Sentences Generator
And
Your saved sentences

No sentences have been saved yet

"polymorphism" Definitions
  1. the quality or state of existing in or assuming different forms: such as
  2. the property of crystallizing in two or more forms with distinct structure
"polymorphism" Synonyms
variety array assortment change collection combo conglomeration departure discrepancy disparateness divergency diverseness diversification diversity fluctuation heterogeneity heterogeneousness incongruity intermixture medley polymorphy More
"polymorphism" Antonyms
agreement similarity correspondence likeness resemblance sameness similitude congruity uniformity equivalence affinity conformity correlation parallel parallelism comparability alikeness connection association parity

1000 Sentences With "polymorphism"

How to use polymorphism in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "polymorphism" and check conjugation/comparative form for "polymorphism". Mastering all the usages of "polymorphism" from sentence examples published by news publications.

type: All Declarative Interrogative Exclamative

structure: All Simple Compound Complex Compound-Complex

length: All <=10 words 10-20 words 20-30 words 30-50 words

These differences are called single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs, or "snips" for short).
Some of us have a polymorphism, a genetic variant that slows our metabolism for caffeine.
Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP, or "snip") profiling, as the technique is called, promises healthier offspring—a clear good.
The acronym stands for single-nucleotide polymorphism, a place in the genome where a single genetic letter varies from strain to strain.
Even the title —"Positive selection on a regulatory insertion-deletion polymorphism in FADS2 influences apparent endogenous synthesis of arachidonic acid"—is, uh, cryptic.
A person's genetic code can differ slightly from someone else's in lots of ways, but the most common variation is called a single-nucleotide polymorphism, or SNP.
The constant changes — a technique known as polymorphism — are invisible to human users but have the effect of blinding the bots that hackers use to carry out their automated attacks.
These variations can come in a number of forms, but the most common variation is the single nucleotide polymorphism—SNP, pronounced "snip"—representing a single difference in the individual units that make up DNA.
Recently, the standard is SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) genotyping: a genetic fingerprinting technique that looks for unique, single-letter differences in the genetic code as they exist between cell types to provide a reliable identification system for their origins.
But she also possessed a Prince-like polymorphism, a playful joy in synthesizing genres — for example, on "Tightrope" (her collaboration with Big Boi from The ArchAndroid), an itchy, jump-blues bassline and big-band horns skitter while the beat zigzags sinuously.
The study, with the catchy title "Double Gene Targeting Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction–Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Assay Discriminates Beef, Buffalo, and Pork Substitution in Frankfurter Products," used groundbreaking DNA testing to identify which meats were actually inside 20 franks purchased at Malaysian markets, and the findings aren't the most reassuring.
VariantA generic term referring to places in someone's genome that differ from a reference genome Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)A variant defined by a single letter change Polygenic Score (PGS)An algorithm that adds up the effects of multiple variants to predict the likelihood of a physical or behavioral trait based on your DNA.
Dynamic polymorphism is more flexible but slower—for example, dynamic polymorphism allows duck typing, and a dynamically linked library may operate on objects without knowing their full type. Static polymorphism typically occurs in ad hoc polymorphism and parametric polymorphism, whereas dynamic polymorphism is usual for subtype polymorphism. However, it is possible to achieve static polymorphism with subtyping through more sophisticated use of template metaprogramming, namely the curiously recurring template pattern. When polymorphism is exposed via a library, static polymorphism becomes impossible for dynamic libraries as there is no way of knowing what types the parameters are when the shared object is built.
Two popular restrictions of this form are restricted rank polymorphism (for example, rank-1 or prenex polymorphism) and predicative polymorphism. Together, these restrictions give "predicative prenex polymorphism", which is essentially the form of polymorphism found in ML and early versions of Haskell.
NET and Delphi have each introduced "generics" for parametric polymorphism. Some implementations of type polymorphism are superficially similar to parametric polymorphism while also introducing ad hoc aspects. One example is C++ template specialization. The most general form of polymorphism is "higher-rank impredicative polymorphism".
Rank-n polymorphism is polymorphism in which quantifiers may appear to the left of arbitrarily many arrows.
Polymorphism can be distinguished by when the implementation is selected: statically (at compile time) or dynamically (at run time, typically via a virtual function). This is known respectively as static dispatch and dynamic dispatch, and the corresponding forms of polymorphism are accordingly called static polymorphism and dynamic polymorphism. Static polymorphism executes faster, because there is no dynamic dispatch overhead, but requires additional compiler support. Further, static polymorphism allows greater static analysis by compilers (notably for optimization), source code analysis tools, and human readers (programmers).
Polymorphism is one good way the opportunities get to be used; it has survival value, and the selection of modifier genes may reinforce the polymorphism. In addition, polymorphism seems to be associated with a higher rate of speciation.
Due to the subtyping relation, a term may belong to more than one type. Subtyping is therefore a form of type polymorphism. In object-oriented programming the term 'polymorphism' is commonly used to refer solely to this subtype polymorphism, while the techniques of parametric polymorphism would be considered generic programming. Functional programming languages often allow the subtyping of records.
Interest in polymorphic type systems developed significantly in the 1960s, with practical implementations beginning to appear by the end of the decade. Ad hoc polymorphism and parametric polymorphism were originally described in Christopher Strachey's Fundamental Concepts in Programming Languages, where they are listed as "the two main classes" of polymorphism. Ad hoc polymorphism was a feature of Algol 68, while parametric polymorphism was the core feature of ML's type system. In a 1985 paper, Peter Wegner and Luca Cardelli introduced the term inclusion polymorphism to model subtypes and inheritance, citing Simula as the first programming language to implement it.
As a result, multiple crystal structures can be obtained with the same molecule but in different conformations. The rarest form of polymorphism arises from the differences in the primary synthon and this type of polymorphism is called as synthon polymorphism. With the growth in research in the cocrystals in recent times, it is observed that cocrystals are also prone to polymorphism.
Oreina bifrons can reach a length of . These beetles are characterised by colour polymorphism. Tom van Noorth Colour polymorphism in the leaf beetles genus Oreina.
Understanding this dichotomy between the kinetics and thermodynamics constitutes the focus of research related to the polymorphism. 305x305px In organic molecules, three types of polymorphism are mainly observed. Packing polymorphism arises when molecules pack in different ways to give different structures. Conformational polymorphism, on the other hand is mostly seen in flexible molecules where molecules have multiple conformational possibilities within a small energy window.
In programming language type theory, row polymorphism is a kind of polymorphism that allows one to write programs that are polymorphic on record field types (also known as rows, hence row polymorphism). A row-polymorphic type system and proof of type inference was introduced by Mitchell Wand.
Many types of polymorphism can be seen in the insect order Lepidoptera. Polymorphism is appearance of forms or "morphs" differing in colour and number of attributes within a single species. In Lepidoptera, polymorphism can be seen not only between individuals in a population, but also between the sexes as sexual dimorphism, between geographically separated populations in geographical polymorphism and also between generations flying at different seasons of the year (seasonal polymorphism). It also includes the phenomenon of mimicry when mimetic morphs fly alongside non-mimetic morphs in a population of a particular species.
Rs1954787 is a gene variation, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the GRIK4 gene. A study has reported that this polymorphism is associated with success of antidepressant treatment.
According to simeprevir's prescriber information, its efficacy in combination with peginterferon alfa and ribavirin is "substantially reduced in people with HCV genotype 1a with an NS3 Q80K polymorphism at baseline compared to people infected with HCV genotype 1a without Q80K polymorphism." People with Q80K polymorphism are not advised to take simeprevir.
H. sexcinctus was the first example of a definite eusocial/communal polymorphism in halictine bees, and may possibly be the most extreme example of intraspecific social polymorphism among insects.
Therefore, polymorphism is given by subtyping polymorphism as in other languages, and it is also extended in functionality by ad hoc polymorphism at run time. A closer look will also reveal that Smalltalk provides a slightly different variety of ad hoc polymorphism. Since Smalltalk has a late bound execution model, and since it provides objects the ability to handle messages that are not understood, it is possible to go ahead and implement functionality using polymorphism without explicitly overloading a particular message. This may not be generally recommended practice for everyday programming, but it can be quite useful when implementing proxies.
The PER3 “length” polymorphism in the 54-bp repeat sequence in exon 18 (GenBank accession no. AB047686) is a structural polymorphism due to an insertion or deletion of 18 amino acids in a region encoding a putative phosphorylation domain. The polymorphism has been associated with diurnal preference and delayed sleep phase syndrome. A longer allele polymorphism is associated with “morningness” and the short allele with “eveningness.” The short allele is also associated with delayed sleep phase syndrome.
In biology, polymorphism is the occurrence of two or more clearly different forms or phenotypes in a population of a species. Different types of polymorphism have been identified and are listed separately.
Less trivial examples include parametric types like lists. While polymorphism in general means that operations accept values of more than one type, the polymorphism used here is parametric. One finds the notation of type schemes in the literature, too, emphasizing the parametric nature of the polymorphism. Additionally, constants may be typed with (quantified) type variables. E.g.
The receptor defect is an autosomal recessive mutation or polymorphism.
Thus the order exhibits both genetic polymorphism and extensive polyphenism.
Specific mechanisms of this particular polymorphism are currently under investigation.
A single- nucleotide polymorphism in this gene causes Proteus syndrome.
See below. Polymorphism is common in nature; it is related to biodiversity, genetic variation, and adaptation. Polymorphism usually functions to retain variety of form in a population living in a varied environment.Dobzhansky, Theodosius. 1970.
Polymorphisms in the HTR6 gene are associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. For example, an association between the C267T (rs1805054) polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease has been shown. Others have studied the polymorphism in relation to Parkinson's disease.
Polymorphism enables one common interface for many implementations, and for objects to act differently under different circumstances. C++ supports several kinds of static (resolved at compile-time) and dynamic (resolved at run-time) polymorphisms, supported by the language features described above. Compile- time polymorphism does not allow for certain run-time decisions, while runtime polymorphism typically incurs a performance penalty.
Rs6265, also called Val66Met or G196A, is a gene variation, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the BDNF gene that codes for brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Well over a hundred research studies have examined the polymorphism.
The length polymorphism has also been shown to inhibit adipogenesis and Per3 knockout mice were shown to have increased adipose tissue and decreased muscle tissue compared to wild type. Additionally, the presence of the length polymorphism has also been shown to be associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients as compared to non-diabetic control patients. The PER3-P415A/H417R polymorphism has been linked to familial advanced sleep phase syndrome in humans, as well as to seasonal affective disorder, though when knocked in to mice, the polymorphism causes a delayed sleep phase.
Sexually dimorphic bagworm moths (Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis) mating: The female is flightless. The Heliconius butterflies from the tropics of the Western Hemisphere are the classical model for Müllerian mimicry. Polymorphism is the appearance of forms or "morphs", which differ in color and number of attributes within a single species. In Lepidoptera, polymorphism can be seen not only between individuals in a population, but also between the sexes as sexual dimorphism, between geographically separated populations in geographical polymorphism, and between generations flying at different seasons of the year (seasonal polymorphism or polyphenism).
Apostatic selection serves as a hypothesis for polymorphism because the variation it causes in prey. It is an explanation for why external polymorphism exists and this theory has been tested many times. Apostatic selection has been referred to as "selection for variation in its own sake". Apostatic selection has been used as an explanation for many types of polymorphism, including diversity in tropical insects.
A polymorphism in macrophage migration inhibitory factor has been associated with this condition.
Therefore the above mentioned application of the polymorphism and hereditariness concepts are seen.
Individuals carrying a specific polymorphism of SLC19A1 (c.80GG) have lower levels of folate. Other studies have also shown that individuals carrying the c.80AA polymorphism who are treated with methotrexate have higher levels of this anti-folate chemotherapeutic agent.
In computer programming, operator overloading, sometimes termed operator ad hoc polymorphism, is a specific case of polymorphism, where different operators have different implementations depending on their arguments. Operator overloading is generally defined by a programming language, a programmer, or both.
The term polymorphism refers to the ability of code (especially, functions or classes) to act on values of multiple types, or to the ability of different instances of the same data structure to contain elements of different types. Type systems that allow polymorphism generally do so in order to improve the potential for code re-use: in a language with polymorphism, programmers need only implement a data structure such as a list or an associative array once, rather than once for each type of element with which they plan to use it. For this reason computer scientists sometimes call the use of certain forms of polymorphism generic programming. The type-theoretic foundations of polymorphism are closely related to those of abstraction, modularity and (in some cases) subtyping.
Another noncoding polymorphism is a VNTR in the second intron (STin2). In a 2005 study, it was found with three alleles: 9, 10 and 12 repeats. A meta-analysis has found that the 12 repeat allele of the STin2 VNTR polymorphism had some minor (with odds ratio 1.24), but statistically significant, association with schizophrenia. A 2008 meta- analysis found no significant overall association between the STin2 VNTR polymorphism and autism.
In hawks, almost all of their polymorphism is found on their ventral side it allows for less common coloration to be favored since it will be recognized least. Polymorphism is defined by foraging strategies, one of which is apostatic selection. Because of the different morphs and the varying selection on them, changes in prey detection maintain prey polymorphism due to apostatic selection. Apostatic selection can be reflected in Batesian mimicry.
In genetics, Rs1805054, also called C267T, is a name used for a specific genetic variation, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), in the HTR6 gene. It is one of the few investigated polymorphisms of its gene. C267T is a synonymous polymorphism. As of 2008 meta-analysis of the polymorphism and Alzheimer's disease indicates that there probably is no association between the two, though individual studies report such an association, e.g.
Polymorphism and taxonomy. In Huxley J. The new systematics. Oxford University Press.Ford E.B. 1965.
The edited residue was previously recorded as a single nucleotide polymorphism(SNP) in dbSNP.
The question of polymorphism is discussed further in polymorphism (biology). The gradual coming-together of field observations and experimental genetics is part of the evolutionary synthesis which took place in the middle of the twentieth century.Huxley, J.S. (1942). Evolution: the Modern Synthesis.
The S18Y polymorphism of UCH-L1 has been shown to be less-prone to dimerization.
"Solid Forms of Ciprofloxacin Salicylate: Polymorphism, Formation Pathways and Thermodynamic Stability". Crystal Growth & Design (2019). .
Being based on the colour of maternal tissue, this polymorphism necessarily has a modificatory basis.
Genotyping is the process of elucidating the genotype of an individual with a biological assay. Also known as a genotypic assay, techniques include PCR, DNA fragment analysis, allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probes, DNA sequencing, and nucleic acid hybridization to DNA microarrays or beads. Several common genotyping techniques include restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (t-RFLP), amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP),"Keygene.com Homepage" and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA).
In type theory, bounded quantification (also bounded polymorphism or constrained genericity) refers to universal or existential quantifiers which are restricted ("bounded") to range only over the subtypes of a particular type. Bounded quantification is an interaction of parametric polymorphism with subtyping. Bounded quantification has traditionally been studied in the functional setting of System F<:, but is available in modern object-oriented languages supporting parametric polymorphism (generics) such as Java, C# and Scala.
In the early 1960s and 1970s, there was a great controversy over the mechanism of protein evolution and the maintenance of protein polymorphism. Nei and his collaborators developed various statistical methods for testing the neutral theory of molecular evolution using polymorphism data. Their analysis of the allele frequency distribution, the relationship between average heterozygosity and protein divergence between species, etc., showed that a large portion of protein polymorphism can be explained by neutral theory.
Their diet consists of grains and seeds. The average litter size is seven. Color Polymorphism Coat color is a genetic polymorphism. Many different coat colors are seen between species of pocket mice and even within the same population because of differences in their genotype.
They discovered previously unknown, large scale fluctuations in both polymorphism and divergence along chromosome arms. They found that the X chromosome had faster divergence and significantly less polymorphism than previously expected. They also found regions of the genome (e.g. UTRs) that signaled adaptive evolution.
Lizards of the genus Ctenophorus are known to display color polymorphism, more than one color type being found within a population. It is believed that color polymorphism in this group has evolved as a result of a combination of sexual selection and natural selection.
Bookheimer contributed to understanding of Alzheimer's disease by investigated a common polymorphism, APOE-4, a risk gene for Alzheimer’s Disease. Her work showed that normal volunteers who differ in their possession of the risk polymorphism had different brain activation patterns from APOE-4 carriers.
Females' preference for novel males in remating can explain the excessive phenotypic polymorphism in male guppies.
A rare microsatellite polymorphism in this gene is associated with cancer in patients of varying radiosensitivity.
Together with the progression, more and more aneuploidy occurs. This may be evident as nuclear polymorphism.
Paulson, D. (2013). Predator Polymorphism and Apostatic Selection. Society for the Study of Evolution, 269–277.
Tentative evidence suggests that family history and presence of the Asn40Asp polymorphism predicts naltrexone being effective.
S. L. Price, Computed Crystal Energy Landscapes for Understanding and Predicting Organic Crystal Structures and Polymorphism, Acc. Chem. Res. 2009, 42, 117–126. This kind of computed landscapes lend insights into the study on polymorphism, design of new structures and also help to design crystallization experiments.
"Reproductive trade-offs maintain bract color polymorphism in Scarlet Indian paintbrush (Castilleja coccinea)". PLoS ONE 14: e0209176. .
Genetic polymorphism, p17-25. MIT Press 1965.Ford E.B. 1975. Ecological genetics. 4th ed, Chapman & Hall. London.
The severity of vision loss in a red-green colourblind individual is influenced by the Ser180Ala polymorphism.
Ford, E. B. 1965. "Heterozygous Advantage". In Genetic Polymorphism. Boston/London.: MIT Pr./Faber & FaberKettlewell H.B.D. 1973.
Other useful applications of DNA sequencing include single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) detection, single- strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) heteroduplex analysis, and short tandem repeat (STR) analysis. Resolving DNA fragments according to differences in size and/or conformation is the most critical step in studying these features of the genome.
Visual Xbase++ with sample Animals Xbase++ is an object oriented programming language which has multiple inheritance and polymorphism. It is based on the XBase language dialect and conventions. It is 100% Clipper compatible language supporting multiple inheritance, polymorphism, object oriented programming. It supports the xBase data types, including Codeblocks.
Callimorpha dominula morpha typica with spread wings: the moth manifests in two homozygous morphs and one heterozygous morph. Genetic polymorphism occurs when the morphs are a result of genetic determination only. The extreme case of genetic polymorphism is that of the papilionid great Mormon (Papilio memnon), where four male forms and many as twenty-six female forms are reported. This species, and others in its genus, have been extensively studied for understanding the genetic basis for polymorphism and Batesian mimicry.
Several studies have seen links between the -1438G/A polymorphism and mood disorders, such as bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. A weak link with an odds ratio of 1.3 has been found between the T102C polymorphism and schizophrenia. This polymorphism has also been studied in relation to suicide attempts, with a study finding excess of the C/C genotypes among the suicide attempters. A number of other studies were devoted to finding an association of the gene with schizophrenia, with diverging results.
Cook L.M. 1998. A two-stage model for Cepaea polymorphism. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 353, 1577-1593.
This study revealed a significant link between a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within the SAPAP3 gene and trichotillomania.
For some fixed value k, rank-k polymorphism is a system in which a quantifier may not appear to the left of k or more arrows (when the type is drawn as a tree). Type inference for rank-2 polymorphism is decidable, but reconstruction for rank-3 and above is not.
In genetics, rs28363170 (DAT1-VNTR) is a genetic variation at SLC6A3, the gene that encodes the dopamine transporter. It is polymorphism as a 40 base pairs VNTR in the 3' untranslated region. It is a deletion/insertion polymorphism (DIP). The 9-repeat and the 10-repeat are the most common alleles.
Alternatively, in such cases that the target gene of interest differs between two alleles by a difficult-to-detect single nucleotide polymorphism, an external marker (be it another gene or a polymorphism that is easier to detect, such as a short tandem repeat) may present as the most realistic option.
Polymorphism in microRNA Target Site (PolymiRTS) is a database of naturally occurring DNA variations in putative microRNA target sites.
The use of the flanking DNA sequences around each restriction site is an important aspect of RAD tags. The density of RAD tags in a genome depends on the restriction enzyme used during the isolation process. There are other restriction site marker techniques, like RFLP or amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), which use fragment length polymorphism caused by different restriction sites, for the distinction of genetic polymorphism. The use of the flanking DNA-sequences in RAD tag techniques is referred as reduced-representation method.
OOP provides polymorphism on object use by method dispatch, formally subtype polymorphism via single dispatch determined by the type of the object on which the method is called. However, this does not work for constructors, as constructors create an object of some type, rather than use an existing object. More concretely, when a constructor is called, there is no object yet on which to dispatch. Using factories instead of constructors or prototypes allows one to use polymorphism for object creation, not only object use.
For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond, graphite, and fullerenes are different allotropes of carbon.
Dr. Schneider was a student of the first Biology major of the University. Her research focus mainly in Polymorphism (biology).
Polymerase chain reaction- single strand conformation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) method was used to determine the growth hormone (GH), leptin, calpain, and calpastatin polymorphism in Iranian Baluchi male sheep. An artificial neural network (ANN) model was developed to describe average daily gain (ADG) in lambs from input parameters of GH, leptin, calpain, and calpastatin polymorphism, birth weight, and birth type. The results revealed that the ANN-model is an appropriate tool to recognize the patterns of data to predict lamb growth in terms of ADG given specific genes polymorphism, birth weight, and birth type. The platform of PCR-SSCP approach and ANN-based model analyses may be used in molecular marker-assisted selection and breeding programs to design a scheme in enhancing the efficacy of sheep production.
Single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP), or single-strand chain polymorphism, is defined as a conformational difference of single-stranded nucleotide sequences of identical length as induced by differences in the sequences under certain experimental conditions. This property allows sequences to be distinguished by means of gel electrophoresis, which separates fragments according to their different conformations.
Gliclazide undergoes extensive metabolism to several inactive metabolites in human beings, mainly methylhydroxygliclazide and carboxygliclazide. CYP2C9 is involved in the formation of hydroxygliclazide in human liver microsomes and in a panel of recombinant human P450s in vitro. But the pharmacokinetics of gliclazide MR are affected mainly by CYP2C19 genetic polymorphism instead of CYP2C9 genetic polymorphism.
Capnocytophaga spp. are fusiform Gram-negative bacilli, and are part of the oral commensal flora. Microscopic observation revealed a high degree of polymorphism, with a variation in the size and appearance depending on the strain and culture conditions. This polymorphism is also reflected in the observation of colonies (orange-pigmented colonies, spreading on agar, etc.).
The homozygous mutant allele promotes DNA hypomethylation and meiotic non-disjunction, increasing the risk of down syndrome. This polymorphism correlates to a 2.5 fold risk increase independently and a 4 fold increase in risk when co-expressed with the 677C>T MTHFR mutation. Combination with the MTR2756A>G genetic polymorphism further elevates down syndrome risk.
This species shows an unusual sexual polymorphism, as some males in each population are smaller than other males and resemble females.
The metabolic effects of estrogen in postmenopausal women has been linked to the genetic polymorphism of estrogen receptor beta (ER-β).
There are multiple methods for testing and analyzing genetic information including restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and polymerase chain reactions (PCR).
"Polymorphism Analysis of Ch1 and Ch2 Genes in the Siberian Cat". Veterinary Sciences. 4 (4): 63. doi:10.3390/vetsci4040063. PMC 5753643. .
The presence of a single nucleotide polymorphism rs1868402 in the PPP3R1 gene is strongly correlated with rapid progress of Alzheimer's disease.
Faber & Faber, London. Put simply, polymorphism is when there are two or more possibilities of a trait on a gene. For example, there is more than one possible trait in terms of a jaguar's skin colouring; they can be light morph or dark morph. Due to having more than one possible variation for this gene, it is termed 'polymorphism'.
However, in some animals an environmental trigger determines the sex: alligators are a famous case in point. In ants the distinction between workers and guards is environmental, by the feeding of the grubs. Polymorphism with an environmental trigger is called polyphenism. The polyphenic system does have a degree of environmental flexibility not present in the genetic polymorphism.
Although technically speaking, DNA sequence polymorphism has been going on since the use of RFLP in the 1960s, the analysis has changed significantly over the years. DNA sequence polymorphism uses older techniques like RFLP, but on a larger scale. Sequencing is much faster and more efficient. The analysis is automated, as it uses a technique known as shotgun sequencing.
It is predicted to exhibit polymorphism, transitioning at some temperature below to a face-centred crystalline structure with the Fmm space group.
A single nucleotide polymorphism at position 1269 of the bovine uterine serpin gene has been associated with productive life in cattle populations.
A Y-SNP is a single-nucleotide polymorphism on the Y chromosome. Y-SNPs are often used in paternal genealogical DNA testing.
This suggest a possible causal effect of this polymorphism on this inflammatory marker despite not found in coding region of the gene.
6th ed, p166-7. This suggests, once again, that polymorphism is a common and important aspect of adaptive evolution in natural populations.
"Journal of Mammalogy." Taxonomic status of the Davis Mountains cottontail, Sylvilagus robustus, revealed by amplified fragment length polymorphism. 91.6 (2010): 1473-1483. Print.
As a consequence, there is a trade-off between the advantages and disadvantages of a mutated receptor, leading to polymorphism at this locus.
ACE gene polymorphism has been recently shown to have an impact with the DD genotype associated more commonly with progression to kidney failure.
Haplogroup Q-M120 is defined by the presence of the M120 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) as well as the M265 (AKA N14) SNP.
However, chromosomal polymorphism might lead to varying chromosome counts. For instance, in a study there were three northern white rhinoceroses with 81 chromosomes.
Q-L53 is a subclade of haplogroup Q-M346. Q-L53 is defined by the presence of the L53 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP).
The polymorphism at the human ABO blood group locus has been explained in this way. life cycle stage of a sexually reproducing organism.
J . Hered, 60: 180-182ISHCHENKO, V. G., 1978. Dinamicheskij polimorfizm burikh lyagushek fauni SSSR. [Dynamic polymorphism of the brown frogs of USSR fauna].
Yoshioka, P.M. (1982). Predator induced polymorphism in the bryozoan Membranipora membranacea (L.). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 61(3):233-242.
This gene contains a single nucleotide polymorphism that causes an amino acid substitution within the 11th of 12 ankyrin repeats of ANKK1 (Glu713Lys of 765 residues). This polymorphism, which is commonly referred to Taq1A, was previously believed to be located in the promoter region of the DRD2 gene, since the polymorphism is proximal to the DRD2 gene and can influence DRD2 receptor expression. It is now known to be located in the coding region of the ANKK1 gene which controls the synthesis of dopamine in the brain. The A1 allele is associated with increased activity of striatal L-amino acid decarboxylase.
Impredicative polymorphism (also called first-class polymorphism) is the most powerful form of parametric polymorphism. A definition is said to be impredicative if it is self-referential; in type theory this allows the instantiation of a variable in a type \tau with any type, including polymorphic types, such as \tau itself. An example of this is the System F with the type variable X in the type T = \forall X. X \to X, where X could even refer to T itself. In type theory, the most frequently studied impredicative typed λ-calculi are based on those of the lambda cube, especially System F.
J. B. S. Haldane in 1964 Haldane's dilemma is a limit on the speed of beneficial evolution, calculated by J. B. S. Haldane in 1957. Before the invention of DNA sequencing technologies, it was not known how much polymorphism DNA harbored, however, alloenzyme studies were beginning to make it clear that substantial polymorphism existed. This was puzzling because the amount of polymorphism known to exist seemed to exceed the theoretical limits that Haldane calculated, that is the limits imposed if polymorphisms present in the population generally influenced an organism's fitness. Motoo Kimura's landmark paper on neutral theory in 1968Kimura M. (1968).
In some species, the polymorphism is limited to one sex, typically the female. This often includes the phenomenon of mimicry when mimetic morphs fly alongside nonmimetic morphs in a population of a particular species. Polymorphism occurs both at specific level with heritable variation in the overall morphological adaptations of individuals, as well as in certain specific morphological or physiological traits within a species. Environmental polymorphism, in which traits are not inherited, is often termed as polyphenism, which in Lepidoptera is commonly seen in the form of seasonal morphs, especially in the butterfly families of Nymphalidae and Pieridae.
The alleles controlling the polymorphism form a supergene with linkage so close as to be nearly absolute. This control saves the population from a high proportion of undesirable recombinants. In this species predation by birds appears to be the main (but not the only) selective force driving the polymorphism. The snails live on heterogeneous backgrounds, and thrush are adept at detecting poor matches.
The genome encodes for eight different proteins: N, C, P, V, M, F, H, and L. The L protein, also called large protein, is involved in ATP binding, RNA polymerase activity and mRNA methyltransferase activity. Thus, it is a multifunctional enzyme. The N gene exhibits the greatest incidence of nucleotide polymorphism, while P protein has the highest incidence of amino acid polymorphism.
Alcohol intolerance is due to a genetic polymorphism of the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, the enzyme that metabolises ingested alcohol. This polymorphism is most often reported in Asian patients. It can also be an effect or side effect associated with certain drugs such as disulfiram, metronidazole, or nilutamide. Stuffy nose and skin flushing are the most common symptoms when ingesting alcohol.
In 1940, the same authors found 89 °C. All reports since then have given melting points in 83–89 °C range. It was conjectured that the differences could be due to polymorphism; namely, that the compound could crystallize in two or more different crystal structures, with different melting points. However, modern studies, including X-ray diffraction, failed to find any evidence of polymorphism.
The heritability of hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis responses to psychosocial stress is context dependent. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 89(12), 6244-6250. For example, carriers of the Bcll polymorphism have reduced salivary cortisol response to the TSST, while carriers of the N363S polymorphism have enhanced response.Kumsta, R., Entringer, S., Koper, J. W., van Rossum, E. F., Hellhammer, D. H., & Wust, S. (2007).
The workers of army ants are usually blind or can have compound eyes that are reduced to a single lens. There are species of army ants where the worker caste may show polymorphism based on physical differences and job allocations; however, there are also species that show no polymorphism at all. The worker caste is usually composed of sterile female worker ants.
Ford was one of the first scientists to be elected a Fellow of All Souls College since the seventeenth century. Ford had a long working relationship with R.A. Fisher.Papers co-written with R.A. Fisher are available on the University of Adelaide's website at By the time Ford had developed his formal definition of genetic polymorphism,Ford E.B. 1940. Polymorphism and taxonomy.
At least 60 gene sequences of lactoferrin have been characterized in 11 species of mammals. In most species, stop codon is TAA, and TGA in Mus musculus. Deletions, insertions and mutations of stop codons affect the coding part and its length varies between 2,055 and 2,190 nucleotide pairs. Gene polymorphism between species is much more diverse than the intraspecific polymorphism of lactoferrin.
Experiments have led scientists to believe that many observations recorded in laboratories neglect existing polymorphism factors in hybrid sterility due to crossing parents from non-isofemale lines, as well as possibly underestimating actual degrees of sterility caused by inaccurate measures of motility. (Reference needed) Failure to account for potential polymorphism could lead to misinterpretation of the scale on which hybrid sterility occurs.
Haplogroup Q-M25 is defined by the presence of the M25 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) as well as the M143, L714, and L716 SNPs.
Single-nucleotide polymorphism in CTSZ is found associated with tuberculosis susceptibility, indicating that the pathways involving this protein could yield novel therapies for tuberculosis.
That is a typical genetic mechanism for causing this type of polymorphism. The work involves a synthesis of field observations, taxonomy, and laboratory genetics.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the protein NEDD4L may impact how amiloride affects a person's blood pressure in people with high blood pressure.
In healthy children, SNAP25 polymorphism is linked to working memory capacity, altered PCC structure, and task-dependent PCC deactivation patterns on working memory task.
The size of each band independently confirms the position of the mutation/polymorphism. Multiple mutations can be detected by the presence of several fragments.
Chlorpropamide is a white crystalline powder with no characteristic taste or smell. It exhibits polymorphism. Its acid dissociation constant pKa is 5.0 at 20 °C.
Co-expression of this mutation with the 677C>T MTHFR polymorphism furthers the risk of spina bifida compared to an independent acting 66A>G mutation.
This causes larger, amber individuals to be immunocompromised. This polymorphism is seen in related species such as Saltella sphondylii, implying a more general evolutionary relevance.
However, in no other known species is polymorphism observed. This may reflect collecting bias, because most species are only known from a few localities. However, at least one species, E. wittei, has been collected from long nest series and polymorphism has not been found in the workers. Despite E. procera being by far the most commonly encountered Euprenolepis in collections, majors are still relatively uncommon.
In biology, polymorphism(Greek: πολύ = many, and μορφή = form, figure, silhouette) is the occurrence of two or more clearly different morphs or forms, also referred to as alternative phenotypes, in the population of a species. To be classified as such, morphs must occupy the same habitat at the same time and belong to a panmictic population (one with random mating).Ford E.B. 1965. Genetic polymorphism.
It is heritable and is modified by natural selection. In polyphenism, an individual's genetic makeup allows for different morphs, and the switch mechanism that determines which morph is shown is environmental. In genetic polymorphism, the genetic makeup determines the morph. The term polymorphism also refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals, called zooids, within the same organism.
However, heterozygote advantage is not the only way a polymorphism can be maintained. Apostatic selection, whereby a predator consumes a common morph whilst overlooking rarer morphs is possible and does occur. This would tend to preserve rarer morphs from extinction. Polymorphism is strongly tied to the adaptation of a species to its environment, which may vary in colour, food supply, and predation and in many other ways.
Candidate polymorphism search refers to finding polymorphic DNA sequences within specific genes that are candidates for certain traits. Within pharmacogenomics, this method tries to resolve pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic traits of a compound to a candidate polymorphism level. This type of information can contribute to selecting effective therapeutic strategies for a patient. To understand the potential functional impact of a polymorphic DNA sequence, gene silencing can be used.
D. Braga, F. Grepioni, L. Maini and M. Polito in Crystal Polymorphism and Multiple Crystal Forms, Vol. (Ed. W. M. Hosseini), Springer Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2009, pp. 87-95. Polymorphism arises due to the competition between kinetic and thermodynamic factors during crystallization. While long-range strong intermolecular interactions dictate the formation of kinetic crystals, the close packing of molecules generally drives the thermodynamic outcome.
In many cases, specifying default arguments in a single function declaration is preferable to providing overloaded function definitions with different numbers of parameters. Templates in C++ provide a sophisticated mechanism for writing generic, polymorphic code (i.e. parametric polymorphism). In particular, through the curiously recurring template pattern, it's possible to implement a form of static polymorphism that closely mimics the syntax for overriding virtual functions.
This is because predicativity, together with other restrictions, makes the type system simple enough that full type inference is always possible. As a practical example, OCaml (a descendant or dialect of ML) performs type inference and supports impredicative polymorphism, but in some cases when impredicative polymorphism is used, the system's type inference is incomplete unless some explicit type annotations are provided by the programmer.
In humans, a polymorphism in Clock, rs6832769, may be related to the personality trait agreeableness. Another single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in Clock, 3111C, has been associated with diurnal preference. This SNP is also associated with increased insomnia, difficulty losing weight, and recurrence of major depressive episodes in patients with bipolar disorder. In mice, Clock has been implicated in sleep disorders, metabolism, pregnancy, and mood disorders.
5-HTTLPR (serotonin-transporter-linked polymorphic region) is a degenerate repeat polymorphic region in SLC6A4, the gene that codes for the serotonin transporter. Since the polymorphism was identified in the middle of the 1990s, it has been extensively investigated, e.g., in connection with neuropsychiatric disorders. A 2006 scientific article stated that "over 300 behavioral, psychiatric, pharmacogenetic and other medical genetics papers" had analyzed the polymorphism.
In some birds – many true owls (Strigidae), some nightjars (Caprimulgidae) and a few cuckoos (Cuculus and relatives) being widely known examples – there is colour polymorphism. This means that two or more colour variants are numerous within their populations during all or at least most seasons and plumages; in the above-mentioned examples a brown (phaeomelanin) and grey (eumelanin) morph exist, termed "hepatic form" particularly in the cuckoos. Other cases of natural polymorphism are of various kinds; many are melanic/nonmelanic (some paradise-flycatchers, Terpsiphone, for example), but more unusual types of polymorphism exist – the face colour of the Gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae) or the courtship types of male ruffs (Philomachus pugnax).
Haplogroup Q-L54 is a subclade of Y-DNA haplogroup Q-L53. Q1a3a-L54 is defined by the presence of the L54 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP).
The results of this study found that the occurrence was not affected by ADAMTS13 polymorphism, and the only significant genetic factor was the person's blood group.
The structure, polymorphism, and expression of GCSH could facilitate the molecular analysis of patients with variant forms of NKH that are caused by H-protein deficiency.
Haplogroup Q-M346 is a subclade of Y-DNA Haplogroup Q. Haplogroup Q-M346 is defined by the presence of the M346 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP).
Patients with chronic hepatitis B or hepatitis C virus infection who harbor a HSPA1B-1267 single nucleotide polymorphism have a higher risk for developing hepatocellular carcinoma.
The pre-mRNA of this protein is subject to RNA editing. The editing site was previously recorded as a single nucleotide polymorphism (rs3207362) in the dbSNP.
Haplogroup Q-Z780 is a subclade of the Y-DNA Haplogroup Q-L54. Q-Z780 is defined by the presence of the Z780 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP).
Haplogroup Q-M323 is a subclade of Y-DNA Haplogroup Q-M346. Haplogroup Q-M323 is defined by the presence of the M323 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP).
In this case a change in the molecular structure and/or in the molecular packing can lead to polymorphism, and this can be investigated by NMR crystallography.
Haplogroup Q-NWT01 is a subclade of Y-DNA Haplogroup Q-MEH2. Haplogroup Q-NWT01 is defined by the presence of the NWT01 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP).
Haplogroup Q-P89.1 is a subclade of Y-DNA Haplogroup Q-MEH2. Haplogroup Q-P89.1 is defined by the presence of the P89.1 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP).
The polymorphism has also been investigated for links to personality traits. Persons with the G-allele of the polymorphism may have higher personality score for the NEO PI-R Neuroticism and TPQ Harm Avoidance traits. However, not all studies can find a clear association. One study has studied another trait and found higher score on Temperament and Character Inventory self-transcendence scale for G-allele subjects among mood disorder patients.
When designing primers for polymerase chain reaction, inosine is useful in that it can pair with any natural base. This allows for design of primers that span a single-nucleotide polymorphism, without the polymorphism disrupting the primer's annealing efficiency. However, inosine pairs preferentially with cytosine (C) and its introduction to RNA, e.g. by the action of ADARs, thereby destabilizes double-stranded RNA by changing AU base-pairs to IU mismatches.
Strand 1 differs from strand 2 at a single base pair location (a C → T polymorphism).A person's haplogroup can often be inferred from their STR results, but can be proven only with a Y-chromosome SNP test (Y-SNP test). A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a change to a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence. Typical Y-DNA SNP tests test about 20,000 to 35,000 SNPs.
66A>G, polymorphism containing chromosome is prone to fragmentation. This chromosomal loss or global DNA hypomethylation results in under condensation of pericentromeric heterochromatin, micronucleus formation and elevated risks of aneuploidy. Co-expression of this mutation and the 677T polymorphism in methionine tetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase act to further the extent of DNA damage. Hypomethylation due to impaired methylation up regulates atherosclerotic susceptible genes whilst down regulating atherosclerosis protective genes.
A 359T>C single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the extracellular leucine rich repeat domain is associated with susceptibility to Legionnaires’ Disease. Increased occurrence of asthma in some populations may be associated with Ser249Pro polymorphism, also present in the extracellular domain of the encoded protein. On the other hand, a protective SNP also exists - S249P is possibly liked to protection from bronchial asthma and resistance from asthma in children.
"C++ Reference Guide: The Object Model II". 2003\. Heading "Inheritance and Polymorphism" and "Multiple Inheritance". For example, g++ previously placed the pointer at the end of the object.
The coloration pattern on the shell is very variable.Gruneberg H. (1982). "Pseudo-polymorphism in Clithon oualaniensis". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 216(1203): 147-157. .
This mouse also shows a genetic tendency for glial fibrillary acidic protein in their lens epithelial cells. This is a new marker of polymorphism in the genus Mus.
Rs6294, also called G294A, is a gene variation--a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-- in the HTR1A gene. C(-1019)G (rs6295) is another SNP in the HTR1A gene.
Using overloading, it is possible to have a function perform two completely different things based on the type of input passed to it; this is not possible with parametric polymorphism. Another way to look at overloading is that a routine is uniquely identified not by its name, but by the combination of its name and the number, order and types of its parameters. This type of polymorphism is common in object-oriented programming languages, many of which allow operators to be overloaded in a manner similar to functions (see operator overloading). Some languages that are not dynamically typed and lack ad hoc polymorphism (including type classes) have longer function names such as `print_int`, `print_string`, etc.
Another reason why there is such a high diploid male population is because diploid male larva live within thick, closed off resinous cells which are not readily eliminated by the females. Diploid males are therefore seen as a ‘waste’ in energy and resources, and have no adaptive value to other bees. For the second main factor, genetic polymorphism, it is theorized that Euglossini bees have not reached a point where the threshold of genetic homogeneity permitting colony fitness has crossed the expected individual fitness. Therefore, euglossine genetic polymorphism levels appear to be higher than those of ordinary solitary bees, and much higher than social bees, since low polymorphism levels is seen as a foundation for advanced social evolution.
Polymorphism occurs both at specific level with heritable variation in the overall morphological design of individuals as well as in certain specific morphological or physiological traits within a species.
Some of the other SNPs are Pro16Leu, Gly272Asp, and the synonymous polymorphism G294A (rs6294). These gene variants have been studied in relation to psychiatric disorders with no definitive results.
For example, Boyko et al. (2008) inferred the distribution of fitness effects for newly arising mutations using human polymorphism data that controlled for the effects of non-equilibrium demography.
Oliver, M. J. (2010). Chloroplast genome sequence of the moss Tortula ruralis: Gene content, polymorphism, and structural arrangement relative to other green plant chloroplast genomes. BMC Genomics 11 143.
