Humans can arrive at similar behaviours via biological evolution, and also through reinforcement learning or by imitating success, processes that are mathematically similar to biological evolution and lead to similar outcomes.
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Thanks to modern medicine, biological evolution for humans has been circumvented.
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The steppingstone's potential can be seen by analogy with biological evolution.
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Imagine that the specific ecorithms encoding biological evolution and learning are discovered tomorrow.
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In this, the intrinsic interdependence between biological evolution and cultural evolution is key.
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How can a theory of learning be applied to a phenomenon like biological evolution?
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Biological evolution is very slow, but civilization, culture, society and technology evolve relatively fast.
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Biological evolution was not explicitly curious about flying, and yet it still managed to come up with birds.
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Biological evolution is also the only system to produce human intelligence, which is the ultimate dream of many AI researchers.
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The resulting research, published Tuesday in the journal Molecular and Biological Evolution, led to the discovery of these two subspecies.
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In a 2013 book, also entitled "Probably Approximately Correct," Valiant generalized his PAC learning framework to encompass biological evolution as well.
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Humans understanding and appreciation for the natural world, and our preference for natural environments, could be the product of biological evolution.
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We are left concluding that the speed of such cooling may affect the rate and pattern of biological evolution on any potentially habitable planet.
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Language evolution can be compared to biological evolution, but whereas genetic change is driven by environmental pressures, languages change and develop through social pressures.
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Stanley is a pioneer in a field of artificial intelligence called neuroevolution, which co-opts the principles of biological evolution to design smarter algorithms.
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Biological evolution works on a nearly geological time scale, which suggests that human nature, as a partial product of our genes, is basically constant.
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The bill pending in Texas, for example, includes "climate change, biological evolution, the chemical origins of life, and human cloning" among its controversial theories.
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" The group adds, "Because the evidence supporting it is so strong, scientists no longer question whether biological evolution has occurred and is continuing to occur.
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Just as biological evolution is driven by survival of the fittest genes in the gene pool, cultural evolution may be driven out by the most successful memes.
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But while accelerating our own biological evolution in order to boost our chances of survival on Mars admittedly sounds badass, not everyone's convinced it's feasible, ethical, or necessary.
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So if biological evolution is a product of cosmological natural selection, it has a purpose in a defensible sense of that term—and we're part of that purpose.
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The fifth, which was caused by a gargantuan meteorite impact along Mexico's Yucatan coast, changed Earth's climate, took out the dinosaurs and altered the course of biological evolution.
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Following in the footsteps of Darwin, this was a flawed, but timely attempt to apply the startling new theories of biological evolution to other parts of human development.
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Instead, Wolfe trains his sights on biological evolution — specifically, Darwin's theory of natural selection — and what he sees as its inadequacy to account for the existence of human language.
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Charles Perrault, who studies human and cultural evolution at Arizona State University, published a 2012 study based on archaeological artifacts that concluded human culture moves 50 percent faster than biological evolution.
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If we gather more observations from biology and analyze them within this PAC-style learning framework, we should be able to figure out how and why biological evolution succeeds, and this would make our understanding of evolution more concrete and predictive.
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This study reveals that "a cellular automaton is not just an abstract concept, but corresponds to a process generated by biological evolution," Leah Edelstein-Keshet, a mathematician at the University of British Columbia, writes in a commentary published alongside Milinkovitch's paper.
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We may have been taught about plate tectonics and biological evolution, but we still sometimes act as though the earth and its occupants have always been the way they are now, and thus will stay that way in the future.
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Likewise, understanding the myriad processes and mechanisms of biological evolution is far more complicated than a belief that life was purposefully created by some powerful being, so the collection of pseudoscience beliefs under the umbrella terms "creationism" and "intelligent design" are common despite all scientific evidence to the contrary.
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The Israeli writer and historian Yuval Harari's book "Homo Deus," published this month in the United States, makes the case that the 21st century will see an effort "to upgrade humans into Gods" who will take over biological evolution, replacing chance with intelligent design oriented around our desires.
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But I will say that the evidence I see for purpose includes not just the direction of biological evolution, but the direction of technological evolution and of the broader social and cultural evolution it drives — the evolution that has carried us from hunter-gatherer bands to the brink of a cohesive global community.
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Cultural evolution, in other words, is generating conformity in the same sort of way that biological evolution does when the plumage of a male bird has to conform to female expectations of what a male looks like if that male is to mate successfully, even though the particular pattern of his plumage brings no other benefit.
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John Hawks is an associate professor of anthropology at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He also maintains a paleoanthropology blog. Contrary to the common view that cultural evolution has made human biological evolution insignificant, Hawks believes that biological evolution has sped up in recent history.
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In progenesis (also called paedogenesis), sexual development is accelerated.Volkenstein, M. V. 1994. Physical Approaches to Biological Evolution. Springer-Verlag: Berlin, .
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Cultural evolution follows punctuated equilibrium which Gould and Eldredge developed for biological evolution. BloomfieldBloomfield, Masse (1993). Mankind in Transition, Masefield Books.Bloomfield, Masse (1995).
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Agnostic evolution is the position of acceptance of biological evolution, combined with the belief that it is not important whether God is, was, or will have been involved.
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Boulding was an exponent of the evolutionary economics movement. In his "Economic Development as an Evolutionary System" (1961, 1964), Boulding suggests a parallel between economic development and biological evolution.
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In a lecture for the London Spiritualist Alliance, Hopps supported biological evolution and spiritualism.Oppenheim, Janet. (1988). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 270.
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He collaborated with the Halle paleontologist Christoph Gottfried Giebel. He compared the shells of molluscs, crustaceans, and those of eggs but he refused to accept the idea of biological evolution and was an avowed "Anti-Darwinist".
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The former draws on analogies with genetic and biological evolution in that it focuses on variation in cultural traits and attempts to reconstruct their phylogenetic histories. The latter views variation in artifacts as reflecting adaptive human behavior.
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Forms from this book were still being recommended for use in official Church publications in 1939. Keeler was also an outspoken opponent of biological evolution. Keeler was closely connected with both the Religion Classes and the YMMIA.
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Bio-inspired research is quite different from chemistry research. This research does not focus on complexity and microscopic things like molecular structure. It is based on observing and understanding the functions from the products of biological evolution.
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They believe that Adam, the prophet, was simply the first Prophet and not the first human on earth, as understood by them being in the Quran. Ahmadi Muslims do believe in the theory of biological evolution, albeit guided by God.
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Therefore, these living things did not necessarily evolve through a gradual process of natural selection. Rather, he posited, the process of evolution experiences jumps in complexity (such as the emergence of a self-reflective universe, or noosphere), in a sort of qualitative punctuated equilibrium. Finally, the complexification of human cultures, particularly language, facilitated a quickening of evolution in which cultural evolution occurs more rapidly than biological evolution. Recent understanding of human ecosystems and of human impact on the biosphere have led to a link between the notion of sustainability with the "co-evolution" and harmonization of cultural and biological evolution.
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Tyler Volk has authored seven books, most recently, Quarks to Culture: How We Came to Be Quarks to Culture explores the rhythm within what Tyler Volk calls the "grand sequence," a series of levels of sizes and innovations building from elementary quanta to globalized human civilization. The key is "combogenesis," the building-up from combination and integration to produce new things with innovative relations. Themes unfold in how physics and chemistry led to biological evolution, and biological evolution to cultural evolution. Volk develops an inclusive natural philosophy that brings clarity to our place in the world, a roadmap for our minds.
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Coleman, James S., and Thomas J. Fararo. 1992. Rational Choice Theory. New York: Sage. Lastly, as argued by Raewyn Connell, a tradition that is often forgotten is that of Social Darwinism, which applies the logic of Darwinian biological evolution to people and societies.
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Mara Gercik Haseltine (born 22 February 1971) is an American artist and environmental activist who has shown and worked internationally. She collaborates with scientists and engineers to create her work, which focuses on the link between human's shared cultural and biological evolution.
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Phoenix, AZ. 2nd Ed. (1993). Pg. 4. Leary uses the eight circuits along with recapitulation theory to explain the evolution of the human species, the personal development of an individual, and the biological evolution of all life.Leary, T. (1979) Game of Life.
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This rather complex theoretical structure underwent continuous modification in numerous publications as his memetic account of cultural evolution developed. He embraced Dawkins’ concept of the meme as the potent factor in cultural evolution, analogous to the function of the gene in biological evolution.
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Wagner A (2005) Distributed robustness versus redundancy as causes of mutational robustness. Bioessays 27:176-188. Wagner showed that robustness can accelerate innovation in biological evolution, because it helps organisms tolerate otherwise deleterious mutations that can help create new and useful traits.
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Rational Choice Theory: Advocacy and Critique. Key Issues in Sociological Theory 7. New York: SAGE. . Lastly, as argued by Raewyn Connell (2007), a tradition that is often forgotten is that of social Darwinism, which applies the logic of biological evolution to the social world.
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Modern descriptions of biological evolution will typically elaborate on major contributing factors to evolution such as the formation of local micro-environments, mutational robustness, molecular degeneracy, and cryptic genetic variation. Many of these contributing factors in evolution have been isolated and described for cancer.
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In the late 20th century, studies of symbolism and learning in the field of cultural anthropology suggested that "both biological evolution and the stages in the child's cognitive development follow much the same progression of evolutionary stages as that suggested in the archaeological record".
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Harcourt, Brace & World, pp. 217–223. In his book Human Destiny he wrote that biological evolution continues to a spiritual and moral plane. Du Noüy met Pierre Teilhard de Chardin who shared similar interests in evolution and spirituality.Shuster, George Nauman, and Ralph E. Thorson (1970).
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Fernandes has been awarded the Seaside Startup Summit 2018 Award, Startup@Singapore Award, the First National Technopreneurship competition Award (Singapore), "Best Business Plan" award from Sybase at the Global Entrepreneurs Challenge at Stanford University, California, the Childnet International Award (UK) in 1999 and in 2000 he was featured on Rediff.com's "Achiever Track". In 2015, he won the Asian Scientist Writing Prize, for his piece entitled Moore’s Law and Evolution: How non biological evolution made Charles Darwin irrelevant, which focused on how evolution has been far outpaced by non-biological evolution and the age of the cyborg. He also holds a patent for a Network DVR.
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Boulding is widely known for his criticism of mainstream economists' use of equilibrium analysis and, in particular, for the profession's acceptance of what Boulding calls "Samuelson's dynamics" (originating with the Foundations (1947)). To appreciate his position, it is important to reflect on the different time scales in biological evolution and what Boulding calls social or societal evolution. With the advent of the human capacity for developing complex images (1950), social evolution has proceeded orders of magnitude faster than biological evolution. Changes, for example, in the size of the human brain have occurred orders of magnitude more slowly than social and economic changes in the last ten millennia.
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Comparisons between these genomes provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of speciation and adaptation. These genomic analyses have produced fundamental changes in the understanding of the evolutionary history of life, such as the proposal of the three-domain system by Carl Woese. Advances in computational hardware and software allow the testing and extrapolation of increasingly advanced evolutionary models and the development of the field of systems biology. One of the results has been an exchange of ideas between theories of biological evolution and the field of computer science known as evolutionary computation, which attempts to mimic biological evolution for the purpose of developing new computer algorithms.
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However tempos of socio-cultural evolution are much faster than those of biological evolution: socio-cultural evolution has no need to wait for generations to change. While biological evolution has not terminated even a single stage of homo sapiens, socio-cultural evolution has gone through the Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Eneolithic, Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages, and all epochs of civilization, and has now entered the Atomic and Computer Age. Yet our psycho-physiological characteristics remain the same as in the Stone Age – they were, and are, adapted to those conditions. This accords with Freud's observation: we are discontent with modern culture because we are not by our nature adapted to it.
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Supercontinents can cause a drop in global temperatures and an increase in atmospheric oxygen. This, in turn, can affect the climate, further lowering temperatures. All of these changes can result in more rapid biological evolution as new niches emerge. The formation of a supercontinent insulates the mantle.
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Osvaldo Alfredo Reig, (14 August 1929 – 13 March 1992), was an Argentine biologist and paleontologist. He was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He made numerous contributions in the fields of paleontology and biological evolution. He studied at the Universidad de La Plata, but did not complete his studies.
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Technodiversity exists within these technoecosystems. In direct parallel to the concept of the ecosphere, human civilization has also created a technosphere. The way that the human species engineers or constructs technodiversity into the environment, threads back into the processes of cultural and biological evolution, including the human economy.
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The biological evolution may be explained through a thermodynamic theory. The four laws of thermodynamics are used to frame the biological theory behind evolution. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can not be created or destroyed. No life can create energy but must obtain it through its environment.
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Hooke's 1665 book Micrographia spurred microscopic investigations. Thus observing microscopic fossils, Hooke endorsed biological evolution. Investigating in optics, specifically light refraction, he inferred a wave theory of light. And his is the first recorded hypothesis of heat expanding matter, air's composition by small particles at larger distances, and heat as energy.
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He was elected as a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 2009 for "revealing connections between biological evolution and Earth history in diverse groups of organisms", and was awarded the 2011 Penn State Faculty Scholar Medal for Outstanding Achievement in the Life and Health Sciences.
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An evolutionary approach develops candidate solutions and then, in a manner similar to biological evolution, performs a series of random alterations or combinations of these solutions and evaluates the new results against a fitness function. The most fit or promising results are selected for additional iterations, to achieve an overall optimal solution.
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Edward Loranus Rice (1871-1960) was a biologist and educator who served as the acting president of Ohio Wesleyan University. He was best known for his 1924 debate with William Jennings Bryan on the topic of biological evolution and serving as a scientific consultant to Clarence Darrow before the 1925 Scopes trial.
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A neuron either fires or not "reducing the babble of its inputs to a single bit". He also greatly admires genetic algorithms which mimic biological evolution to great effect. Recursion, neural nets and genetic algorithms are all components of intelligent machines, Kurzweil explains. Beyond algorithms Kurzweil says the machines will also need knowledge.
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Wagner's work has also contributed to long-standing philosophical problems in biology, such as the role of causality and randomness in biological evolution,Wagner A (2012) The role of randomness in Darwinian Evolution. Philosophy of Science 79:95-119.Wagner A (1999) Causality in complex systems. Biology and Philosophy 14(1):83-101.
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Some may be of some limited utility to an organism but still degenerate over time if they do not confer a significant enough advantage in terms of fitness to avoid the effects of genetic drift or competing selective pressures. Vestigiality in its various forms presents many examples of evidence for biological evolution.
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Andreas Wagner (born 26 January 1967) is an Austrian/US evolutionary biologist and professor at the University of Zürich, Switzerland. He is known for his work on the role of robustness and innovation in biological evolution. Wagner is professor and chairman at the Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies at the University of Zürich.
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Skreen, Church of Ireland in County Sligo. Stokes held conservative religious values and beliefs. In 1886, he became president of the Victoria Institute, which had been founded to defend evangelical Christian principles against challenges from the new sciences, especially the Darwinian theory of biological evolution. He gave the 1891 Gifford lecture on natural theology.
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He was also an early literate proponent of biological evolution, maintaining that humans and other apes have common ancestors. He was executed in Toulouse. Vanini was born at Taurisano near Lecce, and studied philosophy and theology at Naples. Afterwards, he applied himself to the physical studies, chiefly medicine and astronomy, which had come into vogue with the Renaissance.
