I want the system to let me dial down to a granule level.
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I felt as small as a granule of sand, dwarfed by the natural world.
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This has to do with granule cells found in the cerebellum, the part of the brain responsible for motor control.
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Those with GABAA receptors that were suppressed by alcohol—whose granule cells were less inhibited—showed a higher predilection for drinking a lot.
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When these receptors start lighting up, the effect is of turning down the granule cells, and, thus, of slowing down the mammal's motor functioning.
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And in a culture that demands we consume and respond to every granule of media, maybe faking it is the only way to not get conned.
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This had the effect of lighting up their GABAA receptors, which then had the booze-like effect of depressing signaling activity among the excitatory granule cells.
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That's actually a 21-day process, to go from a tiny granule of sugar to maybe half the size of what you see in a Jaw Buster.
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The exteriors of cerebellar granule cells are outfitted with small proteins functioning as receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian brain.
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"We start with a granule of sugar and it goes into what is called a pan, a big round bowl with an opening facing toward you," she explained.
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Lagerfeld, and his doctor co-author, Jean-Claude Houdret, also encouraged dieters to rely on a "homoeopathic granule" if they became too hungry, and avoid eating anything between meals.
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As the air makes it way towards the surface and through the particles, it gets in-between each granule and reduces the friction that normally makes sand behave more like a solid.
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Sure, your skin will be softer, smoother, and more radiant thanks to the scrub's granule power, but your body will also appear as though you just brushed fairy dust from head to toe.
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Generally recognized as a safe and effective dewormer for dogs, it comes in an easy-to-administer granule formulation that can be sprinkled on or mixed into your dog's food and is safe for dogs and puppies 6 weeks or older.
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Pros: Kills four common types of worm, easy-to-mix granule formulation, safe and effective, kills two species of roundworm and hookwormCons: Large dogs may require more than one package, only kills one species of tapeworm and whipworm, three once-a-day doses required, not for puppies younger than 6 weeks of age
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Granule cell dendrites also synapse with distinctive unmyelinated axons which Santiago Ramón y Cajal called mossy fibers Mossy fibers and golgi cells both make synaptic connections with granule cells. Together these cells form the glomeruli. Granule cells are subject to feed-forward inhibition: granule cells excite Purkinje cells but also excite GABAergic interneurons that inhibit Purkinje cells. Granule cells are also subject to feedback inhibition: Golgi cells receive excitatory stimuli from granule cells and in turn send back inhibitory signals to the granule cell.
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This neurotransmitter is a negative regulator of granule cell precursor proliferation which promotes the differentiation of different granule cells. NO regulates interactions between granule cells and glia and is essential for protecting the granule cells from damage. NO is also responsible for neuroplasticity and motor learning.
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These cells synapse onto the dendrite of granule cells and unipolar brush cells. They receive excitatory input from mossy fibres, also synapsing on granule cells, and parallel fibers, which are long granule cell axons. Thereby this circuitry allows for feed-forward and feed-back inhibition of granule cells. The main synapse made by these cells is a synapse onto the mossy fibre - granule cell excitatory synapse in a glomerulus.
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In a normal situation, the granule cells in dentate gyrus should be tightly packed. But in granule cell dispersion, the compact formation was lost, and the axons need to extend longer to reach the neighboring granule cells.
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Granule cells in different brain regions are both functionally and anatomically diverse: the only thing they have in common is smallness. For instance, olfactory bulb granule cells are GABAergic and axonless, while granule cells in the dentate gyrus have glutamatergic projection axons. These two populations of granule cells are also the only major neuronal populations that undergo adult neurogenesis, while cerebellar and cortical granule cells do not. Granule cells (save for those of the olfactory bulb) have a structure typical of a neuron consisting of dendrites, a soma (cell body) and an axon.
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The granule layer is between the overlying molecular layer and the underlying hilus (polymorphic layer). The granule cells of the granule layer project their axons known as mossy fibers to make excitatory synapses on the dendrites of CA3 pyramidal neurons. The granule cells are tightly packed together in a laminated manner that dampens the excitability of neurons. Some of the basal dendrites of the granule cells curve up into the molecular layer.
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New cells also make contact with the granule cells. Mossy fibers, which are mostly found in the precerebellar nuclei, make contact with granule cells in the IGL. Granule neurons also extend out to make contacts with Golgi cells.
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The granule cells only have apical dendrites in the rat. But in the monkey and human, many granule cells also have basal dendrites.
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The granule neurons migrate from this exterior layer to form an inner layer known as the internal granule layer. The external granular layer ceases to exist in the mature cerebellum, leaving only granule cells in the internal granule layer. The cerebellar white matter may be a third germinal zone in the cerebellum; however, its function as a germinal zone is controversial.
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The granule cells in the dorsal cochlear nucleus are small neurons with two or three short dendrites that give rise to a few branches with expansions at the terminals. The dendrites are short with claw-like endings that form glomeruli to receive mossy fibers, similar to cerebellar granule cells. Its axon projects to the molecular layer of the dorsal cochlear nucleus where it forms parallel fibers, also similar to cerebellar granule cells. The dorsal cochlear granule cells are small excitatory interneurons which are developmentally related and thus resemble the cerebellar granule cell.
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The differences in mossy fibers that are sending signals to the granule cells directly effects the type of information that granule cells translate to Purkinje cells. The reliability of this translation will depend on the reliability of synaptic activity in granule cells and on the nature of the stimulus being received. The signal a granule cell receives from a Mossy fiber depends on the function of the mossy fiber itself. Therefore, granule cells are able to integrate information from the different mossy fibers and generate new patterns of activity.
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In the absence of divalent cation, grancalcin localizes to the cytosolic fraction; with magnesium alone, it partitions with the granule fraction; and in the presence of magnesium and calcium, it associates with both the granule and membrane fractions, suggesting a role for grancalcin in granule-membrane fusion and degranulation.
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Neural pathways and circuits in the cerebellum. (+) represent excitatory synapse, while (-) represent inhibitory synapses. Cerebellar granule cells receive excitatory input from 3 or 4 mossy fibers originating from pontine nuclei. Mossy fibers make an excitatory connection onto granule cells which cause the granule cell to fire an action potential.
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Granule cell precursors (GCPs) of the cerebellum, after undergoing symmetric cell division in the external granule-cell layer (EGL), migrate into the internal granule-cell layer (IGL) where they downregulate GluN2B and activate GluN2C, a process that is independent of neuregulin beta signaling through ErbB2 and ErbB4 receptors.
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Patients suffering from Alzheimer's have shorter granule cell dendrites. Furthermore, the dendrites were less branched and had fewer spines than those in patients not suffering with Alzheimer's. However, granule cell dendrites are not an essential component of senile plaques and these plaques have no direct effect on granule cells in the dentate gyrus. The specific neurofibrillary changes of dentate granule cells occur in patients suffering from Alzheimer's, Lewy body variant and progressive supranuclear palsy.
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Dendrites: Each granule cell has 3 – 4 stubby dendrites which end in a claw. Each of the dendrites are only about 15 μm in length. Soma: Granule cells all have a small soma diameter of approximately 10 μm. Axon: Each granule cell sends a single axon onto the Purkinje cell dendritic tree.
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Cerebellar granule cells account for the majority of neurons in the human brain. These granule cells receive excitatory input from mossy fibers originating from pontine nuclei. Cerebellar granule cells project up through the Purkinje layer into the molecular layer where they branch out into parallel fibers that spread through Purkinje cell dendritic arbors. These parallel fibers form thousands of excitatory granule-cell–Purkinje-cell synapses onto the intermediate and distal dendrites of Purkinje cells using glutamate as a neurotransmitter.
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Inside the rhombic lip, granule cell precursors divide and develop a unipolar morphology, with a single process that projects toward their destination. ::As development continues, the granule precursor cells that originated in the RL generate the external granule layer (EGL). This movement takes place between E15 and P15 (Embryonic stage 15 and Postnatal stage 15).
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Other names for P-selectin include CD62P, Granule Membrane Protein 140 (GMP-140), and Platelet Activation-Dependent Granule to External Membrane Protein (PADGEM). It was first identified in endothelial cells in 1989.
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The undifferentiated neuroblasts form chains that migrate and develop into mature neurons. In the olfactory bulb, they mature into GABAergic granule neurons, while in the hippocampus they mature into dentate granule cells.
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The axon has an extremely narrow diameter: ½ micrometre. Synapse: 100–300,000 granule cell axons synapse onto a single Purkinje cell. The existence of gap junctions between granule cells allows multiple neurons to be coupled to one another allowing multiple cells to act in synchrony and to allow signalling functions necessary for granule cell development to occur.
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This can be countered partially by increasing the granule size.
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Mossy fiber input codes are conserved during synaptic transmission between granule cells, suggesting that innervation is specific to the input that is received. Granule cells do not just relay signals from mossy fibers, rather they perform various, intricate transformations which are required in the spatiotemporal domain. Each granule cell is receiving an input from two different mossy finer inputs. The input is thus coming from two different places as opposed to the granule cell receiving multiple inputs from the same source.
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The granule cells in the dentate gyrus are distinguished by their late time of formation during brain development. In rats, approximately 85% of the granule cells are generated after birth. In humans, it is estimated that granule cells begin to be generated during gestation weeks 10.5 to 11, and continue being generated during the second and third trimesters, after birth and all the way into adulthood. The germinal sources of granule cells and their migration pathways have been studied during rat brain development.
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These cells release sonic hedgehog (Shh); which is a protein that controls the further proliferation of granule cell precursors. This means that around stage P15 the proliferation of granule cell precursors is controlled by genes that it transcribes (RU49/Zipro1) as well as the products of connecting cells (Shh). ::Once the EGL is fully formed, granule cell precursors migrate inward, forming a layer called the inner granule layer. Just prior to migration, the cells go through a series of electrophysiological changes.
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In normal development, endogenous Sonic hedgehog signaling stimulates rapid proliferation of cerebellar granule neuron progenitors (CGNPs) in the external granule layer (EGL). Cerebellum development occurs during late embryogenesis and the early postnatal period, with CGNP proliferation in the EGL peaking during early development (P7, postnatal day 7, in the mouse). As CGNPs terminally differentiate into cerebellum granule cells (also called cerebellar granule neurons, CGNs), they migrate to the internal granule layer (IGL), forming the mature cerebellum (by P20, post- natal day 20 in the mouse). Mutations that abnormally activate Sonic hedgehog signaling predispose to cancer of the cerebellum (medulloblastoma) in humans with Gorlin Syndrome and in genetically engineered mouse models.
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The reactant polymer gel is then chopped, dried and ground to its final granule size. Any treatments to enhance performance characteristics of the SAP are usually accomplished after the final granule size is created.
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When steaming, the addition of water and heat breaks up the helix structure and crystallinity of amylose. Amylose begins to diffuse out of the starch granule and forms a gel matrix around the granule.
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Inferior olive. CF: Climbing fiber. GC: Granule cell. PF: Parallel fiber.
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S. torrei has "very small minute granule-like" dorsal scales.Barbour (1914).
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TrkB is responsible for the maintenance of normal synaptic connectivity of the dentate granule cells. TrkB also regulates the specific morphology (biology) of the granule cells and is thus said to be important in regulating neuronal development, neuronal plasticity, learning, and the development of epilepsy. The TrkB regulation of granule cells is important in preventing memory deficits and limbic epilepsy. This is due to the fact that dentate granule cells play a critical role in the function of the entorhinal-hippocampal circuitry in health and disease.
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The contacts between mossy fibers and granule cell dendrites take place within structures called glomeruli. Each glomerulus has a mossy fiber rosette at its center, and up to 20 granule cell dendritic claws contacting it. Terminals from Golgi cells infiltrate the structure and make inhibitory synapses onto the granule cell dendrites. The entire assemblage is surrounded by a sheath of glial cells.
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Zymogen granule protein 16, also known as ZG16, is a human gene.
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GC: Granule cell. PF: Parallel fiber. PC: Purkinje cell. GgC: Golgi cell.
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Granule cells use glutamate as their neurotransmitter, and therefore exert excitatory effects on their targets. Granule cells receive all of their input from mossy fibers, but outnumber them by 200 to 1 (in humans). Thus, the information in the granule cell population activity state is the same as the information in the mossy fibers, but recoded in a much more expansive way. Because granule cells are so small and so densely packed, it is difficult to record their spike activity in behaving animals, so there is little data to use as a basis for theorizing.
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These changes may or may not be epileptogenic. For instance, if the dendrites of granule cells reconnect, it may be in a way (through the laminar planes) that allows hyperexcitability. However, not all patients have granule cell dispersion.
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Mossy fibers are the axons of granule cells. They project into the hilus of the dentate gyrus and stratum lucidum in the CA3 region giving inputs to both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. In the TLE brain, where granule cells are damaged or lost, axons, the mossy fibres, 'sprout' in order to reconnect to other granule cell dendrites. This is an example of synaptic reorganization.
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Fluff from tire cord removed. No.3 - Tire Granule shall consist of granulated tire crumb, Black Only Magnetically Separated, sized. Fluff from tire cord removed. No.4 - Tire Granule shall consist of granulated tire crumb, Black & White Magnetically Separated, sized. Fluff from tire cord removed. No.5 - Tire Granule shall consist of unclassified granulated tire crumb, Sized, Unseparated, not magnetically separated, fluff from tire cord not removed.
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The glomerulus is made up of the mossy fibre terminal, granule cell dendrites, the Golgi terminal and is enclosed by a glial coat. The Golgi cell acts by altering the mossy fibre - granule cell synapse. The Golgi cells use GABA as their transmitter. The basal level of GABA produces a postsynaptic leak conductance by tonically activating alpha 6-containing GABA-A receptors on the granule cell.
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Purkinje cells (A) and granule cells (B) from a pigeon cerebellum Granule-cell to Purkinje-cell synapses or gcPc synapses are the junctions that form the synapse in the cerebellum between granule cells and Purkinje cells. These synapses are thought to be a storage site for the information that is required for motor coordination and their misfunctioning is involved with some movement disorders. Glutamate is the neurotransmitter.
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Glomeruli also contain the GABAergic (inhibitory) synapses of Golgi cells onto granule cells, and the glutamatergic (excitatory) synapses from mossy fibers onto Golgi cells. Each glomerulus contains approximately 50 granule cell dendrites, 210 total dendritic digits and 230 synaptic junctions.
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XBP1 is required for eosinophil differentiation. Eosinophils lacking XBP1 exhibit defects in granule proteins.
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Calcicludine has been shown to work on rat cardiac cells and rat cerebellum granule cells.
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The granule cells are tightly packed in the granular cell layer of the dentate gyrus.
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For mammals, cortical granule migration is considered an indication of oocyte maturity and organelle organization.
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Dendrodendritic synapses have been studied extensively in the olfactory bulb of rats where it is believed they help in the process of differentiating smells. The granule cells of the olfactory bulb communicate exclusively through dendrodendritic synapses because they lack axons. These granule cells form dendrodendritic synapses with mitral cells to convey odor information from the olfactory bulb. Lateral inhibition from the granule cell spines helps to contribute to contrasts between odors and in odor memory.
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The principal cell type of the dentate gyrus is the granule cell. The dentate gyrus granule cell has an elliptical cell body with a width of approximately 10 μm and a height of 18μm. The granule cell has a characteristic cone-shaped tree of spiny apical dendrites. The dendrite branches project throughout the entire molecular layer and the furthest tips of the dendritic tree end just at the hippocampal fissure or at the ventricular surface.
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The axon of a cerebellar granule cell splits to form a parallel fiber which innervates Purkinje cells. The vast majority of granule cell axonal synapses are found on the parallel fibers. The parallel fibers are sent up through the Purkinje layer into the molecular layer where they branch out and spread through Purkinje cell dendritic arbors. These parallel fibers form thousands of excitatory Granule- cell-Purkinje-cell synapses onto the dendrites of Purkinje cells.
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Cerebellar granule cells form the thick granular layer of the cerebellar cortex and are among the smallest neurons in the brain. (The term granule cell is used for several unrelated types of small neurons in various parts of the brain.) Cerebellar granule cells are also the most numerous neurons in the brain: in humans, estimates of their total number average around 50 billion, which means that they constitute about 3/4 of the brain's neurons.
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Granule cell dispersion is a type of developmental migration and a pathological change found in the TLE brain which was first described in 1990. The granule cells of the dentate gyrus are tightly packed forming a uniform, laminated layer with no monosynaptic connections. This structure provides a filter for the excitability of neurons. In TLE, granule cells are lost, the structure is no longer closely packed and there are changes in the orientation of dendrites.
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Furthermore, when calcium waves were suppressed experimentally, cortical granule exocytosis and/or alterations in the extracellular matrix did not occur. As demonstrated in unfertilized vertebrate oocytes, cortical granule exocytosis is induced when calcium is artificially increased. Increased calcium is also thought to activate actin-depolymerizing proteins such as gelsolin and scinderin. In mammals, these actin-depolymerizing proteins serve to disassemble cortical actin thereby allowing space for cortical granule translocation toward the plasma membrane.
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Neonatal hypothyroidism also reduces the number of dentate gyrus granule cells and impairs their dendritic arborization.
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Granule cells (GR, bottom), parallel fibers (horizontal lines, top), and Purkinje cells (P, middle) with flattened dendritic trees Cerebellar granule cells, in contrast to Purkinje cells, are among the smallest neurons in the brain. They are also easily the most numerous neurons in the brain: In humans, estimates of their total number average around 50 billion, which means that about 3/4 of the brain's neurons are cerebellar granule cells. Their cell bodies are packed into a thick layer at the bottom of the cerebellar cortex. A granule cell emits only four to five dendrites, each of which ends in an enlargement called a dendritic claw.
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These hyperpolarizations during odor stimulation shape the responses of the mitral cells to make them more specific to an odor. There is a lack of information regarding the function of the internal plexiform layer which lies between the mitral cell layer and the granule cell layer. ;Granule cell layer The basal dendrites of mitral cells are connected to interneurons known as granule cells, which by some theories produce lateral inhibition between mitral cells. The synapse between mitral and granule cells is of a rare class of synapses that are "dendro-dendritic" which means that both sides of the synapse are dendrites that release neurotransmitter.
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This calcium increase occurs as a single wave in echinoderms and as multiple waves in mammals. Cortical granule exocytosis has been shown to occur directly following a calcium wave. For example, in the fertilized sea urchin egg, it has been shown that the cortical granule exocytosis immediately follows the calcium increase after approximately 6 seconds. In mammals, the first calcium wave occurs within 1–4 minutes following fertilization, and cortical granule exocytosis occurs within 5–30 minutes following fertilization.
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The hardware is designed to optimize, for example by using burst techniques, the performance of such transfers. Thus a burst transfer of a coherency granule will take less time than two transfers each of a half of a coherency granule. As systems continue to get more and more complex, there has been a tendency to increase the size of coherency granules. As the size of coherency granules increases, there is thus more data per coherency granule.
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It has fixed fingers with 11 oblique granule rows. It has movable fingers of pedipalps with 4 distal and 11 oblique granule rows. The ventrolateral carinae of metasomal segment V have large and rounded granules. The anal arch has 6 small lobes posteriorly and 3 rounded lobes laterally.
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The main intrinsic granule cell in the vertebrate olfactory bulb lacks an axon (as does the accessory neuron). Each cell gives rise to short central dendrites and a single long apical dendrite that expands into the granule cell layer and enters the mitral cell body layer. The dendrite branches terminate within the outer plexiform layer among the dendrites in the olfactory tract. In the mammalian olfactory bulb, granule cells can process both synaptic input and output due to the presence of large spines.
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Any given pyramidal cell in the stratum lucidum may get input from as many as 50 granule cells.
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Zymogen granule protein 16 homolog B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ZG16B gene.
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There is evidence to suggest that eosinophil granule protein expression is regulated by the non-coding RNA EGOT.
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Ultimately, the SuM will modulate the granule cell outputs causing it to influence the dentate gyrus information processing.
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Natural killer cell granule protein 7 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NKG7 gene.