PureScript features strict evaluation, persistent data structures and type inference. The PureScript type system shares many features with those of similar functional languages like Haskell: algebraic data types and pattern matching, higher kinded types, type classes and functional dependencies, and higher-rank polymorphism. PureScript's type system adds support for row polymorphism and extensible records. However, PureScript lacks support for some of the more advanced features of Haskell like GADTs and type families.
The parameres can be difficult to see because of the presence of abundant, long setae. E. negrosensis apparently is a hypogaeic species based on its small eyes and yellow, thin cuticle, and this may explain the unusual appearance of the workers compared to other species within the genus. It remains unclear how widespread polymorphism is in the genus. Polymorphism is exhibited in E. procera, with a minor and major worker caste clearly expressed.
Beta subunits are important regulators of alpha subunits, as well as of certain signal transduction receptors and effectors. A single- nucleotide polymorphism (C825T) in this gene is associated with essential hypertension and obesity. This polymorphism is also associated with the occurrence of the splice variant GNB3-s, which appears to have increased activity. GNB3-s is an example of alternative splicing caused by a nucleotide change outside of the splice donor and acceptor sites.
Furthermore, a 2003 meta-analysis of affective disorders, major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, found a minor association to the intron 2 VNTR polymorphism, but the results of the meta- analysis were dependent upon a large effect from one individual study. The polymorphism has also been related to personality traits with a 2008 Russian study finding individuals with the STin2.10 allele having lower neuroticism scores as measured with the Eysenck Personality Inventory.
The fitness of each type of mimic decreases as it becomes more common, so the polymorphism is maintained by frequency- dependent selection. Thus the efficiency of the mimicry is maintained in a much increased total population. However it can exist within one gender. Sepsis thoracica is the only fly of the species Sepsis to exhibit male polymorphism in relation to size, with bigger males being amber in color and smaller males black in color.
A survey of nearly 40 years of computing literature which identified a number of fundamental concepts found in the large majority of definitions of OOP, in descending order of popularity: Inheritance, Object, Class, Encapsulation, Method, Message Passing, Polymorphism, and Abstraction.John C. Mitchell, Concepts in programming languages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, , p.278. Lists: Dynamic dispatch, abstraction, subtype polymorphism, and inheritance.Michael Lee Scott, Programming language pragmatics, Edition 2, Morgan Kaufmann, 2006, , p. 470.
The SFARIgene database lists MET with an autism score of 2.0, which indicates that it is a strong candidate for playing a role in cases of autism. The database also identifies at least one study that found a role for MET in cases of schizophrenia. The gene was first implicated in autism in a study that identified a polymorphism in the promoter of the MET gene. The polymorphism reduces transcription by 50%.
Y Tabel, A Berdeli, S Mir. Association of TRL2 gene Arg753Gln polymorphism with urinary tract infections in children. 2007. Int J Immunogenet 34(6):399-405 Multiple mutations in TLR4, Asp299Gly and Thr399Ile, were implicated in susceptibility to the bacterial pathogens that cause Periodontitis.T Fukusaki, N Ohara, Y Hara, A Yoshimura, K Yoshiura. Evidence for association between a Toll-like receptor 4 gene polymorphism and moderate to severe periodontitis in the Japanese population. 2007.
Fundamental Concepts in Programming Languages were an influential set of lecture notes written by Christopher Strachey for the International Summer School in Computer Programming at Copenhagen in August, 1967. It introduced much programming language terminology still in use today, including "R-value" and "L-value", "ad hoc polymorphism", "parametric polymorphism", and "referential transparency". The lecture notes were reprinted in 2000 in a special issue of Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation in memory of Strachey.
In C#, when calling an instance method accepting an argument, multiple dispatch can be achieved without employing the visitor pattern. This is done by using traditional polymorphism while also casting the argument to dynamic. The run-time binder will choose the appropriate method overload at run-time. This decision will take into consideration the run-time type of the object instance (polymorphism) as well as the run-time type of the argument.
Six variable sites, including four polymorphisms and five common haplotypes have been identified in the human PR gene . One promoter region polymorphism, +331G/A, creates a unique transcription start site. Biochemical assays showed that the +331G/A polymorphism increases transcription of the PR gene, favoring production of hPR-B in an Ishikawa endometrial cancer cell line. Several studies have now shown no association between progesterone receptor gene +331G/A polymorphisms and breast or endometrial cancers.
66A>G polymorphism. Chronic homocysteine elevation increases s-adenosyl-L-homocysteine levels, consequently inhibiting methyltransferase activity and promoting DNA hypomethylation. Mothers homozygous for this mutation (GG phenotype) are at a greater risk of having a child with down syndrome compared to heterozygotes (GA phenotype). Geographically, Irish populations are more likely to be homogenous whilst north American populations are commonly heterogeneous, resulting in a greater incidence of the polymorphism in the former group.
The same study showed that there was no impact of the polymorphism on energy expenditure. This finding of an effect of the rs9939609 polymorphism on food intake or satiety has been independently replicated in five subsequent studies (in order of publication). Three of these subsequent studies also measured resting energy expenditure and confirmed the original finding that there is no impact of the polymorphic variation at the rs9939609 locus on energy expenditure.
Location of ABCC11 with its 30 exons on chromosome 16. The important single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) 538G → A is located on exon 4. The ABCC11 gene is present in the human genome as two alleles, differing in one nucleotide also known as a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). A SNP in the ABCC11 gene on chromosome 16 at base position 538 of either a guanine or adenine determines two distinct groups of phenotypes.
In languages which support subtype polymorphism, a similar dichotomy can be formed based on how the subtype relationship is defined. One type is a subtype of another if and only if it contains all the features of the base type, or subtypes thereof. The subtype may contain added features, such as members not present in the base type, or stronger invariants. A distinction exists between structural substitution for inferred and non-inferred polymorphism.
The fitness of a genotype may vary greatly between larval and adult stages, or between parts of a habitat range.Ford E.B. 1965. Genetic polymorphism, p26, Heterozygous advantage. MIT Press 1965.
Viviparous lizards display color polymorphism in three ventral colors: yellow, orange, and a mixture of the two. These color morphs respond to variation in density frequency-dependence within their environment.
In 2014, single- nucleotide polymorphism analysis found Korean cattle to form a distinct group with the Yanbian breed of China, separate from European taurine breeds and distant from the indicine group.
Applications for IRIS include microarray format immunoassays, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) detection, pathogen detection and bio- defense monitoring, kinetic analysis of biomolecular interactions, and general biomolecular interaction studies for research applications.
Genetic polymorphism. All Souls Studies, Faber & Faber, London. Fisher had got accustomed to high natural selection values in nature. This was one of the main outcomes of research on natural populations.
Nei, M. (1983) Genetic polymorphism and the role of mutation in evolution (M. Nei and P. K. Koehn, eds.) Evolution of Genes and Proteins. Sinauer Assoc., Sunderland, MA, pp. 165-190.
This gene has a polymorphism at codon 54 that identified an alanine-encoding allele and a threonine-encoding allele. Thr-54 protein is associated with increased fat oxidation and insulin resistance.
Beta subunits are important regulators of alpha subunits, as well as of certain signal transduction receptors and effectors. This gene contains a trinucleotide (CCG) repeat length polymorphism in its 5' UTR.
Pods are large, woody and have 1 or 2 seeds. Herostyly, or flower polymorphism, occurs in all species of Tylosema, although it is unknown in the rest of the family Leguminosae.
These lines proved to be essential for the complete characterization of the new haplotypes; for the identification of natural intra-H2 recombinants; and for their use as a tool for mapping H2-associated traits. Using a variety of methods, Klein and his colleagues were able to characterize H2 polymorphism in populations of wild mice from different parts of the world. The studies revealed that the polymorphism was indeed staggering, both in the number of alleles and haplotypes (a haplotype being a particular combination of alleles borne by a particular chromosomal segment) that occurred in appreciable frequencies in the populations. Exceptions from the high polymorphism were found only in certain island populations and in populations that have passed recently through a bottleneck phase.
The women that have the single- nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) are about 1.4 times more likely to get ill, according to the study. Allelic variations of RELN have also been correlated with working memory, memory and executive functioning in nuclear families where one of the members suffers from schizophrenia. The association with working memory was later replicated. In one small study, nonsynonymous polymorphism Val997Leu of the gene was associated with left and right ventricular enlargement in patients.
In addition to altering the expression of SERT protein and concentrations of extracellular serotonin in the brain, the 5-HTTLPR variation is associated with changes in brain structure. One 2005 study found less grey matter in perigenual anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala for short allele carriers of the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism compared to subjects with the long/long genotype. In contrast, a 2008 meta-analysis found no significant overall association between the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and autism.
The term ad hoc in this context is not intended to be pejorative; it refers simply to the fact that this type of polymorphism is not a fundamental feature of the type system. This is in contrast to parametric polymorphism, in which polymorphic functions are written without mention of any specific type, and can thus apply a single abstract implementation to any number of types in a transparent way. This classification was introduced by Christopher Strachey in 1967.
DNA molecule 1 differs from DNA molecule 2 at a single base-pair location (a C/T polymorphism). A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a difference in a single nucleotide between members of one species that occurs in at least 1% of the population. The 2,504 individuals characterized by the 1000 Genomes Project had 84.7 million SNPs among them. SNPs are the most common type of sequence variation, estimated in 1998 to account for 90% of all sequence variants.
E.B. Ford worked for many years on genetic polymorphism. Polymorphism in natural populations is frequent; the key feature is the occurrence together of two or more discontinuous forms of a species in some kind of balance. So long as the proportions of each form is above mutation rate, then selection must be the cause. As early as 1930 Fisher had discussed a situation where, with alleles at a single locus, the heterozygote is more viable than either homozygote.
Anatomical differences of red imported fire ant workers: The scale bar is 1 mm. The red imported fire ant is polymorphic with two different castes of workers: minor workers and major workers (soldiers). Like many ants that exhibit polymorphism, young, smaller ants do not forage and tend to the brood, instead, while the larger workers go out and forage. In incipient colonies, polymorphism does not exist, but instead they are occupied by monomorphic workers called "minims" or "nanitics".
Typing of inbred strains suggested that the Mhc might manifest unusually high variability (polymorphism). Inbred strains were, however, not suited for determining polymorphism, because assessing it required measuring gene frequencies in populations. There were all sorts of problems associated with such an effort, most of which could, however, be alleviated by transferring a sample of H2 haplotypes from wild mice onto inbred (C57BL/10 or B10) background and thus producing a set of congenic B10.W lines.
The C allele for the g.-786T>C polymorphism, which results in reduced eNOS expression and NO production, was associated with increased risk for hypertension, preeclampsia, diabetic nephropathy, and retinopathy, migraine, and erectile dysfunction. The presence of ‘Asp’ allele for the Glu298Asp polymorphism reduces eNOS activity, and was associated with higher susceptibility to hypertension, preeclampsia, diabetes mellitus, migraine, and erectile dysfunction. The VNTR in intron 4 affects eNOS expression, and the susceptibility to hypertension, preeclampsia, obesity, and diabetes mellitus.
According to Gibbs' rules of phase equilibria, these unique crystalline phases are dependent on intensive variables such as pressure and temperature. Polymorphism is related to allotropy, which refers to elemental solids. The complete morphology of a material is described by polymorphism and other variables such as crystal habit, amorphous fraction or crystallographic defects. Polymorphs have different stabilities and may spontaneously and irreversibly transform from a metastable form (or thermodynamically unstable form) to the stable form at a particular temperature.
The STL achieves its results through the use of templates. This approach provides compile-time polymorphism that is often more efficient than traditional run-time polymorphism. Modern C++ compilers are tuned to minimize abstraction penalties arising from heavy use of the STL. The STL was created as the first library of generic algorithms and data structures for C++, with four ideas in mind: generic programming, abstractness without loss of efficiency, the Von Neumann computation model, and value semantics.
PIR provides both type abstraction and polymorphism to some degree. For example, the "`+`" operator can be used with `int`, `num` or both: .local int a .local num b a = 1 b = 1.1 .
Italian Journal of Zoology 1999, 66:207-214.De Vries EJ, Baguñà J, Ball IR: Chromosomal polymorphism in planarians and the plate tectonics of the western Mediterranean. Genetica 1984, 62:187-191.
However, class overrides the method , replacing its functionality from . Thought parking = new Thought(); parking.message(); // Prints "I feel like I am diagonally parked in a parallel universe." Thought dates = new Advice(); // Polymorphism dates.
Rico A, Ortiz-Barredo A, Ritter E, Murillo J. 2004. Genetic characterization of Erwinia amylovora strains by amplified fragment length polymorphism. Journal of Applied Microbiology; 96(2):302–310. Ritchie DF. 1977.
On the other hand, an individual with a 3'-UTR G3361A polymorphism generally had a more severe case of COPD that was accompanied by a greater amount of inflammation in their airways.
In populations where tetrodotoxin is absent in T. granulosa, resistance in T. sirtalis is selected against because the mutation causes lower average population fitness. This helps maintain polymorphism within garter snake populations.
T. porrifolius contains polyphenol phytochemicals which are under preliminary research for their potential biological effects. Tragopogon species are being studied at the biochemical level for their novel enzyme forms and genetic polymorphism.
Artur Burger (6 June 1943 – 23 September 2000) was an Austrian pharmacist and pharmacognosist. He taught pharmacognosy at the University of Innsbruck and published more than 100 papers on polymorphism in drugs.
This is called polymorphism in type theory. Similarly, the type of an expression exp that satisfies h otin Vars(exp) can be both high and low according to [E1] and [E2] respectively.
No Single Gene For Eye Color, Researchers Prove. Sciencedaily.com (22 February 2007). Retrieved on 2011-12-23. However, OCA2 gene polymorphism, close to proximal 5′ regulatory region, explains most human eye-color variation.
It can cause potentially fatal blood dyscrasia in 1% of patients. Mephenytoin is no longer available in the US or the UK. It is still studied largely because of its interesting hydroxylation polymorphism.
Row polymorphism is a similar, but distinct concept from subtyping. It deals with structural types. It allows the usage of all values whose types have certain properties, without losing the remaining type information.
The different forms existed in a stable polymorphism controlled by 2 Mendelian factors (genes). The alleles of these genes were certainly discontinuous, so Punnett supposed that they must have evolved in discontinuous leaps.
SF-1 plays a role in the development of adrenal gland. Single gene polymorphism involving SF-1 gene may have a role in adrenal gland agenesis. Various other factors have also been identified.
Polymorphism is defined as “arising of two or more distinct forms simultaneously in the same habitat of a species in such proportions that the rarest of them cannot be maintained by recurrent mutation’’.
A study on Ghanaian population showed that MMP-9 single nucleotide polymorphism 1562 C > T (rs3918242) was protective against placental malaria which suggests a possible role of MMP-9 in susceptibility to malaria.
In Ischnura elegans, androchromes comprise 6-30% of the female population and their colour is usually blue, like the males; in some populations, androchromes are larger in size than gynochromes. This polymorphism is controlled by an autosomal allele and some studies have looked at the reason for the polymorphism's maintenance. Aeshna affinis Male Aeshna affinis Female Androchrome The most likely theory for the maintenance of the polymorphism in Odonata is the density dependence theory Hinnekint BO. 1987. Population dynamics of Ischnura e.
The tension between dynamic and static programming involves many of the classic trade-offs in programming: dynamic features add flexibility, static features add speed and type checking. Generic programming and metaprogramming can be implemented in both languages using runtime polymorphism. In C++ this takes the form of virtual functions and runtime type identification, while Objective-C offers dynamic typing and reflection. Both Objective-C and C++ support compile-time polymorphism (generic functions), with Objective-C only adding this feature in 2015.
Gryllus firmus exhibits wing polymorphism; some individuals have fully functional, long hind wings and others have short wings and cannot fly. Females of the latter morph have smaller flight muscles, greater ovarian development and produce more eggs, so the polymorphism adapts the cricket for either dispersal or reproduction. In some long-winged individuals, the flight muscles deteriorate during adulthood and the insect's reproductive capabilities improve. G. firmus is unusual among field crickets in laying a mixture of two types of egg.
An important distinction in programming languages is the difference between an object-oriented language and an object-based language. A language is usually considered object-based if it includes the basic capabilities for an object: identity, properties, and attributes. A language is considered object-oriented if it is object-based and also has the capability of polymorphism and inheritance. Polymorphism refers to the ability to overload the name of a function with multiple behaviors based on which object(s) are passed to it.
Some frog species display polymorphism by presence/absence of a light stripe going along the central part of their back. A light mid-dorsal stripe has been shown to be determined by a simple dominant gene in Rana limnocharis, Rana ridibunda, Rana sylvatica and Rana arvalis;SHCHUPAK, E. L. & ISHCHENKO, V. G., 1981. On the hereditary base of colour polymorphism in moor frog (Rana arvalis Nilss). I. Light mid-dorsal stripe. In: Herpetological researches in Siberia and Far East, Leningrad, Nauka: 128-132.
Princeton: Princeton U. Pr. If the population is panmixic, then Geospiza conirostris exhibits a balanced genetic polymorphism and not, as originally supposed, a case of nascent sympatric speciation. The selection maintaining the polymorphism maximises the species' niche by expanding its feeding opportunity. The genetics of this situation cannot be clarified in the absence of a detailed breeding program, but two loci with linkage disequilibrium is a possibility. Another interesting dimorphism is for the bills of young finches, which are either "pink" or "yellow".
The flowers are partly wind-pollinated and partly pollinated by solitary bees.Hannan, G. L. (1981). Flower color polymorphism and pollination biology of Platystemon californicus Benth.(Papaveraceae). American Journal of Botany 68(2) 233-43.
These type of markers are based on PCR primers and are categorized as DNA sequence polymorphism. An electrophoresed gel showing PCR products. The leftmost lane represents a DNA ladder with fragments at 100bp intervals.
The LEP-2548 G/A polymorphism has been linked with an increased risk of prostate cancer, gestational diabetes, and osteoporosis. Other rare polymorphisms have been found but their association with obesity are not consistent.
Advances now focus on molecular cytogenetics including automated systems for counting the results of standard FISH preparations and techniques for virtual karyotyping, such as comparative genomic hybridization arrays, CGH and Single nucleotide polymorphism arrays.
The downside is that the type system cannot guarantee the consistency of the different implementations. Since overloading is done at compile time, it is not a substitute for late binding as found in subtyping polymorphism.
A single nucleotide polymorphism in exon 1 of this gene is significantly associated with severity in beta-thalassemia/Hemoglobin E. Multiple alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different protein isoforms have been found for this gene.
While sexual selection generally favours red males, natural selection maintains variation by selecting for more energetically efficient yellow males. Both colour traits have an evolutionary advantage, which explains the maintenance of this polymorphism in nature.
CYBA variants together with polymorphism analysis of lipid metabolism or stress oxidant pathway genes are of great interest as well. However, for future investigations regarding the effect of these polymorphisms, it is crucial that the number of patients under study provide sufficient statistical power. In addition, genetics studies that include control of external factors should be extremely informative. Finally, since 2010 nine Chinese meta-analyses of the C242T polymorphism have been published in relation with CAD, hypertension atherosclerosis or diabetes and its complications and ischemic cerebrovascular diseases.
Biological samples that have been exposed to the environment can get degraded by water and enzymes called nucleases. Nucleases essentially ‘chew’ up the DNA into fragments over time and are found everywhere in nature. Before modern PCR methods existed it was almost impossible to analyze degraded DNA samples. Methods like restriction fragment length polymorphism or RFLP Restriction fragment length polymorphism, which was the first technique used for DNA analysis in forensic science, required high molecular weight DNA in the sample in order to get reliable data.
Polymorphism is the phenomenon wherein the same chemical compound exists in different crystal forms. In the initial days of crystal engineering, polymorphism was not properly understood and incompletely studied. Today, it is one of the most exciting branches of the subject partly because polymorphic forms of drugs may be entitled to independent patent protection if they show new and improved properties over the known crystal forms. With the growing importance of generic drugs, the importance of crystal engineering to the pharmaceutical industry is expected to grow exponentially.
Up-to-date two non-synonymous polymorphisms on CBR1 have been identified. The CBR1 V88I polymorphism encodes for a valine-to- isoleucin substitution at position 88 of the aminoacid chain. In vitro studies with recombinant proteins indicate that the CBR1 V88 isoform has a higher Vmax towards the substrates menadione (vitamin K3) and daunorubicin. Recent studies in human liver cytosols show that an untranslated polymorphism on the 3'UTR region of the CBR1 gene (rs9024) is associated with higher levels of the cardiotoxic metabolite doxorubicinol.
This is the 'search pattern' effect, where a predominantly visual predator persists in targeting the morph which gave a good result, even though other morphs are available. Despite the predation, the polymorphism survives in almost all habitats, though the proportions of morphs varies considerably. The alleles controlling the polymorphism form a super-gene with linkage so close as to be nearly absolute. This control saves the population from a high proportion of undesirable recombinants, and it is hypothesised that selection has brought the loci concerned together.
Haplogroup D or D-CTS3946 is a Y-chromosome haplogroup. Both D-CTS3946 and E lineages also exhibit the single-nucleotide polymorphism M168 which is present in all Y-chromosome haplogroups except A and B, as well as the YAP+ unique- event polymorphism, which is unique to Haplogroup DE. Subclades of haplogroup D-CTS3946 are found primarily in East Asia, though they are also found regularly with low frequency in Central Asia and Southeast Asia, and have also been found sporadically in Western Africa and Western Asia.
Mortality varies from 30% to 100% where the chance of survival is diminished as the number of organs involved increases. Since the 1980s the mortality rate has not changed. In patients with sepsis, septic shock, or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome that is due to major trauma, the rs1800625 polymorphism is a functional single nucleotide polymorphism, a part of the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) transmembrane receptor gene (of the immunoglobulin superfamily) and confers host susceptibility to sepsis and MODS in these patients.
The PAI-1 gene is SERPINE1, located on chromosome 7 (7q21.3-q22). There is a common polymorphism known as 4G/5G in the promoter region. The 5G allele is slightly less transcriptionally active than the 4G.
Several species of this genus have a striking male polymorphism, with both winged and wingless forms. These males differ not only in morphology, but also in reproductive tactics. Closely related genera are Leptothorax, Stereomyrmex and Romblonella.
There are separate tables for class and instance methods. Apart from being stored in the to lookup tables, the functions are essentially anonymous. The value for a selector does not vary between classes. This enables polymorphism.
This gene encodes a member of the H2B histone family that is specifically expressed in sperm nuclei. A polymorphism in the 5' UTR of this gene is associated with male infertility.[provided by RefSeq, Jan 2010].
Thus, identity is the basis for polymorphism in object-oriented programming. Identity allows comparison of references. Two references can be compared whether they are equal or not. Due to the identity property, this comparison has special properties.
A great many operation overloads, data type by data type, can have the same effect at compile-time as any degree of inheritance or other means to achieve polymorphism. The class notation is simply a coder's convenience.
In forensic science, hybridization probes are used, for example, for detection of short tandem repeats (microsatellite) regions and in restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) methods, all of which are widely used as part of DNA profiling analysis.
Ceroglossus buqueti reaches about in length. This species presents marked chromatic polymorphism and morphological variations in shape and in size depending on subspecies and populations. These beetles have a diurnal habit and are predators on small organisms.
The polymorphism of C++ makes it possible to envisage a programming system in which all mathematical operators and functions can be overloaded to automatically compute the derivative contributions of every differentiable numerical operation in any computer program.
Genetical theory of natural selection p80. Also, as Cain's own research showed, much polymorphism is maintained by differential selection in the diversity of environments within a species' range.Cain A.J. and Currey J.D. 1963. Area effects in Cepaea.
A genome wide association study pointed to the rs362584 polymorphism in the gene as possibly associated with the personality trait neuroticism. Botulinum toxins A, C and E cleave SNAP-25, leading to paralysis in clinically developed botulism.
A sequence related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) is a molecular technique, developed by G. Li and C. F. Quiros in 2001, for detecting genetic variation in the open reading frames (ORFs) of genomes of plants and related organisms.
The wakasagi (Hypomesus nipponensis) is common in the lake.Masaru, T. (1999). Life history polymorphism and the population dynamics of wakasagi (Hypomesus nipponensis) in Lake Abashiri, Hokkaido, Japan. Scientific Reports of Hokkaido Fisheries Experimental Station 56 1-117.
A point mutation (I93M) in the gene encoding this protein is implicated as the cause of Parkinson's disease in one German family, although this finding is controversial, as no other Parkinson's disease patients with this mutation have been found. Furthermore, a polymorphism (S18Y) in this gene has been found to be associated with a reduced risk for Parkinson's disease. This polymorphism has specifically been shown to have antioxidant activity. Another potentially protective function of UCH-L1 is its reported ability to stabilize monoubiquitin, an important component of the ubiquitin proteasome system.
Females usually lay about 100 eggs in one clutch that cling to the underwater plants and form egg masses. The egg masses are round, jelly-like clumps that are usually long. The spotted salamander produces a unique polymorphism in the outer jelly layers of its egg masses: one morph has a clear appearance and contains a water-soluble protein, whereas the other morph is white and contains a crystalline hydrophobic protein. This polymorphism is thought to confer advantages in ponds with varying dissolved nutrient levels, while also reducing mortality from feeding by wood frog larvae.
In some species, the hind wings are shed, leaving wing stumps, usually after dispersal of the insect by flight. In other species, they may be pulled off and consumed by the cricket itself or by another individual, probably providing a nutritional boost. Gryllus firmus exhibits wing polymorphism; some individuals have fully functional, long hind wings and others have short wings and cannot fly. The short-winged females have smaller flight muscles, greater ovarian development, and produce more eggs, so the polymorphism adapts the cricket for either dispersal or reproduction.
Alpha-actinin-3 is found only in skeletal muscle in humans, and has been identified in several genetic studies as having a different polymorphism in world-class athletes compared with normal people. One form that causes the gene to make more protein is found in sprinters and is related to increased power; another form that causes the gene to make less protein is found in endurance athletes. Gene doping agents could be designed with either polymorphism, or for endurance athletes, some DNA construct that interfered with expression like a small interfering RNA.
In population genetics, a protected polymorphism is a mechanism that maintains multiple alleles at a certain locus. In detail, any of the several alleles will follow certain dynamics; When a certain allele is high in frequency (p \to 1), it will decrease in frequency in the future and by that avoid from being fixated in the population. On the contrary, when a given allele is low in frequency (p \to 0) it will increase in frequency in the future, avoiding its extinction and maintaining polymorphism at the locus.
This method is based on the single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis (SSCA) method developed for single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis. SSCA differentiates between single-stranded DNA fragments of identical size but distinct sequence based on differential migration in non-denaturating electrophoresis. In MS-SSCA, this is used to distinguish between bisulfite-treated, PCR-amplified regions containing the CpG sites of interest. Although SSCA lacks sensitivity when only a single nucleotide difference is present, bisulfite treatment frequently makes a number of C-to-T conversions in most regions of interest, and the resulting sensitivity approaches 100%.
Moffitt is also known for her research on gene-environment interaction (GxE). Her two publications in the journal Science in 2002 and 2003 with her colleague and partner Avshalom Caspi were among the first reports of GxE in humans. The first paper showed that children who carried a polymorphism in the MAOA gene were more vulnerable to developing antisocial behavior following exposure to maltreatment during childhood. The second paper showed that individuals who carried a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) were more vulnerable to developing depression following exposure to stressful life events.
E. B. Ford studied polymorphism in the scarlet tiger moth for many years. E. B. Ford was an experimental naturalist who wanted to test natural selection in nature, virtually inventing the field of ecological genetics. His work on natural selection in wild populations of butterflies and moths was the first to show that predictions made by R. A. Fisher were correct. In 1940, he was the first to describe and define genetic polymorphism, and to predict that human blood group polymorphisms might be maintained in the population by providing some protection against disease.
The H2 polymorphism, in combination with other markers, could then be used to characterize a population. H2- typing of the global wild mice population revealed it to be fragmented into a large number of small subpopulations (demes), which differed in the presence and frequencies of alleles at the individual loci. Skin grafting and other methods indicated inbreeding within the demes, but sharing of certain alleles between the demes suggested a continuous gene flow between demes. These findings were supported by analyses of other markers, primarily chromosomal polymorphism and t-haplotypes.
Similarly, in M. domesticus populations, whose divergence times could be dated, they found no new variants. Klein's group could also not find any new Mhc (HLA) variants in isolated human populations such as those of the South American Indians and the indigenous populations of Siberia. These and other observations led Klein to the formulation of the trans-species polymorphism (TSP) hypothesis positing that the divergence of similar Mhc alleles predates the divergence of the species in which they occur. The original detection of trans-species polymorphism relied on serological (antibody-based) identification of antigenic molecules.
Current methods of genotyping include restriction fragment length polymorphism identification (RFLPI) of genomic DNA, random amplified polymorphic detection (RAPD) of genomic DNA, amplified fragment length polymorphism detection (AFLPD), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), DNA sequencing, allele specific oligonucleotide (ASO) probes, and hybridization to DNA microarrays or beads. Genotyping is important in research of genes and gene variants associated with disease. Due to current technological limitations, almost all genotyping is partial. That is, only a small fraction of an individual’s genotype is determined, such as with (epi)GBS (Genotyping by sequencing) or RADseq.
Examples of these diseases includes cystic fibrosis (CF) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). In reference to cystic fibrosis, individuals with a G-260C polymorphism in the 5'-UTR area of the ABCC1 gene tended to have a much more severe case of cystic fibrosis than individuals with the wild-type gene. Individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder were impacted by two polymorphisms in the ABCC1 gene. If an individual had a 3'-UTR T866A polymorphism, they generally had a less severe case of COPD marked by less inflammation in their airways.
UCP3 were confirmed containing four single nucleotide polymorphism rs1800849, rs11235972, rs1726745 and rs3781907. There was high impact score of rs11235972 GG genotype thus showing association of UCP3 gene polymorphism and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in Chinese children (Xu YP et al., 2013) The research of counterfeits in two independent population there was a similarity between the -55CT mutation of UCP3 and lower BMI. This affiliation was being modulated by the energy intake, hence deriving the undefined effect of diet and partly association of inconsistencies of prior related studies.
An immediate subclade, haplogroup D (also known as D-CTS3946), is mainly found in Eastern Asia, parts of Central Asia, and the Andaman Islands, but also sporadically in West Africa and West Asia. The other immediate subclade, haplogroup E, is common in Africa, and to a lesser extent the Middle East and Europe. The most well-known unique event polymorphism (UEP) that defines DE is the Y-chromosome Alu Polymorphism "YAP". The mutation was caused when a strand of DNA, known as Alu, inserted a copy of itself into the Y chromosome.
When markers are used there may be some inaccurate results due to inaccurate tests for the marker. There also can be false positive results when markers are used, due to recombination between the marker of interest and gene (or QTL). A perfect marker would elicit no false positive results. The term 'perfect marker' is sometimes used when tests are performed to detect a SNP or other DNA polymorphism in the gene of interest, if that SNP or other polymorphism is the direct cause of the trait of interest.
5-HTTLPR short allele–driven amygdala hyperreactivity was confirmed in a large (by MRI study standards) cohort of healthy subjects with no history of psychiatric illness or treatment. Brain blood flow measurements with positron emission tomography brain scanners can show genotype-related changes. The glucose metabolism in the brain has also been investigated with respect to the polymorphism, and the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) brain scans have also been correlated to the polymorphism. Comment: Especially the amygdala brain structure has been the focus of the functional neuroimaging studies.
Kazuo Umetsu, Masashi Tanaka, Isao Yuasa et al., "Multiplex amplified product-length polymorphism analysis of 36 mitochondrial single-nucleotide polymorphisms for haplogrouping of East Asian populations", Electrophoresis (2005), 26, 91–98. DOI 10.1002/elps.200406129Asari M et al.
Polymorphism in this particular sequence has both positive and negative effects on the efficiency of base- pairing and subsequent protein expression.Johnson G (1991). "Interference with phage lambda development by the small subunit of the phage 21 terminase, gp1".
In 2010 a large study using data from 4 European cohorts would find some evidence for an association between autism and the rs362780 RELN polymorphism. Studies of transgenic mice have been suggestive of an association, but not definitive.
When organisms develop different genetic variations, even though they stem from the same species, it is known as polymorphism. Organisms that pass on beneficial genes continue to evolve their species to have an advantage inside of their niche.
Brower, L.P. 1988. Mimicry and the evolutionary process. Chicago. Also, not only is polymorphism absent from these mimics, it is absent in the wasps also: these facts are presumably connected. The situation with bumblebees (Bombus) is rather different.
The chromosomes (karyotype) of Chilocorus stigma vary from one individual to another, in both the number of chromosomes (aneuploidy) and their structure (chromosomal polymorphism). The variability occurs as a result of chromosome fusions or disassociations.White M.J.D. 1973. The chromosomes.
The karyotype of this grasshopper includes a number of B chromosomes (extra chromosomes) and exhibits a very widespread polymorphism; populations in Spain show about 40 different variations in B chromosomes, resulting in an increase in the frequency of chiasmas.
With the description of three species from the same location, polymorphism was another prospect but seemed unlikely. Although the presence of horns strongly suggests sexual dimorphism, lack of data on numerous fronts currently prevents firm conclusions from being drawn.
However, the condition often occurs within families, and it has been suggested that light-induced sneezing is a heritable, autosomal-dominant trait. A 2010 study demonstrated a correlation between photic sneezing and a single- nucleotide polymorphism on chromosome 2.
The sides of the mesothorax are glabrous. The ovipositor of the female is unusually long, the valves being only slightly shorter than the cerci. Tanyptera spp. exhibit extreme polymorphism in the body colour and body size of the sexes.
London: Chapman & Hall and for classical genetics by John Maynard Smith (1998).Smith, John Maynard. 1998. Evolutionary Genetics (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford U. Pr. The shorter term morphism may be more accurate than polymorphism, but is not often used.
Alates also have compound eyes and ocelli, and more pigmentation. This polymorphism can be observed already as two forms of nymphs. Wingspan can be up to , and the wings can be shed spontaneously. When observed, wings have simple venation.
Polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis are useful tool for rapid confirmative diagnosis.Molecular characterization of Prototheca strains isolated from bovine mastitis., A. Aouay , F. Coppée , S. Cloet , P. Cuvelier , A. Belayew , P.-E. Lagneau , C. Mullender .
In genetics, rs1800532 (A218C) is a genetic variant. It is a single nucleotide polymorphism in the TPH1 gene and located in intron 7. It has been examined in relation to personality traits. A779C is another SNP in same intron.
Nei, M. (1987) Molecular Evolutionary Genetics. Columbia University Press, New York. The only exception was the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) loci, which show an extraordinarily high degree of polymorphism. For these reasons, he accepted the neutral theory of evolution.
Sequence features are combinations of amino acid sites defined based on structural information (e.g., beta-sheet 1), functional information (e.g., peptide antigen-binding), and polymorphism. These sequence features can be overlapping and continuous or discontinuous in the linear sequence.
Statin treatment was more effective in increasing NO bioavailability in subjects carrying the CC genotype for the g.-786T>C polymorphism than in TT carriers. Hypertensive patients carrying the TC/CC genotypes and the C allele for the g.
Future breeding would be focused on processing-quality aspects, as well as on properties for better mechanization of harvest or better-yielding hermaphroditic plants. The use of modern breeding techniques is restricted due to low polymorphism for molecular markers.
CAP/Ponsin was demonstrated to be down-regulated in end-stage heart failure patients; an effect that was restored upon mechanical unloading. A single nucleotide polymorphism in SORBS1 was found to be associated with type 2 diabetes and obesity.
Gene polymorphism variants of CYP4A11 are associated with the development of hypertension and cerebral infarction (i.e. ischemic stroke) in humans (see 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid). In its capacity to form hydroxyl fatty acid, CYP4A11 is classified as a CYP monooxygease.
Gene Ther. 26, 425–431 One of several human vitamin D receptor gene variants is caused by a single nucleotide polymorphism in the start codon of the gene which can be distinguished through the use of the Fok1 enzyme.
Larger male and female size regularly follow the loss of a polymorphism, as seen in the side-blotched lizards. Predator-prey dynamic also change after a male morph is lost, with predators evolving to prey on the remaining morphologies.
According to a 1996 article in The Journal of Neurochemistry, the promoter region of the SLC6A4 gene contains a polymorphism with "short" and "long" repeats in a region: 5-HTT-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR or SERTPR). The short variation has 14 repeats of a sequence while the long variation has 16 repeats. A second 1996 article stated that the short variation leads to less transcription for SLC6A4, and it has been found that it can partly account for anxiety-related personality traits. This polymorphism has been extensively investigated in over 300 scientific studies (as of 2006). The 5-HTTLPR polymorphism may be subdivided further: One study published in 2000 found 14 allelic variants (14-A, 14-B, 14-C, 14-D, 15, 16-A, 16-B, 16-C, 16-D, 16-E, 16-F, 19, 20 and 22) in a group of around 200 Japanese and Caucasian people.
In programming language theory, subtyping (also subtype polymorphism or inclusion polymorphism) is a form of type polymorphism in which a subtype is a datatype that is related to another datatype (the supertype) by some notion of substitutability, meaning that program elements, typically subroutines or functions, written to operate on elements of the supertype can also operate on elements of the subtype. If S is a subtype of T, the subtyping relation is often written S <: T, to mean that any term of type S can be safely used in a context where a term of type T is expected. The precise semantics of subtyping crucially depends on the particulars of what "safely used in a context where" means in a given programming language. The type system of a programming language essentially defines its own subtyping relation, which may well be trivial should the language support no (or very little) conversion mechanisms.
The C957T gene polymorphism is a synonymous mutation located within the 957th base pair of the DRD2 gene. This base pair is located in exon 7. Most synonymous mutations are silent. However, the C957T mutation is an exception to this rule.
Gödel is a declarative, general-purpose programming language that adheres to the logic programming paradigm. It is a strongly typed language, the type system being based on many-sorted logic with parametric polymorphism. It is named after logician Kurt Gödel.
Giannasi et al. (2001) raised insularis and septentrionalis to species level.Giannasi N, Thorpe RS, Malhotra A. 2001. The use of amplified fragment length polymorphism in determining species trees at fine taxonomic levels: analysis of a medically important snake, Trimeresurus albolabris.
Schistocerca cancellata is a species of locust in the subfamily Cyrtacanthacridinae. It is the major swarming species in subtropical South America. This species shows typical locust phase polymorphism. Solitarious nymphs are green, but gregarious ones are yellow with a black pattern.
Synergistic effect of stromelysin-1 (matrix metalloproteinase-3) promoter (-1171 5A->6A) polymorphism in oral submucous fibrosis and head and neck lesions.Chaudhary AK, Singh M, Bharti AC, Singh M, Shukla S, Singh AK, Mehrotra R. BMC Cancer. 2010 Jul 14;10:369.
In 1927, Fisher explicitly attacked Punnett's 1915 theory of discontinuous evolution of mimicry. Fisher argued that selection acting on genes making small modifications to the butterfly's phenotype (its appearance) would allow the multiple forms of a polymorphism to be established.
A recent study, using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and mitochondrial DNA datasets, places the origin of H. melpomene to 2.1 million years ago. H. melpomene shows clustering of AFLPs by geography suggesting that the species originated in eastern South America.
In human genetic studies, the CHLCA is useful as an anchor point for calculating single- nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rates in human populations where chimpanzees are used as an outgroup, that is, as the extant species most genetically similar to Homo sapiens.
A graphical representation of the typical human karyotype. The human mitochondrial DNA. Human genetic variation is the genetic differences in and among populations. There may be multiple variants of any given gene in the human population (alleles), a situation called polymorphism.
Richards, M. H., von Wettberg, E. J., & Rutgers, A. C. (2003). A novel social polymorphism in a primitively eusocial bee. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(12), 7175–7180.doi:10.1073/pnas.
Acholeplasma laidlawii is a common contaminant of cell culture media products, and has also been used in extensive studies of lipid polymorphism because this organism alters its ratio of MGlcDG (monoglucosyl diacylglycerol) to DGlcDG (diglucosyl diacylglycerol) in response to growth conditions.
The possible theoretical explanations of this rampant polymorphism became the focus of most population genetics work thereafter. Martin Kreitman was later to do a pioneering survey of population-level variability in DNA sequences while a Ph.D. student in Lewontin's lab.
Digestion is both intracellular and extracellular. Respiration and excretion are accomplished by simple diffusion. A network of nerves is spread throughout the body. Many Cnidaria exhibit polymorphism, wherein different types of individuals are present in a colony for different functions.
Apo A1 production is decreased by calcitriol, and increased by a drug that antagonizes it. Exercise or statin treatment may cause an increase in HDL-C levels by inducing apo A1 production, but this depends on the G/A promoter polymorphism.
A study showed a significant association of a specific polymorphism of the EDN2 gene with increased incidence of atrial fibrillation in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Overall, the evidence suggests that ET-2 could modulate vascular tone, tissue morphology and remodelling.
Thalassemias typically affect only the mRNAs for production of the beta chains (hence the name). Since the mutation may be a change in only a single base (single-nucleotide polymorphism), on-going efforts seek gene therapies to make that single correction.
In human genetics, Y Haplogroup E-M123 is a Y-chromosome haplogroup, and defined by the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutation M123. Like its closest relatives within the larger E-M215 haplogroup, E-M123 is found in Asia, Europe and Africa.
Fluctuating selection has been characterized by several mathematical models. Under some circumstances, fluctuating selection may lead to a balanced polymorphism. When two species exert selection on one another, e.g. a host and its parasite, this can lead to fluctuating selection dynamics.
Most of her work has been on spiders, in particular species in the genus Tetragnatha (Tetragnathidae). She also works on the evolution of diversity within species, with the primary focus here on color polymorphism in the Hawaiian Happy face spider which has evolved the same color polymorphism independently on different islands, and the research aims to uncover the molecular basis for the modification. She currently has a large program examining the importance of priority, sequence, abundance, and interaction strengths in determining how biological communities develop, and how this might render them resilient to intrusion by non native species.