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The term evolvability is used for a recent framework of computational learning introduced by Leslie Valiant in his paper of the same name and described below. The aim of this theory is to model biological evolution and categorize which types of mechanisms are evolvable. Evolution is an extension of PAC learning and learning from statistical queries.
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He is also author of books "Physico-chemical factors of biological evolution" (1979) and "Heroes, villains, and conformists of Russian Science" (2001).WorldCat author page He mentored 70 successful PhD students. A minor planet «Shnollia» was named after him. During many years, Simon Shnoll was a jury chairman on Biology Olympiads conducted at Moscow State University.
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Materialistic evolution is the acceptance of biological evolution, combined with the position that if the supernatural exists, it has little to no influence on the material world (a position common to philosophical naturalists, humanists and atheists). The New Atheists champion this view; they argue strongly that the creationist viewpoint is not only dangerous, but is completely rejected by science.
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BioSystems 90: 340–349Igamberdiev, A.U. (2014) Time rescaling and pattern formation in biological evolution. BioSystems 123: 19–26Igamberdiev, A.U. (2018) Hyper-restorative non- equilibrium state as a driving force of biological morphogenesis. BioSystems 173: 104–113 natural philosophy,Igamberdiev, A.U. (2018) Time and life in the relational universe: prolegomena to an integral paradigm of natural philosophy.
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Kock is best known for employing biological evolution ideas to the understanding of human behavior toward technologies, particularly information technologies. He developed media naturalness theory, an evolutionary communication media theory. Kock is the writer of a popular blog on the intersection of evolution, statistics, and health. He developed WarpPLS, a nonlinear variance-based structural equation modeling software tool.
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Sanford has argued for devolution in his book Genetic Entropy & the Mystery of the Genome (2005, 2008). In it, he claims that natural selection's being the cause of biological evolution (which he calls the primary axiom) "is essentially indefensible". His argument is as follows. The minimal rate of human mutation is estimated to be 100 new mutations per generation.
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He elucidated socio-biological evolution. He expands the idea of the Pakistani philosopher Sir Muhammad Iqbal that every living organism on Earth is tightly attached to it and it needs an anti-gravitational force to get rid of Earth-rootedness. He calls this freedom from Earth-Rootedness. He asserts that, being nearer the Earth degrades the value of life.
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"The Selfish Gene: Chapter 11 - Summary & Analysis." LitCharts. Dawkins wrote that evolution depended not on the particular chemical basis of genetics, but only on the existence of a self-replicating unit of transmission—in the case of biological evolution, the gene. For Dawkins, the meme exemplified another self-replicating unit with potential significance in explaining human behavior and cultural evolution.
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They examined the behaviour and life cycles of finches, demonstrating the role of natural selection in producing biological evolution. Their efforts were documented in the Pulitzer Prize–winning book The Beak of the Finch. Daphne is home to a variety of other birds including Galápagos martins, blue-footed booby, Nazca booby, short-eared owls, red-billed tropicbirds and magnificent frigatebirds.
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Quaternary Science Reviews Volume 27, Issues 9-10, May 2008, Pages 1024-1046 Naomi Porat and Greg Botha The geological history of the region suggests that the current ecosystems here may be of recent derivation and many endemic plant taxa comply with the concept of neo- endemics (recent locally evolved species), and biological evolution (notably speciation) is still in an active phase.
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The underlying theme of the essay is the need to teach biological evolution in the context of debate about creation and evolution in public education in the United States. The fact that evolution occurs explains the interrelatedness of the various facts of biology, and so makes biology make sense. The concept has become firmly established as a unifying idea in biology education.
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Monboddo was one of a number of scholars involved at the time in development of early concepts of biological evolution. Some credit him with anticipating in principle the idea of natural selection that was read by (and acknowledged in the writings of) Erasmus Darwin. Charles Darwin read the works of his grandfather Erasmus and later developed the ideas into a scientific theory.
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Bonner was involved with one of the earliest American efforts to express scientific support for evolution. The Nobel Prize–winning American biologist Hermann J. Muller circulated a petition in May 1966 entitled: "Is Biological Evolution a Principle of Nature that has been well established by Science?".Bales, James D., Forty-Two Years on the Firing Line, Lambert, Shreveport, LA, p.71-72, 1977.
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The program for the Darwin Centennial Celebration centered on a series of panel discussions that featured well-known scholars from a wide range of fields, from astronomers and biochemists to geneticists and systematists to psychologists and physiologists to anthropologists. There were five panels, arranged to go from the origin of life to the evolution of life to man's physical, mental and then sociocultural evolution. The center panels that focused on biological evolution included a number of the "architects" of the evolutionary synthesis and other important figures in the young discipline of evolutionary biology. The evolutionary biologists had attempted to make biological evolution more prominent in the program, feeling that the origin of life research of biochemists and astronomers was too speculative while social science evolutionary research was in its infancy (with much of the anthropology community still opposed to evolutionism).
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Doctor of biological sciences, Senior Research Professor of the Paleontological Institute, RAS. Professor of the RAS. During the Phanerozoic the biodiversity shows a steady but not monotonic increase from near zero to several thousands of genera. In collaboration with Andrey Korotayev he has demonstrated that a rather simple mathematical model can be developed to describe in a rather accurate way the macrotrends of biological evolution.
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The ideosphere, much like the noosphere, is the realm of memetic evolution, just like the biosphere is the realm of biological evolution. It is the "place" where thoughts, theories and ideas are thought to be created, evaluated and evolved. The health of an ideosphere can be measured by its memetic diversity. The ideosphere is not considered to be a physical place by most people.
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Probabilistic prognosis means the anticipation of future events based on a probabilistic structure of past experiences of individual and present situations. Past experiences and present situations help to create hypothesis about the forthcoming future and attributes certain probabilities to them. According to probabilistic prognosis, the preparation of an individual occurs to corresponding actions. This ability is the result of biological evolution in a probabilistically organized environment.
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Optimus Prime, , is a fictional character created by the Transformers franchise. He is a Cybertronian, a fictional extraterrestrial species of sentient self-configuring modular robotic lifeforms (e.g.: cars and other objects), a synergistic blend of biological evolution and technological engineering. In almost every version of the mythos, Optimus is the leader of the Autobots, a faction of Transformers who are rivals of the Decepticons, another faction.
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Fivefold symmetry is found in the echinoderms, the group that includes starfish, sea urchins, and sea lilies. In biology, the notion of symmetry is also used as in physics, that is to say to describe the properties of the objects studied, including their interactions. A remarkable property of biological evolution is the changes of symmetry corresponding to the appearance of new parts and dynamics.
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Autoconstructive evolution is a process in which the entities undergoing evolutionary change are themselves responsible for the construction of their own offspring and thus for aspects of the evolutionary process itself. Because biological evolution is always autoconstructive, this term mainly occurs in evolutionary computation, to distinguish artificial life type systems from conventional genetic algorithms where the GA performs replication artificially. The term was coined by Lee Spector.
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In-depth analysis of human endowment is attributed to theories and perceptions of human evolution. The biological and cultural evolution is an on-going process that shapes similarities and distinctive human attributes. Biological and cultural evolution co-exist to influence human activities. Biological evolution is determined by genes or hereditary which naturally gives individuals the ability to speak the language of their associated communities.
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Cited also is the traditional Jewish view of Adam's disobedience, p.333.Cf., Erich Neumann, Depth Psychology and a New Ethic (Zurich 1949; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons 1969), p.66. > > In the multiple discussions referenced above, Zaehner is referring to the > long-term cultural evolution of human societies, which happens in the wake > of the billion-year biological evolution by natural selection. Of the later > our bodies are heirs.
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Ruthild Winkler-Oswatitsch (born 1941, also known as Ruthild Oswatitsch Eigen) is an Austrian biochemist associated with the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Germany, and known for two books she coauthored with Nobel prize winner Manfred Eigen. Her research has concerned fast biochemical reactions, game-theoretic models for molecular evolution, and the use of sequence analysis of DNA and RNA in studying the early history of biological evolution.
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New York: Plenum Press. Dunnell received his PhD from Yale University in 1967. He was a professor of anthropology at the University of Washington until his retirement in 1996 after which he was emeritus at the University of Washington as well as Mississippi State University. Among Dunnell's contribution to archaeology was the recognition of the role the theory of biological evolution as a means of explaining cultural phenomena.
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On occasion the AGU Council issues position statements on matters affecting public policy that are related to geophysics. These include biological evolution, natural hazards, science education and funding, and climate change. The AGU adopted its first position statement on climate change in December 1998. That statement began The statement continued, After a discussion of scientific uncertainties the statement concluded The adopted position statement was backed up by a detailed supporting document.
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In the science of biology, a mechanism is a system of causally interacting parts and processes that produce one or more effects. Scientists explain phenomena by describing mechanisms that could produce the phenomena. For example, natural selection is a mechanism of biological evolution; other mechanisms of evolution include genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. In ecology, mechanisms such as predation and host-parasite interactions produce change in ecological systems.
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He also gives 75 differences between autoevolution and neo-Darwinism. Lima-de-Faria wrote that "In the framework of autoevolutionism, orthogenesis appears as the direct result of the canalization inherent to the evolutions that preceded biological evolution, and as a result of the autonomous evolutions that occur within the cell and the organism."Lima-de- Faria, A. (1988). Evolution Without Selection: Form and Function by Autoevolution. Elsevier. p.
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In modern times, exponential knowledge progressions therefore change at an ever increasing rate. Depending on the progression this tends to lead toward explosive growth at some point. A simple exponential curve that represents this accelerating change phenomenon could be modeled by a doubling function. This fast rate of knowledge doubling, leads up to the basic proposed hypothesis of the technological singularity: the rate at which technology progression surpasses human biological evolution.
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Aspects of the carbonate-silicate cycle have changed through Earth history as a result of biological evolution and tectonic changes. Generally, the formation of carbonates has outpaced that of silicates, effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The advent of carbonate biomineralization near the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary would have allowed more efficient removal of weathering products from the ocean. Biological processes in soils can significantly increase weathering rates.
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The fields of sociobiology and evolutionary psychology attempt to explain animal and human behavior and social structures, largely in terms of evolutionarily stable strategies. Sociopathy (chronic antisocial or criminal behavior) may be a result of a combination of two such strategies. Evolutionarily stable strategies were originally considered for biological evolution, but they can apply to other contexts. In fact, there are stable states for a large class of adaptive dynamics.
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Later he worked at the University of Buenos Aires in the Department of Biological Sciences working with the biological evolution of mammals. In 1966 he began work at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. He worked for almost fifteen years at the Central University of Venezuela and the Simón Bolívar University. In 1973 he received his PhD in Zoology and Paleontology from the University of London.
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These early humans showcase the early beginnings of both social and biological evolution ideals. They were egalitarian by nature, hunting enough food and shelter, while the division of labor was predominantly gender-based with the advancement of hunting. Additionally, the domestication of animals and plants sparked the Neolithic Revolution. The transition was slow-forth as more developed societies began to develop more effective agricultural methods to meet their needs.
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Creation of the Worlds : May it be that instead of painstaking research we can "grow" new information from available information in an automatic way? Starting with this question Lem evolves the concept to the creation of whole new Universes, including (as a special treat) the construction of a heaven/hell/afterlife enabled one. ; 8. Pasquinade on Evolution : Biological evolution did a rather lousy job designing humans and other animals.
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Anatomical comparison of the skulls of anatomically modern humans (left) and Homo neanderthalensis (right) The emergence of archaic humans is sometimes used as an example of punctuated equilibrium. This occurs when a species undergoes significant biological evolution within a relatively short period. Subsequently, the species undergoes very little change for long periods until the next punctuation. The brain size of archaic humans expanded significantly from in erectus to .
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Its lifetime as calculated from this assumption using the virial theorem, around 19 million years, was found inconsistent with the interpretation of geological records and the (then new) theory of biological evolution. Alternatively, if the Sun consisted entirely of a fossil fuel like coal, considering the rate of its thermal energy emission, its lifetime would be merely four or five thousand years, clearly inconsistent with records of human civilization.
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Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, chevalier de Lamarck (1 August 1744 – 18 December 1829), often known simply as Lamarck (;"Lamarck". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. ), was a French naturalist. He was a soldier, biologist, and academic, and an early proponent of the idea that biological evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws. Lamarck fought in the Pomeranian War (1757–62) against Prussia, and was awarded a commission for bravery on the battlefield.
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Proponents theorize that memes are a viral phenomenon that may evolve by natural selection in a manner analogous to that of biological evolution. Memes do this through the processes of variation, mutation, competition, and inheritance, each of which influences a meme's reproductive success. Memes spread through the behavior that they generate in their hosts. Memes that propagate less prolifically may become extinct, while others may survive, spread, and (for better or for worse) mutate.
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For instance, he found that the gut bacterium Proteus mirabilis forms complex terraced rings, an emergent property of simple rules that the bacterium uses to avoid neighboring cells. He has proposed the term natural genetic engineering to account for how novelty is created in the course of biological evolution. It has been criticized by some.Bezak, Eva (2011). "(Review) Evolution: A View from the 21st Century". Australasian Physical & Engineering Science in Medicine 34 (4): 643–645.
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Traditional farming systems of Latin America were forged from a need to subsist on limited means. These techniques were developed from centuries of cultural and biological evolution by combining experiences and methods of other peasant farmers using locally available resources. Due to its origins Latin American, agroecology represents a low impact form of agriculture. Modern agriculture had become a process of "artificialization of nature" producing a monoculture of a very few crop species.
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Connie Gersick's research on the evolution of organizational systems (1988, 1991) revealed patterns of change mirroring those in biological species. Gersick examined models of change in six domains - developmental patterns of adults, groups and organizations, the history of science, physical science, and biological evolution - and found evidence for punctuated equilibria (as opposed to steady, incremental change) across those disparate systems.Gersick, Connie (1991). "Revolutionary Change Theories: A Multilevel Exploration of the Punctuated Equilibrium Paradigm".
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In a review of Behe's paper 'Design vs. Randomness in Evolution: Where Do the Data Point?', Denis Lamoureux criticised Darwin's Black Box as having become central to fundamentalist and evangelical anti-evolution critiques against biological evolution. Behe supports the historically incorrect misrepresentation that Darwin's views on the origin of life were atheistic, when On the Origin of Species repeatedly refers to a Creator in a positive and supportive context as impressing laws on matter.
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Larsen has authored or co- authored over 100 published scientific papers and has been cited over 1200 times. Her most notable publications focus on the formation of aquatic landscapes such as the Florida Everglades and strategies for restoration of these spaces. These topics were previously considered untestable due to the large difference in timescales between the forces forming these landscapes (i.e. hydraulic transport) and the resulting changes in geomorphic and biological evolution.
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In the early 1900s, many general authorities, specifically those with science backgrounds, subscribed to the idea of an old earth, yet most of them rejected Darwinism. Joseph Fielding Smith and other general authorities were against the old earth theory as well as Darwin's theory of evolution. Individual leaders of the Church have expressed a variety of personal opinions on biological evolution and as such these do not necessarily constitute official Church doctrine.
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The parameters are always changing. I > describe econometrics as the attempt to find the celestial mechanics of non- > existent universes. (1991) Biological evolution gives considerable emphasis to the ability of organisms to adapt to unpredictable change—their survival value. In his words, :...the perception of potential threats to survival may be much more important in determining behavior than the perceptions of potential profits, so that profit maximization is not really the driving force.