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The nitrogen product, cyanophycin, is stored as a granule during nitrogen fixation and is metabolized during the "day".
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There are a number of proteins that are within the dense granule membrane. To maintain the low pH within the granule, there is a Hydrogen ion pumping ATPase. Ral has been found within the granule's membrane. There are several adhesive receptors that have luminal binding domains and are expressed post exocytosis.
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Granule cells in the olfactory bulb have also been found to be important in forming memories linked with scents.
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The term is from granule + -oma. The plural is granulomas or granulomata. The adjective granulomatous means characterized by granulomas.
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Pancreatic secretory granule membrane major glycoprotein GP2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GP2 gene.
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Drawing of Purkinje cells (A) and granule cells (B) from pigeon cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, 1899. Instituto Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain. The name granule cell has been used for a number of different types of neuron whose only common feature is that they all have very small cell bodies. Granule cells are found within the granular layer of the cerebellum, the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the superficial layer of the dorsal cochlear nucleus, the olfactory bulb, and the cerebral cortex.
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As more granule cells are produced, the layer thickens and the cells are stacked up according to age - the oldest being the most superficial and the youngest being deeper. The granule cell precursors remain in a subgranular zone that becomes progressively thinner as the dentate gyrus grows, but these precursor cells are retained in adult rats. These sparsely scattered cells constantly generate granule cell neurons, which add to the total population. There are a variety of other differences in the rat, monkey and human dentate gyrus.
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In this specific case, mitral cells release the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate, and granule cells release the inhibitory neurotransmitter Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). As a result of its bi- directionality, the dendro-dendritic synapse can cause mitral cells to inhibit themselves (auto-inhibition), as well as neighboring mitral cells (lateral inhibition). More specifically, the granule cell layer receives excitatory glutamate signals from the basal dendrites of the mitral and tufted cells. The granule cell in turn releases GABA to cause an inhibitory effect on the mitral cell.
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An oocyte acquires the ability to complete cortical granule exocytosis by the time the oocyte has reached late maturity. More specifically, in mice, for example, the ability to undergo cortical granule exocytosis arises some time between metaphase I and metaphase II of meiosis, which is also 5 hours before ovulation occurs. The oocyte has been shown to obtain maximum proficiency for releasing calcium at this same cell stage, between metaphase I and metaphase II, as well, further emphasizing the calcium-dependency of the cortical granule exocytosis event.
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This connection is excitatory as glutamate is released. The parallel fibers and ascending axon synapses from the same granule cell fire in synchrony which results in excitatory signals. In the cerebellar cortex there are a variety of inhibitory neurons (interneurons). The only excitatory neurons present in the cerebellar cortex are granule cells.
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Whereas piriform cortex is innervated mostly randomly, projections to the anterior olfactory nucleus and amygdala retain some topographic order. Finally, mitral cell axons also make intrabulbar connections to granule cells and in the mouse olfactory system they project selectively to granule cells underlying the second ipsilateral homotypic (expressing the same olfactory receptor) glomerulus.
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The spicy serundeng (sweet grated coconut granule) with ebi (dried salted shrimp) and fried shallots are sprinkled upon the omelette.
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The true function of a dense granule is still unknown. However, the secretion of dense granules occurs along with platelet activation. Both, ADP and collagen can cause the secretion of dense granules. Patients and mice with dense granule deficiency have a harder time forming a hemostatic plug and therefore have a longer bleed time.
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The innermost layer contains the cell bodies of three types of cells: the numerous and tiny granule cells, the slightly larger unipolar brush cells and the much larger Golgi cells. Mossy fibers enter the granular layer from their main point of origin, the pontine nuclei. These fibers form excitatory synapses with the granule cells and the cells of the deep cerebellar nuclei. The granule cells send their T-shaped axons—known as parallel fibers—up into the superficial molecular layer, where they form hundreds of thousands of synapses with Purkinje cell dendrites.
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Two types of neuron play dominant roles in the cerebellar circuit: Purkinje cells and granule cells. Three types of axons also play dominant roles: mossy fibers and climbing fibers (which enter the cerebellum from outside), and parallel fibers (which are the axons of granule cells). There are two main pathways through the cerebellar circuit, originating from mossy fibers and climbing fibers, both eventually terminating in the deep cerebellar nuclei. Mossy fibers project directly to the deep nuclei, but also give rise to the following pathway: mossy fibers → granule cells → parallel fibers → Purkinje cells → deep nuclei.
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Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach, John L. Hennessy, David A. Patterson, Elsevier, 2012 The hardware is designed with the assumption that coherency granules will be the data packets that are typically transferred in a cache coherent system when accessing coherent data. The magnitude of the coherency granule is typically significantly greater than the bus size. For example, in current processing systems, the coherency granule is commonly 32 bytes, and the bus size is 8 bytes wide. In such a case, a data transfer of one coherency granule requires 4 cycles on the bus.
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In yeast, catalytic ded1 mutant alleles give rise to constitutive stress granules ATPase-deficient DDX3X (the mammalian homolog of Ded1) mutant alleles are found in pediatric medulloblastoma, and these coincide with constitutive granular assemblies in patient cells. These mutant DDX3 proteins promote stress granule assembly in HeLa cells. In mammalian cells, RHAU mutants lead to reduced stress granule dynamics. Thus, some hypothesize that RNA aggregation facilitated by intermolecular RNA-RNA interactions plays a role in stress granule formation and that this role may be regulated by RNA helicases.
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These newly born dentate granule cells may result in aberrant connections that result in the hippocampal network plasticity associated with epileptogenesis.
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With continued swelling and hydration, the granule eventually loses its crystallinity and will begin to gelatinize at a critical heating temperature.
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The Model 4D, with its double-sided drives, yields 360 KB of storage. Whenever additional disk space is needed for a file (such as well extending a file while being written to), an additional granule is allocated. The granule thus becomes the minimum size storage unit. TRSDOS assigns numbers to every sector, every track, and every surface.
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Perforant path–granule cells (PP-GC) in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in adult rats have been shown to experience fatigue at lower frequencies (0.05-0.2 Hz).Abrahamsson, T., Gustafsson, B., & Hanse, E. (2005). Synaptic fatigue at the naive perforant path-dentate granule cell synapse in the rat. The Journal of Physiology, 569(Pt 3), 737-750.
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In the Oracle DBMS, the Oracle server allocates the system global area (SGA) in granule units at the time of instance startup. During the startup, each component acquires as many granules as it requires. The SGA can be said to consist of linked granules. The granule size depends on the database version and sometimes on the operating system.
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Paoletti pp. 426–30 When neutrophils release their granule contents in the kidney, the contents of the granule (reactive oxygen compounds and proteases) degrade the extracellular matrix of host cells and can cause damage to glomerular cells, affecting their ability to filter blood and causing changes in shape. In addition, phospholipase products (e.g., leukotrienes) intensify the damage.
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The cerebellar glomeruli are the first "processing station" for afferent nerve fibers entering the cerebellum. Input comes from the mossy fibers, which terminate there and synapse with the Golgi and granule cell fibers. The Golgi cells regulate the glomeruli with inhibitory signals, while information is passed on to the granule and Golgi cells from the mossy fiber.
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A cerebellar glomerulus is about 2.5 um in diameter, and is wrapped by glial sheathing. Glomeruli are centered on the large axonal terminals of glutamatergic afferent mossy fibers. Each terminal comes into contact with dendrites from 50–60 different granule cells. The granule cells themselves each have a single or multiple dendrites, and each participates in a different glomerulus.
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A chromatoid body is a dense structure in the cytoplasm of male germ cells. It is composed mainly of RNAs and RNA-binding proteins and is thus a type of RNP granule. Chromatoid body-like granules first appear in spermatocytes and condense into a single granule in round spermatids. The structure disappears again when spermatids start to elongate.
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Dentate granule cells are situated to regulate the flow of information into the hippocampus, a structure required for normal learning and memory.
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Kanneganti's lab has investigated the crosstalk between cell survival, mediated by stress granules, and cell death pathways, such as NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammatory cell death, and identified DDX3X, a key stress granule component, as a driver of NLRP3 inflammasome and stress granule assembly. This study identified a mechanism for regulating cell fate decisions in stressed cells where NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis depends on the availability of DDX3X molecules that are also required for pro-survival stress granule assembly. DDX3X sits at the crossroads of inflammation and stress adaptation, essentially acting as a live or die checkpoint in the stressed cells, because of its importance in both NLRP3 inflammasome activation and stress granule assembly. Mutations in DDX3X, the NLRP3 inflammasome, and stress granules are associated with pathologies in infectious and autoinflammatory diseases, cancer, and neuronal abnormalities.
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In enzymology, a NDP-glucose—starch glucosyltransferase () is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction :NDP-glucose + (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)n \rightleftharpoons NDP + (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)n+1 Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are NDP-glucose and (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)n, whereas its two products are NDP and (1,4-alpha-D-glucosyl)n+1. This enzyme belongs to the family of glycosyltransferases, specifically the hexosyltransferases. The systematic name of this enzyme class is NDP-glucose:1,4-alpha-D-glucan 4-alpha-D-glucosyltransferase. Other names in common use include granule-bound starch synthase, starch synthase II (ambiguous), waxy protein, starch granule- bound nucleoside diphosphate glucose-starch, glucosyltransferase, granule- bound starch synthase I, GBSSI, granule-bound starch synthase II, GBSSII, GBSS, and NDPglucose-starch glucosyltransferase.
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This process is done by changing pigment granule concentration in chromatophores, which will the result in the shade variations seen within this species.
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Periglomerular cells mediate lateral inhibition in the olfactory system together with granule cells. They have inhibitory synapses on mitral cells and tufted cells.
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When TRSDOS formats a disk, all of the parameters associated with the diskette are predetermined. Thus the number of sectors per track, number of sectors per granule and thus the granules per track, number of sides (surfaces), and number of cylinders are all designated, as well as the density of the media. Some of these figures (density, sides, granules per track) are written to fields in the Granule Allocation Table which is part of the disk directory. Others (sectors per track, sectors per granule, in addition to the former quantities) are part of the Drive Control Table fields.
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In the well-studied sea urchin model system, the granule contents modify a protein coat on the outside of the plasma membrane (the vitelline layer) so that it is released from the membrane. The released cortical granule proteins exert a colloid osmotic pressure causing water to enter the space between the plasma membrane and the vitelline layer, and the vitelline layer expands away from the egg surface. This is easily visible through a microscope and is known as "elevation of the fertilization envelope". Some of the former granule contents adhere to the fertilization envelope, and it is extensively modified and cross-linked.
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The oldest granule cells are generated in a specific region of the hippocampal neuroepithelium and migrate into the primordial dentate gyrus around embryonic days (E) 17/18, and then settle as the outermost cells in the forming granular layer. Next, dentate precursor cells move out of this same area of the hippocampal neuroepithelium and, retaining their mitotic capacity, invade the hilus (core) of the forming dentate gyrus. This dispersed germinal matrix is the source of granule cells from that point on. The newly generated granule cells accumulate under the older cells that began to settle in the granular layer.
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The dense granule is very important in the coagulation cascade because of the bleeding disorders caused by a dense granule deficiency. However, the exact details of how it created is unknown. It has been observed that they are produced in bone marrow by megakaryocytes. Within the megakaryocytes it is thought that their production has something to do with the endocytotic pathway.
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Granule cell dispersion is one of the abnormal structural changes that has been shown in brains of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. It has also been shown in different animal models, such as the kainic acid model, pilocarpine model, and kindling model. But granule cell dispersion was not found by using perforant pathway stimulation. It was first described by Houser.
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The human cerebellum contains on the order of 60 to 80 billion granule cells, making this single cell type by far the most numerous neuron in the brain (roughly 70% of all neurons in the brain and spinal cord, combined). Golgi cells provide inhibitory feedback to granule cells, forming a synapse with them and projecting an axon into the molecular layer.
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The granule cells, produced by the rhombic lip, are found in the granule cell layer of the cerebellar cortex. They are small and numerous. They are characterized by a very small soma and several short dendrites which terminate with claw-shaped endings. In the transmission electron microscope, these cells are characterized by a darkly stained nucleus surrounded by a thin rim of cytoplasm.
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The fascia dentata is the earliest stage of the hippocampal circuit. Its primary input is the perforant path from the superficial layers of entorhinal cortex. Its principal neurons are tiny granule cells which give rise to unmyelinated axons called the mossy fibers which project to the hilus and CA3. The fascia dentata of the rat contains approximately 1,000,000 granule cells.
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While these changes are happening, the cells are also guided to this new layer by radial glial cells. Once they are in the IGL they stop dividing and no longer express the Math1 gene. :: The final stage of granule cell maturation occurs in the IGL. The granule cells express a different set of mature receptors at this stage including, GC5 and GABA receptors.
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Finally, conglomerates are often differentiated and named according to the dominant clast size comprising them. In this classification, a conglomerate composed largely of granule-size clasts would be called a granule conglomerate; a conglomerate composed largely of pebble-size clasts would be called a pebble conglomerate; and a conglomerate composed largely of cobble-size clasts would be called a cobble conglomerate.
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This cross- linking contributes to the hardening of the zona pellucida. Calreticulin: Evidence has indicated the presence of the protein, calreticulin, within the cortical granule. Researchers have suggested that calreticulin serves as a chaperone protein for other cortical granule components contributing to polyspermy prevention. Additionally contributing to polyspermy prevention, calreticulin may also inhibit certain glycoproteins, which promote interaction between the oocyte and sperm.
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No.2 - Tire Granule shall consist of granulated tire crumb, Black & White Guaranteed MetalFree, sized to minus 40 Mesh. Magnetically separated materials are not acceptable.
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HDAC6 has been shown to interact with HDAC11 and Zinc finger and BTB domain-containing protein 16. HDAC6 interacts with SG (Stress granule) protein G3BP1.
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In some animals it has been shown that the platelets contain histamine. During exocytosis, the pool of ATP within the dense granule is released. Serotonin is picked up by the dense granules where it interacts with ATP and calcium. The serotonin that is then released by the dense granule, recruits other platelets and helps play a major role in stopping the loss of blood at the injury.
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The idea is that with each granule cell receiving input from only 4–5 mossy fibers, a granule cell would not respond if only a single one of its inputs was active, but would respond if more than one were active. This "combinatorial coding" scheme would potentially allow the cerebellum to make much finer distinctions between input patterns than the mossy fibers alone would permit.
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Mitral cells are a key part of the olfactory bulb microcircuit. Mitral cells receive input from at least four cell types: olfactory sensory neurons, periglomerular neurons, external tufted cells and granule cells. The synapses made by external tufted cells and olfactory sensory neurons are excitatory, whereas those of granule cells and periglomerular neurons are inhibitory. In addition, sister mitral cells are reciprocally connected by gap junctions.
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This gene encodes a protein best known as a hematopoietic cell granule proteoglycan. Proteoglycans stored in the secretory granules of many hematopoietic cells also contain a protease-resistant peptide core, which may be important for neutralizing hydrolytic enzymes. This encoded protein was found to be associated with the macromolecular complex of granzymes and perforin, which may serve as a mediator of granule-mediated apoptosis.
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Granule cells receive all of their input from mossy fibers, but outnumber them 200 to 1 (in humans). Thus, the information in the granule cell population activity state is the same as the information in the mossy fibers, but recoded in a much more expansive way. Because granule cells are so small and so densely packed, it has been very difficult to record their spike activity in behaving animals, so there is little data to use as a basis of theorizing. The most popular concept of their function was proposed by David Marr, who suggested that they could encode combinations of mossy fiber inputs.
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Cerebellar development occurs during late embryogenesis and the early postnatal period, with CGNP proliferation in the EGL peaking during early development (postnatal day 7 in the mouse). As CGNPs terminally differentiate into cerebellar granule cells (also called cerebellar granule neurons, CGNs), they migrate to the internal granule layer (IGL), forming the mature cerebellum (by post-natal day 20 in the mouse). Mutations that abnormally activate Sonic hedgehog signaling predispose to cancer of the cerebellum (medulloblastoma) in humans with Gorlin Syndrome and in genetically engineered mouse models. Congenital malformation or underdevelopment (hypoplasia) of the cerebellar vermis is a characteristic of both Dandy–Walker syndrome and Joubert syndrome.
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BTG2 has been shown to inhibit medulloblastoma, the very aggressive tumor of cerebellum, by inhibiting the proliferation and triggering the differentiation of the precursors of cerebellar granule neurons. This demonstration was obtained by overexpressing BTG2 in a mouse model of medulloblastoma, presenting activation of the sonic hedgehog pathway (heterozygous for the gene Patched1). More recently, it has been shown that the ablation of BTG2 greatly enhances the medulloblastoma frequency by inhibiting the migration of cerebellar granule neuron precursors. This impairment of migration of the precursors of cerebellar granule neurons forces them to remain at the surface of the cerebellum, where they continue to proliferate, becoming target of transforming insults.
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The calcium from a dense granule accounts for the majority of the calcium within the platelets and plays a role in the binding of different proteins.
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This is not the only way that PKC is made. The tyrosine kinase FYN phosphorylates Grb2-associated-binding protein 2 (Gab2), which binds to phosphoinositide 3-kinase, which activates PKC. PKC leads to the activation of myosin light-chain phosphorylation granule movements, which disassembles the actin–myosin complexes to allow granules to come into contact with the plasma membrane. The mast cell granule can now fuse with the plasma membrane.
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Dense granules have their components sent to maturing dense granules using vesicular nucleotide transporters. This is what is thought to cause the build up of ADP/ATP in dense granules. This mechanism is also responsible for the build up of MRP4 which picks up cAMP for the dense granule. Mice with MRP4-/- will have dysfunctional platelets from cAMP not being takin up from the cytosol and placed into the dense granule.
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PTPrho (PTPRT) transcripts have also been observed in the developing cortex and olfactory bulbs. PTPrho (PTPRT) is expressed in a very specific subset of neurons in the postnatal cerebellar cortex, the granule cell layer. Specifically, PTPrho (PTPRT) was expressed in postmigratory granule cells of lobules 1 to 6 of the cerebellum. In adults, PTPrho protein is exclusively expressed in the central nervous system and localizes to synapses between neurons.
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The dentate gyrus (DG) is the innermost section of the hippocampal formation. The dentate gyrus consists of three layers: molecular, granular, and polymorphic. Granule neurons, which are the most prominent type of DG cells, are mainly found in the granular layer. These granule cells are the major source of input of the hippocampal formation, receiving most of their information from layer II of the entorhinal cortex, via the perforant pathway.
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These SuM neurons will co- release glutamate and GABA, but these inputs will not fully excite the granule cells. Although it will not cause an action potential alone, SuM neurons can have excitatory impact on granule cells with the help of perforant path inputs. The perforant pathway are fibers that connect the entorhinal cortex with the hippocampus. This pathway accounts for the major inputs to the hippocampus and dentate gyrus.
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However, CRMP-2 may also be involved in neuronal death as its expression is upregulated during the early stages of dopamine-induced neuronal apoptosis in cerebellar granule neurons.
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The dense granules' matrix is dense with electrons that allow them to be detected through whole mount electron microscopy. The calcium levels within the dense granule allows for no extra staining when viewing the dense granule with an electron microscope. When observed by using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), these granules are osmophilic. The secretion of dense granules can be detected by seeing how much ATP/ADP is being released with luciferase-based luminescence.
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Beta cell with insulin granules, which are the dark black spots surrounded by a white area called a halo. A specific type of granule found in the pancreas is an insulin granule. Insulin is a hormone that helps to regulate the amount of glucose in the blood from getting too high, hyperglycemia, or too low, hypoglycemia. Insulin granules are secretory granules, which can release their contents from the cell into the bloodstream.
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The axons that make up the pathway emerge from the basal portions of the granule cells and pass through the hilus (or polymorphic cell layer) of the dentate gyrus before entering the stratum lucidum of CA3. Granule cell synapses tend to be glutamatergic (i.e. excitatory), though immunohistological data has indicated that some synapses contain neuropeptidergic elements including opiate peptides such as dynorphin and enkephalin. There is also evidence for co-localization of both GABAergic (i.e.