Various object- oriented programming languages offer similar facilities for abstraction, all to support a general strategy of polymorphism in object-oriented programming, which includes the substitution of one type for another in the same or similar role. Although not as generally supported, a configuration or image or package may predetermine a great many of these bindings at compile-time, link-time, or loadtime. This would leave only a minimum of such bindings to change at run- time. Common Lisp Object System or Self, for example, feature less of a class- instance distinction and more use of delegation for polymorphism.
For these examples, the distance between two species’ loci is determined by measuring the number of substitutions per site when comparing the two species. We can then calculate the rate of mutation (changes to the DNA sequence pre unit of time) if we know the time since the two species diverged from the common ancestor. A test that suggests neutral evolution: Suppose that you have data from two loci (1 and 2) in two species (A and B). Locus 1 shows high divergence and high polymorphism in both species. Locus 2 shows low divergence and low polymorphism.
By the time the paper was retracted it had already been cited 74 times. The paper was retracted due to falsified and/or fabricated Western blots in figures 3B, 3C, 3F, 3H, 3I and 3J. The Human Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor 1166 A/C Polymorphism Attenuates MicroRNA-155 Binding This article was published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry. This study by Elton's lab provided the first feasible biochemical mechanism by which the +1166 A/C polymorphism can lead to increased AT1R densities and possibly cardiovascular disease. The paper was first published on June 21, 2007.
A heated debate arose when Kimura's theory was published, largely revolving around the relative percentages of polymorphic and fixed alleles that are "neutral" versus "non-neutral". A genetic polymorphism means that different forms of particular genes, and hence of the proteins that they produce, are co-existing within a species. Selectionists claimed that such polymorphisms are maintained by balancing selection, while neutralists view the variation of a protein as a transient phase of molecular evolution. Studies by Richard K. Koehn and W. F. Eanes demonstrated a correlation between polymorphism and molecular weight of their molecular subunits.
Thirdly, many human genetic testing companies use the term in a third way: to refer to an individual collection of specific mutations within a given genetic segment; (see short tandem repeat mutation). The term 'haplogroup' refers to the SNP/unique-event polymorphism (UEP) mutations that represent the clade to which a collection of particular human haplotypes belong. (Clade here refers to a set of haplotypes sharing a common ancestor.) A haplogroup is a group of similar haplotypes that share a common ancestor with a single-nucleotide polymorphism mutation. Mitochondrial DNA passes along a maternal lineage that can date back thousands of years.
Many compounds have the ability to crystallize with some having different crystal structures, a phenomenon called polymorphism. Certain polymorphs may be metastable, meaning that although it is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, it is kinetically stable and requires some input of energy to initiate a transformation to the equilibrium phase. Each polymorph is in fact a different thermodynamic solid state and crystal polymorphs of the same compound exhibit different physical properties, such as dissolution rate, shape (angles between facets and facet growth rates), melting point, etc. For this reason, polymorphism is of major importance in industrial manufacture of crystalline products.
In a prenex polymorphic system, type variables may not be instantiated with polymorphic types. This is very similar to what is called "ML-style" or "Let-polymorphism" (technically ML's Let-polymorphism has a few other syntactic restrictions). This restriction makes the distinction between polymorphic and non-polymorphic types very important; thus in predicative systems polymorphic types are sometimes referred to as type schemas to distinguish them from ordinary (monomorphic) types, which are sometimes called monotypes. A consequence is that all types can be written in a form that places all quantifiers at the outermost (prenex) position.
MMP3 itself can enter in nuclei of cells and regulate target gene such as CTGF/CCN2 gene. Expression of MMP3 is primarily regulated at the level of transcription, where the promoter of the gene responds to various stimuli, including growth factors, cytokines, tumor promoters, and oncogene products. A polymorphism in the promoter of the MMP3 gene was first reported in 1995. The polymorphism is caused by a variation in the number of adenosines located at position -1171 relative to the transcription start site, resulting in one allele having five adenosines (5A) and the other allele having six adenosines (6A).
Dictionaries define genetic polymorphism as the presence, in appreciable frequencies, of two or more alleles at a locus in a species. Hence H2 polymorphism was expected to have arisen by an unusually high mutation (evolutionary) rate in the house mouse after its divergence from its nearest relative. There was, however, no indication that this was the case. On the contrary, Klein and his co-workers found, by the methods then available, indistinguishable alleles in the two European house mouse species, Mus domesticus and M. musculus, which diverged from each other some 1–2 million years (my) ago.
Certain polymorphisms in the ABCC1 gene have been shown to be connected with an increased susceptibility to certain types of cancer. A G2168A polymorphism and polymorphisms found in the 3'-UTR region of the gene have been shown to have a connection with increased susceptibility to lung cancer, especially in Chinese populations. Carriers of the G2168A polymorphism contract lung cancer at a rate nearly four times higher than those individuals that do not have the mutation in the gene. Polymorphisms within the ABCC1 gene also tend to have a substantial effect on the severity of a disease.
Functional genomics includes function-related aspects of the genome itself such as mutation and polymorphism (such as single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis), as well as the measurement of molecular activities. The latter comprise a number of "-omics" such as transcriptomics (gene expression), proteomics (protein production), and metabolomics. Functional genomics uses mostly multiplex techniques to measure the abundance of many or all gene products such as mRNAs or proteins within a biological sample. A more focused functional genomics approach might test the function of all variants of one gene and quantify the effects of mutants by using sequencing as a readout of activity.
Varying combinations of these haplotypes will yield homozygotes—PAV/PAV and AVI/AVI—and heterozygotes—PAV/AVI. These genotypes can account for up to 85% of the variation in PTC tasting ability: people possessing two copies of the PAV polymorphism report PTC to be more bitter than TAS2R38 heterozygotes, and people possessing two copies of the AVI/AVI polymorphism often report PTC as being essentially tasteless. These polymorphisms are hypothesized to affect taste by altering G-protein-binding domains. Because bitter substances are usually toxic, the presence of a “nontaster” geno- and phenotype seems evolutionarily undesirable.
This first step is followed by a step of denaturation-renaturation to create hetero- and homoduplexes from the two allele populations in the PCR. To find a homozygous polymorphism, proceed in the same way by premixing a DNA wild population to a population of polymorphic DNA to obtain heteroduplexes after the denaturation- renaturation step. Heteroduplexes are actually double strands of DNA containing a strand from the wild-type allele and a sprig from the polymorphic allele. The formation of such DNA fragments then causes the appearance of a "mismatch" or bad pairing where the polymorphism is located.
These "mismatches" in the heteroduplex are the basis for the polymorphism detection by DHPLC. Heteroduplexes are thermally less stable than their corresponding homoduplexes, and the single DNA strands will therefore be disconnected by chromatography when subjected to a sufficiently high temperature. The consequence of this double strand instability will be a mismatch of the two DNA strands in the region of polymorphism when DNA is heated to the DNA melting temperature. This mismatch will therefore decrease the interaction with the column and will result in a reduced retention time compared to the homoduplexes in the chromatographic separation process.
The 48-base pair variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) in exon 3 range from 2 to 11 repeats. Dopamine is more potent at the D4 receptor with 2 allelic repeat or 7 allelic repeats than the variant with 4 allelic repeats. DRD4-7R, the 7-repeat (7R) variant of DRD4 (DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism), has been linked to a susceptibility for developing ADHD in several meta-analyses and other psychological traits and disorders. Adults and children with the DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism show variations in auditory-evoked gamma oscillations, which may be related to attention processing.
The "rock-paper- scissors" mating strategy is a genetically-based male polymorphism that has been maintained over millions of years throughout many populations of side- blotched lizard in the United States and Mexico. However, speciation has resulted from the formation of reproductive isolation between populations when a population loses of one or more of the male morphologies. However, speciation due to the loss of a male morph has occurred when populations lose one or more male morphs and become reproductively isolated from populations with the ancestral polymorphism. For side-blotched lizards, the morph lost most commonly is the sneaker male.
A number of studies have examined the role of this polymorphism in risk of neuropsychiatric disorders , including schizophrenia and depression. It is generally thought that some variants of the polymorphism lead to memory impairment and susceptibility to neuropsychiatric disorders, and a 2007 meta- analysis of case-control studies found a relationship between the SNP and substance-related disorders, eating disorders, and schizophrenia. Another 2007 meta-analysis could, however, find no association between the SNP and schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Meta-analyses of Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease also indicate that the SNP has little or no association with these diseases.
Blouw, D. M., & Hagen, D. W. (1981). Ecology of the fourspine stickleback, Apeltes quadracus, with respect to a polymorphism for dorsal spine number. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 59(9), 1677-1692. The fourth spine is straight and associated with the dorsal fin.
The wings on S. australis are micropterous (small wings) between making this species flightless like most of New Zealand grasshoppers. Sigaus australis is highly cryptic, there is no polymorphism within this species. They will match the surrounding vegetation with colours of earth tones.
Generics, or parameterized types, or parametric polymorphism is a .NET 2.0 feature supported by C# and Visual Basic. Unlike C++ templates, .NET parameterized types are instantiated at runtime rather than by the compiler; hence they can be cross-language whereas C++ templates cannot.
The classical blood coagulation pathway The polymorphism is located in a noncoding region of the prothrombin gene (3' untranslated region nucleotide 20210), replacing guanine with adenine. The position is at or near where the pre-mRNA will have the poly-A tail attached.
The 308 G/A single nucleotide polymorphism variation in the gene for TNF is associated with an increased risk for acne. Acne can be a feature of rare genetic disorders such as Apert's syndrome. Severe acne may be associated with XYY syndrome.
In lipid polymorphism, if the packing ratio of lipids is greater or less than one, lipid membranes can form two separate hexagonal phases, or nonlamellar phases, in which long, tubular aggregates form according to the environment in which the lipid is introduced.
Clarke was educated at Magdalen College Oxford, receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1956 followed by a Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1961 from the University of Oxford for research investigating factors affecting shell colour polymorphism in the land snails (Cepaea).
CombiMatrix uses the CombiSNP Array as their technology platform. SNP stands for Single nucleotide polymorphism probes. These probes allow for increased precision and greater diagnostic yield. This array contains more than 845,000 SNP markers covering both coding and non-coding human genome sequences.
J Virol Methods 134, 261-266.Jacquot, E., Tribodet, M., Croizat, F., Balme-Sinibaldi, V., Kerlan, C., 2005. A single nucleotide polymorphism-based technique for specific characterization of YO and YN isolates of Potato virus Y (PVY). J Virol Methods 125, 83-93.
Khusnutdinova EK, Viktorova TV, Fatkhlislamova RI, Galeeva AR, , Evaluation of the relative contribution of Caucasoid and Mongoloid components in the formation of ethnic groups of the Volga-Ural region according to data of DNA polymorphism, Genetics 35:8, pages 1132–1137, August 1999.
Contrary to most SMT solvers, Alt-Ergo uses a specific input language with prenex polymorphism. This helps reducing the number of quantified axioms and the complexity of problems. It also partially supports SMT-LIB 2 language, but performs less efficiently on SMT files.
The mutation is known in single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) nomenclature as rs28931573. In the 1990s, researchers at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center showed that injection of a synthetic version of the mutant ApoA-1 into rabbits and mice could reverse vascular plaque buildup.
Certain polymorphisms of the GPR50 gene in females are associated with increased risk of developing bipolar affective disorder, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia. Other GPR50 gene polymorphism are associated with higher fasting circulating triglyceride levels and lower circulating High-density lipoprotein levels.
High ERCC1 is thus a negative predictive marker, referring to how it will respond to a specific type of treatment. ERCC1 genotyping in humans has shown significant polymorphism at codon 118. These polymorphisms may have differential effects on platinum and mitomycin damage.
Glutathione peroxidase 1 is characterized in a polyalanine sequence polymorphism in the N-terminal region, which includes three alleles with five, six or seven alanine (Ala) repeats in this sequence. The allele with five Ala repeats is significantly associated with breast cancer risk.
The HRG gene lies on location of 3q27 on the chromosome 3, spans approximately 11kb, and consist of 7 exons. Two common isoforms of the HRG gene have been found in humans. These isoforms exist due to a polymorphism occurring in exon 5.
The 577XX polymorphism causes no production of alpha-actinin 3 protein which is essential in fast twitch muscle fibers. It has been speculated that variations in this gene evolved to accommodate the energy expenditure requirements of people in various parts of the world.
Dobzhansky decided to remove the chapter on Polyploidy in his third edition of the book. The new chapter on Adaptive Polymorphism highlighted Dobzhansky’s research focus since the second edition. Dobzhansky included precise, quantitative evidence on effective natural selection in laboratory and free populations.
Rohwer, S., & Paulson, D. R. (1987). The avoidance-image hypothesis and color polymorphism in Buteo hawks. Ornis Scandinavica, 285–290. The most common type of steppe buzzard is the rufous morph which gives this subspecies its scientific name (vulpes is Latin for "fox").
A study by Menashe et al. has found that individuals with a single nucleotide polymorphism variant in the OR11H7P pseudogene have a lower receptor activation threshold for isovaleric acid. These individuals are hyperosmic for this single odorant. Another study by Keller et al.
The insects overwinter as adults and occasionally as late instar nymphs on the evergreen southern live oak, Quercus virginiana, and cabbage palms, Sabal palmetto, where they are less likely to be killed by frost than on other trees. Polymorphism sometimes occurs in this species.
Looking at single-nucleotide polymorphism variation between northern and southern captured individuals enabled the researchers to infer population demography, which supported a likely subspecies split (S. paradoxus woodi the proposed name for the southern subspecies) within the Hispaniolan solenodon at least 300 thousand years ago.
Studies on the serotonin transporter have combined neuroimaging and genetics methods, e.g., a voxel-based morphometry study found less grey matter in perigenual anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala for short allele carriers of the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism compared to subjects with the long/long genotype.
It is a characteristic feature of cnidarians. For example, Obelia has feeding individuals, the gastrozooids; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles; and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the medusaearyana. Balanced polymorphism refers to the maintenance of different phenotypes in population.
In this role he was a member of the National Expert Group and worked on Education Strategy. He also represented Macedonian Science and Technology within the western Balkans EU region. Popovski's last publication discussed polymorphism in the genome of indigenous Macedonian and Slovenian sheep breeds.
The species reaches a length of about and shows sexual polymorphism. Major males are horned and substantially bigger than the hornless female, while minor males are hornless and often smaller than females. Females and small males differ in the form of the transverse carina.
This substitution has also been linked to increased frequency of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. A single-nucleotide polymorphism (G to C) in the promoter region of the PEMT has been demonstrated to contribute to development of organ dysfunction in conjunction with a low-choline diet.
Melanism in Adalia-bipunctata L (ColCoccinellidae) and its relationship to atmospheric pollution. Journal of Applied Ecology 2:451-464.De Jong, P. W., Verhoog, M. D., Brakefield, P. M., 1992. Sperm competition and melanic polymorphism in the 2-spot ladybird, Adalla bipunctata (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae).
The Ctenophorus decresii lizard displays polymorphism with varying colors of their throats. The throat colors range from white and gray to bright colors of red, orange, or blue. The diversity in throat color is due to a combination of sexual selection and natural selection.
For example, mice with the Mini Muscle mutation were observed to have a higher per-gram aerobic capacity. The mini-muscle allele shows a mendelian recessive behavior. The mutation is a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in an intron of the myosin heavy polypeptide4 gene.
APOBEC3 family of cytidine deaminase enzymes respond to viral infections by editing viral genome, but the enzymatic activity of APOBEC3A and APOBEC3B has also been found to cause unwanted host genome editing and may even participate to oncogenesis in human papillomavirus-related cancers. Signature 2 and Signature 13 are enriched for C>T and C>G substitutions and are thought to arise from cytidine deaminase activity of the AID/APOBEC enzymes family. A germline deletion polymorphism involving APOBEC3A and APOBEC3B is associated with high burden of Signature 2 and Signature 13 mutations. This polymorphism is considered to be of moderate penetrance (two-fold above background risk) for breast cancer risk.
Only certain subsets of swallowtails practice mimicry. Species differ in whether one or both sexes is mimetic, and whether the mimicry is monomorphic or polymorphic. A phenomenon which has received particular attention is female-limited polymorphism, in which only the females of a species are mimetic and polymorphic, often mimicking different, distantly- related aposematic butterflies. This polymorphism is seen in Papilio dardanus, the African swallowtail butterfly, whose females have three different morphs for wing color pattern: a black-and-white pattern for Batesian mimicry, a black-and-yellow pattern that resembles the males of the species, and a pattern with orange patches that resembles the elderly males of the species.
Geographical polymorphism is where geographical isolation causes a divergence of a species into different morphs. A good example is the Indian white admiral (Limenitis procris) which has five forms, each geographically separated from the other by large mountain ranges. An even more dramatic showcase of geographical polymorphism is the Apollo butterfly (Parnassius apollo). Due to the Apollos living in small local populations, having no contact with each other, but because of the strong stenotopic species and weak migration ability interbreeding between populations of one species practically does not occur; they form over 600 different morphs, with the size of spots on the wings of which varies greatly.
Dr. Matthew's research focused on one-carbon metabolism, with particular emphasis on the enzymes that catalyze the de novo generation of methyl groups: methionine synthase, a B-12 dependent enzyme in humans, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase. Her collaboration with geneticist Rima Rozen at McGill University led to the cloning of human methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase and the characterization of the C677T polymorphism associated with hyperhomocysteinemia in humans. The polymorphism can lead to a high amount of homocysteine in the bloodstream. High concentrations of homocysteine in the plasma can increase the risk for cardiovascular diseases and the use of folic acid have been shown to decrease the amounts in humans.
In programming languages and type theory, parametric polymorphism is a way to make a language more expressive, while still maintaining full static type- safety. Using parametric polymorphism, a function or a data type can be written generically so that it can handle values identically without depending on their type. Such functions and data types are called generic functions and generic datatypes respectively and form the basis of generic programming. For example, a function `append` that joins two lists can be constructed so that it does not care about the type of elements: it can append lists of integers, lists of real numbers, lists of strings, and so on.
Research conducted at the Section of Neurobiology of Psychosis, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London has demonstrated an effect of COMT both in patients with bipolar disorder and in their relatives, but these findings have not been replicated so far. The COMT Val158Met polymorphism also has a pleiotropic effect on emotional processing. Furthermore, the polymorphism has been shown to affect ratings of subjective well-being. When 621 women were measured with experience sample monitoring, which is similar to mood assessment as response to beeping watch, the met/met form confers double the subjective mental sensation of well-being from a wide variety of daily events.
Natural separation into regional subspecies is prevented by gyrfalcons' habit of flying long distances whilst exchanging alleles between subpopulations; thus, the allele distributions for the color polymorphism form clines and in darker birdsThe allele combination producing the white morph seems to be recessive. of unknown origin, theoretically any allele combination might be present. For instance, a mating of a pair of captive gyrfalcons is documented to have produced a clutch of four young: one white, one silver, one brown, and one black. Molecular work suggests plumage color is associated with the melanocortin 1 receptor gene (MC1R), where a nonsynonymous point substitution was perfectly associated with the white/melanic polymorphism.
A Human Genome Equivalent (HuGE) review in 2004 looked at studies of the connection between genetic mutations affecting leptin regulation and obesity. They reviewed a common polymorphism in the leptin gene (A19G; frequency 0.46), three mutations in the leptin receptor gene (Q223R, K109R and K656N) and two mutations in the PPARG gene (P12A and C161T). They found no association between any of the polymorphisms and obesity. A 2006 study found a link between the common LEP-2548 G/A genotype and morbid obesity in Taiwanese aborigines, but a 2014 meta-analysis did not, however, this polymorphism has been associated with weight gain in patients taking antipsychotics.
Incomplete lineage sorting, also termed deep coalescence, retention of ancestral polymorphism, or trans-species polymorphism, describes a phenomenon in population genetics when ancestral gene copies fail to coalesce (looking backwards in time) into a common ancestral copy until deeper than previous speciation events. In other words, the tree produced by a single gene differs from the population or species level tree, producing a discordant tree. As a result, a generated species level tree may differ depending on the selected genes used for assessment. This is in contrast to complete lineage sorting, where the tree produced by the gene is the same as the population or species level tree.
In addition, traditional sequencing can be useful for detection of germline mutations, but may be less successful in detecting somatic minor alleles at low frequencies (mosaicism). Therefore, other non-sequencing based approaches to detect the mutation or polymorphisms are required. Other widely used methods depend on physical properties of DNA, for example melting temperature-based systems such as Single-stranded conformational polymorphism analysis (SSCP) and Denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC). These techniques are generally limited to the analysis of short DNA fragments (< 1000 bp) and are only able to indicate the presence of polymorphism(s), but do not easily yield the location of a mutation within a DNA sequence.
Entomologists began to see polymorphism in insects as a demonstration of natural selection and an opportunity to study evolutionary processes. Edwards discovered many examples of polymorphism among butterflies in North America and showed that temperature was one environmental factor that influenced polymorphic species. By 1865 Edwards had begun work on the Butterflies of North America, a three-volume masterpiece that has been called "one of the most important entomological publications of the 19th century."Calhoun (2013) Originally intended to be a descriptive catalog of North American species, the scope grew to include detailed life histories of many species and some of the best butterfly illustrations ever published.
With the results from one study the polymorphism was thought to be related to treatment response so that long- allele patients respond better to antidepressants. Another antidepressant treatment response study did, however, rather point to the rs25531 SNP, and a large study by the group of investigators found a "lack of association between response to an SSRI and variation at the SLC6A4 locus". One study could find a treatment response effect for repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to drug-resistant depression with long/long homozygotes benefitting more than short-allele carriers. The researchers found a similar effect for the Val66Met polymorphism in the BDNF gene.
This function has gained some interest after it was revealed that the translation of amyloid precursor protein may be disrupted due to a single-nucleotide polymorphism to the IRE found in the 5′ UTR of its mRNA, leading to a spontaneous increased risk of Alzheimer's disease.
In aphids, both winged and wingless forms occur with winged forms produced in greater numbers when food resources are depleted. Aphids and whiteflies can sometimes be transported very long distances by atmospheric updrafts and high altitude winds. Wing-length polymorphism is notably rare in tree-living Hemiptera.
Neodiprion abietis, a Diprinoid phytophagous specialist commonly known as the balsam fir sawfly is an insect found within Canada and throughout the United States.G. Knerer, C.E. Atwood (1973). Diprionid sawflies: polymorphism and speciation. Changes in diapause and choice of food plants led to new evolutionary units.
Elevated to a species, T. septentrionalis, by Giannasi et al. (2001).Giannasi N, Thorpe RS, Malhotra A. 2001. The use of amplified fragment length polymorphism in determining species trees at fine taxonomic levels: analysis of a medically important snake, Trimeresurus albolabris. Molecular Ecology 10: 419-426.
It generally has either four or five dorsal spines but may have as many as seven.Blouw, D. M., & Hagen, D. W. (1981). Ecology of the fourspine stickleback, Apeltes quadracus, with respect to a polymorphism for dorsal spine number. Canadian Journal of Zoologly, 59(9), 1677-1692.
Restriction Fragment Mass Polymorphism (RFMP) is a technology which digests DNA into oligonucleotide fragments, and detects variation of DNA sequences by molecular weight of the fragments. RFMP is a proprietary technology of GeneMatrix and can be utilized for genotyping viruses and microorganisms, and for human genome research.
Haplogroup Q-L275 or Haplogroup Q2 (formerly Haplogroup Q1b) is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup believed to have originated in Eurasia. Haplogroup Q-L275 is defined by the presence of the L275 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). Haplogroup Q-L275 can be identified through genealogical DNA testing.
Gene polymorphism variants of CYP4A11 are associated with the development of hypertension and cerebral infarction (i.e. ischemic stroke) in humans (see 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid). In spite of its relative impotency and/or importance in accomplishing these omega- hydroxylations, CYP4F11 may contribute to them in certain tissues.
Discovery and Types of Genetic Linkage, from Scitable She also did extensive work in plant anatomy, particularly concerning gynoecia, having published several articles on the subject (noteworthy is her series of articles on "Illustrations of Carpel Polymorphism" published in the journal New Phytologist between 1928 and 1931).
EST assembly is made much more complicated by features like (cis-) alternative splicing, trans-splicing, single-nucleotide polymorphism, and post-transcriptional modification. Beginning in 2008 when RNA-Seq was invented, EST sequencing was replaced by this far more efficient technology, described under de novo transcriptome assembly.
These factors cause the lizards to vary in terms of their fitness (clutch size, sex ratio, hatching success). In lower density populations, colour polymorphism is more prevalent. This is because viviparous lizards thrive in environments where intraspecific competition is low.Vercken, E., Sinervo B., Clobert, J. 2012.
In programming languages that support generics (a.k.a. parametric polymorphism), the programmer can extend the type system with new constructors. For example, a C# interface like makes it possible to construct new types like or . The question then arises what the variance of these type constructors should be.
Transactions of the Entomological Society of London 1884: 27–60. Perhaps the best known early modern statement of the principle is Bryan Clarke's 1962 paper on apostatic selection (a synonym of negative frequency-dependent selection).Clarke, B. 1962. Balanced polymorphism and the diversity of sympatric species.
The curiously recurring template pattern (CRTP) is an idiom in C++ in which a class `X` derives from a class template instantiation using `X` itself as template argument. More generally it is known as F-bound polymorphism, and it is a form of F-bounded quantification.
Most of the reserve landscape is covered with forest. Relict Sosnovskyi pine of Caucasus is spread at 800–1800 m above sea level. It is represented by variety of forms due to tree polymorphism : pyramidal (Pinus Sosnowsky Nakai var. Pyramidalis Kurd.), compact (Pinus Sosnowsky Nakai var.
In nature, there is no evidence of gene flow among races of C. carbonum despite their sympatry.Simcox, K.D., D. Nickrent, and W.L. Pedersen, Comparison of isozyme polymorphism in races of Cochliobolus carbonum. Phytopathology, 1992. The teleomorph of C. carbonum has not been observed in field conditions.
Psychol Bull. Jul 2005;131(4):533-554 (PDF). # Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Cannon M, et al. Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction.
Gene polymorphism of interleukin-1 family, interleukin 6, and polymorphic GT repeat of the CRP gene do affect the usual CRP concentrations when a person does not have any medical illnesses. The plasma half-life of CRP is 19 hours, and is constant in all medical conditions.
Haplogroup DE is a human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is defined by the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutations, or UEPs, M1(YAP), M145(P205), M203, P144, P153, P165, P167, P183.ISOGG reference webpage. DE is unique because it is distributed in several geographically distinct clusters.
In genetics, rs5569 (A1287G or G1287A) is a genetic variant. It is a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the SLC6A2 gene in exon 9. This gene codes the norepinephrine transporter. The SNP is a silent substitution and the nucleotides of both variants code a threonine amino acid.
This finding suggests that epigenetic silencing of MBD4 is an early step in colorectal carcinogenesis. In a Chinese population that was evaluated, the MBD4 Glu346Lys polymorphism was associated with about a 50% reduced risk of cervical cancer, suggesting that alterations in MBD4 may be important in cancer.
Inversion of control (IoC) is more general than dependency injection. Put simply, IoC means letting other code call you rather than insisting on doing the calling. An example of IoC without dependency injection is the template method pattern. Here, polymorphism is achieved through subclassing, that is, inheritance.
All modern research has shown that this significant genetic variation is ubiquitous in panmictic populations. There are several mechanisms (which are not exclusive within any given population) by which balancing selection works to maintain polymorphism. The two major and most studied are heterozygote advantage and frequency- dependent selection.
A polymorphism on the mouse MATP gene is known to be the cause of the underwhite coat color phenotype. The phenotype was first identified in the 1960s, and since then has been mapped successfully. Affected individuals have a reduction in eye and coat pigmentation, and irregularly shaped melanosomes.
The legs are relatively large, especially the femurs, and very compressed laterally. Spines are present near the distal tip of the femurs and absent in the tibiae. The tarsi are longer than the tibiae. C. schmitzi exhibit polymorphism, with three physical castes - minor, median, and major ("soldier") workers.
In the Genome Aggregation Database, however, IFNL4-ΔG/TT is represented by rs74597329. IFNL4-ΔG generates the complete IFNL4 protein while IFNL4-TT results in a frameshift that prematurely terminates the protein, producing truncated polypeptides without known biological function. Another functional polymorphism within IFNL4 alters the protein's biological function.
Tardive dykinesias have also been associated with polymorphism in the dopamine receptor D2 gene, dopamine receptor D3 gene, dopamine transporter (DAT) gene, and manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) gene.Lafuente A, Bernardo M, Mas S, et al. Dopamine transporter (DAT) genotype (VNTR) and phenotype in extrapyramidal symptoms induced by antipsychotics.
This method results in oligogalacturonides. Exo-PGs hydrolyze at the non-reducing end of the polymer, generating a monosaccharide galacturonic acid. Occasionally, organisms employ both methods. In addition to different modes of action, PG polymorphism allows fungal PGs to more effectively degrade a wider range of plant tissues.
Polymorphism can be used to preserve the relevant interfaces even when such changes are done, because the objects are viewed as black box abstractions and accessed via object identity. However, usually the value of object references referring to the object is changed, which causes effects to client code.
Short wings may allow for short travel, but limit how far a gerrid can disperse. Nonexistent wings prevent a gerrid from being weighed down, but prevent dispersal. Wing polymorphism is common in the Gerridae despite most univoltine populations being completely apterous (wingless) or macropterous (with wings).Koga, Hayashi. 1991.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a change to a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence. The relative mutation rate for an SNP is extremely low. This makes them ideal for marking the history of the human genetic tree. SNPs are named with a letter code and a number.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a change to a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence. The relative mutation rate for an SNP is extremely low. This makes them ideal for marking the history of the human genetic tree. SNPs are named with a letter code and a number.
Traits are developed and certain genes come into expression based on an organism's environment and how these traits aid in an organism's survival and reproduction. Polymorphisms, such as gender and blood type, are forms of diversity which evolve to benefit a species as a whole.Ford E.B. 1965. Genetic polymorphism.
It blocks insulin release from isolated pancreatic cells. Polymorphism of this gene is associated with an increased risk of osteoporotic fractures. IL-1ra antagonist deficiency (DIRA) is a rare congenital disease. Affected children suffer from severe skin and bone inflammation, other organs such as the lungs may be affected.
A ceramic knife made from blackened zirconia, super heated under pressure. Zirconium oxide is used due to its polymorphism. It exists in three phases: monoclinic, tetragonal and cubic. Cooling to the monoclinic phase after sintering causes a large volume change, which often causes stress fractures in pure zirconia.
Their mimics are widespread and develop a kind of rough and ready jack-of-all-trades mimicry. But if model species are less common and have patchy distribution they develop polymorphism; and their mimics match them more exactly and are polymorphic also. The issues are currently being investigated.
Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) is a method that uses fluorescently-labeled DNA fragments to produce a community fingerprint. This section presents a brief explanation of T-RFLP in the specific context of community fingerprinting. For a more detailed explanation, refer to the T-RFLP article.
Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans strains have been differentiated from other related Acidithiobacilli, including A. ferrooxidans and A. caldus, by sequence analyses of the PCR-amplified 16S-23S rDNA intergenic spacer (ITS) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). The strains of A. thiooxidans that were investigated by these researchers (metal mine isolates) yielded RFLP patterns that were identical to the A. thiooxidans type strain (ATCC 19377T), except for strain DAMS, which had a distinct pattern for all enzymes tested. All three Acidithiobacillus species were differentiated by phylogenetic analysis of the ITS sequences. The size and sequence polymorphism of the ITS3 region contributed to the inter- and infraspecific genetic variations that were detected in this analysis.
A difference in the frequency of an allele or genotype of the polymorphism under test between the two groups indicates that the genetic marker may increase risk of the disease or likelihood of the trait, or be in linkage disequilibrium with a polymorphism which does. Haplotypes can also show association with a disease or trait. One of the earliest successes in this field was finding a single base mutation in the non-coding region of the APOC3 gene (apolipoprotein C3 gene) that associated with higher risks of hypertriglyceridemia and atherosclerosis using a case-control design. One problem with the case-control design is that genotype and haplotype frequencies vary between ethnic or geographic populations.
In addition, people of African descent are much less likely to respond to treatment when infected with genotypes 1 or 4. Erratum: The substantial proportion of this lack of response to treatment is proposed to be caused by a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) on chromosome 19 of the human genome that is predictive of treatment success. HCV genotypes 1 and 4 have been distributed endemically in overlapping areas of West and Central Africa, infecting for centuries human populations carrying the genetic polymorphism in question. This has prompted scientists to suggest that the protracted persistence of HCV genotypes 1 and 4 in people of African origin is an evolutionary adaptation of HCV over many centuries to these populations’ immunogenetic responses.
Ad hoc polymorphism is a dispatch mechanism: control moving through one named function is dispatched to various other functions without having to specify the exact function being called. Overloading allows multiple functions taking different types to be defined with the same name; the compiler or interpreter automatically ensures that the right function is called. This way, functions appending lists of integers, lists of strings, lists of real numbers, and so on could be written, and all be called append--and the right append function would be called based on the type of lists being appended. This differs from parametric polymorphism, in which the function would need to be written generically, to work with any kind of list.
PureScript is a strongly-typed, purely-functional programming language that compiles to JavaScript. It can be used to develop web applications, server side apps, and also desktop applications with use of Electron. Its syntax is mostly comparable to that of Haskell. In addition, it introduces row polymorphism and extensible records.
The grove snail, Cepaea nemoralis, is famous for the rich polymorphism of its shell. The system is controlled by a series of multiple alleles. Unbanded is the top dominant trait, and the forms of banding are controlled by modifier genes (see epistasis). Grove snail, dark yellow shell with single band.
Chapman & Hall, London Recent work has included the effect of shell colour on thermoregulation,Jones J.S., Leith B.N. & Rawlings P. 1977. Polymorphism in Cepaea: a problem with too many solutions. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 8, 109-143. and a wider selection of possible genetic influences is also considered.
Without the aid of the whole-genome sequences, pre-genomics investigations looked at select regions of the genome, often with only minimal knowledge of the gene sequences they were looking at. Genetic techniques capable of providing this sort of information include Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) analysis and microsatellite analysis.
The fixation index (FST) is a measure of population differentiation due to genetic structure. It is frequently estimated from genetic polymorphism data, such as single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) or microsatellites. Developed as a special case of Wright's F-statistics, it is one of the most commonly used statistics in population genetics.
Examples might be: flowering time, drought tolerance, polymorphism, mimicry, and avoidance of attacks by predators. Ecological genetics is an especially useful tool when studying endangered species. Meta-barcoding and eDNA are used to examine the biodiversity of species in an ecosystem. Research usually involves a mixture of field and laboratory studies.
"The animal, as represented in a drawing for which I am indebted to Sir Walter Elliot, is greenish yellow, but according to Col. Beddome it is black. It probably varies." The color of soft parts has great color diversity, (color polymorphism) including white, cream, pale yellow, orange, red and black.
The colour polymorphism of female Zootoca vivipara has not been thoroughly studied in past years, regardless of the extensive research done on the species itself.Svensson, E.I., Abbott, J., Gosden, T., Coreau, A. 2009. Female polymorphisms, sexual conflict, and limits to speciation processes in animals. Behavioral Evology 23(1) 93-108.
Early versions of Java and C# did not include generics, also termed parametric polymorphism. In such a setting, making arrays invariant rules out useful polymorphic programs. For example, consider writing a function to shuffle an array, or a function that tests two arrays for equality using the . method on the elements.
Magee and her husband have worked on the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans, and particularly their discovery of sexual mating in this fungus that had been thought to not have a mating cycle. They also made significant contributions to elucidate the genomic sequence and single nucleotide polymorphism mapping for this fungus.
MTHFR is the rate-limiting enzyme in the methyl cycle, which includes the conversion of homocysteine into methionine. Defects in variants of MTHFR can therefore lead to hyperhomocysteinemia. There are two common variants of MTHFR deficiency. In the more significant of the two, the individual is homozygous for the 677T polymorphism.
The general problem addressed is how to dispatch a message to different methods depending not only on the receiver but also on the arguments. To that end, systems like CLOS implement multiple dispatch. Double dispatch is another solution that gradually reduces the polymorphism on systems that do not support multiple dispatch.
Mao X, Young BD, Lu YJ. The application of single-nucleotide polymorphism microarrays in cancer research. Curr Genomics. 2007 Jun;8(4):219–28. Acquired UPD is quite common in both hematologic and solid tumors, and is reported to constitute 20 to 80% of the LOH seen in human tumors.
Quartz is one of the several crystalline forms of silica, SiO2. The most important forms of silica include: α-quartz, β-quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, coesite, and stishovite. Polymorphism is the occurrence of multiple crystalline forms of a material. It is found in many crystalline materials including polymers, minerals, and metals.
The Hawaiian Theridion grallator is used as a model to understand the selective forces and the genetic basis of color polymorphism within species. T. grallator is known as the "happyface" spider, as certain morphs have a pattern uncannily resembling a smiley face or a grinning clown face on their yellow body.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (mutation), in the sodium/myo-inositol cotransporter (SLC5A3) gene causes FIS. This gene is crucial in regulating a cell's response to osmotic stress; an alteration to the function of the gene leads to failure of red blood cell production (erythropoiesis) and failure of the immune system.
IFRD1 has been identified as a modifier gene for cystic fibrosis lung disease. In humans, neutrophil effector function is dependent on the type of IRFD1 polymorphism present in the individual. Human and mouse data both indicate that IFRD1 has a sizable impact on cystic fibrosis pathogenesis by regulating neutrophil effector function.
For a while, the name Agatea was disputed, and Agation used instead, but this was resolved in favor of the former name. The genus has also been subject to over-description resulting from polymorphism. Agatea is one of four lianescent genera in Violaceae, together with Calyptrion Ging., Anchietea A.St.-Hil.
GeneMatrix Inc is a Korean company servicing molecular diagnostics. The company is listed on KOSDAQ:109820. Its main service is to diagnose DNA mutations based on its proprietary technology of restriction fragment mass polymorphism (RFMP). GeneMatrix is affiliated with the Seoul National University Medical Center, the largest oncology center in Korea.
In contrast, systems which introduce polymorphic types (like System F) or dependent types (like the Logical Framework) are not considered simply typed. The former, except full recursion, are still considered simple because the Church encodings of such structures can be done using only \to and suitable type variables, while polymorphism and dependency cannot.
The Falls of the McCloud River form a natural barrier to rainbow trout migration historically. An amplified fragment length polymorphism study show Sheepheaven Creek (the type specimen) genetics to be sufficiently different to warrant subspecific status. Conservation efforts have included transplanting the relative pure Sheepheaven Creek strain into Swamp and Trout Creeks.
The wingspan is 20–22 mm. Adults show strong seasonal polymorphism, depending on the temperature. Two distinct forms are present in some areas: a bright green summer form and a brownish-yellow autumn form. The larvae feed on okra, cotton and hibiscus, but have also been recorded on rice, sugarcane and corn.
Further alterations at single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) levels and whole gene levels of caspase-9 can cause germ-line mutations linked to non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Certain polymorphisms in the promoter of caspase-9 enhances the rate at which caspase-9 is expressed, and this can increase a person's risk of lung cancer.
The African rice grasshopper, Hieroglyphus daganensis is a medium-sized grasshopper species found in the Sahel region. Although not called a locust in English, this species shows gregarious behaviour and some morphological change (phase polymorphism) on crowding and may become a moderately important pest species for small-holder farmers in the region.
The problem was finally resolved through a quantum chemical study by Pantazis and McGrady, who showed that the two structural forms result from different electronic configurations.D. A. Pantazis, J. E. McGrady (2006) “A three-state model for the polymorphism in linear tricobalt compounds”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 128, pp. 4128-4135. .
Physiological factors that can influence drug metabolism include age, individual variation (e.g., pharmacogenetics), enterohepatic circulation, nutrition, intestinal flora, or sex differences. In general, drugs are metabolized more slowly in fetal, neonatal and elderly humans and animals than in adults. Genetic variation (polymorphism) accounts for some of the variability in the effect of drugs.
This advantage, however, is counteracted with the fact that they will not get a lot of mating opportunities (if any) and their reproduction is limited. This theory is the most likely explanation for the maintenance of polymorphism, since studies have shown that there is an advantage for androchromes in high male-density populations.
Zootoca vivipara can be seen in a variety of different colours. Female Zootoca vivipara undergo colour polymorphism more commonly than males. A female lizard's display differs in ventral colouration, ranging from pale yellow to bright orange and a mixed colouration. There have been many hypothesis for the genetic cause of this polymorphic colouration.
Function overloading allows programs to declare multiple functions having the same name but with different arguments (i.e. ad hoc polymorphism). The functions are distinguished by the number or types of their formal parameters. Thus, the same function name can refer to different functions depending on the context in which it is used.
Immature nymphs resemble small adults. Each species shows polymorphism. Most individuals are the apterous form or "morph", with no wings, no eyes, and no or little pigmentation. A few females and even fewer males are in the alate form with relatively large membranous wings that can be shed at a basal fracture line.
Traits affected by the mutation are sweat glands, teeth, hair thickness and breast tissue. East Asian Physical Traits Linked to 35,000-Year-Old Mutation, NYT, 14 February 2013. , the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (dbSNP), which lists SNP and other variants, listed a total of 324 million variants found in sequenced human genomes.
Blackwell, Oxford.Huxley J. 1942. Evolution: the modern synthesis (2nd ed 1963, 3rd ed 1974) The general attitude was sceptical of natural selection. Charles Elton, who led the emergence of ecology as a discipline, pointed out the Arctic fox polymorphism, which can be found in all three tundra biomes of the northern palaeoarctic.
The abstraction principle is often stated in the context of some mechanism intended to facilitate abstraction. The basic mechanism of control abstraction is a function or subroutine. Data abstractions include various forms of type polymorphism. More elaborate mechanisms that may combine data and control abstractions include: abstract data types, including classes, polytypism etc.