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Simon Conway Morris (born 1951) is an English palaeontologist, evolutionary biologist, and astrobiologist known for his study of the fossils of the Burgess Shale and the Cambrian explosion. The results of these discoveries were celebrated in Stephen Jay Gould's 1989 book Wonderful Life. Conway Morris's own book on the subject, The Crucible of Creation (1998), however, is critical of Gould's presentation and interpretation. Conway Morris, a Christian, holds to theistic views of biological evolution.
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Understanding the evolution of the human body can help medical doctors better understand and treat various disorders. Research in evolutionary medicine suggests that diseases are prevalent because natural selection favors reproduction over health and longevity. In addition, biological evolution is slower than cultural evolution and humans evolve more slowly than pathogens.Anatomical diagram of myopia or nearsightedness.A 2015 study found that the frequency of nearsightedness has doubled in the United Kingdom within the last 50 years.
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National Academy of Sciences (2008), > Science, Evolution, and Creationism. From the American Association for the Advancement of Science: > A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of > the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly > confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories > are not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of > biological evolution is more than "just a theory".
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The Big Valley Creation Science Museum is a creationist museum in Big Valley, Alberta, Canada. The institution is dedicated to promoting creation science and young-earth creationism as a faith-based alternative to biological evolution as presented in natural history museums. The institution is the first creationist museum to open in Canada. The museum opened to the public on 5 June 2007 by Harry Nibourg, an oil field worker with little formal education.
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Autobots typically transform into regular cars, trucks, or other road vehicles (automobiles) but some are aircraft, military vehicles, communication devices, weapons, and even robotic animals. These Autobots are often grouped into special "teams" that have the suffix "-bot" at the end, such as in Dinobot (Decepticon groups' names end in "-con"). Autobots are a sub-race of Cybertronian, a fictional species of sentient self-configuring modular robotic lifeforms. They are a synergistic blend of biological evolution and technological engineering.
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This principle became one of Darwin's chief pieces of evidence that biological evolution was real. Georges Cuvier came to believe that most if not all the animal fossils he examined were remains of extinct species. This led Cuvier to become an active proponent of the geological school of thought called catastrophism. Near the end of his 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants he said: Interest in fossils, and geology more generally, expanded during the early nineteenth century.
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Ontogeny and Phylogeny is a 1977 book on evolution by Stephen Jay Gould, in which the author explores the relationship between embryonic development (ontogeny) and biological evolution (phylogeny). Unlike his many popular books of essays, it was a technical book, and over the following decades it was influential in stimulating research into heterochrony, changes in the timing of embryonic development, which had been neglected since Ernst Haeckel's theory that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny had been largely discredited.
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Hume's empiricism and biological evolution (including Herbert Spencer) were chief features in English thought during the third quarter of the 19th century. Green represents primarily the reaction against such doctrines. Green argued that when these doctrines were carried to their logical conclusion, they not only "rendered all philosophy futile", but were fatal to practical life. By reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated atomic sensations, these related teachings destroyed the possibility of knowledge, he argued.
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UK: John Murray. Along with standard biological evolution, life and planet co-evolve. Since the best adaptations are those that suit the ecological niche that the organism lives in, the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment drive the evolution of life by natural selection, but the opposite can also be true: with every advent of evolution, the environment changes. A classic example of co-evolution is the evolution of oxygen-producing photosynthetic cyanobacteria which oxygenated Earth's Archean atmosphere.
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The nineteenth-century positivists concept of measurable deterministic time became untenable as Henri Bergson exposed his radical idea that the human experience of time was a creative process associated with biological evolution. He rejected the division of space into separate measurable units. Both Bergson and William James described the intellect as an instrumental tool, a by-product of evolution. The intellect was no longer considered a cognitive faculty able to grasp reality in an impartial manner.
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As it is scientifically hypothesised that the first replicating systems must be simple structure, most likely before any enzymes or templates existed, chemoton provides a plausible scenario. As an autocatalytic but non-genetic entity, it predates the enzyme-dependent precursors of life, such as RNA World. But being capable of self-replication and producing variant metabolites, it possibly could be an entity with the first biological evolution, therefore, the origin of the unit of Darwinian selection.
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A protocell (or protobiont) is a self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical collection of lipids proposed as a stepping-stone toward the origin of life. A central question in evolution is how simple protocells first arose and how they could differ in reproductive output, thus enabling the accumulation of novel biological emergences over time, i.e. biological evolution. Although a functional protocell has not yet been achieved in a laboratory setting, the goal to understand the process appears well within reach.
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Daniel L. Stein (born August 19, 1953) is an American physicist and Professor of Physics and Mathematics at New York University. From 2006-2012 he served as the NYU Dean of Science. He has contributed to a wide range of scientific fields. His early research covered diverse topics, including theoretical work on protein biophysics, biological evolution, amorphous semiconductors, quantum liquids, topology of order parameter spaces, liquid crystals, neutron stars, and the interface between particle physics and cosmology.
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Biological evolution could not have individually produced each of these cognitive capabilities within that period of time. Instead, humans must have evolved the capacity to learn through cultural transmission (Tomasello, 1999). This provides a more plausible explanation that would fit within the given time frame. Instead of having to biologically account for each cognitive mechanism that distinguishes modern humans from previous relatives, one would only have to account for one significant biological adaptation for cultural learning.
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Darwinism subsequently referred to the specific concepts of natural selection, the Weismann barrier, or the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work, in place of other concepts, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins. English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860.
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In Der Kampf ums Dasein am Himmel, von Prel endeavoured to apply the Darwinian doctrine of biological evolution not only to the sphere of consciousness but also even more widely as the philosophical principle of the world. He was one of a large number of German thinkers who, during the latter half of the nineteenth century, endeavored to treat the mind as a mechanism. His interest in Darwinism was also tied to a belief in extraterrestrial life.
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In animals, the zygote divides repeatedly to form a ball of cells, which then forms a set of tissue layers that migrate and fold to form an early embryo. Images of embryos provide a means of comparing embryos of different ages, and species. To this day, embryo drawings are made in undergraduate developmental biology lessons. Comparing different embryonic stages of different animals is a tool that can be used to infer relationships between species, and thus biological evolution.
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The scientific method can be regarded as containing an element of trial and error in its formulation and testing of hypotheses. Also compare genetic algorithms, simulated annealing and reinforcement learning – all varieties for search which apply the basic idea of trial and error. Biological evolution can be considered as a form of trial and error. Random mutations and sexual genetic variations can be viewed as trials and poor reproductive fitness, or lack of improved fitness, as the error.
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Miguel de Cervantes, novelist who is acknowledged as a literary genius Bobby Fischer, considered a chess genius The assessment of intelligence was initiated by Francis Galton (1822–1911) and James McKeen Cattell. They had advocated the analysis of reaction time and sensory acuity as measures of "neurophysiological efficiency" and the analysis of sensory acuity as a measure of intelligence. Galton is regarded as the founder of psychometry. He studied the work of his older half-cousin Charles Darwin about biological evolution.
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In computer science, evolutionary computation is a family of algorithms for global optimization inspired by biological evolution, and the subfield of artificial intelligence and soft computing studying these algorithms. In technical terms, they are a family of population-based trial and error problem solvers with a metaheuristic or stochastic optimization character. In evolutionary computation, an initial set of candidate solutions is generated and iteratively updated. Each new generation is produced by stochastically removing less desired solutions, and introducing small random changes.
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According to Thompson, this indicates that finding a balance is very difficult for women. Women have the desire for permanency and this can cause a conflict: on the one hand women are, like men, indoctrinated with the ideas of success and on the other hand they hope to get married and have children. Clara Thompson wanted to stress that all societies make some distinction between men and women roles but that these distinctions may have little to do with biological evolution.
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The word evolution in a broad sense refers to processes of change, from stellar evolution to changes in language. In biology, the meaning is more specific: heritable changes which accumulate over generations of a population. Individual organisms do not evolve in their lifetimes, but variations in the genes they inherit can become more or less common in the population of organisms. Any changes during the lifetime of organisms which are not inherited by their offspring are not part of biological evolution.
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J. Craig Venter Both Eigen and Sol Spiegelman demonstrated that evolution, including replication, variation, and natural selection, can occur in populations of molecules as well as in organisms. Following on from chemical evolution came the initiation of biological evolution, which led to the first cells. No one has yet synthesized a "protocell" using simple components with the necessary properties of life (the so-called "bottom-up-approach"). Without such a proof-of-principle, explanations have tended to focus on chemosynthesis.
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They maintain that humanity's existence is not by intelligent design but rather a natural process of emergence. With the protoplanetary disk creating planetary bodies, including the Sun and moon, conditions for life to arise billions of years ago, along with the natural formation of plate tectonics, the atmosphere, land masses, and the origin of oceans would also contribute to the kickstarting of biological evolution to occur after the arrival of the earliest organisms, as evidenced through the geological time scale.
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In 2016, House Bill 50 was proposed that "would allow educators to teach several theories about how the universe was created" and "allow teachers to answer questions from students about their personal beliefs". According to The Huffington Post: "The bill doesn't mention creationism by name but refers specifically to biological evolution, the chemical origins of life, global warming and human cloning." Current law does not allow teachers to discuss their personal religious beliefs with students at school. In 2015, Sen.
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To Dawkins, ideas are often like pathogens or parasites, replicating throughout human populations, sometimes quite virulently, with evangelical religion being a salient example. Doubts about the reliability and accuracy of idea replication suggest Dawkins' own view of cultural evolution may not work. But his general approach has gained some popularity, as illustrated by works which explore the interaction between cultural and biological evolution, such as Peter Richerson and Robert Boyd's Not By Genes Alone,. as well as Eytan Avital and Eva Jablonka's Animal Traditions.
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Ellen Baake (born 1961) is a German mathematical biologist who works as a professor of biomathematics and theoretical bioinformatics at Bielefeld University. Her research uses probability theory and differential equations to study biological evolution; she has also studied mathematical immunobiology and the mathematical modeling of photosynthesis. Baake earned a diploma in biology in 1985 from the University of Bonn, and completed her Ph.D. there in theoretical biology in 1989. Her dissertation, Ein Differentialgleichungsmodell zur Beschreibung der Fluoreszenzinduktion (OIDP- Kinetik) der Photosynthese, was supervised by .
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This minor planet was named in memory of English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882), the first to establish the theory of biological evolution. While on research in Argentina, he crossed the Andes relatively near to the Leoncito Astronomical Complex where the minor planet was discovered. The asteroid also honors George Darwin (1845–1912), his second son who was a noted astronomer for his pioneering application of detailed dynamical analyses to problems of cosmogony and geology. The Darwins are also honored by the lunar and Martian craters Darwin.
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In computer science, imperialist competitive algorithms are a type of computational method used to solve optimization problems of different types. Like most of the methods in the area of evolutionary computation, ICA does not need the gradient of the function in its optimization process. From a specific point of view, ICA can be thought of as the social counterpart of genetic algorithms (GAs). ICA is the mathematical model and the computer simulation of human social evolution, while GAs are based on the biological evolution of species.
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During his student days, Lever became acquainted with the biologist Johann Heinrich Diemer, who had published about Dooyeweerd's approach in the domain of biology in the 1930s. Diemer was a great influence on Lever's thought. Together with Dooyeweerd, Lever wrote four articles about the species concept in the journal Philosophia Reformata (1948–1950) in which species were defined as constant types. In his book, Creatie en Evolutie (1956), Lever still subscribed to Dooyeweerd’s philosophy but also suggested that it is possible that biological evolution occurred.
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Naqvi has also been interested in the history of ideas, public and private support of scientific research, and the role of the peer-review process in the dissemination of scientific information; in teaching mathematics and statistics to those whose talents lie elsewhere; and in promoting the acceptance of biological evolution in societies opposed to it on the basis of a literal interpretation of sacred texts. In 2015, he published a book entitled “Can Science Come Back to Islam?” and more recently “Calculus Without Hocus Pocus”.
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It is also he and not Darwin who coined the phrase survival of the fittest. Much of the positivist ideas of progress that dominated the social science philosophy of Spencer and subsequent Social Darwinists has been criticized by present-day sociologists, but such ideas continue to be one of the major critiques made by creationists against evolution in general, even though strict biological evolution does not depend on it nor offer any type of endorsement of so-called "Social Darwinism" or its derivative philosophies such as eugenics.
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To this William James objects in his essay Are We Automata? by stating an evolutionary argument for mind-brain interaction implying that if the preservation and development of consciousness in the biological evolution is a result of natural selection, it is plausible that consciousness has not only been influenced by neural processes, but has had a survival value itself; and it could only have had this if it had been efficacious. Karl Popper develops in the book The Self and Its Brain a similar evolutionary argument.
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There were however notable differences between the work of Lester Frank Ward's and Tylor's approaches. Lester Frank Ward developed Spencer's theory but unlike Spencer, who considered the evolution to be general process applicable to the entire world, physical and sociological, Ward differentiated sociological evolution from biological evolution. He stressed that humans create goals for themselves and strive to realise them, whereas there is no such intelligence and awareness guiding the non-human world, which develops more or less at random. He created a hierarchy of evolution processes.
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Julian Steward thus linked multilinear evolution with the idea of cultural ecology. Anthropologists Marshall Sahlins and Elman Service wrote a book, Evolution and Culture, in which they attempted to synthesize White's and Steward's approaches. Sahlins and Service argue that societies develop through a process of specialized adaptions to their habitat and neighbouring societies, and that variations in environments and historical contacts are what leads to cultural diversification. Cultural evolution had previously been treated much like biological evolution, but many anthropologists were quick to dismiss this comparison.
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The process-as-immanence argument is meant to deal with Phillip Johnson's contention that naturalism reduces God to a distant entity. According to Peacocke, God continuously creates the world and sustains it in its general order and structure; He makes things make themselves. Biological evolution is an example of this and, according to Peacocke, should be taken as a reminder of God's immanence. It shows us that "God is the Immanent Creator creating in and through the processes of natural order [italics in original]".
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In 1967, Toulmin served as literary executor for close friend N.R. Hanson, helping in the posthumous publication of several volumes. While at the University of California, Santa Cruz, Toulmin published Human Understanding: The Collective Use and Evolution of Concepts (1972), which examines the causes and the processes of conceptual change. In this book, Toulmin uses a novel comparison between conceptual change and Charles Darwin's model of biological evolution to analyse the process of conceptual change as an evolutionary process. The book confronts major philosophical questions as well.
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From the American Association for the Advancement of Science: > A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of > the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly > confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories > are not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of > biological evolution is more than "just a theory." It is as factual an > explanation of the universe as the atomic theory of matter or the germ > theory of disease.
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The posited relationship between economic theory, energy and entropy, has been extended further by systems scientists to explain the role of energy in biological evolution in terms of such economic criteria as productivity, efficiency, and especially the costs and benefits of the various mechanisms for capturing and utilizing available energy to build biomass and do work.Peter A. Corning. 2002. “Thermoeconomics – Beyond the Second Law ” – source: www.complexsystems.org Various student movements have emerged in response to the exclusion of heterodox economics in the curricula of most economics degrees.
