There are six different kinds of calculation scenarios that GeNMR can currently accommodate. These scenarios include: # chemical shift only—query has homologue in database; # chemical shift only—query has no homologue in database; # NOE only—query has homologue in database; # NOE only—query has no homologue in database; # NOE and chemical shift—query has homologue in database; # NOE and chemical shift—query has no homologue in database.
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Both species are diploids having six sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=12).
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In Cyrillic used for languages of the Caucasus, there are tetragraphs as doubled digraphs used for 'strong' consonants (typically transcribed in the IPA as geminate), and also labialized homologues of trigraphs. is used in Kabardian for , the labialized homologue of , in turn unpredictably derived from ejective . is used in Avar for , the 'strong' homologue of , the ejective () homologue of . It is often substituted with .
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The Drosophila homologue dSdc and human SDC4 have been implicated in energy homeostasis.
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Felicia amelloides is a diploid having nine sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=18).
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Recently a human homologue of the yeast RAD54 was discovered and termed hRAD54.
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The human homologue of the cdc4 gene is called FBXW7. The corresponding gene product is the F-box/WD repeat-containing protein 7. In the nematode C. elegans, the homologue to Cdc4 is F-box/WD repeat-containing protein sel-10.
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MagT1 and its homologue TUSC3 are both bona fide components of the oligosaccharyltransferase (OST).
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Recently , the first homologue of the fly proneural genes to be found in mammals was mash1.
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The 16S rRNA is the mitochondrial homologue of the prokaryotic 23S and eukaryotic nuclear 28S ribosomal RNAs.
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It has been suggested also that the difference in the heat stability of the different mabinlin homologues is due to the presence of an arginine residue (heat-stable homologue) or a glutamine (heat-unstable homologue) at position 47 in the B-chain. The sequences of Mabilins cluster with Napins ().
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For example, INAH3 in humans (homologue of oSDN) is significantly larger in heterosexual men than in homosexual men.
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The WEE1 gene has two known homologues in humans, WEE1 (also known as WEE1A) and WEE2 (WEE1B). The corresponding proteins are Wee1-like protein kinase and Wee1-like protein kinase 2 which act on the human Cdk1 homologue Cdk1. The homologue to Wee1 in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is called Swe1.
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Further analysis of the Arabidopsis genome established a very genetically similar homologue of PEPR1, PEPR2, or PEP receptor 2.
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In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the GrpE homologue, Mge1, is found in mitochondria. Mge1 is a nucleotide exchange factor important for shuttling proteins across mitochondrial membranes and in protein folding, it interacts with a yeast homologue of DnaK. Mge1 has a similar role as a thermosensor. Yeast have additional GrpE homologues including Sil1p and Fes1p.
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MLIP is found only in amniotes (reptiles, birds and mammals), where it is highly conserved. The mouse homologue is 2310046A06rik.
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Natp requires longer nascent polypeptide chains to function catalystically than NAC (nascent polypeptide-associated complex) and Hsp70 homologue Ssb1/2p.
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In literature, "nor" is sometimes called the "next lower homologue", although in this context "homologue" is an inexact term. "Nor" only refers to the removal of one carbon atom with the accompanying hydrogen, not the removal of other units. "Nor" compares two related compounds; it does not describe the relation to a homologous series.
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One is believed to be a Na+:H+ antiporter; the other is a malate·H+:lactate·Na+ antiporter. Several paralogues are found in Vibrio cholerae, and two paralogues are found encoded in the completely sequenced genomes of bothHaemophilus influenzae and Bacillus subtilis. E. coli lacks such a homologue. Pyrococcus species also have at least one homologue each.
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A cyanobacterial homologue can transport nitrate. Some members can function as channels. SLC26A3 (2.A.53.2.3) and SLC26A6 (2.A.53.2.
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Targeted inactivation of another homologue, Cerberus like-2 (Cerl2), in the mouse leads to left ventricular cardiac hyperplasia and systolic dysfunction.
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The homologue to the baculum in female mammals is known as the baubellum or os clitoridis, a bone in the clitoris.
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They discussed parliamentary cooperation as well as the unstable and violent situation in the Central African Republic.Bélita Gloire Wassemo, "Assemblée nationale: Le président Justin Koumba reçu par son homologue français", Le Patriote, number 261, 16 December 2013, page 4 ."Assemblée nationale : Justin Koumba a rencontré son homologue français, à Paris", La Semaine Africaine, 17 December 2013 .
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AntM catalyses the reduction of the β-keto group, which precedes the AntD TE domain – promoted release of the nine- membered dilactone 8\. A lipase homologue, AntO, and acyltransferase homologue, AntB, catalyze the installation of the N-formyl group and the transesterification of the C-8 hydroxyl group, respectively, resulting in the backbone for the Antimycin family.
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There are four human genes encoding epsin family members, EPN1, EPN2, EPN3, and EPN4. The epsin homologue of C. elegans is EPN-1. EPN-1 conserves the UIM, ENTH domain, and clathrin-binding motif. The epsin homologue of Drosophila melanogaster is liquid facets and was first identified due to its role in eye patterning in flies.
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The sortilin co-receptor is believed to work with a neurotrophin homologue that can also cause neurotrophin to alter the immune response.
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This homologue is passed down across generations without having its mutations disrupted by recombination during sexual reproduction, allowing it to properly accumulate mutations.
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At the G2/M transition, Cdk1 is activated by Cdc25 through dephosphorylation of Tyr15. At the same time, Wee1 is inactivated through phosphorylation at its C-terminal catalytic domain by Nim1/Cdr1. Also, the active MPF will promote its own activity by activating Cdc25 and inactivating Wee1, creating a positive feedback loop, though this is not yet understood in detail. Higher eukaryotes regulate Wee1 via phosphorylation and degradation In higher eukaryotes, Wee1 inactivation occurs both by phosphorylation and degradation. The protein complexβ-transducin repeat-containing protein 1/2 (β-TrCP1/2) F-box protein-containing SKP1/Cul1/F-box protein complex SCFβ- TrCP1/2 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that functions in Wee1A ubiquitination. The M-phase kinases Polo-like kinase (Plk1) and Cdc2 phosphorylate two serine residues in Wee1A which are recognized by SCFβ-TrCP1/2. S. cerevisiae homologue Swe1 In S. cerevisiae, cyclin-dependent kinase Cdc28 (Cdk1 homologue) is phosphorylated by Swe1 (Wee1 homologue) and dephosphorylated by Mih1 (Cdc25 homologue). Nim1/Cdr1 homologue in S. cerevisiae, Hsl1, together with its related kinases Gin4 and Kcc4 localize Swe1 to the bud-neck.
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Cannabicyclohexanol (CCH, CP 47,497 dimethyloctyl homologue, (C8)-CP 47,497) is a cannabinoid receptor agonist drug, developed by Pfizer in 1979. On 19 January 2009, the University of Freiburg in Germany announced that an analog of CP 47,497 was the main active ingredient in the herbal incense product Spice, specifically the 1,1-dimethyloctyl homologue of CP 47,497, which is now known as cannabicyclohexanol. The 1,1-dimethyloctyl homologue of CP 47,497 is in fact several times more potent than the parent compound, which is somewhat unexpected as the 1,1-dimethylheptyl is the most potent substituent in classical cannabinoid compounds such as HU-210.
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Balancer chromosomes contain a sizable inversion relative to their homologue, which serves to prevent recombination of the balancer chromosome with its homologue during meiosis. Additionally, the balancer chromosome may contain a number of mutations. While the exact mutation(s) may vary, it is important that they achieve two things. First, the mutation(s) must create a physically visible phenotype in heterozygous organisms.
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However, the bovine SLC50A1 homologue is associated with lactose concentration in milk, and the CiRGA homologue in the sea squirt Ciona intestinalis is essential for tissue differentiation during embryogenesis, especially the development of the notochord. SWEET genes are common in plant genomes, with around twenty paralogues functioning as both sucrose and hexose transporters, and are also associated with pathogen susceptibility.
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Magnesium transporters E (MgtE) are a family of transmembrane eubacterial MgtE magnesium transporters. Related regions are found also in archaeal and eukaryotic proteins. They have sizes that vary considerably from 311 residues for the Methanococcus thermoautotrophicum protein, 463 residues for a Synechocystis homologue, and 513 residues for the human homologue, SLC41A1. These proteins are capable of transporting Mg2+ and Co2+ but not Ni2+.
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The corresponding homologue to Atg1 in C. elegans is unc-51 (uncoordinated-51). Unc-51 also functions in proper axonal guidance and in neuronal development.
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Stanniocalcin-1 is a glycoprotein, a homologue of a hormone stanniocalcin, first discovered in bony fishes. In humans it is encoded by the STC1 gene.
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E-rosetting is used in the identification of T cells where a T cells CD2 surface protein is bound to a sugar based LFA-3 homologue on the surface of a sheep red blood cell. Because the LFA-3 homologue is only present on the surface of sheep red blood cells other species red blood cells can not be used in this type of rosetting.
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The primary structure of calprotectin can vary between species. For instance, the mouse homologue of S100A8 is 10,295 Da, while the S100A9 homologue is 13,049 Da. Early size exclusion chromatography experiments incorrectly indicated that calprotectin had a molecular mass of 36.5 kDa; occasionally this value is used in contemporary literature. Calprotectin S100A8-S100A9 dimers can non- covalently pair with one another to form 48 kDa tetramers.
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Specifically, in a high-resolution MRI study conducted by Allen et al. (2006), the researchers scanned and analyzed 220 human brains and found no sign of the lunate sulcus homologue. Based on this finding, they suggested that the claim asserting humans have a lunate sulcus homologue fails to account for and show appreciation of the extensive evolutionary reorganization of the visual cortex in humans.
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Mutations in the human homologue of Drosophila patched (PTCH1), a tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 9, were identified as the underlying genetic event in this syndrome.
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3-Isopropylmalate dehydratase (E.C.4.2.1.33) is an aconitase homologue, which catalyses the isomerisation of 2-isopropylmalate to 3-isopropylmalate, via dehydration, in the biosynthesis of leucine.
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3D structure of E. coli homologue of this subunit was modeled based on electron microscopy data (chain M of ). It forms a transmembrane 4-α-bundle.
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Chromium hexafluoride (), the lighter homologue of molybdenum hexafluoride and tungsten hexafluoride, was reported, but has been shown to be a mistaken identification of the known pentafluoride ().
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The rice homologue is expressed from a cluster also containing snoR16. U43 is hypothesised to guide methylation of 2'-O-ribose residues on 18S ribosomal RNA.
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The reaction catalyzed by AgnG is: agrocin (in) → agrocin (out) AgnG homologue 2 of Lyngbya sp. (TC# 2.A.66.5.3) is thought to be a polysaccharide exporter.
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THCB is not scheduled internationally under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, but may be controlled under analogue law in some individual jurisdictions as a homologue of THC.
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This nudibranch feeds on the hymedesmiid sponge Phorbas fictitius ( aka Anchinoe fictitius). The two darker round markings on the back of the animal closely resemble the inhalant pore sieves of Phorbas, providing excellent camouflage. A progesterone homologue has been isolated from this species.Gavagnin, M.; Ungur, N.; Mollo, E.; Templado, J.; Cimino, G. Structure and synthesis of a progesterone homologue from the skin of the dorid nudibranch Aldisa smaragdina. Eur.
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This effect appears localized to the rodent homologue of the pgACC (the prelimbic cortex), as stimulation of the rodent homologue of the sgACC (the infralimbic cortex) produces no behavioral effects. Furthermore, deep brain stimulation in the infralimbic cortex, which is thought to have an inhibitory effect, also produces an antidepressant effect. This finding is congruent with the observation that pharmacological inhibition of the infralimbic cortex attenuates depressive behaviors.
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Hz2V026 is most similar to GbNV pif-2 and Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMPV), and it may form disulfide bonds and be a structural component of the occlusion-derived virus envelope. Hz2V053 is a homologue of baculovirus pif-3 and GbNV pif-3. It contains an N-terminal transmembrane domain. Hz2V082 is a homologue of the GbNV pif-1 gene and is very similar to the Spodoptera litteroralis NPV (SlNPV).
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Hz2V062 is most similar to GbNV odv-e56. Hz2V089 is homologous to baculovirus vp91. Hz2V108 is a homologue of MBV 38K protein gene, which is crucial for nucleocapsid assembly.
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3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-hydroxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDHMA; FLEA) is an entactogen, psychedelic, and stimulant of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It is the N-hydroxy homologue of MDMA ("Ecstasy"), and the N-methyl homologue of MDOH. MDHMA was first synthesized and assayed by Alexander Shulgin. In his book PiHKAL (Phenethylamines i Have Known And Loved), Shulgin listed the dosage range as 100–160 mg, and the duration as approximately 4–8 hours.
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In mice, the BMP-15 homologue is not as physiologically important. Upon targeted deletion of a bmp15 exon, the mice presented with only subfertility in homozygotes and no clear aberrant phenotype in heterozygotes. The homozygous mutant mice did not suffer from reduced folliculogenesis or impacted follicle progression, unlike in the sheep homologue knockout experiments. The subfertility seen in the homozygous mutant phenotype was attributed to defective ovulation and reduced viability of embryos.
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Retrieved 2008-03-30. The Nicaraguan homologue is pinolillo. In some parts of Honduras, fresh corn is ground and the expressed liquid is used as the base (instead of masa).
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RTI(-4229)-274, or 2β-((3,4-Methylenedioxyphenoxy)methyl)-3α-(4-fluorophenyl)nortropane is a phenyltropane homologue of paroxetine developed by the group led by F Ivy Carroll in the 1990s.
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"To rebut this presumption it must be shown 'that the claimed compound possesse[d] unobvious or unexpected beneficial properties not actually possessed by the prior art homologue.'"312 F. Supp.
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The clitoris is the homologue of the penis, and the clitoral hood is the female equivalent of the male foreskin, and may be partially or completely hidden within the pudendal cleft.
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The human homologue of TMEM205 is 189 amino acids long and has a molecular weight of 21.2 kDa. It contains 4 hydrophobic helical domains that are predicted to be transmembrane domains.
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For the extraction of the amine ether was used. To get butylone a drop of ether and HCl solution was added. A brief reaction mechanism for pentylone, a homologue of butylone.
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4'-Methyl-α-pyrrolidinobutiophenone or MPBP is a stimulant compound which has been reported as a novel designer drug. It is closely related to pyrovalerone, being simply its chain-shortened homologue.
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U88 is also closely related to other human snoRNAs scaRNA U87 and a mouse homologue MBI-46. In the human genome both U88 and U87 scaRNAs share the same host gene.
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5-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (5-Methyl-MDA) is an entactogen and psychedelic designer drug of the amphetamine class. It is a ring-methylated homologue of MDA and a structural isomer of MDMA.
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Hamster female protein is a SAP homologue found in Mesocricetus auratus (Golden hamster). The concentration of this plasma protein is altered by sex steroids and stimuli that elicit an acute phase response.
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Agitoxin is a toxin found in the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus (yellow scorpion). Other toxins found in this species include charybdotoxin (CTX). CTX is a close homologue of Agitoxin.
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Atrichia with papular lesions (a.k.a. "Papular atrichia") is a diffuse hair loss caused by an abnormality of the human homologue of the mouse hairless gene.Freedberg, et al. (2003). Fitzpatrick's Dermatology in General Medicine.
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1P-LSD is a derivative and functional analogue of LSD and a homologue of ALD-52. It modifies the LSD molecule by adding a propionyl group to the nitrogen molecule of LSD's indole.
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The C. elegans homologue of AMPK, aak-2, has been shown by Michael Ristow and colleagues to be required for extension of life span in states of glucose restriction mediating a process named mitohormesis.
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In the Helicobacter pylori NixA homologue, several conserved motifs have been shown to be important for Ni2+ binding and transport. At least one crystal structure is known, determined by Yu et al., available at .
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The Toll-induced signalling complex (TICS) is composed of MyD88, Tube, and Pelle (the orthologue of mammalian IRAK). Signal from TICS is then transduced to Cactus (homologue of mammalian IκB), phosphorylated Cactus is polyubiquitylated and degraded, allowing nuclear translocation of DIF (dorsal-related immunity factor; a homologue of mammalian NF-κB) and induction of transcription of genes for antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as Drosomycin. Drosophilia have a total of 9 toll family and 6 spz family genes that interact with each other to differing degrees.
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El País, 5 November 2013 Nou TV's last broadcast ended abruptly when Spanish police pulled the plug at 12:19 on 29 November 2013.The last minutes of NouTV as seen on her homologue catalan TV3.
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Another has SulP fused to Rhodanese, a sulfate:cyanide sulfotransferase (TC# 2.A.53.9.1). This SulP homologue is presumably a sulfate transporter. Homologues currently characterized in the SulP family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database.
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For example, there may be critical differences between cancer pathogenesis in mice and people. A human homologue of the mammary virus has been described in 1971 and linked to human breast cancer in several small epidemiologic studies.
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Lin et al., 2014, examined the role of SWEET9 in nectaries. SWEET9 is a member of clade 3. A homologue in petunias had been shown to have an inverse correlation between expression and starch content in nectaries.
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As with other Brahmic scripts, the Burmese alphabet is arranged into groups of five letters for stop consonants called wek (, from Pali ) based on articulation. Within each group, the first letter is tenuis ("plain"), the second is the aspirated homologue, the third and fourth are the voiced homologues and the fifth is the nasal homologue. This is true of the first twenty-five letters in the Burmese alphabet, which are called grouped together as wek byi (, from Pali ). The remaining eight letters (, , , , , , , ) are grouped together as a wek (, lit.
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Fly pushing: the theory and practice of drosophila genetics. Cold Spring Harbor (N.Y.): Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Using this system, a proportion of the offspring created by sexual reproduction will inherit a balancer chromosome and its homologue.
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It also has pathological involvement in heart attacks (increased expression around myocardial infarct zone) and decreased expression in leiomyoma and fibrosis. In invertebrate, dermatopontin homologue plays a role in hemagglutination, cell-cell aggregation, and expression during parasite infection.
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The Human CCHCR1 gene is located at 6p21.33. It is also known as Coiled-Coil Alphahelical Rod Protein 1, C6orf18, Putative Gene 8 Protein, SBP, HCR (A-Helix Coiled-Coil Rod Homologue), pg8, StAR-Binding Protein, and Pg8.
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Apart from LC3, GABARAP and GATE-16 the most recently but less well characterized mammalian homologue is ATGL8. Little is known about its actual activation process except for its interaction with one of the mammalian ATG4 homologues, hATG4A.
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Related functions have been found in other fungi, including Neurospora and Aspergillus species.Lee DW, Freitag M, Selker EU, Aramayo R (2008) A Cytosine Methyltransferase Homologue Is Essential for Sexual Development in Aspergillus nidulans. PLoS ONE 3(6): e2531.
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It is believed that IGFs function by activating a signal transduction cascade that interferes and inhibits both Wnt signaling and BMP signaling. In the posterior, two candidates for posteriorizing signals include eFGF, a fibroblast growth factor homologue, and retinoic acid.
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Lefty is conserved in all vertebrates and many species have more than one homologue. Humans and mice, for instance have two homologues, Lefty 1 and Lefty 2, whose differential expression leads to distinct purposes while the mechanism of action is conserved.
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In most bacteria, the SRP consists of an RNA molecule (4.5S) and the Ffh protein (a homologue of the eukaryotic SRP54 protein). Some Gram-positive bacteria (e.g. Bacillus subtilis) have a longer eukaryote-like SRP RNA that includes an Alu domain.
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A.77) together. These proteins are all of about the same size and apparent topology, further suggesting a common evolutionary origin. The leucine exporter homologue (YeaS or LeuE; TC# 2.A.76.1.5) exports leucine and several other neutral, hydrophobic amino acids.
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4-Hydroxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (4-HO-DiPT or Iprocin) is a synthetic psychedelic drug. It is a higher homologue of psilocin, 4-HO-DET, and is a positional isomer of 4-HO-DPT and has a tryptamine molecular sub-structure.
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Crenactin is an actin homologue unique to the archaeal kingdom Crenarchaeota that has been found in the orders Thermoproteales and Candidatus Korarchaeum. It has the highest sequence similarity to eukaryotic actins of any known actin homologue. Crenactin has been well characterized in Pyryobaculum calidifontis () and shown to have high specificity for ATP and GTP. Species containing crenactin are all rod or needle shaped and in P. calidifontis Crenactin has been shown to form helical structures that span the length of the cell, suggesting a role for crenactin in shape determination similar to that of MreB in other prokaryotes.
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A specific function for SBDS in RNA metabolism or ribosome assembly or function is further supported by its localization to the nucleolus, the nuclear subdomain where these processes occur. In line with this, the yeast homologue, SdoI, has been shown to be critical for maturation of pre-60S ribosomes, by effecting release and recycling of the nucleolar shuttling factor Tif6. This is required for 60S maturation and translational activation of ribosomes. It has also been shown that the Dictyostelium discoideum homologue catalyzes the removal of eukaryotic initiation factor 6 (eIF6), which is required for the translational activation of ribosomes.
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While a human homologue of the protein exists, no evidence was found for a long time that its human homologue was associated with the human exosome complex. In 2010, however, it was discovered that humans have three Rrp44 homologues and two of these can be associated with the exosome complex. These two proteins most likely degrade different RNA substrates due to their different cellular localization, with one being localized in the cytoplasm (Dis3L1) and the other in the nucleus (Dis3). "Ribbon view" of the partial structure of the yeast exosome subunit Rrp6, with α-helices in red and β-sheets in yellow.
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Thus common biological activities of LIF and OSM are mediated through the type I receptor and OSM specific activities are mediated through the type II receptor. The murine homologue of OSM was not discovered until 1996, whereas the murine OSMR homologue was not cloned until 1998. Until recently, it was thought that mOSM only signals through the murine type II receptor, namely through mOSMR/mgp130 complexes, because of a low affinity for the type I receptor counterpart. However, it is now known that, in bone at least, mOSM is able to signal through both mOSMR/mgp130 and mLIFR/mgp130.
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Comparison of the Affenspalte homologue, renamed the lunate sulcus by Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, in the primary visual cortex of chimpanzee versus human brains. The Affenspalte, or lunate sulcus, is marked by the red line. The lunate sulcus was first identified during the early 1900s in the human brain as a homologue of the Affenspalte, a major sulcus defining the primary visual cortex (V1) in apes and other monkey species, by anatomist and Egyptologist Sir Grafton Elliot Smith. Based on Smith’s observations from studying over 400 Egyptian and ape brains, he noticed that the sulcal patterns between humans and apes were very similar.
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The MIF homologue D-dopachrome tautomerase (EC 4.1.1.84) is involved in detoxification through the conversion of dopaminechrome (and possibly norepinephrinechrome), the toxic quinine product of the neurotransmitter dopamine (and norepinephrine), to an indole derivative that can serve as a precursor to neuromelanin.
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The target of these antibodies, or the human leukocyte antigens (HLA), were discovered to be the human homologue of Snell and Gorer's mouse MHC. Snell, Dausset and Baruj Benacerraf shared the 1980 Nobel Prize for the discovery of the MHC and HLA.
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A digestive organ called the hepatic caecum is found in the cephalochordate amphioxus, or lancelet. The hepatic caecum of the amphioxus is a presumed homologue of the vertebrate liver, although it is not undisputed. This homology was first hypothesized by Müller in 1844.
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Hopantenic acid is a homologue of pantothenic acid. While pantothenic acid is the amide of D-pantoate and β-alanine, hopantenic acid is the amide of D-pantoate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). This change leads to an additional CH2 in the molecule.
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Mitochondrial intermediate peptidase (, mitochondrial intermediate precursor- processing proteinase, MIP) is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Release of an N-terminal octapeptide as second stage of processing of some proteins imported into the mitochondrion This enzyme is a homologue of thimet oligopeptidase.
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Cypenamine is a homolog of tranylcypromine, containing an expanded alicyclic ring that is two methylene units larger than the highly strained/reactive cyclopropane. The cyclohexane homologue has been reported, although the LD50s were all less than for plain amphetamine, it was still a functional stimulant.
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Early Notch signaling maintains progenitor cycling. Photoreceptor precursors come about through inhibition of Notch signaling and increased activity of various factors including achaete- scute homologue 1. OTX2 activity commits cells to the photoreceptor fate. CRX further defines the photoreceptor specific panel of genes being expressed.
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Reaction of the DIFP with a serine protease The marked toxicity of esters of monofluorophosphoric acid was discovered in 1932, when Willy Lange and his PhD student Gerda von Krueger prepared the methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, and n-butyl esters and incidentally experienced their toxic effects. Another homologue of this series of esters, Diisopropyl fluorophosphate, was developed by British scientist Bernard Charles Saunders. On his search for compounds to be used as chemical warfare agents, Saunders was inspired by the report by Lange and Krueger and decided to prepare the new homologue which he labeled PF-3. It was much less effective as a chemical weapon than the G series agents.
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Like tin, a high-pitched cry is heard when indium is bent – a crackling sound due to crystal twinning. Like gallium, indium is able to wet glass. Like both, indium has a low melting point, 156.60 °C (313.88 °F); higher than its lighter homologue, gallium, but lower than its heavier homologue, thallium, and lower than tin. The boiling point is 2072 °C (3762 °F), higher than that of thallium, but lower than gallium, conversely to the general trend of melting points, but similarly to the trends down the other post-transition metal groups because of the weakness of the metallic bonding with few electrons delocalized.
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The involucral bracts between the individual heads are thin and papery. The pappus consists of a circle of scales around the tip of the cypselas. Flowering usually appears from June to September, rarely extending to December. This species has seven sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=14).
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The Atg1 homologue in D. melanogaster is also important in neural development and neuronal trafficking. Additionally there is a feed back mechanism to TOR, that can inhibit TOR function, which actually lies upstream of Atg1. Atg1 and Atg13 are always in one complex in 'D.melanogaster and vertebrates.
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4-Hydroxy-N-methyl-N-propyltryptamine, commonly known as 4-HO-MPT or meprocin, is a psychedelic drug in the tryptamine class of chemical compounds and is a higher homologue of the naturally occurring substituted tryptamine psilocin as well as being the 4-hydroxyl analog of MPT.
