60 Sentences With "neo Darwinism" | Random Sentence Generator

Included in this category are all deterministic schools of thought, from Freudianism and Marxism to neo-Darwinism.

This year's offerings include a friendly takeover attempt in the biologist J. Scott Turner's PURPOSE AND DESIRE (HarperOne, $27.99), which argues that today's mechanistic neo-Darwinism needs to find room for the "agency" — the desire — that Turner insists drives every organism and, by extension, evolution itself.

Biologists, however, have not limited their application of the term neo-Darwinism to the historical synthesis. For example, Ernst Mayr wrote in 1984 that: :The term neo-Darwinism for the synthetic theory [of the early 20th century] is sometimes considered wrong, because the term neo-Darwinism was coined by Romanes in 1895 as a designation of Weismann's theory. Publications such as Encyclopædia Britannica use neo-Darwinism to refer to current-consensus evolutionary theory, not the version prevalent during the early 20th century. Similarly, Richard Dawkins and Stephen Jay Gould have used neo-Darwinism in their writings and lectures to denote the forms of evolutionary biology that were contemporary when they were writing.

He was a critic of gradualism and the punctuated equilibrium theory of evolution.Lambert, David. (1988). Neo-Darwinism: An Emperor With No Clothes.

Hull, David L. and Ruse, Michael, "Preface" in The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology (Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. xix & xx. Daniel Dennett and his 1995 book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, which defends Neo-Darwinism, stand at the foreground of this debate.Lennox, James G., "Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism" in Sakar and Plutynski (eds.), A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology (Blackwell Publishing, 2008), p. 89.

George John Romanes originally used Neo-Darwinism in 1895 to refer to an early modification of Darwin's theory. Photograph by Elliott & Fry (1896) Neo- Darwinism is generally used to describe any integration of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection with Gregor Mendel's theory of genetics. It mostly refers to evolutionary theory from either 1895 (for the combinations of Darwin's and August Weismann's theories of evolution) or 1942 ("modern synthesis"), but it can mean any new Darwinian- and Mendelian-based theory, such as the current evolutionary theory. The term "Neo-Darwinism" marks the combination of natural selection and genetics, as has been variously modified since it was first proposed.

Noble has called for an extended evolutionary synthesis, and more controversially a replacement for the modern synthesis."The theory of evolution has evolved". The Physiological Society."Replace the Modern Synthesis (Neo-Darwinism): An Interview With Denis Noble".

He used this term in opposition to Neo-Darwinism, which denied the inheritance of acquired characteristics.Moore, James. (1991). Deconstructing Darwinism: The Politics of Evolution in the 1860s. Journal of the History of Biology 24 (3): 353-408.

Spetner' critical stance on the plausibility of the evolutionary theory of the appearance of beneficial mutations was supported by the Australian statistician Professor Michael Hasofer.Hasofer, A.M. "A Statistician Looks at Neo-Darwinism." B'Or Ha'Torah Vol. 3. (1983): 13-21.

Wadebridge Ecological Centre, 1988. Goldsmith was also a critic of neo-Darwinism. He claimed that it is a reductionist theory and that if you understand evolution, it is necessary to "abandon the reductionistic and mechanistic paradigm of science".The Ecologist Vol.

Oyama 1985; ; . Developmental systems theory is plainly radically incompatible with both neo-Darwinism and information processing theory. Whereas neo-Darwinism defines evolution in terms of changes in gene distribution, the possibility that an evolutionarily significant change may arise and be sustained without any directly corresponding change in gene frequencies is an elementary assumption of developmental systems theory, just as neo-Darwinism’s ‘explanation’ of phenomena in terms of reproductive fitness is regarded as fundamentally shallow. Even the widespread mechanistic equation of ‘gene’ with a specific DNA sequence has been thrown into question,Neumann-Held 1999; Moss in as have the analogous interpretations of evolution and adaptation.

