a given tautology. The size of a proof (resp. formula) is the number of symbols needed to represent the proof (resp. formula). A propositional proof system P is polynomially bounded if there exists a constant c such that every tautology of size n has a P-proof of size (n+c)^c.
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Some early books on logic (such as Symbolic Logic by C. I. Lewis and Langford, 1932) used the term for any proposition (in any formal logic) that is universally valid. It is common in presentations after this (such as Stephen Kleene 1967 and Herbert Enderton 2002) to use tautology to refer to a logically valid propositional formula, but to maintain a distinction between "tautology" and "logically valid" in the context of first-order logic .
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In polytheism, that which is loved by the gods (τὸ θεοφιλές) was identified as the virtuous or pious. Socrates famously asked whether this identification is a tautology (see Euthyphro dilemma).
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But the phrase is used to mean "there is no way of changing it", which is no longer a tautology: "Structuring the sentiment as a tautology allows it to appear inescapable." At the same time, some phrases that have become platitudes may provide useful moral guidance, such as "do unto others as you would have them do unto you". Others, though widely trivialized, may be thought-provoking, such as "Be the change you wish to see in the world".
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In the case of simply typed lambda calculus, a type has an inhabitant if and only if its corresponding proposition is a tautology of minimal implicative logic. Similarly, a System F type has an inhabitant if and only if its corresponding proposition is a tautology of second-order logic. Girard's paradox shows, that type inhabitation is strongly related to the consistency of a type system with Curry–Howard correspondence. To be sound, such a system must have uninhabited types.
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Rules of replacement are used in propositional logic to manipulate propositions. Common rules of replacement include de Morgan's laws, commutation, association, distribution, double negation, transposition, material implication, material equivalence, exportation, and tautology.
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Indeed, the double negation of the law is retained as a tautology of the system: that is, it is a theorem that eg [ eg (P \vee eg P)] regardless of the proposition P.
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Tautologies are a key concept in propositional logic, where a tautology is defined as a propositional formula that is true under any possible Boolean valuation of its propositional variables. A key property of tautologies in propositional logic is that an effective method exists for testing whether a given formula is always satisfied (equiv., whether its negation is unsatisfiable). The definition of tautology can be extended to sentences in predicate logic, which may contain quantifiers—a feature absent from sentences of propositional logic.
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Similarly, in a first-order language with a unary relation symbols R,S,T, the following sentence is a tautology: :(((\exists x Rx) \land \lnot (\exists x Sx)) \to \forall x Tx) \Leftrightarrow ((\exists x Rx) \to ((\lnot \exists x Sx) \to \forall x Tx)). It is obtained by replacing A with \exists x Rx, B with \lnot \exists x Sx, and C with \forall x Tx in the propositional tautology ((A \land B) \to C) \Leftrightarrow (A \to (B \to C)). Not all logical validities are tautologies in first-order logic. For example, the sentence :(\forall x Rx) \to \lnot \exists x \lnot Rx is true in any first- order interpretation, but it corresponds to the propositional sentence A \to B which is not a tautology of propositional logic.
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According to Kant, the simplicity of the soul as Descartes believed cannot be inferred from the "I think" as it is assumed to be there in the first place. Therefore, it is a tautology.
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The tautology is not parsed by the mind in most instances of real-world use (in many cases because the foreign word's meaning is not known anyway; in others simply because the usage is idiomatic).
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This > is the fundamental problem of logic!” The importance Wittgenstein placed upon this fundamental problem was so great that he believed if he did not solve it, he had no reason or right to live. Despite this apparent life-or-death importance, Wittgenstein had given up on this primitive proposition by the time of the writing of the Tractatus. The Tractatus does not offer any general process for identifying propositions as tautologies; in a simpler manner, > “Every tautology itself shows that it is a tautology.”Wittgenstein, Ludwig.
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Heidelberg, New York: Springer Science [doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8].von Sydow, M. (2014). ‘Survival of the Fittest’ in Darwinian Metaphysics - Tautology or Testable Theory? (pp. 199-222) In E. Voigts, B. Schaff &M.
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The problem of constructing practical algorithms to determine whether sentences with large numbers of propositional variables are tautologies is an area of contemporary research in the area of automated theorem proving. The method of truth tables illustrated above is provably correct – the truth table for a tautology will end in a column with only T, while the truth table for a sentence that is not a tautology will contain a row whose final column is F, and the valuation corresponding to that row is a valuation that does not satisfy the sentence being tested. This method for verifying tautologies is an effective procedure, which means that given unlimited computational resources it can always be used to mechanistically determine whether a sentence is a tautology. This means, in particular, the set of tautologies over a fixed finite or countable alphabet is a decidable set.
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The Boolean Formula Value Problem is complete for NC. The problem is closely related to the Boolean Satisfiability Problem which is complete for NP and its complement, the Propositional Tautology Problem, which is complete for co-NP.
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The name comes from the Gaelic word fasgadh, meaning "safety", or "dwelling place", and for reasons of potential tautology, "house" was never officially added. The name is a baroque, eighteenth-century corruption of the original Gaelic word.
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The Boolean satisfiability problem on conjunctive normal form formulas is NP-hard; by the duality principle, so is the falsifiability problem on DNF formulas. Therefore, it is co-NP-hard to decide if a DNF formula is a tautology.
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Another Latin designation for this law is tertium non datur: "no third [possibility] is given". It is a tautology. The principle should not be confused with the semantical principle of bivalence, which states that every proposition is either true or false.
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A lapalissade is an obvious truth--i.e. a truism or tautology--which produces a comical effect. It is derived from the name Jacques de la Palice, and the word is used in several languages.Georges Lebouc, 2500 noms propres devenus communs, p.
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Lakatos, Worrall and Zahar (1976), Proofs and Refutations , pp. 106–126, note that Poincaré's formal proof (1899) "Complèment à l'Analysis Situs", Rediconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo, 13, pp. 285–343, rewrites Euler's conjecture into a tautology of vector algebra.
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These semantics permit a translation between tautologies of propositional logic and equational theorems of Boolean algebra. Every tautology Φ of propositional logic can be expressed as the Boolean equation Φ = 1, which will be a theorem of Boolean algebra. Conversely every theorem Φ = Ψ of Boolean algebra corresponds to the tautologies (Φ∨¬Ψ) ∧ (¬Φ∨Ψ) and (Φ∧Ψ) ∨ (¬Φ∧¬Ψ). If → is in the language these last tautologies can also be written as (Φ→Ψ) ∧ (Ψ→Φ), or as two separate theorems Φ→Ψ and Ψ→Φ; if ≡ is available then the single tautology Φ ≡ Ψ can be used.
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Then ((A→(A→A))→(A→A))→A is an instance (one of the new axioms) and also not a tautology. But [((A→(A→A))→(A→A))→A]→A is a tautology and thus a theorem due to the old axioms (using the completeness result above). Applying modus ponens, we get that A is a theorem of the extended system. Then all one has to do to prove any formula is to replace A by the desired formula throughout the proof of A. This proof will have the same number of steps as the proof of A.
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By this criterion, "If the moon is made of green cheese, then the world is coming to an end," is true merely because the moon is not made of green cheese. By extension, any contradiction implies anything whatsoever, since a contradiction is never true. (All paraconsistent logics must, by definition, reject (1) as invalid.) Also, any tautology is implied by anything whatsoever, since a tautology is always true. To sum up, although it is deceptively similar to what we mean by "logically follows" in ordinary usage, material implication does not capture the meaning of "if... then".
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The law of diminishing marginal utility, also known as a Gossen's First Law, is that ceteris paribus, as additional amounts of a good or service are added to available resources, their marginal utilities are decreasing. This law is sometimes treated as a tautology, sometimes as something proven by introspection, or sometimes as a mere instrumental assumption, adopted only for its perceived predictive efficacy. It is not quite any of these things, although it may have aspects of each. The law does not hold under all circumstances, so it is neither a tautology nor otherwise proveable; but it has a basis in prior observation.
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The start of the lower half, near Fordingbridge. Angling at the Royalty fishery, Christchurch in March 2017. Longford Castle from the air Hale Park Breamore House, view from south The river's name is a tautology: Avon is the Proto-Brythonic word meaning "river".
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In his book The Reformation in Economics, economist and financial analyst Philip Pilkington has argued that the EMH is actually a tautology masquerading as a theory.Pilkington, P (2017). The Reformation in Economics: A Deconstruction and Reconstruction of Economic Theory. Palgrave Macmillan. Pp261-265.
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For him, tautology is the highest realm of thought.Either/Or Part I, Swenson, Preface p. 63, 70-71, 115-116, 37 He's someone who is in complete "conflict with his environment" because he is relating himself to externals.Either/Or Part I, Swenson, p.
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Supermodernity curates useful attributes from modern and postmodern objects in order to escape nihilistic postmodern tautology. The touchscreen phone is an excellent example of supermodernism in action. Related authors are Terry Eagleton After Theory, and Marc Augé Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity.