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2C-T-15 is the 2 carbon homologue of Aleph-15, which has not been synthesized. The full chemical name is 2-[4-(2-cyclopropylthio)-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl]ethanamine. The drug has structural properties similar to 2C-T-2 and other drugs in the 2C-T series.
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Nuclear receptor TLX (homologue of the Drosophila tailless gene) also known as NR2E1 (Nuclear receptor subfamily 2 group E member 1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NR2E1 gene. TLX is a member of the nuclear receptor family of intracellular transcription factors.
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Musashi-2 protein in homolog 2 in Homo sapiens. Musashi-2, also known as Musashi RNA binding protein 2, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MSI2 gene. Like its homologue musashi-1 (MSI1), it is an RNA-binding protein involved in stemness.
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Tenuivirus has close phylogenic relationship with members of the genus Tospovirus, the virions of which are bounded with an envelope. Tenuivirus encodes a membrane protein precursor that is homologue to the virion envelope protein of Tospoviridae, although no envelope was found to associate with Tenuivirus virion.
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WHI1 was furthermore found to be a cyclin homologue, and it was shown that simultaneous deletion of WHI1—renamed CLN3—and the previously identified G1 cyclins, CLN1 and CLN2, caused permanent G1 arrest. This showed that the three G1 cyclins were responsible for controlling Start entry in budding yeast.
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NEDD4L belongs to the NEDD4 family of E3 HECT domain ubiquitin ligases. It is the closest homologue of NEDD4, the prototypic member of the family and probably arose as a result of gene duplication. While NEDD4 orthologues are present in all eukaryotes, NEDD4L proteins are limited to vertebrates.
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Protein threading can be used when a reliable homologue for the query sequence cannot be found. This method begins by obtaining a query sequence and a library of template structures. Next, the query sequence is threaded over known template structures. These candidate models are scored using scoring functions.
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These traits appear to be characteristic of all members of this family. A representative list of proteins belonging to this family can be found in the Transporter Classification Database. In fungi, a long homologue of 351 aas has a similar 3 TMS DUF202 domain at its extreme C-terminus.
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The yeast protein, called the nuclear division Rft1 protein (TC# 2.A.66.3.1), is 574 aas with 12 putative TMSs. The homologue in A. thaliana is 401 aas in length with 8 or 9 putative TMSs while that in C. elegans is 522 aas long with 11 putative TMSs.
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The structure of TEP1 and its vertebrate homologue - complement protein C3- is mostly conserved. However, there are some differences between the two molecules, for example unlike C3, TEP1 lacks an anaphylatoxin domain. The absence of this domain means that the exposed thioester bond of active TEP1 is unstable.
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In molecular biology, the histone-like nucleoid-structuring (H-NS) protein belongs to a family of bacterial proteins that play a role in the formation of nucleoid structure and affect gene expression under certain conditions. The protein has a homologue that is encoded by many large, conjugative plasmids.
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The first branch is catalyzed in E. coli by enzymes encoded by epd, pdxB, serC and pdxA. These share mechanistical similarities and homology with the three enzymes in serine biosynthesis (serA (homologue of pdxB), serC, serB — however, epd is a homologue of gap), which points towards a shared evolutionary origin of the two pathways. In several species there are two homologues of the E. coli serC gene, generally one in a ser operon (serC), and the other in a pdx operon, in which case it is called pdxF. center A "serendipitous pathway" was found in an overexpression library that could suppress the auxotrophy caused by the deletion of pdxB (encoding erythronate 4 phosphate dehydrogenase) in E. coli.
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It was found that when the channel receptor was bound to the homologue of cGMP there was an increase in the dark current and a much slower overall response to light. The study also found that whether a cGMP or its homologue was used, an increased concentration present could cause the rods to have slower responses as there was less control on the ability to open the gate quickly. Overall, this study provided insight into how light travels to the rods, and is used and processed by the rods within the eye. In 1991, Baylor published “Synchronous bursts of action potentials in ganglion cells of the developing mammalian retina” where he studied the visual systems of mammals.
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M33 is a gene. It is a mammalian homologue of Drosophila Polycomb. It localises to euchromatin within interphase nuclei, but it is enriched within the centromeric heterochromatin of metaphase chromosomes. In mice, the official symbol of M33 gene styled Cbx2 and the official name chromobox 2 are maintained by the MGI.
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HIP1 is the human homologue of Sla2p, a membrane protein in the periphery. Sla2p is an actin-binding protein involved in endocytosis, thus indicating HIP1 in this role. Further details suggesting an important role for Hip-1 in endocytosis comes from binding studies looking at Hip-1 binding to actin.
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It consists of three main subunits A, B, and C, and (in humans) six additional subunits, d, e, f, g, F6, and 8 (or A6L). 3D structure of E. coli homologue of this subunit was modeled based on electron microscopy data (chain M of ). It forms a transmembrane 4-α-bundle.
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Using CD5+ B-lymphocytes, which is known to accumulate with B-CLL progression, the minimal region lost from 13q14 region was scrutinised for regulatory elements. Publicly available sequence databases were used to identify a gene cluster which encodes the homologue to the human miR15 and miR16 from the Caenorhabditis elegans.
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It has 346 amino acyl residues (aas) and 9 putative transmembrane segments (TMSs) with a large hydrophilic loop between TMSs 5 and 6. A homologue in Arabidopsis thaliana (TC# 9.A.30.2.1) may function in prothylakoid membrane biogenises during early chloroplast development. It has 384 aas and 7-8 putative TMSs.
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The eventually dark brown, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypsellae are inverted egg-shaped, about long and wide, with a prominent ridge along the margin, with some scales on its surface and short, forked hairs. Felicia amoena subsp. latifolia is a diploid having eight sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=16).
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Hz2V093 is similar to HzNV-1 ORF65, and it may play a role in RNA capping while not being essential for virus replication. Hz2V111 is a homologue of Heliothis virescens dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) and to herpesvirus DHFR. DHFR reduces dihydrofolate into tetrahydrofolate, which is necessary for DNA synthesis to take place.
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When monkeys view other monkeys gesturing, mirror neurons in the Broca's homologue activate. Groups of mirror neurons are specialized to respond only to one kind of viewed action, and it is currently believed that these may be an evolutionary origin to the neurons that are adapted for speech processing and production.
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Noggin and chordin homologue Chordino, binds to a BMP family member, BMP2B, to block it from ventralizing the embryo. Dickkopf binds to a Wnt homolog Wnt8 to block it from ventralizing and posteriorizing the embryo. There is a third pathway regulated by β-catenin in fish. β-catenin activates the transcription factor stat3.
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Figure 7. Phylogenetic relationship of hedgehog ligands (based on Ingham and McMahon, 2001). Lancelets, which are primitive chordates, possess only one homologue of Drosophila Hh (figure 7). Vertebrates, on the other hand, have several Hedgehog ligands that fall within three subgroups – Desert, Indian and Sonic, each represented by a single mammalian gene.
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The yeast PGRMC1 homologue is required for resistance to damage. PGRMC1 also promotes survival in human cancer cells after treatment with chemotherapy. In contrast, PGRMC1 promotes cell death in cancer cells after oxidative damage. PGRMC1 alters several known survival signaling proteins, including the Akt protein kinase and the cell death-associated protein IκB.
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2C-T-13 is the 2 carbon homologue of Aleph-13. The full chemical name is 2-[4-(2-methoxyethylthio)-2,5-dimethoxyphenyl]ethanamine. The drug has structural properties similar to mescaline and other drugs in the 2C-T series, with the most closely related compounds being 2C-T-7 and 2C-T-21.
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Brodmann Area 14 is one of Brodmann's subdivisions of the cerebral cortex in the brain. It was defined by Brodmann in the guenon monkey . While Brodmann, writing in 1909, argued that no equivalent structure existed in humans, later work demonstrated that area 14 has a clear homologue in the human ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
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Lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) line lymphatic vessels. They express adhesion molecules, chemokine CCL21, and lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronan receptor-1 (LYVE1), a homologue of CD44. These molecules allow the entry of hematopoietic cells into the lymphatic vessels. During an inflammatory state, the numbers of adhesion molecules on the surfaces of LECs increase.
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When the mecA homologue of beta-lactam resistant S. sciuri is inserted into antibiotic sensitive S. aureus, antibiotics resistance increases. Even though the muropeptides (peptidoglycan precursors) that both species use are the same, the protein product of mecA gene of the S. sciuri can continue cell wall synthesis when a beta-lactam inhibits the PBP protein family. To further understand the origin of mecA, specifically the mecA complex found on the Staphylococcal cassette chromosome, researchers used the mecA gene from S. sciuri in comparison to other Staphylococci species. Nucleotide analysis shows the sequence of mecA is almost identical to the mecA homologue found in Staphylococcus fleurettii, the most significant candidate for the origin of the mecA gene on the staphylococcal cassette chromosome.
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This is presumed to be caused by the plant cell's lack of ability to regulate microtubule lengths. There is no homologue for the p80 katanin regulatory subunit. Therefore, a His-tagged At-p60 was made to describe its functions in plants. The His-At-p60 can sever microtubules in vitro in the presence of ATP.
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Even though there are a few prokaryote kexin-like peptidases, all kexins are eukaryotes. The enzyme is encoded by the yeast gene KEX2, and usually referred to in the scientific community as Kex2p. It shares structural similarities with the bacterial protease subtilisin. The first mammalian homologue of this protein to be identified was furin.
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Ethocybin (CEY-19; 4-phosphoryloxy-DET; 4-PO-DET) is a homologue of the mushroom alkaloid psilocybin, and a semi-synthetic psychedelic alkaloid of the tryptamine family. Effects of ethocybin are comparable to those of a shorter LSD or psilocybin, although intensity and duration vary depending on dosage, individual physiology, and set and setting.
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Methoxetamine and related arylcyclohexylamines. MXE is an arylcyclohexylamine and a derivative of eticyclidine (PCE). It can also be thought of as the β-Keto-derivative of 3-methoxyeticyclidine (3-MeO-PCE), or the N-ethyl homologue of methoxmetamine (MXM) and methoxpropamine (MXPr). It is closely related structurally to ketamine, and more distantly to PCP.
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From 1993-1996 Palmer was an independent University Research Fellow at the University of Dundee leading a study in to the anaerobic metabolism of _Rhodobacter sphaeroides_. Indeed, the behaviour of the periplasmic DMSO reductase of _Rh. sphaeroides_ and its _E. coli_ homologue TMAO reductase laid the foundations for Palmer's future research on the Tat pathway.
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Juvenile hormone catabolism in Manduca sexta - homologue selectivity of catabolism and identification of a diol- phosphate conjugate as a major end product. Experientia 49, 988-994 Maxwell et al.Maxwell, R.A., Welch, W.H., Schooley, D.A., 2002. JH diol kinase: part I-Purification, characterization and substrate specificity of juvenile hormone selective diol kinase from Manduca sexta.
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J. Biol. Chem. 277, 21874–21881 to conclude that sarcoplasmic calcium-binding protein 2 (dSCP2) is the probable D. melanogaster homologue of M. sexta JHDK. The M. sexta gene codes for an enzyme that has 59% sequence identity and >80% similarity to dSCP2 of D. melanogaster (GenBank accession number: AF093240; CG14904). Li et al.
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Phytopathology 95:701–707.Kobayashi, D. Y., R. M. Reedy, J. D. Palumbo, J.-M. Zhou, and G. Y. Yuen. 2005. A clp gene homologue belonging to the crp gene family globally regulates lytic enzyme production, antimicrobial activity, and biological control activity expressed by Lysobacter enzymogenes strain C3. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:261–269.
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In organic chemistry, the Arndt–Eistert reaction is the conversion of a carboxylic acid to its homologue. Named for the German chemists Fritz Arndt (1885-1969) and Bernd Eistert (1902-1978), the method entails treating an acid chlorides with diazomethane. It is a popular method of producing β-amino acids from α-amino acids.
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Homologues of the NicO family have differing predicted topologies: 6, 7 and 8 TMSs. One such homologue, RcnA (YohM; TC# 2.A.113.1.1) of E. coli (274 aas) has 6 putative transmembrane segments (TMSs) in a 3 + 3 arrangement with a large hydrophilic loop between putativeTMSs 3 and 4. Several homologues of RcnA (e.g.
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This is explained by splice variants, and an alternative promoter in the DNA sequence. p73, also known as tumor protein 73 (TP73), protein was the first identified homologue of the tumor suppressor gene, p53. Like p53, p73 has several variants. It is expressed as distinct forms differing at either at the C- or the N-terminus.
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PCPr is an arylcyclohexylamine dissociative anesthetic drug with hallucinogenic and stimulant effects. It is around the same potency as phencyclidine, although slightly less potent than its ethyl homologue eticyclidine, and has reportedly been sold as a designer drug in Germany and other European countries since the late 1990s.Christoph Sauer. Phencyclidine Derivatives – A new Class of Designer Drugs.
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Human Nol12 belongs to family of proteins known as ribosomal binding proteins RBPs. The human members have equivalents in different species. Its homologue in Drosophila melanogaster is called Viriato which is involved in eye and nervous system development and without Viriato, Drosophila melanogaster eye development fails. Loss of also Viriato resulted in cell proliferation, developmental delays and apoptosis.
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Homocysteine is a non-proteinogenic α-amino acid. It is a homologue of the amino acid cysteine, differing by an additional methylene bridge (-CH2-). It is biosynthesized from methionine by the removal of its terminal Cε methyl group. In the body, homocysteine can be recycled into methionine or converted into cysteine with the aid of certain B-vitamins.
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation applied to the left BA45 facilitated incongruent reasoning performance and impaired congruent reasoning performance, suggesting that the left BA45 is a component of a belief-based heuristic system. The right BA45 involvement in blocking the heuristic system is inferred from the blocking of the left homologue and resulting facilitation of logical-analytic reasoning performance.
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Myosin III is a poorly understood member of the myosin family. It has been studied in vivo in the eyes of Drosophila, where it is thought to play a role in phototransduction. A human homologue gene for myosin III, MYO3A, has been uncovered through the Human Genome Project and is expressed in the retina and cochlea.
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Yeast coronin Crn1 and Drosophila Dpod1 were found to crosslink the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton. Caenorhabditis elegans POD-1 and Drosophila coronin homologue regulate the actin cytoskeleton and are involved in vesicular trafficking. Seven different isoforms of coronin have been reported in mammals. The most well-studied isoforms are coronin 1 (Coronin 1A) and coronin 1B.
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A computational search for IL-12 homologue genes found p19, a gene that encodes a cytokine chain. Experimental work revealed that p19 formed a heterodimer by binding to p40, a subunit of IL-12. This new heterodimer was named IL-23. Knockdown of AHR decreases the expression of IL23A in THP-1 cells and primary macrophage.
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2C-T-17 is the 2 carbon homologue of Aleph-17, which has never been synthesized. The full chemical name is 2-[4-(2-butyl thio)-2,5-dimethoxy phenyl]ethanamine. The drug has structural properties similar to drugs in the 2C-T series, with the most closely related compounds being 2C-T-7 and 2C-T-8.
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Drosophila Titin, also known as Kettin or sallimus (sls), is kinase-free. It has roles in the elasticity of both muscle and chromosomes. It is homologous to vertebrate titin I-band and contains Ig PEVK domains, the many repeats being a hot target for splicing. There also exists a titin homologue, ttn-1, in C. elegans.
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After α,β-desaturation via VioJ, three modifications to the preliminary cyclic structure occur. Hydroxylation of C-6 in the structure occurs by VioQ, N-acylation of α-amino group using β-lysine, VioO, and VioM, and carbamoylation of the β-amino group, producing β-ureidoalanine (β-Uda) by the carbamoyltransferase homologue VioL. Figure 2. Post-modification of Viomycin.
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The Hippo signaling pathway coordinately regulates cell proliferation and apoptosis by inactivating Yorkie, the Drosophila Homolog of YAP. Cell 122, 421-434. and its mammalian homologue YAPDong, J., Feldmann, G., Huang, J., Wu, S., Zhang, N., Comerford, S.A., Gayyed, M.F., Anders, R.A., Maitra, A., and Pan, D. (2007). Elucidation of a universal size-control mechanism in Drosophila and mammals.
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The voiceless labialized palatal approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in a few spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , the voiceless homologue of the voiced labialized palatal approximant. There may sometimes be phonological reasons to transcribe it . It is found as a phoneme in Iaai and perhaps other languages.
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N,N-Dipropyltryptamine (DPT, also known as "The Light") is a psychedelic entheogen belonging to the tryptamine family, first reported in 1973. It is found either as a crystalline hydrochloride salt or as an oily or crystalline base. It has not been found to occur endogenously. It is a close structural homologue of dimethyltryptamine and diethyltryptamine.
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MDGA2 (MAM domain containing glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor 2) is a human gene. It has previously been called MAMDC1. MDGA2 is located on chromosome 14. The gene has a homologue in rat and mouse, Mdga2, and investigations in rats have found that the gene is expressed in the central and peripheral nervous system in a subpopulation of neurons, e.g.
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Charybdotoxin (CTX) is a 37 amino acid neurotoxin from the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus (deathstalker) that blocks calcium- activated potassium channels. This blockade causes hyperexcitability of the nervous system. It is a close homologue of agitoxin and both toxins come from Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus. It is named after Charybdis, a sea monster from Greek myth.
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Derlin-1 is a mammalian homologue of the yeast DER1 protein, a protein involved in the yeast ERAD pathway. Moreover, derlin-1 is a member of the rhomboid-like clan of polytopic membrane proteins. Overexpression of derlin-1 are associated with many cancers, including colon cancer, breast cancer, bladder cancer and non-small cell lung cancer.
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The protein encoded by this gene interacts with atrophin-1. Atrophin-1 contains a polyglutamine repeat, expansion of which is responsible for dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy. This encoded protein is characterized by two WW domains, a guanylate kinase- like domain, and multiple PDZ domains. It has structural similarity to the membrane-associated guanylate kinase homologue (MAGUK) family.
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LysE appears to catalyze unidirectional efflux of L-lysine (and other basic amino acids such as L-arginine), and it provides the sole route for L-lysine excretion. The energy source is believed to be the proton motive force (H+ antiport). The E. coli ArgO homologue (TC# 2.A.75.1.2) effluxes arginine and possibly lysine and canavanine as well.
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In plants, the majority of the m6A is found within 150 nucleotides before the start of the poly(A) tail. Mutations of MTA, the Arabidopsis thaliana homologue of METTL3, results in embryo arrest at the globular stage. A >90% reduction of m6A levels in mature plants leads to dramatically altered growth patterns and floral homeotic abnormalities.
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The H. influenzae homologue has been shown to transport NR from the periplasm into the cytoplasm. Phosphorylation of NR by NadR is required for NR uptake. The ribonucleoside kinase (RNK) domain has both Walker A and Walker B motifs, responsible for ATP binding and phosphoryl transfer. In addition, a proposed LID domain was identified in RNK.
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1P-LSD or 1-propionyl-lysergic acid diethylamide is a psychedelic drug of the lysergamide class that is a derivative and functional analogue of LSD and a homologue of ALD-52. It has been sold online as a designer drug since 2015. It modifies the LSD molecule by adding a propionyl group to the nitrogen molecule of LSD's indole.
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Death effector domain containing DNA binding (DEDD). Shows DNA binding capacity, localized in the nucleoli in overexpression where it associates with a molecule called DEDAF (DED- associated factor) that potentiates apoptosis. In addition it blocks RNA polymerase I transcription by binding to the DNA. DEDD2 (FLAME-3) is a DEDD homologue that shares a 48.5% of the amino acidic sequence.
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In female human anatomy, Skene's glands or the Skene glands ( , also known as the lesser vestibular glands, paraurethral glands or female homologue of the prostate) are glands located around the lower end of the urethra. The glands are surrounded by tissue that swells with blood during sexual arousal, and secrete a fluid from openings near the urethra, particularly during orgasm.
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Most classical cannabinoids are 21-carbon compounds. However, some do not follow this rule, primarily because of variation in the length of the side- chain attached to the aromatic ring. In THC, CBD, and CBN, this side-chain is a pentyl (5-carbon) chain. In the most common homologue, the pentyl chain is replaced with a propyl (3-carbon) chain.
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In mice, during gastrulation on embryological day 7.5, cells fated to become intermediate mesoderm show the mouse OSR1 homologue, Osr1, expression. A day later, it is expressed in the intermediate mesoderm, lateral to the neural plate. Osr1 expression weakens and shifts posteriorly, to the presumptive kidneys, by day 9.5. By day 10.5, the branchial arch and limbs also begin to express Osr1.
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Ariadne (also known as 4C-D, α-Et-2C-D, BL-3912, or dimoxamine) is a lesser- known psychedelic drug. It is a homologue of 2C-D and DOM. Ariadne was first synthesized by Alexander Shulgin. In his book PiHKAL, Shulgin reported testing Ariadne up to a dose of 32 mg, and reported that it produces psychedelia at a bare threshold.
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Adiponectin was first characterised in 1995 in differentiating 3T3-L1 adipocytes (Scherer PE et al.). In 1996 it was characterised in mice as the mRNA transcript most highly expressed in adipocytes. In 2007, adiponectin was identified as a transcript highly expressed in preadipocytes (precursors of fat cells) differentiating into adipocytes. The human homologue was identified as the most abundant transcript in adipose tissue.
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For example, a homologue of the X.laevis banded hedgehog is involved in regeneration of the salamander limb. shh has undergone accelerated evolution in the primate lineage leading to humans. Dorus et al. hypothesise that this allowed for more complex regulation of the protein and may have played a role in the increase in volume and complexity of the human brain.
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2C-B-BUTTERFLY is a conformationally-restricted derivative of the phenethylamine hallucinogen 2C-B, which was discovered in 1999 by Michael S. Whiteside and Aaron Monte. It is a ring-expanded homologue of the better known compound 2C-B-FLY, and has similar properties as an agonist for serotonin receptors, but with more selectivity for 5-HT2C over 5-HT2A.
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It shows homology (in the functional domains) with other members of the PAR-bZIP subfamily of transcription factors, which include albumin D box-binding protein (DBP), human hepatic leukemia factor (HLF) and chicken vitellogenin gene-binding protein (VBP); VBP is considered the chicken homologue of TEF. Different members of the subfamily can readily form heterodimers, and share DNA-binding, and transcriptional regulatory properties.
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MOT1 from Arabidopsis thaliana (TC# 2.A.53.11.1, 456aas; 8-10 TMSs), a distant homologue of the SulP and BenE (2.A.46) families, is expressed in both roots and shoots, and is localized to plasma membranes and intracellular vesicles. MOT1 is required for efficient uptake and translocation of molybdate as well as for normal growth under conditions of limited molybdate supply.
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Pentraxin proteins expressed in the nervous system are neural pentraxin I (NPTXI) and II (NPTXII). NPTXI and NPTXII are homologous and can exist within one species. It is suggested that both proteins mediate the uptake of synaptic macromolecules and play a role in synaptic plasticity. Apexin, a sperm acrosomal protein, is a homologue of NPTXII found in Cavia porcellus (Guinea pig).
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It has a long N-terminal CstA domain and a short C-terminal DUF4161 domain. This protein is encoded by a carbon starvation inducible gene, cstA, that is under cyclic AMP-CRP control. Circumstantial evidence suggested that it may be a peptide transporter. A Campylobacter jejuni homologue has been shown to transport di- and tripeptides (see TC# 2.A.114.1.5).
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18S rRNA is the eukaryotic cytosolic homologue of 16S ribosomal RNA in prokaryotes and mitochondria. The genes coding for 18S rRNA are referred to as 18S rRNA genes. Sequence data from these genes is widely used in molecular analysis to reconstruct the evolutionary history of organisms, especially in vertebrates, as its slow evolutionary rate makes it suitable to reconstruct ancient divergences.
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The role of the protein domain SWAP is to control sex-independent pre-mRNA processing in somatic cells, that is, in every cell except the sex cells This includes autoregulation, whereby it regulates the splicing of its own pre-mRNA. The mammalian homologue of SWAP acts as a thyroid hormone regulated gene. This mean it is controlled by the thyroid.
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The HIP14 palmitoyltransferase is responsible for palmitoylating the Huntingtin protein. Expansions of the triplet repeat in the huntington's gene leads to loss of interaction with HIP14 which Yanai and colleagues speculate is involved in the pathology of Huntington's disease. A gene knockout experiment of the mouse homologue of ZDHHC13 showed hair loss, severe osteoporosis, and systemic amyloidosis, both of AL and AA depositions.
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The standard bitter, sweet, or umami taste receptor is a G protein- coupled receptor with seven transmembrane domains. Ligand binding at the taste receptors activate second messenger cascades to depolarize the taste cell. Gustducin is the most common taste Gα subunit, having a major role in TAS2R bitter taste reception. Gustducin is a homologue for transducin, a G-protein involved in vision transduction.
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The mammalian PIAS family consists of four members: PIAS1, PIAS2, PIAS3 and PIAS4. In Drosophila, a single PIAS homologue named dPIAS/Zimp has been identified. In yeast, two PIAS-related proteins were identified namely SIZ1 and SIZ2. The PIAS family contains more than 60 proteins, most of them transcription factors that can be either positively or negatively regulated through multiple mechanisms.
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Crystal structure of MSH2:MSH3 heterodimer in complex with DNA (). MSH2 and MSH3 bind to form MutSβ. This crystal structure shows MutSβ bound to DNA containing an insertion loop of three unpaired nucleotides. DNA mismatch repair protein, MutS Homolog 3 (MSH3) is a human homologue of the bacterial mismatch repair protein MutS that participates in the mismatch repair (MMR) system.
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TMS1 may be dispensable for function. A homologue of the P21 holin is the holin of bacteriophage H-19B (TC# 1.E.1.1.3). The gene encoding it has been associated with the Shiga-like Toxin I gene in E. coli. It may function in toxin export as has been proposed for the X. nematophila holin-1 (TC #1.E.2.1.4).