The term Darwinism had covered a wide range of ideas, many of which differed from Darwin's views, but it became associated with the minority view of August Weismann who went further than Darwin by rejecting inheritance of acquired characters and attributing all evolution to natural selection, a view also called neo-Darwinism. By the first decades of the 20th century, the debate had become generally one between continuous-variation biometricians and discontinuous-variety Mendelians. In the 1930s and 1940s, though, they were combined with natural selection into the modern evolutionary synthesis, which soon became the dominant model in the scientific community. This model has also been called Darwinism and neo-Darwinism.

Charles Birch, "Why Aren't We Zombies? Neo-Darwinism and Process Thought", in Back to Darwin: A Richer Account of Evolution, ed. John B. Cobb Jr. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008), 252. Henry Murray dedicated his "Explorations in Personality" to Whitehead, a contemporary at Harvard.

The genetic programs may then be installed by known gene transfer mechanisms. Also, according to cosmic ancestry, life initiates Gaian processes that may environmentally alter biospheres. Cosmic ancestry is opposed to both neo-Darwinism and Intelligent design theories. Its assertions require the universe to be ageless.

Fuller supported the proposition. Fuller endorsed a work in support of Intelligent Design, the Discovery Institute's textbook Explore Evolution: The Arguments For and Against Neo-Darwinism (2007).Endorsements, Explore Evolution website Appearing in the 2008 film Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, Fuller told an interviewer:Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed (2008 film). Rocky Mountain Pictures.

This 19th-century view is not wholly dead, albeit that it stands in stark contrast to the ideas of neo-Darwinism. In modern psychology, genetic memory is generally considered a false idea. However, biologists such as Stuart A. Newman and Gerd B. Müller have contributed to the idea in the 21st century.

Neo-Darwinism and Neo-Social Darwinism. The Great Evolution Mystery by Gordon Rattray Taylor; Conscientious Evolution by Herbert F. Mataré. BioScience 34: 196-197. Philosopher Michael Ruse gave the book a mixed review, stating that although he didn't find Taylor's arguments convincing, he had collected a lot of information and utilized very good illustrations.

What Makes Biology Unique?: Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline. Cambridge University Press; 1 edition Saltation was originally denied by the "modern synthesis" school of neo- Darwinism which favoured gradual evolution but has since been accepted due to recent evidence in evolutionary biology (see the current status section).Bateman, R. M. and DiMichele, W. A. (1994).

Evolution and the Humanities by David Holbrook. The Centennial Review. Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 318-319. Ecologist Arthur M. Shapiro in a review for the National Center for Science Education commented: > David Holbrook, Fellow of Downing College, Cambridge, has written a polemic > not so much against evolution as against scientific reductionism (which he > sees incarnate in neo-Darwinism).

More examples would include Descartes' mind/body dualism, Spinoza's God or nature, and Leibniz's monadology, Plotinus' "The One" and his teaching on emanation, the British empiricists' attempts to limit knowledge and possibility to that which can be empirically verified, Kant's worlds of the noumena and the phenomena, and Hegel's dialectic. Frame has stated that Intelligent Design is both "as scientific, and just as religious" as neo-Darwinism.

Dr Lee M. Spetner is an American and Israeli creationist author, mechanical engineer, applied biophysicist, and physicist, known best for his disagreements with the modern synthesis. In spite of his opposition to neo- Darwinism, Spetner accepts a form of non-random evolution outlined in his 1996 book "Not By Chance! Shattering the Modern Theory of Evolution"."Not by Chance: Shattering the Modern Theory of Evolution".

BDD, Bekhol Derakhekha Daehu: Journal of Torah and Scholarship. Issues 14-17. 2004. Hasofer supported Dr Lee Spetner's stance on Neo-Darwinism which questioned the plausibility of the evolutionary theory of the appearance of beneficial mutations. Spetner's calculations of the probability of beneficial mutations led him to conclude that is unreasonable to assume that beneficial mutations can be produced even in a generous allocation of geological time.