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In this way, formalising logic as a system can be considered as a response to the problem of infinite regress: modus ponens is placed as a rule within the system, the validity of modus ponens is eschewed to without the system. In propositional logic the logical implication is defined as follows: P implies Q if and only if the proposition not P or Q is a tautology. Hence de modo ponente, [P ∧ (P → Q)] ⇒ Q, is a valid logical conclusion according to the definition of logical implication just stated. Demonstrating the logical implication simply translates into verifying that the compound truth table produces a tautology.
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However, since Time Lords can in general survive death, and the assassin's victims do not, he is perhaps "deadly" in that sense. According to the text commentary on the DVD, Holmes argued that the title was not a tautology, stating that there were plenty of incompetent assassins.
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The Blackburn River is on West Falkland in the Falkland Islands. It is in the north of the island, and empties into Byron Sound. The name is a tautology, since "burn" is a Lowland Scots/Northern English word referring to a small river or large brook.
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In the early 18th century Bernard de la Monnoye collected over 50 of these humorous "La Palice" quatrains, and published them as a burlesque Song of La Palice. From that song came the French term lapalissade meaning an utterly obvious truth--i.e. a truism or tautology.
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The fundamental definition of a tautology is in the context of propositional logic. The definition can be extended, however, to sentences in first-order logic (see Enderton (2002, p. 114) and Kleene (1967 secs. 17–18)). These sentences may contain quantifiers, unlike sentences of propositional logic.
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Tigges, Anatomy, pp. 166–167. Nonsense tautology, reduplication, and absurd precision have also been used in the nonsense genre.Heyman, Naissance, pp. xxvi–xxix For a text to be within the genre of literary nonsense, it must have an abundance of nonsense techniques woven into the fabric of the piece.
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The word was coined in Hellenistic Greek from ('the same') plus ('word' or 'idea'), and transmitted through 3rd-century and . It first appeared in English in the 16th century. The use of the term logical tautology was introduced in English by Wittgenstein in 1919, perhaps following Auguste Comte's usage in 1835.
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That is to say, we cannot use the same term in the same discourse while having it signify different senses or meanings without introducing ambiguity into the discourse – even though the different meanings are conventionally prescribed to that term. The law of identity also allows for substitution, and is a tautology.
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The Norse were fond of zoomorphising smaller islands - for example, smaller islands lying off a larger one are often termed "Calf", e.g. Calf of Flotta, Calf of Man or even Calf of Cava (the latter a tautology). Some are even "hens", like the Hen of Gairsay. However "horses" are fairly rare.
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In propositional logic, the commutativity of conjunction is a valid argument form and truth-functional tautology. It is considered to be a law of classical logic. It is the principle that the conjuncts of a logical conjunction may switch places with each other, while preserving the truth-value of the resulting proposition.
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PSPS U-21,Profile PSPS U-21's at Liga-Indonesia.co.id an acronym for Persatuan Sepak Bola Pekanbaru dan Sekitarnya Under-21 is an Indonesian football team based in Pekanbaru. They compete in the division of Indonesian football, Liga Indonesia. In media, the club is often referred as the tautology PSPS Pekanbaru.
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"Survival of the fittest" is sometimes claimed to be a tautology. The reasoning is that if one takes the term "fit" to mean "endowed with phenotypic characteristics which improve chances of survival and reproduction" (which is roughly how Spencer understood it), then "survival of the fittest" can simply be rewritten as "survival of those who are better equipped for surviving". Furthermore, the expression does become a tautology if one uses the most widely accepted definition of "fitness" in modern biology, namely reproductive success itself (rather than any set of characters conducive to this reproductive success). This reasoning is sometimes used to claim that Darwin's entire theory of evolution by natural selection is fundamentally tautological, and therefore devoid of any explanatory power.
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Brevitas is a rhetorical style defined in Rhetorica ad Herennium as "the expressing of an idea by the very minimum of essential words." "Shit happens" and "c'est la vie" are examples. By implying more than is said, it is distinguished from tautology and understatement. Brevitas is related to aphorism, parataxis, sprezzatura and elliptic linguistic style.
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In other words, if A requires B, it requires any true statement. In the special case where A is a tautology, the theorem has consequence (!B → (C → !C)). Thus, if at least one statement ought be true, every statement must materially entail it ought be true, and so every true statement ought be true.
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Shortly before (in section §11), Moore had said if good is defined as pleasure, or any other natural property, "good" may be substituted for "pleasure", or that other property, anywhere where it occurs. However, "pleasure is good" is a meaningful, informative statement; but "good is good" (after making the substitution) is an uninformative tautology.
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Matthew Turner is an American cellist who teaches jazz and improvisation at Lawrence University. He received his bachelor's degree from Lawrence University and his Masters of Music degree from the New England Conservatory of Music. His recordings have appeared on Illusions, Stellar, O.O. Discs, Asian Improv, Penumbra, Fever Pitch, Geode, Tautology and Meniscus Records.
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It follows from the definition that if a proposition p is a contradiction then p tautologically implies every proposition, because there is no truth valuation that causes p to be true and so the definition of tautological implication is trivially satisfied. Similarly, if p is a tautology then p is tautologically implied by every proposition.
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Marx, Karl (1865). Value, Price and > Profit. The LTV seeks to explain the level of this equilibrium. This could be explained by a cost of production argument—pointing out that all costs are ultimately labor costs, but this does not account for profit, and it is vulnerable to the charge of tautology in that it explains prices by prices.
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It has been pointed out that the Kaya identity is a tautology because it is nothing but a rewrite of the identity :F = F, i.e., "Carbon is carbon" . This implies there are a number of alternative formulations for calculating net carbon emissions, which highlights the different possible ways of thinking about emissions reductions (e.g. Eco-sufficiency).
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The Grove Dictionary opines that "the chief characteristics of [his] conservative, three-movement symphonies are tautology and paucity of invention ... As a composer Van Swieten is insignificant." Known works include three comic operas: Les talents à la mode, Colas, toujours Colas, and the lost La chercheuse d'esprit. He also wrote ten symphonies, of which seven survive.
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Thus "x = 3 → x = 3" is a tautology by virtue of being an instance of the abstract tautology "P → P". All occurrences of the instantiated variable must be instantiated with the same proposition, to avoid such nonsense as P → x = 3 or x = 3 → x = 4. Propositional calculus restricts attention to abstract propositions, those built up from propositional variables using Boolean operations. Instantiation is still possible within propositional calculus, but only by instantiating propositional variables by abstract propositions, such as instantiating Q by Q→P in P→(Q→P) to yield the instance P→((Q→P)→P). (The availability of instantiation as part of the machinery of propositional calculus avoids the need for metavariables within the language of propositional calculus, since ordinary propositional variables can be considered within the language to denote arbitrary propositions.
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The term is often criticized. Some people think that violence is never legitimate and consider the term to be a tautology. Others say that the term has never been clearly defined and does not help to understand a particular phenomenon. Others point out that the term is or can be misused by politicians who strive for more repressive measures against crimes.
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If all the propositional variables in Γ are assigned the value b, then Γ itself will have the value b. If we give X the value f, then : (\Gamma \to X) = (b \to f) = f . So Γ→X will not be a tautology. Limitations: (1) There must not be constants for the truth values because that would defeat the purpose of paraconsistent logic.
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Many scholars of great fame were said to be a regular audience of her tautology and would acquire authority from her to report the hadith on behalf of her. She not only exhibited her erudition in Hadith study, but also would deliver scholarly speeches on history, linguistics and literature, leaving lasting impressions on the hearts and the souls of her audience.
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The application of double-entry bookkeeping conventions in measuring aggregate economic activity derives from the recognition that: every purchase is also a sale, every payment made translates income received, and every act of lending also an act of borrowing. Here the term identity is a mathematical identity or a logical tautology, since it defines an equivalence which does not depend on the particular values of the variables.
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In particular, Mosterín has shown the multiple misunderstandings underlying the so-called anthropic principle and the use of anthropic explanations in cosmology. Mosterín concludes that "in its weak version, the anthropic principle is a mere tautology, which does not allow us to explain anything or to predict anything that we did not already know. In its strong version, it is a gratuitous speculation".Mosterín, Jesús. (2005).
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The species, the genus, and the difference are all equally being: a being is a being that is being. The genus cannot be nothing because nothing is not a class of everything. The trivial solution that being is being added to nothing is only a tautology: being is being. There is no simpler intermediary between being and non-being that explains and classifies being.
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The disjunction introduction rule may be written in sequent notation: : P \vdash (P \lor Q) where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that P \lor Q is a syntactic consequence of P in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: :P \to (P \lor Q) where P and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system.
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Logical equivalence is different from material equivalence. Formulas p and q are logically equivalent if and only if the statement of their material equivalence (p \iff q) is a tautology. The material equivalence of p and q (often written as p \iff q) is itself another statement in the same object language as p and q. This statement expresses the idea "'p if and only if q'".