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In budding yeast (Sacharomyces cerevisiae), the homologue of METTL3, IME4 is induced in diploid cells in response to nitrogen and fermentable carbon source starvation and is required for mRNA methylation and the initiation of correct meiosis and sporulation. mRNAs of IME1 and IME2, key early regulators of meiosis, are known to be targets for methylation, as are transcripts of IME4 itself.
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Camfetamine (N-methyl-3-phenyl-norbornan-2-amine) is a stimulant drug closely related to the appetite suppressant fencamfamine, being its N-methyl homologue. It has been sold as a designer drug following the banning of mephedrone and related substituted cathinone derivatives in many countries, and reportedly has slightly stronger stimulant effects than fencamfamine, but with correspondingly more severe side effects.
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Elements of the Caulobacter crescentus cytoskeleton. The prokaryotic cytoskeletal elements are matched with their eukaryotic homologue and hypothesized cellular function. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is the collective name for all structural filaments in prokaryotes. It was once thought that prokaryotic cells did not possess cytoskeletons, but advances in visualization technology and structure determination led to the discovery of filaments in these cells in the early 1990s.
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Munc-18 (an acronym for mammalian uncoordinated-18) proteins are the mammalian homologue of UNC-18 (which was first discovered in the nematode worm C. elegans) and are a member of the Sec1/Munc18-like (SM) protein family. Munc-18 proteins have been identified as essential components of the synaptic vesicle fusion protein complex and are crucial for the regulated exocytosis of neurons and neuroendocrine cells.
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A different, less abundant, protein is AsKC1a, which has a supplementary residue at the C-terminus when compared with kalicludine-1. Furthermore, a level of amino acid sequence identity and similarity of ≥43% and ≥50% was found between both A. sulcata Kunitz-type protease inhibitors SA5 II, SA5 III and AsKC1 – AsKC15. Kalicludine has 48% identity with the amyloid A4 homologue, which is implicated in Alzheimer’s disease.
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The voiceless palatal approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in a few spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , the voiceless homologue of the voiced palatal approximant. The palatal approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the voiceless variant of the close front unrounded vowel . The two are almost identical featurally.
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Crystal structure of Mn2+ and Ca2+ loaded calprotectin, showing two S100A8-S100A9 dimers. The grey and blue chains represent S100A8 and S100A9, respectively. Purple spheres represent Mn2+ and green spheres represent Ca2+. Only one manganese ion can bind per calprotectin dimer. The human homologue of calprotectin is a 24 kDa dimer, and is formed by the protein monomers S100A8 (10,835 Da) and S100A9 (13,242 Da).
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All foals infected with R. equi produce high levels of antibodies specific for vapA, the first vap gene to be characterised. Deletion of vapA renders the resulting strain avirulent. In addition to vapA, the PAI encodes a further five full-length vap homologues, one truncated vap gene, and two vap pseudogenes. The porcine PAI contains five full-length vap genes, including the vapA homologue, vapB.
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5-MeO-MiPT is in a class of compounds commonly known as tryptamines, and is the N-methyl-N-isopropyl homologue of the psychedelic, 5-MeO-DMT. The full name of the chemical is 5-methoxy-N-methyl-N- isopropyltryptamine. 5-MeO-MiPT causes the ehrlich reagent to turn purple then fade to faint blue. It causes the marquis reagent to go yellow through to black.
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This process requires a gene called DMC1, which is a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria and RAD51 in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, C.neoformans can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence.
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16S and nuclear 28S ribosomal DNA phylogenies of three species of mollusks belonging to the genus Waldo. 28S ribosomal RNA is the structural ribosomal RNA (rRNA) for the large component, or large subunit (LSU) of eukaryotic cytoplasmic ribosomes, and thus one of the basic components of all eukaryotic cells. It is the eukaryotic nuclear homologue of the prokaryotic 23S and mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNAs.
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MT-RNR1 is one of the 37 genes contained in animal mitochondria genomes. Their 2 rRNA, 22 tRNA and 13 mRNA genes are very useful in phylogenetic studies, in particular the 12S and 16S rRNAs. The 12S rRNA is the mitochondrial homologue of the prokaryotic 16S and eukaryotic nuclear 18S ribosomal RNAs. Mutations in the MT-RNR1 gene may be associated with hearing loss.
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In 1990 an oncogene, v-mpl, was identified from the murine myeloproliferative leukemia virus that was capable of immortalizing bone marrow hematopoietic cells from different lineages. In 1992 the human homologue, named, c-mpl, was cloned. Sequence data revealed that c-mpl encoded a protein that was homologous with members of the hematopoietic receptor superfamily. Presence of anti-sense oligodeoxynucleotidesu of c-mpl inhibited megakaryocyte colony formation.
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Induction of autophagy results in the dephosphorylation and activation of the ULK kinases. ULK is part of a protein complex containing Atg13, Atg101 and FIP200. ULK phosphorylates and activates Beclin-1 (mammalian homologue of Atg6), which is also part of a protein complex. The autophagy-inducible Beclin-1 complex contains the proteins PIK3R4(p150), Atg14L and the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate kinase (PI(3)K) Vps34.
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Hodulcine (or hoduloside) are glycosides (dammarane-type triterpenes) which are isolated from the leaves of Hovenia dulcis Thunb. (Rhamnaceae) also known as Japanese Raisin Tree. Several glycosides homologue have been found in this plant and although hoduloside 1 exhibits the highest anti-sweet activity, it is less potent than gymnemic acid 1.Kinghorn, A.D. and Compadre, C.M. Alternative Sweeteners: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, Marcel Dekker ed.
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The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase homologue (MAGUK) family. MAGUK proteins participate in the assembly of multiprotein complexes on the inner surface of the plasma membrane at regions of cell–cell contact. The product of this gene may play a role as scaffolding protein at cell–cell junctions. Alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been identified.
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Around the base of the corolla are many white, shortly toothed, deciduous pappus bristles. The brown, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypsellae are 3 mm (0.12 in) long and 1 mm (0.6 in) wide, have a light brown marginal ridge, and the more or less smooth surface carries short hairs. Felicia rosulata is a diploid having nine sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=18).
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In 1996, Busslinger was appointed Professor at the University of Vienna. In 2007, he became the IMP's Director of Academic Affairs and, in 2013, Scientific Deputy Director. At the IMP, Busslinger changed his research focus from sea urchin embryogenesis to B cell immunology, which was promoted by the identification of a B-cell-specific transcription factor as a mammalian homologue of the sea urchin regulator TSAP.
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AbgT is 510 amino acyl residues long and has 12-13 putative transmembrane α-helical spanners (TMSs). MtrF is 522 aas long and has 11 or 12 putative TMSs. The 3-d structures of MtrF and a YdaH homologue have been solved, and functional studies show that it is a drug exporter. The 3-d structure shows that it has 9 TMSs with hairpin entry loops.
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It is about 15kb in size, and encodes 11 proteins. A unique feature of the genome is the M2 gene, which encodes proteins M2-1 and M2-2. The Pneumoviridae M2-1 protein is distinctive, and no homologue has been found in any other virus families. It functions as a processivity factor for the virus RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, and promotes viral RNA synthesis.
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A homologue of λ holin S from the lysogenic Xenorhabdus nematophila, hol-1 (TC #1.E.2.1.4), has been shown to be a functional holin. When cloned into wild-type E. coli, it causes hemolysis due to the release of the SheA hemolysin. Another holin (phage H-19B holin) is encoded by a gene associated with the Shiga-like toxin I gene of E. coli.
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Invertebrate animals have one Ena homologue, whereas mammals have three, named Mena, VASP, and Evl. Ena/VASP proteins promote the spatially regulated actin polymerization required for efficient chemotaxis in response to attractive and repulsive guidance cues. Mice lacking functional copies of all three family members display pleiotropic phenotypes including exencephaly, edema, failures in neurite formation, and embryonic lethality. A sub-domain of EVH is the EVH1 domain.
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In a study done in rat spinal cords, increased netrin-1, UNC-5 homologue levels were observed compared to lower levels measured in the embryo. From this study multiple mRNA transcripts were detected by northern blot analysis. This finding suggests that netrin receptors could be encoded by alternatively spliced mRNAs. During embryonic development only one splice variant is detected while there are two in the adult model.
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This, in turn, means that eukaryotic organisms express different genes that give rise to: α-actin, which is found in contractile structures; β-actin, found at the expanding edge of cells that use the projection of their cellular structures as their means of mobility; and γ-actin, which is found in the filaments of stress fibres. In addition to the similarities that exist between an organism's isoforms there is also an evolutionary conservation in the structure and function even between organisms contained in different eukaryotic domains. In bacteria the actin homologue MreB has been identified, which is a protein that is capable of polymerizing into microfilaments; and in archaea the homologue Ta0583 is even more similar to the eukaryotic actins. Cellular actin has two forms: monomeric globules called G-actin and polymeric filaments called F-actin (that is, as filaments made up of many G-actin monomers).
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The protein contains a tyrosine kinase domain at the N-terminal end and a proline- rich domain at the c-terminal end. Studies of the mouse homologue have indicated that it may be necessary for the induction of growth arrest and/or apoptosis of myeloid precursor cells. It may also have a role in inducing differentiation in neuronal cells. Its suppressive role on melanoma development has been reported recently.
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The human β-globin locus homologue of cHS4 is HS5. Different from the chicken β-globin locus, the human β-globin locus has an open chromatin structure and is not flanked by a 5' heterochromatic region. HS5 is thought to be a genetic insulator in vivo as it has both enhancer-blocking activity and transgene barrier activities. CTCF was first characterized for its role in regulating β-globin gene expression.
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It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in group 16 as the heaviest chalcogen, although it has not been confirmed to behave as the heavier homologue to the chalcogen polonium. Livermorium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium), and be a post-transition metal, although it should also show several major differences from them.
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Due to the conserved nature of the apoptotic pathway and the extensive knowledge and understanding available for C. elegans, the organisms apoptotic pathway can be used as a proxy for the human equivalent. CED-9 is the homologue of Bcl-2 which can provide researchers with information including the pathways the protein is involved in and the consequences of mutation that may parallel pathways or abnormalities in humans.
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Roentgenium is expected to be similar to its lighter homologue gold in many ways. It is expected to have a close-packed body-centered cubic structure. It should be a very dense metal, with its density of 28.7 g/cm3 surpassing all known stable elements. Roentgenium chemistry is expected to be dominated by the +3 valence state, similarly to gold, in which it should similarly behave as a transition metal.
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Netrin (unc-6, Caenorhabditis elegans homologue) and its corresponding receptor DCC (Deleted in Colorectal Cancer) were initially identified as an attractive interaction. DCC, expressed by commissural axons, binds to netrin with high affinity; inhibiting netrin/DCC signaling interferes with the attractive turning of retinal growth cones. Netrin-1 has also been shown to act as a chemorepellent in vivo for trochlear motor axons that migrate dorsally away from the floor plate.
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GITR was identified as a new member of the TNF receptor superfamily, by comparing gene expression in untreated and DEX-treated murine T-cell lines. GITR can T cells are activated. Although mouse GITR is induced by either GC engagement or T-cell activation, its human homologue (hGITR/AITR) is upregulated only by activation. Therefore, the requirements for GR signaling in inducing GITR expression by T cells remain moot .
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Xbra is a homologue of Brachyury (T) gene for Xenopus. It is a transcription activator involved in vertebrate gastrulation which controls posterior mesoderm patterning and notochord differentiation by activating transcription of genes expressed throughout mesoderm. The effects of Xbra is concentration dependent where concentration gradient controls the development of specific types of mesoderm in Xenopus. Xbra results of the expression of the FGF transcription factor, synthesized by the ventral endoderm.
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The closest homologue to Fbxl3 is Fbxl21 as it also binds to the CRY1 and CRY2 proteins. Predominantly localized to the cytosol, Fbxl21 has been proposed to antagonize the action of Fbxl3 through ubiquitination and stabilization of CRY proteins instead of leading it to degradation. FBXL21 is expressed predominantly in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which is the region in the brain that functions as the master pacemaker in mammals.
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For instance, a gene that corresponds to an important phenotype in an organism in which a set of screens involving mutagenesis (i.e. human beings), will often have a homologue in a model organism. In this case, that homologous gene can either be knocked out or the initial gene can be ectopically expressed in the model organism, at which point a screen for modifiers of the aberrant phenotype can take place.
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In plants, GrpE homologues, CGE1 and CGE2, are found in chloroplasts. CGE1 has two splice isoforms that differ in 6 amino acids in the N-terminal, with isoform CGE1b being 6 nucleotides longer than CGE1a. This N-terminal domain is important in substrate release through competitive binding to the heat-shock protein. All of these plant nucleotide exchange factors interact directly with the cpHsc70, the plant homologue of DnaK.
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He obtained further evidence for the formation of tetraphenylmethane by reducing the nitro groups to amino groups with zinc dust in acetic acid to the leuco dye 7, which on exposure to hydrochloric acid eliminates aniline to the known compound pararosaniline 8. Gomberg's success in synthesizing tetraphenylmethane set him on the attempt to prepare the next homologue hexaphenylethane, which led him to the discovery of the triphenylmethyl radical.
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Down-core PBDE congener profiles showed that higher concentrations were due to elevated levels of BDE-209. The majority of the sediment records clearly showed a change from mainly lower molecular weight BDEs 47,99, 183, 153 at lower depths to BDE-209 near the surface, a change in congener and homologue group patterns that corresponds to the restrictions of penta- and octaBDE commercial mixtures under EU law in 2004–2006.
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GDP is converted to GTP by the ndk gene product. Nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) provides the Pi, and is converted to Nucleoside diphosphate (NDP). In other bacteria, the stringent response is mediated by a variety of RelA/SpoT Homologue (RSH) proteins, with some having only synthetic, or hydrolytic or both (Rel) activities. During the stringent response, (p)ppGpp accumulation affects the resource-consuming cell processes replication, transcription, and translation.
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The diploid nuclei of blastospores are able to undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can then be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. Required for this process is a gene designated dmc1, a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria, and rad51 in eukaryotes (see articles recA and rad51). Dmc1 mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of double-strand breaks in DNA.
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At the base of each floret are numerous pappus bristles of two lengths, the shorter ones white, scaly, persistent and about long. When mature, the dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypselae are dark brown with a lighter margin, long and wide, narrowly obovate in outline, with a scaly epidermis, and loosely evenly silky hairy. Felicia fruticosa is a diploid having nine sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=18).
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Expression data from Expressed Sequence Tag mapping, microarray and in situ hybridization show high expression for Homo sapiens in the blood, bone marrow and nerves. Expression is not restricted to these areas and low expression is seen elsewhere in the body. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the snt-1 gene (C22orf25 homologue) was expressed in the nerve ring, ventral and dorsal cord processes, sites of neuromuscular junctions, and in neurons.
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Smith visited her in prison almost every week, and wrote about the experience in the New York Times.A Life to Live, This Side of the BarsPrison Day 1 Kerman later wrote a memoir about the experience, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women's Prison, which was subsequently made into a television show by Netflix productions, in which Smith's homologue ("Larry Bloom") is played by Jason Biggs.
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Effective January 1, 2016, HU-243 is probably (a little doubt arises due to apparent mistaken naming) a regulated drug in Vermont designated as a "Hallucinogenic Drug."Vermont DOH - Regulated Drug Rule 2016 .PDF The above chemical name ("3-dimethylheptyl-11-hydroxyhexahydrocannabinol") and common ("canbisol") or trade names ("nabidrox") are not the same chemical as HU-243. They identify Canbisol, of which HU-243 is a methylene homologue.
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In E. coli strain K-12 there are four long direct repeats (ldr) which encode short open reading frames of 35 codons organised in a homologous manner to the hok/sok system. One of the repeats encodes LdrD, a toxic protein which causes cell death. An unstable antisense RNA regulator (Rd1D) blocks the translation of the LdrD transcript. A mok homologue which overlaps each ldr loci has also been found.
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Agouti signaling protein (ASP) is the human homologue of murine agouti. It is encoded by the human agouti gene on chromosome 20 and is a protein consisting of 132 amino acids. It is expressed much more broadly than murine agouti and is found in adipose tissue, pancreas, testes, and ovaries, whereas murine agouti is solely expressed in melanocytes. ASP has 85% similarity to the murine form of agouti.
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Human merlin is coded by the gene NF2 in Chromosome 22. Mouse merlin gene is located on chromosome 11 and rat merlin gene on chromosome 17. Fruit fly merlin gene (symbol Mer) is located on chromosome 1 and shares 58% similarity to its human homologue. Other merlin-like genes are known from a wide range of animals, and the derivation of merlin is thought to be in early metazoa.
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This gene encodes the second human homologue of the bacterial RuvB gene. Bacterial RuvB protein is a DNA helicase essential for homologous recombination and DNA double-strand break repair. However, the evidence for whether RUVBL2 has DNA helicase activity is contradictory. This gene is physically linked to the CGB/LHB gene cluster on chromosome 19q13.3, and is very close (55 nt) to the LHB gene, in the opposite orientation.
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It is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 4 elements. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that rutherfordium behaves as the heavier homologue to hafnium in group 4. The chemical properties of rutherfordium are characterized only partly. They compare well with the chemistry of the other group 4 elements, even though some calculations had indicated that the element might show significantly different properties due to relativistic effects.
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Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs. U43 is encoded in intron 1 of the ribosomal protein L3 gene in human and cow. Three other snoRNAs ( U82, U83a and U83b) are also encoded in the same host gene but from different introns. The Arabidopsis thaliana homologue is called snoR41 in the public sequence databases (Genbank).
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A wide range of positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses (e.g. picornaviruses) including many important human pathogens hijack human PI4KB kinase to generate specific PI4P-enriched organelles called membranous webs. These organelles are then used as specific platforms for the effective viral replication within the host cell. Furthermore, PI4KB homologue from the protozoan parasite Plasmodium falciparum has been identified as a target of imidopyrazines, an antimalarial compound class.
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The protein encoded by this gene is the ER to nucleus signalling 1 protein, a human homologue of the yeast Ire1 gene product. This protein possesses intrinsic kinase activity and an endoribonuclease activity and it is important in altering gene expression as a response to endoplasmic reticulum- based stress signals (mainly the unfolded protein response). Two alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene.
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Initially, his research was focused on characterization of bacterial chromosome segregation. His group was among the first that identified the Spo0J protein, the homologue of ParB, responsible for the process of chromosome segregation in B. subtilis. He later moved on to show that Spo0J binds to specific cis-sites on the DNA in order to implement its function and identified the sequences of those cis-sites which was termed ParS.
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Hamdan, N., Kavazanjian, Jr. E., Rittmann, B.E. (2011). Sequestration of radionuclides and metal contaminants through microbially-induced carbonate precipitation. Pan-Am CGS Geotechnical Conference Europium, a trivalent lanthanide, which was used as a homologue for trivalent actinides, such as Pu(III), Am(III), and Cm(III), was shown to incorporate into the calcite phase substituting for Ca(II) as well as in a low-symmetry site within the biomineral.
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In chemistry, homology is the appearance of homologues. A homologue (also spelled as homolog) is a compound belonging to a series of compounds differing from each other by a repeating unit, such as a methylene bridge −−, a peptide residue, etc. A homolog is a special case of an analog. Examples are alkanes and compounds with alkyl side chains of different length (the repeating unit being a methylene group -CH2-).
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Helicase SKI2W is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the SKIV2L gene. This enzyme is a human homologue of yeast SKI2, which may be involved in antiviral activity by blocking translation of poly(A) deficient mRNAs. The SKIV2L gene is located in the class III region of the major histocompatibility complex. DEAD box proteins, characterized by the conserved motif Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp (DEAD), are putative RNA helicases.
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ParM is a prokaryotic actin homologue which provides the force to drive copies of the R1 plasmid to opposite ends of rod shaped bacteria before cytokinesis. ParM is a monomer that is encoded in the DNA of the R1 plasmid and manufactured by the host cell's ribosomes. In the cytoplasm it spontaneously polymerizes forming short strands that either bind to ParR or hydrolyze. ParR stabilizes ParM and prevents it from hydrolyzing.
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In molecular biology this protein domain, refers to UbiD, which is found in prokaryotes, archaea and fungi, with two members in Archaeoglobus fulgidus. They are related to UbiD, a 3-octaprenyl-4-hydroxybenzoate carboxy-lyase from Escherichia coli that is involved in ubiquinone biosynthesis. The member from Helicobacter pylori has a C-terminal extension of just over 100 residues that is shared, in part, by the Aquifex aeolicus homologue.
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The Chorioallantoic Membrane (CAM), also known as the chorioallantois, is a highly vascularized membrane found in the eggs of certain amniotes like birds and reptiles. It is formed by the fusion of the mesodermal layers of two extra-embryonic membranes – the chorion and the allantois. It is the avian homologue of the mammalian placenta. It is the outermost extra-embryonic membrane which lines the non-vascular egg shell membrane.
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Although usually characterized in yeast and other fungi, the DNA-binding domain of Ndt80 is homologous to a number of proteins in higher eukaryotes and the residues used for binding are highly conserved. In humans, the Ndt80 homologue C11orf9 is highly expressed in invasive or metastatic tumor cells, suggesting potential usage as a target molecule in cancer treatment. However, not much progress has been made on this front in recent years.
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Zinc-finger proteins bind nucleic acids and play important roles in various cellular functions, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. This protein and Grb10-interacting GYF protein 2 have been identified as a components of the mammalian 4EHP (m4EHP) complex. The complex is thought to function as a translation repressor in embryonic development. ZNF598 and its yeast homologue Hel2 are ubiquitin ligases that ubiquitinate the 40S ribosomal subunit during ribosome-associated protein quality control.
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Nowadays, most protein sequences are inferred from computational analysis of genomic DNA sequence. Hypothetical proteins are created by gene prediction software during genome analysis. When the bioinformatic tool used for the gene identification finds a large open reading frame without a characterised homologue in the protein database, it returns "hypothetical protein" as an annotation remark. The function of a hypothetical protein can be predicted by domain homology searches with various confidence levels.
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The multidrug efflux transporter NorM from V. parahaemolyticus which mediates resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents (norfloxacin, kanamycin, ethidium bromide etc.) and its homologue from E. coli were identified in 1998. NorM seems to function as drug/sodium antiporter which is the first example of Na+-coupled multidrug efflux transporter discovered. NorM is a prototype of a new transporter family and Brown et al. named it the multidrug and toxic compound extrusion family.
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In 1997, the protein Bcl-2-related ovarian killer (Bok) was identified in a yeast two- hybrid experiment with a rat ovarian cDNA library in a screen for proteins interacting with Mcl-1, an abundant anti-apoptotic protein. The overexpression of Bok induces apoptosis. Because of its high sequence similarity to Bak and Bax, Bok is classified as a member of the Bcl-2 protein family. The mouse homologue of Bok is called Matador (Mtd).
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Emamectin is derived from abamectin by replacement of an epi- amino-methyl (NHCH3) group by a hydroxyl (-OH) group at the 4”-position. Emamectin, like abamectin, is a mixture of two homologue compounds termed B1a and B1b which differ on the C-25 side-chain by one methylene (CH2) group. B1a contains a sec-butyl group while B1b has an isopropyl group. Emamectin is a mixture, typically consisting of 10% B1b and 90% B1a.
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They determined eka-ytterbium properties, consistent with nobelium as the heavier homologue. In 1970, they were able to study the SF properties of 256No. In 2002, Patin et al. reported the synthesis of 256No from the 4n channel but were unable to detect 257No. The cross section values for the 4-6n channels have also been studied at the FLNR. ;238U(20Ne,xn)258−xNo This reaction was studied in 1964 at the FLNR.
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Many of these proteins are functionally characterized, and most are inorganic anion uptake transporters or anion:anion exchange transporters. Some transport their substrate(s) with high affinities, while others transport it or them with relatively low affinities. Others may catalyze SO:HCO exchange, or more generally, anion:anion antiport. For example, the mouse homologue, SLC26A6 (TC# 2.A.53.2.7), can transport sulfate, formate, oxalate, chloride and bicarbonate, exchanging any one of these anions for another.
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The transcript for DmX was found in Drosophila embryos, larvae, and adults in both males and females, indicating that the gene is expressed in all developmental stages of Drosophila and does not have sex-specific expression. Although DmX was discovered as a homologue for CpY, a gene involved in sex-determination, it does not appear to play a role in sex- determination in Drosophila, as indicated by its non-sex-specific expression.
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Bud-neck associating kinases Cla4 and Cdc5 (polo kinase homologue) phosphorylate Swe1 at different stages of the cell cycle. Swe1 is also phosphorylated by Clb2-Cdc28 which serves as a recognition for further phosphorylation by Cdc5. The S. cerevisiae protein Swe1 is also regulated by degradation. Swe1 is hyperphosphorylated by Clb2-Cdc28 and Cdc5 which may be a signal for ubiquitination and degradation by SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase complex as in higher eukaryotes.
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Most bacteria have chemical communication systems. Among which, quorum sensing (QS) is a process by which bacteria sense and perceive their own population density through diffusible signals. In the members of the Roseobacter clade, Acyl-homoserine lactone(AHL)-based quorum sensing is widespread: over 80% of available roseobacterial genomes encode at least one luxI homologue. This shows the significance role of QS controlled regulatory pathways plays in adapting to the relevant marine environments.
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HU-243 (AM-4056) is a synthetic cannabinoid drug that is a single enantiomer of the hydrogenated derivative of the commonly used reference agonist HU-210. It is a methylene homologue of canbisol. It is a potent agonist at both the CB1 and CB2 receptors, with a binding affinity of 0.041 nM at the CB1 receptor, making it marginally more potent than HU-210, which had an affinity of 0.061 nM in the same assay.
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Cytoarchitectonically defined subregions of rostral BA40/the supramarginal gyrus are PF, PFcm, PFm, PFop, and PFt. Area PF is the homologue to macaque area PF, part of the mirror neuron system, and active in humans during imitation. The supramarginal gyrus part of Brodmann area 40 is the region in the inferior parietal lobe that is involved in reading both as regards meaning and phonology.Stoeckel C, Gough PM, Watkins KE, Devlin JT. (2009).