Soren Løvtrup (1922–2002) was a Danish embryologist and historian of science in the Department of Animal Physiology at the Umeå University, Sweden. Løvtrup was known for his macromutation theory of evolution, which was in opposition to traditional neo-Darwinism. In 1987 Løvtrup published his controversial book Darwinism: The Refutation of a Myth which challenged Charles Darwin's role as the intellectual founder of evolutionary theory and accused Darwin of plagiarism.

He also gives 75 differences between autoevolution and neo-Darwinism. Lima-de-Faria wrote that "In the framework of autoevolutionism, orthogenesis appears as the direct result of the canalization inherent to the evolutions that preceded biological evolution, and as a result of the autonomous evolutions that occur within the cell and the organism."Lima-de- Faria, A. (1988). Evolution Without Selection: Form and Function by Autoevolution. Elsevier. p.

Several major ideas about evolution came together in the population genetics of the early 20th century to form the so-called modern synthesis, including genetic variation, natural selection, and particulate (Mendelian) inheritance. This was at the time called neo-Darwinism. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, as published in 1859, provided a selection mechanism for evolution, but not a trait transfer mechanism. Lamarckism was still a very popular candidate for this.

Ward is often categorized as being a follower of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Ward's article "Neo-Darwinism and Neo- Lamarckism" shows Ward had a sophisticated understanding of this subject. While he clearly described himself as being a Neo-Lamarckian, he completely and enthusiastically accepted Darwin's findings and theories. On the other hand, he believed that, logically, there had to be a mechanism that would allow environmental factors to influence evolution faster than Darwin's rather slow evolutionary process.

107–108 Albert Low a Zen master and author of The Origin of Human Nature: A Zen Buddhist Looks at Evolution (2008) opposes neo-Darwinism and the selfish gene theory as he claims they are materialistic. He also opposes creationism for being dogmatic and instead advocates spiritual evolution.Albert Low, The Origin of Human Nature: A Zen Buddhist Looks at Evolution, Sussex Academic Pr, 2008, In Vajrayana, spiritual evolution is equivalent with the development of the three bodies of Trikaya.

First edition of The Colours of Animals, 1890, introduced a set of new terms for animal coloration including "aposematic". Poulton was throughout his career a Darwinist, believing in natural selection as the primary force in evolution. He not only admired Charles Darwin, but also defended the father of neo-Darwinism, August Weismann. Poulton was one of the group of biologists who first translated Weismann's work into English, and he defended Weismann's idea of the continuity of the germ-plasm.

Combined with Darwin's original insights, genetic advances led to what has variously been called the modern evolutionary synthesis or the neo-Darwinism of the 20th century. In these terms evolutionary adaptation may occur most obviously through the natural selection of particular alleles. Such alleles may be long established, or they may be new mutations. Selection also might arise from more complex epigenetic or other chromosomal changes, but the fundamental requirement is that any adaptive effect must be heritable.

His daughter, and later famous author, Mary Geraldine Guinness married Frederick Howard Taylor, the son of China Inland Mission founder J. Hudson Taylor. She was one of seven children who entered Christian ministry. Dr. Gershom Whitfield Guinness was a medical missionary to China who escaped the Boxer Rebellion and went on to found the first hospital in Henan south of the Yellow River. A granddaughter, Ruth Eileen, married the famous geneticist and statistician Ronald Fisher, one of those responsible for Neo-Darwinism.

These claims have become more popular in recent years as the neocreationist movement has sought to distance itself from religion, thus giving it more reason to make use of a seemingly anti-religious analogy. In response, supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist's claims, including Darwin's, are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years, to form first neo-Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis.