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According to one of the points of view, "Yawning Heights" show science and scientific activity, which has turned into imitation, appearance, hypocrisy and tautology. Science is no longer capable of learning, but only describes itself. Scientists pretend to think, but do not produce anything, people depict the process of work, dissidents imitate resistance. The intelligentsia serves the regime or depicts a protest ("theater at Ibank").
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The Jackson estate called this argument "classic tautology" and that it "assumes the very conclusion that HBO wants an adjudicator to reach in this dispute, i.e., that there are no remaining obligations under the Agreement". On the recommendation of Judge George Wu, HBO filed a SLAPP (Strategic Lawsuit Against Public Participation) motion against the estate on August 29. It pointed to the "extraordinary" origins of the case.
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One step back, a glance at the contemporary culture, which is still modernist and post-modernist, shows how the relative contents are completely characterized by heterotopia, logocentrism, historicism, tautology and rhetoric. These are as dominant ideologies that for the most part are unnecessary replication of the related intellectual, subjective and abstract productions, thus evoking the need for the transition to the post- contemporary paradigms.
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As an efficient procedure, however, truth tables are constrained by the fact that the number of valuations that must be checked increases as 2k, where k is the number of variables in the formula. This exponential growth in the computation length renders the truth table method useless for formulas with thousands of propositional variables, as contemporary computing hardware cannot execute the algorithm in a feasible time period. The problem of determining whether there is any valuation that makes a formula true is the Boolean satisfiability problem; the problem of checking tautologies is equivalent to this problem, because verifying that a sentence S is a tautology is equivalent to verifying that there is no valuation satisfying \lnot S. It is known that the Boolean satisfiability problem is NP complete, and widely believed that there is no polynomial-time algorithm that can perform it. Consequently, tautology is co-NP-complete.
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Shankar initially served as a research associate at Stanford University, from 1986 to 1988. In 1989, he joined SRI International's Computer Science Laboratory. While at SRI, he has used the Boyer–Moore theorem prover to prove metatheorems such as the tautology theorem, Godel's incompleteness theorem and the Church-Rosser theorem. He has contributed to the development of automated reasoning technology, deductive systems and computational engines, including the Prototype Verification System.
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In natural languages, some apparent tautologies, as in certain platitudes, may have non-tautological meanings in practice. In English, "it is what it is" is used to mean 'there is no way of changing it'.Nathan J. Robinson, "The Uses of Platitudes", Current Affairs, August 23, 2017 online In Tamil, the superficial tautology literally means 'if he comes, he will come', but is used to mean 'he just may come'.
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He argues that, taken at face value, the theory makes the banal claim that the average investor will not beat the market average—which is a tautology. When pressed on this point, Pinkington argues that EMH proponents will usually say that any actual investor will converge with the average investor given enough time and so no investor will beat the market average. But Pilkington points out that when proponents of the theory are presented with evidence that a small minority of investors do, in fact, beat the market over the long-run, these proponents then say that these investors were simply 'lucky'. Pilkington argues that introducing the idea that anyone who diverges from the theory is simply 'lucky' insulates the theory from falsification and so, drawing on the philosopher of science and critic of neoclassical economics Hans Albert, Pilkington argues that the theory falls back into being a tautology or a pseudoscientific construct.
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Correal Urrego, 1990, p.13 The people inhabiting the Bogotá savanna in the late 15th century were the Muisca, speaking Muysccubun, a member of the Chibcha language family. Muisca means "people" or "person", making "Muisca people", how they are called, a tautology. At the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, the Muisca population was estimated to be half a million indigenous people on the Bogotá savanna, and up to two million in the Muisca Confederation.
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One of the deepest teachings of Confucius may have been the superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may, therefore, be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings rarely rely on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals and methods are conveyed indirectly, through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology.
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However, middle-range research has since been criticized as logically flawed. Its critics argued that it rested on the unjustified assumption that there is a uniform link between behaviour and physical remains that holds true throughout human history. Its conclusions were argued to be untestable because their application was founded on a tautology: evidence from contemporary peoples (e.g. modern hunter-gatherers) was asserted to be applicable to people in the past (e.g.
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Charvakas rejected many of the standard religious conceptions of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Ajivakas, such as an afterlife, reincarnation, samsara, karma and religious rites. They were critical of the Vedas, as well as Buddhist scriptures. The Sarvadarśanasaṃgraha with commentaries by Madhavacharya describes the Charvakas as critical of the Vedas, materialists without morals and ethics. To Charvakas, the text states, the Vedas suffered from several faults – errors in transmission across generations, untruth, self- contradiction and tautology.
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Britain colonised Malaysia from 1786 to 1957 after the Anglo- Dutch Treaty of 1824. During these years, the British refused to employ Malay Indonesians and Malaysians, preferring to employ only Chinese and Indians. Critics have called such affirmative action for the Malays racial discrimination against other Malaysian citizens, with the goal of creating ketuanan Melayu (Malay supremacy). "Malaysian Malaysia" is not a mere tautology, because it distinguishes between nationality and ethnic classification.
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The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard calls the phrase a tautology in his Concluding Unscientific Postscript. He argues that the cogito already presupposes the existence of "I", and therefore concluding with existence is logically trivial. Kierkegaard's argument can be made clearer if one extracts the premise "I think" into the premises "'x' thinks" and "I am that 'x'", where "x" is used as a placeholder in order to disambiguate the "I" from the thinking thing.Schönbaumsfeld, Genia.
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The disjunctive syllogism rule may be written in sequent notation: : P \lor Q, \lnot P \vdash Q where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that Q is a syntactic consequence of P \lor Q, and \lnot P in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: : ((P \lor Q) \land eg P) \to Q where P, and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system.
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The book received a number of reviews at the time of its release, although significantly fewer than Rand's novels had received. In The New York Times Book Review, the philosopher Sidney Hook called it a "unique combination of tautology and extravagant absurdity." In a negative review for Esquire, Gore Vidal said Rand "must be read to be believed" and that "Her 'philosophy' is nearly perfect in its immorality". Reprinted from Esquire, July 1961.
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The same word usage to occur in Northern England, and farm names of the form "X Mains" can be found in northern Northumberland. Examples here include Adderstone Mains, near Bamburgh, and Burradon Mains, a few miles north of Rothbury in the Vale of Whittingham. In some cases, new owners have renamed various "mains" to "manor" in ignorance of the distinction in Scotland. The media occasionally uses the tautology, "Mains of X farm".
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A major problem with the leader–member exchange approach to leadership is that it is not theory; it uses circular arguments and is akin to a tautology. For instance, good leadership is about having good relations. What causes these good relations? This question is unclear and the problem is that most of the research uses LMX as an independent or moderator variable, which violates the exogeneity assumption made in causal models and hence creates an intractable endogeneity problem.
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Many of them have been further investigated and developed by A. Ross Eckler, Jr.; Philip M. Cohen; members of the National Puzzlers' League; and others. Other claims made by the book have been challenged and debunked. Of note is a 2003 study by Darryl Francis which investigated Borgmann's assertion that the name "Torpenhow Hill" is a quadruple etymological tautology. It concluded not only that Borgmann's etymology may be incorrect, but also that the hill does not even exist.
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Vampire's kernel implements the calculi of ordered binary resolution and superposition for handling equality. The splitting rule and negative equality splitting can be simulated by the introduction of new predicate definitions and dynamic folding of such definitions. A DPLL-style algorithm splitting is also supported. A number of standard redundancy criteria and simplification techniques are used for pruning the search space: tautology deletion, subsumption resolution, rewriting by ordered unit equalities, basicness restrictions and irreducibility of substitution terms.
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A few parts of the inscription are damaged, but most of it remains legible. The name "Rök Stone" is something of a tautology: the stone is named after the village, "Rök", but the village is probably named after the stone, "Rauk" or "Rök" meaning "skittle-shaped stack/stone" in Old Norse. The stone is unique in a number of ways. It contains a fragment of what is believed to be a lost piece of Norse mythology.
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262 online; Richard C. Frucht, Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture p. 359–360 online vocally defending their schools, churches and cultural values. The party's 2009 election slogan "Hungary belongs to the Hungarians" (Magyarország a Magyaroké!) attracted much scrutiny. While some critics dismissed the slogan as a tautology, others considered it a call to bigotry and complained to the National Electoral Commission, which ruled it "unconstitutional" on the eve of the election.
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Joseph Raz identifies government following the law as a tautology: if the will of those inside the government were expressed outside their legal constraints, they would no longer be acting as the government. He therefore characterises this legal form argument as one of mere obedience to the law; ensuring those in government follow the laws as those outside it should. He rejects that as the sole conception of the rule of law.Raz (1977). pp. 196-197.