The term allotropy is used for elements only, not for compounds. The more general term, used for any crystalline material, is polymorphism. Allotropy refers only to different forms of an element within the same phase (i.e.: solid, liquid or gas states); the differences between these states would not alone constitute examples of allotropy.
Overexpression of this gene was observed in the central nervous system of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), suggesting a role of this cytokine in the pathogenesis of the disease. The promoter gene polymorphism of this gene has been reported to be associated with the severity of atopic and non-atopic asthma in children.
ERβ function is related to various cardiovascular targets including ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) and apolipoprotein A1 (ApoA-1). Polymorphism may affect ERβ function and lead to altered responses in postmenopausal women receiving hormone replacement therapy. Abnormalities in gene expression associated with ERβ have also been linked to autism spectrum disorder.
The bacteria on different parts of a host have different shapes despite belonging to the same species (polymorphism). Those on the stalks are shaped like rods, but those in the region of the ciliated oral apparatus of the microzooids are shaped like small spheres (coccoid). Intermediate forms are also found in between.
SIRP β and γ have the similar extracellular structure but different cytoplasmic regions giving contrasting types of signals. SIRP α polymorphisms are found in ligand-binding IgSF V-set domain but it does not affect ligand binding. One idea is that the polymorphism is important to protect the receptor of pathogens binding.
A similar system of genetic polymorphism occurs in the white-lipped snail Cepaea hortensis, a close relative of the grove snail. In Iceland, where there are no song thrushes, a correlation has been established between temperature and colour forms. Banded and brown morphs reach higher temperatures than unbanded and yellow snails.Owen, D. 1980.
Kan is best known for his groundbreaking works in sickle cell and thalassemia. He is the first person who used fetal DNA diagnosis techniques to study these diseases. Kan's work led to the innovation of DNA diagnosis. Kan discovered DNA polymorphism, which nowadays is widely used in genetic analysis for human diseases.
There is an association between the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism in sprint and powerlifting performance at an elite level, and appears to be an association with exercise recovery and lower injury risk. It appears that the XX genotype is associated with higher levels of muscle damage and a longer time required for recovery.
TCF12 has been speculatively related to human male sexuality through a GWAS study indicating association to a related single nucleotide polymorphism. Mutations in this gene have also been associated with cases of coronal craniosynostosis. TCF12 is the primary heterodimerising partner of TCF21, a tumour suppressor gene and a target of SRY/SOX9 activity.
Maternal longevity, subsociality and bivoltine nesting phenology in this species favour colony formation, while dispersal habits and offspring longevity may inhibit more frequent social nesting in this and other ceratinines.Rehan, S., Richards, M., & Schwarz, M. (2010). Social polymorphism in the Australian small carpenter bee, Ceratina (Neoceratina) australensis. Insectes Sociaux, 4(57), 403-412.
927T/C (nucleotide thymine replaces cytosine at position 97 of the CysLTR1 gene) gene polymorphism in the coding region of CysLTR1 has been shown to be predictive of the severity of atopy (i.e. a predisposition toward developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions), but not associated with asthma, in a population of 341 Caucasians in afflicted sib-pair families from the Southampton area in the United Kingdom. This atopy severity was most apparent in female siblings but the incidence of this polymorphism is extremely low and the functionality of the 927T/C gene and its product protein are as yet unknown. The population of the small remote far South Atlantic Ocean island of Tristan da Cunha (266 permanent, genetically isolated residents) suffers a high prevalence of atopy and asthma.
Cross Section view of the structures that can be formed by phospholipids in aqueous solutions Polymorphism in biophysics is the ability of lipids to aggregate in a variety of ways, giving rise to structures of different shapes, known as "phases". This can be in the form of sphere of lipid molecules (micelles), pairs of layers that face one another (lamellar phase, observed in biological systems as a lipid bilayer), a tubular arrangement (hexagonal), or various cubic phases (Fdm, Imm, Iam, Pnm, and Pmm being those discovered so far). More complicated aggregations have also been observed, such as rhombohedral, tetragonal and orthorhombic phases. It forms an important part of current academic research in the fields of membrane biophysics (polymorphism), biochemistry (biological impact) and organic chemistry (synthesis).
Despite early findings of an association between the DRD4 48bp VNTR and novelty seeking (a normal characteristic of exploratory and excitable people), a 2008 meta-analysis compared 36 published studies of novelty seeking and the polymorphism and found no effect. Results are consistent with novelty-seeking behavior being a complex trait associated with many genes, and the variance attributable to DRD4 by itself being very small. The meta-analysis of 11 studies did find that another polymorphism in the gene, the -521C/T, showed an association with novelty seeking. While human results are not strong, research in animals has suggested stronger associations and new evidence suggests that human encroachment may exert selection pressure in favor of DRD4 variants associated with novelty seeking.
Polyphenism in termites A : Primary king B : Primary queen C : Secondary queen D : Tertiary queen E : Soldiers F : Worker A polyphenism is the occurrence of several phenotypes in a population, the differences between which are not the result of genetic differences.. For example, crocodiles possess a temperature-dependent sex determining polyphenism, where sex is the trait influenced by variations in nest temperature. When polyphenic forms exist at the same time in the same panmictic (interbreeding) population they can be compared to genetic polymorphism. With polyphenism, the switch between morphs is environmental, but with genetic polymorphism the determination of morph is genetic. These two cases have in common that more than one morph is part of the population at any one time.
Haemoglobin C is common in malarious areas of West Africa, especially in Burkina Faso. In a large case–control study performed in Burkina Faso on 4,348 Mossi subjects, that HbC was associated with a 29% reduction in risk of clinical malaria in HbAC heterozygotes and of 93% in HbCC homozygotes. HbC represents a ‘slow but gratis’ genetic adaptation to malaria through a transient polymorphism, compared to the polycentric ‘quick but costly’ adaptation through balanced polymorphism of HbS. HbC modifies the quantity and distribution of the variant antigen P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) on the infected red blood cell surface and the modified display of malaria surface proteins reduces parasite adhesiveness (thereby avoiding clearance by the spleen) and can reduce the risk of severe disease.
Polymorphisms can be identified in the laboratory using a variety of methods. Many methods employ PCR to amplify the sequence of a gene. Once amplified, polymorphisms and mutations in the sequence can be detected by DNA sequencing, either directly or after screening for variation with a method such as single strand conformation polymorphism analysis.
It is estimated that 7–10% of Caucasians are CYP2D6 poor metabolisers (PMs).Guttendorf, R.J., Wedlund, P.J., Genetic aspects of drug disposition and therapeutics. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 32:107–17, (1992). Most PMs have an autosomal recessive polymorphism in the CYP2D6 locus which results in the severely compromised metabolism of at least 25 drugs.
Gough, A.C., Miles, J.S., Spurr, N.K., et al. Identification of the primary gene defect at the cytochrome P450 CYP2D locus. Nature. 347(6295):773-6, (1990). It is believed that there are hundreds of potential polymorphism which will result in a PM, some result in functionally deficient CYP2D6, while others cause the absence of CYP2D6.
Each caste has a specific function within the colony. Acromyrmex ants are less polymorphic than the other genus of leafcutter ants Atta, meaning comparatively less difference in size exists from the smallest to largest types of Acromymex. The high degree of polymorphism in this genus is also suggestive of its high degree of advancement.
In addition, the same atoms may be able to form noncrystalline phases. For example, water can also form amorphous ice, while SiO2 can form both fused silica (an amorphous glass) and quartz (a crystal). Likewise, if a substance can form crystals, it can also form polycrystals. For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy.
Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. New York: Columbia U. Pr. The most common example is sexual dimorphism, which occurs in many organisms. Other examples are mimetic forms of butterflies (see mimicry), and human hemoglobin and blood types. According to the theory of evolution, polymorphism results from evolutionary processes, as does any aspect of a species.
Polymorphism crosses several discipline boundaries, including ecology and genetics, evolution theory, taxonomy, cytology, and biochemistry. Different disciplines may give the same concept different names, and different concepts may be given the same name. For example, there are the terms established in ecological genetics by E.B. Ford (1975),Ford, E. B. 1975. Ecological Genetics (4th ed.).
Scientists are capable of retrieving genetic information from hair, skin, blood, sperm, tissue, and saliva as long as the sample contains intact DNA. Nucleotide sequences between humans differ by only 0.1%. Even so, this 0.1% includes approximately three million bases. DNA can be analyzed through restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and Polymerase chain reactions (PCR).
This gene can have polymorphisms at Intron 9 and SNPs in Exon 15 which have been correlated with cancer risk as well. Research has shown that a biallelic poly (AT) insertion/deletion polymorphism in Intron 9 of XPC is associated with increased risk for skin, breast and prostate cancers, especially in North Indian populations.
Chapman and Hall, LondonFord E.B. 1965. Genetic polymorphism. All Souls Studies, Faber & Faber, London Ford understood the significance of pleiotropism, and knew of Fisher's demonstration that a neutral gene derived from a single mutation could only be in about the same number of individuals as there had been generations since its inception.Fisher R.A. 1930.
The vitamin K epoxide reductase complex subunit 1 (VKORC1) is responsible for the pharmacodynamics of warfarin. VKORC1 along with CYP2C9 are useful for identifying the risk of bleeding during warfarin administration. Warfarin works by inhibiting VKOR, which is encoded by the VKORC1 gene. Individuals with polymorphism in this have an affected response to warfarin treatment.
Midphalangeal hair, or the presence/absence of hair on the middle phalanx of the ring finger, is one of the most widely studied markers in classical genetics of human populations. Although this polymorphism was observed at other fingers as well, for this kind of research, the fourth finger of the hand has been conventionally selected.
Littorina saxatilis has been shown to be an excellent model system for speciation genetics. In the seminal 2001 paper, Wilding et al demonstrated, using amplified fragment length polymorphism, that the low shore M form of the species were divergent from the high shore H form at number of loci despite gene flow between the forms.
It was as a result of Ford's work, as well as his own, that Dobzhansky changed the emphasis in the third edition of his famous text from drift to selection.Dobzhansky T. 1951. Genetics and the Origin of Species. 3rd ed, Columbia University Press N.Y. Polymorphism in this species was investigated by Ford for many years.
Genomic biomarkers analyze DNA by identifying irregular sequences in the genome, typically a single nucleotide polymorphism. Genetic biomarkers are particularly significant in cancer because most cancer cell lines carry somatic mutations. Somatic mutations are distinguishable from hereditary mutations because the mutation is not in every cell; just the tumor cells, making them easy targets.
Mutation of this gene—a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is located in exon 10. As a missense substitution of amino acid R to amino acid Q, it changes the protein's amino acid from arginine to glutamine. Depending on the chosen start the position of the nucleotide variant is either at position 1691 or 1746.
Ramey reports that the mean Abert's squirrel home range for spring and summer was in Black Forest County, Colorado. Subadult males had spring home ranges of about , and adult females had somewhat larger summer home ranges than adult males.Ramey, Craig Anthony. (1973). The movement patterns and coat color polymorphism of Abert's squirrel, Sciurus aberti ferreus.
Polymorphisms in this gene are generally found in the form of a single- nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). The greatest ethnic differences in polymorphisms within the ABCC1 are found between Caucasian and Asian populations. There are multiple examples of single nucleotide polymorphisms that are shared among Asian populations but not found in Caucasian populations and vice versa.
These populations are interesting in that they are restricted to specific larval habitat (varve clay and sometimes rotting wood) and thus there is genetic structure between populations in the river . The Connecticut River species are also notable in that they have extremely well developed polytene chromosomes and also maintain a high degree of inversion polymorphism .
Correlation between this polymorphism and increased risk of lung cancer is present with low folate intake and high vitamin B12, suggesting a B12 independent mechanism of action. This mutation is also associated with an increased risk in colorectal cancer, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, bladder cancer, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma.
Instead, HM provides a let-polymorphism of the form let id = λ x . x in ... (id 3) ... (id "text") ... restricting the binding mechanism in an extension of the expression syntax. Only values bound in a let construct are subject to instantiation, i.e. are polymorphic, while the parameters in lambda- abstractions are treated as being monomorphic.
While specialization of a type scheme is one use of the order, it plays a crucial second role in the type system. Type inference with polymorphism faces the challenge of summarizing all possible types an expression may have. The order guarantees that such a summary exists as the most general type of the expression.
Cysteine is a component of the major antioxidant glutathione, and mice lacking EAAT3 exhibit reduced levels of glutathione in neurons, increased oxidative stress, and age-dependent loss of neurons, especially neurons of the substantia nigra. A meta-analysis identified a small but significant association between a polymorphism of the gene SLC1A1 and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase human polymorphism is also implicated in malarial resistance. G6PD alleles with reduced activity are maintained at a high level in endemic malarial regions, despite reduced general viability. Variant A (with 85% activity) reaches 40% in sub-Saharan Africa, but is generally less than 1% outside Africa and the Middle East.
APOE−/− knockout mice show marked attenuation of cerebral malaria and increased survival, as well as decreased sequestration of parasites and T cells within the brain, likely due to protection of the blood-brain barrier. Human studies have shown that the APOE2 polymorphism correlates with earlier infection, and APOE3/4 polymorphisms increase likelihood of severe malaria.
Female polymorphism could in fact be a result of evolution due to sexual conflict. Male spiders Harpactea sadistica perform extra-genitalic traumatic insemination with their needle- like intromittent organs that puncture the female's wall, resulting in direct insemination. Males also puncture females with their cheliceral fangs during courtship. Females have atrophied spermathecae (sperm-storage organs).
Haplogroup N (M231) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup defined by the presence of the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) marker M231. It is most commonly found in males originating from northern Eurasia. It also has been observed at lower frequencies in populations native to other regions, including the Balkans, Central Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia.
In genetics, rs1799913, also called A779C, is a gene variation--a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-- in the TPH1 gene. It is located in intron 7. The SNP association with schizophrenia has been examined in several studies, though as of 2007 with no definitive conclusion. One study has found that the SNP may be associated with heroin addiction.
For example, a function "move the car from the garage" inherently has a side effect of changing the "car position". In some cases, the mixed semantics can extend over a large topological tree or graph of related concepts. In these unusual cases, functional design is not recommended by some authorities . Instead polymorphism, inheritance, or procedural methods may be preferred.
The majority of polymorphisms are silent, meaning they do not alter the function or expression of a gene. Some polymorphism is visible. For example, in dogs the E locus, can have any of five different alleles, known as E, Em, Eg, Eh, and e. Varying combinations of these alleles contribute to the pigmentation and patterns seen in dog coats.
Single nucleotide polymorphism annotation (SNP annotation) is the process of predicting the effect or function of an individual SNP using SNP annotation tools. In SNP annotation the biological information is extracted, collected and displayed in a clear form amenable to query. SNP functional annotation is typically performed based on the available information on nucleic acid and protein sequences.
Shells of Polymita picta can reach a length of about . These large shells are shiny and very brightly colored. Normally they show a bright yellow color with a white stripe, but the species is well known for its colourful shell polymorphism, with numerous color varieties.Pinterest These shells are sought after by poachers and used to make jewelry and trinkets.
In undergraduate academic experimentation of protein purification, the gel is usually run next to commercial purified samples to visualize the results and conclude whether or not purification was successful. Native gel electrophoresis is typically used in proteomics and metallomics. However, native PAGE is also used to scan genes (DNA) for unknown mutations as in Single-strand conformation polymorphism.
For a simple explanation, let D1 = divergence between species, or the number of fixed differences in locus one. Similarly D2 = divergence in locus two. Let P1 and P2 = the number of polymorphic sites in loci one and two, respectively (a measure of polymorphism within species). If there is no directional evolution, then D1/D2 = P1/P2.
Overdominance is a condition in genetics where the phenotype of the heterozygote lies outside the phenotypical range of both homozygous parents. Overdominance can also be described as heterozygote advantage, wherein heterozygous individuals have a higher fitness than homozygous individuals. An example in humans is that of the sickle cell anemia. This condition is determined by a single polymorphism.
The species of the genus Odontolabis are large (males up to 9 cm), oblong and shiny. Usually males have more or less enlarged head and jaws. The head and the pronotum usually are black, while elytra are often more or less brownish or yellowish. In some species the shape of the male's jaws have several different forms (polymorphism).
A number of laboratory methods have been developed for cell-free fetal DNA screening for genetic defects have been developed. The main ones are (1) massively parallel shotgun sequencing (MPSS), (2) targeted massive parallel sequencing (t-MPS) and (3) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) based approach. A maternal peripheral blood sample is taken by venesection at about ten weeks gestation.
Beta-Ala-His dipeptidase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the CNDP1 gene. This gene encodes a member of the M20 metalloprotease family. The encoded protein is specifically expressed in the brain, is a homodimeric dipeptidase which was identified as human carnosinase. This gene contains trinucleotide (CTG) repeat length polymorphism in the coding region.
The editing site was previously believed to be a single nucleotide polymorphism. The editing site is found at amino acid 5 of transmembrane domain 3 of exon 9. The predicted double-stranded RNA structure is interrupted by three bulges and a mismatch at the editing site. The double- stranded region is 22 base pairs in length.
It is a member of the sodium:neurotransmitter symporter family. A repeat length polymorphism in the promoter of this gene has been shown to affect the rate of serotonin uptake and may play a role in sudden infant death syndrome, aggressive behavior in Alzheimer disease patients, post-traumatic stress disorder and depression- susceptibility in people experiencing emotional trauma.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms in this gene may be associated with sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. This single nucleotide polymorphism has been discovered on chromosome 19. This variation of the single nucleotide involving UNC13A has also been implicated in frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Pathology involving TDP-43 is a result of the single nucleotide polymorphisms in both ALS and FTD.
Arctia festiva, the hebe tiger moth, is a moth species of the family Erebidae. Some authors separate it in a monotypic genus Eucharia. It is found in Central and Southern Europe, Near East, Iran, Central Asia, European Russia, Southern Siberia, Mongolia and China. The adults of this species display polymorphism; in addition, several subspecies are recognized.
A larva that is homozygous at csd is inviable. Therefore rare alleles spread through the population, pushing the gene pool toward an ideal equilibrium where every allele is equally common. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is involved in the recognition of foreign antigens and cells. Frequency-dependent selection may explain the high degree of polymorphism in the MHC.
This gene encodes one of three members of a family of low-affinity immunoglobulin gamma Fc receptors found on the surface of many immune response cells. The encoded protein is a transmembrane glycoprotein and may be involved in phagocytosis and clearing of immune complexes. An allelic polymorphism in this gene results in both coding and non-coding variants.
Gilbert's syndrome is correlated with UTG1A1 TATA box polymorphism. This poses a risk for developing jaundice in newborns. MicroRNAs also play a role in replicating viruses such as HIV-1. Novel HIV-1-encoded microRNA have been found to enhance the production of the virus as well as activating HIV-1 latency by targeting the TATA box region.
Longstanding chronic kidney failure can lead to amyloid by alpha-2-macroglobulin (see main article: amyloid). A common variant (29.5%) (polymorphism) of alpha-2-macroglobulin leads to increased risk of Alzheimer's disease. alpha-2-Macroglobulin binds to and removes the active forms of the gelatinase (MMP-2 and MMP-9) from the circulation via scavenger receptors on the phagocytes.
Eciton burchellii is a species of New World army ant in the genus Eciton. This highly charismatic species performs expansive, organized swarm raids that give it the informal name, Eciton army ant. This species displays a high degree of worker polymorphism. Sterile workers are of four discrete size-castes: minors, medias, porters (sub-majors), and soldiers (majors).
A theory of type polymorphism in programming. Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 17(3):348–375, 1978. ML provides pattern matching for function arguments, garbage collection, imperative programming, call-by-value and currying. It is used heavily in programming language research and is one of the few languages to be completely specified and verified using formal semantics.
Species of the genus Bursaphelenchus are difficult to distinguish because they are similar in morphology. A positive identification can be made with molecular analyses such as restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).Cram, M. and J. Hanson. How to Identify and Manage Pine Wilt Disease and Treat Wood Products Infested by the Pinewood Nematodes. NA-FR-01-04.
The impact of SMAD3 has also been analyzed in colorectal cancer human cell lines, using single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) microarray analysis. The results showed reductions in SMAD3 transcriptional activity and SMAD2-SMAD4 complex formation, underlining the critical roles of these three proteins within the TGF-β signaling pathway and the impact of this pathway in colorectal cancer development.
Abnormalities in XBP1 lead to a heightened ER stress and subsequently causes a heightened susceptibility for inflammatory processes that may contribute to Alzheimer's disease. In the colon, XBP1 anomalies have been linked to Crohn's disease. A single nucleotide polymorphism, C116G, in the promoter region of XBP1 has been examined for possible associations with personality traits. None were found.
The proposed role of the eyespots is to deflect attention of predators. Their resemblance to eyes provokes the predator's instinct to attack these wing patterns. Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera. Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species (the mimic) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species (the model).
However, the very possibility of implementing such an operator highly constrains the Number type (for example, one can't compare an integer with a complex number), and actually only comparing integers with integers and reals with reals makes sense. Rewriting this function so that it would only accept 'x' and 'y' of the same type requires bounded polymorphism.
A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the gene that leads to a single amino acid change (S995C) has been shown in a genome-wide association study to be significantly associated with Behçet's disease, and this designation led to the alias Behcet's disease-associated gene 1 (BDAG1). The role of CCDC180 in the disease phenotype is unknown.
Tanaka, K., Solis, C. D., Masangkay, J. S., Maeda, K., Kawamoto, I. Y. and Namikawa, T. (1996). Phylogenetic relationship among all living species of the genus Bubalus based on DNA sequences of the cytochrome b gene. Biochemical Genetics 34: 443–452. Analyses of mitochondrial DNA and single-nucleotide polymorphism indicate that swamp and river buffaloes were crossbred in China.
Specific SNPs are associated with an elevated risk of lung cancer and interact with folate dietary intake in this etiology. The (MTRR):c.66A>G mutation relates to a significant increase in the risk of lung cancer. When co-expressed with the polymorphism (MTR): 2756A>G, lung cancer risk is further increased in a dose dependent manner.
A Hindley–Milner (HM) type system is a classical type system for the lambda calculus with parametric polymorphism. It is also known as Damas–Milner or Damas–Hindley–Milner. It was first described by J. Roger Hindley and later rediscovered by Robin Milner. Luis Damas contributed a close formal analysis and proof of the method in his PhD thesis.
When extending the type inference for the simply-typed lambda calculus towards polymorphism, one has to define when deriving an instance of a value is admissible. Ideally, this would be allowed with any use of a bound variable, as in: (λ id . ... (id 3) ... (id "text") ... ) (λ x . x) Unfortunately, type inference in polymorphic lambda calculus is not decidable.
The gene that encodes the DAT protein is located on human chromosome 5, consists of 15 coding exons, and is roughly 64 kbp long. Evidence for the associations between DAT and dopamine related disorders has come from a type of genetic polymorphism, known as a VNTR, in the DAT gene (DAT1), which influences the amount of protein expressed.
This method begins with alignment of homologous genes, followed by identification of regions of polymorphism. Next the top strand of the gene is divided into small degenerate oligonucleotides. The bottom strand is also digested into oligonucleotides to serve as scaffolds. These fragments are combined in solution are top strand oligonucleotides are assembled onto bottom strand oligonucleotides.
There are about 75 species of Caulerpa. Many of them exhibit polymorphism, showing different growth forms in different habitats which makes them difficult to identify. Caulerpa racemosa, C. laetevirens and C. peltata form a species complex. A number of forms and varieties for C. racemosa are listed but further study is needed to clarify their exact phylogenetic relationships.
Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Those who have had pervious chemotherapy and exposure to radiation may have increased risks of developing T-ALL. CDKN2A is an inherited polymorphism variant that is seen to be associated with development of T-ALL. SR-90 emission from nuclear reactor accidents is also believed to increase risk of developing T-ALL.
Prostate stem cell antigen is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PSCA gene. This gene encodes a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored cell membrane glycoprotein. In addition to being highly expressed in the prostate it is also expressed in the bladder, placenta, colon, kidney, and stomach. This gene has a nonsynonymous nucleotide polymorphism at its start codon.
Such female-limited Batesian mimicry is not unique to this species, even in the genus Papilio. For instance Papilio memnon shows a similar case of polymorphism in females. Similarly, male mimicry has been observed in another insect, a damselfly Ischnura ramburii which also appears to have evolved camouflage to avoid sexual coercion by males.Lessells, K. (2005).
The common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) displays polymorphism and has six distinct morphs which vary by the colour of their throat and underbelly (underbelly colouration seen predominantly in males). There are three "pure" morphs of colours: red, yellow and white and three "intermediate" morphs which are a combination of the colours: white-red, white-yellow and red-yellow.
WS males sing more, are more aggressive and more frequently engage in extra-pair copulation than their TS counterparts. TS birds of both sexes provide more parental care than WS birds. The polymorphism is maintained by negative assortative mating—each morph mates with its opposite. Dimorphic pairs may have an advantageous balance between parental care and aggressive territorial defense.
Heterostyly is a unique form of polymorphism and herkogamy in flowers. In a heterostylous species, two or three morphological types of flowers, termed "morphs", exist in the population. On each individual plant, all flowers share the same morph. The flower morphs differ in the lengths of the pistil and stamens, and these traits are not continuous.
With encryption, the main body of the code (also called its payload) is encrypted and will appear meaningless. For the code to function as before, a decryption function is added to the code. When the code is executed this function reads the payload and decrypts it before executing it in turn. Encryption alone is not polymorphism.
Regarding the number of teeth in each dental quadrant (or dental formula) Archer et al. (2011) reported that "the dental formula for species of Notoryctes is controversial because of considerable polymorphism in tooth number, both between specimens and within the same specimen." Nonetheless, reflecting the consensus of older studies,Thomas O. XI.—Notoryctes in North-west Australia.
For this reason, mimics are usually less numerous than models, an instance of frequency dependent selection. Some mimetic populations have evolved multiple forms (polymorphism), enabling them to mimic several different models and thereby to gain greater protection. Batesian mimicry is not always perfect. A variety of explanations have been proposed for this, including limitations in predators' cognition.
Data-directed programming is a programming technique mentioned in the seminal textbook: Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs. Essentially it is a "dispatch" technique on procedures for integrating separately developed data-type (e.g., class) modules, based on the programmers manual setup of dynamic tables for procedure access. In modern object-oriented programming languages it is implemented as polymorphism.
Evidence that small-scale mutations were common arrived as soon as breeding experiments were designed to detect them: it was a consequence of experimental methods that early mutations were so noteworthy. Explanations for polymorphism were advanced by E.B. Ford and Dobzhansky and colleagues, who developed experimental methods for populations in the wild.Ford, E.B. (1975). Ecological Genetics, Fourth edition.
Of these, six were shown to have a highly reliable association, of which the ID4 gene was identified. This is thought to be due to an independent single nucleotide polymorphism at loci rs7739264 near ID4 on chromosome 6p22.3. ID4 is implicated in the molecular pathogenicity of endometriosis as being differentially expressed between the proliferative, early and mid-secretory phases.
Indian papilionids such as the common Mormon (Papilio polytes) and great Mormon (Papilio memnon) show polymorphism with many mimetic female forms.Clarke, C. A.; Sheppard, P. M. & Thornton, I. W. B. "The Genetics of the Mimetic Butterfly Papilio memnon L." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London. (B - Biological Sciences) 22 August 1968 vol. 254 no. 791 37-89. Abstract.
Hypolimnas misippus, the Danaid eggfly, mimic, or diadem, is a widespread species of nymphalid butterfly. It is well known for polymorphism and mimicry. Males are blackish with distinctive white spots that are fringed in blue. Females are in multiple forms that include male-like forms while others closely resemble the toxic butterflies Danaus chrysippus and Danaus plexippus.
These differences reflect the intensity of transmission of P. falciparum malaria from locality to locality and season to season, so fitness calculations will also vary. In many African populations the AS frequency is about 20%, and a fitness superiority over those with normal hemoglobin of the order of 10% is sufficient to produce a stable polymorphism.
The steppe buzzard race shows three main colour morphs, each of which can be predominant in a region of breeding range. It is more distinctly polymorphic rather than just individually very variable like the nominate race. This may be because, unlike the nominate buzzard, the steppe buzzard is highly migratory. Polymorphism has been linked with migratory behaviour.
Dependency injection implements IoC through composition so is often identical to that of the strategy pattern, but while the strategy pattern is intended for dependencies to be interchangeable throughout an object's lifetime, in dependency injection it may be that only a single instance of a dependency is used. This still achieves polymorphism, but through delegation and composition.
Genetic association can be between phenotypes, such as visible characteristics such as flower colour or height, between a phenotype and a genetic polymorphism, such as a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), or between two genetic polymorphisms. Association between genetic polymorphisms occurs when there is non-random association of their alleles as a result of their proximity on the same chromosome; this is known as genetic linkage. Linkage disequilibrium (LD) is a term used in the study of population genetics for the non-random association of alleles at two or more loci, not necessarily on the same chromosome. It is not the same as linkage, which is the phenomenon whereby two or more loci on a chromosome have reduced recombination between them because of their physical proximity to each other.
Figure 3. Structure of the mouse 5HT3 receptor gene, showing its 9 exons (E1-E9), corresponding to the exons shown in the cDNA below. The 5' ends of exons 2, 6, and 9 have alternative splice sites. Figure drawn to scale. Modified after Uetz et al. 1994. Expression. The 5-HT3C, 5-HT3D and 5-HT3E genes tend to show peripherally restricted pattern of expression, with high levels in the gut. In human duodenum and stomach, for example, 5-HT3C and 5-HT3E mRNA might be greater than for 5-HT3A and 5-HT3B. Polymorphism. In patients treated with chemotherapeutic drugs, certain polymorphism of the HTR3B gene could predict successful antiemetic treatment. This could indicate that the 5-HTR3B receptor subunit could be used as biomarker of antiemetic drug efficacy.
The upper DNA molecule differs from the lower DNA molecule at a single base- pair location (a C/A polymorphism) A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP; ; plural ) is a substitution of a single nucleotide at a specific position in the genome, that is present in a sufficiently large fraction of the population (e.g. 1% or more). For example, at a specific base position in the human genome, the C nucleotide may appear in most individuals, but in a minority of individuals, the position is occupied by an A. This means that there is a SNP at this specific position, and the two possible nucleotide variations – C or A – are said to be the alleles for this specific position. SNPs pinpoint differences in our susceptibility to a wide range of diseases (e.g.
In California, where it is widely distributed, the fungus is found in a variety of plant communities, including aspen, coastal oak woodland, Douglas Fir, Klamath mixed conifer, montane hardwood, montane hardwood-conifer, montane riparian, Redwood, Sierran mixed conifer, valley oak woodland, valley-foothill riparian, and White Fir. It was found to be the most common Armillaria species in hardwood and mixed oak forests in western Massachusetts. A Chinese study published in 2001 used the molecular biological technique restriction fragment length polymorphism to analyze the differences in DNA sequence between 23 A. gallica specimens collected from the Northern Hemisphere. The results suggest that based on the restriction fragment length polymorphism patterns observed, there are four global A. gallica subpopulations: the Chinese, European, North American–Chinese, and North American–European geographical lineages.
The concept of allotropy was originally proposed in 1841 by the Swedish scientist Baron Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848).. The term is derived .. After the acceptance of Avogadro's hypothesis in 1860, it was understood that elements could exist as polyatomic molecules, and two allotropes of oxygen were recognized as O2 and O3. In the early 20th century, it was recognized that other cases such as carbon were due to differences in crystal structure. By 1912, Ostwald noted that the allotropy of elements is just a special case of the phenomenon of polymorphism known for compounds, and proposed that the terms allotrope and allotropy be abandoned and replaced by polymorph and polymorphism. Although many other chemists have repeated this advice, IUPAC and most chemistry texts still favour the usage of allotrope and allotropy for elements only.
Abnormal plumages include a variety of conditions. Albinism, total loss of colour, is rare, but partial loss of colours is more common. Some species are colour polymorphic, having two or more colour variants. A few species have special types of polymorphism, as in the male ruff which has an assortment of different colours around the head and neck in the breeding season only.
Sex roles in egg recognition and egg polymorphism in avian brood parasitism. Behavioral Ecology, 23(2), 397–402. doi:10.1093/beheco/arr203 The common cuckoo lays its eggs in the nests of parrotbills and the two have co-evolved together over time to promote the reproductive success of both species.Yang, C., Li, D., Wang, L., Liang, G., Zhang, Z., & Liang, W. (2014).
Six individuals with different number of repeats at one location in their genome shown on a gel. The first true method of DNA profiling was restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. The first use of RFLP analysis in forensic casework was in 1985 in the United Kingdom. This type of analysis used variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) to distinguish between individuals.
The older the text, or the more general the audience, the more likely that HFE is implied."Haemochromatosis" has also been used in contexts where a genetic cause for iron accumulation had not been known. In some cases, however, a condition that was thought to be due to diet or environment was later linked to a genetic polymorphism, as in African iron overload.
D5 receptors may be involved in burst firing of subthalamic nucleus neurons in 6-OHDA rat model of Parkinson's disease. In this animal model, blockage of D5 receptors with flupentixol reduces burst firing and improves motor deficits. Studies show that DRD5 T978C polymorphism is not associated with the susceptibility to PD, nor with the risk of developing motor fluctuations or hallucinations in PD.
If the problem is to count the number of solutions, which is denoted by #CSP(Γ), then a similar result by Creignou and Hermann holds. Let Γ be a finite constraint language over the Boolean domain. The problem #CSP(Γ) is computable in polynomial time if Γ has a Mal'tsev operation as a polymorphism. Otherwise, the problem #CSP(Γ) is #P-complete.
Alate females are typically those destined to become gynes (queens), whereas alate males are occasionally referred to as "drones" (or "kings", in the case of termites). However, the existence of reproductives that do not have wings (e.g., ergatoid queens and gamergates) necessitates a term to distinguish the winged from the wingless reproductive forms. This is an example of polymorphism associated with eusociality.
Decreased expression of genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation, including NDUFB6, is associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. A polymorphism in the promoter region of the NDFUB6 gene resulting in an adenine to guanine shift at rs629566 was shown to create a DNA methylation site that is associated with a decline in NDUFB6 expression in muscle of aging patients.
Elixir is a functional, concurrent, general-purpose programming language that runs on the BEAM virtual machine used to implement the Erlang programming language. Elixir builds on top of Erlang and shares the same abstractions for building distributed, fault-tolerant applications. Elixir also provides productive tooling and an extensible design. The latter is supported by compile-time metaprogramming with macros and polymorphism via protocols.
Other aggregations are also observed and form part of the polymorphism of amphiphile (lipid) behavior. Phase behavior is an area of study within biophysics and is the subject of current academic research. Micelles and bilayers form in the polar medium by a process known as the hydrophobic effect. When dissolving a lipophilic or amphiphilic substance in a polar environment, the polar molecules (i.e.
The species shows considerable polymorphism and can be divided into numerous subspecies. Mesoamerican specimens are usually tetraploid and South American specimens are diploid. The genera currently assigned to the tribe Rhipsalideae (which include Hatiora, Lepismium, and Schlumbergera in addition to Rhipsalis) were subject to considerable confusion and disagreement prior to the clarification by Wilhelm Barthlott and Nigel Taylor in 1995., pp.
Individuals that lack functional NTCP have been identified. These individuals display highly elevated bile salt levels in plasma, but without a clear phenotype. In areas of the world with a high prevalence of HBV, there are multiple individuals who carry the NTCP p.S267F polymorphism on both alleles; this makes NTCP inactive as a bile acid transporter, but provides protection against HBV infection.
Queeg, suggest that it is also an allusion to the word smeg, used as a profanity by characters in the British TV series Red Dwarf. The engine is designed to be used to add polymorphism to viruses. In 1995, Pile was sentenced to 18 months in prison for creating the viruses, becoming the first person convicted under the Computer Misuse Act.
G. Evelyn Hutchinson, a founder of niche research, commented "It is very likely from an ecological point of view that all species, or at least all common species, consist of populations adapted to more than one niche".Hutchinson, G. Evelyn 1965. The evolutionary theater and the evolutionary play. Yale. The niche: an abstractly inhabited hypervolume: polymorphism and niche diversity, p66–70.
Elegans (Vnader Linden)(Insecta:Odonata) with special reference to morphological colour changes, female polymorphism, multiannual cycles and their influence on behaviour. Hydobiologia. 146: 3-31. that states that at a high male density, the androchromes are not bothered by the males and their existence is not threatened by male harassment. This hypothesis also assumes that males cannot distinguish between androchromes and other males.
However, there are small morphological differences, genetic polymorphism in the mitochondrial DNA, as well as behavioral differences. A. nigrocincta contracts the parasite-caused honey bee disease varroatosis by playing host to the species of Varroa mite known as Varroa underwoodi. In this way, they are similar to Apis cerana nuluensis, which is also susceptible to the same species of parasite.
These hypothesis test for colouration due to thermoregulation, predator avoidance, and social cues, specifically sexual reproduction. Through an experiment conducted by Vercken et al., colour polymorphism in viviparous lizard is caused by social cues, rather than the other hypotheses. More specifically, the ventral colouration that is seen in female lizards is associated with patterns of sexual reproduction and sex allocation.
Mutations of the CELA1 gene were suspected to be associated with diffuse nonepidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma (diffuse NEPPK). However the suspected sequence variant was fully functional and did not strongly associate with the disease. More recently, a specific mutation in the KRT6C gene has been linked to some cases of diffuse NEPPK. A possible polymorphism of the CELA1 gene coding this protein was found.
Another gene associated with this condition is MLX (Max-like protein X) Tamura N, Maejima Y, Matsumura T, Vega RB, Amiya E, Ito Y, Shiheido-Watanabe Y, Ashikaga T, Komuro I, Kelly DP, Hirao K, Isobe M (2018) Single-nucleotide polymorphism of the MLX gene is associated With Takayasu arteritis. Circ Genom Precis Med 11(10):e002296. doi: 10.1161/CIRCGEN.118.002296.
PON was identified as an enzyme having organophosphates as its substrates. Reports of the geographic differences in population frequencies of paraoxonase activity and genetic analysis led to uncovering the genetic polymorphism. The name paraoxonase was given because of its ability to hydrolyze paraoxon, a toxic metabolite that comes from pesticide parathion. The 3D crystal structure of PON1 was determined in 2004.
The previous section notwithstanding, there are other ways in which ad hoc polymorphism can work out. Consider for example the Smalltalk language. In Smalltalk, the overloading is done at run time, as the methods ("function implementation") for each overloaded message ("overloaded function") are resolved when they are about to be executed. This happens at run time, after the program is compiled.
The variation is a SNP polymorphism rs1426654, which had been previously shown to be second among 3011 tabulated SNPs ranked as ancestry-informative markers. This single change in SLC24A5 explains between 25 and 38% of the difference in skin melanin index between peoples of sub-Saharan African and European ancestry. The SNP rs2470102 independently affects skin pigmentation variation among the South Asian population.
C++ introduces object-oriented programming (OOP) features to C. It offers classes, which provide the four features commonly present in OOP (and some non-OOP) languages: abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism. One distinguishing feature of C++ classes compared to classes in other programming languages is support for deterministic destructors, which in turn provide support for the Resource Acquisition is Initialization (RAII) concept.
This gene encodes a protein with several Transmembrane domains, a Rab11-binding domain and a lipid-binding FYVE finger domain. The encoded protein appears to promote Neurite formation. A mutation in this gene has been reported to be associated with Hereditary spastic paraplegia, however the Pathogenicity of the mutation, which may simply represent a Polymorphism (biology), is unclear. [provided by RefSeq, Mar 2010].
In advanced polymorphism computer science, test stubs are programs that simulate the behaviours of software components (or modules) that a module undergoing tests depends on. Test stubs are mainly used in incremental testing's top-down approach. Stubs are computer programs that act as temporary replacement for a called basin module and give the same output as the actual product or software.
Brighter brown dottybacks are also more likely to be found in deeper areas, while their browner cousins are more likely to be found in shallower areas.P. L. Munday, P. J. Eyre, G. P. Jones, Ecological mechanisms for coexistence of colour polymorphism in a coral-reef fish: an experimental evaluation. Oecologia 137, 519-526 (2003); published online EpubDec (10.1007/s00442-003-1356-7).
Up to the 1985 ANSI COBOL standard had the ALTER verb which could be used to change the destination of an existing GO TO, which had to be in a paragraph by itself.HP COBOL II/XL Reference Manual, "The ALTER statement is an obsolete feature of the 1985 ANSI COBOL standard." The feature, which allowed polymorphism, was frequently condemned and seldom used.
Parametric polymorphism was first introduced to programming languages in ML in 1975.Milner, R., Morris, L., Newey, M. "A Logic for Computable Functions with reflexive and polymorphic types", Proc. Conference on Proving and Improving Programs, Arc-et-Senans (1975) Today it exists in Standard ML, OCaml, F#, Ada, Haskell, Mercury, Visual Prolog, Scala, Julia, Python, TypeScript, C++ and others. Java, C#, Visual Basic .
Flowers have higher fruit production when cross-pollinated although they are not self-incompatible and can produce low numbers of fruit when self-pollinated. One study of microsatellite loci showed low levels of polymorphism and low genetic diversity within populations, while another study found that populations of T. papyrus are highly differentiated with little to no gene flow between populations.
Wifredo Lam and the international avant-garde, 1923-1982. University of Texas Press, 2002. When he returned to Cuba in 1941, Lam was emboldened to create images in which humans, animals, and nature combined in lush and dynamic tableaux. In his iconic work of 1943, The Jungle, Lam's characteristic polymorphism recreates a fantastical jungle scene with African motifs between stalks of cane.
In genetics, rs1800955 (also written as C-521T and -521C/T) is a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). It is located in the promoter region of the DRD4 gene. This gene codes for the dopamine receptor D4. Due to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia the SNP has been investigated for link to schizophrenia, and it may be slightly associated with this disorder.