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The transverse metatarsal ligament is a narrow band which runs across and connects together the heads of all the metatarsal bones; it is blended anteriorly with the plantar (glenoid) ligaments of the metatarsophalangeal articulations. Its plantar surface is concave where the Flexor tendons run below it; above it the tendons of the Interossei pass to their insertions. Its homologue in the hand is the transverse metacarpal ligament, which connects the metacarpals to each other.
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It serves to digest RNA in intestine, and evolved from bacteria fermenting in the stomach of the first ox. The homologous RNase, called seminal RNase, differs from RNase A by 23 amino acids and is expressed in seminal plasma in the concentration of 1-1.5 mg/ml, which constitutes more than 3% of the fluid protein content. Bovine seminal ribonuclease (BS-RNase) is a homologue of RNase A with specific antitumor activity.
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They fought in the Battle of Kursk during the month of July. The Commandant of the Group Jean Tulasne and his deputy Albert Littolff were killed during this battle.Selon Yves Courrière, 1979, le prix payé fut lourd : six morts en quatre jours pour 17 victoires homologues (casualty status was heavy : six fatalities in four days for 17 homologue victories). Commandant Pierre Pouyade who joined the regiment after his evasion in Indochina, became commandant.
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The internal anatomy of the human vulva, with the clitoral hood and labia minora indicated as lines. The clitoris is the homologue of the penis in the female. The visible part of the clitoris, the glans clitoridis, varies in size from a few millimeters to one centimeter and is located at the front junction of the labia minora (inner lips), above the opening of the urethra. It is covered by the clitoral hood.
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IRS-1 and its homologue IRS-2 play distinct roles in breast cancer progression and metastasis. Overexpression of either one is sufficient to cause tumorogenesis in vivo. Frequency of lung metastasis in IRS-1 deficient tumor is elevated opposing to IRS-2 deficient tumor, where it is decreased. Basically, IRS-2 has a positive impact on metastasis of breast cancer whereas a stronger metastatic potential is observed when IRS-1 is down-regulated.
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Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs. U38 is located in introns 4 and 5 of ribosomal protein S8 in human and in the homologous genes in mouse and cow. U38 is predicted to guides the methylation of 2'-O-ribose residues in 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The mouse homologue of U38 (MBII-329) has also been identified.
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The multidrug efflux transporter NorM from V. parahaemolyticus which mediates resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents (norfloxacin, kanamycin, ethidium bromide etc.) and its homologue from E. coli were identified in 1998. NorM seems to function as drug/sodium antiporter which is the first example of Na+-coupled multidrug efflux transporter discovered. NorM is a prototype of a new transporter family and Brown et al. named it the multidrug and toxic compound extrusion family.
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Genes involved in adipogenesis, such as fibroblast growth-factor-2, phosphatase and tensin homologue, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A and oestrogen receptor-alpha, possess multiple CpG islands in their promoter sites and may act as epigenetic targets. Furthermore, it has been shown that prenatal exposure to a hypomethylating agent, such as bisphenol A (BPA), is associated with increased body weight and suggests modified DNA methylation as a mechanism for increasing susceptibility to obesity.
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Methionine gamma-lyase (MGL) is an enzyme in the γ-family of PLP-dependent enzymes. It degrades sulfur-containing amino acids to α-keto acids, ammonia, and thiols. Because sulfur-containing amino acids play a role in multiple biological processes, the regulation of these amino acids is essential. Additionally, it is crucial to maintain low homocysteine levels for the proper functioning of various pathways and for preventing the toxic effects of the cysteine homologue.
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Tetrahydrocannabinol-C4 (Δ9-THCB, (C4)-Δ9-THC, butyl-THC), is a homologue of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active component of cannabis. They are only different by the pentyl side chain being replaced by a butyl side chain. It is unknown whether THCB is an agonist, partial agonist, or antagonist at the cannabinoid receptors. The propyl analog, THCV, is a cannabinoid receptor type 1 and cannabinoid receptor type 2 antagonist, while THC is a CB1 agonist.
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In mitochondria, the peripheral stalk is composed of one copy each of subunits OSCP (oligomycin sensitivity conferral protein), F6, b and d. There is no homologue of subunit F6 in bacterial or chloroplast F-ATPase, whose peripheral stalks are composed of one copy of the delta subunit (homologous to OSCP), and two copies of subunit b in bacteria, or one copy each of subunits b and b' in chloroplasts and photosynthetic bacteria.
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Around the base of the corolla are many white pappus bristles with teeth, that are easily discarded. The dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypsellae are large, 3 mm (0.12 in) long and 1 mm (0.6 in) wide, inverted egg-shaped, yellowish brown to brown, with a strong marginal ridge, with thick, -1 mm (0.02–0.04 in) with short, robust hairs. Felicia namaquana is a diploid having five sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=10).
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In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 7 elements as the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that bohrium behaves as the heavier homologue to rhenium in group 7. The chemical properties of bohrium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 7 elements.
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The DNA in each chromosome functions as a series of discrete genes that influence various traits. Thus, each gene also has a corresponding homologue, which may exist in different versions called alleles. The alleles at the same locus on the two homologous chromosomes may be identical or different. The blood type of a human is determined by a gene that creates an A, B, AB or O blood type and is located in the long arm of chromosome nine.
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During cell elongation, microtubules must adjust their orientation constantly to keep up with the increasing cell length. This constant change in microtubule organization was proposed to be performed by the rapid disassembly, assembly, and translocation of microtubules.Cyr, R.J. & Palevitz, B.A. (1995) Organization of cortical microtubules in plant cells. Recently, mutations in the plant katanin homologue have been shown to alter transitions in microtubule organization, which, in turn, cause impairments in the proper deposition of cellulose and hemicellulose.
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Pi4 binds to Shaker B potassium channels, the Drosophila homologue of the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.1. Pi4 reversibly blocks this channel with an IC50 of 3.0 ± 2.2 nM. A Pi4 peptide, synthesized with a different C-terminus than the natural Pi4 (COO- instead of COH2N), shows the same binding characteristics as natural Pi4. This suggests that the C-terminus of the peptide Pi4 is not involved in the binding of Pi4 to the Shaker B channel.
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Phenylisobutylamine, also known as α-ethylphenethylamine, Butanphenamine, B or AEPEA, is a stimulant drug of the phenethylamine class. It is a higher homologue of amphetamine, differing from amphetamine's molecular structure only by the substitution of the methyl group at the alpha position of the side chain with an ethyl group. Compared to amphetamine, phenylisobutylamine has strongly reduced dopaminergic effects, and instead acts as a selective norepinephrine releasing agent. The dextroisomer of phenylisobutylamine partially substitutes for dextroamphetamine in rats.
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1-Methylamino-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)propane or M-ALPHA is an empathogen, reported by Alexander Shulgin in his book PIHKAL as a positional isomer of MDMA, and subsequently found being sold as a designer drug in the UK in 2010, and reported to the EMCDDA new drug monitoring service.EMCDDA Annual Report 2010 It was described by Alexander Shulgin as similar in action to its demethylated homologue, ALPHA, but with roughly twice the duration and twice the potency.
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Human XRN2 is involved in the torpedo model of transcription termination. The C. elegans homologue, XRN-2, is involved in the degradation of certain mature miRNAs and their dislodging from miRISC miRNAs. In yeast, the Rat1 protein has been shown to also be involved in the torpedo transcription termination model. When a polyadenylation site has been detected on the nascent RNA and cleaved by the RNA polymerase II, the Rtt103 factor recruits Rat1 and attaches it to free end.
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Usually even before its liberation, the ovum initiates cleavage processes in which it becomes completely pinched through at the middle. A ball of cells characteristic of animals, the blastula, is ultimately produced in this manner, with a maximum of 256 cells. Development beyond this 256-cell stage has not yet been observed. Trichoplax lack a homologue of the Boule protein that appears to be ubiquitous and conserved in males of all species of other animals tested.
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The uterus and vagina are unique to mammals with no homologue in birds, reptiles, amphibians, or fish. In place of the uterus the other vertebrate groups have an unmodified oviduct leading directly to a cloaca, which is a shared exit-hole for gametes, urine, and feces. Monotremes (i.e. platypus and echidnas), a group of egg- laying mammals, also lack a uterus and vagina, and in that respect have a reproductive system resembling that of a reptile.
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Bony fishes obtain calcium directly from their aquatic surrounding (unlike other vertebrates which acquire from diet), so that they require separate endocrine organ. The corpuscles of Stannius are the sites of production of the hormone called stanniocalcin (the mammalian homologue is called stanniocalcin-1 or STC1). This hormone is responsible for decreasing the blood circulating level of calcium. Similar to parathyroid hormone and calcitonin that regulate calcium metabolism in mammals, stanniocalcin is influenced by the level of circulating calcium.
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SR-beta interacts with the N-terminal SRX-domain of SR-alpha, which is not present in the bacterial FtsY homologue. SR-beta also functions in recruiting the SRP-nascent polypeptide to the protein-conducting channel. This family represents homologues of the alpha subunit of the SR receptor. Members of this entry consist of a central six- stranded anti-parallel beta-sheet sandwiched by helix alpha1 on one side and helices alpha2-alpha4 on the other.
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The latter element was named after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are noted for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity.Myasoedov, p. 8 Bombarding curium-242 with α-particles resulted in an isotope of californium 245Cf (1950), and a similar procedure yielded in 1949 berkelium-243 from americium-241. The new elements were named after Berkeley, California, by analogy with its lanthanide homologue terbium, which was named after the village of Ytterby in Sweden.
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AAA proteins are not restricted to eukaryotes. Prokaryotes have AAA which combine chaperone with proteolytic activity, for example in ClpAPS complex, which mediates protein degradation and recognition in E. coli. The basic recognition of proteins by AAAs is thought to occur through unfolded protein domains in the substrate protein. In HslU, a bacterial ClpX/ClpY homologue of the HSP100 family of AAA proteins, the N- and C-terminal subdomains move towards each other when nucleotides are bound and hydrolysed.
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Two mutants are currently associated with the Arabidopsis plant in relation to the PEPR1 and PEPR2 receptor kinases. These mutants have a mutation in their pepr1 and pepr2 genes which is affected in PEPR1 and its homologue PEPR2, respectively. These PEPR1 and PEPR2 receptor kinases are transcribed and further translated from the same chromosome. In order to create double mutant pepr1 and pepr2 offspring the two populations were crossed and screened for the AtPep1 insensitivity offspring.
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There is no direct homologue for TFIIB in bacterial systems but there are proteins that bind the bacterial polymerase in a similar manner with no sequence similarity. In particular the bacterial protein σ70 contains domains that bind the polymerase at the same points as the B-linker, B-ribbon and B-core. This is especially apparent in the σ 3 region and the region 4 linker which might stabilise the DNA in the polymerase active site.
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Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs. U46 is encoded in intron 2 of the ribosomal protein S8 gene in human, and is hypothesised to guide methylation of 2'-O-ribose residues on 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The homologue of this snoRNA in Arabidopsis thaliana is called snoZ153. Some human U40 sequences have been annotated in the sequence databases (Genbank) as U46.
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Rab GTPases are molecular switches that regulate membrane traffic. They are active in their GTP-bound form and inactive when bound to GDP. The GTPase YPT1, and its mammalian homologue Rab1, regulate membrane-tethering events on three different pathways: autophagy, ER-Golgi, and intra-Golgi traffic. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, many of the ATG proteins needed for macroautophagy are shared with the biosynthetic cytoplasm to the vacuole- targeting (CVT) pathway that transports certain hydrolases into the vacuole.
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P protein, also known as melanocyte-specific transporter protein or pink-eyed dilution protein homolog, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the oculocutaneous albinism II (OCA2) gene. The P protein is believed to be an integral membrane protein involved in small molecule transport, specifically of tyrosine - a precursor of melanin. Certain mutations in OCA2 result in type 2 oculocutaneous albinism. OCA2 encodes the human homologue of the mouse p (pink-eyed dilution) gene.
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TPX2 has been shown in several biochemical assays to behave as a microtubule-associated protein (MAP) and co- localize with spindle microtubules during M-phase. It plays a role in microtubule nucleation and is regulated by importin proteins. TPX2 serves as a complement, depleting importin α affinity in order to allow RanGTP-induced microtubule nucleation. This has been demonstrated both in vitro in Xenopus laevis egg extracts, and with the human homologue in vivo in HeLa cells.
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The prostatic utricle is the homologue of the uterus and vagina, usually described as derived from the paramesonephric duct, although this is occasionally disputed. In 1905 Robert William Taylor described the function of the utricle: "In coitus it so contracts that it draws upon the openings of the ejaculatory ducts, and thus renders them so patulous that the semen readily passes through."R. W. Taylor. "A practical treatise on sexual disorders of the male and female".
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PnuC of Salmonella typhimurium and Haemophilus influenzae are integral membrane proteins, 239 and 226 amino acyl residues (aas) in length, respectively, with 7 putative transmembrane α-helical segments. The structure of NadR has been determined. Mutations in the nadR gene which interfere with NR uptake occur in the C-terminal part of NadR. A helix-turn-helix DNA binding domain present in NadR of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium could not be found in the NadR homologue of H. influenzae.
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In the rotation function, our unknown Patterson map is compared to Patterson maps derived from our known homologue structure in different orientations. Historically r-factors and/or correlation coefficients were used to score the rotation function, however, modern programs use maximum likelihood-based algorithms. The highest correlation (and therefore scores) are obtained when the two structures (known and unknown) are in similar orientation(s)--these can then be output in Euler angles or spherical polar angles.
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In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 10 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to platinum in group 10 as the eighth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Darmstadtium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, nickel, palladium, and platinum.
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When over-expressed in the developing fetal central nervous system, it leads to Down syndrome. A homologue of the Dscam protein in Drosophila melanogaster has 38,016 isoforms arising from four variable exon clusters (12, 48, 33 and 2 alternatives, respectively). By comparison, the entire Drosophila melanogaster genome only has 15,016 genes. The diversity of isoforms from alternative splicing of the Dscam1 gene in D. melanogaster allows every neuron in the fly to display a unique set of Dscam proteins on its cell surface.
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A 90 kDa protein is considered fairly large for a non-fibrous protein. Hsp90 is found in bacteria and all branches of eukarya, but it is apparently absent in archaea. Whereas cytoplasmic Hsp90 is essential for viability under all conditions in eukaryotes, the bacterial homologue HtpG is dispensable under non-heat stress conditions. This protein was first isolated by extracting proteins from cells stressed by heating, dehydrating or by other means, all of which caused the cell’s proteins to begin to denature.
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In mice T is expressed in the inner cell mass of the blastocyst stage embryo (but not in the majority of mouse embryonic stem cells) followed by the primitive streak (see image). In later development expression is localised to the node and notochord. In Xenopus laevis Xbra (the Xenopus T homologue, also recently renamed t) is expressed in the mesodermal marginal zone of the pre- gastrula embryo followed by localisation to the blastopore and notochord at the mid-gastrula stage.
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The clitoris ( or ) is a female sex organ present in mammals, ostriches and a limited number of other animals. In humans, the visible portion – the glans – is at the front junction of the labia minora (inner lips), above the opening of the urethra. Unlike the penis, the male homologue (equivalent) to the clitoris, it usually does not contain the distal portion (or opening) of the urethra and is therefore not used for urination. The clitoris also usually lacks a reproductive function.
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Netrin was first described in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans in 1990, and named UNC-6, according to standard C. elegans naming protocol. The first mammalian homologue of UNC-6 was discovered in 1994, where it was discovered to be a vital guidance cue for rodent commissural axons in the spinal cord. As of 2009, five mammalian Netrins have been identified. Netrins 1, 3, and 4 are secreted proteins, whereas G1 and G2 are membrane bound proteins tethered by Glycophosphatidylinositol tails.
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Ivermectin, one of the avermectins The avermectins are a series of drugs and pesticides used to treat parasitic worms and insect pests. They are a 16-membered macrocyclic lactone derivatives with potent anthelmintic and insecticidal properties. These naturally occurring compounds are generated as fermentation products by Streptomyces avermitilis, a soil actinomycete. Eight different avermectins were isolated in four pairs of homologue compounds, with a major (a-component) and minor (b-component) component usually in ratios of 80:20 to 90:10.
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The temporary structure allows unfettered access and ensures that the workers can reach all places. If the temporary structure is not correctly built, the workers will not be able to reach certain places, and the building will be deficient. The scaffold theory is supported by information that shows that the formation of the ring and localization to the membrane requires the concerted action of a number of accessory proteins. ZipA or the actin homologue FtsA permit initial FtsZ localization to the membrane.
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Rho Cascade - stress fiber formation The Rho family of GTPases regulate many aspects of actin cytoskeletal dynamics, including stress fiber formation. RhoA (sometimes referred to as just 'Rho') is responsible for the formation of stress fibers, and its activity in stress fiber formation was first discovered by Ridley and Hall in 1992. When bound to GTP, Rho activates Rho-associated coiled-coil forming kinase (ROCK) and mammalian homologue of Drosophila diaphanous (mDia). mDia is a formin, which nucleates and polymerizes long actin filaments.
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The multidrug efflux transporter NorM from V. parahaemolyticus which mediates resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents (norfloxacin, kanamycin, ethidium bromide etc.) and its homologue from E. coli were identified in 1998, which is the first of Solute carrier family 47 member. NorM seems to function as drug/sodium antiporter which is the first example of Na+-coupled multidrug efflux transporter. NorM is a prototype of a new transporter family and Brown et al. named it the multidrug and toxic compound extrusion family.
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Pre-B lymphocyte protein 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the VPREB3 gene. The VPREB3 gene product is the human homologue of the mouse VpreB3 (8HS20) protein, and is specifically expressed in cell lines representative of all stages of B-lymphocyte differentiation. It is also related to VPREB1 and other members of the immunoglobulin supergene family. The VPREB3 protein apparently associates with membrane mu heavy chains early in the course of pre-B cell receptor biosynthesis.
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Group 11, by modern IUPAC numbering, is a group of chemical elements in the periodic table, consisting of copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au). Roentgenium (Rg) is also placed in this group in the periodic table, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves like the heavier homologue to gold. Group 11 is also known as the coinage metals, due to their former usage. They were most likely the first three elements discovered.
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A few of his lab's notable scientific contributions include the structural and molecular mechanism of DNA end resection by RecBCD (E. coli) and DNA2-Sgs1-RPA and regulatory stimulation by Top3-Rmi1 and Mre11-Rad50-Xrs2 (S. cerevisiae), the kinetics of RecA filament nucleation and growth and regulation by RecFOR (E. coli), the purification and molecular mechanism of the human breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2 (humans), the mechanism of the Holliday junction dissolution by the Bloom's Syndrome helicase (BLM) homologue, Sgs1 (S.
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Tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) is a negative regulator of PI3K signaling. In many cancers the PTEN expression is decreased and may be downregulated through several mechanisms, including mutations, loss of heterozygosity, methylation, and protein instability. Downstream, the mTOR effectors S6 kinase 1 (S6K1), eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1 (4EBP1) and eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) are related to cellular transformation. S6K1 is a key regulator of cell growth and also phosphorylates other important targets.
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It was followed by a legal act (act-decision) of the Albanian Council of Ministers, demanding permanent and extensive research on the standard and literary language; one of the topics mentioned was the creation of a scientific magazine on that purpose. The magazine started in 1981, published by the Academy of Sciences of Albania. A homologue one started in 1982 in Pristina, Kosovo, named Gjuha Shqipe (Albanian Language), targeting the same topics. It was published by the Albanological Institute of Pristina.
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RCS-4 was banned in Sweden on 1 October 2010 as a hazardous good harmful to health, after being identified as an ingredient in "herbal" synthetic cannabis products.Swedish Code of Statutes Regulation (2010:1086).Swedish Code of Statutes Regulation (2010:1086). (pdf) It was outlawed in Denmark on 11 March 2011. In August 2011, New Zealand added not only RCS-4 but also its 1-butyl homologue, and the 2-methoxybenzoyl isomers of both these compounds, to a temporary class drug schedule (i.e.
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The human homologue of Mad and Sma was named Smad1, a portmanteau of the previously discovered genes. When injected into Xenopus embryo animal caps, Smad1 was found to be able to reproduce the mesoderm ventralizing effects that BMP4, a member of the TGF-B family, has on embryos. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that Smad1 had transactivational ability localized at the carboxy terminus, which can be enhanced by adding BMP4. This evidence suggests that Smad1 is responsible in part for transducing TGF-B signals.
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Similar arginine residues in enzyme homologues (Arg370, Arg390) play analogous roles. Other homologues, such as in Sphingobacterium multivorum, feature the carboxy moiety bound to serine and methionine residues via water in place of arginine. Certain enzyme homologues, such as in S. multivorum as well as B. stolpii, are found to be associated with the inner cell membrane, thus resembling the eukaryotic enzymes. The B. stolpii homologue also features substrate inhibition by palmitoyl-CoA, a feature shared by the yeast and mammalian homologues.
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CDC20-homologue 1 (Cdh1) plays a complementary role to CDC20 in cell cycle progression. During the time of APC/CCdc20 activity, Cdh1 is phosphorylated and cannot bind to the APC/C. After metaphase, however, S/M-Cdks are inactivated by APC/CCdc20, and Cdh1 can exist in a non-phosphorylated state and bind the APC/C. This enables the APC/C to continue to degrade S/M cyclins (and thus S/M Cdks) until they are needed again in the next S-phase.
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Seminars in Immunology, Vol. 10 pp. 237–248. CCR receptors are also expressed on neuronal cells, such as dendrites and microglia. Perhaps the most famous and well- studied of the CCR family is CCR5 (and its near-homologue CXCR4) which acts as the primary co-receptor for HIV viral infection.Bleul, C.C., Wu, L., Hoxie, J.A., Springer, T.A., Mackay, C.R. 1996. The HIV receptors CXCR4 and CCR5 are differentially expressed and regulated on human T-cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. Vol.
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The main objective of a reuptake inhibitor is to substantially decrease the rate by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron, increasing the concentration of neurotransmitter in the synapse. This increases neurotransmitter binding to pre- and postsynaptic neurotransmitter receptors. Depending on the neuronal system in question, a reuptake inhibitor can have drastic effects on cognition and behavior. Non-competitive inhibition of the bacterial homologue LeuT by tricyclic antidepressants resulted from binding of these inhibitors in the extracellular permeation pathway.
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The fact that JH diol phosphate is a significant metabolite Halarnkar, P.P., Jackson, G.P., Straub, K.M., Schooley, D.A., 1993. Juvenile hormone catabolism in Manduca sexta - homologue selectivity of catabolism and identification of a diol-phosphate conjugate as a major end product. Experientia 49, 988-994 certainly weakens the long-held dogma that JH esterase is most important in JH catabolism. While JHE has been noted to have phosphatase activity, to our knowledge it has never been tested on JH diol phosphate.
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Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard was the first to identify a morphogen, Bicoid, one of the transcription factors present in a gradient in the Drosophila syncitial embryo. She was awarded the 1995 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for her work explaining the morphogenic embryology of the common fruit fly. Groups led by Gary Struhl and Stephen Cohen then demonstrated that a secreted signalling protein, decapentaplegic (the Drosophila homologue of transforming growth factor beta), acted as a morphogen during the later stages of Drosophila development.
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However, the GC content of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) genes in hyperthermophiles shows a strong correlation with optimal growth temperature. It was proposed that non coding regions of high GC-content might encode functional RNA products. The computational screen identified a number of novel ncRNA genes in the genome of M.jannaschii. These were named hgc- ("high GC") A, B, C, D, E, F and G. Two other homologues were detected called HhcA and HhcB after "homologue of hgcC".
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During mammalian heart induction, a mammalian homologue, Cer1, is associated with the coordinated suppression of the TGFbeta superfamily members Nodal and BMP. This induces Brahma-associated factor 60c (Baf60c), one of three Baf60 variants (a, b, and c) that are mutually exclusively assembled into the SWI/SNF chromatin remodelling complex. Blocking Nodal and BMP also induces lineage-specific transcription factors Gata4 and Tbx5, which interact with Baf60c. Collectively, these proteins redirect SWI/SNF to activate the cardiac program of gene expression.
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It is named after Lise Meitner. In the periodic table, meitnerium is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 9 elements, although no chemical experiments have yet been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to iridium in group 9 as the seventh member of the 6d series of transition metals. Meitnerium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, cobalt, rhodium, and iridium.
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SNAIL and ZEB factors bind to E-box consensus sequences on the promoter region, while KLF8 binds to promoter through GT boxes. These EMT-TFs not only directly repress E-cadherin, but also repress transcriptionally other junctional proteins, including claudins and desmosomes, thus facilitating EMT. On the other hand, transcription factors such as grainyhead-like protein 2 homologue (GRHL2), and ETS-related transcription factors ELF3 and ELF5 are downregulated during EMT and are found to actively drive MET when overexpressed in mesenchymal cells.
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Sequencing yeast genomes led to the discovery of many new genes of unknown function, phylogenetically unrelated. This led to the question of their very origin. Bernard Dujon tried to tackle this problem by setting up an experimental system to study the evolution of tRNA genes. During the course of these experiments, he discovered that yeast strains in which an essential amino-acyl-tRNA synthetase had been replaced by its homologue from Yarrowia lipolytica, a distantly related yeast, were severely unfit.
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Coprinopsis cinerea can be transformed with exogenous DNA by transformation when the fungus is a protoplast. It was found that disrupting (knockout or RNAi silencing) ku70 homologue can increase gene targeting via increased homologous recombination. Either protoplasts derived from oidia or vegetative mycelium can be used, however, gene targeting was found to be higher by 2% (based on phenotyping) when using vegetative mycelium. Otherwise, insertion of integrative vectors ectopically and with small homologous regions can be used, likely with low transformation efficiency.
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Transforming protein RhoA, also known as Ras homolog family member A (RhoA), is a small GTPase protein in the Rho family of GTPases that in humans is encoded by the RHOA gene. While the effects of RhoA activity are not all well known, it is primarily associated with cytoskeleton regulation, mostly actin stress fibers formation and actomyosin contractility. It acts upon several effectors. Among them, ROCK1 (Rho-associated, coiled-coil containing protein kinase 1) and DIAPH1 (Diaphanous Homologue 1, a.k.a.