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Batwing chaps Chaps ( or ) are sturdy coverings for the legs consisting of leggings and a belt. They are buckled on over trousers with the chaps' integrated belt, but unlike trousers they have no seat (the term "assless chaps" is a tautology) and are not joined at the crotch. They are designed to provide protection for the legs and are usually made of leather or a leather- like material. Their name is a shortened version of the Spanish word chaparreras.
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Proponents of the new antisemitism concept, he writes, see an organizing principle that allows them to formulate a new concept, but it is only in terms of this concept that many of the examples cited in evidence of it count as examples in the first place.Klug, Brian. The Myth of the New Anti- Semitism. The Nation, February 2, 2004, accessed January 9, 2006 That is, the creation of the concept may be based on a circular argument or tautology.
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Considering different interpretations of the same statement leads to the notion of truth value. The simplest approach to truth values means that the statement may be "true" in one case, but "false" in another. In one sense of the term tautology, it is any type of formula or proposition which turns out to be true under any possible interpretation of its terms (may also be called a valuation or assignment depending upon the context). This is synonymous to logical truth.
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That youth want meaningful work, said The Times Literary Supplement, is a tautology. While it is easier to puritanically agree with Goodman's assessment of societal downfalls, the reviewer said it is harder to ascertain why we agree with these aims yet cannot seem to achieve them. In this way, Goodman banked too heavily on the miraculous changing of minds rather than meeting people where they were. Galbraith's New York Times review considered Growing Up Absurd a "serious effort" despite not offering robust solutions.
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The small settlement at the junction of Cricklewood Lane and the Edgware Road was established by 1294, which by 1321 was called Cricklewood. The settlement took its name from a nearby wood, perhaps on Cricklewood Lane, in Hendon. The name of the wood may be a tautology meaning "hill hill wood", with the Common Brittonic word cruc (meaning hill) forming the first element, and the Old English hyll (also meaning hill) the second element.The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-names.
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The philosopher Hans Albert has argued that the ceteris paribus conditions of the marginalist theory rendered the theory itself an empty tautology and completely closed to experimental testing.Fixing the Economists. 27 February 2014. Available at: Hans Albert Expands Robinson’s Critique of Marginal Utility Theory to the Law of Demand In essence, he argues, the supply and demand curves (theoretical functions which express the quantity of a product which would be offered or requested for a given price) are purely ontological.
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Manovich complains that 'In relation to computer-based media, the concept of interactivity is a tautology. .... Therefore, to call computer media “interactive” is meaningless – it simply means stating the most basic fact about computers.'. Nevertheless, the term is useful to denote an identifiable body of practices and technologies. Interactive media are an instance of a computational method influenced by the sciences of cybernetics, autopoiesis and system theories, and challenging notions of reason and cognition, perception and memory, emotions and affection.
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Neoclassicism, modernism Golovin published his first book of poetry in Moscow in 1987. Since the late 1980s many readers have ranked Boris Golovin's poetry as one of the most influential in neoclassical movement. Though the poet himself has often emphasized that, strictly speaking, the word 'neoclassical' suffers from tautology since classical poetry as such descends from the Golden Age and fits both in the remote past and the future. Boris Golovin has always strongly declined any association with literary grouping.
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The carol consists of five verses, each verse with eight lines, and each line with eight syllables. The hymn can be characterized as a rhetorical tautology, which is visible while analyzing the text (God is born, power is trembling: Lord of the Heaven bared/exposed. Fire’s congealing/solidifying, lucence/resplendence is darkening, the infinite/endless one has limits/boundaries). These apparently oxymoronic figures of speech are used deliberately, to emphasize the importance of the miracle which took place in the shed.
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Let R be the formula A \land C. Then R \models S, because any valuation satisfying S will make A true—and thus makes S true. It follows from the definition that if a formula R is a contradiction, then R tautologically implies every formula, because there is no truth valuation that causes R to be true, and so the definition of tautological implication is trivially satisfied. Similarly, if S is a tautology, then S is tautologically implied by every formula.
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A related claim to the supposed unfalsifiability of evolution is that natural selection is tautological. Specifically, it is often argued that the phrase "survival of the fittest" is a tautology, in that fitness is defined as ability to survive and reproduce. This phrase was first used by Herbert Spencer in 1864 but is rarely used by biologists. Additionally, fitness is more accurately defined as the state of possessing traits that make survival more likely; this definition, unlike simple "survivability," avoids being trivially true.
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In particular, fluctuating hydrodynamic equations include a Fick's flow term, with a given diffusion coefficient, along with hydrodynamics equations and stochastic terms describing fluctuations. When calculating the fluctuations with a perturbative approach, the zero order approximation is Fick's law. The first order gives the fluctuations, and it comes out that fluctuations contribute to diffusion. This represents somehow a tautology, since the phenomena described by a lower order approximation is the result of a higher approximation: this problem is solved only by renormalizing the fluctuating hydrodynamics equations.
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In logic, the law of non-contradiction (LNC) (also known as the law of contradiction, principle of non-contradiction (PNC), or the principle of contradiction) states that contradictory propositions cannot both be true in the same sense at the same time, e. g. the two propositions "A is B" and "A is not B" are mutually exclusive. Formally this is expressed as the tautology ¬(p ∧ ¬p). One reason to have this law is the principle of explosion, which states that anything follows from a contradiction.
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The name "Carrick Knowe" is a semi- tautology, since "Carrick" derives from a Celtic word for a "rock" or "eminence", and "knowe" is the Broad Scots for a "knoll". Like nearby Corstorphine, much of the land is a former bog, and would have been part of the former Corstorphine Loch. Carrick Knowe was mainly built in 1934/5 as a private for-rent housing estate by builder, Mactaggart & Mickel, the Factor being Gumleys. The houses were built as four-in-the-block flatted villas.
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Frege argued that one had to distinguish between the sense (Sinn) and the reference of the name. And that different names for the same entity might identify the same referent without being formally synonymous. For example, although the Morning star and the evening star is the same astronomical object, the proposition "the morning star is the evening star" is not a tautology but provides actual information to someone who did not know this. Hence to Frege the two names for the object must have a different sense.
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"Arroyo Seco" means "dry streambed" or "dry wash" in Spanish. The river probably got its name because it disappears into the ground more than above its mouth for most of the year, however, it reaches the Salinas during the rainy season. The river above the Salinas Valley is actually a fairly large perennial stream. The common name, Arroyo Seco River or Arroyo Seco Creek, is actually a tautology because the name contains two mentions of "watercourse", thus "Arroyo Seco River" literally translates to "dry streambed river".
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Today, national competitions are held where groups are judged to find the best performers; these draw large crowds. The common expression "" is, strictly speaking, a tautology. The – an action chant, often described as a "war dance", but more a chant with hand gestures and foot stomping, originally performed by warriors before a battle, proclaiming their strength and prowess by way of abusing the opposition. Now, this procedure is regularly performed by New Zealand representatives of rugby and rugby league teams before a game begins.
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The disjunction elimination rule may be written in sequent notation: : (P \to Q), (R \to Q), (P \lor R) \vdash Q where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that Q is a syntactic consequence of P \to Q, and R \to Q and P \lor R in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: :(((P \to Q) \land (R \to Q)) \land (P \lor R)) \to Q where P, Q, and R are propositions expressed in some formal system.
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Morris v. United States, 174 U.S. 196, 295-300. There could be no doubt, White argued, that the private landowners intended to give all of their riparian rights to the federal government, and there could be no doubt that the federal government intended to give all riparian rights to those to whom it sold the land.Morris v. United States, 174 U.S. 196, 300-301. The majority's argument led to a tautology in which no riparian rights existed.Morris v. United States, 174 U.S. 196, 307.
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The biconditional introduction rule may be written in sequent notation: :(P \to Q), (Q \to P) \vdash (P \leftrightarrow Q) where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that P \leftrightarrow Q is a syntactic consequence when P \to Q and Q \to P are both in a proof; or as the statement of a truth- functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: :((P \to Q) \land (Q \to P)) \to (P \leftrightarrow Q) where P, and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system.
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The constructive dilemma rule may be written in sequent notation: : (P \to Q), (R \to S), (P \lor R) \vdash (Q \lor S) where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that Q \lor S is a syntactic consequence of P \to Q, R \to S, and P \lor R in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: :(((P \to Q) \land (R \to S)) \land (P \lor R)) \to (Q \lor S) where P, Q, R and S are propositions expressed in some formal system.
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The absorption rule may be expressed as a sequent: : P \to Q \vdash P \to (P \land Q) where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that P \to (P \land Q) is a syntactic consequence of (P \rightarrow Q) in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic. The principle was stated as a theorem of propositional logic by Russell and Whitehead in Principia Mathematica as: :(P \to Q) \leftrightarrow (P \to (P \land Q)) where P, and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system.
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The second edition of A. J. Ayer's book arrived in 1946, and discerned strong versus weak forms of verification. Ayer concluded, "A proposition is said to be verifiable, in the strong sense of the term, if, and only if, its truth could be conclusively established by experience", but is verifiable in the weak sense "if it is possible for experience to render it probable".Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, 1946, pp. 50–51. And yet, "no proposition, other than a tautology, can possibly be anything more than a probable hypothesis".