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Movie still from chapter 'The Media' ("Glossary of Broken Dreams", 2018). Michael J. Epstein on set of Johannes Grenzfurthner's film "Glossary of Broken Dreams" (November 2018). Capitalism/Market/Freedom With Stuart Freeman (as Brian Ewok) and Conny Lee (as Madame Juju) An introduction to the basic ruleset of capitalist society and its historical formation. Competition With Harald Homolka List (as Hans Platzgaumer) and Bronwynn Mertz-Penzinger (as Platzgaumer's Cerebral Cortex) An analysis of the pros and cons of competitive systems (like capitalism and biological evolution).
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After suggesting that it would become possible for a computer to be programmed so as to have a soul, he wondered: at what point during biological evolution did the first organism have a soul? At what moment does a baby get a soul? Crick stated his view that the idea of a non-material soul that could enter a body and then persist after death is just that, an imagined idea. For Crick, the mind is a product of physical brain activity and the brain had evolved by natural means over millions of years.
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Novitskova has shown at SALTS, Basel, Bard Centre for Curatorial Studies with Timur Si-Qin, M HKA, Antwerp, Belgium and at the Ullens Center for Contemporary Art, Beijing. Key themes in her practice have evolved from an interest in post-internet art practices, technology and the biological evolution within the current geological era (the Anthropocene). A re-occurring theme in her works are images of animals sourced online, which appear larger than life in her installations and are digitally printed onto aluminium. These works belong specifically to a series of images titled Approximation.
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The building was constructed in 1890-91, after Dayton was named the county seat, replacing Washington. It was designed by W. Chamberlain and Co., architects from Knoxville, Tennessee, and was built by contractors from Chattanooga. In July 1925 the courthouse was the scene of one of the mostly widely reported trials of the 1920s, the Scopes Trial. Essentially cooked up as a publicity stunt by locals after passage of the state's Butler Act banned the teaching of biological evolution in public schools, science teacher John T. Scopes was arrested and charged with violating the act.
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He later rejoined the University in 1978 and graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Geology in 1980. He then joined the graduate program of the University of California at Berkeley in 1981, where his advisor was Professor J. Desmond Clark. His academic interest was to pursue and specialize in African Prehistory. Soon after he started taking different courses, especially that of Professor Tim White’s, his interest was rekindled in human biological evolution. Berhane was invited by Professor Desmond Clark to join Clark’s Middle Awash field research group.
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This is due to the fact that tall Dutchmen on average had more children than those who were short, as Dutchwomen found them more attractive, and that while tall Dutchwomen on average had fewer children than those of medium heights, they did have more children than those who were short. Things like good nutrition and good healthcare did not play as important a role as biological evolution. By contrast, in some other countries such as the United States, for example, men of average height and short women tended to have more children.
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Unlike what students might learn in medical school, the human body is not built from a professionally engineered blue print but a system shaped over long periods of time by evolution with all kinds of trade-offs and imperfections. Understanding the evolution of the human body can help medical doctors better understand and treat various disorders. Research in evolutionary medicine suggests that diseases are prevalent because natural selection favors reproduction over health and longevity. In addition, biological evolution is slower than cultural evolution and humans evolve more slowly than pathogens.
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Evolutionary game theory studies players who adjust their strategies over time according to rules that are not necessarily rational or farsighted. In general, the evolution of strategies over time according to such rules is modeled as a Markov chain with a state variable such as the current strategy profile or how the game has been played in the recent past. Such rules may feature imitation, optimization, or survival of the fittest. In biology, such models can represent (biological) evolution, in which offspring adopt their parents' strategies and parents who play more successful strategies (i.e.
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Process theories come in four common archetypes. Evolutionary process theories explain change in a population through variation, selection and retention—much like biological evolution. In a dialectic process theory, “stability and change are explained by reference to the balance of power between opposing entities” (p. 517). In a teleological process theory, an agent “constructs an envisioned end state, takes action to reach it and monitors the progress” (p. 518). In a lifecycle process theory, “the trajectory to the final end state is prefigured and requires a particular historical sequence of events” (p.
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Mesoudi et al. (2004), argues that Darwinian theory became successful without the knowledge of Mendelian inheritance, therefore cultural evolution does not have to rely on memes or “or particulate cultural transmission, a topical issue but one of great contention”. Evolutionary Archaeology is based on the notion that claims culture exhibits key Darwinian evolutionary properties. Therefore, on this basis, EA should follow the same, methods, and approaches that are used to study biological evolution and by doing so it can productively be applied to the study of human culture.
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In the 2008 paper that introduced the term "mineral evolution", Robert Hazen and co- authors recognized that an application of the word "evolution" to minerals was likely to be controversial, although there were precedents as far back as the 1928 book The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks by Norman Bowen. They used the term in the sense of an irreversible sequence of events leading to increasingly complex and diverse assemblages of minerals. Unlike biological evolution, it does not involve mutation, competition or passing of information to progeny. Hazen et al.
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The concept of teleonomy was largely developed by Mayr and Pittendrigh to separate biological evolution from teleology. Pittendrigh's purpose was to enable biologists who had become overly cautious about goal-oriented language to have a way of discussing the goals and orientations of an organism's behaviors without inadvertently invoking teleology. Mayr was even more explicit, saying that while teleonomy certainly operates on the level of organisms, the process of evolution itself is necessarily non-teleonomic. This attitude towards the role of teleonomy in the evolutionary process is the consensus view of the modern synthesis.
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Kurzweil opens by explaining that the frequency of universe-wide events has been slowing down since the Big Bang while evolution has been reaching important milestones at an ever-increasing pace. This is not a paradox, he writes, entropy (disorder) is increasing overall, but local pockets of increasing order are flourishing. Kurzweil explains how biological evolution leads to technology which leads to computation which leads to Moore's law. Kurzweil unveils several laws of his own related to this progression, leading up to his law of accelerating returns which says time speeds up as order increases.
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When the human form is reached, consciousness is fully developed and asserts itself through the ideal medium in a fully upright stance.God Speaks, The Theme of Creation and Its Purpose, by Meher Baba, Dodd Mead, 1955, 2nd Ed., 1975. p. 28-30 Since in God Speaks there is no mention of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the progression must be seen as a progression in consciousness rather than in biological linearity. Meher Baba's explanations do not come to disprove any scientific discoveries of biological evolution, but rather examine a different side of the process.
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Yet slower than biological evolution is the time scale of astronomical change. The relations among the celestial bodies of the solar system were first depicted mathematically by Newton. The precision with which the field of celestial mechanics is able to describe the movements of bodies of the solar system is due to the incredibly slow time scale of astronomical, evolutionary change. Boulding's longstanding concern was that equilibrium analysis, market dynamics and growth theory as practised in conventional economics are based on the mathematics of difference and differential equations, as found in celestial mechanics.
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Culture and social cognition is the relationship between human culture and human cognitive capabilities. Cultural cognitive evolution proposes that humans’ unique cognitive capacities are not solely due to biological inheritance, but are in fact due in large part to cultural transmission and evolution (Tomasello, 1999). Modern humans and great apes are separated evolutionarily by about six million years. Proponents of cultural evolution argue that this would not have been enough time for humans to develop the advanced cognitive capabilities required to create tools, language, and build societies through biological evolution.
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28, and The foundational premises underlying scientific creationism disqualify it as a science because the answers to all inquiry therein are preordained to conform to Bible doctrine, and because that inquiry is constructed upon theories which are not empirically testable in nature. Scientists also deem creation science's attacks against biological evolution to be without scientific merit. The views of the scientific community were accepted in two significant court decisions in the 1980s, which found the field of creation science to be a religious mode of inquiry, not a scientific one.
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Theistic evolution and evolutionary creationism are theologies that reconcile belief in a creator with biological evolution. Each holds the view that there is a creator but that this creator has employed the natural force of evolution to unfold a divine plan. Religious representatives from faiths compatible with theistic evolution and evolutionary creationism have challenged the growing perception that belief in a creator is inconsistent with the acceptance of evolutionary theory. Spokespersons from the Catholic Church have specifically criticized biblical creationism for relying upon literal interpretations of biblical scripture as the basis for determining scientific fact.
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They are a synergistic blend of biological evolution and technological engineering. The exotic materials that make up their composition is a living metal with a self-replicating cellular structure and genetic code. In the Japanese version of the franchise, the Decepticons are called Destron or Deathtron ( Desutoron). The only exception to this naming convention is Car Robots, where the sub-group referred to as "Decepticons" in the Robots in Disguise adaptation, is known in Japan as the Combatrons (the Japanese name of the G1 subgroup known as the Combaticons).
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Science stream- The science stream of the college especially department of zoology is one of the finest departments in state education system. There are several rare snake species preserved with chemical fluids so that students can do research with such species and also gain knowledge regarding biological evolution. Similarly the department of botany includes an academically rich botanical lab with so many rare plant species as well as a well maintained botanical garden inside the campus compound. Students graduating from the institute have done enormous research work in higher education sector of country.
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Evolutionary ideas during the periods of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment developed over a time when natural history became more sophisticated during the 17th and 18th centuries, and as the scientific revolution and the rise of mechanical philosophy encouraged viewing the natural world as a machine with workings capable of analysis. But the evolutionary ideas of the early 18th century were of a religious and spiritural nature. In the second half of the 18th century more materialistic and explicit ideas about biological evolution began to emerge, adding further strands in the history of evolutionary thought.
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In contrast to Kuhn's revolutionary model, Toulmin proposed an evolutionary model of conceptual change comparable to Darwin's model of biological evolution. Toulmin states that conceptual change involves the process of innovation and selection. Innovation accounts for the appearance of conceptual variations, while selection accounts for the survival and perpetuation of the soundest conceptions. Innovation occurs when the professionals of a particular discipline come to view things differently from their predecessors; selection subjects the innovative concepts to a process of debate and inquiry in what Toulmin considers as a "forum of competitions".
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Lower Orders emanated from higher ones, before becoming increasingly dense and being absorbed back into the Divine Principle. This cosmology exhibited commonalities with the scientific discoveries of geology and biological evolution, both of which had been revealed by scientific inquiry during the 19th century. In The Secret Doctrine, Blavatsky articulated the belief that in the beginning of time there was absolute nothingness. This primordial essence then separated itself into seven Rays, which were also intelligent beings known as the Dhyan Chohans; these Seven Rays then created the universe using an energy called Fohat.
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It is also sometimes connected to the theory of the global brain or collective consciousness. Some have suggested “conscious cultural-evolution” as a more accurate term, to reduce association with standard biological evolution, though this is not widely applied. Conscious evolution suggests that now that humanity is conscious of its history and of how things evolve (evolutionary consciousness), and given the rapid pace of change in society and culture, humanity can (and should) choose advancement through co-operation, co-creation and sustainable practices over self-destruction through separateness, competition, and ecological devastation.
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Wundt: System der Philosophie, 1919, Volume 1, p. IX f. Wundt interpreted intellectual-cultural progress and biological evolution as a general process of development whereby, however, he did not want to follow the abstract ideas of entelechy, vitalism, animism, and by no means Schopenhauer's volitional metaphysics. He believed that the source of dynamic development was to be found in the most elementary expressions of life, in reflexive and instinctive behaviour, and constructed a continuum of attentive and apperceptive processes, volitional or selective acts, up to social activities and ethical decisions.
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A weakness of this conceptual and operational model is the absence of an explicit recognition of the place of life history traits. Evolutionary physiology is the study of the biological evolution of physiological structures and processes; that is, the manner in which the functional characteristics of individuals in a population of organisms have responded to natural selection across multiple generations during the history of the population. It is a sub-discipline of both physiology and evolutionary biology. Practitioners in the field come from a variety of backgrounds, including physiology, evolutionary biology, ecology, and genetics.
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The primary mechanism of species transformation that he recognised was Lamarckian use-inheritance which posited that organs are developed or are diminished by use or disuse and that the resulting changes may be transmitted to future generations. Spencer believed that this evolutionary mechanism was also necessary to explain 'higher' evolution, especially the social development of humanity. Moreover, in contrast to Darwin, he held that evolution had a direction and an end-point, the attainment of a final state of equilibrium. He tried to apply the theory of biological evolution to sociology.
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He proposed that society was the product of change from lower to higher forms, just as in the theory of biological evolution, the lowest forms of life are said to be evolving into higher forms. Spencer claimed that man's mind had evolved in the same way from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the process of reasoning in the thinking man. Spencer believed in two kinds of knowledge: knowledge gained by the individual and knowledge gained by the race. Intuition, or knowledge learned unconsciously, was the inherited experience of the race.
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When misapplied to biological evolution this common meaning leads to frequent misunderstandings. For example, the idea of devolution ("backwards" evolution) is a result of erroneously assuming that evolution is directional or has a specific goal in mind (cf. orthogenesis). In reality, the evolution of an organism has no "objective" and is only showing increasing ability of successive generations to survive and reproduce in its environment; and increased suitability is only defined in relation to this environment. Biologists do not consider any one species, such as humans, to be more highly evolved or advanced than another.
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Mouse Lemur Yoder's works revolves around a diverse selection of research topics including environmental studies, speciation, biological evolution, phylogenetics, and phylogeography. Yoder has also been involved with research that seeks to understand the effects of climate change on Madagascar's environment, the indigenous lemur populations, and possible migration patterns that lemurs may implement due to the continuing increase in temperatures. Recently, Yoder and her team conducted research on a species of mouse lemurs. Through their research they were able to articulate changes in Madagascar's environment, primarily habitat fragmentation, via phylogeographic analysis of the mouse lemurs highly evolving DNA.
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In 1888, he declared that "the development of ethnology is largely due to the general recognition of the principle of biological evolution"; since Boas's times, physical anthropologists have established that the human capacity for culture is a product of human evolution. In fact, Boas's research on changes in body form played an important role in the rise of Darwinian theory. Boas was trained at a time when biologists had no understanding of genetics; Mendelian genetics became widely known only after 1900. Prior to that time biologists relied on the measurement of physical traits as empirical data for any theory of evolution.
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However, the idea of soft inheritance long antedates him, formed only a small element of his theory of evolution, and was in his time accepted by many natural historians. Lamarck's contribution to evolutionary theory consisted of the first truly cohesive theory of biological evolution, in which an alchemical complexifying force drove organisms up a ladder of complexity, and a second environmental force adapted them to local environments through use and disuse of characteristics, differentiating them from other organisms.Gould (2002), p. 187. Scientists have debated whether advances in the field of transgenerational epigenetics mean that Lamarck was to an extent correct, or not.
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Because humans do not always copy memes perfectly, and because they may refine, combine or otherwise modify them with other memes to create new memes, they can change over time. Dawkins likened the process by which memes survive and change through the evolution of culture to the natural selection of genes in biological evolution. Dawkins defined the meme as a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation and replication, but later definitions would vary. The lack of a consistent, rigorous, and precise understanding of what typically makes up one unit of cultural transmission remains a problem in debates about memetics.
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Whereas in the ancestral past, humans lived in geographically isolated communities where inbreeding was rather common, modern transportation technologies have made it much easier for people to travel great distances and facilitated further genetic mixing, giving rise to additional variations in the human gene pool. It also enables the spread of diseases worldwide, which can have an effect on human evolution. Besides the selection and flow of genes and alleles, another mechanism of biological evolution is epigenetics, or changes not to the DNA sequence itself, but rather the way it is expressed. Scientists already know that chronic illnesses and stress are epigenetic mechanisms.