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EGOT, also known as Eosinophil Granule Ontogeny (EGO)† Transcript (non-protein coding), is a human gene at 3p26.1 that produces a long noncoding RNA molecule. EGOT is nested within an intron of the inositol triphosphate receptor type 1 (ITPR1) gene. The EGOT transcript is expressed during eosinophil development and is possibly involved in regulating eosinophil granule protein expression. Comparison of EGO-B, the spliced isoform, suggests EGOT may be conserved across placental mammals.
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In cell biology, a granule is a small particle. It can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle.
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Interchromatin granule clusters (IGCs) have been proposed to be stockpiles of fully mature snRNPs and other RNA processing components that are ready to be used in the production of mRNA.
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Layer 4 granule cells of the cerebral cortex receive inputs from the thalamus and send projections to supragranular layers 2–3, but also to infragranular layers of the cerebral cortex.
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RNA 2',3'-cyclic phosphate and 5'-OH ligase is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RTCB gene. It is found in the stress granule of cells.
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They are poorly understood, but like Q-type calcium channels, they appear to be present in cerebellar granule cells. They have a high threshold of activation and relatively slow kinetics.
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It was discovered in 1817 on Mt. Somma, part of the Vesuvius complex in Italy, and named from the Greek for "granule", which is a common habit for this mineral.
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Gephyronic acid may have a direct or indirect effect on translation initiation factor eIF2α, which would trap mRNA into nonfunctional initiation complexes, inhibiting both P-body and stress granule formation.
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Unipolar brush cells (UBCs) are a class of excitatory glutamatergic interneuron found in the granular layer of the cerebellar cortex and also in the granule cell domain of the cochlear nucleus.
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Later, however, it was found to have many beneficial uses and has since been used as an ingredient in brick-making, mixed cement, granule-covered shingles, and even as a fertilizer.
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Each mossy fiber sends collateral branches to several cerebellar folia, generating a total of 20–30 rosettes; thus a single mossy fiber makes contact with an estimated 400–600 granule cells.
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Although the entire cortical granule composition has yet to be identified, the following molecules have been associated as mammalian cortical granule content: Glycosylated components: Mammalian cortical granules have been shown to contain high levels of carbohydrates. Furthermore, many of these carbohydrates are components of glycosolated molecules such as mannosylated proteins, α-D-acetylgalactosamine, N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetyllactosamine, N-acetylneuraminic acid, D-N-acetylgalactosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine, and N-glycolylneuraminic acid. Certain mannosylated proteins, for instance, are thought to contribute to the cortical granule's envelope structure. Proteinases: The proteinases present in mammalian cortical granules primarily serve to modify the zona pelucida during the zona reaction. Some associated cortical granule proteinases are the trypsin-like proteinase, ZP2 proteinase, and tissue-type plasminogen activator (tPA).
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Both epilepsy and depression show a disrupted production of adult-born hippocampal granule cells. Epilepsy is associated with increased production - but aberrant integration - of new cells early in the disease and decreased production late in the disease. Aberrant integration of adult-generated cells during the development of epilepsy may impair the ability of the dentate gyrus to prevent excess excitatory activity from reaching hippocampal pyramidal cells, thereby promoting seizures. Long- lasting epileptic seizure stimulate dentate granule cell neurogenesis.
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Granule cells in the dentate gyrus process sensory information using competitive learning, and relay a preliminary representation to form place fields. Place fields are extremely specific, as they are capable of remapping and adjusting firing rates in response to subtle sensory signal changes. This specificity is critical for pattern separation, as it distinguishes memories from one another. The dentate gyrus shows a specific form of neural plasticity resulting from the ongoing integration of newly formed excitatory granule cells.
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Partial dephosphorylation of the RS domain causes the SR proteins to leave the nucleus and SR proteins with unphosphorylated RS domains are found in the cytosol. SR proteins are located in two different types of nuclear speckles, interchromatin granule clusters and perichromatin fibrils. Interchromatin granule clusters are for the storage and reassembly of pre-mRNA splicing proteins. Perichromatin fibrils are areas of gene transcription and where SR proteins associate with RNA polymerase II for co- transcriptional splicing.
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In animal models, neuronal loss occurs during seizures but in humans, neuronal loss predates the first seizure and does not necessarily continue with seizure activity. The loss of the GABA-mediated inhibitory interneurons may increase the hyperexcitability of neurons of the hippocampus leading to recurrent seizures. According to the "dormant basket cell" hypothesis, mossy cells normally excite basket cells which in turn, inhibit granule cells. Loss of mossy cells lowers the threshold of action potentials of the granule cells.
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There is also evidence of cholinergic effects on granule cells that enhance depolarization of granule cells making them more excitable which in turn increases inhibition of mitral cells. This may contribute to a more specific output from the olfactory bulb that would closer resemble the glomerular odor map. Olfaction is distinct from the other sensory systems where peripheral sensory receptors have a relay in the diencephalon. Therefore, the olfactory bulb plays this role for the olfactory system.
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The impairment of migration of the precursors of cerebellar granule neurons (GCPs) depends on the inhibition of expression of the chemokine CXCL3 consequent to ablation of BTG2. In fact, the transcription of CXCL3 is directly regulated by BTG2, and CXCL3 is able to induce cell-autonomously the migration of cerebellar granule precursors. Treatment with CXCL3 prevents the growth of medulloblastoma lesions in a Shh-type mouse model of medulloblastoma. Thus, CXCL3 is a target for medulloblastoma therapy.
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These high-affinity receptors are located both synaptically and extrasynaptically on the granule cell. The synaptic receptors mediate phasic contraction, duration of around 20-30ms whereas the extrasynapatic receptors mediate tonic inhibition of around 200ms, and are activated by synapse spill over. Additionally the GABA acts on GABA-B receptors which are located presynaptically on the mossy fibre terminal. These inhibit the mossy fibre evoked EPSCs of the granule cell in a temperature and frequency dependent manner.
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The KCNK9 gene is expressed as an ion channel more commonly known as TASK 3. This channel has a varied pattern of expression. TASK 3 is coexpressed with TASK 1 (KCNK3) in the cerebellar granule cells, locus coeruleus, motor neurons, pontine nuclei, some cells in the neocortex, habenula, olfactory bulb granule cells, and cells in the external plexiform layer of the olfactory bulb. TASK-3 channels are also expressed in the hippocampus; both on pyramidal cells and interneurons.
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Long-chain acyl-CoA has the ability to acylate proteins that are essential in the insulin granule fusion. On the other hand, DAG activates PKC that is involved in the insulin secretion.
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It is particularly important in most glutamatergic-mediated synapses as well as GABA-mediated synapses. It plays a role in dendrite formation by melanocytes and in secretory granule priming in insulin secretion.
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The germline granules appear to be ancestral and universally conserved in the germlines of all metazoan phyla. Many germline granule components are part of the piRNA pathway and function to repress transposable elements.
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Network-level study revealed that the granule cells (a.k.a. the parallel fibers) which activated Purkinje cells, also activated the basket cells which subsequently inhibited the effect of Purkinje cells on the downstream network.
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They ascend into the white matter of the cerebellum, where each axon branches to innervate granule cells in several cerebellar folia. In this case, the pathway is so named for a unique synapse formed by its projections, the mossy fiber rosette. Fine branches of the mossy fiber axons twist through the granule cell layer, and slight enlargements giving a knotted appearance indicate synaptic contacts. These contacts have the appearance of a classic Gray's type 1 synapse, indicating they are glutamatergic and excitatory.
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The generic name Staphylococcus is derived from the Greek word "staphyle", meaning bunch of grapes, and "kokkos", meaning granule. The bacteria, when seen under a microscope, appear like a branch of grapes or nuts.
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Proteiniphilum acetatigenes is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming, proteolytic, strictly anaerobic and motile bacterium from the genus of Proteiniphilum which has been isolated from granule sludge from a UASB reactor in China.
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Neutrophil-specific granule deficiency ( previously known as lactoferrin deficiency) is a rare congenital immunodeficiency characterized by an increased risk for pyogenic infections due to defective production of specific granules and gelatinase granules in patient neutrophils.
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Different patterns of mossy finer input will produce unique patterns of activity in granule cells that can be modified by a teaching signal conveyed by the climbing fiber input. David Marr and James Albus suggested that the cerebellum operates as an adaptive filter, altering motor behaviour based on the nature of the sensory input. Since multiple (~200,000) granule cells synapse onto a single Purkinje cell, the effects of each parallel fiber can be altered in response to a “teacher signal” from the climbing fiber input.
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The posterior teeth are twice as wide as the other teeth and have a lanceolate shape. The basal antennal article is expanded, with 5-8 granules. It has highly developed, robust chelipeds and are thinly coated with hair, granulated, show a carpus spine on the inner margin and three small lumps on the distal portion. The dorsal surface of the claw has an inner surface equipped with two pins and an external surface with a squaliform granule; further squaliform granule is located on the proximal carpal joint.
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Platelet structure In terms of the pathophysiology of platelet storage pool deficiency one must consider several factors including the human body's normal function prior to such a deficiency, such as platelet alpha- granules one of three types of platelet secretory granule Platelet α–granules are important in platelet activity, α–granules connect with plasma membrane. This in turn increases the size of the platelet. Platelet α–granules have an important role in hemostasis as well as thrombosis. SNARE accessory proteins control the secretion of α–granule.
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Studies with rodent oocytes suggest that certain cortical granules undergo redistribution and/or exocytosis throughout the meiotic cycle thus establishing the CGFDs. More specifically, evidence includes increased quantities of cortical granules surrounding the CGFDs and a decreased overall quantity of the cell's cortical granules during the meiotic cycle. Additionally, some pre-fertilization cortical granule exocytotic events occur in the cell's cleavage furrow simultaneously with polar body formation. An assortment of hypotheses exist concerning the biological function of CGFDs and pre-fertilization cortical granule exocytosis.
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This is associated with the distribution of the adhesive within the granule and is a function of the method employed to produce the granule. For example, if one were to make tablets from granulated sugar versus powdered sugar, powdered sugar would be difficult to compress into a tablet and granulated sugar would be easy to compress. Powdered sugar’s small particles have poor flow and compression characteristics. These small particles would have to be compressed very slowly for a long period of time to make a worthwhile tablet.
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The action of this circuit is heavily influenced by both short term and long term plasticity and ongoing granule cell neurogenesis. The circuit requires the animal to be awake if it is to have full functionality.
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Reelin-expressing cells in the prenatal and early postnatal brain are predominantly found in the marginal zone (MZ) of the cortex and in the temporary subpial granular layer (SGL), which is manifested to the highest extent in human, and in the hippocampal stratum lacunosum-moleculare and the upper marginal layer of the dentate gyrus. In the developing cerebellum, reelin is expressed first in the external granule cell layer (EGL), before the granule cell migration to the internal granule cell layer (IGL) takes place. Having peaked just after the birth, the synthesis of reelin subsequently goes down sharply, becoming more diffuse compared with the distinctly laminar expression in the developing brain. In the adult brain, reelin is expressed by GABA-ergic interneurons of the cortex and glutamatergic cerebellar neurons, and by the few extant Cajal-Retzius cells.
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Tumor necrosis factor alpha In response to stress, TIA1 translocates from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it nucleates a type of RNA granule, termed the stress granule, and participates in the translational stress response. As part of the translational stress response, TIA1 works in cooperation with other RNA binding proteins to sequester RNA transcripts away from the ribosome, which allows the cell to focus its protein synthesis/RNA translation machinery on producing proteins that will address the particular stress. It has been suggested that this protein may be involved in the induction of apoptosis as it preferentially recognizes poly(A) homopolymers and induces DNA fragmentation in CTL targets. The major granule-associated species is a 15-kDa protein that is thought to be derived from the carboxyl terminus of the 40-kDa product by proteolytic processing.
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Molecules can go down one of three paths: further storage, degradation, or re-initiation of translation.Paul J. Anderson, Brigham and Women's Hospital Conversely, it has also been argued that stress granules are not important sites for mRNA storage nor do they serve as an intermediate location for mRNAs in transit between a state of storage and a state of degradation. Efforts to identify all RNAs within stress granules (the stress granule transcriptome) in an unbiased way by sequencing RNA from biochemically purified stress granule "cores" have shown that RNAs are not recruited to stress granules in a sequence-specific manner, but rather generically, with longer and/or less-optimally translated transcripts being enriched. These data imply that the stress granule transcriptome is influenced the valency of RNA (for proteins or other RNAs) and by the rates of RNA run- off from polysomes.
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Sectors are grouped into blocks called granules which vary in size according to total track capacity of the disk media, though granule size for each disk format is constant. For forty- cylinder disks formatted in double density, standard for the drives installed in the TRS-80 Models III and 4, the granule size is six 256-byte sectors, or 1.5 KB. Each track has three granules for 4.5 KB of storage. Each side (surface) of the disk is normally formatted with 40 tracks, yielding 180 KB per side.
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En passant boutons with 25-35 synaptic connections and filopodial extensions with 12-17 make up a significant portion of total granule cell synaptic terminals and are mainly responsible for the excitation of GABAergic interneurons. The type of synaptic terminal expressed therefore dictates the downstream targeting of granule cells. The high convergence onto pyramidal cells and divergent projections onto interneurons suggests a primarily modulatory role for the mossy fiber pathway in the hippocampus. The synapses of the mossy fibers contain zinc, which can be stained with a Timm staining.
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The dentate gyrus receives excitatory projections from neurons in layer II of the entorhinal cortex as well as input from surrounding neuroglia. The unmyelinated granule cell axons of the mossy fiber pathway express both GABA receptors and glutamate receptors along their membranes that allow them to be modulated by both excitatory and inhibitory input from nearby glial cells. Axons from the entorhinal cortex synapse primarily on the dendritic spines of outer layer dentate granule cells. The entorhinal cortex passes sensory information from neocortical structures to the hippocampal formation.
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The local field potentials of the neocortex and cerebellum oscillate coherently at (6–40 Hz) in awake behaving animals. These appear to be under the control of output from the cerebral cortex. This output would be mediated by a pathway from layer 5/6 neurons in the neocortex through that project either to the pons or the inferior olive. If through the pons this would go to mossy fibers that synapse with granule and Golgi neurons with the granule cells then targeting Purkinje neurons via their excitatory parallel fibers.
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The most popular concept of their function was proposed in 1969 by David Marr, who suggested that they could encode combinations of mossy fiber inputs. The idea is that with each granule cell receiving input from only 4–5 mossy fibers, a granule cell would not respond if only a single one of its inputs were active, but would respond if more than one were active. This combinatorial coding scheme would potentially allow the cerebellum to make much finer distinctions between input patterns than the mossy fibers alone would permit.
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The trisynaptic circuit consists of excitatory cells (mostly stellate cells) in layer II of the entorhinal cortex, projecting to the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus via the perforant path. The dentate gyrus receives no direct inputs from other cortical structures. The perforant path is divided into the medial and lateral perforant paths, generated, respectively, at the medial and lateral portions of the entorhinal cortex. The medial perforant path synapses onto the proximal dendritic area of the granule cells, whereas the lateral perforant path does so onto their distal dendrites.
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As previously mentioned, Math1 is expressed early in the development of the RL. Knock-out experiments involving RU49/Zipro1 lead to very little change in brain structure, but over-expression of these genes leads to a dramatic increase in the amount of granule cells and in the proliferation of the outer EGL. This result suggests that the RU49/Zipro1 gene plays a sufficient role in cell proliferation. ::Around P15, granule cell proliferation requires interaction with Purkinje cells, a type of cerebellar neuron characterized by a large and branching dendritic arbor.
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Importantly, the converse is also true. Stress granules appear able to stimulate tau pathology, leading to the hypothesis that Alzheimer's disease occurs in part because of a hyperactive stress granule response stimulated by chronic diseases and/or genetic changes, which results in abundant tau pathology and subsequent neurodegeneration. The stress granule/LLPS hypothesis is important because it identifies new directions for therapeutic intervention for tauopathies and other neurodegenerative diseases. Dr. Wolozin has developed methods to analyze the pathological RNA granules and stress granules that accumulate in brain diseases.
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As part of the DNA damage response during induction of cellular senescence, cells upregulate the expression of NKG2D ligands that enable NK-mediated killing of senescent cells via the granule exocytosis pathway.Sagiv A, Biran A, Yon M, Simon J, Lowe SW, Krizhanovsky V. (2013). Granule exocytosis mediates immune surveillance of senescent cells Oncogene, 32, 1971–197, doi:10.1038/onc.2012.206 Specifically, MICA and ULBP2 proteins on senescent cells are recognized by the NKG2D receptor on Natural Killer cells, which is necessary for efficient recognition and elimination of senescent cells.
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The second set of inputs is relayed through a set of small granule cells in the cochlear nucleus. There are also a great number of neighbouring cartwheel cells.Wouterlood FG and Mugnaini E. Cartwheel neurons of the dorsal cochlear nucleus: a Golgi-electron microscopic study in rat. J.Comp Neurol 1984 Jul20;227(1) The granule cells in turn are the target of a number of different inputs, including both those involved in auditory processing and, at least in lower mammals, somatosensory inputs associated with the head, the ear, and the jaw.
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An example of the physiological role of axo-axonic synapses, which are formed by GABAergic inhibitory interneurons to the axons of granule cells, is in eliciting spontaneous seizures, which is a key symptom of Intractable Epilepsy. The presynaptic inhibitory interneurons, which can be labeled by cholecystokinin and GAT-1, are found to modulate the granule cells’s spike output. The same cells subsequently project excitatory mossy fibers to pyramidal neurons in the hippocampal CA3 region. One of the two leading theories for the pathoetiology of schizophrenia is the glutamate theory.
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These small vesicles will fuse with one another to form mature cortical granules, which are thus established as separate entities from the Golgi. In some organisms, such as in hamsters, the secreted vesicle from the Golgi may fuse with a secreted vesicle from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to ultimately form a cortical granule. In mammals, the oocyte continuously produces and translocates cortical granules to the cortex until ovulation occurs. It has been shown in both mammalian and non-mammalian animal models that cortical granule migration depends on cytoskeleton processes, particularly microfilament activity.
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Furosemide has been reported to reversibly antagonize GABA-evoked currents of α6β2γ2 receptors at μM concentrations, but not α1β2γ2 receptors. During development, the α6β2γ2 receptor increases in expression in cerebellar granule neurons, corresponding to increased sensitivity to furosemide.
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Formation and examples of nuclear membraneless compartments Stress granule dynamics Many examples of biomolecular condensates have been characterized in the cytoplasm and the nucleus that are thought to arise by either liquid- liquid or liquid-solid phase separation.
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In 2015, producing assets are expected to produce between 80 - 85 kt of copper cathode, between 90 - 95 kt of zinc in concentrate, between 42 - 47 koz of gold bar and between 2,250 - 2,500 kox of silver granule.
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Kalkitoxin is ichthyotoxic to goldfish (Carassius auratus, LC50: 700nM) and to aquatic crustacean brine shrimp (Artemia salina, LC50: 150-180nM ). Kalkitoxin also has been shown to have delayed neurotoxic effects on cerebellar granule cells of the rat (LC50: 3,86nM).
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The gymnosphaerids (or Gymnosphaerida) are a small group of heliozoan protists found in marine environments. They tend to be roughly spherical with radially directed axopods, supported by microtubules in a triangular-hexagonal array arising from an amorphous central granule.
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Soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion attachment protein receptor SNARE complex mediates this process. Different SNARE proteins interact to form different complexes that catalyze fusion. Rab3 guanosine triphosphatases and Rab-associated kinases and phosphatases regulate granule membrane fusion in resting mast cells.
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Eosinophil cationic protein and the sequence related eosinophil-derived neurotoxin (RNASE2) are both members of the ribonuclease a superfamily. Both proteins possess neurotoxic, helmintho-toxic, and ribonucleo-lytic activities. Eosinophil cationic protein is localized to the granule matrix of the eosinophil.
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The exact encoding of the granule position is up to a specific codec. The following 4 bytes are the stream serial number to which this page belongs. Each logical stream must have a unique serial number within a physical stream.