February, 2000, Lima, Perú. “Serological Markers for Viral Hepatitis Virus B after vaccination among natives from Huanta-Perú, 1994-7” #1998 Concytec Org. Award “Genetic Polimorfism Profile of the Yellow Fever Virus from Perú” 1998. Carlos Carrillo-Parodi, Isabel Montoya, María García. Final Report April 2000 #1998 Concytec Org. Award “Gen Polymorphism Profile of the Dengue Virus Proteín among several Peruvian serotypes” . 1998.
In Huxley J. The new systematics. Oxford. Fisher had got accustomed to high selection values in nature. He was most impressed by the fact that polymorphism concealed powerful selective forces (Ford gave human blood groups as an example). Like Fisher, he continued the natural selection versus genetic drift debate with Sewall Wright, whom Ford believed put too much emphasis on genetic drift.
A polymorphism of this gene is reported to be associated with increased risk of osteoporotic fractures and gastric cancer. Mutations in the IL1RN gene results in a rare disease called deficiency of the interleukin-1–receptor antagonist (DIRA). Variants of the IL1RN gene is also associated with risk of schizophrenia. Elevated levels of IL1RN has been found in serum of schizophrenia patients.
They will thus use floating-point-specific microprocessor operations on those values (floating- point addition, multiplication, etc.). The depth of type constraints and the manner of their evaluation affect the typing of the language. A programming language may further associate an operation with various resolutions for each type, in the case of type polymorphism. Type theory is the study of type systems.
This gene encodes a type of N-acetyltransferase. The NAT2 isozyme functions to both activate and deactivate arylamine and hydrazine drugs and carcinogens. Polymorphisms in this gene are responsible for the N-acetylation polymorphism in which human populations segregate into rapid, intermediate, and slow acetylator phenotypes. Polymorphisms in NAT2 are also associated with higher incidences of cancer and drug toxicity.
The gene for cystathionase, CTH, has been sequenced and multiple mutations have been shown to be associated with the development of cystathioninuria. Two nonsense mutations were found in exon 8 and exon 11 of CTH. Two missense mutations were also found, mainly in exon 2 and exon 7. In addition, a common non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism in exon 12 was also identified.
It can also refer to different sequence variations for a several-hundred base-pair or more region of the genome that codes for a protein. Alleles can come in different extremes of size. At the lowest possible size an allele can be a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). At the higher end, it can be up to several thousand base-pairs long.
Haskell features lazy evaluation, lambda expressions, pattern matching, list comprehension, type classes and type polymorphism. It is a purely functional language, which means that functions generally have no side effects. A distinct construct exists to represent side effects, orthogonal to the type of functions. A pure function can return a side effect that is subsequently executed, modeling the impure functions of other languages.
Magik is an object-oriented programming language that supports multiple inheritance and polymorphism, and it is dynamically typed. It was designed and implemented in 1989 by Arthur Chance of Smallworld Systems Ltd. as part of Smallworld Geographical Information System (GIS). Following Smallworld's acquisition in 2000, Magik is now provided by GE Energy, still as part of its Smallworld technology platform.
This particular family member preferentially binds acidic fibroblast growth factor and, although its specific function is unknown, it is overexpressed in gynecological tumor samples, suggesting a role in breast and ovarian tumorigenesis. In a meta-analisis study, the functional polymorphism Gly388Arg (rs351855) of FGFR4 was observed to be significantly associated with nodal involvement and overall survival in patients with different types of cancer.
The AVPR1A repeat polymorphism RS1 is a (GATA)14 tetranucleotide repeat that is 553 bp upstream from the transcription start site. Allele 320 in RS1 is associated with increased novelty seeking and decreased harm avoidance; additionally, relative to all other alleles, the 320 allele of RS1 showed significantly less activity in the left amygdala, with shorter variants showing a trend of stronger activity.
MTRR requires vitamin B12 for maintenance of the methyl synthase reaction whilst folate is needed for normal synthesis of nucleotide precursors. These ensure normal DNA synthesis and cellular methylation reactions. Chronic folate or methyl deficiencies are thereby linked to abnormal DNA methylation. The 66A>G polymorphism is up-regulated in neural tube defects and increases the risk of spina bifida by two-fold.
Many studies on G. rubens revolve around their ability to exhibit wing polymorphism. Many of which are done in northern Florida where G. rubens occurs year-round. In the spring/summer seasons, G. rubens is often found to have long wings that reach the end of their abdomen. While in the autumn/winter seasons G. rubens tend to be short winged.
On exon 3 of the human FABP1 gene an Thr to Ala substitution has been identified leading to a T94A missense mutation. Carriers of this particular single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) exhibit higher baseline plasma-free fatty acid levels, lower BMI and a smaller waist circumference. The T94A mutant has also been associated with metabolic syndrome conditions, cardiovascular disease and T2DM.
Now, assuming equal viability of the genotypes 1,209 heterozygotes would be expected, so the field results do not suggest any heterozygous advantage. It was Sheppard who found that the polymorphism is maintained by selective mating: each genotype preferentially mates with other morphs. This is sufficient to maintain the system despite the fact that in this case the heterozygote has slightly lower viability.
Polymorphism, or the ability of a substance to form more than one crystal structure, is important in the development of pharmaceutical ingredients. Many drugs receive regulatory approval for only a single crystal form or polymorph. For a long time, only one crystal structure for aspirin was known. That aspirin might have a second crystalline form was suspected since the 1960s.
C282Y exists as a polymorphism only in Western European white and derivative populations, although C282Y may have arisen independently in non-whites outside Europe. HFE H63D is cosmopolitan but occurs with greatest frequency in whites of European descent. Allele frequencies of H63D in ethnically diverse western European populations are 10-29%. and in North American non-Hispanic whites are 14-15%.
T8590C single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs1126742, in the CYPA411 gene produces a protein with significantly reduced catalytic activity due to a loss-of-function mechanism; this SNP has been associated with hypertension in some but not all population studies. This result could be due to a decline in the production of EEQs and EPDs, which as indicated above, have blood pressure lowering actions.
Subramaniam was born in 1966. She grew up in India and received a baccalaureate degree from Stella Maris College at the University of Madras. She then attended Duke University, where she studied evolutionary plant biology, receiving a Ph.D. in evolutionary genetics. Her Ph.D. thesis was Maintenance of the Flower Color Polymorphism at the W Locus in the Common Morning Glory, Ipomoea purpurea (1994).
Ligation-mediated PCR uses small DNA oligonucleotide 'linkers' (or adaptors) that are first ligated to fragments of the target DNA. PCR primers that anneal to the linker sequences are then used to amplify the target fragments. This method is deployed for DNA sequencing, genome walking, and DNA footprinting. A related technique is amplified fragment length polymorphism, which generates diagnostic fragments of a genome.
C. hominis shares many similar characteristics with C. parvum including identical oocyst morphology and life-cycle. The different cryptosporidium species share nearly identical morphological features, so differentiation is only seen at the molecular level. As a result, C. hominis is most easily differentiated from C. parvum through genetic analysis via time-intensive PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism or gene sequencing.
In solution or crystal, Der f 1 is a monomer. Der f 1 has been shown to express polymorphism, with at least two haplotypes observed in different regions. Der f 1 can be inhibited by chestnut cystatin, which is thought to stem from the presence of the amino acid Gln152 (instead of Der p 1's Arg151) near the enzyme's active site.
Atta insularis is a species of leafcutter ant, a New World ant of the subfamily Myrmicinae of the genus Atta. This species is from one of the two genera of advanced fungus-growing ants within the tribe Attini. This species is the largest and most notable species of ant of Cuba. A. insularis is unique to Cuba, and has great polymorphism.
Structural mutations in exon 1 of the human MBL2 gene, at codon 52 (Arg to Cys, allele D), codon 54 (Gly to Asp, allele B) and codon 57 (Gly to Glu, allele C), also independently reduce the level of functional serum MBL by disrupting the collagenous structure of the protein. Furthermore, several nucleotide substitutions in the promoter region of the MBL2 gene at position −550 (H/L polymorphism), −221 (X/Y polymorphism) and −427, −349, −336, del (−324 to −329), −70 and +4 (P/Q polymorphisms) affect the MBL serum concentration. Both the frequency of structural mutations and the promoter polymorphisms that are in strong linkage disequilibrium vary among ethnic groups resulting in seven major haplotypes: HYPA, LYQA, LYPA, LXPA, LYPB, LYQC and HYPD. Differences in the distribution of these haplotypes are the major cause of interracial variations in MBL serum levels.
On a secondary structure level, this polymorphism manifests itself in an excision of a short sequence of CELA1. The disappeared sequence carries the key amino acid residues Val-227 and Thr-239, which contribute to the substrate specificity of elastase I (highlighted in Figure 3), as well as five of the eight amino acids involved in the primary contact of the elafin(inhibitor)/elastase complex formation. These observations imply that the sequence variant might modify the substrate specificity of the enzyme and abolish the inhibitor binding capability. Though there were no obvious pathogenic epidermal abnormalities associated with the truncated ELA1 variant, it is possible that carriers of the polymorphism may be at greater risk of developing the common skin diseases such as psoriasis and eczema (genetic and histologic studies will be required to investigate the role of ELA1 in these common epidermal disorders.).
This does not affect colony performance, as polymorphic colonies and nests with small workers produce broods at roughly the same rate, and polymorphism is not an advantage or disadvantage when food sources are not limited. However, polymorphic colonies are more energetically efficient, and under conditions where food is limited, polymorphism may provide a small advantage in brood production, but this depends on the levels of food stress. As worker ants grow to larger sizes, the shape of the head changes, due to the head length growing at the same time as the total body length, and the head width may grow by 20%. The length of the antennae only grows slowly; the antennae may only grow 60% longer by the time the body doubles its length, thus the relative antennal length decreases by 20% as the length of the body doubles.
For example, if is the type of function taking a number as an argument and returning a number, and is the type of function taking a string as an argument and returning a string, then the intersection of these two types can be used to describe (overloaded) functions that do one or the other, based on what type of input they are given. Contemporary programming languages, including Ceylon, Flow, Java, Scala, TypeScript, and Whiley (see comparison of languages with intersection types), use intersection types to combine interface specifications and to express ad hoc polymorphism. Complementing parametric polymorphism, intersection types may be used to avoid class hierarchy pollution from cross-cutting concerns and reduce boilerplate code, as shown in the TypeScript example below. The type theoretic study of intersection types is referred to as the intersection type discipline.
The 5-HTTLPR region on the serotonin transporter gene influences the transcription of the seretonin transporter that removes serotonin from the synaptic cleft, and is well studied for its association with numerous psychiatric disorders. Another study examining the 5-HT1A receptor, a receptor that binds serotonin, found higher levels of alexithymia among those with the G allele of the Rs6295 polymorphism within the HTR1A gene. Also, a study examining alexithymia in subjects with obsessive-compulsive disorder found higher alexithymia levels associated with the Val/Val allele of the Rs4680 polymorphism in the gene that encodes Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), an enzyme which degrades catecholamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine. These links are tentative, and further research will be needed to clarify how these genes relate to the neurological anomalies found in the brains of people with alexithymia.
Extensive single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) testing by the Haplogroup G SNP project found that G2b is an independent branch of haplogroup G characterized by only one SNP, M377. A forthcoming study by the Y Chromosome Consortium at the University of Arizona found that within haplogroup G, G2b and G2 share an SNP, P287, which is not found in the other well-attested branch of G, haplogroup G1.
In order to perform SNP genotyping, Hardenbol et al. modified padlock probes such that when the probe is hybridized to the genomic target, there is a gap at the SNP position. Gap filling using a nucleotide that is complementary to the nucleotide at the SNP location determines the identity of the polymorphism. This design brings numerous benefits over the more traditional padlock probe technique.
In Golden Delicious and Hanfu apples, the coding sequences of MdMYB1 were the same, but one Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was found in the intron regions. Upstream of MdMYB1, 15 SNPs and five indels were identified. These indels were very different between the two types of apples. One of these indels is an LTR retrotransposon called redTE, located in the Hanfu apple genome upstream of MbMYB1.
Koskella, B. and Lively, C. M. (2009), EVIDENCE FOR NEGATIVE FREQUENCY- DEPENDENT SELECTION DURING EXPERIMENTAL COEVOLUTION OF A FRESHWATER SNAIL AND A STERILIZING TREMATODE. Evolution, 63: 2213–2221. Note that in these examples that no one phenotypic morph, nor one genotype is entirely extinguished from a population, nor is one phenotypic morph nor genotype selected for fixation. Thus, polymorphism is maintained by negative frequency- dependent selection.
A 23andMe genome testing kit. 23andMe began offering direct-to-consumer genetic testing in November 2007. Customers provide a saliva testing sample that is partially single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyped and results are posted online. In 2008, when the company was offering estimates of "predisposition for more than 90 traits and conditions ranging from baldness to blindness", Time magazine named the product "Invention of the Year".
The ANKK1 gene is closely linked to dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) on chromosome band 11q23.1. The A1 allele of the Taq1A polymorphism (rs1800497T), is located ≈10kb downstream of the dopamine receptor DRD2 gene. Dopamine (DA) is a neurotransmitter in the brain, which controls feelings of wellbeing. This sensation results from the interaction of dopamine and other neurotransmitters such as serotonin, the opioids, and other brain chemicals.
Otoraplin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the OTOR gene. The protein encoded by this gene is secreted via the Golgi apparatus and may function in cartilage development and maintenance. A frequent polymorphism in the translation start codon of this gene can abolish translation and may be associated with forms of deafness. This gene is a member of the melanoma- inhibiting activity gene family.
The Senegalese grasshopper (Oedaleus senegalensis) is a medium-sized grasshopper species found in the Sahel region of Africa, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, and West Asia. Although not called a locust in English, this species shows gregarious behaviour and some morphological change (phase polymorphism) on crowding. In many parts of the Sahel, this species may cause greater year-on-year crop damage than better-known locusts.
Elm does not support higher-kinded polymorphism, which related languages Haskell and PureScript offer, nor does Elm support the creation of type classes. This means that, for example, Elm does not have a generic `map` function which works across multiple data structures such as `List` and `Set`. In Elm, such functions are typically invoked qualified by their module name, for example calling `List.map` and `Set.map`.
The same group of atoms can often solidify in many different ways. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form Ice Ih, but can also exist as the cubic Ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. The different polymorphs are usually called different phases.
The 6q QTL contains single-nucleotide polymorphisms distributed across three linkage disequilibrium blocks, in an intergenic region between MYB and HBS1L. Thain showed that this interval contains regulatory sequences. She has investigated how QTL regulates the expression of MYB and HBS1L. These two QTLs (6q and 2p), and a single-nucleotide polymorphism on the HBB cluster account for around half of the variability in HbF levels.
Certain genes have been identified with a clear correlation to executive dysfunction and related psychopathologies. According to Friedman et al. (2008), the heritability of executive functions is among the highest of any psychological trait. The dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4) with 7'-repeating polymorphism (7R) has been repeatedly shown to correlate strongly with impulsive response style on psychological tests of executive dysfunction, particularly in clinical ADHD.
Changes of one type may not affect other types, for example sound changes do not affect cognancy. Unlike biology, it cannot be assumed that languages all have a common origin and establishing relatedness is necessary. In modelling it is often assumed for simplicity that the characters change independently but this may not be the case. Besides borrowing, there can also be semantic shifts and polymorphism.
The human breast cancer susceptibility gene 2 (BRCA2) is employed in DNA repair. A common single nucleotide polymorphism in BRCA2 is associated with idiopathic male infertility with azoospermia. Four genes involved in DNA double-strand break repair and chromosome synapsis (TEX11, TEX15, MLH1 and MLH3) have key roles in genomic integrity, meiotic recombination and gametogenesis. Polymorphisms in these genes were tested for associations with male infertility.
Married to Brondelle May Fleisher in 1950, Beutler had four children (Steven Merrill Beutler, Earl Bryan Beutler, Bruce Alan Beutler, and Deborah Ann Beutler). Bruce A. Beutler, also a biomedical scientist and 2011 Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine, occasionally collaborated with Ernest Beutler scientifically,Beutler E, et al. Electrophoretic polymorphism of glutathione peroxidase. Ann Hum Genet 38: 163–169, 1974Beutler E, et al.
In GWAS Manhattan plots, genomic coordinates are displayed along the X-axis, with the negative logarithm of the association p-value for each single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) displayed on the Y-axis, meaning that each dot on the Manhattan plot signifies a SNP. Because the strongest associations have the smallest p-values (e.g., 10−15), their negative logarithms will be the greatest (e.g., 15).
The brown locust (Locustana pardalina)Walker F (1870) Catalogue of the Specimens of Dermaptera Saltatoria in the Collection of the British Museum 4: 725 is a medium-sized small locust species in the monotypic genus Locustana.Uvarov BP (1921) Trans. Entomol. Soc. London 7: 162OSF: Locustana (retrieved 2 February 2018) It is found in Southern Africa and shows classic gregarious behaviour with phase polymorphism on crowding.
Roland Trimen FRS (29 October 1840 in London - 25 July 1916 in London) was a British-South African naturalist, best known for South African Butterflies (1887–89), a collaborative work with Colonel James Henry Bowker. He was among the first entomologists to investigate mimicry and polymorphism in butterflies and their restriction to females. He also collaborated with Charles Darwin to study the pollination of Disa orchids.
A certain allele of Glis1 which exists due to a single nucleotide polymorphism, a change in a single nucleotide of the DNA sequence of the gene, has been implicated as a risk factor in the neurodegenerative disorder Parkinson's disease. The allele is linked to the late onset variety of Parkinson's, which is acquired in old age. The reason behind this link is not yet known.
Galectin-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the LGALS2 gene. The protein encoded by this gene is a soluble beta-galactoside binding lectin. The encoded protein is found as a homodimer and can bind to Lymphotoxin alpha. A single nucleotide polymorphism in an intron of this gene can alter the transcriptional level of the protein, with a resultant increased risk of myocardial infarction.
SystemVerilog's polymorphism features are similar to those of C++: the programmer may specifically write a `virtual` function to have a derived class gain control of the function. See virtual function for further info. Encapsulation and data hiding is accomplished using the `local` and `protected` keywords, which must be applied to any item that is to be hidden. By default, all class properties are public.
For example, the antibiotic rifampicin has been found to induce MDR1 expression. Experiments in different drug resistant cell lines and patient DNA revealed gene rearrangements which had initiated the activation or overexpression of MDR1. A C3435T polymorphism in exon 226 of MDR1 has also been strongly correlated with p-glycoprotein activities. MDR1 is activated through NF-κB, a protein complex which acts as a transcription factor.
Genetic polymorphisms in the LTC4 synthase promoter may predict response to zafirlukast. The single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) A444C (the wild-type DNA base adenine, at the 444th position on the gene, is mutated; cytosine is there instead), which is associated with a severe asthma phenotype, has been shown to decrease the clinical response to zafirlukast (both when the genetic alteration was heterozygous or homozygous).
Although a polymorphism can be controlled by alleles at a single locus (e.g. human ABO blood groups), the more complex forms are controlled by supergenes consisting of several tightly linked genes on a single chromosome. Batesian mimicry in butterflies and heterostyly in angiosperms are good examples. There is a long-standing debate as to how this situation could have arisen, and the question is not yet resolved.
Selection, whether natural or artificial, changes the frequency of morphs within a population; this occurs when morphs reproduce with different degrees of success. A genetic (or balanced) polymorphism usually persists over many generations, maintained by two or more opposed and powerful selection pressures. Diver (1929) found banding morphs in Cepaea nemoralis could be seen in prefossil shells going back to the Mesolithic Holocene.Cain, Arthur J. 1971.
"Colour and Banding Morphs in Subfossil Samples of the Snail Cepaea". In R. Creed (ed.), Ecological genetics and Evolution: Essays in Honour of E.B. Ford. Oxford: Blackwell. Non-human apes have similar blood groups to humans; this strongly suggests that this kind of polymorphism is ancient, at least as far back as the last common ancestor of the apes and man, and possibly even further.
A distinct SI mechanism exists in heterostylous flowers, termed heteromorphic self- incompatibility. This mechanism is probably not evolutionarily related to the more familiar mechanisms, which are differentially defined as homomorphic self-incompatibility. Almost all heterostylous taxa feature SI to some extent. The loci responsible for SI in heterostylous flowers, are strongly linked to the loci responsible for flower polymorphism, and these traits are inherited together.
NCKX5 is 43 kDa protein that is partially localized to the trans-Golgi network in melanocytes. Removal of the NCKX5 protein disrupts melanogenesis in human and mouse melanocytes, causing a significant reduction in melanin pigment production. Site-directed mutagenesis corresponding to a non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism in SLC24A5 alters a residue in NCKX5 (A111T) that is important for NCKX5 sodium-calcium exchanger activity.
A hybrid zone between the two colour forms (melanic and yellow) of Hemideina maori has been studied in the Rock and Pillar mountain range and. It was found that both the black and yellow lineages in the Rock and Pillar range do not form a monophyletic group suggesting that H. maori exhibited a colour polymorphism before the separation of the two Rock and Pillar lineages occurred.
This variant in particular is the most common genetic cause of hyperhomocysteinemia. The resulting enzyme is thermolabile and in homozygotes, enzymatic activity is depressed to 35% of its usual level. The second variant is a milder one, caused by a homologous 1298C polymorphism. This leads to 68% of the control values of enzyme activity, and it normally does not lead to low serum folate.
A restriction fragment length polymorphism results in the cleavage (or absence thereof) of DNA for a specific mutation by a selected restriction enzyme that will not cleave the wildtype DNA. In a study using a mixture of wildtype and mutation containing DNA amplified by regular PCR or COLD-PCR, COLD-PCR preceding RFLP analysis was shown to improve the mutation detection by 10-20 fold.
Mutations in the TATA box region affects the binding of the TATA-binding protein (TBP) for transcription initiation, which may cause carriers to have a disease phenotype. Gastric cancer is correlated with TATA box polymorphism. The TATA box has a binding site for the transcription factor of the PG2 gene. This gene produces PG2 serum, which is used as a biomarker for tumours in gastric cancer.
Not all the structural groups have the same percentage of appearance, possibly even further differences within separate ethnic groups. For example, the Caucasian population studied showed 69% bimodular configuration (C4A-C4B, C4A-C4A, or C4B-C4B) and 31% trimodular configuration (equally split between LLL as C4A-C4A-C4B or LSS as C4A-C4B-C4B). Regarding C4 protein sequence polymorphism, a total of 24 polymorphic residues were found.
He virtually invented the field of research known as ecological genetics. His work on the wild populations of butterflies and moths was the first to show that the predictions made by R.A. Fisher were correct. He was the first to describe and define genetic polymorphism, and predicted that human blood group polymorphisms might be maintained in the population by providing some protection against disease.Ford E.B. 1942.
An alternative evolutionary explanation for political diversity is that it is a polymorphism, like those of gender and blood type, resulting from frequency- dependent selection. Tim Dean has suggested that we live in such a moral ecosystem whereby the viability of any existing moral approach would be diminished by the destruction of all alternative approaches (e.g. political balance promotes survival of the human species).
This family which kisspeptin includes prolactin releasing peptide and gonadotropin releasing inhibiting hormone. A polymorphism in the terminal exon of this mRNA results in two protein isoforms. An adenosine present at the polymorphic site represents the third position in a stop codon. When the adenosine is absent, a downstream stop codon is utilized and the encoded protein extends for an additional seven amino acid residues.
Individuals within a multicellular colonial organism may be called ramets, modules, or zooids. Structural and functional variation (polymorphism), when present, designates ramet responsibilities such as feeding, reproduction, and defense. To that end, being physically connected allows the colonial organism to distribute nutrients and energy obtained by feeding zooids throughout the colony. An example of colonial organisms that is well-known are hydrozoans, like Portuguese man o' wars.
Aphids reproducing asexually by parthenogenesis can have genetically identical winged and non- winged female progeny. Control is complex; some aphids alternate during their life-cycles between genetic control (polymorphism) and environmental control (polyphenism) of production of winged or wingless forms. Winged progeny tend to be produced more abundantly under unfavorable or stressful conditions. Some species produce winged progeny in response to low food quality or quantity. e.g.
There is a connection between the number of time females choose to mate and chromosomal variants of the third chromosome. It is believed that the presence of the inverted polymorphism is why re-mating by females occurs. The stability of these polymorphisms may be related to the sex-ratio meiotic drive. However, for Drosophila subobscura, the main mating system is monandry, not normally seen in Drosophila.
In the branch of mathematical logic known as type theory, System F<:, pronounced "F-sub", is an extension of system F with subtyping. System F<: has been of central importance to programming language theory since the 1980s because the core of functional programming languages, like those in the ML family, support both parametric polymorphism and record subtyping, which can be expressed in System F<:.
Phospholipids, such as this glycerophospholipid, have amphipathic character. An amphiphile (from the Greek αμφις, amphis: both and φιλíα, philia: love, friendship) is a chemical compound possessing both hydrophilic (water-loving, polar) and lipophilic (fat-loving) properties. Such a compound is called amphiphilic or amphipathic. This forms the basis for a number of areas of research in chemistry and biochemistry, notably that of lipid polymorphism.
They concluded that under the stepping stone model, in which Europeans can exchange genetic information with Asians and not with Africans, similarities between Neanderthal genome and Eurasian could be explained by ancient populations structure.Eriksson, Anders, and Andrea Manica. "Effect of ancient population structure on the degree of polymorphism shared between modern human populations and ancient hominins." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109, no.
Natural selection in the wild. Princeton. Evidence that small-scale mutations were common arrived as soon as breeding experiments were designed to detect them: it was a consequence of experimental methods that early mutations were so noteworthy. Explanations for polymorphism were advanced by E.B. Ford, Theodosius Dobzhansky and their colleagues, who developed experimental methods for populations in the wild.Ford, E. B. 1964, 4th edn 1975.
Blockade of CCK-B in dopamine- depleted squirrel monkeys induces significant enhancement of locomotor response to L-DOPA. One study shows that visual hallucinations in Parkinson's disease are associated with cholecystokinin −45C>T polymorphism, and this association is still observed in the presence of the cholecystokinin-A receptor TC/CC genotype, indicating a possible interaction of these two genes in the visual hallucinogenesis in Parkinson's disease.
PON1 in humans is encoded by the PON1 gene which is located on the long arm of chromosome 7. Although many nutritional, life-style and pharmaceutical modulators of PON1 are known., by far the biggest effect on PON1 activity levels, which can vary by over 40 fold between individuals, is through PON1 genetic polymorphisms. The coding region PON1-Q192R polymorphism determines a substrate dependent effect on activity.
Alpha- and gamma-adducins are ubiquitously expressed. In contrast, beta-adducin is expressed at high levels in brain and hematopoietic tissues. Adducin binds with high affinity to Ca(2+)/calmodulin and is a substrate for protein kinases A and C. Alternative splicing results in multiple variants encoding distinct isoforms; however, not all variants have been fully described. Polymorphism in ADD1 is associated with hypertension.
Object-oriented programming is an approach to designing modular reusable software systems. The object-oriented approach is an evolution of good design practices that go back to the very beginning of computer programming. Object- orientation is simply the logical extension of older techniques such as structured programming and abstract data types. An object is an abstract data type with the addition of polymorphism and inheritance.
Simple Sequence Length Polymorphisms (SSLPs) are used as genetic markers with polymerase chain reaction (PCR). An SSLP is a type of polymorphism: a difference in DNA sequence amongst individuals. SSLPs are repeated sequences over varying base lengths in intergenic regions of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Variance in the length of SSLPs can be used to understand genetic variation between two individuals in a certain species.
Single-nucleotide polymorphism or SNPs are variations of a single nucleotide. SNPs can occur in coding or non-coding regions of genes and on average occur once every 300 nucleotides. SNPs in coding regions can cause synonymous, missense, and nonsense mutations. SNPs have shown to be correlated with drug responses and risk of diseases such as sickle-cell anemia, Alzheimer's disease, cystic fibrosis, and more.
Native-like amyloid fibrils in which native β-sheet containing proteins maintain their native-like structure in the fibrils have also been proposed. One complicating factor in studies of amyloidogenic polypeptides is that identical polypeptides can fold into multiple distinct amyloid conformations. This phenomenon is typically described as amyloid polymorphism. It has notable biological consequences given that it is thought to explain the prion strain phenomenon.
The carapace is slightly rectangular, usually around long and wide They are also less colourful than females; with predominantly dark reddish brown bodies. The spines are blunt and are much shorter than the spines of the females. Like all mature male spiders, they are relatively easy to identify because of their greatly enlarged pedipalps used in sperm transfer during mating. morph Jewel spiders exhibit colour polymorphism.
High IL-6 levels are associated with the development of encephalitis in children and immunodeficient mouse models infected with Enterovirus 71; this highly contagious virus normally causes a milder illness called Hand, foot, and mouth disease but can cause life-threatening encephalitis in some cases. EV71 patients with a certain gene polymorphism in IL-6 also appear to be more susceptible to developing encephalitis.
Robert F. Denno (1945–2008) was an influential insect ecologist. He wrote more than 130 research papers that helped advance the study of plant–insect interactions, interspecific competition, predator prey interactions and food web dynamics (Eubanks et al. 2011). He studied the ecology of sap-feeding insects, both in natural and cultivated settings. His study of wing polymorphism expanded into the fields of life history evolution (e.g.
Message Maps is the Microsoft Foundation Class Library message map facility. Microsoft Windows implements polymorphism in window classes using its messaging facility. Due to the large number of messages involved, providing a separate virtual function for each Windows message results in a prohibitively large vtable. MFC provides an alternative to the switch statement used in traditional Windows programs to handle messages sent to a window.
Haxe has a sophisticated and flexible type system. The type kinds it offers are classes, interfaces, function-method types, anonymous types, algebraic data types (ADTs, called enum in Haxe), and abstract types. Parametric polymorphism is possible with classes, ADTs and function types, giving the language support for generic programming based on type erasure. This includes support for variance in polymorphic functions, although not in type constructors.
Various C++ techniques such as template programming, generic programming, C++ template metaprogramming, and static polymorphism are used. These are well known in other areas of software development and are slowly making their way into scientific computing. They allow the compiler to eliminate most of the overhead introduced by the extra layer of abstraction. A high level of standard conformance is required for this from the compiler.
Yeboah-Manu joined the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research as a Research Assistant in 1993. She studied the safety of street food in Ghana. They found mesophilic bacteria in 69.7% of foods, including the staple foods fufu and omo tuo. Yeboah-Manu was the first to describe polymorphism in the mycobacterium ulcerans from an African country and provide evidence to restrict Mycobacterium africanum to West Africa.
However, in 1968, a study found that two artiodactyls, the blackbuck and the sitatunga, too, showed this abnormality. Generally, the X chromosome constitutes 5% of the haploid chromosomal complement, but the X chromosome of the blackbuck this percentage is 14.96. Portions of both peculiarly large chromosomes show delayed replication. A 1997 study found lower protein polymorphism in Antilope in comparison with Antidorcas, Eudorcas, and Gazella.
Many expression QTL studies were performed in plants and animals, including humans, non-human primates and mice. Some cis eQTLs are detected in many tissue types but the majority of trans eQTLs are tissue-dependent (dynamic). eQTLs may act in cis (locally) or trans (at a distance) to a gene. The abundance of a gene transcript is directly modified by polymorphism in regulatory elements.
Dumérils fringe-fingered lizard eats insects, mainly Saharan silver ants. These have large soldiers with saber-like mandibles for defending against the lizard.Mathieu Molet, Vincent Maicher, Christian Peeters: Bigger helpers in the ant Cataglyphis bombycina: increased worker polymorphism or novel soldier caste? If the lizard cannot dig up the underground colony, it places its burrow near the colony to exploit over a longer time.
ABCC11 is a gene encoding an apical ATP-driven efflux transporter that has been found to transport a variety of lipophilic anions including cyclic nucleotides, estradiol glucuronide, steroid sulfates such as DHEA-S, and monoanionic bile acids. It is expressed and localized in apocrine glands, including in the axilla, the ceruminous glands in the auditory canal, and in the mammary gland. A single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) 538G→A in ABCC11 that leads to a G180R substitution in the encoded protein has been found to result in loss-of-function via affecting N-linked glycosylation and in turn causing proteasomal degradation of the protein. This polymorphism has been found to be responsible for the dry and white earwax phenotype, and is considered to be unique as it has been described as the only human SNP that has been found to determine a visible genetic trait.
Usually the largest workers in the colony develop into repletes; and, if repletes are removed from the colony, other workers become repletes, demonstrating the flexibility of this particular polymorphism. This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers initially was thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones that led to different developmental paths; however, genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in Acromyrmex sp. These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes; differences in a single gene of Solenopsis invicta can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens. The Australian jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula) has only a single pair of chromosomes (with the males having just one chromosome as they are haploid), the lowest number known for any animal, making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects.
One of the most well known mechanisms of task allocation is worker polymorphism, where workers within a colony have morphological differences. This difference in size is determined by the amount of food workers are fed as larvae, and is set once workers emerge from their pupae. Workers may vary just in size (monomorphism) or size and bodily proportions (allometry). An excellent example of the monomorphism is in bumblebees (Bombus spp.).
Naming the phenotype – and translation of terms between genetics and psychology — also causes problems. Several genetic links to shyness are current areas of research. One is the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), the long form of which has been shown to be modestly correlated with shyness in grade school children. Previous studies had shown a connection between this form of the gene and both obsessive-compulsive disorder and autism.
In another, they found that high levels of social support are crucial to attenuating neuroendocrine responses to stress through less activation of particular brain areas such as the dACC and Brodmann's area 8 (Eisenberger, Taylor, Gable, Hillmert, & Lieberman, 2007). They have done more research on the serotonin transporter polymorphism (Taylor, Way et al., 2006) and on plasma oxytocin and vasopressin (Taylor, Gonzaga et al., 2006; Taylor, Saphire-Bernstein & Seeman, 2010).
The NEO PI-R has been used in research pertaining to both (a) genotype and personality and (b) brain and personality. Such studies, however, have not always been conclusive. For example, one study found some evidence for an association between NEO PI-R facets and polymorphism in the tyrosine hydroxylase gene, while another study could not confirm the finding. In a study published in Science, Lesch et al.
A mature leafcutter colony can contain more than 8 million ants (the maximum size of the colony varies between species), mostly sterile female workers. They are divided into castes, based mostly on size, that perform different functions. Acromyrmex ants exhibit a high degree of biological polymorphism, four castes being present in established colonies - minims (or "garden ants"), minors, mediae, and majors. Majors are also known as soldiers or dinergates.
Neutral Evolution Theory, first proposed by Kimura in a 1968 paper, and later fully defined and published in 1983, is the basis for many statistical tests that detect selection at the molecular level. Kimura noted that there was much too high of a rate of mutation within the genome (i.e. high polymorphism) to be strictly under directional evolution. Furthermore, functionally less important regions of the genome evolve at a faster rate.
P53 has been shown to transcriptionally activate this gene by interacting with the downstream pentanucleotide microsatellite sequence. The microsatellite is polymorphic, with a varying number of pentanucleotide repeats directly correlated with the extent of transcriptional activation by p53. It has been suggested that the microsatellite polymorphism may be associated with differential susceptibility to cancer. At least two transcript variants encoding the same protein have been found for this gene.
She showed that using Attention Bias Modification (ABM) can be used to modify biased attention to develop emotional resilience. The origins of this bias modification are in the variation of serotonin transporter polymorphism. She found that people who worry more are less likely to be able to control their attention. Fox identified that the people who inherit two copies of the long variant of the 5-HTTLPR gene avoid negative imagery.
Sohrab Rohani is a professor and former chairman of the University of Western Ontario's Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering.UWO Faculty of Engineering NEWS His main areas of research are crystallization of pharmaceuticals (polymorphism) and process control. Rohani obtained his B.Sc. degree from Shiraz University in 1973 and a PhD from the University of Wales in 1977.Official Webpage Rohani is a Fellow of the Chemical Institute of Canada.
Mutations in this gene are associated with type II vitamin D-resistant rickets. A single nucleotide polymorphism in the initiation codon results in an alternate translation start site three codons downstream. Alternative splicing results in multiple transcript variants encoding the same protein. VDR gene variants seem to influence many biological endpoints, including those related to osteoporosis The vitamin D receptor plays an important role in regulating the hair cycle.
Object-oriented languages support a series of runtime mechanisms that increase the flexibility and adaptability of the programs like data abstraction, encapsulation, modularity, inheritance, polymorphism, and reflection. Data abstraction is the process by which data and programs are defined with a representation similar in form to its meaning, while hiding away the implementation details. Academic research showed that data abstraction makes programs about 30% easier to understand than functional programs.
Emaresi, G., Bize, P., Gasparini, J., Piault, R., & Roulin, A. (2011). Plumage polymorphism in melanin-based coloration: a case study in the tawny owl Strix aluco. Ecology and conservation of european forest-dwelling raptors, 242-252. Although this might suggest that eventually the darker morphs could disappear, the owls show no colour preference when choosing a mate, so the selection pressure in favour of the grey morph is reduced.
The neutrality index (NI) quantifies the direction and degree of departure from neutrality (where Pn/Ps and Dn/Ds ratios equal). When assuming that silent mutations are neutral, a neutrality index greater than 1 (i.e. NI > 1) indicates negative selection is at work, resulting in an excess of amino acid polymorphism. This occurs because natural selection is favoring the purifying selection, and the weeding out of deleterious alleles.
In genetics, rs6311 is a gene variation—a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)—in the human HTR2A gene that codes for the 5-HT2A receptor. 5-HT2A is a neuroreceptor, and several scientific studies have investigated the effect of the genetic variation on personality, e.g., personality traits measured with the Temperament and Character Inventory or with a psychological task measuring impulsive behavior. The SNP has also been investigated in rheumatology studies.
Some research studies may refer to this gene variation as a C/T SNP, while others refer to it as a G/A polymorphism in the promoter region, thus writing it as, e.g., −1438 G/A or 1438G>A. , meta-analysis of research studies indicates that people with the A-allele may have slightly elevated risk of schizophrenia. rs6313, rs6314, and rs7997012 are other investigated SNPs in the HTR2A gene.
QTL mapping identifies a subset of markers that are significantly associated with one or more QTL influencing the expression of the trait of interest. # Select or develop a bi-parental mapping population. # Phenotype the population for a trait under greenhouse or field conditions. # Choose a molecular marking system – genotype parents of the mapping population and F1s with large numbers of markers, then select 200-400 markers exhibiting polymorphism between the parents.
A single-nucleotide polymorphism in the OR5A1 receptor (rs6591536) causes very significant differences in the odor perception of beta-ionone, both in sensitivity and also in subjective quality. Individuals who contain at least one G allele are sensitive to beta-ionone and perceive a pleasant floral scent, while individuals who are homozygous AA are ~100 times less sensitive and at higher concentrations perceive a pungent sour/vinegar odor instead.
Columbia Univ. Press, New York, NY. Under the theory of background selection, the paradox is resolved, because neutral variation is predicted to be purged in conjunction with deleterious mutations. Background selection also contributes to a selective explanation of the positive correlation between recombination and polymorphism across populations. In areas of high recombination, neutral loci are more likely to ‘escape' the effects of nearby selection and be retained in the population.
Positive changes will be very rare, and so will not greatly contribute to DNA polymorphisms. Deleterious mutations do not contribute much to DNA diversity because they negatively affect fitness and so are removed from the gene pool before long. This theory provides a framework for the molecular clock. The fate of neutral mutations are governed by genetic drift, and contribute to both nucleotide polymorphism and fixed differences between species.
Unlike most other OOP systems, Cecil allows subtyping and code inheritance to be used separately, allowing run-time or external extension of object classes or instances. Like Objective-C, all object services in Cecil are invoked by message passing, and the language supports run-time class identification. These features allow Cecil to support dynamic, exploratory programming styles. Parameterized types and methods (generics, polymorphism), garbage collection, and delegation are also supported.
"Polymorphism" refers to formation of diverse structures such as three-dimensional tubes, rods, and structures with cubic symmetry. Mesomorphism refers to phase transitions when heat is applied. For example, a lipid can be in the lamellar phase at a lower temperature, but as the temperature increases, it transitions into a non-lamellar phase. It is important to consider the size of the hydrophilic region versus the hydrophobic region.
Variations in the SLC24A5 gene account for 20–25% of the variation between dark- and light-skinned populations of Africa, and appear to have arisen as recently as within the last 10,000 years. The Ala111Thr or rs1426654 polymorphism in the coding region of the SLC24A5 gene reaches fixation in Europe, and is also common among populations in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Asia, Central Asia and South Asia.
Papilio polytes has 3 forms with differing wing patterns, here the "Romulus" morph. Reginald Punnett argued that this polymorphism demonstrated discontinuous evolution. However, Ronald Fisher showed that this could have arisen by small changes in additional modifier genes. In 1915, Reginald Punnett argued in his book Mimicry in Butterflies that the 3 morphs (forms) of the butterfly Papilio polytes, which mimic different host species of butterfly, demonstrated discontinuous evolution in action.
Mutations in the TOX3 gene are associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. The risk allele rs3803662 is a low-penetrance SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) associated with decreased expression of TOX3 and an increase in breast cancer risk. The risk locus was reported to regulate affinity of FOXA1 binding to chromatin, potentially affecting TOX3 expression. This locus also interacts with high-penetrance mutations BRCA1 and BRCA2 to increase risk.
PstI is a useful enzyme for DNA cloning as it provides a selective system for generating hybrid DNA molecules. These hybrid DNA molecules can be then cleaved at the regenerated PstI sites. Its use is not limited to molecular cloning; it is also used in restriction site mapping, genotyping, Southern blotting, restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and SNP. It is also an isoschizomer restriction enzyme SalPI from Streptomyces albus P.
These provide potential new functions in the protein query. 2) By using the view single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) function, SNPs from dbSNP are mapped in the sequence window. A user can select any set of the SNPs and then identify any minimotif that is introduced or eliminated by the SNP or mutation. This helps to identify minimotifs involved in generating organism diversity or those that may be associated with a disease.