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If a formula is a tautology, then there is a truth table for it which shows that each valuation yields the value true for the formula. Consider such a valuation. By mathematical induction on the length of the subformulas, show that the truth or falsity of the subformula follows from the truth or falsity (as appropriate for the valuation) of each propositional variable in the subformula. Then combine the lines of the truth table together two at a time by using "( is true implies ) implies (( is false implies ) implies )".
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Alternatively, the name could be a tautology; a combination of and , both meaning 'ford' in Gaelic and Scots respectively. Alford gave its name to a battle of the Battle of Alford (1645). It is also the home of the Aberdeen Angus cattle breed, which is celebrated by a life-sized model of a bull on the edge of the village, which the Queen Mother inaugurated in 2001. It is believed that the original breeding ground of the cattle was Buffal, located between Tough (Tulloch) and Craigievar nearby Alford.
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Rush Rhees, in his notes on lectures given by Wittgenstein, while discussing the reality of physical objects, has him say: > We get something similar when we write a tautology like "p → p". We > formulate such expressions to get something in which there is no doubt – > even though the sense has vanished with the doubt.The Language of Sense Data > and Private Experience: Notes taken by Rush Rhees of Wittgenstein's > Lectures, 1936 Lecture VIII, February 24, 1936. in Klagge, James, Nordmann, > Alfred (editors) (1993) Ludwig Wittgenstein: Philosophical Occasions > 1912–1951p. 318.
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Canadian byo-yomi imposes a certain average speed of play, but allows the player to spend more time to ponder on difficult moves. Several byo-yomi periods in one move per period variant (also known as Japanese byo-yomi, though that is a bit of tautology) serve essentially the same purpose, albeit to a lesser extent. Unused time during one byo-yomi period does not carry forward to future moves. This is in contrast to the Fischer clock often used in chess, with designations such as "5 minutes + 12 seconds per move".
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Coinciding with the album's release, the band also planned a tour across the United States in support of the album following its release, including locations across the United States such as New York, Atlanta, California, and more./ In 2017 and 2018, the band has been supporting Peter Hook and the Light on some of their concert dates. In 2018, they released Banker's Hill. The following year they signed with Joyful Noise Recordings, reissuing their debut LP. In 2020, they announced that their eighth full-length album Tautology would be released in September.
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Nagel and Newman:110-111 Hence Nagel and Newman can now define the notion of tautologous: "a formula is a tautology if and only if it falls in the class K1, no matter in which of the two classes its elements are placed".Nagel and Newman:111 This way, the property of "being tautologous" is described—without reference to a model or an interpretation. Post observed that, if the system were inconsistent, a deduction in it (that is, the last formula in a sequence of formulas derived from the tautologies) could ultimately yield S itself.
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This is usually the most expensive type of insurance. It is custom in the UK for insurance customers to refer to their Comprehensive Insurance as "Fully Comprehensive" or popularly, "Fully Comp". This is a tautology as the word 'Comprehensive' means full. Some classes of vehicle ownership, or use, are "Crown Exempt" from the requirement to be covered under the Act including vehicles owned or operated by certain councils and local authorities, national park authorities, education authorities, police authorities, fire authorities, health service bodies, the security services and vehicles used to or from Shipping Salvage purposes.
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266 against a tradition identifying the name as an example of tautology in place-names, first proposed by Denton (1688).Thomas Denton: A Perambulation of Cumberland, 1687-8, including descriptions of Westmorland, the Isle of Man and Ireland Denton interpreted tor, pen and how as three elements all with the base meaning "hill".Denton apprarently exaggerated the example to a "Torpenhow Hill", which would quadruple the "hill" element, but the existence of a toponym "Torpenhow Hill" is not substantiated. Ekwall's Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-names (4th ed.
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By the early 1970s, Saul Kripke established the necessary a posteriori, since if the Morning Star and the Evening Star are the same star, they are the same star by necessity, but this is known true by a human only through relevant experience. Hume's fork remains basic in Anglo-American philosophy. Many deceptions and confusions are foisted by surreptitious or unwitting conversion of a synthetic claim to an analytic claim, rendered true by necessity but merely a tautology, for instance the No true Scotsman move. Simply put, Hume's fork has limitations.
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However, the expression "survival of the fittest" (taken on its own and out of context) gives a very incomplete account of the mechanism of natural selection. The reason is that it does not mention a key requirement for natural selection, namely the requirement of heritability. It is true that the phrase "survival of the fittest", in and by itself, is a tautology if fitness is defined by survival and reproduction. Natural selection is the portion of variation in reproductive success that is caused by heritable characters (see the article on natural selection).
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These productions display a hatred of sham, and a rough but honest moral purpose. Although bawdy, they present a vivid picture of contemporary manners. Shadwell is chiefly remembered as the unfortunate Mac Flecknoe of Dryden's satire, the "last great prophet of tautology," and the literary son and heir of Richard Flecknoe: > "The rest to some faint meaning make pretense, > But Shadwell never deviates into sense." Dryden had furnished Shadwell with a prologue to his True Widow (1679) and, in spite of momentary differences, the two had been on friendly terms.
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Toward a metabolic theory of ecology. Ecology 85: 1771–1789 Accomplishments and new hypotheses generated by Peters’ book were recently discussed in a symposium titled “Size-based approaches to aquatic ecosystems and fisheries science: a symposium in honour of Rob Peters” (American Fisheries Society Meeting, Quebec City, August 2015) and published in an issue of the Canadian Journal of Fisheries Aquatic Sciences Canadian Journal of Fisheries Aquatic Sciences 2016 (4): 471-726 Peters presented his ideas on the shortcomings of ecology in several papers,Peters RH. 1976. Tautology in evolution and ecology.
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"A calorie is a calorie" is a tautology used to convey the speaker's conviction that the concept of the "calorie" is in fact a sufficient way to describe energy content of food. The tautological phrase means that regardless of the form of food calorie a person consumes (whether a carbohydrate, protein or fat calorie) the energetic value of such a calorie, is identical to any other. One dietary calorie contains 4,184 joules of energy. With this knowledge, it is easy to assume that all calories have equal value.
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The statement is more than a tautology, as it expresses the fundamental fact that unit cost [i.e., the cost of education] is determined by hard dollars of revenue and only indirectly and distantly by considerations of need, technology, efficiency, and market wages and prices. (p. 19) Bowen's book provided plentiful evidence that higher education institutions of similar size, situation and repute had radically different costs per student, and spent each dollar differently from one another. Their different costs were a function of their different histories in raising money.
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Scientists have generally responded that these arguments are poorly supported by existing evidence.Stenger 2011, p. 243Susskind 2005 Victor J. Stenger and other critics say both intelligent design and the weak form of the anthropic principle are essentially a tautology; in his view, these arguments amount to the claim that life is able to exist because the Universe is able to support life. The claim of the improbability of a life-supporting universe has also been criticized as an argument by lack of imagination for assuming no other forms of life are possible.
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Nevertheless, the minimum length of proofs of theorems will remain unbounded, that is, for any natural number n there will still be theorems which cannot be proved in n or fewer steps. If the new axiom schema is not a tautology, then every formula becomes a theorem (which makes the concept of a theorem useless in this case). What is more, there is then an upper bound on the minimum length of a proof of every formula, because there is a common method for proving every formula. For example, suppose the new axiom schema were ((B→C)→C)→B.
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Following Elisabeth Sladen's departure, Tom Baker told producer Philip Hinchcliffe that he wanted to do a story without a companion.Voice-over commentary on the BBC DVD The Robots of Death (1977, 2000) Robert Holmes said that it was difficult to write the script for The Deadly Assassin without anyone for the Doctor to share his thoughts and plans with, which was the usual role of the companion. Working titles for this story included The Dangerous Assassin (which Holmes changed to "deadly" because he thought it "didn't sound right"). The final title is a tautology: a successful assassin must, by definition, be deadly.
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Among other samples, the author used as illustrations several fragments from Pantazi Ghica's novella Marele vistier Cândescu ("The Great Treasurer Cândescu"). He noted the implicit tautology in Ghica's term silenţiu lugubru ("lugubrious silence"), pointing out that the first word covered the meaning of "silent" (thus leaving the notion to be read "silent silence"). A more complex one, listing several synonyms on end, read: > "[...] all left in silence but their faces showed the same pain, the same > exasperation, the same desperation." Pantazi Ghica, Urechia, Dimitrie August Laurian and Petru Grădişteanu decided to issue a common reply to Maiorescu's accusations, using Românul as their venue.