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Although the details of such genes remain unclear (as of 2010), they can still be categorized for likely functionality according to the structures of the proteins for which they code. Many such genes are linked to the immune system, the skin, metabolism, digestion, bone development, hair growth, smell and taste, and brain function. Since the culture of behaviorally modern humans undergoes rapid change, it is possible that human culture has accelerated human evolution within the last 50,000 years or so. While this possibility remains unproven, mathematical models do suggest that gene-culture interactions can give rise to especially speedy biological evolution.
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The universe is a future where the cultural and biological evolution of the human race has divided it into two societies: "Gelacks" and "Reetions". Gelacks are dominated by the neo-feudal descendants of an ancient bioengineering project that modified humans to tolerate reality skimming. "Reality skimming" (also known as rel-skimming) is a physically and mentally strenuous method of faster than light space travel which underpins the economy and culture of the Okal Rel Universe. The Reetions are the descendants of unmodified humans whose social system depends upon transparency moderated by a form of artificial intelligence known as arbiters.
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He was a Fellow in the Zoology Section, and President of the Ohio Academy of Sciences from 1906 to 1907, and served as Secretary from 1912 to 1923. Like his father William North Rice, Dr. Rice was most noted for his work to reconcile scientific observations with religious faith. At the 1924 meeting of the AAAS, he debated William Jennings Bryan on biological evolution and was a scientific consultant for Clarence Darrow before the 1925 Scopes trial. He is also well known for authoring a textbook, An Introduction to Biology in 1935, and he contributed numerous papers to scientific journals.
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According to Birx: > Taylor boldly claims that the living world of increasing complexity is not > one of mere chance and material determinism, or the result of a divine plan > and vital force. Instead, he strongly suggests that life is ordered through > some internal genetic mechanism... Within this open framework, the author > believes that neo-Darwinism is only a subsection of a more comprehensive and > sophisticated explanation for biological evolution still to be formulated. Birx concluded that The Great Evolution Mystery is a "stimulating book and raises important questions and encourages future scientific inquiry."Birx, James H. (1984).
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Spiritual evolution is the philosophical, theological, esoteric or spiritual idea that nature and human beings and/or human culture evolve: either extending from an established cosmological pattern (ascent), or in accordance with certain pre-established potentials. The phrase "spiritual evolution" can occur in the context of "higher evolution", a term used to differentiate psychological, mental, or spiritual evolution from the "lower" or biological evolution of physical form. The concept of spiritual evolution is also complemented by the idea of a creative impulse in human beings, known as epigenesis. Within this broad definition, theories of spiritual evolution are very diverse.
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Evolution without Selection: Form and Function by Autoevolution is a 1988 book on evolution by cytogeneticist A. Lima-de-Faria. The book argues that only physical and chemical processes are real and the modern neo-Darwinian population genetics approach to evolution is misguided. Lima-de-Faria emphasizes that the laws of physics and chemistry generate the basic forms found in living organisms, and that physicochemical forces and organisms interact at many levels. The central premise of the book is that the current models of biological evolution such as the modern evolutionary synthesis ignore the active contribution of these forces.Smalheiser, Neil R. (1994).
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Gennaro Auletta (born August 19, 1957 in Naples, Italy) is an Italian philosopher of science actively involved in scientific research. He is an internationally acknowledged expert in quantum mechanics and in the foundation and interpretation of this discipline. His main interests in quantum information led him to focus his further research on the way in which biological and cognitive systems deal with information. He is also active in the field of the dialogue between science, philosophy and theology, and has been the Vice-Director of the international conference on Biological Evolution: Facts and Theories, held at the Pontifical Gregorian University on March 2009.
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Charles Darwin in 1868 Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories. English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860.
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Positive feedback loops have been used to describe aspects of the dynamics of change in biological evolution. For example, beginning at the macro level, Alfred J. Lotka (1945) argued that the evolution of the species was most essentially a matter of selection that fed back energy flows to capture more and more energy for use by living systems. At the human level, Richard D. Alexander (1989) proposed that social competition between and within human groups fed back to the selection of intelligence thus constantly producing more and more refined human intelligence. Crespi (2004) discussed several other examples of positive feedback loops in evolution.
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This article attempts to place key plant innovations in a geological context. It concerns itself only with novel adaptations and events that had a major ecological significance, not those that are of solely anthropological interest. The timeline displays a graphical representation of the adaptations; the text attempts to explain the nature and robustness of the evidence. Plant evolution is an aspect of the study of biological evolution, predominantly involving evolution of plants suited to live on land, greening of various land masses by the filling of their niches with land plants, and diversification of groups of land plants.
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Nelkin's book, Science Textbook Controversies and the Politics of Equal Time (MIT, 1977), documented the "religious and cultural war" of the early 1970s in which religious groups in the United States challenged the teaching of evolution in school textbooks and argued in favor of "creation-science". As one critic wrote, Nelkin was "sympathetic, but alarmed" at what she considered a "growth of intolerance, a new rigidity in values". In 1982, Nelkin followed up with The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools. In it, she documented various state and local conflicts over science textbooks and the teaching of biological evolution.
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Leading Social Darwinists such as Herbert Spencer and William Graham Sumner sought to apply the lessons of biological evolution to social and political life. Just as in nature, they claimed, progress occurs through a ruthless process of competitive struggle and "survival of the fittest," so human progress will occur only if government allows unrestricted business competition and makes no effort to protect the "weak" or "unfit" by means of social welfare laws.Gregory Bassham, The Philosophy Book: From the Vedas to the New Atheists, 250 Milestones in the History of Philosophy. New York: Sterling, 2015, p. 318.
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In July 2013, the ICTV definition of species changed to state: "A species is a monophyletic group of viruses whose properties can be distinguished from those of other species by multiple criteria." Viruses are real physical entities produced by biological evolution and genetics, whereas virus species and higher taxa are abstract concepts produced by rational thought and logic. The virus/species relationship thus represents the front line of the interface between biology and logic. The actual criteria used vary by the taxon, and can be inconsistent (arbitrary similarity thresholds) or unrelated to lineage (geography) at times.
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Human material is a combination of the character traits of a people, unevenly distributed among its individual representatives; type of social organization and specific human material are closely related. To characterize complex human associations, Zinoviev introduced the notion of a cheloveynik (humant hill), clearly referring to an anthill. Zinoviev emphasized the role of biological evolution in the emergence of human associations and showed the direction of social evolution towards the maximum separation of functions, by analogy with collective insects. Cheloveyniks differ from animal communities only in the density of connections: there are many people, and they have to enter into close relationships.
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Dobzhansky talks about in great detail that "human nature has 2 dimensions: the biological, which mankind shares with the rest of life, and the cultural, which is exclusive to humans." Both of these are believed to have come from "biological evolution and cultural evolution". Dobzhansky sought to put an end to the so-called science that purports one's genetic makeup determines their race and furthermore, their rank in society. Harrison E. Salisbury wrote in a New York Times article regarding his book Heredity and the Future of Man that Dobzhansky could not, alongside other scientists, agree upon what defines a race.
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Evolution generally refers to biological evolution, but here it means a process in which the whole universe is a progression of interrelated phenomena, a gradual processJ. C. Polkinghorne, The Work of Love: Creation as Kenosis, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2001, (Peacocke chapter) page 21, in which something changes into a different and usually more complex form (emergence). It should not be 'biologized' as it includes many areas of science.Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley – The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2001, page 229, In addition, outside of the scientific community, the term evolution is frequently used differently from scientists' usage.
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In historical linguistics, the tree model (also Stammbaum, genetic, or cladistic model) is a model of the evolution of languages analogous to the concept of a family tree, particularly a phylogenetic tree in the biological evolution of species. As with species, each language is assumed to have evolved from a single parent or "mother" language, with languages that share a common ancestor belonging to the same language family. Popularized by the German linguist August Schleicher in 1853,François (2014). the tree model has always been a common method of describing genetic relationships between languages since the first attempts to do so.
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Hawks believes that human evolution has actually sped up in recent history in contrast to the common assumption that biological evolution has been made insignificant by cultural evolution. He covers recent developments on this topic at his blog. Hawks has predicted introgression including the Neanderthal admixture hypothesis which gained further evidence by the Neanderthal genome project in May 2010. Hawks believes that contemporary human mitochondrial genetics, including lack of any human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups from Eurasian archaic Homo sapiens may be in part due to natural selection of mtDNA on metabolic or other factors, rather than simple total replacement and genetic drift.
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The study of XNA is not intended to give scientists a better understanding of biological evolution as it has occurred historically, but rather to explore ways in which we can control and even reprogram the genetic makeup of biological organisms moving forward. XNA has shown significant potential in solving the current issue of genetic pollution in genetically modified organisms. While DNA is incredibly efficient in its ability to store genetic information and lend complex biological diversity, its four-letter genetic alphabet is relatively limited. Using a genetic code of six XNAs rather than the four naturally occurring DNA nucleotide bases yields endless opportunities for genetic modification and expansion of chemical functionality.
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The concept of misalignment is distinct from "distributional shift" and other failures where the formal objective function was successfully optimized in a narrow training environment, but fails to be optimized when the system is deployed into the real world. A similar phenomenon is "evolutionary mismatch" in biological evolution, where preferences (such as a strong desire for fat and sugar) that were adaptive in the past evolutionary environment fail to be adaptive in modern environments. Some scholars believe that a superintelligent agent AI, if and when it is ever invented, may pose risks akin to an overly literal genie, in part due to the difficulty of specifying a completely safe objective function.
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While most scholars recognize some historical links between the popularisation of Darwin's theory and forms of social Darwinism, they also maintain that social Darwinism is not a necessary consequence of the principles of biological evolution. Scholars debate the extent to which the various social Darwinist ideologies reflect Charles Darwin's own views on human social and economic issues. His writings have passages that can be interpreted as opposing aggressive individualism, while other passages appear to promote it. Darwin's early evolutionary views and his opposition to slavery ran counter to many of the claims that social Darwinists would eventually make about the mental capabilities of the poor and colonial indigenes.
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The Leiden school is a school of thought in linguistics that models languages as memes or benign neurological parasites, and tries to use rigorous mathematical tools borrowed by analogy from biological evolution to model the origin and spread of language in general and specific languages in particular. It is based at the University of Leiden, and its chief proponents are George van Driem, Frederik Kortlandt, and Jeroen Wiedenhof. The Leiden School has a significant overlap in personnel with the Himalayan Languages Project. The Leiden school of linguistics should not be confused with the current research institute of linguistics at Leiden University, the Leiden University Centre for Linguistics (LUCL).
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Everyone assumes him to be a Controller with a Yeerk named Essak in his head. Jake follows the crowd to his work, but skips his stop in order to investigate this strange new world. He doesn't know how he has come to be in this time and place and suspects that it is some kind of alternate or parallel timeline created by the Ellimist or Crayak. He discovers that there is a terrorist organization called the Evolutionist Front (EF) which is composed of Yeerks and their hosts who believe that forms of biological evolution and mutation should be explored instead of the enslavement of sentient species.
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It has also helped build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time and track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms. Future endeavors are to reconstruct a now more complex tree of life. Christoph Adami, a professor at the Keck Graduate Institute made this point in Evolution of biological complexity: :To make a case for or against a trend in the evolution of complexity in biological evolution, complexity must be both rigorously defined and measurable. A recent information-theoretic (but intuitively evident) definition identifies genomic complexity with the amount of information a sequence stores about its environment.
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Possible precursors for the evolution of protein synthesis include a mechanism to synthesize short peptide cofactors or form a mechanism for the duplication of RNA. It is likely that the ancestral ribosome was composed entirely of RNA, although some roles have since been taken over by proteins. Major remaining questions on this topic include identifying the selective force for the evolution of the ribosome and determining how the genetic code arose. Eugene Koonin said, > Despite considerable experimental and theoretical effort, no compelling > scenarios currently exist for the origin of replication and translation, the > key processes that together comprise the core of biological systems and the > apparent pre-requisite of biological evolution.
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Evolutionary linguistics has been criticised by advocates of (humanistic) structural and functional linguistics. Ferdinand de Saussure commented on 19th century evolutionary linguistics: Mark Aronoff however argues that historical linguistics had its golden age during the time of Schleicher and his supporters, enjoying a place among the hard sciences, and considers the return of Darwnian linguistics as a positive development. Esa Itkonen nonetheless deems the revival of Darwinism as a hopeless enterprise: Itkonen also points out that the principles of natural selection are not applicable because language innovation and acceptance have the same source which is the speech community. In biological evolution, mutation and selection have different sources.
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"Evolutionary epistemology" can also refer to a theory that applies the concepts of biological evolution to the growth of human knowledge and argues that units of knowledge themselves, particularly scientific theories, evolve according to selection. In that case, a theory, like the germ theory of disease, becomes more or less credible according to changes in the body of knowledge surrounding it. Evolutionary epistemology is a naturalistic approach to epistemology, which emphasizes the importance of natural selection in two primary roles. In the first role, selection is the generator and maintainer of the reliability of our senses and cognitive mechanisms, as well as the "fit" between those mechanisms and the world.
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She is an advocate for the biological evolution theory in relation to the religion of Islam, and believes strongly in the education and empowerment of women, being a member of the United Nations Women Jordan Advisory Council. She is the recipient of the Jordan’s Order of Al Hussein for Distinguished Contributions of the Second Class. Dajani is currently the 2019-21 Zuzana Simoniova Cmelikova Visiting Scholar at the Jepson School of Leadership Studies at the University of Richmond, and the president of the Society for Advancement of Science and Technology in the Arab World [5](SASTA). Dr. Dajani is a Fulbright scholar alumna, having received two awards.
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While serving as nurse during the Crimean War, Florence Nightingale drew the first pie charts representing the monthly fatality rates of the conflict, distinguishing deaths due to battle wounds (innermost section), those due to infectious disease (outer section), and to other causes (middle section). (See figure.) Her charts clearly showed that most deaths resulted from disease, which led the general public to demand improved sanitation at field hospitals. Although bar charts representing frequencies were first used by the Frenchman A. M. Guerry in 1833, it was the statistician Karl Pearson who gave them the name histograms. Pearson used them in an 1895 article mathematically analyzing biological evolution.
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When Morgan took the professorship in experimental zoology, he became increasingly focused on the mechanisms of heredity and evolution. He had published Evolution and Adaptation (1903); like many biologists at the time, he saw evidence for biological evolution (as in the common descent of similar species) but rejected Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection acting on small, constantly produced variations. Extensive work in biometry seemed to indicate that continuous natural variation had distinct limits and did not represent heritable changes. Embryological development posed an additional problem in Morgan's view, as selection could not act on the early, incomplete stages of highly complex organs such as the eye.
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In such a case although a migration might have occurred we would not necessarily expect to find the wholesale transference of all forms of culture. In a number of works Klejn discusses the idea of the contradiction between modern culture and the nature of man. This treatment is far from the Rousseau's mood and is built on the basis of socio-biology. Developing the ideas of Lorenz and Desmond Morris, Klejn's idea is built upon the fact that in every stage of man's biological evolution man has been formed by adaptation to conditions not only of the natural environment but also of the socio- cultural milieu.