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In humans, ZNF804A is expressed broadly throughout the brain, especially in the developing hippocampus and the cortex, as well as in the adult cerebellum. ZNF804A is expected to bind DNA and thus regulate gene expression like other zinc finger proteins. The mouse homologue of ZNF804A, zfp804a, has recently been reported as a target for HOXC8, suggesting that ZNF804A may be involved in the regulation of early neurodevelopment. A Genome- wide association study (GWAS) has identified ZNF804A as a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia.
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At the tip of both style branches are slightly elongated triangular appendages. Around the base of the corolla are numerous, white, clearly toothed and persistent pappus bristles of about 4 mm (0.18 in) long. At the base of the florets sit elliptic, short- haired, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypsellae of about long and wide, with a smooth seed-skin, possibly all of which are sterile. Felicia wrightii is a diploid having nine sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=18).
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Heterokaryon Incompatibility (HI) has been likened to a fungal immune system; it is a non-self recognition mechanism that is ubiquitous among filamentous members of the Asomycota phylum of the Fungi kingdom. Vib-1 is an Ndt80 homologue in Neurospora crassa and is required for HI in this species. It has been found that mutations at the vib1 locus suppress non-self recognition, and VIB-1 is required for the production of downstream effectors associated with HI, such as extracellular proteases.
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5-Iodo-2-aminoindane (5-IAI) is a drug which acts as a releasing agent of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. It was developed in the 1990s by a team led by David E. Nichols at Purdue University. 5-IAI fully substitutes for MDMA in rodents and is a putative entactogen in humans. Unlike related aminoindane derivatives like MDAI and MMAI, 5-IAI causes some serotonergic neurotoxicity in rats, but is substantially less toxic than its corresponding amphetamine homologue pIA, with the damage observed barely reaching statistical significance.
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It may also help regulate the release of dopamine, a type of neurotransmitter that is critical for controlling the start and stop of voluntary and involuntary movements. The human alpha-synuclein protein is made of 140 amino acids. An alpha-synuclein fragment, known as the non-Abeta component (NAC) of Alzheimer's disease amyloid, originally found in an amyloid-enriched fraction, was shown to be a fragment of its precursor protein, NACP. It was later determined that NACP was the human homologue of Torpedo synuclein.
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Stenhouse focused on organic chemistry, particularly the chemical products of plants—and the derivatives that could be made from those products—which were of medical or commercial value; e.g., Stenhouse discovered betorcinol, a homologue of orcinol, and erythritol,In the process of studying the chemistry of erythritol (which he called "erythroglucin"), Stenhouse discovered the explosive erythritol tetranitrate. See: John Stenhouse (1 January 1849) "Examination of the proximate principles of some of the lichens. Part II," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (London), vol. 139, pages 393-401.
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The dcl-2 of T. marneffei and its homologue in T. stipitatus are more closely related to those of the thermal dimorphic pathogenic fungi, Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and Coccidioides immitis than to P. chrysogenum and Aspergillus spp., suggesting the co-evolution of dcl-2 among the thermal dimorphic fungi. On the other hand, qde-2 of T. marneffei is most closely related to its homologues in other thermal dimorphic fungi than to that in T. stipitatus, P. chrysogenum and Aspergillus spp.
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A bioinformatic search of the sequence databases identified one homologue of the MRS2 gene of yeast in a range of metazoans. The protein has a very similar sequence and predicted TM topology to the yeast protein, and the GMN motif is intact at the end of the first TM domain. The human protein, hsaMrs2p, has been localised to the mitochondrial membrane in mouse cells using a GFP fusion protein. Very little is known about the Mg2+ transport characteristics of the protein in mammals, but Zsurka et al.
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The protein is an enzyme that normally degrades the alpha -1,4 and alpha -1,6 linkages in glycogen, maltose and isomaltose and is required for the degradation of 1–3% of cellular glycogen. The deficiency of this enzyme results in the accumulation of structurally normal glycogen in lysosomes and cytoplasm in affected individuals. Excessive glycogen storage within lysosomes may interrupt normal functioning of other organelles and lead to cellular injury. A putative homologue—acid alpha-glucosidase-related gene 1—has been identified in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.
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The encoded protein of this gene shuttles between the nucleus and the cytoplasm and binds in vivo to poly(A)+ RNA. It is the vertebrate homologue of the yeast protein Mex67p. The encoded protein overcomes the mRNA export block caused by the presence of saturating amounts of CTE (constitutive transport element) RNA of type D retroviruses. A variant allele of the homologous Nxf1 gene in mice suppresses a class of mutations caused by integration of an endogenous retrovirus (intracisternal A particle) into an intron.
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Bannayan–Riley–Ruvalcaba syndrome is associated with enlarged head and benign mesodermal hamartomas (multiple hemangiomas, and intestinal polyps). Dysmorphy as well as delayed neuropsychomotor development can also be present.update 2016 The head enlargement does not cause widening of the ventricles or raised intracranial pressure; these individuals have a higher risk of developing tumors, as the gene involved in BRRs is phosphatase and tensin homologue. Some individuals have thyroid issues consistent with multinodular goiter, thyroid adenoma, differentiated non-medullary thyroid cancer, most lesions are slowly growing.
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In humans, 50% of infertility issues are caused by males, and of this, genetic deletions in the Y chromosome make up a lot of this majority, since only men have the Y chromosome. DAZ gene in present on Y chromosome and deletion of this gene has been directly shown as a main cause of infertility. This causes no sperm cell found in semen and it is termed Azoospermia. One DAZ homologue is expressed in nearly every stage of spermatogenesis, from Primordial Germ Cells (PGCs) to mature spermatozoa.
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In contrast to ubiquitin, SUMO is not used to tag proteins for degradation. Mature SUMO is produced when the last four amino acids of the C-terminus have been cleaved off to allow formation of an isopeptide bond between the C-terminal glycine residue of SUMO and an acceptor lysine on the target protein. SUMO family members often have dissimilar names; the SUMO homologue in yeast, for example, is called SMT3 (suppressor of mif two 3). Several pseudogenes have been reported for this gene.
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It is believed that the pathogenic variants of ZC4H2 may result in impairment of the central and peripheral nervous system through the impairment of neurologic development and/or synaptic plasticity. Studies in zebrafish showed that the homologue of human ZC4H2 is associated with the generation of a specific subset of central nervous system interneurons. Besides the cases described in the current literature, an additional 46 diagnosed cases of males and females with ZC4H2 Deficiency are known worldwide, constituting this an ultra-rare orphan disorder.
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In New Zealand, 35 drugs have been banned as temporary class drugs since August 2011, 24 of which have subsequently had the temporary ban renewed for a further year after reaching the end of the initial one-year ban period. These include; JWH-018, JWH-022, JWH-073, JWH-081, JWH-122, JWH-201, JWH-203, JWH-210, JWH-250, JWH-302, AM-694, AM-2201, RCS-4, RCS-4 butyl homologue, 2-methoxy isomer of RCS-4, and 2-methoxy isomer of RCS-4 butyl homologue, which were banned on 16 August 2011, JWH-019, JWH-200 and AM-1220, which were banned on 14 October 2011, AM-2233, banned on 29 December 2011, AM-1248, AM-2232 and UR-144, banned on 6 April 2012, and the stimulant methylhexanamine, banned on 9 April 2012. Another four cannabinoid compounds, namely CB-13, MAM-2201, AKB48 and XLR-11, were banned on 13 July 2012. A further cannabinoid compound NNE1 was banned from 8 November 2012. Two more cannabinoids APICA (also known as 2NE1) and its 5-fluoropentyl derivative STS-135 were banned from 22 November 2012.
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In complementation experiments, rat PBR (pk18) protein functionally substitutes for its homologue TspO in R. sphaeroides, negatively affecting transcription of specific photosynthesis genes. This suggests that PBR may function as an oxygen sensor, transducing an oxygen-triggered signal leading to an adaptive cellular response. These observations suggest that fundamental aspects of this receptor and the downstream signal transduction pathway are conserved in bacteria and higher eukaryotic mitochondria. The alpha-3 subdivision of the purple bacteria is considered to be a likely source of the endosymbiont that ultimately gave rise to the mitochondrion.
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It was then demonstrated that the mouse disabled homologue 1 (Dab1) gene is responsible for the phenotypes of these mutant mice, as Dab1 protein was absent (yotari) or only barely detectable (scrambler) in these mutants. Targeted disruption of Dab1 also caused a phenotype similar to that of reeler. Pinpointing the DAB1 as a pivotal regulator of the reelin signaling cascade started the tedious process of deciphering its complex interactions. There followed a series of speculative reports linking reelin's genetic variation and interactions to schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, autism and other highly complex dysfunctions.
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The product of this gene, LcrV protein, also regulates the secretion of YopD through the type III translocon, and itself acts as a protective "V" antigen for Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague. A homologue of the Y. pestis LcrV protein, PcrV, has been found in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an opportunistic pathogen. In vivo studies using mice found that immunisation with the protein protected burned animals from infection by P. aeruginosa, and enhanced survival. In addition, it is speculated that PcrV determines the size of the needle pore for type III secreted effectors.
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Schematic of a typical setup for calcium fluorescence imaging of isolated cardiac myocytes Chemical indicators are small molecules that can chelate calcium ions. All these molecules are based on an EGTA homologue called BAPTA, with high selectivity for calcium (Ca2+) ions versus magnesium (Mg2+) ions. This group of indicators includes fura-2, indo-1, fluo-3, fluo-4, Calcium Green-1. These dyes are often used with the chelator carboxyl groups masked as acetoxymethyl esters, in order to render the molecule lipophilic and to allow easy entrance into the cell.
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RGPR-p117/SEC16B, which was named as a regucalcin gene promoter region-related protein, was originally discovered as a novel transcription factor that specifically binds to a nuclear factor I (NFI) consensus motif TTGGC(N)6CC that is located on the 5’-flanking region of the regucalcin gene (rgn) in 2001. This gene is a highly conserved a leucine zipper motif, and it was also named as the leucine zipper transcription regulator 2 (LZTR2). In 2007, RGPR-p117 was also renamed as Sec16 homologue B (SEC16B), an endoplasmic reticulum export factor.
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MENTHO or STARD3 N-terminal like protein (STARD3NL) is an integral membrane protein of unknown function. As the alternate name implies, MENTHO, short for "MLN64 N-terminal homologue", contains a region in its N-terminus similar to that found in STARD3, also known as MLN64, but lacks the StAR-related transfer domain (START) that characterizes all other proteins given the "STARD" (START domain-containing) name. The N-terminal domain is called a MENTAL (MLN64 N-terminal) domain. Like MLN64, MENTHO is widely expressed in tissues of the body.
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Acta Zool 29: 139-279 Recent experimental studies also showed that the cartilages are derived from the head mesoderm.Kuratani S et al., (2004) Developmental fate of the mandibular mesoderm in the lamprey, Lethenteron japonicum: comparative morphology and development of the gnathostome jaw with special reference to the nature of trabecula cranii. J. Exp. Zool. (Mol. Dev. Evol.). 302B, 458-468 The “trabecular cartilages” in the Cyclostome is no longer considered to be the homologue of the trabecular in the jawed vertebrates: the (true) trabecular cartilages were firstly acquired in the Gnathostome lineage.
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Certain features of their hands indicate that they were paddle-like in shape and structure, being used to swim in a manner much similar to that of modern turtles.Markus Lambertz et al, A caseian point for the evolution of a diaphragm homologue among the earliest synapsids, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2016). DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13264 Their digits were believed to have a considerable range of motion and large retractor processes on the ventral surfaces of the unguals allowed them to flex their claws with powerful motions.
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Jeffrey M. Friedman (born July 20, 1954) is a molecular geneticist at New York City's Rockefeller University and an Investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. His discovery of the hormone leptin and its role in regulating body weight has had a major role in the area of human obesity. Friedman is a physician scientist studying the genetic mechanisms that regulate body weight. His research on various aspects of obesity received national attention in late 1994, when it was announced that he and his colleagues had isolated the mouse ob gene and its human homologue.
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In 2007, a research group claimed the first reproducible synthesis of unsubstituted hexacene—purportedly invalidating previous claims—based on photochemical decarbonylation of a diketone precursor: :Neckers hexacene synthesis (2007). The compound synthesized could not be isolated: it dimerized at concentrations as low as 10−4 M, and reacted with oxygen in solution to form an organic peroxide. In a poly(methyl methacrylate) polymer matrix such side-reactions were limited, and the compound survived up to 12 hours. The next homologue heptacene also studied by this group, and was even more unstable, decomposing within 4 hours.
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Some amino acids contain the opposite absolute chirality, chemicals that are not available from normal ribosomal translation/transcription machinery. Most bacterial cells walls are formed by peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of amino sugars crosslinked with short oligopeptides bridged between each other. The oligopeptide is non-ribosomally synthesised and contains several peculiarities including D-amino acids, generally D-alanine and D-glutamate. A further peculiarity is that the former is racemised by a PLP-binding enzymes (encoded by alr or the homologue dadX), whereas the latter is racemised by a cofactor independent enzyme (murI).
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A, but because it belongs to a family in which well-characterized homologues catalyze active ion transport, it is assigned to the MR family. Expression of the chop1 gene, or a truncated form of that gene encoding only the hydrophobic core (residues 1-346 or 1-517) in frog oocytes in the presence of all-trans retinal produces a light-gated conductance that shows characteristics of a channel passively but selectively permeable to protons. This channel activity probably generates bioelectric currents. A homologue of ChR1 in C. reinhardtii is channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2; Chop2; Cop4; CSOB).
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MreB is a protein found in bacteria that has been identified as a homologue of actin, as indicated by similarities in tertiary structure and conservation of active site peptide sequence. The conservation of protein structure suggests the common ancestry of the cytoskeletal elements formed by actin, found in eukaryotes, and MreB, found in prokaryotes. Indeed, recent studies have found that MreB proteins polymerize to form filaments that are similar to actin microfilaments. It has been shown to form multilayer sheets comprising diagonally interwoven filaments in the presence of ATP or GTP.
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FtsZ is a protein encoded by the ftsZ gene that assembles into a ring at the future site of bacterial cell division. FtsZ is a prokaryotic homologue of the eukaryotic protein tubulin. The initials FtsZ mean "Filamenting temperature- sensitive mutant Z." The hypothesis was that cell division mutants of E. coli would grow as filaments due to the inability of the daughter cells to separate from one another. FtsZ is found in almost all bacteria, many archaea, all chloroplasts and some mitochondria, where it is essential for cell division.
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The entirety of the unripe Ackee fruit is toxic and contains large amounts of hypoglycin. The fruit is safe to eat only when the fruit is allowed to fully open and expose the large black seeds while on the tree. The levels of the toxin decrease over time though from approximately 1000 ppm to around 0.1 ppm in the mature fruit. Relatives of Ackee, including lychee, longan, and rambutan, can contain enough α-(methylenecyclopropyl)glycine, a homologue of hypoglycin A, in their fruit to cause hypoglycemic encephalopathy in undernourished children, when consumed in large quantities.
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The Lefty proteins, divergent members of the TGFβ superfamily of proteins, act as extracellular antagonists of nodal signaling. Expression studies of the lefty homologue, antivin, in zebrafish show that lefty likely acts as a competitive inhibitor of nodal signaling. Overexpression of lefty leads to a phenotype similar to a nodal knockout while overexpression of the activin (nodal-related protein) receptor or even the receptor extracellular domain can rescue the phenotype. As the induction of lefty is dependent upon nodal expression, lefty acts a classic feedback inhibitor for nodal signaling.
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MST1, the human homologue of the Hippo protein, is part of the Hippo signalling pathway in humans The Hippo signaling pathway, also known as the Salvador-Warts-Hippo (SWH) pathway, controls organ size in animals through the regulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis. The pathway takes its name from one of its key signaling components—the protein kinase Hippo (Hpo). Mutations in this gene lead to tissue overgrowth, or a "hippopotamus"-like phenotype. A fundamental question in developmental biology is how an organ knows to stop growing after reaching a particular size.
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Sputnik has a circular double stranded DNA genome consisting of 18,343 base pairs. It contains genes able to infect all three domains of life: Eukarya, Archaea and Bacteria. Of the twenty-one predicted protein-coding genes, three are apparently derived from APMV itself, one is a homologue of an archaeal virus, and four others are homologues of proteins in bacteriophages and eukaryotic viruses. The fact that three of these genes are derived from APMV indicates that Sputnik is able to participate in gene-transfer processes and mediate lateral gene transfer between giant viruses.
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Lophophine (MMDPEA or 3-methoxy-4,5-methylenedioxyphenethylamine) is a putative psychedelic and entactogen drug of the methylenedioxyphenethylamine class. It is the α-demethylated homologue of MMDA, and is also closely related to mescaline. Alexander Shulgin originally suggested that lophophine may be a natural constituent of peyote (Lophophora williamsii) due to it being the only logical chemical intermediate for the biosynthesis of several tetrahydroisoquinolines known to be present in this cactus species. Subsequently, lophophine was indeed shown to be a minor component of both peyote and San Pedro cactus.
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AgRP is a paracrine signalling molecule made up of 112 amino acids (the gene product of 132 amino acids is processed by removal of the N-terminal 20-residue signal peptide domain). It was independently identified by two teams in 1997 based on its sequence similarity with agouti signalling peptide (ASIP), a protein synthesised in the skin that controls coat colour. AgRP is approximately 25% identical to ASIP. The murine homologue of AgRP consists of 111 amino acids (precursor is 131 amino acids) and shares 81% amino acid identity with the human protein.
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It may contain 10–15 transverse small ducts or tubules that lead to the Gartner’s duct (also longitudinal duct of epoophoron) that represents the caudal remnant of the mesonephric duct and passes through the broad ligament and the lateral wall of the cervix and vagina. The epoophoron is a homologue to the epididymis in the male. While the epoophoron is located in the lateral portion of the mesosalpinx and mesovarium, the paroophoron (residual remnant of that part of the mesonephric duct that forms the paradidymis in the male) lies more medially in the mesosalpinx.
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The eukaryotic SRP receptor (termed SR) is a heterodimer of SR-alpha (70 kDa) and SR-beta (25 kDa), both of which contain a GTP-binding domain, while the prokaryotic SRP receptor comprises only the monomeric loosely membrane-associated SR-alpha homologue FtsY. SR- alpha regulates the targeting of SRP-ribosome-nascent polypeptide complexes to the translocon. SR-alpha binds to the SRP54 subunit of the SRP complex. The SR-beta subunit is a transmembrane GTPase that anchors the SR-alpha subunit (a peripheral membrane GTPase) to the ER membrane.
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Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by multiple motor and phonic tics. In the clinical characterization of a patient with GTS, Petek et al discovered a breakpoint in chromosome region 7q31. Additional characterization identified that IMMP2L, a novel gene coding for the apparent human homologue of the yeast mitochondrial inner membrane peptidase subunit 2, was found to be disrupted by both the breakpoint in the duplicated fragment and the insertion site in 7q31. It is the first association of IMMP2L gene to Tourette syndrome.
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A survey of international studies consistently identifies high dioxin concentrations in areas affected by open waste burning and a study that looked at the homologue pattern found the sample with the highest dioxin concentration was "typical for the pyrolysis of PVC". Other EU studies indicate that PVC likely "accounts for the overwhelming majority of chlorine that is available for dioxin formation during landfill fires." The next largest sources of dioxin in the EPA inventory are medical and municipal waste incinerators. Various studies have been conducted that reach contradictory results.
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The function of the Duvernoy's gland has been the source of much study and speculation, and debate is still ongoing. It is widely recognized that the Duvernoy's gland is the homologue of venom glands in vipers and elapids. However, the two types of glands are also “anatomically and functionally distinct,” leading experts such as Dr. Kenneth Kardong to maintain the distinction between the Duvernoy's gland and venom glands. Other scientists such as Dr. Bryan Fry maintain that the Duvernoy gland is a primitive version of a venom gland and should be referred to as such.
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A defect in the human homologue of the Drosophila "period" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS (Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day. It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e.
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The phylogenetic position of the ectoproct bryozoans remains uncertain, but it remains certain that they belong to the Protostomia and more specifically to the Lophoctrochozoa. This implies that the ectoproct larva is a trochophore with the corona being a homologue of the prototroch; this is supported from the similarity between the coronate larvae and the Type 1 pericalymma larvae of some molluscs and sipunculans, where the prototroch zone is expanded to cover the hyposphere. A study of the mitochondrial DNA sequence suggests that the Bryozoa may be related to the Chaetognatha.
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In molecular biology, the small nucleolar RNAs SNORD106 and SNORD12 (also known as U106 and HBII-99 respectively ) are two related snoRNAs which belongs to the C/D class of small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs). Both contain the conserved C (UGAUGA) and D (CUGA) box sequence motifs Human SNORD12 (HBII-99) is the homologue of mouse snoRNA MBII-99. In humans both HB11-99 and U106 snoRNAs share the same host gene. Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs.
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Four other of these transcripts included a myotubularin (MTMR8), a potential human homologue of the mouse Amac1 enzyme, a transcript similar to the mouse L-threonine 3-dehydrogenase gene, and one similar to a human oncogene. The remaining seven transcripts did not resemble any currently known genes. In all, none of the twelve transcripts displayed any evidence of pathogenic involvement with KWE. As a transcriptional map of this critical area is being drawn, based on microsatellite identification, haplotype analysis and other measures; localization of the gene associated with KWE pathogenesis is an ongoing process.
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Rotenone binds to the ubiquinone binding site of complex I as well as piericidin A, another potent inhibitor with a close structural homologue to ubiquinone. Acetogenins from Annonaceae are even more potent inhibitors of complex I. They cross-link to the ND2 subunit, which suggests that ND2 is essential for quinone-binding. Rolliniastatin-2, an acetogenin, is the first complex I inhibitor found that does not share the same binding site as rotenone. Despite more than 50 years of study of complex I, no inhibitors blocking the electron flow inside the enzyme have been found.
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One of the most notable group of proteins whose functional diversification appears to have been heavily influenced by such an evolutionary mechanism is the ferritin-like superfamily, which includes ferritins, bacterioferritins, rubrerythrins, class I ribonucleotide reductases and soluble methane monooxygenases. Soluble methane monooxygenase is the current record holder for the most number of π-helices in a single enzyme with 13 (PDB code 1MTY). However, the bacterial homologue of a Na+/Cl− dependent neurotransmitter transporter (PDB code 2A65) holds the record for the most π-helices in a single peptide chain with 8.
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Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the larger, more developed male homologue (variation) to the female Skene's glands. It is also typical for a man to not reach orgasm as a receptive partner solely from anal sex. General statistics indicate that 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm.
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The conjugate (10S,11S) JH diol phosphate is the product of a two-step enzymatic process: conversion of JH to JH diol and then addition of a phosphate group to C10.Halarnkar, P.P., Jackson, G.P., Straub, K.M., Schooley, D.A., 1993. Juvenile hormone catabolism in Manduca sexta - homologue selectivity of catabolism and identification of a diol-phosphate conjugate as a major end product. Experientia 49, 988-994Reversed-phase liquid chromatographic separation of juvenile hormone and its metabolites, and its application for an in vivo juvenile hormone catabolism study in Manduca sexta. Anal. Biochem.
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Diagram showing the location of the hock. The hock, or gambrel, is the joint between the tarsal bones and tibia of a digitigrade or unguligrade quadrupedal mammal, such as a horse, cat, or dog. This joint may include articulations between tarsal bones and the fibula in some species (such as cats), while in others the fibula has been greatly reduced and is only found as a vestigial remnant fused to the distal portion of the tibia (as in horses). It is the anatomical homologue of the ankle of the human foot.
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Azetidine-2-carboxylic acid (abbreviated Aze) is a plant non-protein amino acid homologue of proline with the molecular formula C4H7NO2. Aze is a heterocyclic, 4 membered ring with nitrogen as its heteroatom (an azetidine), and a carboxylic acid group substituted on one of the ring carbon atoms. The main difference between Aze and proline is the ring of Aze has four members and the ring of proline has five. Aze has the ability to act as an analog of proline and can be incorporated into proteins in place of proline.
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The combination of these proteins and subsequent complex formation activates the degradation of aberrant mRNAs. Ski7p is thought to bind the ribosome stalled at the 3’ end of the mRNA poly(A) tail and recruit the exosome to degrade the aberrant mRNA. However in mammalian cells, Ski7p is not found, and even the presence of the NSD mechanism itself has remained relatively unclear. The short splicing isoform of HBS1L (HBS1LV3) was found to be the long-sought after human homologue of Ski7p, linking the exosome and SKI complexes.
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The exact position in the phylogenetic tree is debated. Andreolepis has been considered a primitive actinopterygian, partly based on scale characteristics and the presence of ganoine, a homologue to true enamel, which was thought to be limited to actinopterygians whereas true enamel is limited to sarcopterygians. It has also been suggested to be a basal osteichthyan. For example, the teeth lack enamel and have a broad tooth field, well-developed dental organization is absent and tooth production is extraosseous, which are indications that Andreolepis is located at the base of the osteichthyes.
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Expression of DAZ proteins varies between species but is mainly expressed in Primordial Germ Cells (PGCs). One DAZ homologue is expressed in nearly every stage of spermatogenesis, from PGCs to mature spermatozoa. The conservation of DAZ family genes among various species ranging from unicellular organisms to humans indicates their important role in fertility. More precisely, DAZ is only present in higher primates, without any homologues being present in unicellular organisms whereas BOULE is found in species ranging from sea anemones to humans and DAZL is conserved among vertebrates.
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Atrial natriuretic peptide (CDD/ANP-99-126) is a hormone system of clinical importance. Urodilatin (CDD/ ANP-95-126) is a homologue natriuretic peptide that differs from CDD/ANP-99-126, which is excreted into the circulation via exocytosis. The prototype of the natriuretic hormones is cardiodilatin/atrial natriuretic peptide (CDD/ANP). The endocrine heart is composed of specific myoendocrine cells that synthesize and secrete the natriuretic peptide hormones, which exhibit diuretic and vasorelaxant properties; secretion is the basis for a paracrine system regulating water and sodium reabsorption.