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Although the brains in these mice appeared to develop normally, researchers observed atrophy of the cerebellum, and Purkinje neurons appeared to degenerate. Granule cells also showed a 6 times increased rate of apoptosis. Behaviorally, the mice expressed motor and neurophysiological impairment.
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Peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD/ABL2 antigen/p75): Peptidylarginine deiminiase is a secretory protein within the cortical granule that contributes to regulation of the embryo's development prior to the event of implantation. Peptidylarginine deiminase's alternative name, p75, refers to its molecular weight, 75kDa.
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While some early hourglasses actually did use sand as the granular mixture to measure time, many did not use sand at all. The material used in most bulbs was a combination of "powdered marble, tin/lead oxides, and pulverized, burnt eggshell". Over time, different textures of granule matter were tested to see which gave the most constant flow within the bulbs. It was later discovered that for the perfect flow to be achieved the ratio of granule bead to the width of the bulb neck needed to be 1/12 or more but not greater than 1/2 the neck of the bulb.
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Decreased reelin expression in the hippocampal tissue samples from patients with temporal lobe epilepsy was found to be directly correlated with the extent of granule cell dispersion (GCD), a major feature of the disease that is noted in 45%–73% of patients. The dispersion, according to a small study, is associated with the RELN promoter hypermethylation. According to one study, prolonged seizures in a rat model of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy have led to the loss of reelin-expressing interneurons and subsequent ectopic chain migration and aberrant integration of newborn dentate granule cells. Without reelin, the chain-migrating neuroblasts failed to detach properly.
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In the adult brain, the endocannabinoid system facilitates the neurogenesis of hippocampal granule cells. In the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, multipotent neural progenitors (NP) give rise to daughter cells that, over the course of several weeks, mature into granule cells whose axons project to and synapse onto dendrites on the CA3 region. NPs in the hippocampus have been shown to possess fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and express CB1 and utilize 2-AG. Intriguingly, CB1 activation by endogenous or exogenous cannabinoids promote NP proliferation and differentiation; this activation is absent in CB1 knockouts and abolished in the presence of antagonist.
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His graduate studies in 1963 of the electrophysiology of the olfactory bulb produced one of the first diagrams of a brain microcircuit. Building on this work he collaborated with Wilfrid Rall, just then founding the new field of computational neuroscience, at NIH to construct the first computational models of brain neurons: the mitral and granule cell. This predicted previously unknown dendrodendritic interactions between the mitral and granule cells, subsequently confirmed by electronmicroscopy. These interactions were hypothesized to mediate lateral inhibition in the processing of the sensory input as well as generate oscillatory activity involved in odor processing.
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Adaptive fuzzy fitness granulation (AFFG) is a proposed solution to constructing an approximate model of the fitness function in place of traditional computationally expensive large-scale problem analysis like (L-SPA) in the Finite element method or iterative fitting of a Bayesian network structure. In adaptive fuzzy fitness granulation, an adaptive pool of solutions, represented by fuzzy granules, with an exactly computed fitness function result is maintained. If a new individual is sufficiently similar to an existing known fuzzy granule, then that granule's fitness is used instead as an estimate. Otherwise, that individual is added to the pool as a new fuzzy granule.
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The cell bodies are packed into a thick granular layer at the bottom of the cerebellar cortex. A granule cell emits only four to five dendrites, each of which ends in an enlargement called a dendritic claw. These enlargements are sites of excitatory input from mossy fibers and inhibitory input from Golgi cells. The thin, unmyelinated axons of granule cells rise vertically to the upper (molecular) layer of the cortex, where they split in two, with each branch traveling horizontally to form a parallel fiber; the splitting of the vertical branch into two horizontal branches gives rise to a distinctive "T" shape.
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Although Human polyomavirus 2 infection is classically associated with white matter demyelination and PML pathogenesis, recent literature has identified viral variants as etiological agents of other novel syndromes. For example, Human polyomavirus 2 has been found to infect the granule cell layer of the cerebellum, while sparing purkinje fibers, ultimately causing severe cerebellar atrophy. This syndrome, called JCV granule cell layer neuronopathy (JCV GCN), is characterized by a productive and lytic infection by a JC variant with a mutation in the VP1 coding region. Human polyomavirus 2 also appears to mediate encephalopathy, due to infection of cortical pyramidal neurons (CPN) and astrocytes.
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Recently, the biophysics of RNA granule formation has been shown to fall under the aegis of a general property, termed liquid liquid phase separation (LLPS). LLPS occurs when RNA binding proteins associate to form structures analogous to liquid droplets, which separate from surrounding aqueous medium. The Wolozin laboratory has extended this work to explain the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease Work from the Wolozin laboratory demonstrates that the pathology occurring in neurons (neurofibrillary tangles) is associated with RNA binding proteins. This appears to occur because tau (the main building block of neurofibrillary tangles) stimulates stress granule formation.
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However, this is not the case, indicating that proliferation is balanced by cell death. Thus, it is not the addition of new neurons into the hippocampus that seems to be linked to hippocampal functions, but rather the rate of turnover of granule cells.
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These mitral cells become increasingly responsive to the learned odor, and this increased response stimulates increased release of glutamate and GABA between these excitatory mitral cells and inhibitory granule cells.Kendrick, K.M. et al., 1997. Formation of olfactory memories mediated by nitric oxide.
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In the brain, C8orf34 is expressed in the dentate gyrus, epithalamus, and medulla. In the mouse brain, an orthologous C8orf34 is expressed highly in the granule layer of the dentate gyrus, the somatosensory areas of the cerebral cortex and in the amygdala.
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In Xenopus laevis, the specification of the three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm) occurs at the blastula stage.Heasman, J., Quarmby, J., and Wylie, C.C. (1984). The mitochondrial cloud of Xenopus oocytes: the source of germinal granule material. Dev Biol 105, 458-469.
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Several alternatively spliced transcript variants of this gene have been described, but the full-length nature of some of these variants has not been determined. G3BP1 can initiate stress granule formation and labeled G3BP1 is commonly used as a marker for stress granules.
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Serglycin, also known as hematopoietic proteoglycan core protein or secretory granule proteoglycan core protein, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SRGN gene. It is primarily expressed in hematopoietic cells and endothelial cells, and is the only known intracellular proteoglycan.
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F1000Research, 7, 236. doi:10.12688/f1000research.13283.1 There is a granular adenine nucleotide pool within the dense granule. It is thought that it is made up of system of insoluble calcium. This pool is likely to be different than that of the cytoplasmic nucleotides.
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Deinococcus (from the , deinos, "dreadful, strange" and κόκκος, kókkos, "granule") is one genusBrooks BW, Murray RGE (1981) Nomenclature for" Micrococcus radiodurans" and other radiation-resistant cocci: Deinococcaceae fam. nov. and Deinococcus gen. nov., including five species. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 31: 353.
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The levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by many tissues, but the cells in the pancreatic islets are among the most well understood and important. Granule docking is an important glucose-dependent step in human insulin secretion that is dysregulated in T2D.
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Chronic ethanol administration decreases phosphorylation of cyclic AMP response element- binding protein in granule cells of rat cerebellum. J Neurochem, 70, 224–232. Withdrawal following chronic exposure decreases levels of CRE-DNA binding and p-CREB.Pandey, S.C., Zhang, D., Mittal, N., Nayyar, D. (1999).
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Coronal image of mouse main olfactory bulb cell nuclei. Blue – Glomerular layer; Red – External Plexiform and Mitral cell layer; Green – Internal Plexiform and Granule cell layer. Top of image is dorsal aspect, right of image is lateral aspect. Scale, ventral to dorsal, is approximately 2mm.
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Shepherd's odor imaging studies were extended by use of high-field functional MRI (7 and 9 Tesla), work started with his longtime colleague Charles Greer and members of the Yale Imaging Center. The lab has introduced viral tracing methods to reveal widely dispersed clusters of granule cells which are hypothesized to be necessary for processing the distributed glomeruli activated by odor stimuli. These experimental data were used to build novel 3D computational models of the distributed mitral and granule cell circuits, to obtain insight into the nature of the processing that underlies smell perception.Migliore M, Shepherd GM; Dendritic action potentials connect distributed dendrodendritic circuits J Comp Neurosci 24(2):207-21.
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More neurotransmitter is released from the activated mitral cell to the connected dendrite of the granule cell, making the inhibitory effect from the granule cell to the activated mitral cell stronger than the surrounding mitral cells. It is not clear what the functional role of lateral inhibition would be, though it may be involved in boosting the signal-to-noise ratio of odor signals by silencing the basal firing rate of surrounding non-activated neurons. This in turn aids in odor discrimination. Other research suggest that the lateral inhibition contributes to differentiated odor responses, which aids in the processing and perception of distinct odors.
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There are currently two hypotheses for the mechanism. It might be a consequence of a migration disorder, and the first hypothesis considers an initial injury that release toxin(s) that affect the normal migration of granule cells. The second hypothesis concerns the role of reelin (see below).
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This outermost layer of the cerebellar cortex contains two types of inhibitory interneurons: the stellate and basket cells. It also contains the dendritic arbors of Purkinje neurons and parallel fiber tracts from the granule cells. Both stellate and basket cells form GABAergic synapses onto Purkinje cell dendrites.
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The function of Birbeck granules is debated, but one theory is that they migrate to the periphery of the Langerhans cells and release their contents into the extracellular matrix. Another theory is that the Birbeck granule functions in receptor-mediated endocytosis, similar to clathrin-coated pits.
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The subgranular zone (in rat brain). (A) Regions of the dentate gyrus: the hilus, subgranular zone (sgz), granule cell layer (GCL), and molecular layer (ML). Cells were stained for doublecortin (DCX). (B) Closeup of subgranular zone, located between the hilus and GCL, a site of adult neurogenesis.
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The other four nuclei (the external cuneate nucleus, the lateral reticular nucleus, the pontine nucleus, and the thalamic reticular nucleus) project mossy fibers to innervate granule neurons. Meanwhile, cells in the ventricular zone evolve into GABAergic Purkinje cells (another type of cerebellar neuron) and deep cerebellar nuclei.
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If the cause is unknown, it is specified and called "simple pulmonary eosinophilia". Cardiac damage caused by the damaging effects of eosinophil granule proteins (ex. major basic protein) is known as Loeffler endocarditis and can be caused by idiopathic eosinophilia or eosinophilia in response to parasitic infection.
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1661 Granule, also designated , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 7 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 31 March 1916, by German astronomer Max Wolf at Heidelberg Observatiry in southern Germany, and named for American pathologist Edward Gall.
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In January 2006, the first rotational light-curve of Granule was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer René Roy. It gave a longer-than average rotation period of 24 hours with a brightness variation of 0.15 magnitude (). No other light-curves have been obtained yet.
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Transmission electron micrograph showing a species of the cyanobacteria Synechococcus. The carboxysomes appear as polyhedral dark structures. Synechococcus (from the Greek synechos, in succession, and the Greek kokkos, granule) is a unicellular cyanobacterium that is very widespread in the marine environment. Its size varies from 0.8 to 1.5 µm.
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Plasticity of the synapse between a parallel fiber and a Purkinje cell is believed to be important for motor learning. The function of cerebellar circuits is entirely dependent on processes carried out by the granular layer. Therefore, the function of granule cells determines the cerebellar function as a whole.
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One pathway is the cytotoxic protein pathway. In this pathway perforins and granzymes are taken up by the target cell. In this pathway, the perforins facilitate the entry of granule contents into the cell. The granzymes then activate the endogenous apoptosis pathway, which induces cell death without necrosis.
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Starch undergoes gelatinization as a result of baking. Prior to baking, starch granules absorb a small amount of water at room temperature as it is mixed with water to form predough. As long as the dough’s temperature stays under the gelatinization temperature, this granule swelling is limited and reversible.
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The following are common classifications of crumb rubber: Retreaders tire buffings shall consist of clean, fresh, dry buffings from tire retread preparation operations. No.1 - Tire Granule shall consist of granulated tire crumb, Black Only Guaranteed MetalFree, sized. Magnetically separated materials are not acceptable. Fluff from tire cord removed.
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Starch granules are very common in chloroplasts, typically taking up 15% of the organelle's volume, though in some other plastids like amyloplasts, they can be big enough to distort the shape of the organelle. Starch granules are simply accumulations of starch in the stroma, and are not bounded by a membrane. Starch granules appear and grow throughout the day, as the chloroplast synthesizes sugars, and are consumed at night to fuel respiration and continue sugar export into the phloem, though in mature chloroplasts, it is rare for a starch granule to be completely consumed or for a new granule to accumulate. Starch granules vary in composition and location across different chloroplast lineages.
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PTPkappa mRNA is also observed in the adult mouse cerebellum. Using a β-galactosidase (β-gal) reporter gene inserted into the phosphatase domain of the murine PTPkappa (PTPRK) gene, Shen and colleagues determined the detailed expression pattern of endogenous PTPRK. β-gal activity was observed in many areas of the adult forebrain, including layers II and IV, and to a lesser extent in layer VI of the cortex. β-gal activity was also observed in apical dendrites of cortical pyramidal cells, the granule layer of the olfactory and accessory olfactory bulbs, the anterior hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, and in granule and pyramidal layers of the dentate gyrus and CA 1-3 regions of the hippocampus.
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Ultrasound image of the fetal head at 19 weeks of pregnancy in a modified axial section, showing the normal fetal cerebellum and cisterna magna Congenital malformation, hereditary disorders, and acquired conditions can affect cerebellar structure and, consequently, cerebellar function. Unless the causative condition is reversible, the only possible treatment is to help people live with their problems. Visualization of the fetal cerebellum by ultrasound scan at 18 to 20 weeks of pregnancy can be used to screen for fetal neural tube defects with a sensitivity rate of up to 99%. In normal development, endogenous sonic hedgehog signaling stimulates rapid proliferation of cerebellar granule neuron progenitors (CGNPs) in the external granule layer (EGL).
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Correspondingly, it has been proposed that the immature, newborn granule cells are receptive to form new synaptic connections with the axons arriving from the layer II of the entorhinal cortex, this way a particular new constellation of events is remembered as an episodic memory by first associating the events in the young granule cells that have the appropriate, permissive age. This concept is reinforced by the fact that increased neurogenesis is associated with improved spatial memory in rodents, as seen through performance in a maze. The dentate gyrus is known to serve as a pre-processing unit. While the CA3 subfield is involved in encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory, the dentate gyrus is important in pattern separation.
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Pharmacologically, it decreases the sympathetic stimulation on cardiac muscle predominantly through partial depletion of catecholamine via competitive inhibition of reuptake by storage granule, which lead to further depletion due to spontaneous leakage as a result of disturbance of equilibrium. This depletion mechanism is similar to reserpine because both agents target the same site on storage granule, however prenylamine shows a high affinity for cardiac tissue while reserpine is more selective toward brain tissue. Prenylamine also slows cardiac metabolism via calcium transport delay by blockade of magnesium-dependent calcium transport ATPase. It also demonstrate a beta blocker-like activity that result in reduction of heart rate however shows opposing effect on tracheal tissue response.
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Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 3 (CXCL3) is a small cytokine belonging to the CXC chemokine family that is also known as GRO3 oncogene (GRO3), GRO protein gamma (GROg) and macrophage inflammatory protein-2-beta (MIP2b). CXCL3 controls migration and adhesion of monocytes and mediates its effects on its target cell by interacting with a cell surface chemokine receptor called CXCR2. More recently, it has been shown that Cxcl3 regulates cell autonomously the migration of the precursors of cerebellar granule neurons toward the internal layers of cerebellum, during the morphogenesis of cerebellum. Moreover, if the expression of Cxcl3 is reduced in cerebellar granule neuron precursors, this highly enhances the frequency of the medulloblastoma, the tumor of cerebellum.
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The use of thermoset plastic compounds characterizes this molding process from many of the other molding processes. These thermosets can be in either preform or granule shapes. Unlike some of the other processes we find that the materials are usually preheated and measured before molding. This helps to reduce excess flash.
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Sodium chlorate comes in dust, spray and granule formulations. Mixtures of chlorates and organic compounds pose a severe risk of explosions Marketed formulations contain a fire retardant. Most commercially available chlorate weedkillers contain approximately 53% sodium chlorate with the balance being a fire depressant such as sodium metaborate or ammonium phosphates.
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The encoded protein may be essential for terminal differentiation and functional maturation of committed granulocyte progenitor cells. Mutations in this gene have been associated with specific granule deficiency, a rare congenital disorder. Multiple variants of this gene have been described, but the full-length nature of only one has been determined.
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In 2011, Park and Dolan first observed the transformation of activated sludge into oxygenic photogranule (OPG).,Park C, Dolan S. Algal- sludge granule for wastewater treatment and bioenergy feedstock generation. Patent Cooperation Treaty WO 2015112654 A2, 2015. when incubated in unagitated and sealed vials exposed to natural light for several months.
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By heating the ground, cleaned feedstock, starch gelatinization takes place: the intermolecular bonds of the starch molecules are broken down, allowing the hydrogen bonding sites to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule, so the chains begin to separate into an amorphous form. This prepares the starch for hydrolysis.
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Some recipes also add a chopped citrus leaf. The spiced batter, mixed or sprinkled with the granule ingredients, is deep fried in hot coconut oil. The flour batter acts as a binding agent for the granules (peanuts, anchovy, shrimp, etc.). It hardens upon frying and turns into a golden brown and crispy cracker.
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Coconut sugar comes in crystal or granule form, block or liquid. Producing coconut sugar is a two-step process. It starts with harvesting or "tapping" the flower bud stem of a coconut tree. Farmers make a cut on the spadix and the sap starts to flow from the cut into bamboo containers.
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These are hollow tubes and so appear as "tramlines" in this confocal image. Most of the DNA is in the nuclei of cerebellum granule cells, which are small interneurons. Image and antibody stain from EnCor Biotechnology Inc. Myelination is only prevalent in a few brain regions at birth and continues into adulthood.
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The phagocyte then stretches itself around the bacterium and engulfs it. Phagocytosis of bacteria by human neutrophils takes on average nine minutes. Once inside this phagocyte, the bacterium is trapped in a compartment called a phagosome. Within one minute the phagosome merges with either a lysosome or a granule to form a phagolysosome.
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The glomerulus in the granular layer of the cerebellum The cerebellar glomerulus is a small, intertwined mass of nerve fiber terminals in the granular layer of the cerebellar cortex. It consists of post-synaptic granule cell dendrites and pre-synaptic Golgi cell axon terminals surrounding the pre- synaptic terminals of mossy fibers.
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Dispersion of the granule cell layer in the hippocampal dentate gyrus is occasionally seen in temporal lobe epilepsy and has been linked to the downregulation of reelin, a protein that normally keeps the layer compact by containing neuronal migration. It is unknown whether changes in reelin expression play a role in epilepsy.
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The olfactory bulb is, along with both the subventricular zone and the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, one of only three structures in the brain observed to undergo continuing neurogenesis in adult mammals. In most mammals, new neurons are born from neural stem cells in the sub-ventricular zone and migrate rostrally towards the main and accessory olfactory bulbs. Within the olfactory bulb these immature neuroblasts develop into fully functional granule cell interneurons and periglomerular cell interneurons that reside in the granule cell layer and glomerular layers, respectively. The olfactory sensory neuron axons that form synapses in olfactory bulb glomeruli are also capable of regeneration following regrowth of an olfactory sensory neuron residing in the olfactory epithelium.
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The primary function of stromules is still unresolved, although the presence of stromules markedly increases the plastid surface area, potentially increasing transport to and from the cytosol. Other functions of stromules, such as transfer of macromolecules between plastids and starch granule formation in cereal endosperm, may be restricted to particular tissues and cell types.
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Mechanism of platelet dense granule biogenesis: study of cargo transport and function of Rab32 and Rab38 in a model system. Blood, 120(19), 4072–4081. doi:10.1182/blood-2012-04-420745 Dense granules are a sub group of lysosome- related organelles (LRO). There are about three to eight of these in a normal human platelet.