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The book begins with a review of the cosmic setting for life and reviews the insights of astronomy since Copernicus. The discovery that we live in a “biological universe” would be a continuation of the progression where there is nothing exceptional about the setting of the Earth and the events that have occurred on this planet. Subsequent chapters consider the origin of life on Earth, and the physical extremes to which life as adapted. In astrobiology, it pays to think “outside the box” and imagine how strange life might be or whether post-biological evolution is possible, where the basis is mechanical or computational.
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He stressed that the major transition from a primitive social order to a more advanced industrial society could otherwise bring crisis and disorder. Durkheim furthermore developed the idea of social evolution, which was coined by Herbert Spencer, which indicates how societies and cultures develop over time; for Durkheim, social evolution is like biological evolution with reference to the development of its components. As with living organisms and species, societies progress through several stages, generally beginning at a simple level and developing toward a more complex level of organisation. Societies adapt to surrounding environments, but also interact with other societies, which further contributes to progress and development.
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In other words, emergence itself... has been the > underlying cause of the evolution of emergent phenomena in biological > evolution; it is the synergies produced by organized systems that are the > key Swarming is a well-known behaviour in many animal species from marching locusts to schooling fish to flocking birds. Emergent structures are a common strategy found in many animal groups: colonies of ants, mounds built by termites, swarms of bees, shoals/schools of fish, flocks of birds, and herds/packs of mammals. An example to consider in detail is an ant colony. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do.
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Centering upon biological evolution, Chardin articulates a vision of the universe itself as gradually increasing in complexity and unity from early chaos into ever greater oneness. Drawing upon his devout Christianity, the author argues for a morally idealistic understanding of human nature through which social advancement under the watchful eye of God will eventually lead to a total reconciliation of all things and a final state of absolute collective consciousness, which Chardin titled the "Omega Point". Thus, history's final state will take place such that all of the creatures of the universe exist together with Jesus Christ as the "Logos" or sacred "Word". The book was initially published to scathing reviews by scientists.
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The Boring Billion, otherwise known as the Barren Billion, the Dullest Time in Earth's History, and Earth's Middle Ages, is the time period between 1.8 and 0.8 billion years ago (Gya) spanning the middle Proterozoic eon, characterized by more or less tectonic stability, climatic stasis, and stalled biological evolution. It is bordered by two different oxygenation and glacial events, but the Boring Billion itself had very low oxygen levels and no evidence of glaciation. The oceans may have been oxygen- and nutrient-poor and sulfidic (euxinia), populated by mainly anoxygenic cyanobacteria, a type of photosynthetic bacteria which uses hydrogen sulfide (H2S) instead of water and produces sulfur instead of oxygen. This is known as a Canfield ocean.
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Given the starting date of the study, the spread of these adaptations can be observed in just a few generations. By analyzing genomic data of 60,000 individuals of Caucasian descent from Kaiser Permanente in Northern California, and 150,000 people the UK Biobank, evolutionary geneticist Joseph Pickrell and evolutionary biologist Molly Przeworski were able to identify signs of biological evolution among living human generations. For the purposes of studying evolution, one lifetime is the shortest possible time scale. An allele associated with difficulty withdrawing from tobacco smoking dropped in frequency among the British but not among the Northern Californians. This suggests that heavy smokers—who were common in Britain during the 1950s but not in Northern California—were selected against.
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Gesell believed in a child-centered approach to raising children. He urged parents to recognize the genetic schedule that babies are born with, pointing out that it is the product of over three million years of biological evolution He observed that babies appeared to know what they needed and what they were ready to do & learn. He directed parents to look to the children themselves for cues on how to help the child develop as an individual, and to set aside their own expectations of what the baby “ought” to be doing, particularly in the first year of life. Gesell developed a series of development schedules summarizing the sequences of development in children.
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Evolutionary algorithms form a subset of evolutionary computation in that they generally only involve techniques implementing mechanisms inspired by biological evolution such as reproduction, mutation, recombination, natural selection and survival of the fittest. Candidate solutions to the optimization problem play the role of individuals in a population, and the cost function determines the environment within which the solutions "live" (see also fitness function). Evolution of the population then takes place after the repeated application of the above operators. In this process, there are two main forces that form the basis of evolutionary systems: Recombination mutation and crossover create the necessary diversity and thereby facilitate novelty, while selection acts as a force increasing quality.
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During the Phanerozoic the biodiversity shows a steady but not monotonic increase from near zero to several thousands of genera. In collaboration with Alexander V. Markov he has demonstrated that a similar mathematical model can be developed to describe the macrotrends of biological evolution. They have shown that changes in biodiversity through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with hyperbolic model (widely used in demography and macrosociology) than with exponential and logistic models (traditionally used in population biology and extensively applied to fossil biodiversity as well). The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (more ancestors, more descendants) and/or a negative feedback arising from resource limitation.
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Despite Charles Darwin's completion of his theory of biological evolution in the 19th century, the modern logical framework for evolutionary theories of ageing wouldn't emerge until almost a century later. Though August Weismann did propose his theory of programmed death, it was met with criticism and never gained mainstream attention. It wasn't until 1930 that Ronald Fisher first noted the conceptual insight which prompted the development of modern ageing theories. This concept, namely that the force of natural selection on an individual decreases with age, was analysed further by J. B. S. Haldane, who suggested it as an explanation for the relatively high prevalence of Huntington's disease despite the autosomal dominant nature of the mutation.
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Natural selection is only one of several mechanisms in the theory of evolutionary change that explains how organisms historically adapt to changing environments. The principles of heredity were re-discovered in 1900, after Darwin's death, in Gregor Mendel's research on the inheritance of simple trait variations in peas. Subsequent work into genetics, mutation, paleontology, and developmental biology expanded the applicability and scope of Darwin's original theory. According to Douglas J. Futuyma: :Biological evolution may be slight or substantial; it embraces everything from slight changes in the proportion of different alleles within a population (such as those determining blood types) to the successive alterations that led from the earliest proto-organism to snails, bees, giraffes, and dandelions.
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Morris found an audience among preachers and home school teachers all over America, where 46% of the public holds some form of creationist belief. Morris was the primary source for much of the argumentation used by young Earth creationists when rejecting primary ideas in mainstream science, from the expanding universe to plate tectonics to biological evolution to genetics.U.S. Rep. Paul Broun says evolution, embryology and the Big Bang are "lies straight from the pit of hell" (accessed June 11, 2013) Morris's book, The Genesis Flood, coauthored by John C. Whitcomb, was very influential on modern creationist belief, and by the time of Morris's death, it was in its 44th printing and sold 250,000 English copies.
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Bioinspiration is the development of novel materials, devices, and structures inspired by solutions found in biological systems and biological evolution and refinement which has occurred over millions of years. The goal is to improve modeling and simulation of the biological system to attain a better understanding of the nature's critical structural features, such as a wing, for use in future bioinspired designs. Bioinspiration differs from biomimicry in that the latter aims to precisely replicate the designs of biological materials. Bioinspired research is a return to the classical origins of science: it is a field based on observing the remarkable functions that characterize living organisms, and trying to abstract and imitate those functions.
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The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) takes no official position on whether or not biological evolution has occurred, nor on the validity of the modern evolutionary synthesis as a scientific theory. In the 20th century, the First Presidency of the LDS Church published doctrinal statements on the origin of man and creation. In addition, individual leaders of the church have expressed a variety of personal opinions on evolution, many of which have affected the beliefs and perceptions of Latter-day Saints. There have been three public statements from the First Presidency (1909, 1910, 1925) and one private statement from the First Presidency (1931) about the LDS Church's view on evolution.
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Other writers theorized that Native American languages were "nothing but the natural and instinctive cries of the animal" without grammatical structure. The thinkers within this paradigm connected themselves with the Greeks and Romans, viewed as the only civilized persons of the ancient world, a view articulated by Thomas Sheridan who compiled an important 18th century pronunciation dictionary: "It was to the care taken in the cultivation of their languages, that Greece and Rome, owed that splendor, which eclipsed all the other nations of the world". In the 18th century James Burnett, Lord Monboddo analyzed numerous languages and deduced logical elements of the evolution of human languages. His thinking was interleaved with his precursive concepts of biological evolution.
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Critical views have also been set forth by various religious philosophers who have argued that humanity remains full of sin in its general behavior, this trend perhaps even getting worse as time has passed. Multiple secular thinkers have made similar comments about the proliferation of moral breakdown, particularly in the context of the rise of post-factual politics and the related issue of politicization. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, a Jesuit priest and scientist, wrote that moral progress and biological evolution would converge to unify all in an idealistic existence with God. A contrasting approach arising in the 20th century and continuing to receive notice is that of prominent Roman Catholic figure Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.
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Alters has a B.Sc. in biology and a Ph.D. in science education from the University of Southern California. Alters is the author of several books on biology and the intelligent design controversy. With his wife Sandra M. Alters, he has written Biology: Understanding LifeAlters & Alters, 2006 which he describes as "a university biology non-majors textbook", and Teaching Biology in Higher Education,Alters & Alters, 2005 "a book written to instructors at the college level on how to teach biology". He is also the author of Teaching Biological Evolution in Higher Education: Methodological, Religious, and Non-Religious IssuesAlters, 2005 which he says is "a book specifically about the conflict that instructors see students bring into their courses concerning evolution".
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Creationist arguments in relation to biology center on an idea derived from Genesis that states that life was created by God, in a finite number of "created kinds," rather than through biological evolution from a common ancestor. Creationists contend that any observable speciation descends from these distinctly created kinds through inbreeding, deleterious mutations and other genetic mechanisms. Whereas evolutionary biologists and creationists share similar views of microevolution, creationists reject the fact that the process of macroevolution can explain common ancestry among organisms far beyond the level of common species. Creationists contend that there is no empirical evidence for new plant or animal species, and deny fossil evidence has ever been found documenting the process.
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In common with biological evolution through natural selection or animal husbandry, the members of a population undergoing artificial evolution modify their form or behavior over many reproductive generations in response to a selective regime. In interactive evolution the selective regime may be applied by the viewer explicitly by selecting individuals which are aesthetically pleasing. Alternatively a selection pressure can be generated implicitly, for example according to the length of time a viewer spends near a piece of evolving art. Equally, evolution may be employed as a mechanism for generating a dynamic world of adaptive individuals, in which the selection pressure is imposed by the program, and the viewer plays no role in selection, as in the Black Shoals project.
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Throughout deep time, biological evolution has been as important as purely physical forcings in shaping Earth's thermal and chemical states. For instance, the evolution of plankton with shells of calcium carbonate increased the steady-state level of atmospheric CO2 and therefore pushed Earth's climate toward additional greenhouse warmth. The evolution of flowering plants (angiosperms) had the opposite effect, cooling the Earth by enhancing chemical weathering rates on the continents and thereby lowering the steady-state levels of CO2. Volk's work with colleague David Schwartzman showed that an overall “biotic enhancement of weathering,” including activities by ancient bacterial mats and crusts, cooled the Earth by 30 or more degrees C (best estimates) relative to the baseline of an abiotic Earth.
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A more prosaic example of chemostratigraphic reconstruction of past conditions might be the use of the carbon-13/carbon-12 ratio over geologic time as a proxy for changes in carbon cycle processes at different stages of biological evolution. Second, regionally or globally correlatable chemostratigraphic signals can be found in rocks whose formation time is well-constrained by radionuclide dating of the strata themselves or by strata easily correlated with them, such as a volcanic suite that interrupts nearby strata. However, many sedimentary rocks are much harder to date, because they lack minerals with high concentrations of radionuclides and cannot be correlated with nearly datable sequences. Yet many of these rocks do possess chemostratigraphic signals.
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In the humanistic sense, it is the perception of time that has changed, as humans have biologically evolved with different concepts of the world to those of our ancestral species. This biological evolution, and the different perceptions of time that it implies, are played out in every moment in our brain. Our brain functions in one sense as a unitary organ, but evolutionarily it contains different brains: one that controls autonomic function, one that perceives the world in the moment, and one that understands the world intellectually. By this understanding, the biological self that understands only the moment is in perpetual conflict with the intellectual self that conceives of past, present, future, and the possibility of eternity.
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The most foundational kind of creativity is found in that of cosmos/biological evolution—a paradigm that is now the organizing principle of all the sciences.Gordon D. Kaufman – In the beginning—creativity, Fortress Press, 2004, page x,33,57,137, retrieved 3-17-09] It would seem as though he was equating God to the evolutionary story. This is similar to Dowd who sees the facts of Nature as God's native tongue.evolutionary evangelist retrieved 2009-02-01 Eric Chaisson orients his view of the epic around an "arrow of time",Two movies: Arrow of Time and Cosmic Origins which he divides into 'Seven Ages of the Cosmos': particulate, galactic, stellar, planetary, chemical, biological, and cultural.
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Roughly 70 individuals with similar characteristics have been found in the same region. Neves graduated with a degree in Biological Sciences from University of São Paulo in 1981, and did pre-doctorate work at Stanford University and UC-Berkeley in 1982. He earned his doctorate in Biological Sciences from University of São Paulo in 1984, and did post-doctorate work at the Center for American Archeology at the University of Illinois in 1985 and at the USP's Department of Anthropology from 1991 to 1992. He also earned a Livre Docência degree (a postdoctorate title earned by submitting a second thesis) in Human Evolution at the USP's Department of Genetics and Biological Evolution in 2000.
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In recent history, the theory of evolution has been at the center of controversy between Christianity and science, largely in America. Christians who accept a literal interpretation of the biblical account of creation find incompatibility between Darwinian evolution and their interpretation of the Christian faith. Creation science or scientific creationism is a branch of creationism that attempts to provide scientific support for the Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis and attempts to disprove generally accepted scientific facts, theories and scientific paradigms about the geological history of Earth, cosmology, the chemical origins of life and biological evolution. It began in the 1960s as a fundamentalist Christian effort in the United States to prove Biblical inerrancy and falsify the scientific evidence for evolution.
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It is an articulated skeleton missing the skull, part of the tail, and the right forelimb. The name Anchiornis huxleyi was chosen by Xu and colleagues in honor of Thomas Henry Huxley, an early proponent of biological evolution, and one of the first to propose a close evolutionary relationship between birds and dinosaurs. The generic name Anchiornis comes from combining the Ancient Greek words for "nearby" and "bird", because it was interpreted as important in filling a gap in the transition between the body plans of birds and dinosaurs. A second specimen came to light around the same time, and was given to a team of scientists from Shenyang Normal University by a local farmer when they were excavating at the Yaolugou dig site.
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Multiple discoveries in the history of science provide evidence for evolutionary models of science and technology, such as memetics (the study of self-replicating units of culture), evolutionary epistemology (which applies the concepts of biological evolution to study of the growth of human knowledge), and cultural selection theory (which studies sociological and cultural evolution in a Darwinian manner). A recombinant-DNA-inspired "paradigm of paradigms" has been posited, that describes a mechanism of "recombinant conceptualization". This paradigm predicates that a new concept arises through the crossing of pre-existing concepts and facts. This is what is meant when one says that a scientist or artist has been "influenced by" another—etymologically, that a concept of the latter's has "flowed into" the mind of the former.
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The reviewer for the Catholic magazine America wrote that he "would not have missed" Enduring Grace, and its "message... is what Carol Flinders says is the message of her gathering of mystics: you needn't go out looking for your calling, because it will be apparent to you once you have got yourself out of the way." Source: Several additional books by Flinders have focused on various intersections of feminism, spirituality, and cultural and biological evolution. At the Root of this Longing: Reconciling a Spiritual Hunger and a Feminist Thirst (1998) chronicles her struggle to reconcile the claims of a lifelong meditation practice with her emerging feminism. The book argues that both feminism and contemplative spirituality represent authentic, and complementary searches for truth.