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These include the "a priori" or "prima facie" argument which attempt to demonstrate that the resolution is true/false outside of the typical syllogistic model, most commonly by collapsing it into a tautology or presenting some reason why it's nonsensical. "Theory" debate, which says that an opponent's argument or style of argumentation (e.g. talking too fast or interpreting the resolution in a certain way) is unfair or uneducational and explains why fairness or educational considerations supersedes the resolutional evaluation, has also proliferated. Like atypical cases, the merit of these types of arguments is heatedly contested, although both are common on the national circuit.
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As an assignment to variable S can come from either class K1 or K2, the deduction violates the inheritance characteristic of tautology (i.e., the derivation must yield an evaluation of a formula that will fall into class K1). From this, Post was able to derive the following definition of inconsistency—without the use of the notion of contradiction: In other words, the notion of "contradiction" can be dispensed when constructing a proof of consistency; what replaces it is the notion of "mutually exclusive and exhaustive" classes. An axiomatic system need not include the notion of "contradiction".
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Second, he argues that contradictions arise only when the subject and predicate are maintained and, therefore, a judgement of non-existence cannot be a contradiction, as it denies the predicate. Kant then proposes that the statement "God exists" must be analytic or synthetic—the predicate must be inside or outside of the subject, respectively. If the proposition is analytic, as the ontological argument takes it to be, then the statement would be true only because of the meaning given to the words. Kant claims that this is merely a tautology and cannot say anything about reality.
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Writing in Archaeologia Cambrensis, W.E. Griffiths and A. H. A. Hogg identify 'Caer Seion' as the older and more genuine name of the hillfort, for which they cite evidence dating as far back as the 9th century. The alternative name 'Castell Caer Lleion' seems to date to the late 17th century and probably came about due to a mistranslation. Indeed, 'Castell Caer' is somewhat of a tautology, translating into English as "Castle Fort". Because there is no standardised name for the site, it is referred to variously as 'Caer Seion', 'Castell Caer Seion', 'Castell Caer Lleion', 'Castell Caer Leion' and 'Conwy Mountain hillfort'.
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Henri Poincaré had made similar remarks in Science and Hypothesis in 1905. Although Bertrand Russell at first argued against these remarks by Wittgenstein and Poincaré, claiming that mathematical truths were not only non-tautologous but were synthetic, he later spoke in favor of them in 1918: Here, logical proposition refers to a proposition that is provable using the laws of logic. During the 1930s, the formalization of the semantics of propositional logic in terms of truth assignments was developed. The term "tautology" began to be applied to those propositional formulas that are true regardless of the truth or falsity of their propositional variables.
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The biconditional elimination rule may be written in sequent notation: :(P \leftrightarrow Q) \vdash (P \to Q) and :(P \leftrightarrow Q) \vdash (Q \to P) where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that P \to Q, in the first case, and Q \to P in the other are syntactic consequences of P \leftrightarrow Q in some logical system; or as the statement of a truth- functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: :(P \leftrightarrow Q) \to (P \to Q) :(P \leftrightarrow Q) \to (Q \to P) where P, and Q are propositions expressed in some formal system.
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The destructive dilemma rule may be written in sequent notation: : (P \to Q), (R \to S), ( eg Q \lor eg S) \vdash ( eg P \lor eg R) where \vdash is a metalogical symbol meaning that eg P \lor eg R is a syntactic consequence of P \to Q, R \to S, and eg Q \lor eg S in some logical system; and expressed as a truth-functional tautology or theorem of propositional logic: :(((P \to Q) \land (R \to S)) \land ( eg Q \lor eg S)) \to ( eg P \lor eg R) where P, Q, R and S are propositions expressed in some formal system.
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From Darwinian Metaphysics towards Understanding the Evolution of Evolutionary Mechanisms: A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Gene-Darwinism and Universal Darwinism. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. Skeptic Society founder and Skeptic magazine publisher Michael Shermer addresses the tautology problem in his 1997 book, Why People Believe Weird Things, in which he points out that although tautologies are sometimes the beginning of science, they are never the end, and that scientific principles like natural selection are testable and falsifiable by virtue of their predictive power. Shermer points out, as an example, that population genetics accurately demonstrate when natural selection will and will not effect change on a population.
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Concerning reality, the necessary is a state true in all possible worlds—mere logical validity—whereas the contingent hinges on the way the particular world is. Concerning knowledge, the a priori is knowable before or without, whereas the a posteriori is knowable only after or through, relevant experience. Concerning statements, the analytic is true via terms' arrangement and meanings, thus a tautology—true by logical necessity but uninformative about the world—whereas the synthetic adds reference to a state of facts, a contingency. In 1739, David Hume cast a fork aggressively dividing "relations of ideas" from "matters of fact and real existence", such that all truths are of one type or the other.
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Rodger's method permits an absolutely unlimited amount of post hoc data snooping and this is accompanied by a guarantee that the long run expectation of type 1 errors will never exceed the commonly used rates of either 5 or 1 percent. Whenever a researcher falsely rejects a true null contrast (whether it is a planned or post hoc one) the probability of that being a type 1 error is 100%. It is the average number of such errors over the long run that Rodger's method guarantees cannot exceed Eα = 0.05 or 0.01. This statement is a logical tautology, a necessary truth, that follows from the manner in which Rodger's method was originally conceived and subsequently built.
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Analytic truth defined as a true statement derivable from a tautology by putting synonyms for synonyms is near Kant's account of analytic truth as a truth whose negation is a contradiction. Analytic truth defined as a truth confirmed no matter what however, is closer to one of the traditional accounts of a priori. While the first four sections of Quine's paper concern analyticity, the last two concern apriority. Putnam considers the argument in the two last sections as independent of the first four, and at the same time as Putnam criticizes Quine, he also emphasizes his historical importance as the first top rank philosopher to both reject the notion of apriority and sketch a methodology without it.
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Suppose we are faced with a contradictory set of premises Γ and wish to avoid being reduced to triviality. In classical logic, the only method one can use is to reject one or more of the premises in Γ. In paraconsistent logic, we may try to compartmentalize the contradiction. That is, weaken the logic so that Γ→X is no longer a tautology provided the propositional variable X does not appear in Γ. However, we do not want to weaken the logic any more than is necessary for that purpose. So we wish to retain modus ponens and the deduction theorem as well as the axioms which are the introduction and elimination rules for the logical connectives (where possible).
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Strictly speaking, a sufficient cause cannot be a single factor, as any causal factor must act casually through many other factors. And although a necessary cause might exist, humans cannot verify one, since humans cannot check every possible state of affairs. (Language can state necessary causality as a tautology—a statement whose terms' arrangement and meanings render it is logically true by mere definition—which, as an analytic statement, is uninformative about the actual world. A statement referring to and contingent on the world's actualities is a synthetic statement, rather.) Sufficient causality is more actually sufficient component causality—a complete set of component causes interacting within a causal constellation—which, however, is beyond humans' capacity to fully discover.
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This slash-and-burn practice, known as "debbio" in Italian, aimed to create fields where grapevines or cereals such as foxtail, millet and rye were grown, or just to create open spaces where stone huts with thatched roofs were built. By doing this, they created a bustum (burnt, in Latin), that is a new settlement which, in order to be distinguished from the other nearby settlements, was assigned a name: arsicium (again "burnt", or better "arid") for Busto Arsizio, whose name is actually a tautology; carulfì for nearby Busto Garolfo, cava for Busto Cava, later Buscate. The slow increase in population was helped by the Insubres, a Gaulish tribe who arrived in successive waves by crossing the Alps c.
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Charles Bernard Renouvier was the first Frenchman after Nicolas Malebranche to formulate a complete idealistic system, and had a vast influence on the development of French thought. His system is based on Immanuel Kant's, as his chosen term "néo-criticisme" indicates; but it is a transformation rather than a continuation of Kantianism. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that Kant commits an agnostic tautology and does not offer a satisfactory answer as to the source of a philosophical right to such-or-other metaphysical claims; he ridicules his pride in tackling "the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics."Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, Part 1 On the Prejudice of Philosophers Section 11; cf.
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In the 5th and 6th editions of On the origin of species, following a suggestion of Alfred Russel Wallace, Darwin used "Survival of the fittest", an expression first coined by Herbert Spencer, as a synonym for "Natural Selection". Popper and others said that, if one uses the most widely accepted definition of "fitness" in modern biology (see subsection ), namely reproductive success itself, the expression "survival of the fittest" is a tautology. In practice, as illustrated by the peppered moth example of section , the questions asked are of the kind how specific traits affect the survival rate or fitness of a species when confronted by an environmental factor such as industrial pollution. Great Darwinist Ronald Fisher worked out mathematical theorems to help answer this kind of questions.
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One of Fabro's first pieces was called Tubo da mettere tra i fiori (Tube to place among flowers), 1963. It was a site- specific installation designed for a Milanese garden, even if it was never displayed there; it was made of telescopic steel tubes. He made several works that deal with steel tubes in dialogue with basic physical laws of nature. In 1965 he had his first solo show, at the Galleria Vismara, in Milan, where he combined mirror pieces with spatial lines.group=Tate> Around 1966, he began to make performative works such as Indumenti: posaseni, calzari, bandoliera (Garments: bra, boots, cross-belt), 1966; Allestimento Teatrale (Cube di specchi) Theatrical Staging (Cube of Mirrors), 1967-1975; and Pavimento/Tautologia (Floor/ Tautology), 1967.