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An interchromatin granule is a cluster in the nucleus of a mammal cell which is enriched in pre-mRNA splicing factors. Interchromatin granules are located in the interchromatin regions of the mammalian Cell nuclei. They usually appear as irregularly shaped structures that vary in size and number. They can be observed by immunofluorescence microscopy.
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Nanos is required to prevent mitosis and somatic differentiation and for the pole cells to migrate to function as PGCs (see next section). Gcl is necessary (but not sufficient) for pole cell formation. In addition to these genes, Pgc polar granule component blocks phosphorylation and consequently activation of RNA polymerase II and shuts down transcription.
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The actual signal sent through these projection cells has been sharpened or filtered by a process called lateral inhibition. Both the periglomerular cells and the granule cells contribute to lateral inhibition. Projection neurons therefore transmit a sharpened olfactory signal to the deeper parts of the brain. Tufted cells project onto the anterior piriform cortex.
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The protein product of ABHD18 in humans is predicted to be a secreted product. It is ubiquitously expressed at low to moderate levels. In humans, the protein is found at high levels the digestive tract and parathyroid gland. The homologous mouse protein 3110057O12Rik is expressed at high levels in the granule layer of the cerebellum.
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Most lateral views of the dentate gyrus may appear to suggest a structure consisting of just one entity, but medial movement may provide evidence of the ventral and dorsal parts of the dentate gyrus. The axons of the granule cells called mossy fibres, make excitatory synaptic connections with the pyramidal cells of CA3 and CA1.
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Tryptase (, ) is the most abundant secretory granule-derived serine proteinase contained in mast cells and has been used as a marker for mast cell activation. Club cells contain tryptase, which is believed to be responsible for cleaving the hemagglutinin surface protein of influenza A virus, thereby activating it and causing the symptoms of flu.
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The effects of HLTx on voltage-dependent calcium channels have been tested in granule cells of the cerebellum. In these cells, HLTx inhibits up to 67% of the calcium currents, acting on multiple subtypes. This inhibition is reversible, concentration-dependent and practically voltage- independent. No effects on the activation and inactivation kinetics were observed.
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Purkinje cells send the inhibitive information by obtaining learning information from parallel fibers of granule cells. This model of APGs is useful in that it effectively describes the motor learning process. Motor primitives are another proposed module of motor learning. This information was found by electrical stimulation of the lumbar spinal cord in rats and frogs.
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The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek , , "thread", and , , "granule" or "grain- like". Mitochondria generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. A mitochondrion is thus termed the powerhouse of the cell. Mitochondria are commonly between 0.75 and 3 μm² in area but vary considerably in size and structure.
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Postnatal taurine deficiency in the kitten results in a persistence of the cerebellar external granule cell layer: correction by taurine feeding. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 13(4), 521-528. As it is an indispensable amino acid, it must be provided exogenously through the diet at 10 mg/kg bodyweight/day.Burger, I. H., & Barnett, K. C. (1982).
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451x451px Kalkitoxin induces delayed neuronal necrosis in cerebellar granule cells of the rat. This neuronal necrosis proved to be NMDA-receptor mediated. These receptors are normally activated by glutamate and other excitotoxic compounds and can induce neuronal necrosis. It is not yet known if the toxin induces necrosis directly or via the release of excitotoxic compounds.
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Magnolysin (, bovine neurosecretory granule protease cleaving pro- oxytocin/neurophysin, pro-oxytocin/neurophysin convertase, prooxyphysin proteinase, pro-oxytocin convertase) is an enzyme. This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction : Hydrolysis of polypeptides with Arg or Lys in P1 and P2, e.g. to hydrolyse pro-oxytocin at -Lys-Arg-Ala-Val-. This endopeptidase is present in bovine pituitary neurosecretory granules.
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Sensory information relayed from the pons through the mossy fibers to the granule cells is then sent along the parallel fibers to the Purkinje cells for processing. Extensive branching in white matter and synapses to granular cells ensures that input from a single mossy fiber axon will influence processing in a very large number of Purkinje cells.
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Neutrophils have three strategies for directly attacking micro-organisms: phagocytosis (ingestion), release of soluble anti- microbials (including granule proteins), and generation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Neutrophils are professional phagocytes:Robinson p. 187 and Ernst pp. 7–10 they are ferocious eaters and rapidly engulf invaders coated with antibodies and complement, as well as damaged cells or cellular debris.
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The outer edge of the granules is darker due to the cooler descending plasma. A typical granule has a diameter on the order of 1,000 kilometers and each lasts 8 to 20 minutes before dissipating. Below the photosphere is a layer of much larger "supergranules" up to 30,000 kilometers in diameter, with lifespans of up to 24 hours.
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The astrocytes are the primary precursors for rapid cell amplification. The neuroblasts form tight chains and migrate towards the specified site of cell damage to repair or replace neural cells. One example is a neuroblast migrating towards the olfactory bulb to differentiate into periglomercular or granule neurons which have a radial migration pattern rather than a tangential one.
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Kanike or कनिका in Hindi, literally translates as a 'granule'. It is usually a tiny gift, made of paper, left to please the gods. Its origins go back over 2000 years. The practice of leaving a Kanike may have stemmed from Jainism, although it is mainly associated with Hinduism, especially lesser Gods, such as Chelamma, the scorpion Goddess.
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Each of the members (GRIA1–4) include flip and flop isoforms generated by alternative RNA splicing. The receptor subunits encoded by each isoform vary in their signal transduction properties. The isoform presented here is the flop isoform. In situ hybridization experiments showed that human GRIA1 mRNA is present in granule and pyramidal cells in the hippocampal formation.
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The first step in malt granule production is to produce a wort in a brewery. This wort is then dried (using a process such as the fluid bed technique, yielding the wort in a dried, granular form). Dissolving these granules will reproduce the original wort, retaining aroma compounds. This reconstituted wort can then be used in further brewing processes.
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Trichloroisocyanuric acid is an organic compound with the formula (C3Cl3N3O3). It is used as an industrial disinfectant, bleaching agent and a reagent in organic synthesis. This white crystalline powder, which has a strong "chlorine odour," is sometimes sold in tablet or granule form for domestic and industrial use. Salts of trichloroisocyanuric acid are known as trichloroisocyanurates.
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Thrombopoietin stimulates megakaryopoiesis, the process of megakaryocyte maturation and differentiation. Thrombopoietin, upon release, binds to its receptor, c-mpl, found on megakaryocyte progenitor cells. Following binding, intracellular signalling leads to megakaryocyte growth, maturation, membrane stability, platelet granule formation and the demarcation of the cytoplasm into regions destined to fragment into mature platelets. These "proplatelet processes" further fragment into platelets.
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Environmental stressors trigger cellular signaling which eventually leads to the formation of stress granules. In vitro, these stressors can include heat, cold, oxidative stress (sodium arsenite), endoplasmic reticulum stress (thapsigargin), proteasome inhibition (MG132), hyperosmotic stress, ultraviolet radiation, inhibition of eIF4A (pateamine A, hippuristanol, or RocA), nitric oxide accumulation after treatment with 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1), perturbation of pre-mRNA splicing, and other stressors like puromycin that result in disassembled polysomes. Many of these stressors result in the activation of particular stress-associated kinases (HRI, PERK, PKR, and GCN2), translational inhibition and stress granule formation. Stress granule formation is often downstream of the stress-activated phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF2α, but this isn't true for all types of stressors that induce stress granules, for instance, eIF4A inhibition.
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Olfactory receptor neuron axons project through the cribriform plate to the olfactory bulb. The olfactory bulb is a structure at the base of the frontal lobe. It comprises neurons, nerve fibers, interneurons, microglia, astrocytes, and blood vessels. It is made up of 6 layers: olfactory nerve layer, glomerular layer, external plexiform layer, mitral cell layer, internal plexiform layer, and granule layer.
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Another way that sediments are described is through their descriptive classification. These sediments vary in size, anywhere from 1/4096 of a mm to greater than 256 mm. The different types are: boulder, cobble, pebble, granule, sand, silt, and clay, each type becoming finer in grain. The grain size indicates the type of sediment and the environment in which it was created.
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Waxy potato varieties produce two main kinds of potato starch, amylose and amylopectin, the latter of which is most industrially useful. The Amflora potato has been modified to contain antisense RNA against the enzyme that drives synthesis of amylose, namely granule bound starch synthase. This resulting potato almost exclusively produces amylopectin, and thus is more useful for the starch industry.
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This area produces Purkinje cells and deep cerebellar nuclear neurons. These cells are the primary output neurons of the cerebellar cortex and cerebellum. The second germinal zone (cellular birthplace) is known as the Rhombic lip, neurons then move by human embryonic week 27 to the external granular layer. This layer of cells—found on the exterior of the cerebellum—produces the granule neurons.
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In cerebellar granule cells and cortical neurons, E2F1 can trigger neuronal apoptosis through activation of Bax/caspase-3 and the induction of the Cdk1/FOXO1/Bad pathway (Giovanni et al., 2000). The downregulation of p130/E2F4 (a complex which has been shown to maintain the post mitotic nature of neurons) induces neuronal apoptosis by upregulating B-myb and C-myb (Liu et al.
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Numerous techniques are used to diagnose hypereosinophilic syndrome, of which the most important is blood testing. In HES, the eosinophil count is greater than 1.5 × 109/L. On some smears the eosinophils may appear normal in appearance, but morphologic abnormalities, such as a lowering of granule numbers and size, can be observed. Roughly 50% of patients with HES also have anaemia.
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This is a perikaryon of a nerve cell, displayed here because of the obvious cytoplasmic granules. The granules, which appear almost black due to their high electron density, take up a large portion of the endoplasm. They are suspended in cytosol - the fluid component of the cytoplasm. The term granule refers to a small particle within the endoplasm, typically the secretory vesicles.
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Clathrin-coated vesicles bud from immature Weibel–Palade bodies, reducing their volumes, condensing their contents, and removing select membrane proteins. Maturing Weibel–Palade bodies may also fuse with each other. The only parallel organelle in physiology is the alpha granule of platelets, which also contains vWF. Weibel–Palade bodies are the main source of vWF, while α-granules probably play a minor role.
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This glucocorticoid-inactivating enzyme is also expressed in tissues that do not express the mineralocorticoid receptor, such as the placenta and testis, as well as parts of the developing brain, including the rhombencephalic progenitor cells that proliferate into cerebellar granule cells. In these tissues, HSD11B2 protects cells from the growth-inhibiting and/or pro- apoptotic effects of cortisol, particularly during embryonic development.
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The Q-type calcium channel is a type of voltage-dependent calcium channel. Like the others of this class, the α1 subunit is the one that determines most of the channel's properties. They are poorly understood, but like R-type calcium channels, they appear to be present in cerebellar granule cells. They have a high threshold of activation and relatively slow kinetics.
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The specific polymer used varies by manufacturer but can be a styrene acrylate copolymer, a polyester resin, a styrene butadiene copolymer, or a few other special polymers. Toner formulations vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and even from machine to machine. Typically formulation, granule size and melting point vary the most. Originally, the particle size of toner averaged 14–16 micrometres or greater.
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Paris-Trousseau syndrome (PTS) is an inherited disorder characterized by mild hemorrhagic tendency associated with 11q chromosome deletion. It manifests as a granular defect within an individual's platelets. It is characterized by thrombocytes with defects in α-granule components which affects the cell's surface area and, consequently, its ability to spread when necessary. FLI1 has been suggested as a candidate.
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Azurophil granules, specialized lysosomes of the neutrophil, contain at least 10 proteins implicated in the killing of microorganisms. The protein encoded by this gene is an azurophil granule antimicrobial protein, with monocyte chemotactic and antibacterial activity. It is also an important multifunctional inflammatory mediator. The genes encoding this protein, neutrophil elastase 2, and proteinase 3 are in a cluster located at chromosome 19pter.
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Granulysin is present in cytolytic granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and natural killer (NK) cells. Granulysin is made as a 15 kD molecule, and a portion of it is cleaved at both the amino and carboxy termini into a 9 kD form. The 9 kD form is released by receptor-mediated granule exocytosis while the 15 kD form is constitutively secreted.
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Therefore, N-Acetylglucosaminidase contributes to polyspermy prevention. p32: The name, p32, refers to the protein's molecular weight, 32 kDa. Upon release from the cortical granule, p32 appears to either function briefly or undergo a modification shortly after fertilization because only small amounts of p32 are present on the embryo. Research also suggests that p32 does not contribute to polyspermy prevention.
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Granule has neither been observed by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, nor the Japanese Akari satellite, nor NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from the family's principal body and namesake, the asteroid 8 Flora – and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 12.9.
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The granulation process combines one or more powder particles and forms a granule that will allow tableting to be within required limits. It is the process of collecting particles together by creating bonds between them. Bonds are formed by compression or by using a binding agent. Granulation is extensively used in the pharmaceutical industry, for manufacturing of tablets and pellets.
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The granule business of Kadant Composites took off when the company started using it as a filler in composite plastics products for decking, with sales growing from under $2 million in 2001 to $15 million in 2004. In 2013 the company acquired Carmanah Design and Manufacturing Inc. for Canadian dollars (CAD) 54 million in cash, or approximately US$52 million.
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Early neurophysiologists suggest that retinal and inertial signals were selected for about 450 million years ago by primitive brainstem- cerebellar circuitry because of their relationship with the environment. Microscopically, it is evident that Purkinje cell precursors arose from granule cells, first forming in irregular patterns, then progressively becoming organized in a layered fashion. Evolutionarily, the Purkinje cells then developed extensive dendritic trees that increasingly became confined to a single plane, through which the axons of granule cells threaded, eventually forming a neuronal grid of right angles. The origin of the cerebellum is in close association with that of the nuclei of the vestibular cranial nerve and lateral line nerves, perhaps suggesting that this part of the cerebellum originated as a means of carrying out transformations of the coordinate system from input data of the vestibular organ and the lateral line organs.
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Platelets from the mother, sisters, and a daughter were normal in number and appearance under the light microscope. Platelets in blood collected into EDTA tubes appeared gray and agranular compared with platelets from blood in citrate or heparin. The key finding is under electron microscopy, EDTA-exposed platelets showed extensive activation, with loss of storage granule contents and pseudopod formation. Platelet aggregation studies were normal.
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The underlying causes, either inherited or acquired, lead to an unchecked immune response when exposed to triggers. Impaired NK-cell cytotoxicity is the hallmark of HLH. All genetic defects for familial HLH are related to granule-dependent cytotoxicity. This inability to remove infected and antigen-presenting cells and terminate the immune response leads to uncontrolled proliferation and activation of the immune system with release of excessive cytokines.
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Bromacil is applied mainly by sprayers including boom, hand- held, knapsack, compressed air, tank-type, and power sprayers. Bromacil is also applied using aerosol, shaker, or sprinkler cans. Solid forms of bromacil are spread using granule applicators and spreaders. Application using aircraft is allowed only for Special Local Need registrations to control vegetation on the Department of Defense's Yakima Firing Center in the state of Washington.
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Mossy fibers in the hippocampus project from the dentate gyrus to CA3. The pathway consists of varicose granule cell axons that terminate on the dendrites of hilar mossy cells and pyramidal cells in CA3. They form three morphologically different synaptic terminals, which include large mossy terminals, filopodial extensions within the mossy terminals, and small en passant synaptic varicosities. Each of these synapse types is functionally distinct.
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Each body or lobule is in turn composed of several columnar cells, which contain secretory granules and are, thus, secretory in function. Each Secretory granule is spherical in shape and measures 0.5 to 1 μm in diameter. Their possible endocrine nature, i.e. producing hormone, was suspected from the complete anatomical description, and it was believed to be responsible for regulating calcium level in the blood.
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In the cerebellum one of the two major pathways is that of the mossy fibers. Mossy fibers project directly to the deep nuclei, but also give rise to the following pathway: mossy fibers → granule cells → parallel fibers → Purkinje cells → deep nuclei. The other main pathway is from the climbing fibers and these project to Purkinje cells and also send collaterals directly to the deep nuclei.
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Following particle size reduction and blending, the formulation may be granulated, which provides homogeneity of drug distribution in the blend. This process is very important and needs experience to attain proper quality of granules before tableting. Quality of granule determines the smooth and trouble free process of tablets manufacturing. If granulation is not done in a proper manner, the resulting mixture may damage the tableting press.
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Purkinje cell and granule cell degeneration results in ataxia.Goldowitz D, Cushing RC, Laywell E, D'Arcangelo G, Sheldon M, Sweet HO, Davisson M, Steindler D, Curran T. Cerebellar disorganization characteristic of reeler in scrambler mutant mice despite presence of reelin. J Neurosci 17: 8767-77, 1997, Despite normal Reln mRNA levels, Dab1-scm mutants have defective reelin signaling, indicating that disabled-1 acts downstream of reelin.
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5-Oxo-ETE is a potent in vitro stimulator and/or enhancer of chemotaxis (i.e. directional migration) and, depending on the cell type, various other responses such as degranulation (i.e. release of granule-bound enzymes), oxidative metabolism (i.e. generation of reactive oxygen species), and production of mediators such as various arachidonic acid metabolites and platelet-activating factor in human eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, and monocytes.
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Inside the RER, the signal peptide is cleaved to form proinsulin. Then, folding of proinsulin occurs forming three disulfide bonds. Subsequent to protein folding, proinsulin is transported to the Golgi apparatus and enters immature insulin granules where proinsulin is cleaved to form insulin and C-peptide. After maturation, these secretory vesicles hold insulin, C-peptide, and amylin until calcium triggers exocytosis of the granule contents.
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Drawing of neurons in the pigeon cerebellum, by Spanish neuroscientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal in 1899. (A) denotes Purkinje cells and (B) denotes granule cells, both of which are multipolar. The neuron doctrine is the now fundamental idea that neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. The theory was put forward by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the late 19th century.
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Cyanophycinase (, cyanophycin degrading enzyme, beta-Asp-Arg hydrolysing enzyme, CGPase, CphB, CphE, cyanophycin granule polypeptidase, extracellular CGPase) is an enzyme. It catalyses the following chemical reaction : [L-Asp(4-L-Arg)]n \+ H2O \rightleftharpoons [L-Asp(4-L-Arg)]n-1 \+ L-Asp(4-L-Arg) The enzyme is highly specific for the branched polypeptide cyanophycin. It is similar to Dipeptidase E, another S51 family serine protease.
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In TLE, there is loss of neurons in region CA1 and CA3 of the hippocampus.de Lanerolle N. C. and Noebels J. L. (ed.) Jasper's basic mechanisms of the epilepsies: histopathology of human epilepsy. Oxford University Press 2012 chapter 30 . There is also damage to mossy cells and inhibitory interneurons in the hilar region of the hippocampus (region IV) and to the granule cells of the dentate gyrus.
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This is evident in intracellular recordings. Stimulation of aberrant mossy fibre areas increases the excitatory postsynaptic potential response. However, aberrant mossy fiber sprouting may inhibit excitatory transmission by synapsing with basket cells which are inhibitory neurons and by releasing GABA and neuropeptide Y which are inhibitory neurotransmitters. Also, in animal models, granule cell hyper-excitability is recorded before aberrant mossy fibre sprouting has occurred.
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These secretory cells are housed within the ventrolateral grooves of the spine. The cells of both marine and freshwater stingrays are round and contain a great amount of granule-filled cytoplasm. The cells of marine stingrays are located only within these lateral grooves of the stinger. The cells of freshwater stingray branch out beyond the lateral grooves to cover a larger surface area along the entire blade.
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The starches in parboiled rice become gelatinized, then retrograded after cooling. Through gelatinization, amylose molecules leach out of the starch granule network and diffuse into the surrounding aqueous medium outside the granules which, when fully hydrated are at maximum viscosity. The parboiled rice kernels should be translucent when wholly gelatinized. Cooling brings retrogradation whereby amylose molecules re-associate with each other and form a tightly packed structure.