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The mouse homologue of DLC1 was required during embryogenesis. While mice heterozygous for the dlc1 gene showed no physical abnormalities, mouse embryos which are homozygous negative for dlc-1 were not able to progress past ten and a half days gestation. Further analysis of the embryos revealed that they had defects in several organs, including the brain, heart, and placenta. In addition, cells of the DLC1-/- embryos had few long actin fibers (indicating that their cytoskeletal organization was impaired) and fewer focal adhesions than those of normal DLC1 expressing cells.
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Hypersensitivity in the lOFC may lead to depression by producing a similar effect to learned helplessness in animals. Elevated response in the sgACC is a consistent finding in neuroimaging studies using a number of paradigms including reward related tasks. Treatment is also associated with attenuated activity in the sgACC, and inhibition of neurons in the rodent homologue of the sgACC, the infralimbic cortex (IL), produces an antidepressant effect. Hyperactivity of the sgACC has been hypothesized to lead to depression via attenuating the somatic response to reward or positive stimuli.
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Function Maize gene for first step in biosynthesis of benzoxazin, which aids in resistance to insect pests, pathogenic fungi and bacteria. First report Hamilton 1964, as a mutant sensitive to the herbicide atrazine, and lacking benzoxazinoids (less than 1% of non-mutant plants). Molecular characterization reveals that the BX1 protein is a homologue to the alpha-subunit of tryptophan synthase. The reference mutant allele has a deletion of about 900 bp, located at the 5'-terminus and comprising sequence upstream of the transcription start site and the first exon.
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Two labs, that of Gary Struhl and that of Stephen Cohen, then demonstrated that a secreted signaling protein, Decapentaplegic (the Drosophila homologue of transforming growth factor beta), acted as a morphogen during later stages of Drosophila development. The substance governs the pattern of tissue development and, in particular, the positions of the various specialized cell types within a tissue. It spreads from a localized source and forms a concentration gradient across a developing tissue. Well-known morphogens include: decapentaplegic/transforming growth factor beta, Hedgehog/Sonic hedgehog, Wingless/Wnt, epidermal growth factor, and fibroblast growth factor.
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The oxazole homologue is also knownUS Patent 3401172 4-methyl-5-(beta-chloroethyl)oxazole providing a little QSAR information. As opposed to barbiturates, clomethiazole doesn't affect the electrophysiological responses to excitatory aminoacids, and additionally, it also directly acts on chloride ion channels. Clomethiazole is also a CYP2A6 and CYP2E1 enzyme inhibitor, and thus can affect the plasma clearance of substrates of those enzymes. When clomethiazole is administered via IV in addition to carbamazepine, its clearance is increased by 30%, which results in a proportional reduction in plasma concentration.
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In 2012, Muller et al. identified that homozygous deletion of redundant-essential glycolytic ENO1 gene in human glioblastoma (GBM) is the consequence of proximity to 1p36 tumor suppressor locus deletions and may hold potential for a synthetic lethality approach to GBM inhibition. ENO1 is one of three homologous genes (ENO2, ENO3) that encodes the mammalian alpha-enolase enzyme. ENO2, which encodes enolase 2, is mostly expressed in neural tissues, leading to the postulation that in ENO1-deleted GBM, ENO2 may be the ideal target as the redundant homologue of ENO1.
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A specific protein kinase phosphorylates 14-3-3, otherwise known as sphingosine- dependent protein kinase 1 (SDK1), only in the presence of Sph. Sph is also known to interact with protein targets such as the protein kinase H homologue (PKH) and the yeast protein kinase (YPK). These targets in turn mediate the effects of Sph and its related sphingoid bases, with known roles in regulating the actin cytoskeleton, endocytosis, the cell cycle and apoptosis. It is important to note however that the second messenger function of Sph is not yet established unambiguously.
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Male sexual behaviors can be divided into two phases: the appetitive phase, which contains highly variable sequence of behaviors such as attracting and courting, and the consummatory phase, during which highly stereotyped copulatory behaviors occur. The medial preoptic area of the brain is considered to control the expression of both male copulation and male appetitive sexual behavior. It is found that large lesions of SDN-POA severely disrupt copulatory behavior in rats. Also, cell-body lesions of SDA pars compacta (a homologue of SDN-POA) in gerbils produce severe disruptions of male copulatory behavior.
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The ski2 (the SKI2W homolog in yeast) contains DEVH-box proteins which suggests it is the only protein in the ski complex to have an enzymatic helicase function. The exact interactions are not well described, however DEVH-box helicases are shown to separate nucleic strands in an energy dependent manner. The yeast ski complex has been more extensively studied than the human homologue, and a crystal structure of the RNA exosome and its interactions has been created that supports a role in non-stop decay, to thereby protect the cell from aberrant proteins. Figure 2.
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In the center of each corolla are five anthers merged into a tube, through which the style grows when the floret opens, hoovering up the pollen on its shaft. Around the base of the corolla are many white pappus bristles of about long. The dark brown, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypsellae are ellips- to inverted egg-shaped, about long and wide, with a marginal ridge, while the surface has some weak scales and is evenly covered in long hairs. Felicia elongata is a diploid having eight sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=16).
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Each CTAR domain contains an amino acid sequence that serves as a recognition site for cellular adaptors to bind and trigger a series of signal transduction pathways that can lead to a change in gene expression. LMP-1 is a functional homologue of tumor necrosis factor and mediates signaling through the nuclear factor-κB pathway, mimicking CD40 receptor signaling. It is often found in the malignant Reed–Sternberg cells of Hodgkin lymphoma, the malignant B cells of EBV-associated B cell lymphatic cancers, and the malignant NK cells of NK/T cell lymphatic cancers.
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In addition, Rubenstein pioneered research on the consequences of the misincorporation of nonprotein amino acids, especially the lower homologue of proline, azetidine-2-carboxylic acid (Aze). This compound eludes the gate-keeping function of the prolyl tRNAs, and enters a wide range of proteins. For instance, the central region in a consensus epitope of myelin basic protein consists of the sequence: proline, arginine, threonine, proline, proline, proline. Dairy milk from cattle fed sugar beet byproducts is high in Aze, therefore infants fed such milk are exposed to Aze in their diets.
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In mice, complete inactivation of the FXN gene is lethal in the early embryonic stage. Although nearly all organisms express a frataxin homologue, the GAA repeat in intron 1 only exists in humans and other primates, so the mutation that causes FDRA can't occur naturally in other animals. Scientists have developed several options to model this disease in mice. One approach is to silence frataxin expression in just one specific tissue type of interest: the heart (mice modified this way are called MCK), all neurons (NSE), or just the spinal cord and cerebellum (PRP).
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The Smf1 protein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae appears to catalyze high-affinity (KM = 0.3 μm) Mn2+ uptake while the closely related Smf2 protein may catalyze low affinity (KM = 60 μm) Mn2+ uptake in the same organism. Both proteins also mediate H+-dependent Fe2+ uptake. These proteins are of 575 and 549 amino acyl residues in length and are predicted to have 8-12 transmembrane α-helical spanners. The E. coli homologue of 412 aas exhibits 11 putative and confirmed TMSs with the N-terminus in and the C-terminus out.
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Natural occurrences of the element have been hypothesised, but none have ever been found. In the periodic table of elements, hassium is a transactinide element, a member of the 7th period and group8; it is thus the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that hassium behaves as the heavier homologue to osmium, reacting readily with oxygen to form a volatile tetroxide. The chemical properties of hassium have been only partly characterized, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group8 elements.
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STARD3 is a multi-domain protein composed of a N-terminal MENTAL (MLN64 N-terminal) domain, a central FFAT motif (two phenylalanines in an acidic tract), and a C-terminal StAR-related transfer domain (START) lipid transport domain. The MENTAL domain of STARD3 is similar to the protein STARD3 N-terminal like protein (STARD3NL) also known as MLN64 N-terminal homologue (MENTHO). This domain is composed of 4 transmembrane helices which anchor the protein in the limiting membrane of late endosomes. This domain binds cholesterol and associates with the same domain in STARD3NL.
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Recent advances in the identification of the tethers between the mitochondrial and ER membranes suggest that the scaffolding function of the molecular elements involved is secondary to other, non-structural functions. In yeast, ERMES, a multiprotein complex of interacting ER- and mitochondrial-resident membrane proteins, is required for lipid transfer at the MAM and exemplifies this principle. One of its components, for example, is also a constituent of the protein complex required for insertion of transmembrane beta-barrel proteins into the lipid bilayer. However, a homologue of the ERMES complex has not yet been identified in mammalian cells.
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Bacteria therefore possess a cytoskeleton with homologous elements to actin (for example, MreB, AlfA, ParM, FtsA, and MamK), even though the amino acid sequence of these proteins diverges from that present in animal cells. However, such proteins have a high degree of structural similarity to eukaryotic actin. The highly dynamic microfilaments formed by the aggregation of MreB and ParM are essential to cell viability and they are involved in cell morphogenesis, chromosome segregation, and cell polarity. ParM is an actin homologue that is coded in a plasmid and it is involved in the regulation of plasmid DNA.
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Moscovium is an extremely radioactive element: its most stable known isotope, moscovium-290, has a half-life of only 0.65 seconds. In the periodic table, it is a p-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in group 15 as the heaviest pnictogen, although it has not been confirmed to behave as a heavier homologue of the pnictogen bismuth. Moscovium is calculated to have some properties similar to its lighter homologues, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, and to be a post-transition metal, although it should also show several major differences from them.
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The murine double minute (mdm2) oncogene, which codes for the Mdm2 protein, was originally cloned, along with two other genes (mdm1 and mdm3) from the transformed mouse cell line 3T3-DM. Mdm2 overexpression, in cooperation with oncogenic Ras, promotes transformation of primary rodent fibroblasts, and mdm2 expression led to tumor formation in nude mice. The human homologue of this protein was later identified and is sometimes called Hdm2. Further supporting the role of mdm2 as an oncogene, several human tumor types have been shown to have increased levels of Mdm2, including soft tissue sarcomas and osteosarcomas as well as breast tumors.
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It is named after the physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (also spelled Roentgen), who discovered X-rays. In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the group 11 elements, although no chemical experiments have been carried out to confirm that it behaves as the heavier homologue to gold in group 11 as the ninth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Roentgenium is calculated to have similar properties to its lighter homologues, copper, silver, and gold, although it may show some differences from them.
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It has been demonstrated that association of SET domain and myotubularin- related proteins modulates growth control. The SET domain-containing Drosophila melanogaster (Fruit fly) protein, enhancer of zeste, has a function in segment determination and the mammalian homologue may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription and chromatin structure. Histone lysine methylation is part of the histone code that regulates chromatin function and epigenetic control of gene function. Histone lysine methyltransferases (HMTase) differ both in their substrate specificity for the various acceptor lysines as well as in their product specificity for the number of methyl groups (one, two, or three) they transfer.
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Sh2d3c is a gene on human chromosome 9 that encodes an SH2 domain containing protein known as NSP3. The mouse homologue is found on chromosome 2. The NSP (Novel SH2-containing Protein) family of proteins contains three members, NSP1, NSP2, and NSP3 (this protein), all of which have a similar architecture, with an N-terminal SH2 domain, a proline serine rich region, which contains consensus sequences for MAP kinase substrates, and a conserved C-terminus, which binds to the Cas family of adapter proteins, and also shows homology to GEF domains. NSP3 was originally identified by three independent groups of researchers.
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However, a triple-deletion of all three genes is lethal. In such cases, the essentiality of a gene or a group of paralogs can often be predicted based on the essentiality of an essential single gene in a different species. In yeast, few of the essential genes are duplicated within the genome: 8.5% of the non-essential genes, but only 1% of the essential genes have a homologue in the yeast genome. In the worm C. elegans, non-essential genes are highly over-represented among duplicates, possibly because duplication of essential genes causes overexpression of these genes.
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In the human homologue (hSGLT1), H+ can replace Na+, but the apparent affinity for glucose reduces 20x from 0.3 mM to 6 mM. The apparent affinity for H+ is 6 μM, 1000x higher than for Na+ (6 mM). The transport stoichiometry is 1 glucose to 2 Na+ or H+. If Asp204 is replaced by glutamate (D204E), the apparent affinity for H+ increases >20x with no change in apparent Na+ affinity. The D204N or D204C mutation promotes phlorizin-sensitive H+ currents that are 10x greater than Na+ currents, and the glucose:H+ stoichiometry is then as great as 1:145.
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It consists of one carpel and contains a single pendulous ovule. At the base of the ovary are four linear or awl-shaped scales of long that secrete a copious amount of nectar. The indehiscent fruit consists of one cavity, containing one oval to globe-shaped seed of long, with a broad indent where it was attached, hairless or covered with a fine powder and generally partially covered by a pale elaiosome. The sixteen Leucospermum species that have been analysed are all diploids having twelve sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=24), which is consistent with the rest of the subtribe Proteinae.
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Depending on the severity of the case, the symptoms range from headache, rapid heart beat and sweating to dehydration and low blood pressure stemming from intense vomiting, to delirium and coma, and finally seizures and death.Holson, Dave A. “Ackee Fruit Toxicity.” Edited by Timothy E Corden, EMedicine, misc.medscape.com/pi/iphone/medscapeapp/html/A1008792-business.html. The symptoms stemming from lychee poisoning are near identical, both being caused by MCPA, with lychee seeds also containing methylenecyclopropyl glycine (MCPG), a homologue of Hypoglycin A. Hypoglycin A undergoes deamination, forming α-ketomethylene-cyclopropylpropionic acid (KMCPP), which then forms MCPA through oxidative decarboxylation.
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The archaeal pre-RC is very different from the bacterial pre-RC and can serve as a simplified model of the eukaryotic pre-RC. It is composed of a single origin recognition complex (ORC) protein, Cdc6/ORC1, and a homohexamer of the minichromosome maintenance (MCM) protein. Sulfolobus islandicus also uses a Cdt1 homologue to recognize one of its replication origins. The eukaryotic pre-RC is the most complex and highly regulated pre-RC. In most eukaryotes it is composed of six ORC proteins (ORC1-6), Cdc6, Cdt1, and a heterohexamer of the six MCM proteins (MCM2-7).
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Most research on the TATA box has been conducted on yeast, human, and Drosophila genomes, however, similar elements have been found in archaea and ancient eukaryotes. In archaea species, the promoter contains an 8 bp AT-rich sequence located ~24 bp upstream of the transcription start site. This sequence was originally called Box A, which is now known to be the sequence that interacts with the homologue of the archaeal TATA-binding protein (TBP). Also, even though some studies have uncovered several similarities, there are others that have detected notable differences between archaeal and eukaryotic TBP.
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An sbRNA, CeN134 was reported as a candidate homologue to the vertebrate Y RNA during a kingdom- wide search. Further investigation found a homologous secondary structure with a conserved helical regions and a common UUAUC loop motif. The function of sbRNAs may therefore be similar to that of vertebrate Y RNAs, namely acting as part of the Ro-RNA particle to control RNA quality and playing a role in chromosomal replication. Deletion of sbRNA does not prevent chromosome replication in C. elegans, but this may be a result of other sbRNAs substituting missing elements (as in human Y RNA).
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Early work with Dr Bruce Yacyshyn showed differential expression in inflammatory bowel disease. Dr. Lazarovits isolated the antibody to produce the murine homologue MLN002 which he licensed with the Massachusetts General Hospital to Millennium Pharmaceuticals of Boston for further development. Scientists at LeukoSite realized the potential of this antibody to treat inflammatory bowel disease, and this company was eventually acquired by Millennium which took an exclusive license to the cell line from Massachusetts General Hospital. In vivo proof of concept ultimately led to the decision to humanize the antibody and move it into clinical trials as "Vedolizumab".
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DISC1 is localized to the centrosome, the primary microtubule organizing center of the cell, via interaction with nuclear distribution gene homologue-like 1 (NDEL1, also called NUDEL), where it is part of a protein complex involved in cytoskeletal processes of neuronal migration, including nucleokinesis and neurite outgrowth. NUDEL is also known to play a role in axon regeneration and has an additional DISC1-modulated function as a cysteine endopeptidase. Localization of NUDEL to axons is dependent on expression of DISC1. NUDEL binds to a 100 amino acid domain of DISC1 (aa 598-697) containing a coiled coil domain and a leucine zipper.
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MALAT1 (also known as NEAT2) was originally identified as an abundantly expressed ncRNA that is upregulated during metastasis of early-stage non-small cell lung cancer and its overexpression is an early prognostic marker for poor patient survival rates. More recently, the highly conserved mouse homologue of MALAT1 was found to be highly expressed in hepatocellular carcinoma. Intronic antisense ncRNAs with expression correlated to the degree of tumor differentiation in prostate cancer samples have also been reported. Despite a number of long ncRNAs having aberrant expression in cancer, their function and potential role in tumourogenesis is relatively unknown.
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In both sexes, pleasure can be derived from the nerve endings around the anus and the anus itself, such as during anal sex. It is possible for men to achieve orgasms through prostate stimulation alone. The prostate is the male homologue (variation) to the Skene's glands (which are believed to be connected to the female G-spot), and can be sexually stimulated through anal sex, perineum massage or via a vibrator. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, described by some men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only.
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Radon hexafluoride (), the heavier homologue of xenon hexafluoride, has been studied theoretically, but its synthesis has not yet been confirmed. Higher fluorides of radon may have been observed in experiments where unknown radon-containing products distilled together with xenon hexafluoride, and perhaps in the production of radon trioxide: these may have been RnF4, RnF6, or both. It is likely that the difficulty in identifying higher fluorides of radon stems from radon being kinetically hindered from being oxidised beyond the divalent state. This is due to the strong ionicity of RnF2 and the high positive charge on Rn in RnF+.
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When heated, it emits intense blue light, which becomes white when mixed with its lighter homologue cerium dioxide (CeO2, ceria): this is the basis for its previously common application in gas mantles. Reports of thorium peroxide, initially supposed to be Th2O7 and be formed from reacting thorium salts with hydrogen peroxide, were later discovered to contain both peroxide anions and the anions of the reacting thorium salt. Thorium monoxide has been produced through laser ablation of thorium in the presence of oxygen. This highly polar molecule is calculated to have one of the largest known internal electric fields.
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TDG knockout mouse models showed no increase in mispairing frequency suggesting that other enzymes, like the functional homologue MBD4, may provide functional redundancy. This gene may have a pseudogene in the p arm of chromosome 12. Additionally, in 2011, the human thymine DNA glycosylase (hTDG) was reported to efficiently excise 5-formylcytosine (5fC) and 5-carboxylcytosine (5caC), the key oxidation products of 5-methylcytosine in genomic DNA. Later on, the crystal structure of the hTDG catalytic domain in complex with duplex DNA containing 5caC was published, which supports the role of TDG in mammalian 5-methylcytosine demethylation.
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Double-stranded RNA-binding protein Staufen homolog 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the STAU1 gene. Staufen is a member of the family of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-binding proteins involved in the transport and/or localization of mRNAs to different subcellular compartments and/or organelles. These proteins are characterized by the presence of multiple dsRNA-binding domains which are required to bind RNAs having double-stranded secondary structures. The human homologue of staufen encoded by STAU, in addition contains a microtubule-binding domain similar to that of microtubule- associated protein 1B, and binds tubulin.
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Visual area V4 is one of the visual areas in the extrastriate visual cortex. In macaques, it is located anterior to V2 and posterior to posterior inferotemporal area (PIT). It comprises at least four regions (left and right V4d, left and right V4v), and some groups report that it contains rostral and caudal subdivisions as well. It is unknown whether the human V4 is as expansive as that of the macaque homologue which is a subject of debate. V4 is the third cortical area in the ventral stream, receiving strong feedforward input from V2 and sending strong connections to the PIT.
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In 2004 the DERL1 gene was discovered independently by two research groups when they were exploring the machinery of retrotranslocation in the ER in the cell. One evidence for the existence of DERL1 was provided by Professor Tom A. Rapoport and his research group at Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts. Another evidence of the DERL1 gene was discovered by Professor Hidde L. Ploegh and his research group who is also at Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts. As the mammalian DERL1 gene was found to be a homologue of the yeast DER1 gene found in 1996, it was named after the yeast gene.
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Moreover, a study on medial preoptic nucleus (POM) (homologue of medial preoptic nucleus in rats) in quails showed that the activation of male copulatory behavior requires the aromatization of androgen (testosterone) into an estrogen (17β-estradiol). Like in SDN-POA, aromatase-expression neurons are a specific marker of the nuclear boundary of POM in quails. The intensity of male copulatory behavior is found to positively correlate with the number of the aromatase-expression neurons in the caudal part of POM. Appetitive behaviors are also partly controlled by medial preoptic area as aromatase-knockout mice show deficits in sexual motivation.
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Although SDN is much related to sexual partner preferences in males, it does not show the same relationship to partner preferences in females. Evidence shows that SDN in medial preoptic area is not the prerequisite for the expression of male-typical sexual behaviour and sexual partner preferences in females. One piece of evidence comes from the study on female Japanese macaque, which routinely court, mount (with pelvic thrust), compete for, and even prefer certain female sexual partners over certain males. The part of the brain examined is the anterior hypothalamic nucleus (AHdc), a homologue of SDN-POA.
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Parahexyl (Synhexyl, n-hexyl-Δ3-THC, (C6)-Δ6a(10a)-THC) is a synthetic homologue of THC, which was invented in 1949 during attempts to elucidate the structure of Δ9-THC, one of the active components of cannabis.Ask Dr. Shulgin Online March 7, 2001 Parahexyl is similar in both structure and activity to THC, differing only in the position of one double bond, and the lengthening of the 3-pentyl chain by one CH2 group to n-hexyl. Parahexyl produces effects typical of other cannabinoid receptor agonists in animals. It has a somewhat higher oral bioavailability than THC itself but is otherwise very similar.
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This down-regulation is believed to be in response to oxygen levels. TspO works through (or modulates) the PpsR/AppA system and acts upstream of the site of action of these regulatory proteins. It has been suggested that the TspO regulatory pathway works by regulating the efflux of certain tetrapyrrole intermediates of the haem/bacteriochlorophyll biosynthetic pathways in response to the availability of molecular oxygen, thereby causing the accumulation of a biosynthetic intermediate that serves as a corepressor for the regulated genes. A homologue of the TspO protein in Sinorhizobium meliloti is involved in regulating expression of the ndi locus in response to stress conditions.
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Neurochondrin (also known as its murine homologue, Norbin) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NCDN gene. This gene encodes a leucine-rich cytoplasmic protein, which is highly similar to a mouse protein norbin that negatively regulates Ca/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II phosphorylation and may be essential for spatial learning processes. Several alternatively spliced transcript variants of this gene have been described. Norbin can modulate signaling activity and expression of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5; modulating mice with targeted deletion of NCDN in the brain have phenotypic traits usually found in the rodent models of schizophrenia, including disruptions in prepulse inhibition.
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Likewise, the theory of Eccles seems incompatible, since a structural homologue/analogue to the dendron has not been found in avian brains. The assumption of an avian consciousness also brings the reptilian brain into focus. The reason is the structural continuity between avian and reptilian brains, meaning that the phylogenetic origin of consciousness may be earlier than suggested by many leading neuroscientists. Joaquin Fuster of UCLA has advocated the position of the importance of the prefrontal cortex in humans, along with the areas of Wernicke and Broca, as being of particular importance to the development of human language capacities neuro-anatomically necessary for the emergence of higher-order consciousness in humans.
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Additionally, the head domain interacts with actin filaments independently of the Rod domain although the association is stabilized when the head is part of the full-length molecule. As its homologue cingulin, the head domain of paracingulin has a ZO-1 Interacting Motif (ZIM) that is involved in its junctional recruitment to tight junctions through ZO-1. Also, the head domain interacts with PLEKHA7, a protein present in the zonula adhaerens of epithelial cells, and this interaction is important for CGNL1 recruitment to adherens junctions. In addition the paracingulin interacts with the Rho GEF GEF-H1, the Rac1 GEF Tiam1 Tiam1, and it forms a complex with CD2AP and SH3BP1.
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"L'exclusion de Frêche soulage son homologue de Poitou- Charentes", Le Figaro, 29 January 2007 Harkis should not be confused with the Évolués. In this context, the latter term refers to the sub-group of Algerians who became closely identified with the French and their culture (it also refers to similar groups in other colonial territories). Here, the term Évolué indicates an Algerian or North African who assimilated closely to French culture through education, government service, language and so on. By contrast, the Harkis were mostly culturally Algerian, speaking limited French, and largely indistinguishable from the majority of ordinary Algerians except for their service in French auxiliary military units.
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Frauwallner, Erich (1957). 'Vasubandhu's Vādavidhiḥ'. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Süd-und Ost-Asiens 1, 1957, 104ff. Trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' (pramana): #It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus' (pakṣa) #It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (sapakṣa) #It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (vipakṣa) When a ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) is identified, there are three possibilities: the sign may be present in all, some, or none of the sapakṣas.
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The binding of OSB to OSBS's active site consists mainly of indirect interactions via water molecules or hydrophobic interactions. This lack of strict specificity and catalysis could possibly simplify the evolution of the shape and volume of the active site, meaning that OSBS could serve as a starting point for the evolution of new enzymes with new functions in the enolase superfamily. These homologues could catalyze completely different reactions, but because they maintain an active site similar to that of OSBS, the substrate and intermediate of the new reaction would be structurally similar to that of OSBS. One such homologue has already been identified: OSBS from Amycolatopsis.
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Dignaga formulated three conditions (Sanskrit: trairūpya; Wylie: tshul-gsum) which a logical sign or mark (linga) must fulfill: #It should be present in the case or object under consideration (pakṣa) #It should be present in a similar case (homologue; sapakṣa) #It should not be present in a dissimilar case (heterologue; vipakṣa) When a linga is identified, there are three possibilities; the sign may be present in all, some or none of the sapakṣas or vipakṣas. Identifying a sign assumes that it is present in the pakṣa, and the first condition is met. Dignaga combined these in his Hetucakra.Matilal, Bimal Krishna (author), Ganeri, Jonardon (editor) & (Tiwari, Heeraman)(1998).