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The semantics of propositional logic rely on truth assignments. The essential idea of a truth assignment is that the propositional variables are mapped to elements of a fixed Boolean algebra, and then the truth value of a propositional formula using these letters is the element of the Boolean algebra that is obtained by computing the value of the Boolean term corresponding to the formula. In classical semantics, only the two-element Boolean algebra is used, while in Boolean-valued semantics arbitrary Boolean algebras are considered. A tautology is a propositional formula that is assigned truth value 1 by every truth assignment of its propositional variables to an arbitrary Boolean algebra (or, equivalently, every truth assignment to the two element Boolean algebra).
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Christopher Hill and Brian Mclaughlin have argued against the idea that facts about consciousness are further facts, disputing the logical possibility of a world physically identical to ours in which the facts about consciousness are different. Chalmers also considers facts about indexicality. He cites the fact that "I am David Chalmers", noting that its significance seems to go beyond the tautology that David Chalmers is David Chalmers. (See also Caspar Hare's egocentric presentism and Benj Hellie's vertiginous question.) Similarly, in the philosophy of time, what date and time it is now might be considered a candidate for a further fact, in the sense that a being that knows everything about the full four-dimensional block of spacetime would still not know what time it is now.
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Wittgenstein is to be credited with the invention or at least the popularization of truth tables (4.31) and truth conditions (4.431) which now constitute the standard semantic analysis of first-order sentential logic.Grayling, A.C. Wittgenstein: A Very Short Introduction, OxfordKneale, M. & Kneale, W. (1962), The Development of Logic The philosophical significance of such a method for Wittgenstein was that it alleviated a confusion, namely the idea that logical inferences are justified by rules. If an argument form is valid, the conjunction of the premises will be logically equivalent to the conclusion and this can be clearly seen in a truth table; it is displayed. The concept of tautology is thus central to Wittgenstein's Tractarian account of logical consequence, which is strictly deductive.
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The word tautology was used by the ancient Greeks to describe a statement that was asserted to be true merely by virtue of saying the same thing twice, a pejorative meaning that is still used for rhetorical tautologies. Between 1800 and 1940, the word gained new meaning in logic, and is currently used in mathematical logic to denote a certain type of propositional formula, without the pejorative connotations it originally possessed. In 1800, Immanuel Kant wrote in his book Logic: Here, analytic proposition refers to an analytic truth, a statement in natural language that is true solely because of the terms involved. In 1884, Gottlob Frege proposed in his Grundlagen that a truth is analytic exactly if it can be derived using logic.
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One motivating application of propositional calculus is the analysis of propositions and deductive arguments in natural language. Whereas the proposition "if x = 3 then x+1 = 4" depends on the meanings of such symbols as + and 1, the proposition "if x = 3 then x = 3" does not; it is true merely by virtue of its structure, and remains true whether "x = 3" is replaced by "x = 4" or "the moon is made of green cheese." The generic or abstract form of this tautology is "if P then P", or in the language of Boolean algebra, "P → P". Replacing P by x = 3 or any other proposition is called instantiation of P by that proposition. The result of instantiating P in an abstract proposition is called an instance of the proposition.
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"As Sure As Eggs Is Eggs" is a folklore variation of the logical tautology that "X = X"Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase & Fable and in this context is a reference to certainty and faith—being absolutely convinced of the ultimate victory of good over evil and that God and Heaven do indeed exist. "Aching Men's Feet" is a play on "making ends meet". "Apocalypse" segues into this part via a slower section that reprises the lyrics from "Lover's Leap" in combination with the chord progression from "The Guaranteed Eternal Sanctuary Man", backed by a pressed snare drum roll and tubular bells. During live shows, a flash charge would be fired and Gabriel would discard his Magog costume to reveal himself in shining white apparel that glowed when exposed to black light.
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She has spoken out against no-racial- profiling programs for the police, calling them a "politically correct ignoring" of what is known to be the "logical necessity of Islamic terrorisms." She has criticized efforts to instate no-racial-profiling policies, calling these efforts an "illogical tautology" because "you cannot be an Islamic terrorist unless you're a member of the Muslim faith". She has defended the Patriot Act and argued for secrecy and speed in handling problems as well as the sharing of information between departments within the intelligence community, and advocated that the benefits of government power be balanced against the risks of abuse. She stated that the interrogation techniques promulgated in the war on terror were "light years" from real torture and "hedged around" with bureaucratic safeguards.
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The New York Times called it "a diatribe that preaches to the converted" while blogs such as Crooked Timber (a blog Robin contributes to) have defended it. The New Republic gave a lukewarm review, saying that "Robin's arguments deserve widespread attention. But they [sic] way he has presented them almost ensures that they will not get it". Mark Lilla criticized Robin's argument, arguing that Robin's definition of conservatism "can be reduced to this: "those who react against movements of the left" react against movements of the left - which is a tautology, not an argument" and that one needs to "distinguish between conservatism, which is informed by a view of human nature; reaction, which is informed by a view of history; and the right, which is a shifting, engaged ideological family".
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The Novikov consistency principle assumes certain conditions about what sort of time travel is possible. Specifically, it assumes either that there is only one timeline, or that any alternative timelines (such as those postulated by the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics) are not accessible. Given these assumptions, the constraint that time travel must not lead to inconsistent outcomes could be seen merely as a tautology, a self-evident truth that can not possibly be false. However, the Novikov self-consistency principle is intended to go beyond just the statement that history must be consistent, making the additional nontrivial assumption that the universe obeys the same local laws of physics in situations involving time travel that it does in regions of space-time that lack closed timelike curves.
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On the other hand, they generally reject the Korean interpretation because the stele says Baekje was previously a state subservient to Goguryeo before the simmyo passage and that recording the conquest into Baekje would result tautology in this section of the stele. Further, the Korean interpretation arbitrarily interject Goguryeo as the subject that conquered Baekje and Silla, which is also inconsistent with the preceding phrase "crossed the sea." However, Korean scholars generally refute this claim by pointing to ancient records (chiefly the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa), which make clear that before King Gwanggaeto, Baekje held out well against its northern neighbor. Therefore, the statement in the stele that claims Baekje was a Goguryeo subject before the sinmyo passage would be propaganda on the part of Goguryeo; thus the conquest of Baekje would not be redundant.
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Kensho is insight, an understanding of our essential nature as Buddha-nature, or the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which was equated with Buddha-nature by the East Mountain school. Contemporary understanding also describes kensho as an experience, as in "enlightenment experience"; the term "enlightenment experience" is itself a tautology: "Kensho (enlightenment) is an enlightenment (kensho)-experience". The notion of "experience" fits in a popular set of dichotomies: pure (unmediated) versus mediated, noncognitive versus cognitive, experiential versus intellectual, intuitive versus intellectual, nonrational versus rational, nondiscursive versus discursive, nonpropositional versus propositional. The notion of pure experience (junsui kuiken) to interpret and understand kensho was introduced by Nishida Kitaro in his An Inquiry into the Good (1911), under influence of "his somewhat idiosyncratic reading of western philosophy", especially William James, who wrote The Varieties of Religious Experience.
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In theoretical computer science, and specifically computational complexity theory, proof complexity is the field aiming to understand and analyse the computational resources that are required to prove or refute statements. Research in proof complexity is predominantly concerned with proving proof- length lower and upper bounds in various propositional proof systems. For example, among the major challenges of proof complexity is showing that Frege system, the usual propositional calculus, does not admit polynomial-size proofs of all tautologies; here the size of the proof is simply the number of symbols in it, and a proof is said to be of polynomial size if it is polynomial in the size of the tautology it proves. Systematic study of proof complexity began with the work of Stephen Cook and Robert Reckhow (1979) who provided the basic definition of a propositional proof system from the perspective of computational complexity.
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Thus PQ is the level of nominal expenditures. This equation is a rearrangement of the definition of velocity: V = PQ / M. As such, without the introduction of any assumptions, it is a tautology. The quantity theory of money adds assumptions about the money supply, the price level, and the effect of interest rates on velocity to create a theory about the causes of inflation and the effects of monetary policy. In earlier analysis before the wide availability of the national income and product accounts, the equation of exchange was more frequently expressed in transactions form: :M\cdot V_T = P\cdot T where :V_T\, is the transactions velocity of money, that is the average frequency across all transactions with which a unit of money is spent (including not just expenditures on newly produced goods and services, but also purchases of used goods, financial transactions involving money, etc.).