186 Critics of such Neo-Darwinism point out that over-simplistic physical arguments obscure the way sexual passion often leads not to secure attachment but to attachments thwarted, as well as the sheer frightening difficulties of all falling in love.Elizabeth Young-Bruehl, Where Do We Fall When We Fall in Love? (2003) p. 5 Biologist Jeremy Griffith suggests that people fall in love in order to abandon themselves to the dream of an ideal state (being one free of the human condition).

He looked to the notions of potentiality and actuality in order to better understand the relationship of quantum theory to the world.See Jaeger Prof Denis Noble argues that, just as teleological causation is necessary to the social sciences, a specific teleological causation in biology, expressing functional purpose, should be restored and that it is already implicit in neo-Darwinism (e.g. "selfish gene"). Teleological analysis proves parsimonious when the level of analysis is appropriate to the complexity of the required 'level' of explanation (e.g.

Handbook of Developmental Science, Behavior, and Genetics. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 70 Lovtrup believed that macromutations interfered with various epigenetic processes, that is, those which affect the causal processes in biological development. This is in contrast to the gradualistic theory of micromutations of Neo-Darwinism, which claims that evolutionary innovations are generally the result of accumulation of numerous very slight modifications. Lovtrup also rejected the punctuated equilibria of Stephen Gould and Niles Eldredge, claiming it was a form of gradualism and not a macromutation theory.

Albert Low, a Zen master and author of The Origin of Human Nature: A Zen Buddhist Looks at Evolution, (2008) opposes neo-Darwinism and the selfish gene theory as he claims they are materialistic. He also opposes creationism for being dogmatic and instead advocates spiritual evolution. The Buddhist writer Anagarika Dharmapala even once stated that "the theory of evolution was one of the ancient teachings of the Buddha." However, it has long been taught that indifference to certain matters regarding life and its origins should be practiced.

Ghiselin observes that Dawkins is "NOT content with rebutting creationists" but goes on to press home his arguments against alternative theories to neo-Darwinism. He thinks the book fills the need to know more about evolution "that others [creationists] would conceal from them." He concludes that "Readers who are not outraged will be delighted." The American philosopher of religion Dallas Willard, reflecting on the book, denies the connection of evolution to the validity of arguments from design to God: whereas, he asserts, Dawkins seems to consider the arguments to rest entirely on that basis.

In an 1873 book, Hermann Müller made detailed observations of the particular relationships between certain insects and certain flowering plants, called pollination syndromes, and additional comprehensive surveys were made by Paul Knuth. Anethecology went into decline for several decades, but the field was kept alive by several studies including those of honey bees by Karl von Frisch in the mid 20th century. Anthecology gained a resurgence in the 20th century during the rise of neo-Darwinism. Specific plant-insect interactions were further documented, with an emphasis on tropical anthecology, comparative anthecology, and co-evolution.

222 Goldschmidt is usually referred to as a "non-Darwinian"; however, he did not object to the general microevolutionary principles of the Darwinians. He veered from the synthetic theory only in his belief that a new species develops suddenly through discontinuous variation, or macromutation. Goldschmidt presented his hypothesis when neo-Darwinism was becoming dominant in the 1940s and 1950s, and strongly protested against the strict gradualism of neo-Darwinian theorists. His ideas were accordingly seen as highly unorthodox by most scientists and were subjected to ridicule and scorn.

Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species was successful in convincing most biologists that evolution had occurred, but was less successful in convincing them that natural selection was its primary mechanism. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, variations of Lamarckism (inheritance of acquired characteristics), orthogenesis (progressive evolution), saltationism (evolution by jumps) and mutationism (evolution driven by mutations) were discussed as alternatives. Alfred Russel Wallace advocated a selectionist version of evolution, and unlike Darwin completely rejected Lamarckism. In 1880, Wallace's view was labelled neo-Darwinism by Samuel Butler.

It was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general, including earlier concepts published by English philosopher Herbert Spencer. Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time, including Huxley, had reservations about the significance of natural selection, and Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism. The strict neo- Darwinism of German evolutionary biologist August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century. During the approximate period of the 1880s to about 1920, sometimes called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable.