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The anthers produce cream-coloured pollen, are themselves deep blue, and have a shortly triangular appendage at the top. The whitish pappus on each of the cypselas of the disc florets consists of many bristles of about 5 mm (0.20 in) long, with short teeth in the lower quarter but feathery further up, the side branches about 0.3 mm (0.012 in) long. The cypselas are elliptical, about 4½ mm (0.18 in) long and 2 mm (0.08 in) thick, with scaly, thickened ribs along the edge and the surface set with blunt hairs of 0.7 mm (0.028 in). Felicia heterophylla is a diploid having five sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=10).
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They named the protein encoded by the affected gene HSP60, Heat shock protein 60, because it has a mass of 60 kDa and is produced in larger quantity in response to heat. Hsp60 is found in an 850 kDa double ring assembly, each ring containing 7 copies of Hsp60. Such assemblies, known as chaperonins, also exist in other cellular compartments and are essential components, mediating protein folding under both heat shock and normal conditions. Since 1987, Horwich and his colleagues have been studying these molecules both in vivo and in vitro, with particular emphasis on the Hsp60 homologue in E. coli known as GroEL.
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AP-1 was first discovered as a TPA-activated transcription factor that bound to a cis-regulatory element of the human metallothionein IIa (hMTIIa) promoter and SV40. The AP-1 binding site was identified as the 12-O-Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) response element (TRE) with the consensus sequence 5’-TGA G/C TCA-3’. The AP-1 subunit Jun was identified as a novel oncoprotein of avian sarcoma virus, and Fos-associated p39 protein was identified as the transcript of the cellular Jun gene. Fos was first isolated as the cellular homologue of two viral v-fos oncogenes, both of which induce osteosarcoma in mice and rats.
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3',4'-Methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinobutyrophenone (MDPBP) is a stimulant of the cathinone class developed in the 1960s, which has been reported as a novel designer drug. MDPBP is sometimes sold under the name "NRG-1" as a mixture with other cathinone derivatives, including flephedrone, pentylone, MαPPP and its higher homologue MDPV. As with other cathinones, MDPBP has been shown to have reinforcing effects in rats. The main metabolic steps are thought to be demethylenation followed by methylation of one hydroxy group, aromatic and side chain hydroxylation, oxidation of the pyrrolidine ring to the corresponding lactam as well as ring opening to the corresponding carboxylic acid.
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Volemitol occurs as a free sugar in many plant and brown algal species. Due to their natural polyisoprene content (1.1–7.7% by dry weight of fruit bodies), L. volemus fruit bodies can also be used to produce rubber. The chemical structure of rubber from the mushroom consists of a high molecular mass homologue of polyprenol, arranged as a dimethylallyl group, two trans isoprene units, a long sequence of cis isoprenes (between 260–300 units), terminated by a hydroxyl or fatty acid ester. Biosynthetically, the creation of the polyisoprene begins with the compound trans,trans-farnesyl pyrophosphate, and is thought to terminate by esterification of polyisoprenyl pyrophosphate.
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In the mid 1990s, Kemphues research group cloned Par1 and Par3 genes in C. elegans, showing PAR1 is enriched at the posterior periphery in the cell while PAR3 is found at the anterior periphery. In 1998, Ohno's research group found that aPKC is essential for proper asymmetric cell divisions and co-localizes with PAR3 in C. elegans, indicating the relationship between intracellular signal transduction and cell polarity. Also, they discovered aPKC-specific interacting protein, ASIP, which is a mammalian homologue of C. elegans PAR3. These pioneer works led the significant finding of a conserved PAR3-PAR6-aPKC protein complex regulating cell polarity in response to cell signaling.
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The Soviet Officer accordingly examined the suspension lines and canopy of the defected exemplary, refolded the chute before boarding the aircraft and jumped with it. The homologue was accordingly accomplished. Having pursued the instructor parachute () course in the Soviet Union. Upon his return to France, he organized at Pujaut, not far from Avignon, the center of Parachute Instruction of the French Air Force which he assumed command. Owing to his instruction center, the 601st Air Infantry Group 601e GIA was born on April 1, 1937, first parachute unit of the French Air Force constituted on the model which existed then in a couple of countries (Soviet Union and Germany notably).
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HCV IRES independently binds two components of eukaryotic translation initiation machinery, the multiprotein initiation factor eIF3 and 40S small ribosomal subunit. Moreover, it binds 40S in such a manner that AUG initiator codon is positioned in the ribosomal P-site, thus no ribosomal scanning is required. Consequently scanning factors eIF1 and eIF1A are dispensable for the HCV translation, as are components of the eIF4F complex (eIF4A, eIF4E, and eIF4G) and eIF4B, which are generally required for mRNA binding and unwinding of 5'UTR. Initiator tRNA is delivered either by eIF2 or, in stress conditions when eIF2 is inactivated, by eIF2A, eIF2D, or possibly eIF5B, a homologue of prokaryotic IF2 protein.
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Completed two years after her British homologue HMS Duke of Wellington, Bretagne became the most powerful warship in the world, but commissioned too late to effectively take part in the Crimean War, which was almost over after the fall of Kinburn in October 1855. Appointed flagship of the Toulon squadron in January 1856, she sailed to the Black Sea to serve during the last months of the conflict, which came to an end in July, and helped return the French expeditionary corps back to France. She was then part of the training squadron in Toulon, cruising between Sardinia and Spain. Bretagne saluting Queen Victoria in Cherbourg.
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Most binary compounds of thorium with nonmetals may be prepared by heating the elements together. In air, thorium burns to form ThO2, which has the fluorite structure. Thorium dioxide is a refractory material, with the highest melting point (3390 °C) of any known oxide. It is somewhat hygroscopic and reacts readily with water and many gases; it dissolves easily in concentrated nitric acid in the presence of fluoride. When heated in air, thorium dioxide emits intense blue light; the light becomes white when ThO2 is mixed with its lighter homologue cerium dioxide (CeO2, ceria): this is the basis for its previously common application in gas mantles.
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A G-spot orgasm may be responsible for female ejaculation, leading some doctors and researchers to believe that G-spot pleasure comes from the Skene's glands, a female homologue of the prostate, rather than any particular spot on the vaginal wall; other researchers consider the connection between the Skene's glands and the G-spot area to be weak. The G-spot's existence (and existence as a distinct structure) is still under dispute because reports of its location can vary from woman to woman, it appears to be nonexistent in some women, and it is hypothesized to be an extension of the clitoris and therefore the reason for orgasms experienced vaginally.
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He coordinated the sequencing of two chromosomes out of sixteen (XI and XV) and the map of a third chromosome (VII) was made by Hervé Tettelin, André Goffeau's student, using the I-SceI chromosome fragmentation technology developed in the meantime. The yeast genome sequence was completed in 1995 and published one year later. During the course of this project, it was discovered that one third of the sequenced genes had no homologue in any database (the so-called "orphans"). The extremely high level of gene redundancy, due -at least in part- to an ancient whole-genome duplication in the ancestor of Saccharomyces species, led to a new era in biology.
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Maxmen and others recently published a morphologically-based paper that claimed the enigmatic chelifores of extant pycnogonids (sea spiders) are innervated from the protocerebrum, and not from the trito- or deutocerebrum as previously claimed. This would suggest that pycnogonids had uniquely retained a "great appendage" homologue as an appendage, unlike all other euarthropods in which it had been transformed into the labrum (pycnogonids lack a labrum). However, expression data of Hox genes that were published shortly afterwards suggested that the chelifores were deuterocerebral and thus most likely to be homologous to the chelicerae. The pycnogonids are thus neutral with regard to the great appendage theory.
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Hybridization followed by genome duplication may be a more common path to allopolyploidy because F1 hybrids between taxa often have relatively high rates of unreduced gamete formation – divergence between the genomes of the two taxa result in abnormal pairing between homoeologous chromosomes or nondisjunction during meiosis. In this case, allopolyploidy can actually restore normal, bivalent meiotic pairing by providing each homoeologous chromosome with its own homologue. If divergence between homoeologous chromosomes is even across the two subgenomes, this can theoretically result in rapid restoration of bivalent pairing and disomic inheritance following allopolyploidization. However multivalent pairing is common in many recently formed allopolyploids, so it is likely that the majority of meiotic stabilization occurs gradually through selection.
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The findings of this experiment suggest that UNC-6 and UNC-5 coordinate two different functions in DA9 and that the netrin is expressed after axon guidance is complete. Extracellular cues such as Wnt fibroblast growth factor can promote synapse formation, contradicting the traditional view of synapse formation from contact between synaptic partners to trigger the assembly of synaptic components. Inhibitory factors such as UNC-5 play essential roles in the formation and maintenance of synaptic components. A neural connection is formed when an axosomatic synapse is created ;Adult expression In a study done in rat spinal cords, increased netrin-1, UNC-5 homologue levels were observed compared to lower levels measured in the embryo.
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More recently, Crusio has been investigating the possibility that Fmr1 knockout mice might perhaps be used as a model for autism. This idea is based on the fact that patients suffering from the Fragile X syndrome, caused by a deficiency of the FMR1 gene often show autistic symptoms. A good mouse model for the Fragile X syndrome is available in the form of mice in which the Fmr1 gene (the mouse homologue of the human FMR1 gene) has been invalidated. A review of the findings obtained with these mice in many different laboratories did indeed indicate that these animals display autistic-like symptoms, especially changes in social behavior, a key symptom of autism.
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With the motto «Oggi in Spagna, domani in Italia!» ("Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy") launched by Carlo Rosselli, Giustizia e Libertà and the Maximalist Italian Socialist Party gave their support to republicans and addressed an appeal to other anti-fascist parties among Italian emigrates, in order to make them intervene in the conflict. About thirty maximalist socialists came in Spain to join the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista, POUM), the Spanish homologue and political referent of PSIm. Among them there was Giuseppe Bogoni, who settled in Perpignano as a link officer with Aldo Garosci, the organizer of the Italian column armed and trained in Barcelona by Mario Angeloni.
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The name of this drug is also given as 3,6-dipropanoylmorphine and its 6-mono-acetylated homologue is also a longer-acting heroin-like drug, as are 3,6-diformylmorphine and 6-formylmorphine. Dipropanoylmorphine, though rarely used, is considered to be a safer and less addictive alternative to morphine. Studies and clinical trials comparing dipropanoylmorphine to morphine have produced results that indicate the incidence of side-effects are far more common with morphine. Respiratory depression, euphoria, excessive sedation and somnolence (so-called 'nodding' by recreational opioid users), constipation, miosis (pinpoint pupils), nausea, bradycardia, behavioral disturbances, and severe physical and psychological dependence on morphine is more likely with the use of morphine versus dipropanoylmorphine.
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The mouse homologue of NSP3 has been shown to have two distinct isoforms, generated by alternative splicing, that are expressed in different tissues. The shorter isoform, known as Chat (Cas/Hef1 associated signal transducer) is expressed in brain, lung, heart, kidney, muscle, liver, and intestine, while the larger isoform, known as Chat-H (the "H" is for Hematopoietic), is expressed in spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes. The two isoforms differ only in their N-terminus, which has been shown by one group to be important for membrane localization. Through its interaction with Hef1, Chat-H, has been shown to be an important regulator of lymphocyte adhesion, acting upstream of Rap1 in the integrin activation pathway.
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A bone marrow biopsy is often performed as part of the evaluation for CML, and CML is diagnosed by cytogenetics that detects the translocation t(9;22)(q34;q11.2) which involves the ABL1 gene in chromosome 9 and the BCR gene in chromosome 22. As a result of this translocation, the chromosome looks smaller than its homologue chromosome, and this appearance is known as the Philadelphia chromosome chromosomal abnormality. Thus, this abnormality can be detected by routine cytogenetics, and the involved genes BCR-ABL1 can be detected by fluorescent in situ hybridization, as well as by PCR. Controversy exists over so-called Ph-negative CML, or cases of suspected CML in which the Philadelphia chromosome cannot be detected.
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In the general population, chronic pelvic pain syndrome occurs in about 0.5% of men in a given year. It is found in men of any age, with the peak incidence in men aged 35–45 years. However, the overall prevalence of symptoms suggestive of CP/CPPS is 6.3%. The role of the prostate was questioned in the cause of CP/CPPS when both men and women in the general population were tested using the (1) National Institutes of Health Chronic Prostatitis Symptom Index (NIH-CPSI) —with the female homologue of each male anatomical term used on questionnaires for female participants— (2) the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS), and (3) additional questions on pelvic pain.
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Outside of the context of development, in adult mice ablation of Sp7 led to a lack of new bone formation, highly irregular cartilage accumulation beneath the growth plate and defects in osteocyte maturation and functionality. Other studies observed that a conditional knockout of Sp7 in adult mice osteoblasts resulted in osteopenia in the vertebrae of the animals, issues with bone turnover and more porosity in cortical outer surface of the long bones of the body. Observation of an opposite effect, overproliferation of Sp7+ osteoblasts, further supports the important regulatory effects of Sp7 in vertebrates. A mutation in the zebrafish homologue of Sp7 caused severe craniofacial irregularities in maturing organisms while leaving the rest of the skeleton largely unaffected.
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Because the barrier for rotation of the double bond in ethylene is approximately 65 kcal/mol (270 kJ/mol) and can only be lowered by the estimated strain energy of 30 kcal/mol (125 kJ/mol) present in the trans-isomer, trans-cycloheptene should be a stable molecule just as its homologue trans-cyclooctene. In fact, it is not: unless the temperature is kept very low, rapid isomerization to the cis-isomer takes place. The trans-cycloheptene isomerization mechanism is not simple alkene-bond rotation, but rather an alternative lower energy pathway. Based on the experimentally observed second order reaction kinetics for isomerization, two trans-cycloheptene molecules in the proposed pathway first form a diradical dimer.
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The presence of a primitive form of tooth development in the most basal osteichthyans sheds light on the manner by which this has evolved. Fossils including those of Andreolepis together with genetic inferences also helped to elucidate the evolution of enamel. The scales of Andreolepis contain the enamel homologue ganoine, but the dermal bones and teeth don’t. Moving up in the phylogenetic tree, more derived extinct and extant species show a shift of enamel-containing structures from the scales, to the dermal plate and eventually the teeth, with enamel lost in dermal teeth-like structures and in some cases even in the teeth of the most derived groups of tetrapods and teleosts.
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Three of these proteins are essential in detecting the mismatch and directing repair machinery to it: MutS, MutH and MutL (MutS is a homologue of HexA and MutL of HexB). MutS forms a dimer (MutS2) that recognises the mismatched base on the daughter strand and binds the mutated DNA. MutH binds at hemimethylated sites along the daughter DNA, but its action is latent, being activated only upon contact by a MutL dimer (MutL2), which binds the MutS-DNA complex and acts as a mediator between MutS2 and MutH, activating the latter. The DNA is looped out to search for the nearest d(GATC) methylation site to the mismatch, which could be up to 1 kb away.
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Despite its name, the compound contains no bromine—theobromine is derived from Theobroma, the name of the genus of the cacao tree (which itself is made up of the Greek roots theo ("god") and broma ("food"), meaning "food of the gods" (note: the book incorrectly states that the name "theobroma" is derived from Latin)) with the suffix -ine given to alkaloids and other basic nitrogen-containing compounds. Theobromine is a slightly water-soluble (330 mg/L), crystalline, bitter powder. Theobromine is white or colourless, but commercial samples can be yellowish. It has an effect similar to, but lesser than, that of caffeine in the human nervous system, making it a lesser homologue.
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In molecular biology, the FEZ-like protein family is a family of eukaryotic proteins thought to be involved in axonal outgrowth and fasciculation. The N-terminal regions of these sequences are less conserved than the C-terminal regions, and are highly acidic. The Caenorhabditis elegans homologue, UNC-76, may play structural and signalling roles in the control of axonal extension and adhesion (particularly in the presence of adjacent neuronal cells) and these roles have also been postulated for other FEZ family proteins. Certain homologues have been definitively found to interact with the N-terminal variable region (V1) of PKC-zeta, and this interaction causes cytoplasmic translocation of the FEZ family protein in mammalian neuronal cells.
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In many kinds of breast cancer, aberrations in the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway are the most common genomic abnormalities. The most common known aberrations include the PIK3CA gene mutation and the loss-of-function mutations or epigenetic silencing of phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN). The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway is activated in approximately 30–40% of BC cases. In TNBC, oncogenic activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway can happen as a function of overexpression of upstream regulators like EGFR, activating mutations of PIK3CA, loss of function or expression of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), and the proline-rich inositol polyphosphatase, which are downregulators of PI3K.
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The human homologue of yeast Rad23A is one example of a nucleotide excision-repair protein that contains both an internal and a C-terminal UBA domain. The solution structure of human Rad23A UBA(2) showed that the domain forms a compact three-helix bundle. Comparison of the structures of UBA(1) and UBA(2) reveals that both form very similar folds and have a conserved large hydrophobic surface patch which may be a common protein-interacting surface present in diverse UBA domains. Evidence that ubiquitin binds to UBA domains leads to the prediction that the hydrophobic surface patch of UBA domains interacts with the hydrophobic surface on the five-stranded beta-sheet of ubiquitin.
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Some are formed with units of the same chain, between the "barbed" end on one monomer and the "pointed" end of the next one. While the monomers in adjacent chains make lateral contact through projections from subdomain IV, with the most important projections being those formed by the C-terminus and the hydrophobic link formed by three bodies involving residues 39–42, 201–203, and 286. This model suggests that a filament is formed by monomers in a "sheet" formation, in which the subdomains turn about themselves, this form is also found in the bacterial actin homologue MreB. The F-actin polymer is considered to have structural polarity due to the fact that all the microfilament's subunits point towards the same end.
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The luminal cells secrete netrin 1, which binds to the receptor neogenin (a homologue of DCC) on the cap cells. This allows for adhesion between the two cell layers, which is necessary for the proper morphogenesis of the terminal end buds (TEBs) in the mammary glands. Loss of the gene coding for either netrin 1 or neogenin leads to the improper formation of the (TEBs), suggesting that rather than acting as a guidance molecule as in neuronal systems, netrin 1 serves as an adhesive in mammary tissue. During the morphogenesis of the embryonic lung, epithelial cells express netrin 1 and netrin 4. These netrins surround endoderm buds in the basement membrane, preventing distal tip cells from expressing DCC and UNC5B.
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Dignaga formulated the 'three modes’ (trairūpya) which are three conditions required for a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga), which to fulfill in order to establish the 'valid cognition' (pramana) of an 'inference' (anumana): #It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus’ (pakṣa) #It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (sapakṣa) #It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (vipakṣa) When a ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) is identified, there are three possibilities: the sign may be present in all, some, or none of the sapakṣas. Similarly, the sign may be present in all, some or none of the vipakṣas. To identify a sign, by convention we accept the first condition as being satisfied.
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Hephaestin is a member of the family of copper oxidases that includes mammalian ceruloplasmin, yeast fet3 and fet5, and bacterial ascorbate oxidase, among others. While hephaestin shares 50% amino acid sequence identity with its serum homologue ceruloplasmin, the hephaestin protein includes an additional 86 amino acids at the C-terminus, which code for a single transmembrane domain and a short cytoplasmic tail. While the structure and kinetic activity of ceruloplasmin have been studied extensively, hephaestin has yet to be investigated at a similar level. Comparative models of hephaestin's structure have been created using established crystallographic data from ceruloplasmin, and these studies suggest that many of the structural features important in the enzymatic function of the latter are also conserved in the former.
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Cryo-EM structure of the DNA-bound PolD–PCNA processive complex Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is a DNA clamp that acts as a processivity factor for DNA polymerase δ in eukaryotic cells and is essential for replication. PCNA is a homotrimer and achieves its processivity by encircling the DNA, where it acts as a scaffold to recruit proteins involved in DNA replication, DNA repair, chromatin remodeling and epigenetics. Many proteins interact with PCNA via the two known PCNA-interacting motifs PCNA-interacting peptide (PIP) box and AlkB homologue 2 PCNA interacting motif (APIM). Proteins binding to PCNA via the PIP-box are mainly involved in DNA replication whereas proteins binding to PCNA via APIM are mainly important in the context of genotoxic stress.
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Stromal interaction molecule 2 (STIM2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the STIM2 gene. This gene is a member of the stromal interaction molecule (STIM) family which comprises only two members together with its homologue STIM1, and likely arose from a common ancestral gene. They encode type 1 transmembrane proteins that are located in the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum (SR / ER) into the cell. Alternative translation initiation from an AUG and a non- AUG (UUG) start site results in the production of two different STIM2 isoforms. Both members of the STIM family were identified in 2005 as free- calcium (Ca2+) sensors which participate in a mechanism of Ca2+ entry into the cell referred to as store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE).
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In 2001, STIM2 was identified as a new human homologue of the STIM1 gene, representing the second member of a two-gene family in vertebrates. The STIM2 gene contains 12 exons and 11 introns located on the human chromosome 4p15.1, and on the large arm of the mouse chromosome 5, close to the centromere. The members of STIM family most probably have evolved from a single gene in lower multicellular eukaryotes into two related genes in vertebrates, since human STIM1 and STIM2 as well as Drosophila melanogaster Stim (D-Stim) have a conserved genomic organization. The D-STIM protein of 570 aas exhibits equal similarity to both STIM1 (33% identical; 50% of amino acid sequence conserved) and STIM2 (31% identical; 46% of amino acid sequence conserved).
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These strategies are mainly chemical but may additionally require genetic and enzymatic methods to generate functional groups (that are absent in protein) on the support and enzyme. The choice of SDCM method depends on many factors, such as the type of enzyme (less stable psychrophilic, or more stable thermophilic homologue), pH stability of enzyme, the availability of N- or C-termini to the reagent, non- interference of the enzyme terminus with the enzyme activity, type of catalytic amino acid residue, the availability, price and the ease of preparation of reagents. For example, the generation of complementary clickable functionalities (alkyne and azide) on the support and enzyme is one of the most convenient way for immobilizing enzymes via site-directed chemical modification.
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Löwe worked briefly as a postdoctoral researcher at the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, before moving to MRC-LMB in 1996 to take up an EMBO long-term fellowship to work on crystallising FtsZ, a bacterial homologue of eukaryotic tubulin, with Linda A. Amos. Löwe became a group leader at MRC-LMB in 1998 and was awarded tenure in 2002. His group has largely worked on the structural and molecular biology of prokaryotic cytoskeletons, but has also made important contributions to the current understanding of cell division and DNA partitioning in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Löwe became the Director of MRC-LMB in April 2018, having formerly been Deputy Director (2016-18) and Joint Head of the Structural Studies Division at the institute (2010-18).
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4'-Methyl-α-pyrrolidinohexiophenone (MPHP) is a stimulant compound which has been reported as a novel designer drug. It is closely related to pyrovalerone, being simply its chain-lengthened homologue. In the pyrrolidinophenone series, stimulant activity is maintained so long as the positions of the aryl, ketone and pyrrolidinyl groups are held constant, while the alkyl backbone can be varied anywhere between three and as many as seven carbons, with highest potency usually seen with the pentyl or isohexyl backbone, and a variety of substituents are tolerated on the aromatic ring. In 2010 a group of researchers from the Institute of Forensic Medicine, University Hospital Jena, Germany concluded that MPHP can lead to serious poisoning with toxic liver damage and rhabdomyolysis.
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Agitoxin binds to the Shaker K+ channel in Drosophila as well as to its mammalian homologue. It blocks this channel by binding with high affinity (Kd < 1 nmol/L) to its external vestibule. This high affinity to the ‘Shaker K’ channel is dependent on the residues of Arg 24, Lys 27, and Arg 31. The ability of the agitoxin to block the ‘Shaker K’ channel suggests a docking mechanism whereby the toxin sits on the channel and then prevents its opening through flexible movements of the side chains thereby allowing for various protein-protein complexes to be enacted. AgTx2 has been found to undergo conformational changes when bound to the ‘Shaker K’ channel which suggests the induced fit model may be present in toxin-channel interaction.
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In the sea anemone and scorpion toxins, combinations of charged (especially cationic) and hydrophobic side-chains are important for binding to their receptor site (site 3) on the sodium channel. It will therefore be not surprising to find that the same applies to delta atracotoxin and versutoxin (a close homologue of delta atracotoxin). Delta atracotoxin presents three distinct charged patches on its surface, as well as a non-polar region centered on the 22-28 loop. Both of these structural features may play a role in its binding to the voltage-gated sodium channel, but further studies are necessary in defining which residues are important for interaction with the sodium channel so that a plausible model can be constructed of its binding site.
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More recent results show that flerovium's reaction with gold is similar to that of copernicium, showing that it is a very volatile element that may even be gaseous at standard temperature and pressure, that it would show metallic properties, consistent with it being the heavier homologue of lead, and that it would be the least reactive metal in group 14. The question of whether flerovium behaves more like a metal or a noble gas is still unresolved as of 2018. About 90 atoms of flerovium have been observed: 58 were synthesized directly, and the rest were made from the radioactive decay of heavier elements. All of these flerovium atoms have been shown to have mass numbers from 284 to 290.
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Nevertheless, Broca's area in the left hemisphere and its homologue in the right hemisphere are designations usually used to refer to the triangular part of inferior frontal gyrus (PTr) and the opercular part of inferior frontal gyrus (POp). The PTr and POp are defined by structural landmarks that only probabilistically divide the inferior frontal gyrus into anterior and posterior cytoarchitectonic areas of 45 and 44, respectively, by Brodmann's classification scheme. Area 45 receives more afferent connections from the prefrontal cortex, the superior temporal gyrus, and the superior temporal sulcus, compared to area 44, which tends to receive more afferent connections from motor, somatosensory, and inferior parietal regions. The differences between area 45 and 44 in cytoarchitecture and in connectivity suggest that these areas might perform different functions.