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In addition to calcium, diacylglycerol appears to initiate the cortical reaction. Diacyglycerol also activates Protein Kinase C (PKC), which promotes the cortical reaction as well. Upon fertilization, Protein Kinase C has been shown to promote the sperm's acrosomal exocytosis, a process homologous to that of the oocyte's cortical granule exocytosis. Similar to Protein Kinase C, calmodulin is activated by calcium, further promoting the cortical reaction.
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In 1987, she jointed Palade at Yale where she became Sterling Professor of Cell Biology and Pathology. Here she built a new Department of Cell Biology in the medical school with George Palade and James D. Jamieson. While at Yale, Farquhar's research focused on secretory granule membranes that merge with cell membranes during exocytosis. She also identified several glomerular components that play a role in glomerular functions.
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This minor planet was named in honor of Edward A. Gall, an internationally renowned American pathologist, former director of the University of Cincinnati Academic Health Center and president of USCAP. It was named on the occasion of his retirement to commemorate his career and his discovery of the Gall's granule, a feature of lymphocytes. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 December 1974 ().
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These axons arise from layer 2 of the entorhinal cortex (EC), and terminate in the dentate gyrus and CA3. There is also a distinct pathway from layer 3 of the EC directly to CA1, often referred to as the temporoammonic or TA-CA1 pathway. Granule cells of the DG send their axons (called "mossy fibers") to CA3. Pyramidal cells of CA3 send their axons to CA1.
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Several papers have investigated the difficulty of creating wait-free algorithms. For example, it has been shown that the widely available atomic conditional primitives, CAS and LL/SC, cannot provide starvation-free implementations of many common data structures without memory costs growing linearly in the number of threads. But in practice these lower bounds do not present a real barrier as spending a cache line or exclusive reservation granule (up to 2 KB on ARM) of store per thread in the shared memory is not considered too costly for practical systems (typically the amount of store logically required is a word, but physically CAS operations on the same cache line will collide, and LL/SC operations in the same exclusive reservation granule will collide, so the amount of store physically required is greater). Wait-free algorithms were rare until 2011, both in research and in practice.
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Marr is best known for his work on vision, but before he began work on that topic he published three seminal papers proposing computational theories of the cerebellum (in 1969), neocortex (in 1970), and hippocampus (in 1971). Each of those papers presented important new ideas that continue to influence modern theoretical thinking. The cerebellum theory was motivated by two unique features of cerebellar anatomy: (1) the cerebellum contains vast numbers of tiny granule cells, each receiving only a few inputs from "mossy fibers"; (2) Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex each receive tens of thousands of inputs from "parallel fibers", but only one input from a single "climbing fiber", which however is extremely strong. Marr proposed that the granule cells encode combinations of mossy fibre inputs, and that the climbing fibres carry a "teaching" signal that instructs their Purkinje cell targets to modify the strength of synaptic connections from parallel fibres.
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The resulting liquid is dried to produce the amorphous crystalline like product which can then be added as a granule to fertiliser. The potassium humate granules by way of chemical extraction lose their hydrophobic properties and are now soluble. Depending on the source material product quality varies. High quality oxidised lignite (brown coal), usually referred to as leonardite, is the best source material for extraction of large quantities of potassium humate.
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The enzymes needed for pigment synthesis are then transported to the cell's pigment granule, which holds pigment precursor molecules. Each photoreceptor cell consists of two main sections, the cell body and the rhabdomere. The cell body contains the nucleus, while the 100-μm- long rhabdomere is made up of toothbrush-like stacks of membrane called microvilli. Each microvillus is 1–2 μm in length and about 60 nm in diameter.
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NSC from the hippocampus of rodents, which can differentiate into dentate granule cells, have developed into many cell types when studied in culture. However, another in vivo study, using NSCs in the postnatal SVZ, showed that the stem cell is restricted to developing into different neuronal sub-type cells in the olfactory bulb. It is believed that the various spatial location niches regulate the differentiation of the neural stem cell.
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As the fertilization envelope elevates, non-fertilizing sperm are lifted away from the egg plasma membrane, and as they are not able to pass through the fertilization envelope, they are prevented from entering the egg. Therefore, the cortical reaction prevents polyspermic fertilization, a lethal event. Another cortical granule component, polysaccharide-rich hyalin, remains adherent to the outer surface of the plasma membrane, and becomes part of the hyaline layer.
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The UBC has a round or oval cell body with usually a single short dendrite that ends in a brush-like tuft of short dendrioles (dendrites unique to UBCs). These brush dendrioles form very large synaptic junctions. The dendritic brush and the large endings of the axonal branches are involved in the formation of cerebellar glomeruli. The UBC has one short dendrite where the granule cell has four or five.
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Human and animal platelets stimulated by various agents such as thrombin produce TXA2. Inhibition of this production greatly reduces the platelets final adhesion aggregation and degranulation (i.e. secretion of its granule contents) responses to the original stimulus. In addition, the platelets of mice lacking TP receptors have similarly defective adhesion, aggregation, and degranulation responses and these TP deficient mice cannot form stable blood clots and in consequence exhibit bleeding tendencies.
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Granule contents of basophils are abundant with histamine, heparin, chondroitin sulfate, peroxidase, platelet-activating factor, and other substances. When an infection occurs, mature basophils will be released from the bone marrow and travel to the site of infection. When basophils are injured, they will release histamine, which contributes to the inflammatory response that helps fight invading organisms. Histamine causes dilation and increased permeability of capillaries close to the basophil.
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Gallin's primary research interests are on the role of phagocytes, the body's scavenger cells in host defense. His research has focused on rare hereditary immune disorders, and he identified the genetic basis of several diseases of the phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages). The laboratory has focused on neutrophil- specific granule deficiency, actin interacting protein deficiency and chronic granulomatous disease (CGD). When phagocytes fail to produce hydrogen peroxide and bleach, CGD results.
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In trypanosomes, a group of flagellated protozoans, the kinetoplast exists as a dense granule of DNA within the large mitochondrion. Trypanosoma brucei, the parasite which causes African trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness), is an example of a trypanosome with a kinetoplast. Its kinetoplast is easily visible in samples stained with DAPI, a fluorescent DNA stain, or by the use of fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) with BrdU, a thymidine analogue.
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Data provided by Young was the first suggestion that glutamate was a neurotransmitter of cerebellar granule cells. Young also worked with glycine and GABA receptors and found a way to detect inhibitory amino acid receptors using neurotoxins. Young developed several collaborative projects with others in the neurology department at Johns Hopkins. She graduated with her MD in 1973 and her PhD in Pharmacology in 1974 with ten publications under her belt.
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Velate astrocytes are glia that sheath the glomeruli. They are protoplasmic astrocytes with extremely thin veil-like processes that spread out and overlap each other. Researchers Sanford Palay and Victoria Chan-Palay noted that the sheath does not penetrate into the deeper part of the glomeruli or come into contact with the mossy fiber. Instead it forms a capsule, through which the neural processes of the granule and Golgi cells penetrate.
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TIA1 or Tia1 cytotoxic granule-associated rna binding protein is a 3'UTR mRNA binding protein that can bind the 5'TOP sequence of 5'TOP mRNAs. It is associated with programmed cell death (apoptosis) and regulates alternative splicing of the gene encoding the Fas receptor, an apoptosis-promoting protein. Under stress conditions, TIA1 localizes to cellular RNA-protein conglomerations called stress granules. It is encoded by the TIA1 gene.
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Friction stir processing can also be used to improve the microstructural properties of powder metal objects. In particular, when dealing with aluminium powder metal alloys, the aluminium oxide film on the surface of each granule is detrimental to the ductility, fatigue properties and fracture toughness of the workpiece. While conventional techniques for removing this film include forging and extrusion, friction stir processing is suited for situations where localized treatment is desired.
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High-amylose varieties of rice, the less sticky long-grain rice, have a much lower glycemic load, which could be beneficial for diabetics. Researchers have identified the Granule Bound Starch Synthase (GBSS) as the enzyme that specifically elongates amylose during starch biosynthesis in plants. The waxy locus in maize encodes for the GBSS protein. Mutants lacking the GBSS protein produce starch containing only amylopectin, such as in waxy corn.
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These receptors are most dense in sectors CA3 and CA2 of the hippocampus, where nanomolar (nM) concentrations of kainic acid have been associated with pronounced and persistent depolarization of CA3 pyramidal neurons. This involving the conduction of excitatory activity along the mossy fiber projections from the area dentate granule cells to the CA3 neurons. Stimulation of this receptor type has been associated with paroxysmal spikes similar to seizures.
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The Schaffer collateral is located between the CA3 region and CA1 region in the hippocampus. Schaffer collaterals are the axons of pyramidal cells that connect two neurons (CA3 and CA1) and transfer information from CA3 to CA1. The entorhinal cortex sends the main input to the dentate gyrus (perforant pathway). From the granule cells of the dentate gyrus, connections are made to the CA3 regions of the hippocampus via mossy fibers.
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The kinetoplast, after which the class is named, contains the mitochondrial genome and is a dense DNA-containing granule within the cell's single mitochondrion. The structure is made up of a network of concatenated circular DNA molecules and their related structural proteins along with DNA and RNA polymerases. The kinetoplast is found at the base of a cell's flagella and is associated to the flagellum basal body by a cytoskeletal structure.
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Along with their two flagella, they have two nearly parallel basal bodies. They also house discoid shaped mitochondrial cristae and a compact kinetoplast (a DNA-containing granule located within a single mitochondrion) that is associated with the flagellar bases. The kinetoplasts are naked, but the cytoskeletal microtubules beneath the cell membrane are developed. They have a cytoplasm usually filled with symbiotic bacteria and small glycosomes that possess glycolytic enzymes.
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Helical extrusion technology is applied in the plastic pipe industry. Basically the production process is a direct extrusion. During the pipe production several different materials - depending on the desired final pipe - are mixed in the extrusion unit according to a special formula depending. The production machine is fed with granule material (PE or PP for structured wall gravity pipes and PE, glass fiber and bonding agent for pressure pipes).
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In computers it is typical to define rules relative to data transfers for optimizing the overall system considerations. One such consideration is to define coherency granules (CG) that relate to units of data that are stored in memory. These units generally have a close relationship to caches that may be used in the system. The Coherency Granule size typically corresponds to the cache line size in a computer system.
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Mutation of Phe-429 results in weak calmodulin binding, while mutations of Phe-331 or Phe-335 entirely preclude binding. CERK activity has primarily been observed within human neutrophils, cerebrum granule cells, and epithelium-derived lung cells. When inactive, CERK is suspended within the cytosol of the cell. When CERK is activated by interleukin-1β, it is localized to the trans-golgi, and from there, possibly delivered to the plasma membrane.
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When RNA polymerase II transcription decreases, RBM10 in the nucleoplasm is sequestered in S1-1 NBs, which become larger and spherical; when transcription is restored, RBM10 and the S1-1 NBs return to their initial states. S1-1 NBs often overlap with nuclear speckles (also known as splicing speckles or interchromatin granule clusters), seemingly indicating a close functional relationship between these nuclear domains, i.e., alternative splicing regulation and splicing reaction.
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Stress granule dynamics Stress granules are dense aggregations in the cytosol composed of proteins & RNAs that appear when the cell is under stress. The RNA molecules stored are stalled translation pre-initiation complexes: failed attempts to make protein from mRNA. Stress granules are 100–200 nm in size (when biochemically purified), not surrounded by membrane, and associated with the endoplasmatic reticulum. Note that there are also nuclear stress granules.
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Hippocampal lesioning led to a considerable loss of cells in pyramidal cells (CA1-CA3) as well as granule cells in the dentate gyrus. Ibotenic acid lesioning also causes some damage to axons along the perforant pathway. Typically when lesioning is done with other chemicals the subject can not relearn a task. However, due to Ibotenic acid's reactivity with glutamate receptors such as the NMDA receptor, Ibotenic acid lesioning does allow the subject to relearn tasks.
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PIWI proteins play a crucial role in fertility and germline development across animals and ciliates. Recently identified as a polar granule component, PIWI proteins appear to control germ cell formation so much so that in the absence of PIWI proteins there is a significant decrease in germ cell formation. Similar observations were made with the mouse homologs of PIWI, MILI, MIWI and MIWI2. These homologs are known to be present in spermatogenesis.
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As a lysosomotroic drug, chloroquine typically accumulates in the lysosome disrupting their degradative function, inhibiting autophagy, and inducing apoptosis through Bax-dependent mechanisms. However, in cultured cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) low treatment with Bafillomycin of 1 nM decreased chloroquine induced apoptosis without affecting chloroquine inhibition of autophagy. The exact mechanism of this protection is unknown, although it is hypothesized to lie downstream of autophagosome-lysosome fusion yet upstream of Bax induction of apoptosis.
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Molecular Brain Research. 69:104-112. (1999). The protein copurifies with other neurofilament subunits, as it was originally discovered, however in some mature neurons it can be the only neurofilament expressed. The protein is present in developing neuroblasts and in the Central Nervous System of adults. The protein is a major component of the intermediate filament network in small interneurons and cerebellar granule cells, where it is present in the parallel fibers.
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Consumption of alcohol has also been found to be an effective agent for temporarily easing the severity of the tremors associated with myoclonus dystonia. Alcohol causes an increase in GABA transmission between interneurons and Purkinje cells. This then reduces the transmission of glutamate at granule cell-Purkinje cell synapses, which decreases muscle movements. This treatment only alleviates the strength of the tremors for a short duration and does not change how often tremors will occur.
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There are several mechanisms that can be combined to generate an asthma attack, including specific IgE antibodies, activated inflammatory cells, neurogenic mechanisms, hyperresponsiveness and individual hormonal imbalances. Allergic reactions in the lung typically have two phases. The late phase typically occurs several hours after exposure, upon which eosinophils accumulate in the bronchus and release granule proteins that cause bronchial irritability. ECP is also toxic to neurons, some epithelial cell lines, and isolated myocardial cells.
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Axopodia are numerous and connect to a centroplast found in a spherical body shape . Microtubules extend from the centroplast to form axonemes of the axopodia and are linked together by cross bridges . These axopodia have been observed to contract in Raphidiophrys contractilis . Axopodia may also contain granule kinetocysts that can be used in food uptake and are present in the plasma membrane Sakaguchi, M., Suzaki, T., Mostafa Kamal Khan, S. M., & Hausmann, K. (2002).
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Each parallel fiber from the granule cells runs orthogonally through these arbors, like a wire passing through many layers. Purkinje neurons are GABAergic—meaning they have inhibitory synapses—with the neurons of the deep cerebellar and vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. Each Purkinje cell receives excitatory input from 100,000 to 200,000 parallel fibers. Parallel fibers are said to be responsible for the simple (all or nothing, amplitude invariant) spiking of the Purkinje cell.
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NMDA Inhibitor Memantine leftUncompetitive inhibition can play roles in various other parts of the body as well. It is part of the mechanism by which NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) glutamate receptors are inhibited in the brain, for example. Specifically, this type of inhibition impacts the granule cells that make up a layer of the cerebellum. These cells have the aforementioned NMDA receptors, and the activity of said receptors typically increases as ethanol is consumed.
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Neutrophil ingesting Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Neutrophils are some of the first immune cells to travel to sites of infection that aid in fighting infection by ingesting microorganisms and providing the enzymes to kill them. This process characterizes neutrophils as a type of phagocyte. Neutrophils contain neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), composed of granule and nuclear constituents, which play a role in breaking up and killing bacteria that has invaded the immune system.
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Pattern separation is the ability to differentiate one memory from other stored memories. Pattern separation begins in the dentate gyrus, a section of the hippocampus involved in memory formation and retrieval. Granule cells in the dentate gyrus process sensory information using competitive learning, and relay a preliminary representation to form place fields. Place fields are extremely specific, as they are capable of remapping and adjusting firing rates in response to subtle sensory signal changes.
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The entorhinal cortex transmits its signals from the parahippocampal gyrus to the dentate gyrus via granule cell fibers known collectively as the perforant path. The dentate gyrus then synapses on pyramidal cells in CA3 via mossy cell fibers. CA3 then fires to CA1 via Schaffer collaterals which synapse in the subiculum and are carried out through the fornix. Collectively the dentate gyrus, CA1 and CA3 of the hippocampus compose the trisynaptic loop.
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Mossy fibers enter the granular layer from their points of origin, many arising from the pontine nuclei, others from the spinal cord, vestibular nuclei etc. In the human cerebellum, the total number of mossy fibers has been estimated at about 200 million. These fibers form excitatory synapses with the granule cells and the cells of the deep cerebellar nuclei. Within the granular layer, a mossy fiber generates a series of enlargements called rosettes.
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The EGL is a secondary germinative epithelium that encompasses the entire cerebellum. This period is an important developmental stage of the cerebellum. The expansion of the EGL precursor cells creates a large population of neurons that outnumber Purkinje cells 250:1 in the adult cerebellar cortex. The granule neurons in EGL express genes that play a specific and crucial role in cell proliferation. These genes are called Math1, RU49/Zipro1 and Zic1.
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Axons in the central nervous system (CNS) typically show multiple telodendria, with many synaptic end points. In comparison, the cerebellar granule cell axon is characterized by a single T-shaped branch node from which two parallel fibers extend. Elaborate branching allows for the simultaneous transmission of messages to a large number of target neurons within a single region of the brain. There are two types of axons in the nervous system: myelinated and unmyelinated axons.
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Further to the north is a concrete trough which housed the fugals, which were driven by belts from the nearby engine. Here centrifugal spinning separated the molasses from the granule sugar. To the west of the stack are three pairs of brick and concrete stands being the foundations of the mill train, which carried the rollers and engines. At present, several fig trees have taken root and are growing over these foundations.
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Expression of Shh (Sonic hedgehog) upregulates the production of BMI1, a component of the PcG complex that recognizes H3K27me3. This occurs in a Gli-dependent manner, as Gli1 and Gli2 are downstream effectors of the Hedgehog signaling pathway. In culture, Bmi1 mediates the Hedgehog pathway's ability to promote human mammary stem cell self-renewal. In both humans and mice, researchers showed Bmi1 to be highly expressed in proliferating immature cerebellar granule cell precursors.
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One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ, the medial octavolateral nucleus, has a cerebellum-like structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers. In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum-like structure. In ray-finned fishes (by far the largest group), the optic tectum has a layer—the marginal layer—that is cerebellum-like.
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An azurophilic granule is a cellular object readily stainable with a Romanowsky stain. In white blood cells and hyperchromatin, staining imparts a burgundy or merlot coloration. Neutrophils in particular are known for containing azurophils loaded with a wide variety of anti-microbial defensins that fuse with phagocytic vacuoles. Azurophils may contain myeloperoxidase, phospholipase A2, acid hydrolases, elastase, defensins, neutral serine proteases, bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein, lysozyme, cathepsin G, proteinase 3, and proteoglycans.
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Dishwasher salt is a particular grade of granulated, crystalline sodium chloride intended for regenerating the water softener circuit of household or industrial dishwashers. Analogous to water softener salt, dishwasher salt regenerates ion exchange resins, expelling the therein trapped calcium and magnesium ions that characterize hard water. Dishwater salt granules are larger than those of table salt. The granule size ensures that the salt dissolves slowly, and that fine particles do not block the softener unit.
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Vesicular monoamine transporter 1 (VMAT1) also known as chromaffin granule amine transporter (CGAT) or solute carrier family 18 member 1 (SLC18A1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC18A1 gene. VMAT1 is an integral membrane protein, which is embedded in synaptic vesicles and serves to transfer monoamines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin, between the cytosol and synaptic vesicles. SLC18A1 is an isoform of the vesicular monoamine transporter.
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The insular cortex differs cytoarchitecturally based on its anterior, mid, and posterior regions. The posterior insular cortex is granular, the mid insular cortex is dysgranular (or slightly granulated) and the anterior insular cortex has no granulation whatsoever. The insula contains three major subregions defined by the presence or absence of a granule cell layer: granular, dysgranular (slightly granulated) agranular. Each of these portions of the insular cortex are important for different levels of functional connectivity.