This pointed to substitutions in protein sequences as being largely the product of random genetic drift.Dietrich, "The Origins of the Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution", pp. 50-54 King and Jukes' paper, especially with the provocative title, was seen as a direct challenge to mainstream neo-Darwinism, and it brought molecular evolution and the neutral theory to the center of evolutionary biology. It provided a mechanism for the molecular clock and a theoretical basis for exploring deeper issues of molecular evolution, such as the relationship between rate of evolution and functional importance.

According to Birx: > Taylor boldly claims that the living world of increasing complexity is not > one of mere chance and material determinism, or the result of a divine plan > and vital force. Instead, he strongly suggests that life is ordered through > some internal genetic mechanism... Within this open framework, the author > believes that neo-Darwinism is only a subsection of a more comprehensive and > sophisticated explanation for biological evolution still to be formulated. Birx concluded that The Great Evolution Mystery is a "stimulating book and raises important questions and encourages future scientific inquiry."Birx, James H. (1984).

George John Romanes FRS (20 May 1848 – 23 May 1894) was a Canadian-Scots evolutionary biologist and physiologist who laid the foundation of what he called comparative psychology, postulating a similarity of cognitive processes and mechanisms between humans and other animals. He was the youngest of Charles Darwin's academic friends, and his views on evolution are historically important. He is considered to invent the term neo-Darwinism, which in the late 19th century was considered as a theory of evolution that focuses on natural selection as the main evolutionary force. However, Samuel Butler used this term with a similar meaning in 1880.

Along with others, such as Gould, Lewontin has been a persistent critic of some themes in neo-Darwinism. Specifically, he has criticised proponents of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology such as Edward O. Wilson and Richard Dawkins, who attempt to explain animal behaviour and social structures in terms of evolutionary advantage or strategy. He and others criticize this approach when applied to humans, as he sees it as genetic determinism. In his writing, Lewontin suggests a more nuanced view of evolution is needed, which requires a more careful understanding of the context of the whole organism as well as the environment.

Goodwin had argued that natural selection was "too weak [a] force" to explain evolution and only operated as a filter mechanism. He claimed that modern evolutionary biology failed to provide an explanation for the theory of biological form and had ignored the importance of morphogenesis in evolution. He claimed to provide a new evolutionary theory to replace neo-Darwinism. In a critical review, biologist Catherine S. C. Price noted that although he had succeeded in providing an alternative to mutation as the only source of variation, he failed to provide an alternative to natural selection as a mechanism of adaptation.

He criticized Webster for failing to consider sources of Freudian theory such as Thomas Carlyle. He considered Webster's efforts to create a "new psychology", based on neo-Darwinism, unconvincing and wrote that Webster failed to explain what it would consist of. Decker wrote that Webster showed "a commendable command of the secondary literature", but described his book as "a work of total nihilism" and wrote that it contained "many factual errors" and was difficult to take seriously. Decker accepted that some of Webster's objections to Freud "had some substance", but in her view he destroyed the validity of these points by taking them to extremes.

By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "the eclipse of Darwinism" included forms of "saltationism" in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of August Weismann, that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called neo-Darwinism. It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin's views.

As viewed in earlier forms of Anthropology, it is believed that genetic determinism de-emphasizes the importance of culture, making it obsolete. However, more modern views show that culture is valued more than nature because everyday aspects of culture have a wider impact on how the humans see the world, rather than just our genetic makeup. Older anthropological theories have separated the two, such as Franz Boas, who claimed that social organization and behavior is purely the transmission of social norms and not necessarily the passing of hereditable traits. Instead of using such a contrasting approach, more modern anthropologists see Neo-Darwinism as an outline for culture, therefore nature is essentially guiding how culture develops.

Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one. Depending on how strongly the case is stated, the hypothesis conflicts with mainstream neo-Darwinism. Most biologists would accept Daisyworld-style homeostasis as possible, but would certainly not accept the idea that this equates to the whole biosphere acting as one organism. A very small number of scientists, and a much larger number of environmental activists, claim that Earth's biosphere is consciously manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life.

The Linnean Society of London awarded her the Darwin-Wallace Medal in 2008. Called "Science's Unruly Earth Mother", a "vindicated heretic", or a scientific "rebel", Margulis was a strong critic of neo-Darwinism. Her position sparked lifelong debate with leading neo-Darwinian biologists, including Richard Dawkins, George C. Williams, and John Maynard Smith. Margulis' work on symbiosis and her endosymbiotic theory had important predecessors, going back to the mid-19th century – notably Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper, Konstantin Mereschkowski, (1890–1957), and Ivan Wallin – and Margulis not only promoted greater recognition for their contributions, but personally oversaw the first English translation of Kozo-Polyansky's Symbiogenesis: A New Principle of Evolution, which appeared the year before her death.

He rejected both Freudian "drive-theory", which he called the Cupboard Love theory of relationships, and early object-relations theory as both in his view failed to see the attachment as a psychological bond in its own right rather than an instinct derived from feeding or sexuality.Holmes pp. 62–3 Thinking in terms of primary attachment and neo-darwinism, Bowlby identified as what he saw as fundamental flaws in psychoanalysis, namely the overemphasis of internal dangers at the expense of external threat, and the picture of the development of personality via linear "phases" with "regression" to fixed points accounting for psychological illness. Instead he posited that several lines of development were possible, the outcome of which depended on the interaction between the organism and the environment.

The current theory of evolution, the modern evolutionary synthesis (or neo-darwinism), explains that evolution of species occurs through a combination of Darwin's mechanism of natural selection and Gregor Mendel's theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics. Essentially, the modern synthesis introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the main mechanism of evolution (selection). Due to its close reliance on biology, sociobiology is often considered a branch of the biology, although it uses techniques from a plethora of sciences, including ethology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics, and many others. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is closely related to the fields of human behavioral ecology and evolutionary psychology.

Taylor wrote a book on evolution called The Great Evolution Mystery first released in 1983 with a second edition in 1984. Taylor criticized neo-Darwinism, and said that the origin of species and the mechanisms for evolution are still deep mysteries that have not been solved. Taylor supported Lamarck over Darwin.Gordon Rattray Taylor, The Great Evolution Mystery, Publisher Abacus, 1984 Taylor discussed the possibility of an inherent self-stabilization of the genome as an important selective factor in evolution. He was supportive of the idea of Lancelot Law Whyte, the evolutionary ideas highlighted in Whyte’s book Internal factors of evolution in which no mutation is due entirely to chance: only those that meet the internal demands of the genome can be utilized in evolutionary processes.

In 1971 Sermonti published Il Crepuscolo dello Scientismo (in English The Twilight of Scientism), a post- modernist critique of science. In 1980 Sermonti published a book Dopo Darwin (After Darwin) co-authored with Roberto Fondi, which critiqued aspects of Neo- Darwinism as the fundamental model for evolution. From 1979 to 2012, Sermonti was chief editor of Rivista di Biologia-Biology Forum. Between 1986 and 1989 Sermonti produced three books on the hermeneutics of fairy tales, entitled Fiabe di Tre Reami (Fairy Tales of Three Realms), arguing that they contained unexpressed principles of science: Snow White is the narrative of cupellation as well as of the phases of the moon; Red Riding Hood is the story of mercury; Cinderella is the tale of sulfur.

This paper resulted in a rebuttal by Coyne and Lande in 1985, which was countered by Gottlieb in 1985. Gottlieb concluded his rebuttal by stating > I agree with Coyne and Lande...that "counting gene differences and measuring > their effects form in themselves important tests of neo-Darwinism," but I > find that it is frequently not apparent which genes should be counted, and > that the proposed test cannot be convincing in the absence of developmental > evidence that identifies the ontogenetic and anatomical details of character > divergence. In 1986 Gottlieb reviewed the literature in crop plants and reiterated his assertion that plant architecture was controlled by only a few genes. A series of subsequent studies in wild plants by Gottlieb bolstered his assertions that important evolutionary changes need not involve many small genes.