V. Messmer, L. van Herwerden, P. L. Munday, G. P. Jones, Phylogeography of colour polymorphism in the coral reef fish Pseudochromis fuscus, from Papua New Guinea and the Great Barrier Reef. Coral Reefs 24, 392-402 (2005); published online EpubNov (10.1007/s00338-005-0001-9). Blue spots can often be seen on the nape and the anterior part of the body.E. E. Capuli, R. R. Valdestamon, in Discover Life (2012).
Magnesium, iron, and other metallic compounds act as buffers throughout the process. The presence of reduced, elemental forms of carbon like graphite would indicate that carbon compounds are reduced as they descend into the mantle. Polymorphism alters carbonate compounds' stability at different depths within the Earth. To illustrate, laboratory simulations and density functional theory calculations suggest that tetrahedrally coordinated carbonates are most stable at depths approaching the core–mantle boundary.
This sequence change leads to an amino acid substitution in the highly conserved helix initiation motif of the K6hf rod domain. Carriers of the A12T polymorphism are six times more likely to develop PFB compared with people homozygous for the wild-type K6hf sequence. This suggests K6hf mutation structurally weakens the companion layer separating the inner and outer root sheath and increases the chances that a beard hair will in-grow.
A 2007 study done by Begun et al. compared the whole genome sequence of multiple lines of Drosophila simulans to the assembly of D. melanogaster and D. yakuba. This was done by aligning DNA from whole genome shotgun sequences of D. simulans to a standard reference sequence before carrying out whole genome analysis of polymorphism and divergence. This revealed a large number of proteins that had experienced directional selection.
Recent studies have shown that some behavioral syndromes have a genetic basis. Additionally, some of these genetic correlations that shape behavioral syndromes can evolve. For example, researchers were able to separate the genetically determined traits of body size, nest size, and foraging behavior in laboratory mice.Bult & Lynch 2005 The simplest way for a behavioral syndrome to form is through a genetic polymorphism, meaning two or more alleles at the same locus.
Acavus is a genus of air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Acavidae. They belongs to group of tree snails that inhabited the ancient continent of Gondwana over 150 million years ago. These beautiful tree snails are endemic to Sri Lanka. It is present a large intraspecific polymorphism, with the development of various geographical subspecies (among them Acavus phoenix phoenix and Acavus phoenix castaneus).
As pollinators are essential in the process of pollen transfer (and therefore, reproductive success) of many angiosperms, visitation behavior will impose frequency-dependent selection on the flower morphs that they visit. If pollinators selectively visit a particular morph, this will cause this morph to increase in frequency, and may ultimately lead to the fixation of this phenotype,Thompson, V. 1984. Polymorphism under apostatic and aposematic selection. Heredity, 53: 677-686.
There are minor genetic differences between the morphs and assortative mating occurs, especially in the olive and dark blue (possibly showing the very early stages of separation into distinct species). Some pale individuals have a highly mottled appearance, giving the species the nicknames African koi and Nguni fish. The distinct polymorphism is not seen in the introduced population in Lake Otjikoto. It is very closely related to the banded tilapia (T.
Formulation studies then consider such factors as particle size, polymorphism, pH, and solubility, as all of these can influence bioavailability and hence the activity of a drug. The drug must be combined with inactive ingredients by a method that ensures that the quantity of drug present is consistent in each dosage unit e.g. each tablet. The dosage should have a uniform appearance, with an acceptable taste, tablet hardness, and capsule disintegration.
As a result, skyrmions have potential application in ultrahigh-density magnetic storage devices. The helical, conical and skyrmion structures are not unique to FeGe; they are also found in MnSi, MnGe and similar compounds, but contrary to those materials, the observation of magnetic ordering patterns in FeGe does not require cryogenic cooling. The disadvantage of FeGe over MnSi is its polymorphism, which hinders the growth of large homogeneous crystals.
A single material may have several distinct solid states capable of forming separate phases. Water is a well-known example of such a material. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form ice Ih, but can also exist as the cubic ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form.
Due to its cytoprotective effects, overexpression of SOD2 has been linked to increased invasiveness of tumor metastasis. Its role in controlling ROS levels also involves it in ageing, cancer, and neurodegenerative disease. Mutations in this gene have been associated with idiopathic cardiomyopathy (IDC), sporadic motor neuron disease, and cancer. A common polymorphism associated with greater susceptibility to various pathologies is found in the mitochondrial leader targeting sequence (Val9Ala).
Some languages allow both static and dynamic typing. For example, Java and some other ostensibly statically typed languages support downcasting types to their subtypes, querying an object to discover its dynamic type, and other type operations that depend on runtime type information. Another example is C++ RTTI. More generally, most programming languages include mechanisms for dispatching over different 'kinds' of data, such as disjoint unions, runtime polymorphism, and variant types.
A single-nucleotide polymorphism in the OR5A1 receptor (rs6591536) causes very significant differences in the odor perception of beta-ionone, both in sensitivity and also in subjective quality. Individuals who contain at least one G allele are sensitive to beta-ionone and perceive a pleasant floral scent, while individuals who are homozygous AA are ~100 times less sensitive and at higher concentrations perceive a pungent sour/vinegar odor instead.
Nei's group invented a simple statistical method for detecting positive Darwinian selection by comparing the numbers of synonymous nucleotide substitutions and nonsynonymous nucleotide substitutions. Applying this method, they showed that the exceptionally high degree of sequence polymorphism at MHC loci is caused by overdominant selection. Although various statistical methods for this test have been developed later, their original methods are still widely used.Nei, M. (2013) Mutation-Driven Evolution.
In 1964, Julian Huxley, Ernst Mayr, Humphry Osmond and Abram Hoffer theorized the first representation of the evolutionary aspects of schizophrenia. According to their complete research, they hypothesized that schizophrenia represented a genetic polymorphism with both advantageous and disadvantageous characteristics. Moreover, the authors inferred that reduced fertility in schizophrenic patients was because of higher resistance to harmful factors, including shock, allergies, and infection. However, this view has not been substantiated.
This area is often referred to as molecular epidemiology or forensic microbiology. Humans can also be genotyped. For example, when testing fatherhood or motherhood, scientists typically only need to examine 10 or 20 genomic regions (like single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs)), which represent a tiny fraction of the human genome. When genotyping transgenic organisms, a single genomic region may be all that needs to be examined to determine the genotype.
The notion of subtyping in programming languages dates back to the 1960s; it was introduced in Simula derivatives. The first formal treatments of subtyping were given by John C. Reynolds in 1980 who used category theory to formalize implicit conversions, and Luca Cardelli (1985).Pierce, ch. 15 notes The concept of subtyping has gained visibility (and synonymy with polymorphism in some circles) with the mainstream adoption of object-oriented programming.
Y-Chromosome DNA (Y-DNA) testing involves short tandem repeat (STR) and, sometimes, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) testing of the Y-Chromosome, which is present only in males and only reveals information on the strict-paternal line. As with the mitochondria, close matches with individuals indicate a recent common ancestor. Because surnames in many cultures are transmitted down the paternal line, this testing is often used by surname DNA projects.
Many genes impact the limbic-frontal neurocircuitry as a result of its complexity. The main effect of the D2A1 allele of the dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) has a strong association with the diagnosis of PTSD. The D2A1 allele has also shown a significant association to PTSD in those having engaged in harmful drinking. In addition a polymorphism in the dopamine transporter SLC6A3 gene has a significant association with chronic PTSD.
A number of 2,4-D-degrading bacteria have been isolated and characterized from a variety of environmental habitats.Cavalca, L., A. Hartmann, N. Rouard, and G. Soulas. 1999. Diversity of tfdC genes: distribution and polymorphism among 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid degrading soil bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 29: 45-58. Metabolic pathways for the compound’s degradation have been available for many years, and genes encoding 2,4-D catabolism have been identified for several organisms.
In molecular biology, SNP array is a type of DNA microarray which is used to detect polymorphisms within a population. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), a variation at a single site in DNA, is the most frequent type of variation in the genome. Around 335 million SNPs have been identified in the human genome, 15 million of which are present at frequencies of 1% or higher across different populations worldwide.
The grove snail, Cepaea nemoralis, is famous for the rich polymorphism of its shell. The system is controlled by a series of multiple alleles. The shell colour series is brown (genetically the top dominant trait), dark pink, light pink, very pale pink, dark yellow and light yellow (the bottom or universal recessive trait). Bands may be present or absent; and if present from one to five in number.
The POU3F2 protein associates with the Bipolar disorder. It is involved in the neocortex development in mice, and is linked to a single nucletide polymorphism, Rs1906252, that is associated with a cognitive phenotype: processing information speed. Chromosome 6q16.1 deletions resulting in loss of one copy of POU3F2 have been shown to cause a human syndrome of susceptibility to obesity and variable levels of developmental delay and Intellectual Disability.
The selection maintaining the polymorphism maximises the species' niche by expanding its feeding opportunity. The genetics of this situation cannot be clarified in the absence of a detailed breeding program, but two loci with linkage disequilibrium is a possibility. Another interesting dimorphism is for the bills of young finches, which are either 'pink' or 'yellow'. All species of Darwin's finches exhibit this morphism, which lasts for two months.
A G/A polymorphism in the promoter of the apo A1 gene has been associated with the age at which patients presented with Alzheimer disease. Protection from Alzheimer's disease by apo A1 may rely on a synergistic interaction with alpha-tocopherol. Amyloid deposited in the knee following surgery consists largely of apo A1 secreted from chondrocytes (cartilage cells). A wide variety of amyloidosis symptoms are associated with rare Apo A1 mutants.
Logic for Computable Functions (LCF) is an interactive automated theorem prover developed at Stanford and Edinburgh by Robin Milner and collaborators in early 1970s, based on the theoretical foundation of logic of computable functions previously proposed by Dana Scott. Work on the LCF system introduced the general-purpose programming language ML to allow users to write theorem- proving tactics, supporting algebraic data types, parametric polymorphism, abstract data types, and exceptions.
ET-2, like ET-1, has a role in modulating vascular tone. This can have implications for blood pressure control. A specific EDN2 gene polymorphism has been correlated with essential hypertension and alternative studies have shown associations between certain rare ET-2 polymorphisms and lower diastolic blood pressures. The ET-2 gene has been shown to co-segregate with blood pressure in rodent studies; a potential reason for the link.
The herds located in two HMAs in central Nevada produce Curly Horses. Others, such as certain bands in Wyoming, have characteristics consistent with gaited horse breeds. Many herds were analyzed for Spanish blood group polymorphism (commonly known as "blood markers") and microsatellite DNA loci. Blood marker analysis verified a few to have significant Spanish ancestry, namely the Cerbat mustang, Pryor Mountain mustang, and some horses from the Sulphur Springs HMA.
The product of this gene participates in physiological processes involving bile acids, conjugated steroids, and cyclic nucleotides. In addition, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in this gene is responsible for determination of human earwax type and presence of underarm odour. This gene and family member ABCC12 are determined to be derived by duplication and are both localized to chromosome 16q12.1. Multiple alternatively spliced transcript variants have been described for this gene.
Ants of the genus Atta are leafcutter ants that comprise one of the two genera of leafcutting ants within the tribe Attini, along with Acromyrmex. They have no sting, thus inject no venom, although they are known as strong biters. Atta spp. exhibit a high degree of polymorphism, with four castes being present in established colonies: minims (or garden ants), minors, mediae, and majors (also called soldiers or dinergates).
Cohen's areas of research included polymorphism of both elements and compounds, photographic chemistry, electrochemistry, pizeochemistry, and the history of science. He published more than 400 papers and numerous books. In 1913 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Following the April 29, 1942 decree that Dutch Jews wear the yellow badge, he was arrested by Nazi police for non- compliance and forced to resign.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (rs1954787) in the GRIK4 gene has shown a treatment-response-association with antidepressant treatment. Variation in GRIK4 have been associated with both increased and decreased risk of bipolar disorder. A possible mechanism for this observation is that the sequence variation influences secondary structures in the 3' UTR. Interfering with GRIK4/KA1 function with a specific anti-KA1 antibody protects against kainate-induced neuronal cell death.
One study has reported that met/met carriers tends to have lower body mass index compared to the two other genotypes. Another study showed that subjects with the val/val genotype had higher mean intelligence. The same study found no association with personality traits as measured with the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire. Also a Polish 2007 study observed no significant relationship between the polymorphism and personality in healthy females.
IL-33 has been associated with several disease states through Genome Wide Association Studies: asthma, allergy, endometriosis, and hay fever. In particular, a single-nucleotide polymorphism rs928413 (A/G), is located in the 5′ upstream region of IL33 gene, and its minor “G” allele was identified as a susceptible variant for early childhood asthma and atopic asthma development. The rs928413(G) allele creates a binding site for the cAMP responsive element-binding protein 1 transcription factor that may explain the negative effect of the rs928413 minor “G” allele on asthma development. “T” allele of the polymorphism rs4742170 located in the second intron of IL33 gene was linked to specific wheezing phenotype (intermediate- onset wheeze). Risk “T” rs4742170 allele disrupts binding of GR transcription factor to IL33 putative enhancer that may explain the negative effect of the rs4742170 (T) risk allele on the development of wheezing phenotype that strongly correlates with allergic sensitization in childhood.
Normal (left) prelamin A processing and the faulty processing leading to the creation of progerin (right) Progerin (P02545-6) is a truncated version of the lamin A protein involved in the pathology of Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome. Progerin is most often generated by a single nucleotide polymorphism (C1824T) in the gene that codes for Lamin A. This mutation activates a cryptic splice site and gives rise to a form of lamin A with a deletion of 50 amino acids near the C-terminus. Approximately 80% of all Hutchinson–Gilford progeria syndrome cases are heterozygous for this deleterious single nucleotide polymorphism within exon 11 of the LMNA gene. Lamin A constitutes a major structural component of the lamina, a scaffold of proteins found inside the nuclear membrane of a cell; progerin does not properly integrate into the lamina, which disrupts the scaffold structure and leads to significant disfigurement of the nucleus, characterized by a lobular shape.
A follow-up study in 2013 on the European population, however, found no variant significantly associated with corneal astigmatism at the genome-wide level (single-nucleotide polymorphism rs7677751 at PDGFRA). Facing the inconsistency, a study by Shah and colleagues in 2018 included both populations with Asian and Northern European ancestry. They successfully replicated the previously identified genome-wide significant locus for corneal astigmatism near the PDGFRA gene, with a further success of identifying three novel candidate genes: CLDN7, ACP2, and TNFAIP8L3. Other GWAS studies also provided inconclusive results: Lopes and colleagues identified a susceptibility locus with lead single nucleotide polymorphism rs3771395 on chromosome 2p13.3 in the VAX2 gene (VAX2 plays an important role in the development of the dorsoventral axis of the eye); Li and associates, however, found no consistent or strong genetic signals for refractive astigmatism while suggesting a possibility of widespread genetic co-susceptibility for spherical and astigmatic refractive errors.
In a study looking at gene polymorphisms of GPX1 and other oxidative stress genes in relation to prevalence of Type 2 diabetes mellitus, Banerjee, et al., found that while no association was found in expression of most GPX1 polymorphisms and risk of Type 2 diabetes mellitus, having the C allele of GPX1 led to a 1.362 times higher risk of the disease, highlighting the importance of finding individuals in the population with this gene variant to help treat them early on. Recent work by Alan M. Diamond and colleagues has shown that allelic variations of GPX1, like the codon 198 polymorphism that results in leucine or proline and an increase in alanine repeat codons, can result in different localization levels in MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells. For instance, the allele expressing the leucine-198 polymorphism and 7 alanine repeats generates GPX-1 localization that is disproportionately in the cytoplasm as compared to other allelic variants.
The phylloxeran species are very small to minute insects. Besides, there is a high polymorphism in the family Phylloxeridae making it at times difficult to identify its members. Also, they can pretty easily be confused to related insects such as Adelgids and true Aphids. The most important features used to tell them apart from their relatives and from other insects are the wings’ venation, the ovipositor and some characteristics of their antennae.
In most humans, OR11H7 is a pseudogene, meaning it does not result in the creation of a functional olfactory receptor protein that binds to specific odorants. Some individuals, however, carry a single-nucleotide polymorphism on one or both chromosomes which transforms it from a pseudogene into an intact gene, and they are significantly more likely to exhibit hyperosmia to the chemical isovaleric acid. Isovaleric acid was shown to be a ligand of OR11H7.
Flight is well developed in the Hemiptera although mostly used for short distance movement and dispersal. Wing development is sometimes related to environmental conditions. In some groups of Hemiptera, there are variations of winged, short-winged, and wingless forms within a single species. This kind of polymorphism tends to be helpful when habitats are temporary with more energy put into reproduction when food is available and into dispersal through flight when food becomes scarce.
The different forms of the male (top) and female (bottom) tussock moth Orgyia recens is an example of sexual dimorphism in insects. Other developmental and reproductive variations include haplodiploidy, polymorphism, paedomorphosis or peramorphosis, sexual dimorphism, parthenogenesis and more rarely hermaphroditism. In haplodiploidy, which is a type of sex-determination system, the offspring's sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives. This system is typical in bees and wasps.
Most notably, the genes coding for the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) are in fact the most polymorphic genes known. MHC molecules are involved in the immune system and interact with T-cells. There are more than 800 different alleles of human MHC class I and II genes, and it has been estimated that there are 200 variants at the HLA-B HLA-DRB1 loci alone. Some polymorphism may be maintained by balancing selection.
The amplified fragments are separated and visualized on denaturing on agarose gel electrophoresis , either through autoradiography or fluorescence methodologies, or via automated capillary sequencing instruments. Although AFLP should not be used as an acronym, it is commonly referred to as "Amplified fragment length polymorphism". However, the resulting data are not scored as length polymorphisms, but instead as presence-absence polymorphisms. AFLP-PCR is a highly sensitive method for detecting polymorphisms in DNA.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism are important for the for the differencial activity of the PGP pump. Homozygous subjects, identified with the TT genotype, are usually more able to extrude xenobiotics from the cell. A Homozygous genotype for the allele ABCB1/MDR1 is capable of an higher absorption from the blood vessels and a lower extrusion into the lumen. Xenobiotics are extruded at a lower rate with heterozygous (CT) alleles compared to homozygous ones.
Aconitum anthora, variously known as anthora, yellow monkshood, or healing wolfsbane, is a yellow flowering plant species of the genus Aconitum in the family Ranunculaceae. Its native range is widespread, but mainly in European mountains, such as the Alps and the Carpathians, and the northern parts of Asia. Like all Aconitum species, it has great variability, due to isolation and hybridisation. Because of this polymorphism, A. anthora is included in the Aconitum vulparia group.
According to a 1995 study by Hofman et al., these factors may include age, sex, diabetes, and smoking. They also determined some genetic variations in humans that lead to an increased ability for S. aureus to colonize, notably a polymorphism in the glucocorticoid receptor gene that results in larger corticosteroid production. In conclusion, there is evidence that any strain of this bacterium can become invasive, as this is highly dependent upon human factors.
Phosphoglycolate phosphatase exhibits electrophoretically distinctive variant forms. Found in all human tissues, including red cells, lymphocytes, and cultured fibroblasts, the highest enzymatic activity was noted within skeletal and cardiac muscle. Research into the genetic polymorphism indicates that PGP is likely determined by three alleles at a single autosomal locus, which is expressed in all human tissues. Preliminary observations of fetal tissue suggest that the PGP locus is also fully expressed during intra-uterine life.
Kimura then postulated that most of the modifications to the genome are neutral or nearly neutral, and evolve by random genetic drift. Therefore, under the neutral model, polymorphism within a species and divergence between related species at homologous sites will be highly correlated. The Neutral Evolution theory has become the null model against which tests for selection are based, and divergence from this model can be explained by directional or selective evolution.
A gene tree is a binary graph that describes the evolutionary relationships between a sample of sequences for a non- recombining locus. A species tree describes the evolutionary relationships between a set of species, assuming tree-like evolution. However, several processes can lead to discordance between gene trees and species trees. The Multispecies Coalescent model provides a framework for inferring species phylogenies while accounting for ancestral polymorphism and gene tree-species tree conflict.
Cladistic analysis of languages, Cladistics 19/2 (2003) They created a reduced data set from the Dyen database but with the addition of Hittite. They produced a standard multistate matrix where the 141 character states corresponds to individual cognate classes, allowing polymorphism. They also joined some cognate classes, to reduce subjectivity and polymorphic states were not allowed. Lastly they produced a binary matrix where each class of words was treated as a separate character.
Another technique, AFLP, or amplified fragment length polymorphism was also put into practice during the early 1990s. This technique was also faster than RFLP analysis and used PCR to amplify DNA samples. It relied on variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphisms to distinguish various alleles, which were separated on a polyacrylamide gel using an allelic ladder (as opposed to a molecular weight ladder). Bands could be visualized by silver staining the gel.
Microsatellites within introns also influence phenotype, through means that are not currently understood. For example, a GAA triplet expansion in the first intron of the X25 gene appears to interfere with transcription, and causes Friedreich Ataxia. Tandem repeats in the first intron of the Asparagine synthetase gene are linked to acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. A repeat polymorphism in the fourth intron of the NOS3 gene is linked to hypertension in a Tunisian population.
In plants, MTH1 has also been shown to enhance resistance to heat- and paraquat-induced oxidative stress, resulting in fewer dead cells and less accumulation of hydrogen peroxide. Several alternatively spliced transcript variants, some of which encode distinct isoforms, have been identified. Additional variants have been observed, but their full-length natures have not been determined. A single-nucleotide polymorphism that results in the production of an additional, longer isoform has been described.
Mounting evidence suggests that the NPAS2 protein and other circadian genes are involved in tumorigenesis and tumor growth, possibly through their control of cancer-related biologic pathways. A missense polymorphism in NPAS2 (Ala394Thr) has been shown to be associated with risk of human tumors including breast cancer. These findings provide evidence suggesting a possible role for the circadian Npas2 gene in cancer prognosis. These results have been confirmed in both breast and colorectal cancers.
These findings were confirmed in a larger study of spontaneous clearance in an African American population and extended to European populations. Associations between HCV clearance and genotype for the IFNL4-ΔG/TT polymorphism are strong. Among patients enrolled in the Virahep-C Trial, odds ratios for achieving a sustained virological response after treatment pegylated-interferon alpha/ribavirin (IFNL4-TT/TT versus IFNL4- ΔG/ΔG) were 2.90 in African- Americans and 4.42 in European-Americans.
Marcasite brooch made from pyrite and silver Marcasite jewelry is jewelry made using cut & polished pieces of pyrite (fool's gold) as gemstone, and not, as the name suggests, from marcasite (sometimes misspelled Mercasite). Both Pyrite & Marcasite are chemically Iron sulphide, but differ in their crystal structures giving them different physical properties - also known as polymorphism. Pyrite is more stable and less brittle than marcasite. Marcasite can also react with moisture to form sulphuric acid.
There is limited polymorphism in the genetic architecture of E. socialis, but sub- populations are highly differentiated. There is an excess of heterozygotes, and moderate levels of relatedness amongst nest-mates within the sub- populations. The high differentiation among sub-populations is thought to have been caused by weak adult dispersal, and patchiness of madrone habitats due to their restriction to higher elevations. The northern and southern populations of E. socialis show strong karyotypic differentiation.
Scientists found that changes in DNA methylation induced by stress was inherited in asexual dandelions. Genetically similar plants were exposed to different ecological stresses, and their offspring were raised in an unstressed environment. Amplified fragment-length polymorphism markers that were methylation-sensitive were used to test for methylation on a genome-wide scale. It was found that many of the environmental stresses caused induction of pathogen and herbivore defenses, which caused methylation in the genome.
In Leboyer, M, Bellivier, F. Psychiatric genetics: methods and reviews. Humana Press. pp. 63–98. Genetic Linkage studies attempt to find a correlation between the diagnosis and inheritance of certain alleles within families who have two or more ill relatives. An analysis of a linkage study uses a wide chromosomal region, whereas a genetic association study endeavors to identify a specific DNA polymorphism, which can be a deletion, inversion, or repletion of a sequence.
Ecological niches are all of the variables in an environment, such as the resources, competitors, and responses, that contribute to the organism's fitness. Multiple-niche polymorphism states that diversity is maintained within a population due to the varying amount of possible niches and environments. Therefore, the more various niches the more likelihood of polymophrism and diversity. For B. burgdorferi, varying vertebrae niches, such deer and mice, can affect the overall balancing selection for variants.
K. Reinhardt, E. Harney, R. Naylor, M. Siva-Jothy, Female-limited polymorphism in the copulatory organ of a traumatically inseminating insect. American Naturalist, Vol 170, pp. 931-935, December 2007 In one cave around 80% of the females were found to mimic the male version of the spermalege and such females receive fewer stabbings from males than females that have the original spermalege type. The species also had a brief appearance in fiction.
Yeagle, Philip. The Structure of Biological Membranes. 2nd. ed. CRC Press, (2005). 173–194. For example, the strength of the intermolecular forces within the biomembrane are fairly strong but when lipids are extracted from biomembranes for analytical purposes there is a decrease in the constraints by the intermolecular forces against the phospholipids which may cause the lipid to undergo polymorphism as well as a temporary rearrangement of other lipids or proteins in the biomembrane.
Other notable ecological geneticists would include Theodosius Dobzhansky who worked on chromosome polymorphism in fruit flies. As a young researcher in Russia, Dobzhansky had been influenced by Sergei Chetverikov, who also deserves to be remembered as a founder of genetics in the field, though his significance was not appreciated until much later. Dobzhansky and colleagues carried out studies on natural populations of Drosophila species in western USA and Mexico over many years.Dobzhansky, Theodosius.
Ricebean's distribution pattern indicates great adaptive polymorphism for diverse environments, with its distribution ranging from humid tropical to sub-tropical, to sub-temperate climate. The presumed centre of domestication is Indo-China. It is thought to be derived from the wild form V. umbellata var gracilis, with which it is cross-fertile, and which is distributed from Southern China through the north of Vietnam, Laos and Thailand into Myanmar and India (Tomooka et al., 1991).
The interactions are able to inhibit calcium channel activity as well as tightly aggregate the molecules around the release site. There have been many clinical cases that link SNARE genes with neural disorders. Deficiency in SNAP-25 mRNA has been observed in hippocampal tissue of some schizophrenic patients, a SNAP-25 single-nucleotide polymorphism is linked to hyperactivity in autism-spectrum disorders, and overexpression of SNAP-25B leads to the early onset of bipolar disorder.
Features include chromatogram editing, end clipping, and vector trimming, sequence assembly and contig editing, aligning cDNA against genomic templates, sequence alignment and editing, alignment of contigs to each other with ClustalW, MUSCLE, or built-in algorithms, mutation detection, including detection of heterozygous single-nucleotide polymorphism, analysis of heterozygous insertions and deletions, start online BLAST searches, restriction analysis (find and view restriction cut sites), trace sharpening, and support for Phred, Phrap, ClustalW, and MUSCLE.
In addition to depictions of wildlife and the plight of endangered species, his work often also includes references to Southern Africa's ancient San- and Koi- bushman rock painting heritage. He represents nature from a conceptual point of view. His style contains elements of the surreal, tension between esoteric polymorphism and traditional naturalism which he believes allows the viewer to find their own interpretation of the work and allows it to speak to them personally.
In populations of O. pumilio that participated in sexual selection, the phenotypic polymorphism was evident. The lack of sexual dimorphism in some dendrobatid populations however suggests that sexual selection is not a valid explanation. Functional trade-offs are seen in poison frog defense mechanisms relating to toxin resistance. Poison dart frogs containing epibatidine have undergone a 3 amino acid mutation on receptors of the body, allowing the frog to be resistant to its own poison.
MDA generates sufficient yield of DNA products. It is a powerful tool of amplifying DNA molecules from samples, such as uncultured microorganism or single cells to the amount that would be sufficient for sequencing studies. The large size of MDA-amplified DNA products also provides desirable sample quality for identifying the size of polymorphic repeat alleles. Its high fidelity also makes it reliable to be used in the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) allele detection.
Much of the variation in tasting of PTC is associated with polymorphism at the TAS2R38 taste receptor gene. In humans, there are three SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) along the gene that may render its proteins unresponsive. There is conflicting evidence as to whether the inheritance of this trait is dominant or incompletely dominant. Any person with a single functional copy of this gene can make the protein and is sensitive to PTC.
Since the 1980s, 22 species in 13 genera have been attributed to the anamorph (asexually reproducing mold-like form) of O. sinensis. Of the 22 species, Cephalosporium acreomonium is the zygomycetous species of Umbelopsis, Chrysosporium sinense has very low similarity in RAPD polymorphism, hence it is not the anamorph. Likewise, Cephalosporium dongchongxiacae, C. sp. sensu, Hirsutella sinensis and H. hepiali and Synnematium sinnense are synonymous and only H. sinensis is only validly published in articles.
Recently, single-molecule FRET has been applied to quantitatively detect target DNA and to distinguish single nucleotide polymorphism. Unlike ensemble FRET, single-molecule FRET allows real time monitoring of target binding events. Additionally, Low background, high signal-to-noise ratio observed with single-molecule FRET technique leads to ultra-sensitivity (detection limit in the femto-moles range) These days, different types of signal amplification steps are incorporated in order to push down the detection limit.
The presence of mega-telomeres varies between species. For example, human chromosomes do not have mega-telomeres while mice and many species of birds do. There is also variation in their structure and location within the same species. In mice and birds, mega- telomeres regions are observed to be hypervariable, meaning that there is a high degree of polymorphism in the size and position of mega-telomeres between individuals, including those of highly inbred lines.
Pediatrics 1971, 47:610-612] She was born and educated in Brno, Czechoslovakia, and survived The Holocaust by inclusion in the Kindertransport, and spent the war years in England. She returned to Czechoslovakia after the war, received a medical degree and training as a pediatrician there. Her Doctoral thesis from the University of Brno was Genetika isoamylas: Studie nového lidského polymorfismu. (in English: "Genetics of Isoamylases: Study of the New Human Polymorphism") in 1967.
Rare mutations leading to reduced function of CETP have been linked to accelerated atherosclerosis. In contrast, a polymorphism (I405V) of the CETP gene leading to lower serum levels has also been linked to exceptional longevity and to metabolic response to nutritional intervention. However, this mutation also increases the prevalence of coronary heart disease in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. The D442G mutation, which lowers CETP levels and increases HDL levels also increases coronary heart disease.
Pure boron can be prepared by reducing volatile boron halides with hydrogen at high temperatures. Very pure boron, for use in semiconductor industry, is produced by the decomposition of diborane at high temperatures, followed by purification via zone melting or the Czochralski process. Even more difficult to prepare are single crystals of pure boron phases, due to polymorphism and the tendency of boron to react with impurities; typical crystal size is ~0.1 mm.
The immunohistochemical expressions of E-selectin and PECAM-1 were significantly increased at intima in vulnerable plaques of acute coronary syndrome (ACS) group, especially in neovascular endothelial cells, and positively correlated with inflammatory cell density, suggesting that PECAM-1 and E-selectin might play an important role in inflammatory reaction and development of vulnerable plaque. E-selectin Ser128Arg polymorphism is associated with ACS, and it might be a risk factor for ACS.
This concept is also known as subsumption or subtype polymorphism. In some languages subtypes may also possess covariant or contravariant return types and argument types respectively. Certain languages, for example Clojure, Common Lisp, or Cython are dynamically type-checked by default, but allow programs to opt into static type checking by providing optional annotations. One reason to use such hints would be to optimize the performance of critical sections of a program.
The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the PTGER3, rs977214 A/G variant has been associated with an increase in pre- term births in two populations of European ancestry; the SNP variant -1709T>A in PTGER3 has been associated with Aspirin-induced asthma in a Korean population; and 6 SNP variants have been associated with development of the Steven Johnson syndrome and its more severe form, toxic epidermal necrolysis, in a Japanese population.
Klaus-Peter Lesch is a German clinical psychiatrist who has been investigating the neurobiological foundation of personality traits. Klaus-Peter Lesch 2014 His 1996 paper on the association between the 5-HTTLPR polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene and the personality trait neuroticism has been highly cited and was one of the first papers in personality genetics. He is professor at the University of Würzburg. Among his coauthors has been Peter Riederer.
Single nucleotide polymorphism analysis resulted in the discovery of the mechanism of glucose and insulin responses demonstrated in the figure. From this relationship, it has been hypothesized that the regulatory genes CDKAL1 and GIP(glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide) are related to environmental selectivity and adaptive immunity. Genome-wide association studies have linked single nucleotide polymorphisms in an intron on chromosome 6 with susceptibility to type 2 diabetes`. [provided by RefSeq, May 2010].
Exons of the lactoferrin gene in oxen have a similar size to the exons of other genes of the transferrin family, whereas the sizes of introns differ within the family. Similarity in the size of exons and their distribution in the domains of the protein molecule indicates that the evolutionary development of lactoferrin gene occurred by duplication. Study of polymorphism of genes that encode lactoferrin helps selecting livestock breeds that are resistant to mastitis.
The lake is inhabited with more 200 haplochromine species distinguishable morphologically and behaviorally. Contrary to earlier claims, Klein's group demonstrated that the species are not monophyletic and are by no means pauperized in their genetic polymorphism. They fall into at least two lineages, which separated from each other 41,500 years ago, presumably outside of the lake. The lineages diverged from haplochromines inhabiting smaller lakes west of Lake Victoria more than 80,000 years ago.
The Oligomer Restriction technique was developed as a variation of the Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) assay method, with the hope of avoiding the laborious Southern blotting step used in RFLP analysis. OR was conceived by Randall Saiki and Henry Erlich in the early 1980s, working at Cetus Corporation in Emeryville, California. It was patented in 1984Saiki RK, Erlich, HA "Method for detection of polymorphic restriction sites and nucleic acid sequences." U.S. Patent 4683194.
Jonathan Sebat was one of the first researchers to report in the journal 'Science' in 2004 that these CNPs give rise to human genomic variation and may contribute to our phenotypic differences.Sebat, J. et al. (2004) Large-scale copy number polymorphism in the human genome. Science 305: 525–528 Tremendous research efforts are being conducted now to understand the role of CNPs in normal human variation and neurological diseases such as autism.
Location of the control region (CR) in the human mitochondrial genome (grey box), with the three hypervariable regions (HV: green boxes). The mtDNA control region is an area of the mitochondrial genome which is non-coding DNA. This region controls RNA and DNA synthesis.Structure of the Mitochondrial Genome DNA Learning Center, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory It is the most polymorphic region of the human mtDNA genome, with polymorphism concentrated in hypervariable regions.
Various types of experiments have been done to look into apostatic selection. Some involve artificial prey because it is a lot easier to control external variables in a simulated environment, though using wild specimens increases the studies external validity Often a computer screen simulation program is used on animals, often birds of prey, to detect for selection.Bond, A., & Kamil, A. (1998). Apostatic selection by blue jays produces balanced polymorphism in virtual prey. Nature, 594–596.
Another type looks into how apostatic selection can focus on the predator as well as the prey because predator plumage polymorphism can be another example of how apostatic selection works in a population. They hypothesized that a mutant predator morph will become more abundant in a population due to apostatic selection because the prey will not be able to recognize it as often as the common predator morph.Fowlie, M., & Kruger, O. (2003).
DYRK1A is localized in the Down syndrome critical region of chromosome 21, and is considered to be a strong candidate gene for learning defects associated with Down syndrome. In addition, a polymorphism (SNP) in DYRK1A was found to be associated with HIV-1 replication in monocyte-derived macrophages, as well as with slower progression to AIDS in two independent cohorts of HIV-1-infected individuals. Mutations in DYRK1A are also associated with Autism spectrum disorder.
Dissection of thrum and pin flowers of Primula vulgaris An example of a botanical genetic polymorphism is heterostyly, in which flowers occur in different forms with different arrangements of the pistils and the stamens. The system is called heteromorphic self-incompatibility, and the general 'strategy' of stamens separated from pistils is known as herkogamy. Pin and thrum heterostyly occurs in dimorphic species of Primula, such as P. vulgaris. There are two types of flower.
The toxic dose of ATS varies between person due to development of drug tolerance and genetic polymorphism of the CYP450 2D6 gene. Different ATS also have different toxic dose. Methamphetamine fatality from ATS have been reported after ingestion of a minimal dose of 1.3 mg/kg, while the estimated minimum lethal dose in a non-addicted adult is 200 mg. Generally, children are more likely to develop toxicity and have lower chances of developing tolerance.
UDP-analogs which bind to this receptor have been investigated as possible treatments for migraines. P2Y11 is a regulator of immune response, and a common polymorphism carried by almost 20% of North European caucasians give increased risk of myocardial infarction, making P2Y11 an interesting drug target candidate for treatment of myocardial infarction. In addition to established uses, pharmaceutical research has been conducted into the role of P2Y receptors in osteoporosis, diabetes, and cardio- protection.
Population genetics models are used to infer which genes are undergoing selection. One common approach is to look for regions of high linkage disequilibrium and low genetic variance along the chromosome, to detect recent selective sweeps. A second common approach is the McDonald–Kreitman test. The McDonald–Kreitman test compares the amount of variation within a species (polymorphism) to the divergence between species (substitutions) at two types of sites, one assumed to be neutral.
World map of the distribution of the A allele of the single nucleotide polymorphism rs17822931 in the ABCC11 gene. The proportion of A alleles in each population is represented by the white area in each circle. The history of the migration of humans can be traced back using the ABCC11 gene alleles. The variation between ear wax and body odor in ethnicities around the world are specifically due to the ABCC11 gene alleles.
Digested DNA products can be analyzed using conventional gel electrophoresis or high-resolution capillary electrophoresis. The detection of cleaved products indicates the presence of a heteroduplex formed by a mismatch. The location of the mutation/polymorphism can be inferred by observing the fragment length after cleavage. If fluorescent labelled primers are used to mark the 5’ and 3’ end of the PCR products, different colored bands will be observed in the analysis.
Coloration in male painted dragon populations is extremely variable, ranging from reddish brown to orange to yellowish brown, with orange being the least common. In studies of colour polymorphism, individual lizards have been categorised by their predominant colour into three discrete groups: red, orange and yellow. Higher sexual selection is correlated with the variable appearance of males. Between yellow and red coloured male lizards, female lizards sexually select for red-coloured males.
Other museums followed suit and sent butterflies from around the world for identification. Edwards published his first scientific paper in 1861 describing several new butterfly species. During the course of his career he published some 250 scientific papers on Lepidoptera. In addition to numerous papers describing new species of butterflies, he made important contributions in the area of polymorphism (the occurrence of more than one form in the same population of a species).
Nevertheless, since sexually antagonistic genes give rise to biased expression and most biased genes are under positive selection we can argue the same in favor of sexually antagonistic genes. A similar trend as seen in coding sequence evolution was seen with gene expression levels. Interspecific expression divergence was higher than intraspecific expression polymorphism. Positive selection in Accessory gland proteins (Acps) (produced by males) and Female Reproductive Tract Proteins (Frtps) has also been reported previously.
It was observed that both males and females suffer from traumatic insemination. Males suffer from traumatic insemination because they expressed female like genitals, and were often at times mistaken for females. Females also displayed polymorphism because some females had distinct "female-like" genitals while others had a "male-like" appearance. The results showed that males along with females who had "male-like" genitals suffer less traumatic insemination compared to the distinct females.
The crimson seedcracker exhibits polymorphism, there being two morphs, large-billed individuals and small-billed ones. These morphs are unrelated to gender, body size, age or geographical origin, but are associated with differences in diet, with the larger-billed morphs able to tackle larger and harder seeds such as those of the nutrushes; it is hypothesized that a mutation in a single gene had a large effect on the morphology of individuals.
The protected variations pattern protects elements from the variations on other elements (objects, systems, subsystems) by wrapping the focus of instability with an interface and using polymorphism to create various implementations of this interface. Problem: How to design objects, subsystems, and systems so that the variations or instability in these elements does not have an undesirable impact on other elements? Solution: Identify points of predicted variation or instability; assign responsibilities to create a stable interface around them.
This limited polymorphism permits individual operations to be overridden or replaced by custom functions, allowing printer drivers to intercept graphics commands and translate them to suitable printer operations. In this way, QuickDraw can be rendered using PostScript, a fact that enabled the Macintosh to practically invent desktop publishing. Similar to a subclass, the Window data structure began with the associated GrafPort, thus basically making windows exchangeable with any GrafPort. While convenient, this could be a source of programming errors.
Two active Grove snails A second kind of selection also operates on the snail, whereby certain heterozygotes have a physiological advantage over the homozygotes. Thirdly, apostatic selection is likely, with the birds preferentially taking the most common morph. This is the 'search pattern' effect, where a predominantly visual predator persists in targeting the morph which gave a good result, even though other morphs are available. The polymorphism survives in almost all habitats, though the proportions of morphs varies considerably.
On April 30, 1990, James Harvey was convicted of rape and forcible sodomy by a jury in Fairfax County Circuit Court. He was sentenced to 25 years in prison. One piece of evidence used to convict Harvey was restriction fragment length polymorphism ("RFLP") DNA testing. The victim had two assailants, and this test prevented both Harvey and his co-defendant from being excluded as a possible source of spermatozoa recovered from the victim through conventional serology.
A single polymorphism in the KCNE4 intracellular N-terminal domain, E145D, has been reported to affect predisposition to the relatively common chronic cardiac arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation, in Chinese populations, and to impair the ability of KCNE4 to inhibit KCNQ1. If KCNE4 inhibits KCNQ1 in the atrium, it is conceivable that removing this inhibition could shorten the atrial effective refractory period, which could predispose to atrial fibrillation, but this mechanism has not yet been substantiated with in vivo data.
With the availability of a reference template, only differences (e.g., single nucleotide substitutions and insertions/deletions) need to be recorded, thereby greatly reducing the amount of information to be stored. The notion of relative compression is obvious especially in genome re-sequencing projects where the aim is to discover variations in individual genomes. The use of a reference single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) map, such as dbSNP, can be used to further improve the number of variants for storage.