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There is also evidence that RNA within stress granules is more compacted compared to RNA in the cytoplasm and that the RNA is preferentially post-translationally modified by N6-methyladenosine (m6A) on its 5' ends. Recent work has shown that the highly abundant translation initiation factor and DEAD-box protein eIF4A limits stress granule formation. It does so through its ability to bind ATP and RNA, acting analogously to protein chaperones like Hsp70.
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Brown atrophy of the heart is atrophy of the heart muscle (or myocardium) commonly found in the elderly. It is described as brown because fibers become pigmented by intracellular deposits (mostly around the cell nucleus) of lipofuscin, a type of lipochrome granule. It has no known effect on function, and is described as being expected or normal in aging. Other types of brown atrophy include brown atrophy of neuronia and brown atrophy of the liver.
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Most of the fibers that distribute to the medial septum terminate selectively within the medial septum-vertical limb of the diagonal band nucleus (MS/DBv) and lateral aspects of lateral septum. Most of the pronounced projections to hippocampal formation (HF) distribute to the stratum lacunosum-molecular of Ammon’s horn and granule cell layer and adjacent inner molecular layer of the dentate gyrus (DG). Projections stemming from the MRN modulate dopaminergic activity within the forebrain.
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Boiling chips A boiling chip, boiling stone, porous bit or anti-bumping granule is a tiny, unevenly shaped piece of substance added to liquids to make them boil more calmly. Boiling chips are frequently employed in distillation and heating. When a liquid becomes superheated, a speck of dust or a stirring rod can cause violent flash boiling. Boiling chips provide nucleation sites so the liquid boils smoothly without becoming superheated or bumping.
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The compound is a prototypical zinc dithiocarbamate, a broad class of coordination complexes with the formulae Zn(R2NCS2)2, where R can be varied. Such compounds are produced by treating zinc and dithiocarbamate (R2NCS2−), as illustrated with dimethyldithiocarbamate: :2 (CH3)2NCS2− \+ Zn2+ → Zn((CH3)2NCS2)2 Annually, approximately 1.9 million pounds of the active ziram ingredient are used. Ziram is often sold in powder or granule form. Zinc bis(diethyldithiocarbamate) complexes degrade thermally to give zinc sulfide.
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In addition, a lack of cholesterol contributes to the increased fluidity of the cell membrane, and may cause abnormal granule secretions. All of these changes in the membrane likely contribute to changes in transport functions that are observed in SLOS. They may cause defects in IgE receptor-mediated mast cell degranulation and cytokine production, which are cells involved in allergic and immune responses. The NMDA receptor is affected, as well as the binding capability of the hippocampal serotonin receptor.
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The caveat to kalkitoxin's promising anti-proliferative properties is its neurotoxic effects. At concentrations comparable to those required for tumor-selective cytotoxicity, kalkitoxin induces cell death when applied to rat cerebellar granule neurons (CGN) in culture. Kalkitoxin acts as an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor agonist, and induces cytotoxicity in cultured rat CGNs at delayed time points. Therefore, this effect must be taken into account when considering kalkitoxin or its chemical derivatives for use as a therapeutic option.
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In mammalian hippocampus, the axons of the CA3 pyramidal cells project into CA1 cells through the Schaffer collaterals. The long-term potentiation (LTP) may induce in either of these pathways, but it is specific only to the one that is stimulated with tetanus. The stimulated axon does not impact spill over to the other pathway. TrkB receptors are expressed in most of these hippocampal neurons, including dentate granule cells, CA3 and CA1 pyramidal cells, and inhibitory interneurons.
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Interchromatin granules are structures undergoing constant change, and their components exchange continuously with the nucleoplasm, active transcription sites and other nuclear locations. Research on dynamics of interchromatin granules has provided new insight into the functional organisation of the nucleus and gene expression. Interchromatin granule clusters vary in size anywhere between one and several micrometers in diameter. They are composed of 20–25 nm granules that are connected in a beaded chain fashion appearance by thin fibrils.
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Progenitor cells in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus migrate to the nearby location and differentiate into granule cells. As a part of the limbic system, new neurons of the hippocampus maintain the function of controlling mood, learning and memory. In the dentate gyrus, putative stem cells, called type 1 cells, proliferate into type 2 and type 3 cells, which are transiently amplifying, lineage-determined progenitor cells. Type 1 cells in the hippocampus are multipotent in vitro.
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Currently, there is a high production rejection rate, due to the fact that manufacturing technologies are mainly based on empirically engineered processes, rather than on rational and scientific methodologies. Fig. 2 Micrographs of a M KMS-96 alumina powder. The loose state is shown on the left, while granule arrangements corresponding to Phases I and II of the compaction process are shown on the centre and on the right. Note the plastic deformation of grains visible on the right.
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The CGE is distinct from the LGE and MGE in gene expression patterns and progeny produced. Unlike the cells from the MGE, the cells from the CGE were rarely parvalbumin- containing neurons. It seems that the majority of cells from the CGE were GABAergic interneurons, but depending on where they are located, CGE-derived cells are very diverse. CGE-derived cells include GABAergic interneurons, spiny interneurons, mossy cells, pyramidal and granule neurons, and even oligodendrocyte and astrocyte glial cells.
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This suggests that the acute response to glucose of the insulin synthesis is independent of mRNA synthesis in the first 45 minutes because the blockage of the transcription decelerated the insulin accumulation during that time. PTBPs, also called Polypyrimidine tract binding proteins, are proteins that regulate the translation of mRNA. They increase the viability of mRNA and provoke the initiation of the translation. PTBP1 enable the insulin gene- specific activation and insulin granule protein mRNA by glucose.
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This protein belongs to the basic helix-loop-helix (BHLH) family of transcription factors. It activates E-box dependent transcription along with TCF3 (E47). ATOH1 is required for the formation of both neural and non-neural cell types. Using genetic deletion in mice, Atoh1 has been shown to be essential for formation of cerebellar granule neurons, inner ear hair cells, spinal cord interneurons, Merkel cells of the skin, and intestinal secretory cells (goblet, enteroendocrine, and Paneth cells).
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The dial is also later, the original number 10 dial would also have been finished in black oxide on copper. The L denotes an alphanumeric (rather than number only) dial plate. The dial uses a slipping cam Rotary dial, as distinct from the CB (central battery) version, which was without any dial and relied entirely upon connection via the operator. The transmitter (microphone) was of a very poor, carbon granule construction, which absorbed moisture and required regular replacement.
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The CA3 is a portion of the hippocampal formation adjacent to the dentate gyrus. Input is received from the granule cells of the dentate gyrus through the mossy fibres. The CA3 is rich in pyramidal neurons (like those found throughout the neocortex), which project mainly to the CA1 pyramidal neurons via the Schaffer collateral pathway. The CA3 pyramidal neurons have been analogized as the "pacemaker" of the trisynaptic loop in the generation of hippocampal theta rhythm.
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The toxin has been implicated in cases of respiratory irritation, inflammation of the eye and severe contact dermatitis in fishermen. Antillatoxin is a very potent neurotoxin, although exact toxicity differs between species. The lethal concentration LC50 is about 0.1 μM for goldfish, making it the most potent toxin known for goldfish after brevetoxin. It can be cytotoxic to single cerebellar granule cells at concentrations as low as 20 nM in rats but more typically at 50 nM.
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Tableting is a method of pressing medicine or candy into tablets. Confectionery manufacture shares many similarities with pharmaceutical production. SweeTarts, an example of a tablet candy A powder or granule mixture is prepared, a dye mold is filled, and then the mixture is compressed and ejected. While drug tablets are constrained to shapes and sizes that can be swallowed easily, candy tablets are designed to be chewable and can take a wider variety of shapes and sizes.
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Climbing fibers project to Purkinje cells and also send collaterals directly to the deep nuclei. The mossy fiber and climbing fiber inputs each carry fiber-specific information; the cerebellum also receives dopaminergic, serotonergic, noradrenergic, and cholinergic inputs that presumably perform global modulation. The cerebellar cortex is divided into three layers. At the bottom lies the thick granular layer, densely packed with granule cells, along with interneurons, mainly Golgi cells but also including Lugaro cells and unipolar brush cells.
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Location of the dentate gyrus and relations to other structures. The dentate gyrus, like the hippocampus, consists of three distinct layers: an outer molecular layer, a middle granule cell layer, and an inner polymorphic layer. (In the hippocampus the outer layer is the molecular layer, the middle layer is the pyramidal layer, and the inner layer the stratum oriens). The polymorphic layer is also the hilus of the dentate gyrus, (CA4, the junction of the hippocampus and dentate gyrus).
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The LIS1 gene encodes for a protein similar to the β subunit of G proteins responsible for degrading bioactive lipid platelet-activating factor (PAF). This leads to theories that LIS1 might exert its effect on migration through microtubules. Specific concentrations of PAF may be necessary for optimal neuronal migration by influencing cell morphology adhesion properties. Studies have shown that addition of PAF or inhibition of platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH) decreases cerebellar granule cell migration in vitro.
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Studies have shown that the levels of KISS1 mRNA expressed in the hippocampus are proportional to less than half of the levels found in the hypothalamus. Despite this, it is suggested that expression of KISS1 is influenced by the gonad hormones similar to the hypothalamus. There is a high degree of expression of GPR54 in the hippocampus. The density of GPR54 is not discernable in pyramidal cells, but has high levels of expression in the granule cell layer.
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The despeckle algorithm that improves the image quality allows observers to reach the diffraction limit of the telescope more often than the seeing would normally allow. The despeckle takes 100 images of the same object (e.g., a granule), but each with a temporal distance such that the atmosphere has changed drastically, but the object has not. Then by using statistics and high powered computing (a 35 dual-Xeon computer-cluster powers these despeckle algorithms) the image is improved.
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Amplitude and kinetics of the electrical signal vary as a function of position within the dendrite and signal frequency. The major trigger for CA3 discharge is the afferent input from the dentate gyrus granule cells, from which mossy fiber terminals create very complex synapses on the proximal part of the CA3 apical dendrite in the stratum lucidum. Here they contact very complex dendritic spines. Glutamate release from single terminals evokes a large non-NMDA mediated EPSP.
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In addition, the CA3 area of the hippocampus "replays" story events through repetition, which promotes long-term memory. Discussion and review of storylines can be categorized as a form of environmental enrichment which aides in survival of granule cells and glial cells as the hippocampus develops. Finally, the use of pictures is an elaboration technique that enhances mental visual representations as a type of priming for later memory retrieval. Tests have shown improved memory in enriched storytelling environments.
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Cortical granule formation occurs during the early stages of oocyte growth. More specifically, in the human, monkey, hamster, and rabbit, cortical granules are established once the ovarian follicle is multilayered. In the rat and mouse, cortical granules have been observed earlier in follicle development when the ovarian follicle is only single layered. During the early stages of oocyte growth, the Golgi complex increases in size, proliferates, and produces small vesicles that migrate to the cell's subcortical region.
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As a result of translocation, cortical granules are evenly distributed throughout the cortex of the oocyte. However, it has been observed in rodents that some cortical granules are rearranged leaving a space amidst the remaining cortical granules. This space is called the cortical granule free domain (CGFD) and has been observed in both the cell's meiotic spindle regions during metaphase I and metaphase II of meiosis. CGFDs have not been observed in feline, equine, bovine, porcine, nor human oocytes.
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Tissue-type plasminogen's presence has been recorded during the cortical reaction. Despite this association with the cortical reaction, however, evidence has yet to be found supporting that the tissue-type plasminogen activator is a cortical granule component. Furthermore, mRNA coding for tissue-type plasminogen activator is not translated until after most cortical granules have formed within the oocyte. Ovoperoxidase: The protein, ovoperoxidase, most likely acts as a catalyst that cross-links tyrosine residues found within the zona pellucida.
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Anaerobic and aerobic granule formation are typically postulated to be driven by hydrodynamic shear and washout. Oxygenic photogranules do form when exposed to hydrodynamic shear in sequencing batch reactors; however, they also form under static batch&. They can form over the course of several weeks from a source of activated sludge exposed to light. How oxygenic photogranules form is far from understood, but filamentous and motile cyanobacteria seem to play an essential role in their formation.
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The mitral to granule and mitral to periglomerular cell synapse was the first description of the rather atypical reciprocal dendrodenritic synapses (in contrast to the more common axodendritic synapse). The action of the full glomerular microcircuit is a topic that is under intense scientific investigation. Certain principles are starting to emerge. One discovery points to the idea of the microcircuit between mitral, tufted and periglomerular cells in separating the output of mitral and tufted cells in time.
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Although the exact function of the supramammillary nucleus is still not clear, it is known that the SuM plays a role in modulating theta frequencies. Because of its role in modulating hippocampal theta, it is implicated in spatial and emotional memory formation.The axons of SuM neurons make monosynaptic connections to granule cells and GABAergic interneurons in the dentate gyrus. The SuM projects it's afferent signals exclusively to the dentate gyrus and CA2 region of the hippocampus.
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CA4 is often called the hilus or hilar region if considered as a part of the dentate gyrus. Unlike the pyramidal neurons in CA1 and CA3, the neurons here include mossy cells that primarily receive inputs from the granule cells in the dentate gyrus in the form of mossy fibers. They also receive a small number of connections from pyramidal cells in CA3. They, in turn, project back into the dentate gyrus at distant septotemporal levels.
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Bivalirudin directly inhibits thrombin by specifically binding both to the catalytic site and to the anion- binding exosite of circulating and clot-bound thrombin. Thrombin is a serine proteinase that plays a central role in the thrombotic process. It cleaves fibrinogen into fibrin monomers, activates Factor V, VIII, and XIII, allowing fibrin to develop a covalently cross-linked framework that stabilizes the thrombus. Thrombin also promotes further thrombin generation, and activates platelets, stimulating aggregation and granule release.
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Dry granulation equipment offers a wide range of pressures to attain proper densification and granule formation. Dry granulation is simpler than wet granulation, therefore the cost is reduced. However, dry granulation often produces a higher percentage of fine granules, which can compromise the quality or create yield problems for the tablet. Dry granulation requires drugs or excipients with cohesive properties, and a 'dry binder' may need to be added to the formulation to facilitate the formation of granules.
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Pleistocene and/or early Holocene quartzite and other hard-stone gravels on soil surface. Up to 30 feet of fluvial deposits of unconsolidated gravel, sand, and silt mapped as terrace deposition by the 1987 Texas Atlas of Geology. Gravels are granule-to-cobble size, with clasts of angular to well-rounded quartzite, quartz, and chert from distal sources and lesser fragments of local strata. The sands are orange-brown to tan, fine- to coarse-grained with preserved soils.
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Neurogenesis is substantially reduced in the hippocampus of aged animals, raising the possibility that it may be linked to age-related declines in hippocampal function. For example, the rate of neurogenesis in aged animals is predictive of memory. However, new born cells in aged animals are functionally integrated. Given that neurogenesis occurs throughout life, it might be expected that the hippocampus would steadily increase in size during adulthood, and that therefore the number of granule cells would be increased in aged animals.
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For more than ten years after bafilomycin was discovered as a V-ATPase inhibitor, the site of its interaction with V-ATPase was unclear. Beginning studies used the chromaffine granule V-ATPase to suggest that bafilomycin interacted with the Vo domain. Two further studies confirmed this hypothesis using V-ATPase from bovine clathrin coated vesicles. They showed that application of bafilomycin inhibited proton flow through Vo and that this inhibition could be overcome by adding back the Vo domain to the coated vesicles.
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Because of a cell's changing requirements, the composition and location of these bodies changes according to mRNA transcription and regulation via phosphorylation of specific proteins. The splicing speckles are also known as nuclear speckles (nuclear specks), splicing factor compartments (SF compartments), interchromatin granule clusters (IGCs), and B snurposomes. B snurposomes are found in the amphibian oocyte nuclei and in Drosophila melanogaster embryos. B snurposomes appear alone or attached to the Cajal bodies in the electron micrographs of the amphibian nuclei.
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The latter feature results in the solubility of SMA in alkaline (water-based) solutions and dispersion. SMA is available in a broad range of molecular weights and maleic anhydride (MA) contents. In a typical combination of those two properties, SMA is available as a crystal clear granule that can be used in a wide variety of applications. SMA polymers with a high molecular weight are widely used in engineering plastic applications, normally in the impact modified and optional glass fibre filled variants.
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Calcicludine is a blocker of high-voltage-activated calcium channels (L-, N- and P-type channels). It has highest affinity to the L-type calcium channel (IC50 = 88nM[2]). However, sensitivity of the drug on the channel depends on the species and the tissue. For example, the IC50 for block of L-type calcium channels on a cerebellar granule cell is 0.2 nM, but the IC50 of the block of rat peripheral DRG neuronal L-type channels is around 60-80 nM.
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The surface of all segments have some sharp tubercles which are ending in short and thick spicule. The front of the head and its interantennae part is joined at the same level as its body, with the former is without raised angle next to the socket of the antennae. The anterior margin is broadly rounded from both sides. The front of the interantennal ridges are low, oblique and wide, with the back part tend to be more slender, granule and flat.
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NETs, composed of activated neutrophils, are fragile structures consisting of smooth stretches and globular domains, as shown via high-resolution scanning electron microscopy. After stimulation of the neutrophil response, neutrophils lose their shape, allowing euchromatin and heterochromatin to homogenize, later resulting in the mixing of NET components. The formation of NETs happens once the nuclear envelope and granule membrane of the neutrophils disintegrates. The NETs are released as the cell membrane breaks, resulting in a unique process of cell death.
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The stigma is composed of two lipid-granule layers separated by a single thylakoid, which are parallel with the chloroplast membrane. Stigmas are a concentration of pigment granules which the cell uses to detect light allowing them to orientate themselves within the water column. Both the pyrenoid and the stigma can be used for taxonomic classification due to their reliable and inherent positioning in species. See figure 1 for a visual representation of the position of the chloroplast, stigma, pyrenoid, and flagellar depression.
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UBCs are plentiful in those regions linked to vestibular functions. In mammals, UBCs show an uneven distribution within the granule cell domains of the hindbrain, being the most dense in the vermis, part of the flocculus/paraflocculus complex, and layers 2–4 of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. In the rat cerebellum, UBCs outnumber Golgi cells by a factor of 3 and approximately equal the number of Purkinje cells. Like other glutamatergic cells of the cerebellum, UBCs originate in the rhombic lip.
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47–52.) : Hydrodynamic shear force : Evidences show that the application of high shear forces favours the formation of aerobic granules and the physical granule integrity. It was found that aerobic granules could be formed only above a threshold shear force value in terms of superficial upflow air velocity above 1.2 cm/s in a column SBR, and more regular, rounder, and more compact aerobic granules were developed at high hydrodynamic shear forces (Tay et al., 2001Tay J.-H., Liu Q.-S.
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There is evidence that new neurons are produced in the dentate gyrus of the adult mammalian hippocampus, the brain region important for learning, motivation, memory, and emotion. A study reported that newly made cells in the adult mouse hippocampus can display passive membrane properties, action potentials and synaptic inputs similar to the ones found in mature dentate granule cells. These findings suggested that these newly made cells can mature into more practical and useful neurons in the adult mammalian brain.
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The rhombic lip is a posterior section of the developing metencephalon which can be recognized transiently within the vertebrate embryo. It extends posteriorly from the roof of the fourth ventricle to dorsal neuroepithelial cells. The rhombic lip can be divided into eight structural units based on rhombomeres 1-8 (r1-r8), which can be recognized at early stages of hindbrain development. Producing granule cells and five brainstem nuclei, the rhombic lip plays an important role in developing a complex cerebellar neural system.
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They found that the highest density of labeling was in the subventricular zone and in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. It was known that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus is essentially devoid of glia. Therefore, Altman attributed the labeling in this region to the uptake of thymidine by dentate granule cells. However, he could not prove that the adult-generated cells were neurons rather than glia, since no phenotypic markers were available that could be used in conjunction with thymidine autoradiography.