George C. Williams, Natural Selection: Domains, Levels and Challenges, (Oxford University Press, 1992), 23-55 > Williams became convinced that the genic neo-Darwinism of his earlier years, > while essentially correct as a theory of microevolutionary change, could not > account for evolutionary phenomena over longer time scales, and was thus an > "utterly inadequate account of the evolution of the Earth's biota" (1992, p. > 31). In particular, he became a staunch advocate of clade selection – a > generalisation of species selection to monophyletic clades of any rank – > which could potentially explain phenomena such as adaptive radiations, long- > term phylogenetic trends, and biases in rates of speciation/extinction. In > Natural Selection (1992), Williams argued that these phenomena cannot be > explained by selectively-driven allele substitutions within populations, the > evolutionary mechanism he had originally championed over all others.

Examples of claims made in such arguments are statements that evolution is based on faith, and that supporters of evolution dogmatically reject alternative suggestions out-of-hand. These claims have become more popular in recent years as the neo- creationist movement has sought to distance itself from religion, thus giving it more reason to make use of a seemingly anti-religious analogy. Supporters of evolution have argued in response that no scientist's claims are treated as sacrosanct, as shown by the aspects of Darwin's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years to form first neo-Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis. The claim that evolution relies on faith is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence, and therefore does not require faith.

It was published in the journal Science on May 16, 1969. The idea of evolution at the molecular level being driven by the random processes of mutation and genetic drift, largely independent from natural selection, was controversial at the time; the provocative title further emphasized the break with mainstream evolutionary thought, which was dominated by the synthetic theory of evolution, often referred to as "Neo-Darwinism". Although they argued for essentially the same conclusion as Motoo Kimura's earlier paper, King and Jukes criticized one of Kimura's central arguments, an estimate of the rate of amino acid change in proteins that according to Kimura would indicate an impossibly high genetic load if the changes were caused by natural selection. The paper was initially rejected by its reviewers (one thought it was trivial and the other thought it was totally wrong ), but was published after an appeal.

Evacuation of smiling Japanese school children in World War II from the book Road to Catastrophe Psychoanalytic concepts influenced Bowlby's view of attachment, in particular, the observations by Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham of young children separated from familiar caregivers during World War II. However, Bowlby rejected psychoanalytical explanations for early infant bonds including "drive theory" in which the motivation for attachment derives from gratification of hunger and libidinal drives. He called this the "cupboard-love" theory of relationships. In his view it failed to see attachment as a psychological bond in its own right rather than an instinct derived from feeding or sexuality. Based on ideas of primary attachment and Neo-Darwinism, Bowlby identified what he saw as fundamental flaws in psychoanalysis: the overemphasis of internal dangers rather than external threat, and the view of the development of personality via linear phases with regression to fixed points accounting for psychological distress.

The physiologist Denis Noble argues that these additions render neo-Darwinism in the sense of the early 20th century's modern synthesis "at the least, incomplete as a theory of evolution", and one that has been falsified by later biological research. Michael Rose and Todd Oakley note that evolutionary biology, formerly divided and "Balkanized", has been brought together by genomics. It has in their view discarded at least five common assumptions from the modern synthesis, namely that the genome is always a well-organised set of genes; that each gene has a single function; that species are well adapted biochemically to their ecological niches; that species are the durable units of evolution, and all levels from organism to organ, cell and molecule within the species are characteristic of it; and that the design of every organism and cell is efficient. They argue that the "new biology" integrates genomics, bioinformatics, and evolutionary genetics into a general-purpose toolkit for a "Postmodern Synthesis".