Studies with mice, guinea pig, and human tissues and in guinea pigs indicate that another arachidonic acid metabolite, Prostaglandin E2, operates through its prostaglandin EP3 G protein coupled receptor to trigger cough responses. Its mechanism of action does not appear to involve direct binding to TRPA1 but rather the indirect activation and/or sensitization of TRPA1 as well as TRPV1 receptors. Genetic polymorphism in the EP3 receptor (rs11209716), has been associated with ACE inhibitor-induce cough in humans.
Genetically diverse B. burgdorferi strains, as defined by the sequence of ospC, are maintained within the Northeastern United States. Balancing selection may act upon ospC or a nearby sequence to maintain the genetic variety of B. burgdorferi. Balancing selection is the process by which multiple versions of a gene are kept within the gene pool at unexpectedly high frequencies. Two major models that control the selection balance of B.burgdorferi is negative frequency-dependent selection and multiple-niche polymorphism.
Although clopidogrel had better activity/toxicity ratio than ticlopidine there were still problems with its activity as 30% of patients have clopidogrel resistance. The major factor in clopidogrel resistance is CYP2C19 polymorphism, which occurs in 30-55% patients. This led to loss of functions of the enzyme which led to poor conversion of clopidogrel into its active metabolite. The metabolite itself is very unstable and can therefore not be stored as a part of a chemical library.
These two gene variants did not affect KCNQ1-KCNE1 currents when co-expressed in CHO cells, but produced larger currents than wild-type KCNE5 when coexpressed with Kv4.3-KChIP2, giving a possible mechanism for Brugada syndrome, i.e., increased ventricular Ito density. A KCNE5 non-coding region gene variant, the G variant of the rs697829 A/G polymorphism, has also been reported to associate with prolonged QT interval and higher hazard ratio for death, compared to the G variant.
The McCarthy Y-DNA Surname Study has done tremendous work documenting and researching the genetic origins and evolution of the MacCarthy Reagh sept. They've managed to show that Donal Gott possessed the unique single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), ZS4598. Hundreds of participants have been shown to descend from Donal Gott, but belong to other branches of the MacCarthy Reagh sept. One extensive test has revealed the existence of another unique SNP in one of the study's participants.
GRK3 has particularly high expression in olfactory neurons, and mice lacking the ADRBK2 gene exhibit defects in olfaction. Gene linkage techniques were used to identify a polymorphism in the promoter of the human ADRBK2 gene as a possible cause of up to 10% of cases of bipolar disorder. However, the significance of GRK3 in bipolar disorder has been controversial due to conflicting reports. GRK3 has also been implicated in regulation of dopamine receptors in Parkinson disease in animal models.
F-logic (frame logic) is a knowledge representation and ontology language. F-logic combines the advantages of conceptual modeling with object-oriented, frame-based languages and offers a declarative, compact and simple syntax, as well as the well-defined semantics of a logic-based language. Features include, among others, object identity, complex objects, inheritance, polymorphism, query methods, encapsulation. F-logic stands in the same relationship to object-oriented programming as classical predicate calculus stands to relational database programming.
Although work on natural populations had been done previously, it is acknowledged that the field was founded by the English biologist E.B. Ford (1901–1988) in the early 20th century. Ford was taught genetics at Oxford University by Julian Huxley, and started research on the genetics of natural populations in 1924. Ford also had a long working relationship with R.A. Fisher. By the time Ford had developed his formal definition of genetic polymorphism,Ford E.B. 1940.
Molecular diagnostic techniques for phytoplasma detection began to emerge in the 1980s and included enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based methods. In the early 1990s, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques were developed: these are far more sensitive than ELISAs, and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis allowed the accurate identification of various phytoplasma strains and species. More recent techniques allow infection levels to be assessed. Both quantitative PCR and bioimaging can effectively quantify phytoplasma titers within plant.
The circle–ellipse problem in software development (sometimes called the square–rectangle problem) illustrates several pitfalls which can arise when using subtype polymorphism in object modelling. The issues are most commonly encountered when using object-oriented programming (OOP). By definition, this problem is a violation of the Liskov substitution principle, one of the SOLID principles. The problem concerns which subtyping or inheritance relationship should exist between classes which represent circles and ellipses (or, similarly, squares and rectangles).
The earlier in the sequence the deletion or insertion occurs, the more altered the protein. A frameshift mutation is not the same as a single-nucleotide polymorphism in which a nucleotide is replaced, rather than inserted or deleted. A frameshift mutation will in general cause the reading of the codons after the mutation to code for different amino acids. The frameshift mutation will also alter the first stop codon ("UAA", "UGA" or "UAG") encountered in the sequence.
It is closely related to Schistocerca cancellata but shows no swarming behaviour or locust phase polymorphism, even under crowded laboratory conditions. Although not a swarming locust, it can occur at sufficiently high densities to cause economic damage. It is mainly a pest of sugar cane, but has also been recorded as damaging almond, banana, beans, breadfruit, carnauba wax palm, chickpeas, coconut palms, cotton, forage crops, groundnuts, indigo, legumes, maize, onions, rice, sorghum, sweet potato and tomatoes.
As the chilly Antarctica and sub-Antarctic waters of the Southern Ocean average ,"Surface Temperature - NOAA's Science On a Sphere". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2018. most species of these regions produce antifreeze glycoproteins to prevent the formation of ice crystals in blood and other body fluids. Some species exhibit polymorphism, for example, the circum-Antarctic Trematomus newnesi exists as two morphs in the Ross Sea, the typical morph and a large-mouthed/broad-headed morph.
Some patients with ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome may have mutations in the gene for FSHR, making them more sensitive to gonadotropin stimulation. Women with 46 XX gonadal dysgenesis experience primary amenorrhea with hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. There are forms of 46 xx gonadal dysgenesis wherein abnormalities in the FSH- receptor have been reported and are thought to be the cause of the hypogonadism. Polymorphism may affect FSH receptor populations and lead to poorer responses in infertile women receiving FSH medication for IVF.
Wing polymorphism is important to the variety and dispersal of the Gerridae. The ability for one brood to have young with wings and the next not allows water striders to adapt to changing environments. Long, medium, short, and nonexistent wing forms are all necessary depending on the environment and season. Long wings allow for flight to a neighboring water body when one gets too crowded, but they can get wet and weigh a water strider down.
The recurrent deletion is between 500 and 650 kilobases (Kb) in size encompassing at least six genes, among them the microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT). A review of five patients found the parental chromosome from which the deletion originated carried a common 900kb inversion polymorphism. The orientation of low copy repeats flanking the deleted segment suggests the inversion in the parental chromosome influences the deletion in the child's chromosome via a non-allelic homologous recombination (NAHR) mechanism.
V. Messmer, G. P. Jones, L. van Herwerden, P. L. Munday, Genetic and ecological characterisation of colour dimorphism in a coral reef fish. Environmental Biology of Fishes 74, 175-183 (2005); published online EpubOct (10.1007/s10641-005-7430-8).P. L. Munday, P. J. Eyre, G. P. Jones, Ecological mechanisms for coexistence of colour polymorphism in a coral-reef fish: an experimental evaluation. Oecologia 137, 519-526 (2003); published online EpubDec (10.1007/s00442-003-1356-7).
In this case the association being studied is a polymorphism between SNPs or single nucleotide and allergy. Thus it can be concluded that the appearance of one or several SNPs or deletion appears in a disease phenotype.Hinds, D. A., McMahon, G., Kiefer, A. K., Do, C. B., Eriksson, N., Evans, D. M., ... & Tung, J. Y. (2013). A genome-wide association meta-analysis of self-reported allergy identifies shared and allergy-specific susceptibility loci. Nature genetics, 45(8), 907-911.
Originally, dbSNP accepts submissions for any organism from a wide variety of sources including individual research laboratories, collaborative polymorphism discovery efforts, large scale genome sequencing centers, other SNP databases (e.g. the SNP consortium, HapMap, etc.), and private businesses. On September 1, 2017, dbSNP stopped accepting non-human variant data submissions and two months later, its interactive websites and related NCBI services stopped presenting non-human variant data. Now dbSNP only accepts and presents human variant data.
For a long time, the origin of RHD polymorphism was an evolutionary enigma. Before the advent of modern medicine, the carriers of the rarer allele (e.g. RhD-negative women in a population of RhD positives or RhD-positive men in a population of RhD negatives) were at a disadvantage as some of their children (RhD-positive children born to preimmunised RhD-negative mothers) were at a higher risk of fetal or newborn death or health impairment from hemolytic disease.
Pseudofolliculitis barbae can further be divided into two types of ingrown hairs: transfollicular and extrafollicular. The extrafollicular hair is a hair that has exited the follicle and reentered the skin. The transfollicular hair never exits the follicle, but because of its naturally curly nature curls back into the follicle causing fluid build-up and irritation. A common polymorphism in a keratin gene (K6hf) has been linked to PFB, suggesting that it may be a genetic risk factor.
NET, C#, and Fortran 2003. Examples of a language that is object-based, but not object-oriented are early versions of Ada, Visual Basic (VB), and Fortran 90. These languages all support the definition of an object as a data structure, but lack polymorphism and inheritance. In practice, the term "object-based" is usually applied to those object-based languages that are not also object-oriented, although all object- oriented languages are also object-based, by definition.
When applied to organic molecules, NMR crystallography aims at including structural information not only of a single molecule but also on the molecular packing (i.e. crystal structure). Contrary to X-ray, single crystals are not necessary with solid-state NMR and structural information can be obtained from high-resolution spectra of disordered solids. E.g. polymorphism is an area of interest for NMR crystallography since this is encountered occasionally (and may often be previously undiscovered) in organic compounds.
More directly, humans are known to introduce non-native species into new environments, which could lead to hybridization of similar species. This urban facilitation model was tested on a human health pest, the Western black widow spider (Latrodectus hesperus). A study by Miles et. al collected genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism variation data in urban and rural spider populations and found evidence for increased gene flow in urban Western black widow spiders compared to rural populations.
This morph is recessively inherited. This morph occurs in the amago subspecies (Oncorhynchus masou ishikawae) in Western Japan, and apparently also in the nominate subspecies yamame (Oncorhynchus masou masou), if these are not identical. The morph was scientifically described as a distinct species Oncorhynchus iwame in 1961 by Kimura & Nakamura. In the 2000s, the iwame morph was shown to occur as a polymorphism in random mating populations of O. masou, and is no more thought to have taxonomical value.
The term switching was first coined by the ecologist Murdoch in 1969 to describe the situation where a predator eats disproportionately more of the most common type of prey.Murdoch,W.W. (1969) Switching in generalist predators: experiments on prey specificity and stability of prey populations. Ecol. Monogr. 39, 335–354 Eight years earlier in 1962 the geneticst B. C. Clarke described a similar phenomenon and called it "apostatic selection".Clarke, B.C. (1962) Balanced polymorphism and the diversity of sympatric species.
The rDNA transcription tracts have low rate of polymorphism among species, which allows interspecific comparison to elucidate phylogenetic relationship using only a few specimens. Coding regions of rDNA are highly conserved among species but ITS regions are variable due to insertions, deletions, and point mutations. Between remote species as human and frog comparison of sequences at ITS tracts is not appropriate. Conserved sequences at coding regions of rDNA allow comparisons of remote species, even between yeast and human.
55, 325-337. If genes are weakly linked, it is probable that the rarer advantageous haplotype dies out, leading to the loss of polymorphism at the other locus. Most people, following J.R.G. Turner, therefore argue that supergenes arose in situ due to selection for correlated and epistatic traits, which just happened to have been possible to select via the existence of suitable loci closely linked to the original variant.Thompson M.J. & Jiggins C.D. 2014 Supergenes and their role in evolution.
P. falciparum was also once thought to originate from a parasite of birds. Levels of genetic polymorphism are extremely low within the P. falciparum genome compared to that of closely related, ape infecting species of Plasmodium (including P. praefalciparum). This suggests that the origin of P. falciparum in humans is recent, as a single P. praefalciparum strain became capable of infecting humans. The genetic information of Plasmodium falciparum has signaled a recent expansion that coincides with the agricultural revolution.
The current diagnostics for Cryptosporidium muris are Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP), and DNA sequencing. Diagnostic tests can be frustrating as it is highly difficult to differentiate between species and the treatment would be the same for all species. Cryptosporidium muris is resistant to disinfectants; it has been discovered that ultraviolet or UV light helps to kill the species. As for prevention, people should not drink infected water or play in it.
The human breast cancer susceptibility gene 2 (BRCA2) is employed in homologous recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis. A common single-nucleotide polymorphism of BRCA2 is associated with severe oligospermia. Men with mild oligospermia (semen concentration of 15 million to 20 million sperm/ml) were studied for an association of sperm DNA damage with life style factors. A significant association was found between sperm DNA damage and factors such as age, obesity and occupational stress.
Studies with mice, guinea pig, and human tissues and in guinea pigs indicate that PGE2 operates through EP3 to trigger cough responses. Its mechanism of action involves activation and/or sensitization of TRPV1 (as well as TRPA1) receptors, presumably by an indirect mechanism. Genetic polymorphism in the EP3 receptor (rs11209716), has been associated with ACE inhibitor-induce cough in humans. The use of EP3 receptor antagonists may warrant study for the treatment of chronic cough in humans.
Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is associated with the lack of DNA repair mechanism and high susceptibility of cancer. A slight insufficiency in the DNA repair mechanism may result in the development of cancer. Some cancers have been recognized with the help of the relation between the single nucleotide polymorphism and genes. The XPD protein produced by the ERCC2 gene plays an important role in the process of transcription and cell death and is also known for nucleotide excision repair pathway.
An adenine (A) to cytosine (C) synonymous substitution at base 984 (i.e. A984C) in exon 3 of PTGIR' is the most frequent single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variant in a sampling of Japanese. This variant was associated with an increase in platelet activation responses in vitro and an increase in incidence of cerebral ischemia. Two other synonymous SNP variants, V53V and S328S, in PTGIR in an Italian population study were associated with enhanced platelet activation response and deep vein thrombosis.
Amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting of the pandemic isolates of V. cholerae has revealed variation in the genetic structure. Two clusters have been identified: Cluster I and Cluster II. For the most part, Cluster I consists of strains from the 1960s and 1970s, while Cluster II largely contains strains from the 1980s and 1990s, based on the change in the clone structure. This grouping of strains is best seen in the strains from the African continent.
Predicting organic crystal structures is important in academic and industrial science, particularly for pharmaceuticals and pigments, where understanding polymorphism is beneficial. The crystal structures of molecular substances, particularly organic compounds, are very hard to predict and rank in order of stability. Intermolecular interactions are relatively weak and non-directional and long range. This results in typical lattice and free energy differences between polymorphs that are often only a few kJ/mol, very rarely exceeding 10 kJ/mol.
At Sorenson labs, the number of STRs in a 36-marker haplotype was compared between the sample given and the database to determine relatedness. The Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) was also examined. Y-chromosome SNPs are rare and can be used to separate populations of men or haplogroups and can be used in population studies. Mitochondrial Database: Both males and females inherit their mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from their mother, which allows mtDNA to determine a maternal line.
The staining technique using giemsa staining is called G banding and therefore produces the typical "G-Bands". A full account of a karyotype may therefore include the number, type, shape and banding of the chromosomes, as well as other cytogenetic information. Variation is often found: # between the sexes, # between the germ-line and soma (between gametes and the rest of the body), # between members of a population (chromosome polymorphism), # in geographic specialization, and # in mosaics or otherwise abnormal individuals.
Similarly observed in chimpanzees, this suggests that duplicated regions are continuing to rearrange and evolve in contemporary primate populations. Recent research also suggests that segmental duplications and structural variation also have protective and beneficial effects. A 900kb inversion polymorphism, which is mediated by segmental duplication, is associated with positive selection for increased fertility for the Icelandic population. Additionally, an increased copy number of CCL3L1 due to duplication is associated with decreased susceptibility to the HIV infection.
No. 107741) three allelic (E2, E3, and E4) polymorphism, in the modulation of plasma lipids. In these cases, the interaction between minor alleles of both genes seems to be of importance. In the general population, APOE4 seems to have the potential to diminish the effect of minor APOA5 rs662799 and rs3135506 alleles, especially in females. Interaction between APOE and APOA5 Ser19˃Trp has been suggested to play some role in the development of type III hyperlipidaemia.
The HLA-F gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 6, telomeric to the HLA-A locus. HLA-F has little allelic polymorphism and is highly conserved in other primates. HLA-F appears to be a recombinant between two multigene families, one that comprises conserved sequences found in all class I proteins (single transmembrane span) and another distinct family of genes with a conserved 3’ UTR. Many of these genes are highly transcribed and differentially expressed.
In addition alcohol dependence interacts with the FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood adversity to increase the risk of PTSD in these populations. Emergency room expression of the FKPB5 mRNA following trauma was shown to indicate a later development of PTSD. Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) is an enzyme that catalyzes the extraneuronal breakdown of catecholamines. The gene that codes for COMT has a functional polymorphism in which a valine has been replaced with a methionine at codon 158.
These white-breasted individuals are known as "white morphs" which are in the majority over most of the birds' range. The "black morph" variety is generally rare, except along the coastal regions of South Africa, including the Cape Peninsula where they constitute 80% of the population.Amar, A. Koeslag, A. & Curtis, O (2013). Plumage polymorphism in a newly colonized black sparrowhawk population: classification, temporal stability and inheritance patterns. Journal of Zoology 289: 60–67. DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2012.00963.
Parametric polymorphism implies that types themselves are passed as parameters as if they were proper values. Passed as arguments to a proper functions, but also into "type functions" as in the "parametric" type constants, leads to the question how to more properly type types themselves. Meta types are used to create an even more expressive type system. Unfortunately, only unification is not longer decidable in the presence of meta types, rendering type inference impossible in this extend of generality.
In humans, mutations in this gene are associated with deficiencies in vitamin-K-dependent clotting factors. Fatal bleeding (internal) and hemorrhage can result from a decreased ability to form clots. The product of the VKORC1 gene encodes a subunit of the enzyme that is responsible for reducing vitamin K 2,3-epoxide to the activated form, a reduction reaction. A genetic polymorphism on the VKORC1 gene results in a patient having less available VKORC enzyme to complete this reaction.
All forms of chromosomal polymorphism can be viewed as a step towards speciation. Polymorphisms will generally result in a level of reduced fertility, because some gametes from one parent cannot successfully combine with all gametes of the other parent. However, when both parents contain matching chromosomal patterns, this obstacle does not occur. Further mutations in one group will not flow as rapidly into the other group as they do within the group in which it originally occurred.
In SOP, customizations are managed through an inventive feature called Service Overrides. Through this feature, a service implementation can be statically or dynamically overridden by one of many possible implementations at runtime. This feature is analogous to polymorphism in object-oriented programming. Each possible override implementation can be associated to one or more override configuration portfolios in order to manage activation of groups of related overrides throughout different SOP application installations at the time of deployment.
Research into a known single-nucleotide polymorphism showed this non-native alternation is very rare in purebred Pottoks. Tests of mitochondrial DNA revealed Pottoks are most likely to crossbreed with the Basque Mountain Horses, less so with other breeds. Although some genetic markers of other European horse breeds were found, overall the genetic distance to the other European breeds is large. One marker previously only found in certain British breeds has also been found in Pottoks.
In the 1930s Dobzhansky and his co-workers collected Drosophila pseudoobscura and D. persimilis from wild populations in California and neighbouring states. Using Painter's technique they studied the polytene chromosomes and discovered that the wild populations were polymorphic for chromosomal inversions. All the flies look alike whatever inversions they carry: this is an example of a cryptic polymorphism. Accordingly, Dobzhansky favoured the idea that the morphs became fixed in the population by means of Sewall Wright's drift.
To sum up, in this species predation by birds appears to be the main (but not the only) selective force driving the polymorphism. The snails live on heterogeneous backgrounds, and thrush are adept at detecting poor matches. The inheritance of physiological and cryptic diversity is preserved also by heterozygous advantage in the super-gene. Recent work has included the effect of shell colour on thermoregulation, and a wider selection of possible genetic influences is considered by Cook.
Obesity is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and NGOs such as the Indian Heart Association have been raising awareness about this issue.Indian Heart Association Webpage 26 April 2015. While studying 22 different SNPs near to MC4-R gene, scientists have identified a SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) named rs12970134 to be mostly associated with waist circumference. In this study more than two thousand individuals of Indian origin participated and the aforementioned SNP is highly prevalent in this group.
The concept of incomplete lineage sorting has some important implications for phylogenetic techniques. The concept itself is somewhat challenging and relies on persistence of polymorphisms across different speciation events. Suppose two subsequent speciation events occur where the ancient species gives rise to species A, and secondly to species B and C. When studying a single gene, it can contain multiple haplotypes (a polymorphism). A haplotype can be lost or fixed in a species by genetic drift.
Grant projects on gene polymorphism in cirrhosis, elastography and fatty liver have been adopted. For the first time in Azerbaijan, it was used by stem cells for liver disease. He has been active in scientific and organizational work in Azerbaijan and around the world. In Azerbaijan he actively participated in defining and promoting pillar priorities of medical science (stem cells and regenerative medicine, genomics, molecular biology, high technologies and medicine, evidence-based medicine, translational medicine, etc.).
The cause of hemangioma is currently unknown, but several studies have suggested the importance of estrogen signaling in proliferation. Localized soft-tissue hypoxia coupled with increased circulating estrogen after birth may be the stimulus. Also, a hypothesis was presented by researchers that maternal placenta embolizes to the fetal dermis during gestation, resulting in hemangiomagenesis. However, another group of researchers conducted genetic analyses of single-nucleotide polymorphism in hemangioma tissue compared to the mother's DNA that contradicted this hypothesis.
REP-PCR produces the most complex amplified banding patterns, which reflected diversity among the P citronellolis strains isolated from different oily sludge-contaminated soil samples. The ribotype patterns of the P. citronellolis strains showed multiple amplicons that strongly indicated polymorphism of the rRNA spacer region. This experiment on the genome did not contain any plasmids and provided no evidence for its existence. Based on 16S rRNA analysis, P. citronellolis has been placed in the P. aeruginosa group.
PDGFC has been shown to interact with PDGFRA. PDGF-C is a latent growth factor with proteolytic activation, and the processing enzyme might be controlled by the other CLP-associated genes that may indirectly connect to PDGF-C signaling. Notably, a 30-cM region on human chromosome 4, where the PDGFC gene maps, shows strong linkage association with CLP26, and clinical genetic data further suggest a potential link between PDGFC gene polymorphism and cleft lip and palate.
Followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) digestion or gene sequencing to obtain the results. The highly variable nature of the ITS sequence between species not only allows for diagnosis, but also the identification of M. mycetomatis in soil samples. ITS has also been cited as the recommended method for isolation of M. mycetomatis. Additionally, molecular analysis lead to the determination that M. mycetomatis did not share a common ancestor with M. grisea, and belonged in the Sordariales class.
The T102C polymorphism has been shown to be in complete linkage disequilibrium with the rs6311 (A-1438G). A less well investigated SNP of this gene is rs7997012. Meta-analyses seem to indicate that the SNP is not directly associated with schizophrenia, not with Alzheimer's Disease, and two initial studies seem to indicate that it is not associated with Parkinson's disease. There have been multiple studies of the effect of this SNP on clozapine treatment response in schizophrenia.
Heliconius doris, the Doris longwing or DorisTree of Life web project is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is known for being a polymorphic species which participates in various Müllerian mimicry rings throughout Central America and the Amazon rainforest. It is a species of special interest in biological science for the genetic basis and role of polymorphism (biology) in ecology and evolution. It is commonly found from sea level to 1200 metres in forest clearings.
The anterior end of the ciliates is covered in circular rows of cilia known as the somatic girdle. The main stalk that connects all of the ciliates branches is composed of a contractile spasmoneme, allowing stalk to contact as a single functioning unit. When contracting the colony can reduce its size by folding in as a single unit in a zig zag fashion. The protozoa can display polymorphism, or multiple physical forms of the same cell.
An earlier study using amplified fragment length polymorphism fingerprinting showed a close association of wisent with American bison, and probably with the yak, but noted that the interbreeding of Bovini species made determining relationships problematic. The genus Bison diverged from the lineage that led to cattle (Bos primigenius) at the Plio-Pleistocene boundary in South Asia. Two extant and six extinct species are recognised. Of the six extinct species, five went extinct in the Quaternary extinction event.
Researchers have also developed numerous molecular techniques for P. ramorum identification. These include amplifying DNA sequences in the internal transcribed spacer region of the P. ramorum genome (ITS polymerase chain reaction, or ITS PCR); real-time PCR, in which DNA abundance is measured in real time during the PCR reaction, using dyes or probes such as SBYR-Green or TaqMan; multiplex PCR, which amplifies more than one region of DNA at the same time; and single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP), which uses the ITS DNA sequence amplified by the PCR reaction to differentiate Phytophthora species according to their differential movement through a gel. Additionally, researchers have begun using features of the DNA sequence of P. ramorum to pinpoint the minuscule differences of separate P. ramorum isolates from each other. Two techniques for doing this are amplified fragment length polymorphism, which through comparing differences between various fragments in the sequence has enabled researchers to differentiate correctly between EU and U.S. isolates, and the examination of microsatellites, which are areas on the sequence featuring repeating base pairs.
ITPKC is involved in the Ca(2+)/NFAT pathway, negatively regulating T cell activation. A mutation in this gene occurs through a single-nucleotide polymorphism. When a mutation occurs the gene does not produce a functioning enzyme, meaning it will no longer be effective in negatively regulating T cells. When there is this reduced expression of the enzyme, ITPKC, there is a higher amount of IP3 which leads to the calcium channels being opened, and a higher amount of calcium being released.
Contrary to CYBB, CYBA supports a relatively high number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that could influence the level of ROS generation. These SNPs were mainly associated with cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, coronary artery disease (CAD), coronary heart disease (CHD) and also cerebral ischemic diseases. The first and most widely studied is the C242T polymorphism is located in exon 4 at position 214 from the ATG and resulting in a non conservative His72 substitution for a Tyr. Inoue et al.
She examined the factors contributing to wing polymorphism, the presence of wingless, short-winged and long-winged forms in relation to habitats and life-history. She suggested that trees and woody plants are architecturally more complex with leaves being widely separated and making flight more important. This she suggested would explain the observation that cicadas and other arboreal hemiptera rarely had wingless forms. She was also among the first to use radioactive P-35 tracers to study the dispersal of mirid bugs.
Sharma's research led to breakthroughs in botanical science. Among her notable findings are topics related to speciation in vegetatively reproducing plants, induction of cell division in adult nuclei, the cause of polyteny in differentiated tissues in plants, cytotaxonomy of flowering plants, and the effect of arsenic in water. Her research and findings on chromosomal study on flowering plants led to a new set of perceptions on their classification. Sharma also worked extensively in human genetics, specifically genetic polymorphism in normal human populations.
Each social behavior is not necessarily exclusive for individual species of L. dialictus. Some species have shown to exhibit social polymorphism depending on the climate of its habitat. In temperate climates, some female bees produce daughters that will remain unfertilized and help with foraging and care for the next generation of offspring. Whereas in colder climates such as at a higher latitude on a mountain side, the female will exhibit solitary behavior and all the daughters produced will be fertile.
The catechol-o-methyl transferase gene (COMT) codes for an enzyme that degrades catecholamine neurotransmitters (DA and NE), and its Val158Met polymorphism is linked with the modulation of task-oriented cognition and behavior (including set shifting) and the experience of reward, which are major aspects of executive functioning. COMT is also linked to methylphenidate (stimulant medication) response in children with ADHD. Both the DRD4/7R and COMT/Val158Met polymorphisms are also correlated with executive dysfunction in schizophrenia and schizotypal behaviour.
One unique property of xDNA is its inherent fluorescence. Natural bases can be bound directly to fluorophores for use in microarrays, in situ hybridization, and polymorphism analysis. However, these fluorescent natural bases often fail as a result of self-quenching, which diminishes their fluorescent intensity and reduces their applicability as visual DNA tags. The pi interactions between the rings in x-nucleobases result in an inherent fluorescence in the violet-blue range, with a Stokes shift between 50–80 nm.
Wifredo Lam, The Jungle, gouache on paper, 1943, Museum of Modern Art The Jungle, which is considered Lam's masterpiece, is exemplary of the artist's mature style. The polymorphism, for which Lam is well known, juxtaposes aspects of humans, animals, and plants, creating monstrous, hybrid creatures. The dense composition creates a claustrophobic feeling while the forms remain difficult to differentiate. The figures' elongated limbs lack definition, while much emphasis is placed on their large feet, round buttocks, and African-inspired masked heads.
SSRs are segments of a genome composed of tandem repeats of a short sequence of nucleotides, usually two to six base pairs. They are popular tools in genetics and breeding because of their relative abundance compared to other marker types, a high degree of polymorphism (number of variants), and easy assaying by polymerase chain reaction. However, they are expensive to identify and develop. Comparative genome mapping has revealed a high degree of similarity in terms of sequence colinearity between closely related crop species.
Though various associations have been described, no consistent pattern pointing to a single susceptible gene has been identified to date. Associations described include those with C4 null allele, factor B Bf alleles, MHC antigens and IgA isotypes. ACE gene polymorphism (D allele) is associated with progression of kidney failure, similar to its association with other causes of chronic kidney failure. However, more than 90% of cases of IgA nephropathy are sporadic, with a few large pedigrees described from Kentucky and Italy ().
616 pp. . It is one of the most numerous salamanders throughout its range. The red-backed salamander exhibits color polymorphism and two color variations are common: the "red-backed" or "red-stripe" variety has a red dorsal stripe that tapers towards the tail, and the darker variety, known as the "lead-backed" (or simply "lead") phase, lacks most or all of the red pigmentation. The red-backed phase is not always red, but may actually be various other colors (e.g.
A polymorphism of the enzyme CYP2C19 affects the response to clopidogrel hence decreasing enzymatic activity and therefore reducing the active metabolite of clopidogrel. The major issue of clopidogrel resistance is the interaction with other drugs, especially the proton pump inhibitor omeprazole. Omeprazole and clopidogrel are metabolized by the same CYP metabolic pathway. Consequently, it has been suggested that the low- responsiveness of clopidogrel, with concomitant use of omeprazole, is caused by the competition of the CYP2C19 enzyme between these two drugs.
Schematic drawing of kompetitive allele specific PCR Kompetitive allele specific PCR (KASP) is a homogenous, fluorescence-based genotyping variant of polymerase chain reaction. It is based on allele-specific oligo extension and fluorescence resonance energy transfer for signal generation. A single- nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) occurs when a single nucleotide in a DNA sequence differs between members of the same species or a paired chromosome. SNPs work as molecular markers that help locate genes associated with disease and are used for genotype sequencing.
Diversity arrays technology (DArT) is the name of a technology used in molecular genetics to develop sequence markers for genotyping and other techniques for genetic analysis. DArT is based on microarray hybridizations that detect the presence versus absence of individual fragments in genomic representations. DArT relies on the screening of a randomized library of fragments to improve the chances at detection. The technology has significant advantages over other array based Single-nucleotide polymorphism detection technologies in the analysis of polyploid plants.
Role methods run in the context of an object that is selected by the context to play that Role for the current use case enactment. The Role-to-object bindings that take place in a context can be contrasted with the polymorphism of vernacular object-oriented programming. The overall business functionality is the sum of complex, dynamic networks of methods decentralized in multiple contexts and their Roles. Each context is a scope that includes identifiers that correspond to its Roles.
Recently ZIC2 has also been shown to be critical for establishment of the left-right axis, thus loss of ZIC2 function can result in defects in heart formation. Another member of the ZIC family, ZIC3, has previously been linked to establishment of the left- right axis. A polyhistidine tract polymorphism in this gene may be associated with increased risk of neural tube defects (spina bifida). This gene is closely linked to a gene encoding ZIC5, a related family member on chromosome 13.
In one, there is a SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) that leads to either a Histidine or an Arginine residue at position 47 in the mature polypeptide. In the Histidine variant, the enzyme is much more effective at the aforementioned conversion. The enzyme responsible for the conversion of acetaldehyde to acetate, however, remains unaffected, which leads to differential rates of substrate catalysis and causes a buildup of toxic acetaldehyde, causing cell damage. This provides some protection against excessive alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence (alcoholism).
In 1995 and 1996, scientists in Europe had identified the polymorphism 5-HTTLPR, a serotonin- transporter in the gene SLC6A4. In December 1996, a group of researchers led by D.A. Collier of the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, published their findings in Molecular Psychiatry, that, "5-HTTLPR-dependent variation in functional 5-HTT expression is a potential genetic susceptibility factor for affective disorders." SERT spans the plasma membrane 12 times. It belongs to the NE, DA, SERT monoamine transporter family.
Swallowtail butterflies practice Batesian mimicry, a behavior in which the butterflies' appearance closely resemble that of distasteful species that prevents predation. Swallowtails differ from many animals that practice mimicry. The tiger swallowtail butterfly (Papilio glaucus), exhibits a female-limited polymorphism for Batesian mimicry and others, such as the Canadian tiger swallowtail (Papilio canadensis) do not display any form of mimicry. Predators include the red-winged blackbird, Pennsylvania firefly, five-lined skink, green darner, goldenrod spider, Chinese mantis, fiery searcher, and striped skunk.
Polymorphism was crucial to research in ecological genetics by E. B. Ford and his co-workers from the mid-1920s to the 1970s (similar work continues today, especially on mimicry). The results had a considerable effect on the mid- century evolutionary synthesis, and on present evolutionary theory. The work started at a time when natural selection was largely discounted as the leading mechanism for evolution,Bowler, P. J. 1983. The Eclipse of Darwinism: Anti- Darwinian Evolutionary Theories in the Decades Around 1900.
The Sri Lankan junglefowl is most closely related to the grey junglefowl,International Chicken Polymorphism Map Consortium though physically the male resembles the red junglefowl. Female Sri Lanka junglefowl are very similar to those of the grey junglefowl. Like the green junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl are island species that have evolved side by side with their similarly stranded island predators and competitors. Uniquely complex anti-predator behaviors and foraging strategies are integral components in the long evolutionary story of the Sri Lankan junglefowl.
Thus an AMD pathophysiological model of chronic low grade complement activation and inflammation in the macula has been advanced. Lending credibility to this has been the discovery of disease-associated genetic polymorphisms in other elements of the complement cascade including complement component 3 (C3). A powerful predictor of AMD is found on chromosome 10q26 at LOC 387715. An insertion/deletion polymorphism at this site reduces expression of the ARMS2 gene though destabilization of its mRNA through deletion of the polyadenylation signal.
One of the common inhibitors of enzymatic activity (for PON 1 and PON 3) is lipid peroxides found in the plasma. Lipid peroxides can inhibit Paraoxonase activity as an arylesterase and antioxidant, though the specific inhibition is dependent on the type of lipid head group. An important implication of this fact is that, in decreasing the activity of PON1 and PON3, the productivity of preventing oxidation of LDL. Enzyme activity is also regulated by a substrate-dependent polymorphism that occurs at position 192.
The African golden wolf was found to be the descendant of a genetically admixed canid of 72% grey wolf and 28% Ethiopian wolf ancestry. The Ethiopian wolf does not share the single-nucleotide polymorphisms that confer hypoxia adaptation with the Himalayan wolf. The adaptation of the Ethiopian wolf to living in high elevations may occur at other single-nucleotide polymorphism locations. This indicates that the Ethiopian wolf's adaptation has not been inherited by descent from a common ancestor shared with the Himalayan wolf.
The pH at the surface decreases from 8.7 to 8.0 during the growing season. Massive rapids at the head of the Kronotskaya River prevent fish from entering or leaving the lake. Those that live in the lake are therefore of special scientific interest as model studies in microevolution processes. They comprise a population of landlocked sockeye or kokanee salmon and a group of char distinguished by its significant polymorphism and plasticity: researchers have identified between three and five different forms.
Also, while in general terms common class method and constructor overloading is not considered polymorphism, there are more uniform languages in which classes are regular objects. In Smalltalk, for instance, classes are regular objects. In turn, this means messages sent to classes can be overloaded, and it is also possible to create objects that behave like classes without their classes inheriting from the hierarchy of classes. These are effective techniques which can be used to take advantage of Smalltalk's powerful reflection capabilities.
The change is referred to in the technical literature as "density-dependent phenotypic plasticity". These changes are examples of phase polymorphism; they were first analysed and described by Boris Uvarov, who was instrumental in setting up the Anti-Locust Research Centre. He made his discoveries during his studies of the migratory locust in Caucasus, whose solitary and gregarious phases had previously been thought to be separate species (Locusta migratoria and L. danica L.). He designated the two phases as solitaria and gregaria.
Cain's main interests lay in evolutionary biology, ecological genetics, animal taxonomy and speciation. Though he conducted research with John Baker on the histochemistry of lipids, his main work lay in the field developed by E.B. Ford, namely, ecological genetics. With P.M. Sheppard, Cain studied the ecological genetics of colour and banding polymorphisms in snails. Cain and Sheppard's work on Cepaea nemoralis, one of the first studies to demonstrate natural selection by predators acting on a colour polymorphism, is now regarded as a classic.
This association between timeless and telomeres is indicative of the gene's possible association with cancer. A single nucleotide polymorphism substitution that results in the transformation of glutamine to arginine in the amino acid sequence in the human timeless gene shows no association with either morningness or eveningness tendencies in humans. This is consistent with other research, suggesting that htim is not important in the circadian rhythm of humans. Timeless is now frequently found to be overexpressed in many different tumor types.
Taken collectively, recent evidence suggests PRNP may be important for conducing the neurotoxic effects of soluble Aβ-oligomers and the emergent disease state of Alzheimer's. In humans, the methionine/valine polymorphism at codon 129 of PRNP (rs1799990) is most closely associated with Alzheimer's disease. Variant V allele carriers (VV and MV) show a 13% decreased risk with respect to developing Alzheimer’s compared to the methionine homozygote (MM). However, the protective effects of variant V carriers have been found exclusively in Caucasians.
In computing, object model has two related but distinct meanings: # The properties of objects in general in a specific computer programming language, technology, notation or methodology that uses them. Examples are the object models of Java, the Component Object Model (COM), or Object-Modeling Technique (OMT). Such object models are usually defined using concepts such as class, generic function, message, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation. There is an extensive literature on formalized object models as a subset of the formal semantics of programming languages.
In computer science, dynamic dispatch is the process of selecting which implementation of a polymorphic operation (method or function) to call at run time. It is commonly employed in, and considered a prime characteristic of, object-oriented programming (OOP) languages and systems. Object-oriented systems model a problem as a set of interacting objects that enact operations referred to by name. Polymorphism is the phenomenon wherein somewhat interchangeable objects each expose an operation of the same name but possibly differing in behavior.
Eiffel was originally developed by Eiffel Software, a company founded by Bertrand Meyer. Object-Oriented Software Construction contains a detailed treatment of the concepts and theory of the object technology that led to Eiffel's design.Object-Oriented Software Construction, Second Edition, by Bertrand Meyer, Prentice Hall, 1997, The design goal behind the Eiffel language, libraries, and programming methods is to enable programmers to create reliable, reusable software modules. Eiffel supports multiple inheritance, genericity, polymorphism, encapsulation, type- safe conversions, and parameter covariance.
Micro Focus UFT uses VBScript as its scripting language. VBScript supports classes but not polymorphism and inheritance. Compared with Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), VBScript lacks the ability to use some Visual Basic keywords, does not come with an integrated debugger, lacks an event handler, and does not have a forms editor. HP added a debugger, but the functionality is more limited when compared with testing tools that integrate a full-featured IDE, such as those provided with VBA, Java, or VB.NET.
The alternate hypothesis is that opsin polymorphism arose in platyrrhines after they diverged from catarrhines. By this hypothesis, a single X-opsin allele was duplicated in catarrhines and catarrhine M and L opsins diverged later by mutations affecting one gene duplicate but not the other. Platyrrhine M and L opsins would have evolved by a parallel process, acting on the single opsin gene present to create multiple alleles. Geneticists use the "molecular clocks" technique to determine an evolutionary sequence of events.
In languages with subtyping, the compatibility relation is more complex. In particular, if `B` is a subtype of `A`, then a value of type `B` can be used in a context where one of type `A` is expected (covariant), even if the reverse is not true. Like equivalence, the subtype relation is defined differently for each programming language, with many variations possible. The presence of parametric or ad hoc polymorphism in a language may also have implications for type compatibility.
More researchers support the idea that schizophrenia brings evolutionary benefits to kin by enhancing their physiological and psychological adaptiveness. In their scholarly journal, Robert Kuttner, Albert Lorincz, and Donald Swan argued that the favorable features of schizophrenia were of different social behaviors. They focused on the genetics of balanced polymorphism to theorize the prevalence of schizophrenia. For example, referring to the sickle cell anemia model, the deleted phenotypes do persist if the heterozygote has an advantage over its associated homozygotes.
Inactivation of the Avpr1b gene in mice (knockout) produces mice with greatly reduced aggression and a reduced ability to recognize recently investigated mice. Defensive behaviour and predatory behaviours appear normal in these knockout mice, but there is evidence that social motivation or awareness is reduced. The AVPR1B antagonist, SSR149415, has been shown to have anti-aggressive actions in hamsters and anti-depressant- and anxiety (anxiolytic)-like behaviors in rats. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) has been associated with susceptibility to depression in humans.
She first examined how suppression of 5-HT1A signalling in the raphe neurons early in life impacted anxiety and social behaviors. Donaldson found that this early life decrease in 5-HT1A signalling led to increased anxiety and decreased social interaction later in life. After seeing how early life modulation of 5-HT1R signalling impacted behavior later and predisposition to disease-like states, Donaldson then honed in on a specific polymorphism in this 5-HT1AR promoter that had been previously linked with psychiatric diseases.
Cepaea nemoralis is among the largest and, because of its polymorphism and bright colours, one of the best-known snails in Western Europe. The colour of the shell of Cepaea nemoralis is very variable; it can be reddish, brownish, yellow or whitish, with or without one or more dark-brown colour bands. Names for every colour variant were established in the 1800s; but this system was later abandoned. The thickened and slightly out-turned apertural lip usually dark brown, rarely white.