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The American Civil Liberties Union also expressed concerns that these bills might make it easier to teach intelligent design as science in public schools. The bills were also opposed by Chemistry Nobel Prize-winner Harold Kroto who said, "it's an abuse of position not to teach science correctly to children". The Senate bill was later amended to define "scientific information" as "germane current facts, data, and peer-reviewed research specific to the topic of chemical and biological evolution as prescribed in Florida's Science Standards." Storms refused to answer repeated direct questions from senate Democrats as to whether teachers would be permitted to teach Intelligent design under her bill and whether she believes that intelligent design meets its criteria for 'scientific information'.
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Professor of biology Jerry Coyne sums up biological evolution succinctly: :Life on Earth evolved gradually beginning with one primitive species—perhaps a self-replicating molecule—that lived more than 3.5 billion years ago; it then branched out over time, throwing off many new and diverse species; and the mechanism for most (but not all) of evolutionary change is natural selection. This shows the breadth and scope of the issue, incorporating the scientific fields of zoology, botany, genetics, geology, and paleontology, among many others. But the central core of evolution is generally defined as changes in trait or gene frequency in a population of organisms from one generation to the next. This has been dubbed the standard genetic definition of evolution.
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At this time, the word creationism referred to a doctrine of creation of the soul. Those holding that species had been created in a separate act, such as Philip Gosse in 1857, were generally called "advocates of creation", though they were also called "creationists" in private correspondence between Charles Darwin and his friends, dating from 1856. In the 20th century the word "creationism" became associated with the anti-evolution movement of the 1920s and young Earth creationism, but this usage was contested by other groups, such as old Earth creationists and evolutionary creationists, who hold different concepts of creation, such as the acceptance of the age of the Earth and biological evolution as understood by the scientific community.Haarsma 2010, p.
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Arthur O. Lovejoy (1936), The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936, 1961, 1970). It also had at this time an impact on theories of biological evolution. E. F. Schumacher, author of Small is Beautiful, has recently proposed a sort of simplified Great Chain of Being, based on the idea of four "kingdoms" (mineral, vegetable, animal, human).E. F. Schumacher (1977), A Guide for the Perplexed, (New York:Harper & Row) Schumacher rejects modernist and scientific themes, his approach recalling the universalist orientation of writers like Huston Smith,Huston Smith (1976), Forgotten Truth: The Common Vision of the World's Religions, (New York: Harper & Row), and likely contributing to Ken Wilber's "holonomic" hierarchy or "Great Nest of Being".
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As it was they tried to set the tone for the other panels, presenting the core of evolution as natural selection acting on random genetic variation; most of the prominent critics of that view of biological evolution were not invited (with the exception of C. H. Waddington, who criticized the synthesis for failing to account for embryology). Despite the eminence of the panelists and the hopes of Sol Tax, the panels mostly--with the exception of the origin of life panel--presented ideas already published and broke little new ground, in part because they were intended for a popular audience; according to historian V. Betty Smocovitis "the discussions and even some of the contributed papers were surprisingly flat".Smocovitis, pp. 295-299, quotation from p.
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According to many theories that have gained wide acceptance among anthropologists, culture exhibits the way that humans interpret their biology and their environment. According to this point of view, culture becomes such an integral part of human existence that it is the human environment, and most cultural change can be attributed to human adaptation to historical events. Moreover, given that culture is seen as the primary adaptive mechanism of humans and takes place much faster than human biological evolution, most cultural change can be viewed as culture adapting to itself. Although most anthropologists try to define culture in such a way that it separates human beings from other animals, many human traits are similar to those of other animals, particularly the traits of other primates.
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Mort argues that one of the difficulties facing Christian science fiction authors who endorse Creationism—especially those writing "hard" science fiction—is reconciling the limits placed on the author in exploring science within a Creationist framework. This is made even more problematic when one considers that the notion of "the future as divinely ordered" limits the author's ability to speculate on what that future may be.Mort (2002), p. 175. For example, the first of these difficulties has been identified by Pierce as a problem with some of R. A. Lafferty's work, who "is uncomfortable with the idea of even biological evolution"; while Tom Doyle notes the predictability of the Christian apocalyptic novel, due, he argues, to the genre following "a particular interpretation of biblical prophecy".
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However, Schiller does not see naturalism as any more capable of explaining the evolution of the higher from the lower than it is capable of reducing the higher to the lower. While evolution does begin with something lower that in turn evolves into something higher, the problem for naturalism is that whatever the starting point for evolution is, it must first be something with the potential to evolve into a higher. For example, the world cannot come into existence from nothing because the potential or "germ" of the world is not "in" nothing (nothing has no potential, it has nothing; after all, it is nothing). Likewise, biological evolution cannot begin from inanimate matter, because the potential for life is not "in" inanimate matter.
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Her argument focuses on what she perceives as the pseudoscientific speculations and irrational, fear-of- death-driven fantasies of these thinkers, their disregard for laymen and the remoteness of their eschatological visions. Another critique is aimed mainly at "algeny" (a portmanteau of alchemy and genetics), which Jeremy Rifkin defined as "the upgrading of existing organisms and the design of wholly new ones with the intent of 'perfecting' their performance". It emphasizes the issue of biocomplexity and the unpredictability of attempts to guide the development of products of biological evolution. This argument, elaborated in particular by the biologist Stuart Newman, is based on the recognition that cloning and germline genetic engineering of animals are error-prone and inherently disruptive of embryonic development.
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Natural Selection is a manuscript written by Charles Darwin, in which he presented his theory of natural selection and its role in biological evolution. He did not publish the work while he was alive, but wrote an abstract, titled On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, which he published in 1859. Darwin regarded Natural Selection as his main work, while On the Origin of Species was written for a wider audience. He always intended to finish Natural Selection, but because of frail health, the publicity and work involved in publishing six editions of On the Origin of Species, plus other research and publications, he never got around to finish it.
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Over the course of evolutionary time this abilities machine of man becomes species specific, such as language capabilities, neuronal and cognitive capabilities so on and so forth. This then becomes over the course of the history of discursive technologies of scientific knowledge Foucault argues;became a field of knowledge established by groups of experts in the field of Evolutionary Biology, Physical sciences and Genetics for example. The study of a new and rigorous discipline allied together with a new language(discourse technologies) in which a grasp of the new language is needed developing into a powerful force in the political realm as well as biological evolution the two become powerful allies (both biology and politics). Genetics and the change that develops(over time) over the course of the human organism existence.
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The book's extensive teachings about the history of the world include its physical development about 4.5 billion years ago, the gradual changes in conditions that allowed life to develop, and long ages of organic evolution that started with microscopic marine life and led to plant and animal life in the oceans, later on land. The emergence of humans is presented as having occurred about a million years ago from a branch of superior primates originating from a lemur ancestor. The first humans are said to have been male and female twins called Andon and Fonta, born "993,419 years prior to 1934." The Urantia Book teaches not only biological evolution, but that human society and spiritual understandings evolve by slow progression, subject both to periods of rapid improvement and the possibility of retrogression.
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Patrick Geddes was influenced by social theorists such as Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) and French theorist Frederic Le Play (1806–1882) and expanded upon earlier theoretical developments that led to the concept of regional planning. He adopted Spencer's theory that the concept of biological evolution could be applied to explain the evolution of society, and drew on Le Play's analysis of the key units of society as constituting "Lieu, Travail, Famille" ("Place, Work, Family"), but changing the last from "family" to "folk". In this theory, the family is viewed as the central "biological unit of human society"Mairet, Philip (1957): Pioneer of Sociology: The Life and Letters of Patrick Geddes, Lund Humphries, London.Munshi, Indra (2000): Patrick Geddes: Sociologist, Environmentalist and Town Planner in Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.
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This island and the underlying and underwater Malpelo Ridge were created along with the Carnegie Ridge in the Late Miocene by a very complex interaction between the Cocos-Nazca Spreading Centre and the Galápagos hotspot.Hoernle K., P. Bogaard, R. Werner, F. Hauff, B. Lissinna, G.E. Alvarado and D. Garbe-Schnberg (2002) Missing history (16–71 Ma) of the Galápagos hotspot: implications for the tectonic and biological evolution of the Americas. Geology. 30(9):795–798. At first glance, the island seems to be barren rock, devoid of all vegetation, but deposits of bird guano have helped colonies of algae, lichens, mosses, and some shrubs and ferns establish, all of which glean nutrients from the guano. The Malpelo Nature Reserve, a plant and wildlife sanctuary, is defined as a circular area of radius centered at .
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Creation science or scientific creationism is a pseudoscience, a form of creationism presented without obvious Biblical language but with the claim that special creation based on the creation myth and flood geology based on the flood myth in the Book of Genesis have validity as science. Creationists also claim it disproves or reexplains a variety of scientific facts, theories and paradigms of geology, cosmology, biological evolution,Plavcan 2007, "The Invisible Bible: The Logic of Creation Science," p. 361. "Most creationists are simply people who choose to believe that God created the world – either as described in Scripture or through evolution. Creation Scientists, by contrast, strive to use legitimate scientific means both to disprove evolutionary theory and to prove the creation account as described in Scripture." archaeology, history, and linguistics.
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Aurignacian cave paintings, Chauvet Cave Homo sapiens arrived in Europe around 45,000 and 43,000 years ago via the Levant and entered the continent through the Danubian corridor, as the fossils at Peștera cu Oase suggest. The fossils' genetic structure indicates a recent Neanderthal ancestry and the discovery of a fragment of a skull in Israel in 2008 support the notion that humans interbred with Neanderthals in the Levant. After the slow processes of the previous hundreds of thousands of years a turbulent period of Neanderthal–Homo sapiens coexistence demonstrated that cultural evolution had replaced biological evolution as the primary force of adaptation and change in human societies. Generally-small and widely dispersed fossil sites suggest that Neanderthals lived in less numerous and moresocially-isolated groups than Homo sapiens.
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Multiple discoveries in the history of science provide evidence for evolutionary models of science and technology, such as memetics (the study of self-replicating units of culture), evolutionary epistemology (which applies the concepts of biological evolution to study of the growth of human knowledge), and cultural selection theory (which studies sociological and cultural evolution in a Darwinian manner). A recombinant-DNA-inspired "paradigm of paradigms", describing a mechanism of "recombinant conceptualization", predicates that a new concept arises through the crossing of pre-existing concepts and facts. This is what is meant when one says that a scientist, scholar, or artist has been "influenced by" another — etymologically, that a concept of the latter's has "flowed into" the mind of the former.Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh: the Creation of a Historical Novel," The Polish Review, vol.
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One particular sedimentary sequence of interest was the early age of the Middle Stone Age at about 95,000 B.P., which was originally believed to align with the Upper Paleolithic. Instead, the Middle Stone Age at Border Cave was found to extend to the beginning of the Late Interglacial. A number of sedimentary sequences on the interior and the coast, including the Klasies River Mouth site in the southern Cape, the Bushman Rock Shelter, and Florisbad, support this sedimentary pattern presented at Border Cave. Additionally, a late Middle Pleistocene age for the earliest Middle Stone Age follows the uranium-series date of 174,000 B.P. Recovery of stone tools of the Howieson's Poort industry indicates the cultural and biological evolution in southern Africa that took place between the Middle Stone Age and Early Late Stone Age.
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The basis for Spencer's appeal to many of his generation was that he appeared to offer a ready-made system of belief which could substitute for conventional religious faith at a time when orthodox creeds were crumbling under the advances of modern science. Spencer's philosophical system seemed to demonstrate that it was possible to believe in the ultimate perfection of humanity on the basis of advanced scientific conceptions such as the first law of thermodynamics and biological evolution. In essence Spencer's philosophical vision was formed by a combination of deism and positivism. On the one hand, he had imbibed something of eighteenth century deism from his father and other members of the Derby Philosophical Society and from books like George Combe's immensely popular The Constitution of Man (1828).
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The literalist reading of some contemporary Christians maligns the allegorical or mythical interpretation of Genesis as a belated attempt to reconcile science with the biblical account. They maintain that the story of origins had always been interpreted literally until modern science (and, specifically, biological evolution) arose and challenged it. This view is not the consensus view, however, as demonstrated below: According to Rowan Williams: "[For] most of the history of Christianity there's been an awareness that a belief that everything depends on the creative act of God, is quite compatible with a degree of uncertainty or latitude about how precisely that unfolds in creative time." Some religious historians consider that biblical literalism came about with the rise of Protestantism; before the Reformation, the Bible was not usually interpreted in a completely literal way.
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Charles Darwin The science arguably began in the late 19th century when important discoveries occurred that led to the study of human evolution. The discovery of the Neanderthal in Germany, Thomas Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature, and Charles Darwin's The Descent of Man were all important to early paleoanthropological research. The modern field of paleoanthropology began in the 19th century with the discovery of "Neanderthal man" (the eponymous skeleton was found in 1856, but there had been finds elsewhere since 1830), and with evidence of so-called cave men. The idea that humans are similar to certain great apes had been obvious to people for some time, but the idea of the biological evolution of species in general was not legitimized until after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859.
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The House version of the bill H.R. 1 did not contain the amendment, which meant that a conference committee had to decide its ultimate fate. Scientists and educators feared that by singling out biological evolution as very controversial, the amendment could create the impression that a substantial scientific controversy about evolution exists, leading to a lessening of academic rigor in science curricula. A coalition of 96 scientific and educational organizations signed a letter to this effect to the conference committee, urging that the amendment be stricken from the final bill, which it was, but intelligent design supporters on the conference committee preserved it in the bill's legislative history. While the amendment did not become law, a version of it appears in the Conference Report as an explanatory text about the legislative history and purposes of the bill.
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Paul, Diane B. in Biologists and historians have stated that this is a fallacy of appeal to nature and should not be taken to imply that this phenomenon ought to be used as a moral guide in human society. While there are historical links between the popularization of Darwin's theory and forms of social Darwinism, social Darwinism is not a necessary consequence of the principles of biological evolution. While the term has been applied to the claim that Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection can be used to understand the social endurance of a nation or country, social Darwinism commonly refers to ideas that predate Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species. Others whose ideas are given the label include the 18th century clergyman Thomas Malthus, and Darwin's cousin Francis Galton who founded eugenics towards the end of the 19th century.
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They gave rise to primitive organisms (cells), which he called coacervates. In his original theory, Oparin considered oxygen as one of the primordial gases; thus the primordial atmosphere was an oxidising one. However, when he elaborated his theory in 1936 (in a book by the same title, and translated into English in 1938), he modified the chemical composition of the primordial environment as strictly reducing, consisting of methane, ammonia, free hydrogen and water vapour—excluding oxygen. In his 1936 work, impregnated by a Darwinian thought that involved a slow and gradual evolution from the simple to the complex, Oparin proposed a heterotrophic origin, result of a long process of chemical and pre-biological evolution, where the first forms of life should have been microorganisms dependent on the molecules and organic substances present in their external environment.