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In Speech Acts, John Searle argues that from the difficulties encountered in trying to explicate analyticity by appeal to specific criteria, it does not follow that the notion itself is void. Considering the way which we would test any proposed list of criteria, which is by comparing their extension to the set of analytic statements, it would follow that any explication of what analyticity means presupposes that we already have at our disposal a working notion of analyticity. In "'Two Dogmas' Revisited", Hilary Putnam argues that Quine is attacking two different notions: Analytic truth defined as a true statement derivable from a tautology by putting synonyms for synonyms is near Kant's account of analytic truth as a truth whose negation is a contradiction. Analytic truth defined as a truth confirmed no matter what, however, is closer to one of the traditional accounts of a priori.
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Scholars have generally believed that either Parmenides was responding to Heraclitus, or Heraclitus to Parmenides. Parmenides' main surviving work does not seem to be a refutation of any specific philosopher as much as it is the first deductively valid schema upon which the truth can be reached. His argument can be summarized by the following logical notation: The "Way of Truth" (where Being is P): Being is and non-being is notP \land \urcorner (\urcorner P) \therefore PThe deductive validity of the premises holds true and the way of truth thus represents a tautology This is contrasted by the "Way of Opinion": Being is not, therefore non-being is\urcorner (P) \therefore \urcorner PWhile this is deductively valid, the validity of this notation rests on an ambiguity of language. "For if this statement were true, it would not be possible for you to conceive of non-being, nor to name it".
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The third essay, called "The Unhappiest One", discusses the hypothetical question: "who deserves the distinction of being unhappier than everyone else?" Kierkegaard has progressed from a search for the highestEither/Or Part I, Swenson, p. 27 "sleeping is the highest", 32 "A good cut" of meat is the highest, 37-39 "Tautology is the highest law of thought", 46-47 "I will form a sect which not only gives Mozart first place", 59 "sensuousness is first posited in Christianity", 63 "Don Juan deserves the highest place', 68 music is higher than language, 101 "Don Juan is absolutely musical" to the search for the lowest.154-156 "Antigone's" "sorrow", 167-168 "grief", 177-178 "deception" which is for love an absolute paradox", 182ff the inability to decide if you've been deceived, 220-221 "unhappy consciousness" Now he wants to find the unhappy person by looking once again to the past.
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The following example table with a check constraint will prohibit any integer values from being inserted into column i, but will allow Null to be inserted since the result of the check will always evaluate to Unknown for Nulls. CREATE TABLE t ( i INTEGER, CONSTRAINT ck_i CHECK ( i < 0 AND i = 0 AND i > 0 ) ); Because of the change in designated values relative to the WHERE clause, from a logic perspective the law of excluded middle is a tautology for CHECK constraints, meaning CHECK (p OR NOT p) always succeeds. Furthermore, assuming Nulls are to be interpreted as existing but unknown values, some pathological CHECKs like the one above allow insertion of Nulls that could never be replaced by any non-null value. In order to constrain a column to reject Nulls, the `NOT NULL` constraint can be applied, as shown in the example below.
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To clarify, writing down further laws of Boolean algebra cannot give rise to any new consequences of these axioms, nor can it rule out any model of them. In contrast, in a list of some but not all of the same laws, there could have been Boolean laws that did not follow from those on the list, and moreover there would have been models of the listed laws that were not Boolean algebras. This axiomatization is by no means the only one, or even necessarily the most natural given that we did not pay attention to whether some of the axioms followed from others but simply chose to stop when we noticed we had enough laws, treated further in the section on axiomatizations. Or the intermediate notion of axiom can be sidestepped altogether by defining a Boolean law directly as any tautology, understood as an equation that holds for all values of its variables over 0 and 1.
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Quoting the author, "the only one building of certain space is the unicum of that place and that place alone becomes the only one place of that certain building". From this intentionally prefixed tautology it may be established that in his work, Cvetkovic, who has been constantly loyal to his conceptual reasoning in the photographic sense of the matter, wider in the fields of fine art and theory, has approached the Düsseldorf school most closely.written by Ph.D. Peter Krecic for the author`s nomination for the National Artist Award – Presernova nagrada Dejan Sluga, curator, for the catalogue of the exhibition City Perspectives, Photon Gallery, Ankerbrotfabrik, Vienna, 2014, To finalize the representation of Cvetkovic oeuvre attention should be drawn to his outstanding management of space and perspective correction and his ability to impart to the image in his photography the archetypes, the timelessness and the entireness of the structured spaces as a whole or things as architectures by themselves.
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Ricordare tutto Dimenticare tutto ("Remembering Everything Forgetting All") is Riccardo Beretta’s graduation thesis, discussed at the Academy of Fine Arts of Brera, in Milan, on July 16, 2007.Riccardo Beretta, Idea per una tesi di laurea The texts, of which the thesis was composed, had been previously put into and developed within the Italian version of the Wikipedia project. Since 22 January 2007 he has created Alighiero Boetti’s entry, composed another entry on the architect Ettore Sottsass in Wikiquote and “reviewed” five movies directed by Werner Herzog: Fata Morgana, Land of Silence and Darkness, The Great Ecstasy of Woodcarver Steiner, La Soufrière and Lessons of Darkness. Wikipedia has been adopted as a platform where he puts study material, revealing the tautology between the processing procedures and collective updating of the entry Alighiero Boetti and some of his works characterised by a collaborative aesthetic. Moreover, a comparison has been made between assertions of design policy by Sottsass and Herzog’s aesthetic research.
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Mainstream academics have often argued that the Oxford theory is based on snobbery: that anti-Stratfordians reject the idea that the son of a mere tradesman could write the plays and poems of Shakespeare. The Shakespeare Oxford Society has responded that this claim is "a substitute for reasoned responses to Oxfordian evidence and logic" and is merely an ad hominem attack. Mainstream critics further say that, if William Shakespeare were a fraud instead of the true author, the number of people involved in suppressing this information would have made it highly unlikely to succeed. And citing the "testimony of contemporary writers, court records and much else" supporting Shakespeare's authorship, Columbia University professor James S. Shapiro says any theory claiming that "there must have been a conspiracy to suppress the truth of de Vere's authorship" based on the idea that "the very absence of surviving evidence proves the case" is a logically fatal tautology..
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Believe (levitation in the studio) (2002), features a magician performing a levitation, in a clear allusion to Bruce Nauman's 1966 photograph, Failing to Levitate in the Studio; Untitled (vulture in the studio) (2002), in which he sets loose a vulture inside the studio and films the animal deranging it;Tavares, Gonçalo M. (September 9, 2018). "Premiado escritor Gonçalo Tavares fala sobre abutre em texto inédito". Folha de S.Paulo. Catriona Shaw sings Baldessari sing LeWitt re-edit Like a Virgin extended version (2003), a mashup of three cultural references – John Baldessari's video performance Baldessari Sings LeWitt (1972), Sol LeWitt's Sentences on Conceptual Art (1968), and Madonna's tune "Like a virgin" (1984) – in the form of a delegated performance starring the singer Catriona Shaw, and in 2004, Leap into the street (boombox travelling), which marks the passage from the studio to the public domain, through a tautology, as a boombox falls from a shelf into the street through the studio window crashing into a tree, driven by the rhythm and basses of Joy Division's 1979's theme "She's Lost Control".
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In fact, the advancing of this knowledge is totally antithetical to the expansions of the modernist, the post-modernist and the contemporary obsolete cultural heterotopias. It is quite comprehensible then, why the novel post-contemporary action has brandished the weapon, obtained from the powerful tools of complex systems, against the unstoppable and cyclical rebirth of the 'modernist’ rhetoric, which has blind faith in the reality of single and singular "fact", as an ideology against multiplicity, and idiom which terrifies from the universal and generalizable knowledge, thus, the modernist and the post-modernist thought, has no existence without a pulse of continuous driving of the abstract "theorization" in its many contradictory aspects, as a symptom that requires continuous intervention for the correction of its own paths of survival. Today within these paths, the two antithetical approaches, the temptations of intellectual reconstructions and the appeals of cultural works are still present as a system of total empiricism. The abstract theorization of the first idiom generates perpetual tautology and the second produces the rhetoric of communication and language.
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Chapter VIII of the Charaka Samhita's Vimana Sthana book includes a section for the student aiming to become a physician. The text asserts that any intelligent man who knows the challenge and patience necessary to become a physician must first decide his Guru (teacher) and the books he must study. The Charaka Samhita claims, according to Kaviratna and Sharma translation, that "diverse treatises on medicine are in circulation", and the student must select one by reputed scholar known for his wisdom, is free from tautology, ascribed to a Rishi, well compiled and has bhasya (commentaries), which treats nothing but the professed subject, is devoid of slangs and unfamiliar words, explain its inferences, is non-contradictory, and is well illustrated. The teacher for apprenticeship should be one who knows the field, has experience gained from successfully treating diseases, who is compassionate towards who approach him, who lives a life of inner and outer Shaucha, is well equipped, who knows the characteristics of health and disease, one who is without malice towards anyone, is free of anger, who respects privacy and pain of his patients, is willing to teach, and is a good communicator.
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