Most ciliates live as single-celled organisms in aquatic environments, and the single cell carries out all functions of life, such as nutrition, metabolism, and reproduction. Colonies of Z. niveum are composed of numerous individual cells that form a feather-like colonial unit, with several different cell types. Old branches of the colony illustrate the polymorphism of the zooids when viewed under the microscope. Three different forms of the individual ciliate cells are present, which are distinct in both form and function.
This ratio is also known to vary at different locales in the wild. Breeding pairs of P. pulcher have been known to adopt similarly aged fry from conspecifics in aquarium trials, and it has been suggested this may be an adaption to reduce predation on their own fry. Male colour polymorphism may be indicative of behavioural differences. For example, red males obtained from a single site were found to be more aggressive and more polygamous than yellow males obtained from the same site.
In many C compilers the data type, for example, is represented in 32 bits, in accord with the IEEE specification for single- precision floating point numbers. They will thus use floating-point-specific microprocessor operations on those values (floating-point addition, multiplication, etc.). The depth of type constraints and the manner of their evaluation affect the typing of the language. A programming language may further associate an operation with varying concrete algorithms on each type in the case of type polymorphism.
The "black-eared" bushtit was formerly considered a separate species (P. melanotis). It can be identified by its dark ear patch (the auricular). This polymorphism does not occur in the northern part of the American bushtits' range, but is first noted near the Mexican border, primarily in Texas. Most individuals with the black ear patch in that area are juvenile males, and none are adult females – some have only one or two dark lines on the face instead of a complete patch.
The angiotensin converting enzyme gene has more than 160 polymorphisms described as of 2018. Studies have shown that different genotypes of angiotensin converting enzyme can lead to varying influence on athletic performance. The rs1799752 I/D polymorphism consists of either an insertion (I) or absence (D) of a 287 base pair alanine sequence in intron 16 of the gene. The DD genotype is associated with higher plasma levels of the ACE protein, the DI genotype with intermediate levels, and II with lower levels.
The white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis), a passerine bird of the American sparrow family Passerellidae, shows a clear dimorphism in both sexes throughout its large range. Their heads are either white-striped or tan-striped. These differences in plumage result from a balanced chromosomal inversion polymorphism; in white-striped (WS) birds, one copy of chromosome 2 is partly inverted, while in tan-striped (TS) birds, both copies are uninverted. The plumage differences are paralleled by differences in behavior and breeding strategy.
Male common side-blotched lizards (Uta stansburiana) exhibit polymorphism in their throat pigmentation, and these different phenotypes are correlated with different mating strategies. Orange-throated males are the largest and most aggressive, defending large territories and keeping harems of females. Blue-throated males are of intermediate size, and guard smaller territories containing only a single female. Yellow-throated males are the smallest, and instead of holding territories they mimic females in order to sneak matings away from the other two morphs.
Earwax Dry-type earwax World map of the distribution of the A allele of the single nucleotide polymorphism rs17822931 in the ABCC11 gene assorted with dry-type earwax. The proportion of A alleles (dry-type earwax) in each population is represented by the white area in each circle. Cerumen is produced in the outer third of the cartilaginous portion of the ear canal. It is a mixture of viscous secretions from sebaceous glands and less- viscous ones from modified apocrine sweat glands.
Because genotypes are assigned randomly when passed from parents to offspring during meiosis, if we assume that mate choice is not associated with genotype (panmixia), then the population genotype distribution should be unrelated to the confounding factors that typically plague observational epidemiology studies. In this regard, Mendelian randomization can be thought of as a “naturally” randomized controlled trial. Because the polymorphism is the instrument, Mendelian randomization is dependent on prior genetic association studies having provided good candidate genes for response to risk exposure.
The iron storage disorder hereditary hemochromatosis (HHC) is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder that usually results from defects in this gene. The mutation or polymorphism most commonly associated with hemochromatosis is p. C282Y. About 1/200 of people of Northern European origin have two copies of this variant; they, particularly males, are at high risk of developing hemochromatosis. Allele frequencies of HFE C282Y in ethnically diverse western European white populations are 5-14% and in North American non-Hispanic whites are 6-7%.
Various polymorphism have been shown to be associated with more than one disease, examples include polymorphisms in TNF-a, TGF-b and ACE genes. Environmental risk factors vary from events of life to medical interventions. The quick change in the patterns of morbidity, within one or two generations, clearly demonstrates the significance of environmental factors in the development and reduction of multifactorial disorders. Environmental risk factors include change in life style (diet, physical activity, stress management) and medical interventions (surgery, drugs).
PGM1 has been used extensively as a genetic marker for isozyme polymorphism among humans. PGM is known to be post-translationally modified by cytoplasmic glycosylation that does not seem to regulate its enzymatic activity but rather is implicated in the localization of the protein. Glucose 1,6 bisphosphate (Glc-1, 6-P2), a powerful regulator of carbohydrate metabolism, has been demonstrated to be a potent activator of PGM. PGM1 is also modified by phosphorylation on Ser108 as part of its catalytic mechanism.
This gene is a member of the SUMO gene family. This family of genes encode small ubiquitin-related modifiers that are attached to proteins and control the target proteins' subcellular localization, stability, or activity. The protein described in this record is located in the cytoplasm and specifically modifies IKBA, leading to negative regulation of NF-kappa-B-dependent transcription of the IL12B gene. A specific polymorphism in this SUMO gene, which leads to the M55V substitution, has been associated with type I diabetes.
2008, 72, 155–162. However, the human 4-N-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase has so far not been identified. There is considerable sequence similarity between rat 4-N-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase and human aldehyde dehydrogenase 9,Lin, S. W.; Chen, J. C.; Hsu, L. C.; Hsieh, C. L.; Yoshida, A. Human γ-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH9): cDNA sequence, genomic organization, polymorphism, chromosomal localization, and tissue expression. Genomics 1996, 34, 376–380 but the true identity of 4-N-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase remains to be established.
Over two hundred combinations of hTERT polymorphisms and cancer development have been found. There were several different types of cancer involved, and the strength of the correlation between the polymorphism and developing cancer varied from weak to strong. The regulation of hTERT has also been researched to determine possible mechanisms of telomerase activation in cancer cells. Importantly, mutations in the hTERT promoter were first identified in melanoma and have subsequently been shown to be the most common noncoding mutations in cancer.
Childhood manifestation of the gene deletion is typically associated with autism, while adolescent and later expression of the gene deletion often manifests in schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders. Though the disorders are linked by genetics, there is no increased risk found for adult schizophrenia in patients who experienced autism in childhood. A 2013 study also genetically linked five psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and autism. The link was a single nucleotide polymorphism of two genes involved in calcium channel signaling with neurons.
Data showed that participants were typically able to accurately rate their own ability of facial discrimination. Among the 397 participants, 370 participants had their genome sequenced as well. In correlational discussion, researchers tentatively identified an association between performance on the Mooney Face Test and a polymorphism in the RAPGEF5 gene. Within this study, data also showed that male participants generally out performed female participants in terms of reaction time and accuracy, however, it didn't show any correlation in ability with age.
Like other metal cyanides, solid potassium ferrocyanide, both as the hydrate and anhydrous salts, has a complicated polymeric structure. The polymer consists of octahedral [Fe(CN)6]4− centers crosslinked with K+ ions that are bound to the CN ligands.Willans, M.J.; Wasylishen, R.E.; McDonald, R. "Polymorphism of potassium ferrocyanide trihydrate as studied by solid-state multinuclear NMR spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction" Inorganic Chemistry 2009, volume 48, p4342-4353 The K+\---NC linkages break when the solid is dissolved in water.
Like a structure, all of the members of a union are by default public. The keywords `private`, `public`, and `protected` may be used inside a structure or a union in exactly the same way they are used inside a class for defining private, public, and protected member access. The primary use of a union is allowing access to a common location by different data types, for example hardware input/output access, bitfield and word sharing, or type punning. Unions can also provide low-level polymorphism.
Likely migration route of haplogroup D according to Haber et al. 2019 Haplogroup D-M174 is believed to have originated in Asia some 60,000 years before present, It has been suggested by Shi et al. (2008) to have a Southeast Asian (rather than North or Central Asian) origin due to its rarity in North and Central Asia. While haplogroup D-M174 along with haplogroup E contains the distinctive YAP polymorphism (which indicates their common ancestry), no haplogroup D-M174 chromosomes have been found anywhere outside of Asia.
This means that the mouse that blends in with its environment the best, in a way that uses the least amount of energy will have a selective advantage. Going along with this, mice in different environments require different coat colors to blend in most effectively. Geographic variation between environments is another selective pressure that helped color polymorphism evolve between pocket mice. Pocket mice that live in sunny environments with an abundance of sand will have a selective advantage with light colored yellow or brown coats.
The T = 13 shell of the IBDV capsid is formed by trimers of VP2, a protein generated by removal of the C-terminal domain from its precursor, pVP2. The trimming of pVP2 is performed on immature particles as part of the maturation process. The other major structural protein, VP3, is a multifunctional component lying under the T = 13 shell that influences the inherent structural polymorphism of pVP2. The virus-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, VP1, is incorporated into the capsid through its association with VP3.
Multiple loci VNTR analysis (MLVA) is a method employed for the genetic analysis of particular microorganisms, such as pathogenic bacteria, that takes advantage of the polymorphism of tandemly repeated DNA sequences. A "VNTR" is a "variable-number tandem repeat". This method is well known in forensic science since it is the basis of DNA fingerprinting in humans. When applied to bacteria, it contributes to forensic microbiology through which the source of a particular strain might eventually be traced back, making it a useful technique for outbreak surveillance.
Polymorphism is common amongst the sesquisulfides. The colors of the sesquisulfides vary metal to metal and depend on the polymorphic form. The colors of the γ-sesquisulfides are La2S3, white/yellow; Ce2S3, dark red; Pr2S3, green; Nd2S3, light green; Gd2S3, sand; Tb2S3, light yellow and Dy2S3, orange. The shade of γ-Ce2S3 can be varied by doping with Na or Ca with hues ranging from dark red to yellow, and Ce2S3 based pigments are used commercially and are seen as low toxicity substitutes for cadmium based pigments.
ABCB1 is linked to the daily dose of warfarin required to maintain the INR to a target of 2.5. Patients with the GT or TT genotypes of the 2677G>T SNP require around 20% more warfarin daily.Gopisankar MG, Hemachandren M, Surendiran A. ABCB1 266G-T single nucleotide polymorphism influences warfarin dose requirement for warfarin maintenance therapy. Br J Biomed Sci 2019:76;150-152 Common pharmacological inducers of P-glycoprotein include carbamazepine, dexamethasone, doxorubicin, nefazodone, phenobarbital, phenytoin, prazosin, rifampicin, St. John's wort, tenofovir, tipranavir, trazodone, and vinblastine.
In 1950 he published "Gene Frequencies in a Cline Determined by Selection and Diffusion". He developed computational algorithms for analyzing data from his balanced experimental designs,Box, R. A. Fisher, pp. 93–166 with various editions and translations, becoming a standard reference work for scientists in many disciplines. In ecological genetics he and E. B. Ford showed how the force of natural selection was much stronger than had been assumed, with many ecogenetic situations (such as polymorphism) being maintained by the force of selection.
Polymorphism refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals within the same organism. It is a characteristic feature of Cnidarians, particularly the polyp and medusa forms, or of zooids within colonial organisms like those in Hydrozoa. In Hydrozoans, colonial individuals arising from individuals zooids will take on separate tasks. For example, in Obelia there are feeding individuals, the gastrozooids; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the medusae.
PER1 and PER2 are necessary for molecular timekeeping and light responsiveness in the master circadian clock in the SCN, but little data is shown on the concrete function for PER3. PER3 was found to be important for endogenous timekeeping in specific tissues and those tissue-specific changes in endogenous periods result in internal misalignment of circadian clocks in Per3 double knockout (-/-) mice. PER3 may have a stabilizing effect on PER1 and PER2, and this stabilizing effect may be reduced in the PER3-P415A/H417R polymorphism.
Sexual polymorphism exhibited in the Trinidadian guppy (above male, below female) Guppy breeds Guppies exhibit sexual dimorphism. While wild-type females are grey in body color, males have splashes, spots, or stripes that can be any of a wide variety of colors. The size of guppies vary, but males are typically long, while females are long. A variety of guppy strains are produced by breeders through selective breeding, characterized by different colours, patterns, shapes, and sizes of fins, such as snakeskin and grass varieties.
This striking color polymorphism is also found in Erythrina lysistemon and Erythrina caffra. All species except the sterile hybrids E. × sykesii and E. × bidwillii have legume-type fruit, sometimes called pods, containing one or more seeds. The resilient buoyant seeds are often carried by the sea for large distances and are commonly called "sea beans". Erythrina leaves are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the swift moth Endoclita damor and the woolly bears Hypercompe eridanus and Hypercompe icasia.
Identity by descent (IBD) mapping generally uses single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays to survey known polymorphic sites throughout the genome of affected individuals and their parents and/or siblings, both affected and unaffected. While these SNPs probably do not cause the disease, they provide valuable insight into the makeup of the genomes in question. A region of the genome is considered identical by descent if contiguous SNPs share the same genotype. When comparing an affected individual to his/her affected sibling, all identical regions are recorded (ex.
Melanin-based colour polymorphism signals aggressive personality in nest and territory defence in the tawny owl (Strix aluco). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 67(7), 1041-1052. Later into the nesting period, the female may begin showing more aggressive reactions to disturbance or threats. Older females were found in a study show a more aggressive defense as well as those with larger broods and earlier nestings, however non- aggressive females were found to have more future reproductive years on average than aggressive ones.Wallin, K. (1987).
ASO analysis is only one of the methods used to detect genetic polymorphisms. Direct DNA sequencing is used to initially characterize the mutation, but is too laborious for routine screening. An earlier method, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) didn't need to know the sequence change beforehand, but required that the mutation affect the cleavage site of a Restriction Enzyme. The RFLP assay was briefly adapted to the use of oligonucleotide probes, but this technique was quickly supplanted by ASO analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified DNA.
ORF Investigator is a program which not only gives information about the coding and non coding sequences but also can perform pairwise global alignment of different gene/DNA regions sequences. The tool efficiently finds the ORFs for corresponding amino acid sequences and converts them into their single letter amino acid code, and provides their locations in the sequence. The pairwise global alignment between the sequences makes it convenient to detect the different mutations, including single nucleotide polymorphism. Needleman–Wunsch algorithms are used for the gene alignment.
Speed congenics can be produced in as little as five back-cross generations, through the selection at each generation of offspring that not only retain the desired chromosomal fragment, but also 'lose' the maximum amount of background genetic information from the donor strain. This is also known as marker-assisted congenics, due to the use of genetic markers, typically microsatellite markers, but now, more commonly, single nucleotide polymorphism markers (SNPs). The process can be further aided by the superovulation of females, to produce many more eggs.
Studies have indicated that due to polymorphism of platelet V1R there is significant heterogeneity in the aggregation response of normal human platelets to vasopressin. V1Rs are found in kidney, where they occur in high density on medullary interstitial cells, vasa recta, and epithelial cells of the collecting duct. Vasopressin acts on medullary vasculature through V1R to reduce blood flow to inner medulla without affecting blood flow to outer medulla. V1Rs on the luminal membrane of the collecting duct limit the antidiuretic action of vasopressin.
Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera. Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species (the mimic) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species (the model). Such a mimicry complex is referred to as Batesian and is most commonly known by the mimicry by the limenitidine viceroy butterfly of the inedible danaine monarch. Later research has discovered that the viceroy is, in fact more toxic than the monarch and this resemblance should be considered as a case of Müllerian mimicry.
There is one single-nucleotide polymorphism that is known to occur in humans regarding the urotensin II receptor. R1483.50 is instead H1483.50 which effects how the cell responds when the urotensin II receptor is activated. The receptor cannot activate the PKC but it can still activate the ERK1/2 pathway although it is a little bit slower. There have been studies done on specific amino acids on the urotensin II receptor especially the ones that are homologous to the other members of the rhodopsin family.
Further, the variant as an autism risk polymorphism has been replicated, and shown to be enriched in children with autism and gastrointestinal disturbances. A rare mutation has been found that appears in two family members, one with autism and the other with a social and communication disorder. The role of the receptor in brain development is distinct from its role in other developmental processes. Activation of the MET receptor regulates synapse formation and can impact the development and function of circuits involved in social and emotional behavior.
In programming languages, ad hoc polymorphismC. Strachey, Fundamental concepts in programming languages. Lecture notes for International Summer School in Computer Programming, Copenhagen, August 1967 is a kind of polymorphism in which polymorphic functions can be applied to arguments of different types, because a polymorphic function can denote a number of distinct and potentially heterogeneous implementations depending on the type of argument(s) to which it is applied. When applied to object-oriented or procedural concepts, it is also known as function overloading or operator overloading.
FleXelect oligopools consist of custom oligonucleotides in solution and can be used for in solution target enrichment prior to next generation DNA sequencing. Target enrichment or In solution hybrid selection is a method for genomic selection in an increasing number of applications such as; # Analysis of custom genomic regions of interest (e.g. specific genes, multiple variants and/or complete pathways). # Analysis of Chromosomal translocation # Validation of Single-nucleotide polymorphism or SNPs (typically after whole genome or whole exome studies) # Other research and diagnostic applications (e.g.
Allozymes, DNA-DNA hybridization, immunoelectrophoresis, restriction site analyses of mitochondrial DNA and serology were used extensively since the late 1960s. Recent molecular work mainly employs DNA sequencing, microsatellites, and AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism). In 2004, the Laboratory for Molecular Systematics and Ecology (LMSE) was formed as a shared, multi-user facility to improve access to and provide training for the use of molecular data in systematic and ecological research. In addition to supporting staff, the lab offers research opportunities for students and post-doctoral fellowships.
Lower attines have very minor polymorphism within the minor workers, though higher attines commonly have very different sizes of worker ants. In the higher attines, though, head width varies eight-fold and dry weight 200-fold between different castes of workers. The size differences in workers is nearly nonexistent in newly founded colonies. Due to the variety of tasks needed to be performed by a colony, the widths of workers heads are important and good measures of what jobs workers are likely to perform.
Yellow color form in the Ozarks of Arkansas C.coccinea have color polymorphism, which means that they can be yellow or scarlet in color, and this depends on the availability of pollinators such as bees. When pollinators are present, the scarlet C. coccinea tend to have a higher reproductive output, as they have higher seed and fruit set. On the other hand, the yellow C.coccinea would have a higher reproductive output when pollinators are scarce.Kim, E. S., D. N. Zaya, J. B. Fant, and M. V. Ashley.
Several studies have suggested that genetic overlap exists between schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders. On 28 February 2013 The Lancet published an article about the possible genetic correlation between autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia. They analyzed genome-wide single- nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data for the five disorders in 33,332 cases and 27,888 controls of European ancestry. This group found four gene areas that all overlapped with the five disorders, two of which regulate calcium balance in the brain.
Black carpenter ant male C. pennsylvanicus can be distinguished from other carpenter ant species by the dull black color of the head and body, and by whitish or yellowish hairs on the abdomen. All castes of this species (including the major and minor workers, queens, and males) are black or blackish. Colonies' workers are not all the same size (polymorphism). The queens can reach a length of 19–21 mm and the largest workers (super majors) can achieve similar sizes of around 14–17 mm .
Anxiety disorder appears to be a genetically inherited neurochemical dysfunction that may involve autonomic imbalance; decreased GABA-ergic tone; allelic polymorphism of the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene; increased adenosine receptor function; increased cortisol. In the central nervous system (CNS), the major mediators of the symptoms of anxiety disorders appear to be norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Other neurotransmitters and peptides, such as corticotropin-releasing factor, may be involved. Peripherally, the autonomic nervous system, especially the sympathetic nervous system, mediates many of the symptoms.
Dr. Gambhir's work manifested the Anti Diabetic properties of Withania (Rishyagandha) a traditional Indian herb. Her work has been cited over 1000 times on Google Scholar. She has published over 50 research papers and case studies in a number of international journals, most notably, World Journal of Diabetes, United States National Library of Medicine, International Journal of Lipid Research, Indian Heart Journal, Clinica Chimica Acta, J Assoc Physicians and Hemodialysis International. Her works spans across numerous fields such as nephropathy, estrogen deficiency effects, lipoproteins, homocysteine and polymorphism.
Pin(A) and thrum (B) flowers of Primula vulgaris are controlled by a supergene. Supergenes have cis-effects due to multiple loci (which may be within a gene, or within a single gene's regulatory region), and tight linkage. They are classically polymorphic, and different elements code for different fitness effects which combine to form a coherent or epistatic whole. The two classic supergenes are (1) the Primula heterostyly locus, which controls "pin" and "thrum" types, and (2) the locus controlling Batesian mimetic polymorphism in Papilio memnon butterflies.
Originally from northwestern Pennsylvania, Froehlich earned her medical degree from Yale University School of Medicine. She graduated from Yale with the New England Pediatric Society Prize and was placed at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia for her residency. Upon completing her residency, she accepted a fellowship at the Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center and earned her Master's degree at the affiliated institute, the University of Cincinnati. Her thesis was published in 2007 and titled ADHD-related Executive Functions: Interactions of a DRD4 Polymorphism, Lead, and Sex.
On the one hand, intersection types can be used to locally annotate different types to a function without introducing new classes (or interfaces) to the class hierarchy. On the other hand, this approach requires all possible argument types and result types to be specified explicitly. If the behavior of a function can be specified precisely by either a unified interface, parametric polymorphism, or duck typing, then the verbose nature of intersection types is unfavorable. Therefore, intersection types should be considered complementary to existing specification methods.
Cases of heterozygote advantage have been demonstrated in several organisms, including humans. The first experimental confirmation of heterozygote advantage was with Drosophila melanogaster, a fruit fly that has been a model organism for genetic research. In a classic study on the ebony mutation, Kalmus demonstrated how polymorphism can persist in a population through heterozygote advantage. If weakness were the only effect of the mutant allele, so it conveyed only disadvantages, natural selection would weed out this version of the gene until it became extinct from the population.
The claim is that traditional object- oriented programming (OOP) design principles result in poor data locality, more so if runtime polymorphism (dynamic dispatch) is used (which is especially problematic on some processors).describes the problems with virtual function calls, e.g., i-cache misses Although OOP does seem to "organise code around data", the practice is quite different. OOP is actually about organising source code around data types rather than physically grouping individual fields and arrays in an efficient format for access by specific functions.
This allows an experimental test for SNP at position 145 that has the highest correlation to the sample 3 polymorphisms. Students obtain isolated DNA from cheek cells by a simple salt mouthwash and amplify a region of the gene TAS2R38. The amplified fragment (amplicon) is incubated with the restriction enzyme HaeIII, comprising the SNP in their recognition sequence GGCC. HaeIII cuts the taster allele (having the sequence GGCC); this generates a length polymorphism, and the 2 alleles can be easily separated in an agarose gel.
The single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variant rs17197 in the 3' untranslated region of PTGER2 has been associated with an increased incidence of essential hypertension in a population of Japanese men. SNP variant rs1254598 in a Spanish population; SNP variant uS5 located in a STAT-binding consensus sequence of the regulatory region of PTGER2 with reduced transcription activity in a Japanese population; and two PTGER2 SNP variants (-616C>G and -166G>A) in a Korean population have been associated with an increased incidence of Aspirin-induced asthma.
Aside from findings related to neurological and neurochemical profiles of youth with conduct disorder, intraindividual factors such as genetics may also be relevant. Having a sibling or parent with conduct disorder increases the likelihood of having the disorder, with a heritability rate of .53. There also tends to be a stronger genetic link for individuals with childhood-onset compared to adolescent onset. In addition, youth with conduct disorder also exhibit polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A gene, low resting heart rates, and increased testosterone.
Melanistic and normally coloured jaguars Melanistic coat coloration occurs as a common polymorphism in 11 of 37 felid species and reaches high population frequency in some cases but never achieves complete fixation. The black panther, a melanistic leopard, is common in the equatorial rainforest of Malaya and the tropical rainforest on the slopes of some African mountains, such as Mount Kenya. The serval also has melanistic forms in certain areas of East Africa. In the jaguarundi, coloration varies from dark brown and gray to light reddish.
He later developed another distance measure called DA, which is appropriate for finding the topology of a phylogenetic tree of populations. He also developed statistics of measuring the extent of population differentiation for any types of mating system using the GST measure. In 1975, he and collaborators presented a mathematical formulation of population bottleneck effects and clarified the genetic meaning of bottleneck effects. In 1979, he proposed a statistical measure called nucleotide diversity, which is now widely used for measuring the extent of nucleotide polymorphism.
Ritonavir was originally dispensed as an ordinary capsule that did not require refrigeration. This contained a crystal form of ritonavir that is now called form I. However, like many drugs, crystalline ritonavir can exhibit polymorphism, i.e., the same molecule can crystallize into more than one crystal type, or polymorph, each of which contains the same repeating molecule but in different crystal packings/arrangements. The solubility and hence the bioavailability can vary in the different arrangements, and this was observed for forms I and II of ritonavir.
A study was conducted on the attractiveness of males with the subject of the skull and its application in human morphology, using psychology and evolutionary biology to understand selection on facial features. It found that averageness was the result of stabilizing selection, whereas facial paedomorphosis or juvenile traits had been caused by directional selection. In directional selection, a single phenotypic trait is driven by selection toward fixation in a population. In contrast, in stabilizing selection both alleles are driven toward fixation (or polymorphism) in a population.
In Dylan, all values (including numbers, characters, functions, and classes) are first-class objects. Dylan supports multiple inheritance, polymorphism, multiple dispatch, keyword arguments, object introspection, pattern-based syntax extension macros, and many other advanced features. Programs can express fine-grained control over dynamism, admitting programs that occupy a continuum between dynamic and static programming and supporting evolutionary development (allowing for rapid prototyping followed by incremental refinement and optimization). Dylan's main design goal is to be a dynamic language well- suited for developing commercial software.
For the human species, the size estimated from the HLA polymorphism was 10,000 breeding individuals. Similarly large founding populations had to be postulated for the two lineages from which most of the hundreds of species inhabiting Lake Victoria in East Africa had diverged. And even for Darwin's finches, widely believed to have arisen from a single pair of founders, Vincek and his colleagues came to the conclusion that the founding flock was at least 30 heads strong. These studies became Klein's bridge to evolutionary biology.
Caro gained his bachelor's degree in zoology at Cambridge University in 1973, and his doctorate in psychology at the University of St Andrews in 1979. He was a professor of wildlife biology at University of California Davis, in the departments of population biology and wildlife and fish conservation biology. He is currently a professor of biology at the University of Bristol. He has studied the colour polymorphism of coconut crabs, the conservation of fragments of forest, and the function of coloration in mammals, especially zebra stripes.
Strawberry poison frog, Oophaga pumilio, shows extreme variation in color and pattern between populations that have been geographically isolated for more than 10,000 years. When populations are separated by geographic distances and landscape barriers, they frequently experience restricted gene flow, which can enable phenotypic divergence between populations through selection or drift. Their variety in warning coloration is used for their visibility, toxicity and resistance to predators. When divergent phenotypes are mostly restricted to separate islands, the biogeography of color polymorphism suggests a major role for neutral process.
In bipolar disorder, one commonly identified endophenotype is a deficit in face emotion labeling, which is found in both individuals with bipolar disorder and in individuals who are "at risk" (i.e., have a first degree relative with bipolar disorder). Using fMRI, this endophenotype has been linked to dysfunction in the dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, striatum, and amygdala. A polymorphism in the CACNA1C gene coding for the voltage-dependent calcium channel Cav1.2 has been found to be associated with deficits in facial emotion recognition.
This gene encodes a member of the RecA/Rad51-related protein family that participates in homologous recombination to maintain chromosome stability and repair DNA damage. This gene functionally complements Chinese hamster irs1SF, a repair-deficient mutant that exhibits hypersensitivity to a number of different DNA-damaging agents and is chromosomally unstable. A rare microsatellite polymorphism in this gene is associated with cancer in patients of varying radiosensitivity. The XRCC3 protein is one of five paralogs of RAD51, including RAD51B (RAD51L1), RAD51C (RAD51L2), RAD51D (RAD51L3), XRCC2 and XRCC3.
The common 1858T (rs2476601) Arg620Trp nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphism located in the PTPN22 gene has been associated with autoimmune disorders, including an increased risk of Type 1 Diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Vitiligo and Graves' disease, but a decreased risk of Crohn's disease. A recent study suggests that the mutation does not, on a population basis, reduce life span. The mutation may be conserved in human evolution because it may provide a hyper-immune response to infectious disease. Mutations in PTPN22 are over-represented in breast cancer.
Tristyly is a rare floral polymorphism that consists of three floral morphs that differ in regard to the length of the stamens and style within the flower. This type of floral mechanism is thought to encourage outcross pollen transfer and is usually associated with heteromorphic self-incompatibility to reduce inbreeding. It is an example of heterostyly and reciprocal herkogamy, like distyly, which is the more common form of heterostyly. Darwin first described tristylous species in 1877 in terms of the incompatibility of these three morphs.
In a recent study, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the Glutathione Reductase gene was found to be highly associated with lupus in African Americans in the study. African Americans with lupus have also been shown to express less reduced glutathione in their T cells. The study's authors believe that reduced glutathione reductase activity may contribute to the increased production of reactive oxygen in African Americans with lupus. In mice, glutathione reductase has been implicated in the oxidative burst, a component of the immune response.
In order for apostatic selection to occur, and for the rare morph to have the advantage a variety of criteria needs to be met. First, there needs to be polymorphism present. In addition, the prey present can not be in equal proportions, since then there would not be a benefit to be able to detect either one. This is related to frequency dependent predation, where as the predator obtains the greatest advantage from having a search image for the most common type of prey.
Homozygosis for this mutation is an established maternal risk factor for spina bifida especially with low intracellular vitamin B12 in the circulation or amniotic fluid. Vitamin B12 is reflected by plasma methylmalonic acid (MMA), an elevation in which indicates impaired B12 uptake or metabolism. A raised MMA combined with the MTRR mutation corresponds to a 5-fold increase in spina bifida. The mechanism of action of this polymorphism is through the mother, hence there is no preferential transmission of this mutation from parent to child.
Genetic polymorphism of serum transferrins in reindeer is used in population and genetic studies. Gene concentrations of alleles in populations of reindeer of the North-East of Siberia were compared with those in reindeer inhabiting Norway, the northern regions of the European part of the USSR and from North American caribou. Researchers found that frequencies of Tf alleles of the Siberian reindeer differed from all the others. It is possible that resistance to necrobacteriosis is related to concentrations of alleles in certain reindeer populations.
Since E. imperialis is a euglossine species, they are a non-social bee, and therefore lack the formation of colonies. Studies have shown that significant barriers to establish stable perennial colonies arise from two main factors: high diploid male production and genetic polymorphism. There could be no supply of truly altruistic workers (or drones), since the supply would be inconsistent, with up to 50% of the intended diploid females actually being males. Therefore, with no drone class, colonies would not be able to adequately form.
Anti-virus software uses sophisticated pattern analysis to find underlying patterns within the different mutations of the decryption engine, in hopes of reliably detecting such malware. Emulation may be used to defeat polymorphic obfuscation by letting the malware demangle itself in a virtual environment before utilizing other methods, such as traditional signature scanning. Such a virtual environment is sometimes called a sandbox. Polymorphism does not protect the virus against such emulation if the decrypted payload remains the same regardless of variation in the decryption algorithm.
The common side-blotched lizard (Uta stansburiana) is a species of side- blotched lizard in the family Phrynosomatidae. The species is native to dry regions of the western United States and northern Mexico. It is notable for having a unique form of polymorphism wherein each of the three different male morphs utilizes a different strategy in acquiring mates. The three morphs compete against each other following a pattern of rock paper scissors, where one morph has advantages over another but is outcompeted by the third.
The use of phylogenetic analysis to determine evolutionary relationships amongst Agaricus species has increased the understanding of this taxonomically difficult genus, although much work remains to be done to fully delineate infrageneric relationships. Prior to these analyses, the genus Agaricus, as circumscribed by Rolf Singer, was divided into 42 species grouped into five sections based on reactions of mushroom tissue to air or various chemical reagents, as well as subtle differences in mushroom morphology. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis demonstrated this classification scheme needed revision.
The eastern wolf – which was referred to as the "Great Lakes" wolf in this study – was 58% gray wolf and 42% coyote with hybridization having occurred 546–963 years ago. The study rejected the theory of a common ancestry for the red and eastern wolves. However the next year, a study reviewed a subset of the 2011 study's Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data and proposed that its methodology had skewed the results and that the eastern wolf is not a hybrid but a separate species.
In genetics, rs6314, also called His452Tyr or H452Y, is a gene variation, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), in the HTR2A gene that codes for the 5-HT2A receptor. The SNP is located in exon 3 of the gene and the change between C and T results in a change between histidine (His) and tyrosine (Tyr) at the 452nd amino acid, i.e., it is a missense substitution. As 5-HT2A is a neuroreceptor the SNP has been investigated in connection with neuropsychiatric disorders and other brain-related variables.
Example of lipid polymorphism as bilayer (le), reverse spherical micelles (M) and reverse hexagonal cylinders H-II phase (H) in negatively stained transmission electron micrograph of spinach thylakoid lipid-water dispersions. Mixed lipid liposomes can undergo changes into different phase dispersion structures, called lipid polymorphisms, for example, spherical micelles, lipid bilayer lamellae and hexagonal phase cylinders, depending on physical and chemical changes in their microenvironment. Phase transition temperature of liposomes and biological membranes can be measured using calorimetry, magnetic resonance spectroscopy and other techniques.
In addition to clinical and physiological parameters to predict how rapidly patients with IPF might progress, genetic and molecular features are also associated with IPF mortality. For example, it has been shown that IPF patients who have a specific genotype in the mucin MUC5B gene polymorphism (see above) experience slower decline in FVC and significantly improved survival. Even if such data are interesting from a scientific point of view, the application in the clinical routine of a prognostic model based on specific genotypes is still not possible.
In 2012, molecular diagnostic techniques for Thalassemia use genetic hybridization tests to identify the specific single nucleotide polymorphism causing an individual's disease. As the commercial application of molecular diagnostics has become more important, so has the debate about patenting of the genetic discoveries at its heart. In 1998, the European Union's Directive 98/44/ECclarified that patents on DNA sequences were allowable. In 2010 in the US, AMP sued Myriad Genetics to challenge the latter's patents regarding two genes, BRCA1, BRCA2, which are associated with breast cancer.
Peripheral glacial refugia still exists within the mountain system but contrary to nunataks, which exist on the peaks, this type of refugia is located along the borders of mountain systems. Evidence for this type of mountain refugia can be found along the borders of the Carpathian Mountains, Pyrenees or European Alps, all of which were formally glaciated mountain systems. For example, using the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technique, researchers have been able to infer the survival of Phyteuma globulariifolium in peripheral refugia in the European Alps.
The GPx1 allele with five Ala repeats is significantly associated with breast cancer risk. Kocabasoglu, et al., sought to investigate connections between oxidative stress genes, including GPX1, and Panic Disorder, an anxiety disorder characterized by random and unexpected attacks of intense fear. Although the GPX1 Pro198Leu polymorphism, in general, did not significantly correlate with panic disorder risk, the study found a plausible association of the C allele of the GPX1 Pro198Leu polymorphism, found to be more frequent in the female cohort, with PD development. Ergen and colleagues analyzed gene expression of oxidative stress genes, specifically GPX1, in colorectal tumors in comparison to healthy colorectal tissues. ELISA was utilized to quantify GPX1 protein expression levels in both tissue types, highlighting a 2-fold decrease in tumor tissue (p<0.05). In esophageal cancer, Chen and colleagues found that vitamin D, a known suppressor of GPX1 expression via the NF-κB signaling pathway, could help to decrease the proliferative, migratory, and invasive capabilities of esophageal cancer cells. Unlike in colorectal cancer, GPX1 expression in esophageal cancer cells is thought to drive aggressive growth and metastasis, but Vitamin D-mediated decrease in GPX1 prevents such growth.
The Oracle Certified Associate Java SE 8 Programmer tests the candidate's knowledge of the Java programming language and is a prerequisite to being an Oracle Certified Programmer.Oracle: Java SE 8 Programmer I. While most advanced certifications focus on the candidate's knowledge of the API, this entry-level exam focuses on variables, class and interface definitions, arrays, exception handling, encapsulation, polymorphism, and flow control. The candidate must also demonstrate how to use strings and array lists. The version 8 of the test was made available as a final release since December 2014.
The proportions of each color remain quite stable over time and in some locations there are sharp transitions from blue to white flowered populations. This uncommon phenomenon has made this species a model organism in studies of genetic variation. For many decades a long line of geneticists and botanists, including Sewall Wright, Carl Epling, Harlan Lewis and T. G. Dobzhansky, have studied populations of this flower to determine the factors that influence this polymorphism. Color frequencies may vary for many reasons, including genetic drift and pure natural selection.
Balancing selection refers to a number of selective processes by which multiple alleles (different versions of a gene) are actively maintained in the gene pool of a population at frequencies larger than expected from genetic drift alone. This can happen by various mechanisms, in particular, when the heterozygotes for the alleles under consideration have a higher fitness than the homozygote. In this way genetic polymorphism is conserved. Evidence for balancing selection can be found in the number of alleles in a population which are maintained above mutation rate frequencies.
The study of executive function in Parkinson's disease suggests subcortical areas such as the amygdala, hippocampus and basal ganglia are important in these processes. Dopamine modulation of the prefrontal cortex is responsible for the efficacy of dopaminergic drugs on executive function, and gives rise to the Yerkes Dodson Curve. The inverted U represents decreased executive functioning with excessive arousal (or increased catecholamine release during stress), and decreased executive functioning with insufficient arousal. The low activity polymorphism of Catechol-O-methyltransferase is associated with slight increase in performance on executive function tasks in healthy persons.
The genus Xanthomonas has been subject of numerous taxonomic and phylogenetic studies and was first described as Bacterium vesicatorium as a pathogen of pepper and tomato in 1921. Dowson later reclassified the bacterium as Xanthomonas campestris and proposed the genus Xanthomonas.Xanthomonas was first described as a monotypic genus and further research resulted in the division into two groups, A and B. Later work using DNA:DNA hybridization has served as a framework for the general Xanthomonas species classification. Other tools, including multilocus sequence analysis and amplified fragment-length polymorphism, have been used for classification within clades.
The results from these meta-analyses were controversial. Several factors could influence these data: the search strategy, the identification of relevant studies (publication bias), the statistical analysis including a sufficient sampling, the prevalence of the studied polymorphism in the studied population [minor allele frequency (MAF)] and the type of population (population-based or not, for example). Results of these meta-analyses need to be confirmed with larger samples. In addition, a meta-analysis based on genome-wide association study data will be of great interest in the future.
Polymorphism is where a species may have different morphs or forms, as in the oblong winged katydid, which has four different varieties: green, pink and yellow or tan. Some insects may retain phenotypes that are normally only seen in juveniles; this is called paedomorphosis. In peramorphosis, an opposite sort of phenomenon, insects take on previously unseen traits after they have matured into adults. Many insects display sexual dimorphism, in which males and females have notably different appearances, such as the moth Orgyia recens as an exemplar of sexual dimorphism in insects.
Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera. Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species (the mimic) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species (the model). Such a mimicry complex is referred to as Batesian. One of the most famous examples, where the viceroy butterfly was long believed to be a Batesian mimic of the inedible monarch, was later disproven, as the viceroy is more toxic than the monarch, and this resemblance is now considered to be a case of Müllerian mimicry.
A Mal'tsev operation m is a ternary operation that satisfies m(x,y,y) = m(y,y,x) = x. An example of a Mal'tsev operation is the Minority operation given in the modern, algebraic formulation of Schaefer's dichotomy theorem above. Thus, when Γ has the Minority operation as a polymorphism, it is not only possible to decide CSP(Γ) in polynomial time, but to compute #CSP(Γ) in polynomial time. There are a total of 4 Mal'tsev operations on Boolean variables, determined by the values of m(T,F,T) and m(F,T,F).
With the advent of highly sensitive molecular techniques, such as reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), it became possible to detect the vvIBDV, to differentiate IBDV strains, and to use such information in studying the molecular epidemiology of the virus. IBDV genome consists of two segments, A and B, which are enclosed within a nonenveloped icosahedral capsid. The genome segment B (2.9 kb) encodes VP1, the putative viral RNA polymerase. The larger segment A (3.2 kb) encodes viral proteins VP2, VP3, VP4, and VP5.
Sphalerite, the more common polymorph of zinc sulfide Wurtzite, the less common polymorph of zinc sulfide ZnS exists in two main crystalline forms, and this dualism is often a salient example of polymorphism. In each form, the coordination geometry at Zn and S is tetrahedral. The more stable cubic form is known also as zinc blende or sphalerite. The hexagonal form is known as the mineral wurtzite, although it also can be produced synthetically.. The transition from the sphalerite form to the wurtzite form occurs at around 1020 °C.
A single nucleotide polymorphism (rs17070145) in the gene has been associated with human memory performance in one 2006 study. While no significant support for KIBRA's association with memory was found in a 2008 study with 584 subjects, the original 2006 study was replicated in a smaller sample of an elderly population in 2008. A subsequent study in 2009 in two large UK samples indicated that KIBRA is specifically associated with forgetting of non-semantic material. Studies have also begun to investigate the role of KIBRA in Alzheimer's disease.
In particular, this founder mutation is a G-to-C mutation of a single nucleotide (see single-nucleotide polymorphism) which interferes with gene expression levels of OPA3. Though the mutation is the same within this population, the severity of symptoms varies with the individual. To date, there have only been two reported cases of Costeff syndrome not due to the founder mutation, each of which was due to a different pathogenic variants (mutation). Two other OPA3 mutations have also been reported which result in a rare dominant genetic disorder with symptoms similar to Costeff syndrome.

No results under this filter, show 1000 sentences.

Copyright © 2024 RandomSentenceGen.com All rights reserved.