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Theistic evolution takes the general view that, instead of faith being in opposition to biological evolution, some or all classical religious teachings about God and creation are compatible with some or all of modern scientific theory, including, specifically, evolution. It generally views evolution as a tool used by a creator god, who is both the first cause and immanent sustainer/upholder of the universe; it is therefore well-accepted by people of strong theistic (as opposed to deistic) convictions. Theistic evolution can synthesize with the day-age interpretation of the Genesis creation myth; most adherents consider that the first chapters of Genesis should not be interpreted as a "literal" description, but rather as a literary framework or allegory. This position generally accepts the viewpoint of methodological naturalism, a long-standing convention of the scientific method in science.
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Before its use to describe biological evolution, the term "evolution" was originally used to refer to any orderly sequence of events with the outcome somehow contained at the start.Carneiro, Robert L.(Léonard) (2003) Evolutionism in cultural anthropology: a critical history Westview Press pg 1-3 The first five editions of Darwin's in Origin of Species used the word "evolved", but the word "evolution" was only used in its sixth edition in 1872. By then, Herbert Spencer had developed the concept theory that organisms strive to evolve due to an internal "driving force" (orthogenesis) in 1862. Edward B. Tylor and Lewis H Morgan brought the term "evolution" to anthropology though they tended toward the older pre-Spencerian definition helping to form the concept of unilineal (social) evolution used during the later part of what Trigger calls the Antiquarianism-Imperial Synthesis period (c1770-c1900).
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Cambia offered scientific courses and workshops, and increasing assistance in Intellectual Property management. Cambia's ethic was influenced by Jefferson's early years in enabling technology invention and distribution, but greatly refined through increasing awareness of socially and scientifically complex systems and using new thinking about biological evolution (including the Hologenome Theory of Evolution) as models for institution building and collaboration. Cambia became one of the first social enterprises to use a hybrid licensing model to fund its public good activities. By selectively patenting important technologies, then creating tiered licensing models for their use, Cambia was able to ensure all parties fair access, but larger licensees would be required to pay more for their non-exclusive use, thus subsidising new developments and distribution and support to less wealthy users, including small enterprises and the public sector in the developing world.
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Kutschera has studied the mechanism of phytohormone-mediated cell expansion (epidermal growth-control theory of stem elongation; protein secretion hypothesis of auxin action; epiphytic methylobacteria as phytosymbionts in living-fossil plants). His contributions to the taxonomy and molecular phylogeny of aquatic annelids (and methylobacteria) includes, for example, the discovery/description of the Golden Gate leech; he also revised the systematics of medicinal leeches and published a theory on the evolution of parental care in the Hirudinea. Kutschera has written about evolution and creationism from historical and philosophical perspectives and the modern theory of biological evolution as an expanded synthesis, as well as the Synade-model of macroevolution. In 2008, Kutschera described the strict separation of scientific facts and theories from religious dogma in Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species (1859) as Darwin's philosophical imperative.
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Understanding how individual interactions within networks influence coevolution, and conversely how coevolution influences the overall structure of networks, requires an appreciation for how pair-wise interactions change due to their broader community contexts as well as how this community context shapes selective pressures. Accordingly, research is now focusing on how reciprocal selection influences and is embedded within the structure of multispecies interactive webs, not only on particular species in isolation. Coevolution in a community context can be addressed theoretically via mathematical modeling and simulation, by looking at ancient footprints of evolutionary history via ecological patterns that persist and are observable today, and by performing laboratory experiments with microorganisms. In spite of the long time scales involved and the substantial effort that is necessary to isolate and quantify samples, the latter approach of testing biological evolution in the lab has been successful over the last two decades.
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He hypothesised that people could view many cultural entities as capable of such replication, generally through communication and contact with humans, who have evolved as efficient (although not perfect) copiers of information and behaviour. Because memes are not always copied perfectly, they might become refined, combined, or otherwise modified with other ideas; this results in new memes, which may themselves prove more or less efficient replicators than their predecessors, thus providing a framework for a hypothesis of cultural evolution based on memes, a notion that is analogous to the theory of biological evolution based on genes. Although Dawkins invented the term meme, he has not claimed that the idea was entirely novel, and there have been other expressions for similar ideas in the past. For instance, John Laurent has suggested that the term may have derived from the work of the little-known German biologist Richard Semon.
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Physicist Murray Gell-Mann for example acknowledged that "when biological evolution — based on largely random variation in genetic material and on natural selection — operates on the structure of actual organisms, it does so subject to the laws of physical science, which place crucial limitations on how living things can be constructed." Richard Dawkins, the former professor for public understanding of science at Oxford University and a well known Darwinian evolutionist, conceded: "I don't think there's much good evidence to support [his thesis], but it's important that somebody like Brian Goodwin is saying that kind of thing, because it provides the other extreme, and the truth probably lies somewhere between." Dawkins also agreed that "It's a genuinely interesting possibility that the underlying laws of morphology allow only a certain limited range of shapes.". For his part, Goodwin did not reject basic Darwinism, only its excesses.
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The index and heading to page 476Page 476 uses the words Intelligence – intelligent design, and this is now seen as one of the first uses of the term intelligent design which has lately been revived by an anti-evolution movement. However Dove does not discuss biological evolution, though Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation had brought ideas of transmutation of species to public attention in 1844, and uses the term evolution to refer to the development of "a genuine natural theology".Page 484 He reasons that intuitive perception of a "primordial force" in the works of nature, if only matter is thought to be objective, leads to pantheism, "the theological credence of a large portion of the scientific men on the continent". This appears to refer to the ideas of natural laws put forward by writers such as Auguste Comte which had influenced the inception of Darwin's theory, a theory which would not be made public until 1858.
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In terms of the typing monkey analogy, this means that Romeo and Juliet could be produced relatively quickly if placed under the constraints of a nonrandom, Darwinian-type selection because the fitness function will tend to preserve in place any letters that happen to match the target text, improving each successive generation of typing monkeys. A different avenue for exploring the analogy between evolution and an unconstrained monkey lies in the problem that the monkey types only one letter at a time, independently of the other letters. Hugh Petrie argues that a more sophisticated setup is required, in his case not for biological evolution but the evolution of ideas: James W. Valentine, while admitting that the classic monkey's task is impossible, finds that there is a worthwhile analogy between written English and the metazoan genome in this other sense: both have "combinatorial, hierarchical structures" that greatly constrain the immense number of combinations at the alphabet level.
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This will especially take place in the last generation of the messiah, when "even young children will know the secrets of the Torah". This mystical prediction corresponds to the early advent of modernist secular thought from 1740s-1840s on, that broke the conventions, rigidities and limits of early modern thought. Among new ideas since then, some are overtly compatible with traditional Kabbalistic mysticism, some are compatible with extending non-fundamentalist Neo-Kabbalistic views of Revelation, some await deeper clarification of their divine unity with Torah. Among new ideas that overtly lend themselves to unity with Kabbalistic ideas, examples include Hegelian dialectics (early 1800s), Quantum mechanics (early 1900s), Freudian and Jungian depth psychology (early 1900s), postmodern Deconstruction (late 1900s), String theory (late 1900s). Biological Evolution (developed since the 1860s from the foundations of Darwin and Mendel), while providing the basis of contemporary New Atheism, has been studied as potentially valid "fallen" aspects of Divinity by the traditional Kabbalist Yitzchak Ginsburgh.
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On June 14, 2001, the amendment was passed as part of the education funding bill by the Senate on a vote of 91-8. This was hailed as a major victory by proponents of intelligent design; for instance an email newsletter by the Discovery Institute contained the sentence "Undoubtedly this will change the face of the debate over the theories of evolution and intelligent design in America ... It also seems that the Darwinian monopoly on public science education, and perhaps the biological sciences in general, is ending." Scientists and educators feared that by singling out biological evolution as very controversial, the amendment could create the impression that a substantial scientific controversy about evolution exists, leading to a lessening of academic rigor in science curricula. A coalition of 96 scientific and educational organizations signed a letter urging that the amendment be stricken from the final bill, which it was, but intelligent design supporters on the conference committee preserved it in the bill's legislative history.
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A bill (SB561) named the "Louisiana Academic Freedom Act," was pre-filed on March 21, 2008, in the Louisiana Senate by the Education Committee chair, Ben Nevers, a Bogalusa Democrat. While its name is the same as the Florida, Alabama and Discovery Institute bills, the Louisiana version is modeled on a policy adopted in 2006 by the Ouachita Parish School Board with the backing of the pro-creationism Louisiana Family Forum (LFF). The bill contends that "the teaching of some scientific subjects, such as biological evolution, the chemical origins of life, global warming, and human cloning, can cause controversy, and that some teachers may be unsure of the expectations concerning how they should present information on such subjects," and extends permission to Louisiana's teachers to "help students understand, analyze, critique, and review in an objective manner the scientific strengths and scientific weaknesses of existing scientific theories pertinent to the course being taught." Nevers states that he was asked to sponsor the bill by the LFF.
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One of the first major perspectives of Boulding's evolutionary perspective was his emphasis on know-how or, to use the term of Vladimir Vernadsky (1926) and Teilhard de Chardin (1959), which Boulding used as well, the "Noosphere." This is the counterpart in social and economic evolution to the role of genetic information and DNA in biological evolution. Just as DNA provides the genetic know-how to produce a chicken from an egg, automotive engineers and their recording devices contain the know-how to produce an automobile. One of the first major neoclassical casualties of this perspective comes from Boulding's critique of the usual factors of production, land, labor and capital: > It is much more accurate to identify the factors of production as know-how > (that is genetic information structure), energy, and materials, for, as we > have seen, all processes of production involve the direction of energy by > some know-how structure toward the selection, transportation, and > transformation of materials into the product.
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Whether the "it" be that of > Richard Dawkins' reductionist gene-centred worldpicture, the "universal > acid" of Daniel Dennett's meaningless Darwinism, or David Sloan Wilson's > faith in group selection (not least to explain the role of human religions), > we certainly need to acknowledge each provides insights but as total > explanations of what we see around us they are, to put it politely, somewhat > incomplete. and of scientists who are militantly against religion: > the scientist who boomingly – and they always boom – declares that those who > believe in the Deity are unavoidably crazy, "cracked" as my dear father > would have said, although I should add that I have every reason to believe > he was – and now hope is – on the side of the angels. In March 2009 he was the opening speaker at the Biological Evolution: Facts and Theories conference held at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, as well as chairing one of the sessions. The conference was sponsored by the Catholic Church.
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A handicap in this process is the difficulty of seeing and manipulation at the nanoscale compared to the macroscale which makes deterministic selection of successful trials difficult; in contrast biological evolution proceeds via action of what Richard Dawkins has called the "blind watchmaker" Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design, W. W. Norton; Reissue edition (September 19, 1996) comprising random molecular variation and deterministic reproduction/extinction. At present in 2007 the practice of nanotechnology embraces both stochastic approaches (in which, for example, supramolecular chemistry creates waterproof pants) and deterministic approaches wherein single molecules (created by stochastic chemistry) are manipulated on substrate surfaces (created by stochastic deposition methods) by deterministic methods comprising nudging them with STM or AFM probes and causing simple binding or cleavage reactions to occur. The dream of a complex, deterministic molecular nanotechnology remains elusive. Since the mid-1990s, thousands of surface scientists and thin film technocrats have latched on to the nanotechnology bandwagon and redefined their disciplines as nanotechnology.
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They share common features: # Systems designed by human brains, in the sense that agents, actors, decision-makers act on the evolutionary system, as in engineering (control theory and differential games) # Systems observed by human brains, more difficult to understand since there is no consensus on the actors piloting the variable, who, at least, may be myopic, lazy but explorers, conservative but opportunist. This is the case of economics, less in finance, where the viability constraints are the scarcity constraints among many other ones, in connectionist networks and/or cooperative games, in population and social dynamics, in neurosciences and some biological issues. Viability theory thus designs and develops mathematical and algorithmic methods for investigating the "adaptation to viability constraints" of evolutions governed by complex systems under uncertainty that are found in many domains involving living beings, from biological evolution to economics, from environmental sciences to financial markets, from control theory and robotics to cognitive sciences. It needed to forge a differential calculus of set-valued maps (set-valued analysis), differential inclusions and differential calculus in metric spaces (mutational analysis).
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Young Earth creationists adhere strongly to a concept of biblical inerrancy, and regard the Bible as divinely inspired and "infallible and completely authoritative on all matters with which they deal, free from error of any sort, scientific and historical as well as moral and theological". Young Earth creationists also suggest that supporters of modern scientific understanding with which they disagree are primarily motivated by atheism. Critics reject this claim by pointing out that many supporters of evolutionary theory are religious believers, and that major religious groups, such as the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, and Church of England, believe that concepts such as physical cosmology, chemical origins of life, biological evolution, and geological fossil records do not imply a rejection of the scriptures. Critics also point out that workers in fields related to biology, chemistry, physics, or geosciences are not required to sign statements of belief in contemporary science comparable to the biblical inerrancy pledges required by creationist organizations, contrary to the creationist claim that scientists operate on an a priori disbelief in biblical principles.
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The program aims to demonstrate that the preservation of small changes in an evolving string of characters (or genes) can produce meaningful combinations in a relatively short time as long as there is some mechanism to select cumulative changes, whether it is a person identifying which traits are desirable (in the case of artificial selection) or a criterion of survival ("fitness") imposed by the environment (in the case of natural selection). Reproducing systems tend to preserve traits across generations, because the offspring inherit a copy of the parent's traits. It is the differences between offspring, the variations in copying, which become the basis for selection, allowing phrases closer to the target to survive, and the remaining variants to "die." Dawkins discusses the issue of the mechanism of selection with respect to his "biomorphs" program: Regarding the example's applicability to biological evolution, he is careful to point out that it has its limitations: A full run of a weasel program, with 100 offspring per generation, and a 5% mutation chance per character copied.
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In the 1800s, the relationship between religion and science became an actual formal topic of discourse, while before this no one had pitted science against religion or vice versa, though occasional interactions had occurred in the past. More specifically, it was around the mid-1800s that discussion of "science and religion" first emerged because before this time, science still included moral and metaphysical dimensions, was not inherently linked to the scientific method, and the term scientist did not emerge until 1834.The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834. The scientist John William Draper (1811-1882) and the writer Andrew Dickson White (1832-1918) were the most influential exponents of the conflict thesis between religion and science. Draper had been the speaker in the British Association meeting of 1860 which led to the famous confrontation between Bishop Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Henry Huxley over Darwinism, and in America "the religious controversy over biological evolution reached its most critical stages in the late 1870s".
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He defends theistic evolution, the reconciliation between science and religion already held by Catholics. In discussing evolution, he writes that "The process itself is rational despite the mistakes and confusion as it goes through a narrow corridor choosing a few positive mutations and using low probability.... This ... inevitably leads to a question that goes beyond science.... Where did this rationality come from?" to which he answers that it comes from the "creative reason" of God.Pope says science too narrow to explain creation, Tom Heneghan, San Diego Union-Tribune, April 11, 2007Evolution not completely provable: Pope, Sydney Morning Herald, April 11, 2007Pope praises science but stresses evolution not proven, USA Today, 4/12/2007 The 150th anniversary of the publication of the Origin of Species saw two major conferences on evolution in Rome: a five-day plenary session of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in October/November 2008 on Scientific Insights Into the Evolution of the Universe and of Life and another five-day conference on Biological Evolution: Facts and Theories, held in March 2009 at the Pontifical Gregorian University. These meetings generally confirmed the lack of conflict between evolutionary theory and Catholic theology, and the rejection of Intelligent Design by Catholic scholars.
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