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Great efforts have been made to determine the factors that specify the endoderm and mesoderm. On the other hand, only a few examples of genes that are required for ectoderm specification have been described in the last decade. The first molecule identified to be required for the specification of ectoderm was the ubiquitin ligase Ectodermin (Ecto, TIF1-γ, TRIM33); later, it was found that the deubiquitinating enzyme, FAM/USP9x, is able to overcome the effects of ubiquitination made by Ectodermin in Smad4 (Dupont et al., 2009). Two transcription factors have been proposed to control gene expression of ectodermal specific genes: POU91/Oct3/4Snir, M., Ofir, R., Elias, S., and Frank, D. (2006). Xenopus laevis POU91 protein, an Oct3/4 homologue, regulates competence transitions from mesoderm to neural cell fates.
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A protein concentration of only 10 pMol is sufficient for a measurement at 40 K. With this instrument, CEF scientists were able to determine the dimeric structure of non-covalent protein complexes. This method is also applicable to membrane proteins and spin-labelled RNA and DNA molecules in vivo. PELDOR spectroscopy proved to be a versatile tool for structural investigations of proteins, even in the cellular environment. In order to investigate for example the structural implications of the asymmetric nucleotide-binding domains and the trans-inhibition mechanism in TAP orthologs, spin-label pairs were introduced via double cysteine mutants at the nucleotide-binding domains and transmembrane domains in TmrAB (a functional homologue of the human antigen translocation complex TAP) and the conformational changes and the equilibrium populations followed using PELDOR spectroscopy.
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See article homologous series. See also In re Henze, 181 F.2d 196, 201 (CCPA 1950), in which the court stated, "In effect, the nature of homologues and the close relationship the physical and chemical properties of one member of a series bears to adjacent members is such that a presumption of unpatentability arises against a claim directed to a composition of matter, the adjacent homologue of which is old in the art." Because of the similarity in structure between 3,4-DCPA and other chemicals, including 3,4-DCAA, the Patent Office rejected the patent application on obviousness grounds. Monsanto then tried to persuade the Office to withdraw the rejection by submitting documents to show that DCPA was not obvious, because it had greatly superior and unexpected selective herbicidal activity.
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She completed her Bachelors in Biochemistry in 1982, and was subsequently one of the first students admitted to doctoral study in the United States through the China-U.S. Biochemistry Examination and Application (CUSBEA) program, coming in second out of the 25,000 who attempted the CUSBEA in its first year. In the United States, she completed her PhD in Neuroscience(1989) at Harvard University under the supervision of MIT professor H. Robert Horvitz, where she endeavored to elucidate the molecular mechanisms behind programmed cell death in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. She identified the proteins ced-3 and ced-4 as drivers behind programmed cell death in C. elegans, and subsequently identified the mammalian homologue of ced-3 known as interleukin-1 beta- converting enzyme(ICE), later called caspase-1.
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Many of the proteins with FFAT motifs were previously not known to be targeted to the endoplasmic reticulum, with the exception of OSBP, and PITPNM1 (the fly homologue of which is called RdgB). Instead, they were known for their localization to other sites especially the trans Golgi network (OSBP, Osh1p and CERT) and the plasma membrane (Osh2p, Osh3p). The discovery that these proteins also targeted the endoplasmic reticulum led to a far more detailed analysis of their targeting, and revealed that all the FFAT-containing lipid transfer proteins are present at both the endoplasmic reticulum and their other target trans Golgi network or plasma membrane) at the same time, which can only be achieved by their targeting to membrane contact sites. This discovery has turned out to apply to many other lipid transfer proteins, even those that do not contain FFAT motifs.
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The PGRMC1 yeast homologue, Dap1 (damage associated protein 1), binds heme through a penta-coordinate mechanism. Yeast cells lacking the DAP1 gene are sensitive to DNA damage, and heme-binding is essential for damage resistance. Dap1 is also required for a critical step in cholesterol synthesis in which the P450 protein Erg11/Cyp51 removes a methyl group from lanosterol. Erg11/Cyp51 is the target of the azole antifungal drugs. As a result, yeast cells lacking the DAP1 gene are highly sensitive to antifungal drugs This function is conserved between the unrelated fungi S. cerevisiae and S. pombe. Dap1 also regulates the metabolism of iron in yeast. In yeast and humans, PGRMC1 binds directly to P450 proteins, including CYP51A1, CYP3A4, CYP7A1 and CYP21A2. PGRMC1 also activates Cyp21 when the two proteins are co-expressed, indicating that PGRMC1 promotes progesterone turnover.
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GRASP domain alignment of GRASP55 and the GRASP homologue of Cryptococcus neoformans GRASP55 is involved in establishing the structure of the Golgi apparatus. It is a peripheral membrane protein located on the Golgi cisterna, and it can bind to another GRASP55 located on an adjacent cisterna through the GRASP domain, thus linking the cisternae together through multiple protein–protein interactions. GRASP55 is attached to the membrane in two ways; it is myristylated, which attaches it directly to the lipid bilayer; it is also bound indirectly by binding to golgin-45, which binds to a Rab protein, which itself is lipidated and thus anchored to the membrane. The structure of the Golgi is disrupted during mitosis, and phosphorylation of the SPR domains of GRASP55 and GRASP65 regulate that disruption, GRASP55 may also be involved in forming Golgi ribbons, but the evidence is mixed.
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5-MBPB (also known as 5-MPBP and 5-MABB) is an amphetamine derivative which is structurally related to MDMA and has been sold as a designer drug. It can be described as the benzofuran-5-yl analogue of MBDB or the butanamine homologue of 5-MAPB, and is also a structural isomer of 5-EAPB and 6-EAPB. Anecdotal reports suggest this compound has been sold as a designer drug in various European countries since early 2015, but the first definitive identification was made in December 2015 by a forensic laboratory in Slovenia.European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction – Europol 2015 Annual Report on the implementation of Council Decision 2005/387/JHA 5-MBPB is similar in structure to compounds such as 5-APB which are claimed to be agonists of the 5-HT2C receptor.
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Hallucinations are associated with structural and functional abnormalities in primary and secondary sensory cortices. Reduced grey matter in regions of the superior temporal gyrus/middle temporal gyrus, including Broca's area, is associated with auditory hallucinations as a trait, while acute hallucinations are associated with increased activity in the same regions along with the hippocampus, parahippocampus, and the right hemispheric homologue of Broca's area in the inferior frontal gyrus. Grey and white matter abnormalities in visual regions are associated with visual hallucinations in diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, further supporting the notion of dysfunction in sensory regions underlying hallucinations. One proposed model of hallucinations posits that overactivity in sensory regions, which is normally attributed to internal sources via feedforward networks to the inferior frontal gyrus, is interpreted as originating externally due to abnormal connectivity or functionality of the feedforward network.
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Spatial separation of RnF2 molecules may be necessary to clearly identify higher fluorides of radon, of which RnF4 is expected to be more stable than RnF6 due to spin–orbit splitting of the 6p shell of radon (RnIV would have a closed-shell 6s6p configuration). Krypton hexafluoride () has been predicted to be stable, but has not been synthesised due to the extreme difficulty of oxidising krypton beyond Kr(II). The synthesis of americium hexafluoride () by the fluorination of americium(IV) fluoride () was attempted in 1990, but was unsuccessful; there have also been possible thermochromatographic identifications of it and curium hexafluoride (CmF6), but it is debated if these are conclusive. Palladium hexafluoride (), the lighter homologue of platinum hexafluoride, has been calculated to be stable, but has not yet been produced; the possibility of silver (AgF6) and gold hexafluorides (AuF6) has also been discussed.
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The internal globus pallidus (GPi or medial globus pallidus; in rodents its homologue is known as the entopeduncular nucleus) and the external globus pallidus (GPe) make up the globus pallidus. The GPi is one of the output nuclei of the basal ganglia (the other being the substantia nigra pars reticulata). The GABAergic neurons send their axons to the ventral anterior nucleus (VA) and the ventral lateral nucleus (VL) in the dorsal thalamus, to the centromedian complex, and to the pedunculopontine complex. The efferent bundle is constituted first of the ansa and lenticular fasciculus, then crosses the internal capsule as the Edinger's comb system then arrives at the laterosuperior corner of the subthalamic nucleus and constitutes the field H2 of Forel, then H, and suddenly changes its direction to form field H1 that goes to the inferior part of the thalamus.
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We can derive a Patterson map for the intensities, which is an interatomic vector map created by squaring the structure factor amplitudes and setting all phases to zero. This vector map contains a peak for each atom related to every other atom, with a large peak at 0,0,0, where vectors relating atoms to themselves "pile up". Such a map is far too noisy to derive any high resolution structural information--however if we generate Patterson maps for the data derived from our unknown structure, and from the structure of a previously solved homologue, in the correct orientation and position within the unit cell, the two Patterson maps should be closely correlated. This principle lies at the heart of MR, and can allow us to infer information about the orientation and location of an unknown molecule with its unit cell.
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Santander. Larus is mentioned only by Silius in his poem, where he is noted as the only outstanding man in the battle in Celtiberia that pitted Punic generals Mago Barca and Hanno against their Roman homologue Marcus Junius Silanus. Some authors have doubted of the existence of Larus, noting in Silius the intention to embellish his chronicle of the war with epic heroes and duels in the style of ancient Greek literature. However, others have doubted this approach, pointing out that his role in the battle is too notable to be entirely fictitious. Assuming his historicity, Larus would have been active in 207 BC. After the Battle of the Metaurus, where Hasdrubal Barca and his newly hired Spanish mercenaries were defeated by Gaius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius Salinator, Hanno and Mago would have started another recruitment campaign in Hispania in order to replace Hasdrubal's army.
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De novo methods tend to require vast computational resources, and have thus only been carried out for relatively small proteins. De novo protein structure modeling is distinguished from Template-based modeling (TBM) by the fact that no solved homologue to the protein of interest is used, making efforts to predict protein structure from amino acid sequence exceedingly difficult. Prediction of protein structure de novo for larger proteins will require better algorithms and larger computational resources such as those afforded by either powerful supercomputers (such as Blue Gene or MDGRAPE-3) or distributed computing projects (such as Folding@home, Rosetta@home, the Human Proteome Folding Project, or Nutritious Rice for the World). Although computational barriers are vast, the potential benefits of structural genomics (by predicted or experimental methods) to fields such as medicine and drug design make de novo structure prediction an active research field.
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In 1962, it was found that lychee seeds contained methylenecyclopropylglycine (MCPG), a homologue of hypoglycin A, which caused hypoglycemia in animal studies. Since the end of the 1990s, unexplained outbreaks of encephalopathy occurred, appearing to affect only children in India (where it is called chamki bukhar), and northern Vietnam (where it was called Ac Mong encephalitis after the Vietnamese word for nightmare) during the lychee harvest season from May to June. A 2013 investigation by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in India, showed that cases were linked to the consumption of lychee fruit, causing a noninflammatory encephalopathy that mimicked symptoms of Jamaican vomiting sickness. Because low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) of less than 70 mg/dL in the undernourished children on admission was common, and associated with a poorer outcome (44% of all cases were fatal) the CDC identified the illness as a hypoglycemic encephalopathy.
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All lyrics by John Stargasm, except where noted. #Cold Love (4:28) - (Stargasm, Hasson) #Take It Easy (4:09) - (Remy, Hasson) #Mother Allegra (3:05) - (Stargasm) #Mirror Mirror (5:15) - (Hasson, Remy, Stargasm) #Dream Maker (3:13) - (Stargasm) #The End of the World (3:51) - (Hasson, Stargasm, Remy) #This Light (4:21) - (Stargasm) #This War Is Silent (4:37) - (Stargasm, Remy) #Je T'attendrai (3:39)/ Joy, Success, Happiness (on the French released album) - (lyrics: Stargasm/Stargasm, Remy - music: Hasson, Stargasm, Remy) #Birds in My Head (1:59) - (Remy) #Kill the Surfers (3:07) - (lyrics: Stargasm, Remy - music: Montevideo, Remy, Hasson) #Interstellar Orgy (6:20) - (Stargasm, Remy) Note: "Je t'attendrai" and "Joy, Success, Happiness" are the same song, but they are sung in French and English respectively. The lyrics are different. On the French version of the album, "Je t'attendrai" does not feature, being replaced by its anglophone homologue.
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Dr. Andrew Lazarovits, a postdoctoral fellow in the laboratory, discovered the murine homologue of MLN0002, chiefly published the original key papers, and up until the late 1990s, coordinated and led the studies for its development and application for Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Dr. Lynn Baird's group showed the antibody reacted with a single protein band of 63Kd, and Dr. Atul Bhan's group showed that it stained tissue lymphocytes but did not react with non-lymphoid tissues. Although Act-1 had limited efficacy in its ability to prevent kidney rejection in a sub-human primate transplantation model, Dr. Lazarovits continued to investigate the activities of Act-1 when he returned to Canada to become the Director of Transplantation at the University of Western Ontario. It was later determined that the Act-1 monoclonal antibody reacted with an α4β7 integrin that was subsequently shown to interact with a gut-associated addressin, MadCAM.
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Valuable information can also be learned from cases where a patient has suffered from some sort of neurological damage and consequently loses certain functionalities of neural processing. One patient with bilateral lesions that included the human homologue of area MT, lost their ability to see biological motion when the stimulus was embedded in noise, a task which the average observer is able to complete. Another study on stroke patients sustaining lesions to their superior temporal and premotor frontal areas showed deficits in their processing of biological motion stimuli, thereby implicating these areas as important to that perception process. A case study conducted on a patient with bilateral lesions involving the posterior visual pathways and effecting the lateral parietal-temporal- occipital cortex struggled with early motion tasks, and yet was able to perceive the biological motion of a point light walker, a higher-order task.
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2CD-5EtO is a homologue of the psychedelic phenethylamine 2C-D, where the 5-methoxy group of 2C-D has been lengthened to an ethoxy group. 2CD-5EtO is a representative example of the so-called "tweetio" compounds discovered by Alexander Shulgin and briefly mentioned in his book PiHKAL. They are homologues of the 2C family of drugs, where either one or both of the methoxy groups at the 2,5-positions of the aromatic ring have been replaced by ethoxy. The term tweetio was derived phonetically from the sound of the "2-ETO" derivatives. Many tweetio derivatives of various 2C drugs have been synthesized and tested, including the 2-ethoxy homologues 2CD-2EtO, 2CB-2EtO, 2CI-2EtO, 2CT-2EtO, 2CT2-2EtO, 2CT4-2EtO and 2CT7-2EtO, the 5-ethoxy homologues 2CD-5EtO, 2CE-5EtO, 2CB-5EtO, 2CT-5EtO and 2CT2-5EtO, and the 2,5-diethoxy homologues 2CD-diEtO, 2CB-diEtO and 2CT2-diEtO.
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In yeast, Osh4 is an OSBP homologue the crystal structure of which, obtained in both the sterol-bound and unbound states, showed a soluble β-barrel protein with a hydrophilic external surface and a hydrophobic pocket that can carry a single sterol molecule. Seven OSBP homologues (OSH proteins) have been identified in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, in which their role has been suggested to be more relevant to sterol organization in the PM, rather than sterol trafficking from ER. Furthermore, Stefan et al. showed that OSH proteins control PI4P metabolism via the Sac1 Phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4-phosphatase. They also proposed a mechanism for Sac1 regulation: high Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) levels on the plasma membrane recruit Osh3 at PM-ER contact sites through its pleckstrin homology (PH) domain; Osh3 is now active and can interact with the ER-resident VAP proteins Scs2/Scs22 through its FFAT motif (two phenylalanines on an acidic tract), ultimately activating ER-localized Sac1 to reduce PI levels.
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Until July 2018, Liang has published 239 papers and 38 reviews/book chapters. Robust research in the field of biochemistry and structural biology has been going on the Liang Tong lab, and Liang is a dedicated and productive protein crystallographer. He participated or lead the solving of the structures of proteins and protein complexes including, but not limited to, the heterotrimer core of Saccharomyces cerevisiae AMPK homologue SNF1, 5’-3’ exoribonuclease Rat1 and its activating partner Rai1, the a6b6 holoenzyme of propionyl- coenzyme A carboxylase, human symplekin-Ssu72-CTD phosphopeptide complex, histone mRNA stem-loop,human stem-loop binding protein and 3’hExo ternary complex, human phosphofructokinase-1, and the 500-kDa yeast acetyl-CoA carboxylase holoenzyme dimer using X-ray crystallography. In addition to structural studies, Liang also contributed to the understanding of the biological mechanisms and macro molecule interactions by combining a variety of biochemical and molecular biology approaches with structural analysis.
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The 2,6-dimethoxy positional isomer of DOM, known as Ψ-DOM, is also mentioned in PiHKAL as being active, as is the alpha-ethyl homologue Ariadne. Analogues where the methoxy groups at the 2,5- positions of the aromatic ring have been altered have also been synthesised and tested as part of an effort to identify the binding mode of DOM at the 5-HT2A receptor. Both the 2- and 5- O-desmethyl derivatives 2-DM-DOM and 5-DM-DOM, and the 2- and 5- ethyl analogues 2-Et-DOM and 5-Et-DOM have been tested, but in all cases were significantly less potent than the corresponding methoxy compound, showing the importance of the oxygen lone pairs in 5-HT2A binding. BL-4041A & BL-4358A left [69854-49-5] Page 72 The tranylcypromine-DOM compound is fully one-third the potency of DOM proper according to page 72 of monograph 22.
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Methylisopropyllysergamide (lysergic acid methylisopropyl amide, MIPLA) is an analogue of LSD that was originally discovered by Albert Hofmann at Sandoz during the original structure-activity research into LSD. It has subsequently been investigated in more detail by the team led by David E. Nichols at Purdue University. Methylisopropyllysergamide is a structural isomer of LSD, with the alkyl groups on the amide nitrogen having been subjected to a methylene shuffle. MIPLA and its ethylisopropyl homologue are the only simple N,N-dialkyl lysergamides that approach the potency of LSD itself, being around 1/3-1/2 the potency of LSD, while all other dialkyl analogues tested (dimethyl, dipropyl, methylethyl etc.) are only around 1/10 as potent as LSD, although some N-monoalkyl lysergamides such as the sec-butyl and t-butyl derivatives were also found to show an activity profile and potency comparable to LSD, and the mono-isopropyl derivative is only slightly weaker than MIPLA.
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The majority of the eukaryotic genome is transcribed into RNA molecules, which generates pools of RNA that require processing and surveillance in order to control abundant and damaged material. The RNA exosome multiprotein complex performs this function and is dependent on cofactors. The exosome was initially discovered in yeast but is also present in higher eukaryotes. It has activity in both the nucleus and cytoplasm for normal mRNA decay and for RNA surveillance and quality control through nonsense mediated; non-stop and no-go decay. Figure 1. Model prediction of human SKI complex SKI2W is part of the tetraprotein ski complex which is an obligatory cytoplasmic cofactor of the RNA exosome and consists of SKI2W, TTC37 and 2 subunits of WD40 (encoded by WDR61), as pictured in Figure 1. Much of the information on SKI2W function is from yeast studies, where the homologue for SKI2W is ski2. In yeast, ski2 forms a ski complex with ski3 and 2 subunits of ski8.
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When placed in hydrogen, polonium dioxide is slowly reduced to metallic polonium at 200 °C; the same reduction occurs at 250 °C in ammonia or hydrogen sulfide. When heated in sulfur dioxide at 250 °C, a white compound is formed, possibly a polonium sulfite. When polonium dioxide is hydrated, polonous acid (H2PoO3), a pale yellow, voluminous precipitate, is formed. Despite its name, polonous acid is an amphoteric compound, reacting with both acids and bases. Halogenation of polonium dioxide with the hydrogen halides yields the polonium tetrahalides: :PoO2 \+ 4 HF → PoF4 \+ 2 H2O :PoO2 \+ 4 HCl → PoCl4 \+ 2 H2O :PoO2 \+ 4 HBr → PoBr4 \+ 2 H2O :PoO2 \+ 4 HI → PoI4 \+ 2 H2O In reactions, polonium dioxide behaves very much like its homologue tellurium dioxide, forming Po(IV) salts; however, the acidic character of the chalcogen oxides decreases going down the group, and polonium dioxide and polonium(IV) hydroxide are much less acidic than their lighter homologues. For example, SO2, SO3, SeO2, SeO3 and TeO3 are acidic, but TeO2 is amphoteric, and PoO2, while amphoteric, even shows some basic character.
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Both DCC in vertebrates and UNC-40 in C. elegans have been shown to initiate a repulsive rather than attractive response when associated with the netrin receptor Unc5. In the same ventral midline gradient discussed above, netrin-1 acts as a chemorepellant for axons of the trochlear motor neurons, thus directing their growth dorsally (away from the ventral midline). Antibody inhibition of DCC in embryonic Xenopus spinal cord inhibited both attraction and repulsion in vitro. Likewise, multiple defects were observed in C. elegans unc-40 mutants; however, errors in migration patterns were more profoundly affected by mutations in the unc-5 gene, indicating that binding of the netrin-1 homologue UNC-6 to the UNC-5 receptor alone can repel axonal growth. In both vertebrate and invertebrate systems, short range chemorepulsion in which the concentration of netrins is high, seems to primarily occur via the UNC-5 receptor, while long range repulsive effects at more diffuse concentrations require coordination between DCC (UNC-40 in C.elegans) and UNC-5.
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Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium. However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond +1, whence the likely transition metal behaviour of unhexpentium. Due to the alkali and alkaline earth metals both being s-block elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals unbinilium (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh). Unsepttrium, element 173, may be an even better heavier homologue of ununennium; with a predicted electron configuration of [Usb] 6g1, it returns to the alkali-metal-like situation of having one easily removed electron far above a closed p-shell in energy, and is expected to be even more reactive than caesium.
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In addition to PAMPs, PRRs also recognize DAMP molecules that present in the intracellular space response to damage caused by pathogens, e.g.cell wall fragments, cytoplasmic proteins. AtPEP 1, a 23-amino acids precursor peptide encoded by c-terminal of PROPEP 1 gene, is considered to be a DAMP associated molecule in Arabidopsis. Later, study using alanine scanning analysis showed that AtPEP 1 was derived by deletion of N-terminal of precursor protein, PROPEP 1. AtPEPs are functionally similar to systemin, an 18 residues peptide which plays critical role in defense signal and induced in response to wounding, jasmonate and ethylene. PEPR 1 is a receptor kinase with extra cellular leucine rich repeat motif and functions as a receptor for AtPEPs. In addition, Arabidopsis genome encode a close homologue named PEPR 2. But PEPR 1 and PEPR 2 have different preferences for AtPEPs. AtPEP 1 interaction with PEPR 1 activates the defense genes that regulates jasmonate/ethylene and salicylate defense hormones and induce the expression of PDF1.2 (defensin) gene being component of plant innate immune system.
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Spice is illegal in New Zealand, it is classified as a Class C controlled drug. The New Zealand Parliament passed a law in July 2013 banning the sale of legal highs in dairies and supermarkets, but allowing some "low risk" drugs to continue to be sold through speciality licensed shops. Synthetic cannabinoids, as well as all other legal highs were outlawed at midnight on 7 May 2014, after a law was passed a week prior by the New Zealand government. An analysis of 41 different synthetic cannabis mimic blends sold commercially in New Zealand, conducted by the Institute of Environmental Science and Research and released in July 2011, found 11 different synthetic cannabinoid ingredients used, including JWH-018, JWH-073, AM-694, AM-2201, RCS-4, RCS-4 butyl homologue, JWH-210, JWH-081, JWH-250 (or possibly JWH-302, isomer not determined), JWH-203, and JWH-122—with between one and five different active ingredients, though JWH-018 was present in 37 of the 41 blends tested.
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The Hajos 1974 carbinolamine mechanism has had an unwitting support in a more recent paper by Michael Limbach.β-Homoamino acids as catalysts on enantioselective intra- and intermoelcular aldol reactions by Michael Limbach, Tetrahedron Letters 47 (2006) 3843-3847 The triketone starting material 2- methyl-2-(3-oxobutyl)-1,3-cyclopentanedione gave the expected optically active bicyclic ketol (+)-(3aS,7aS)-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-3a-hydroxy-7a-methyl-1,5(6H)-indanedione with (S)-(−)-proline catalyst. On the other hand, the stereochemical outcome is reversed with ee selectivities of up to 83% by using the homologue amino acid catalysts, such as (S)-β-homoproline, [(pyrrolidine-(2S)-yl) acetic acid]. The virtual anomaly can be explained with a top side approach of the bulkier beta amino acids to the above triketone starting material of reflective symmetry. The top side approach results in the formation of an enantiotopic carbinolamine to give the (−)-(3aR,7aR)-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-3a-hydroxy-7a-methyl-1,5(6H)-indanedione bicyclic ketol enantiomer identical to the one obtained with unnatural (R)-(+)-proline. List in 2010 on the other hand is perplexed and surprised that Hajos rejected the enamine mechanism, certainly in light of earlier work by Spencer in 1965 on amine catalysed aldol reactions.
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The Wallerian degeneration pathway has been further illuminated by the discovery that sterile alpha and TIR motif containing 1 (SARM1) protein plays a central role in the Wallerian degeneration pathway. The gene was first identified in a Drosophila melanogaster mutagenesis screen, and subsequently knockouts of its homologue in mice showed robust protection of transected axons comparable to that of WldS. SARM1 catalyzes the synthesis and hydrolysis of cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) from NAD+ to ADP-ribose. SARM1 activation locally triggers a rapid collapse of NAD+ levels in the distal section of the injured axon, which then undergoes degeneration. This collapse in NAD+ levels was later shown to be due to SARM1's TIR domain having intrinsic NAD+ cleavage activity. The SARM1 protein has four domains, a mitochondrial localization signal, an auto- inhibitory N-terminus region consisting of armadillo/HEAT motifs, two sterile alpha motifs responsible for multimerization, and a C-terminus Toll/Interleukin-1 receptor that possesses enzymatic activity. Activation of SARM1 is sufficient to collapse NAD+ levels and initiate the Wallerian degeneration pathway. The activity of SARM1 helps to explain the protective nature of the survival factor NMNAT2, as NMNAT enzymes have been shown to prevent SARM1-mediated depletion of NAD+.
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