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L1 is involved in neuron-neuron adhesion, neurite fasciculation, outgrowth of neurites, cerebellar granule cell migration, neurite outgrowth on Schwann cells and interactions among epithelial cells of intestinal crypts. As a consequence, mutations in the L1CAM gene cause the Nervous System to malfunction. The main disorders linked to this mutation are known by the acronym CRASH or can be also referred as L1 syndrome. This includes disorders such as HSAS, MASA syndrome, agenesis of the corpus callosum and spastic paraplegia.
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Schematic two-dimensional cross-sectional view of glycogen: A core protein of glycogenin is surrounded by branches of glucose units. The entire globular granule may contain around 30,000 glucose units. A view of the atomic structure of a single branched strand of glucose units in a glycogen molecule. Glycogen (black granules) in spermatozoa of a flatworm; transmission electron microscopy, scale: 0.3 µm Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria.
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He is now studying the development of epilepsy, which occurs in 44% of patients with PML. Koralnik is credited for demonstrating that JCV can infect not only glial cells (oligodendrocytes and astrocytes) but also neurons. He and his colleagues have identified two novel clinical entities distinct from PML – JCV-granule cell neuronopathy and JCV-encephalopathy – that are caused by JCV deletion variants. He and his colleagues also demonstrated that JCV can infect meningeal and choroid plexus cells and cause JCV meningitis.
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Serotonylation is a receptor independent signaling mechanism by which serotonin activates intracellular processes by creating long lasting covalent bonds upon proteins.Walther DJ, Peter JU, Winter S, Höltje M, Paulmann N, Grohmann M, Vowinckel J, Alamo-Bethencourt V, Wilhelm CS, Ahnert-Hilger G, Bader M. (2003). Serotonylation of small GTPases is a signal transduction pathway that triggers platelet alpha-granule release. Cell. 115(7):851-62. It occurs through the modification of proteins by the attachment of serotonin on their glutamine residues.
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Further downstream, prion-like aggregation of the protein TIA-1 promotes the formation of stress granules. The term prion-like is used because aggregation of TIA-1 is concentration dependent, inhibited by chaperones, and because the aggregates are resistant to proteases. It has also been proposed that microtubules play a role in the formation of stress granules, maybe by transporting granule components. This hypothesis is based on the fact that disruption of microtubules with the chemical nocodazole blocks the appearance of the granules.
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This decreases a roof's ability to reflect ultra-violet rays of light and shortens the life of the roof. Once the bacteria have become noticeable, the stains will continue to worsen year to year. As the bacterial colony grows, gravity pulls it downward, resulting in the smear-like stain down roofs. Most experts within the subject area conclude the bacteria to be harmful, if left untreated, as the growth holds moisture within shingles causing premature aging, rotting, and/or granule loss.
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Some other common genera include Heterophrys, Actinocystis, and Oxnerella. The axopods of centrohelids are supported by microtubules in a triangular-hexagonal array, which arise from a tripartite granule called the centroplast at the center of the cell. Axopods with a similar array occur in gymnosphaerids, which have traditionally been considered centrohelids (though sometimes in a separate order from the others). This was questioned when it was found they have mitochondria with tubular cristae, as do other heliozoa, while in centrohelids the cristae are flat.
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What turned out to be the most popular and longest-lasting physical style of telephone was introduced in the early 20th century, including Bell's model 102 telephone. A carbon granule transmitter and electromagnetic receiver were united in a single molded plastic handle, which when not in use were placed in a cradle in the base unit. The circuit diagram of the model 102 shows the direct connection of the receiver to the line, while the transmitter was induction coupled, with energy supplied by a local battery.
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DERA is part of the inducible deo operon in bacteria which allows for the conversion of exogenous deoxyribonucleosides for energy generation. The products of DERA, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and acetaldehyde (subsequently converted to acetyl CoA) can enter the glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle pathways respectively. In humans, DERA is mainly expressed in lungs, liver and colon and is necessary for the cellular stress response. After induction of oxidative stress or mitochondrial stress, DERA colocalizes with stress granules and associates with YBX1, a known stress granule protein.
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The space between layer I and layer VI is composed of a mixture of pyramidal cells and spindle cells with no significant number of granule cells. Pyramidal cells clump in the outer part to form glomeruli similar to those seen in some of the primary olfactory areas (Brodmann-1905). This term also refers to an area known as peripaleocortical claustral - a cytoarchitecturally defined (agranular) portion of the insula at its rostral extreme where it approaches most closely the claustrum and the prepyriform area (Stephan-76).
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The granule cells in turn send their axons, the mossy fibre pathway (CA3), to synapse on the pyramidal cells of the CA3 region. Finally, the axons of the pyramidal cells in the CA3 regions, the Schaffer collateral pathway (CA1), terminate on the pyramidal cells of the CA1 region. Damage to any of these hippocampal pathways is sufficient to cause some memory disturbance in humans. In the perforant and Schaffer pathways, LTP is induced by activating a postsynaptic NMDA receptor, causing an influx of calcium.
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UBCs are intrinsically firing neurons and considered as a class of excitatory “local circuit neurons”. They work together with vestibular fibres to integrate signals involving the orientation of the head that modulates reflex behaviour. UBCs function to amplify inputs from the vestibular ganglia and nuclei by spreading and prolonging excitation within the granular layer. They receive glutamatergic inputs on its dendritic brush from a single mossy fibre terminal in the form of a giant glutamatergic synapse and make glutamatergic synapses with granule cells and other UBCs.
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The pool size as well as each granule's radius of influence is adaptive and will grow/shrink depending on the utility of each granule and the overall population fitness. To encourage fewer function evaluations, each granule's radius of influence is initially large and is gradually shrunk in latter stages of evolution. This encourages more exact fitness evaluations when competition is fierce among more similar and converging solutions. Furthermore, to prevent the pool from growing too large, granules that are not used are gradually eliminated.
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A parallel fiber runs for an average of 3 mm in each direction from the split, for a total length of about 6 mm (about 1/10 of the total width of the cortical layer). As they run along, the parallel fibers pass through the dendritic trees of Purkinje cells, contacting one of every 3-5 that they pass, making a total of 80-100 synaptic connections with Purkinje cell dendritic spines. Granule cells use glutamate as their neurotransmitter, and therefore exert excitatory effects on their targets.
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Cells which are known nowadays to express the protein L1 are: immature oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, which are non-neuronal cells that provide support and protection for neurons and form myelin; T cells which are lymphocytes involved in cell-mediated immunity; other types of lymphocytes such as B cells and Monocytes. It is also expressed in intestinal epithelial progenitor cells, cerebellum neurons such as Cerebellum granule cell and Purkinje cells. Finally, it is expressed in multiple tumor cells for example Melanoma and lung carcinoma cells.
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Tansey first explored the mechanisms of neuronal survival in cerebellar granule cells. She and her team knew that depolarizing concentrations of potassium promoted survival, so they asked whether the downstream effects of potassium influx on survival were mediated by MAP kinase or PI-3-K. They found that survival was dependent on depolarization induced PI-3-K activity. Tansey then collaborated with Jeff Milbrandt's lab in the Department of Genetics at WashU to explore the GDNF family of ligands and the biology of their intracellular signalling.
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Axons from the EC that originate in layer III are the origin of the direct perforant pathway and form synapses on the very distal apical dendrites of CA1 neurons. Conversely, axons originating from layer II are the origin of the indirect pathway, and information reaches CA1 via the trisynaptic circuit. In the initial part of this pathway, the axons project through the perforant pathway to the granule cells of the dentate gyrus (first synapse). From then, the information follows via the mossy fibres to CA3 (second synapse).
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Tsunami deposits linked to the 1693 tsunami have been found both onshore and offshore. At Ognina, just south of Syracuse, at the head of a ria, a sequence containing several coarse clastic layers has been found, inconsistent with its lagoonal setting. The uppermost coarse layer, which has a strongly erosive base, consists of coarse sand with up to granule size clasts. The layer has been dated as 17th to 18th century based on pottery shards and one well-preserved clay pipe, consistent with the 1693 tsunami.
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In fact, the reduced expression of Cxcl3 forces the cerebellar granule neuron precursors to remain at the surface of the cerebellum, where they highly proliferate under the stimulus of Sonic hedgehog, becoming target of transforming insults. Remarkably, the treatment with CXCL3 completely prevents the growth of medulloblastoma lesions in a Shh- type mouse model of medulloblastoma. Thus, CXCL3 is a target for medulloblastoma therapy. Cxcl3 is directly regulated transcriptionally by BTG2 The gene for CXCL3 is located on chromosome 4 in a cluster of other CXC chemokines.
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RNA phase transitions driven in part by intermolecular RNA- RNA interactions may play a role in stress granule formation. Similar to intrinsically disordered proteins, total RNA extracts are capable of undergoing phase separation in physiological conditions in vitro. RNA-seq analyses demonstrate that these assemblies share a largely overlapping transcriptome with stress granules, with RNA enrichment in both being predominately based on the length of the RNA. Furthermore, stress granules contain many RNA helicases, including the DEAD/H-box helicases Ded1p/DDX3, eIF4A1, and RHAU.
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CRMP1 mRNA is mainly expressed in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. Among the five members of the CRMP family, CRMP-2 is the most highly expressed in the adult brain, especially in post-mitotic neurons of the olfactory system, cerebellum, and hippocampus. CRMP-3 mRNA is only expressed in the granular layer of the cerebellum, inferior olive, and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. CRMP-4 is the least expressed protein of CRMP family and its expression is restricted to the olfactory bulb, hippocampus, and the internal granule layer (IGL) of the cerebellum.
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The large neurons in layer III originate from E13 to E16, while the small and medium originate between E15 and E20. Like the small and medium cells in layer III, the cells of layer II and the striatal bridges also originate between E15 and E20 and develop in a lateral to medial gradient. The granule cells of the islands of calleja originate between E19 and E22 and continue to migrate into the islands until long after birth. Fibers from the lateral olfactory tract begin branching into the olfactory tubercle around E17.
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Meclofenamic acid is sold under the trade name "Arquel" for use in horses, and is administered as an oral granule form at a dose of 2.2 mg/kg/day. It has a relatively slow onset of action, taking 36–48 hours for full effect, and is most useful for treatment of chronic musculoskeletal disease. It has been found to be beneficial for the treatment of navicular syndrome, laminitis, and osteoarthritis, in some cases having a more profound effect than the commonly used NSAID phenylbutazone. However, due to cost, it is not routinely used in practice.
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The dopaminergic neurons of the mesolimbic pathway project onto the GABAergic medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle Figure 3: The ventral striatum and self-administration of amphetamine (receptor D3 is abundant in these two areas ). In addition, the OT contains tightly packed cell clusters known as the islands of Calleja, which consist of granule cells. Even though it is part of the olfactory cortex and receives direct input from the olfactory bulb, it has not been shown to play a role in processing of odors.
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The GAT is bit mapped to each granule of space on the drive. Other fields in the GAT contain the PACK NAME, DATE of creation (when the disk was formatted), pack PASSWORD, and data pertaining to the configuration of the drive. When a file is to be opened for access, the system needs to search the directory for its directory record. Search time is minimized by using a hashing technique to reduce the 11-character string formed from the file name and extension to a one byte value.
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The changing pressure deforms the granules, causing the contact area between each pair of adjacent granules to change, and this causes the electrical resistance of the mass of granules to change. The changes in resistance cause a corresponding change in the current flowing through the microphone, producing the electrical signal. Carbon microphones were once commonly used in telephones; they have extremely low-quality sound reproduction and a very limited frequency response range but are very robust devices. The Boudet microphone, which used relatively large carbon balls, was similar to the granule carbon button microphones.
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In Oracle 9i and earlier, it is 4 MB if the SGA size is less than 128 MB, and 16 MB otherwise. For later releases, it is typically 4 MB if the SGA size is less than 1 GB, and 16 MB otherwise. There must be at least 3 granules in the SGA: one for the Database Buffer Cache, one for the Shared Pool Area and one for the Redo Log Buffer. It is possible to retrieve information about the current granule size at any time by querying the dynamic view V$SGAINFO.
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The internal granular layer of the cortex, also commonly referred to as the granular layer of the cortex, is the layer IV in the subdivision of the mammalian cortex into 6 layers. The adjective internal is used in opposition to the external granular layer of the cortex, the term granular refers to the granule cells found here. This layer receives the afferent connections from the thalamus and from other cortical regions and sends connections to the other layers. The line of Gennari (occipital stripe) is also present in this layer.
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In the mouse, a single mossy fiber projection may make as many as 37 contacts with a single pyramidal cell, but innervates only about a dozen different pyramidal cells. In contrast, a single CA3 pyramidal cell receives input from about 50 different granule cells. It has been shown in rodents that the size of the mossy fiber projections can show large interindividual variations, which are to a large part heritable. In addition, these variations show strong correlations with different types of behavior, mainly, but not exclusively, spatial learning.
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Eosinophils are terminally differentiated granulocytes found in most mammals. The principal role of these cells, in a healthy host, is the elimination of antibody bound parasites through the release of cytotoxic granule proteins. Given that eosinophils are the primary IL-5Rα-expressing cells, it is not surprising that this cell type responds to IL-5. In fact, IL-5 was originally discovered as an eosinophil colony-stimulating factor, is a major regulator of eosinophil accumulation in tissues, and can modulate eosinophil behavior at every stage from maturation to survival.
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The protein encoded by this gene is the predominant constituent of the crystalline core of the eosinophil granule. High levels of the proform of this protein are also present in placenta and pregnancy serum, where it exists as a complex with several other proteins including pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPPA), angiotensinogen (AGT), and C3dg. This protein may be involved in antiparasitic defense mechanisms as a cytotoxin and helmintho- toxin, and in immune hypersensitivity reactions. It is directly implicated in epithelial cell damage, exfoliation, and bronchospasm in allergic diseases.
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For example, it has been shown that disruptions within the trisynaptic circuit leads to behavioural changes in rodent and feline models. The trisynaptic circuit is a neural circuit in the hippocampus, which is made up of three major cell groups: granule cells in the dentate gyrus, pyramidal neurons in CA3, and pyramidal neurons in CA1. The hippocampal relay involves 3 main regions within the hippocampus which are classified according to their cell type and projection fibers. The first projection of the hippocampus occurs between the entorhinal cortex and the dentate gyrus.
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The granule is the defining characteristic of the endoplasm, as they are typically not present within the ectoplasm. These offshoots of the endomembrane system are enclosed by a phospholipid bilayer and can fuse with other organelles as well as the plasma membrane. Their membrane is only semipermeable and allows them to house substances that could be harmful to the cell if they were allowed to flow freely within the cytosol. These granules give the cell a large amount of regulation and control over the wide variety of metabolic activities that take place within the endoplasm.
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In many mammals, including rodents, the olfactory bulb is a brain region containing cells that detect smell, featuring integration of adult-born neurons, which migrate from the SVZ of the striatum to the olfactory bulb through the rostral migratory stream (RMS). The migrating neuroblasts in the olfactory bulb become interneurons that help the brain communicate with these sensory cells. The majority of those interneurons are inhibitory granule cells, but a small number are periglomerular cells. In the adult SVZ, the primary neural stem cells are SVZ astrocytes rather than RGCs.
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The ancient Espresso people lived on this planet before becoming extinct by "gummification" to power the robot power cells. There were also nine Stone Giants who once roamed the planet, the last one being Tektos, who was killed in an attack against Magnus Muzzleflash and gave the Earth Millennium Gummy to the children as a parting gift. Cassia () is the water planet, which consists of two large islands. The planet is mainly populated by otter people, and another magic academy, Ambergis Prep, established prior to Will-O-Wisp is located on Granule Island.
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In neuroscience, glutamate refers to the anion of glutamic acid in its role as a neurotransmitter: a chemical that nerve cells use to send signals to other cells. It is by a wide margin the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system. It is used by every major excitatory function in the vertebrate brain, accounting in total for well over 90% of the synaptic connections in the human brain. It also serves as the primary neurotransmitter for some localized brain regions, such as cerebellum granule cells.
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Caloplaca obamae produces a thin thallus arranged in orange granules that are 30-50 μm in diameter and form patches that can be 0.2-1 mm in diameter, ultimately covering an area on the soil up to 6-7 cm2. The algal layer is discontinuous and usually 50-100 μm thick under the granule patches. It appears that C. obamae is sterile and does not produce ascospores; the apothecia that were present in specimens may belong to an associated species, Caloplaca ludificans. Caloplaca obamae is similar in appearance to Caloplaca xanthostigmoidea.
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Like the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum is divided into two cerebellar hemispheres; it also contains a narrow midline zone (the vermis). A set of large folds is, by convention, used to divide the overall structure into 10 smaller "lobules". Because of its large number of tiny granule cells, the cerebellum contains more neurons than the total from the rest of the brain, but takes up only 10% of the total brain volume. The number of neurons in the cerebellum is related to the number of neurons in the neocortex.
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Most species of fish and amphibians possess a lateral line system that senses pressure waves in water. One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ, the medial octavolateral nucleus, has a cerebellum-like structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers. In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum-like structure. In ray-finned fishes (by far the largest group), the optic tectum has a layer—the marginal layer—that is cerebellum-like.
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During construction the tubular steel structure was unclad and could be seen around most of North East Wetherby earning it the nicknames Elland Road and The Pepsi Max after the football stadium and rollercoaster respectively. In 2011, the company won a High Court judgement against three former employees who had gone to work at a rival firm and developed an own-brand gravy granule food for a leading supermarket. The High Court ruled in favour of Goldenfry ascertaining that the new venture had misused trade secrets and had privileged access to commercial information.
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The diagnosis of IVNK/TL depends upon obtaining histology findings in the skin and/or other involved tissue that resembles that seen in IVBCL except that the malignant lymphocytes are not B-cells but rather: 1) NK-cells as evidenced by their expression of NK-cell selective marker proteins (e.g. CD3e, CD2, CD30, CD43, CD56, and/or CD79), expression of granule-bound enzymes (e.g. granzyme B), and expression of EBV proteins (e.g. Epstein–Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 and EBV- produced small RNAs); but not the expression of B-cell (e.g.
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The Consensus Model of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion In beta cells, insulin release is stimulated primarily by glucose present in the blood. As circulating glucose levels rise such as after ingesting a meal, insulin is secreted in a dose-dependent fashion. This system of release is commonly referred to as glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). There are four key pieces to the "Consensus Model" of GSIS: GLUT2 dependent glucose uptake, glucose metabolism, KATP channel closure, and the opening of voltage gated calcium channels causing insulin granule fusion and exocytosis.
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Gravel (largest fragment in this photo is about 4 cm) A gravel road (technically crushed stone) in Indiana Gravel being unloaded from a barge Sand and gravel separator in a gravel pit in Germany Gravel is a loose aggregation of rock fragments. Gravel is classified by particle size range and includes size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments. In the Udden-Wentworth scale gravel is categorized into granular gravel () and pebble gravel (). ISO 14688 grades gravels as fine, medium, and coarse with ranges 2 mm to 6.3 mm to 20 mm to 63 mm.
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The islands of Calleja (; IC, ISC, or IClj) are a group of neural granule cells located within the ventral striatum in the brains of most animals. This region of the brain is part of the limbic system, where it aids in the reinforcing effects of reward-like activities. Within most species, the islands are specifically located within the olfactory tubercle; however, in primates, these islands are located within the nucleus accumbens, the reward center of the brain, since the olfactory tubercle has practically disappeared in the brains of primates.Stevens JR. 2002.
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The compound displayed cell-rescuing effects in various models of apoptotic neuronal death, as well as in rodent and non-rodent animal models of neurodegeneration. Omigapil rescues in vitro PC12 cells from rotenone toxicity, β-amyloid toxicity, nutrition withdrawal, and lactacystin. Additionally, omigapil can prevent NMDA and kainate receptor excitotoxicity in rat cortical neurons as well as toxicity from cytosine arabinoside (ara C) in cerebellar granule cells. Omigapil also rescues rat oligodendrocytes from AMPA receptor excitotoxicity and rat embryonic mesencephalic (midbrain) dopaminergic cells from toxicity by MPP+/MPTP.
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Born June 20, 1916 in Milltown, New Jersey, he was the son of Milltown Councilman Joseph M. Crabiel and Helen Glock Crabiel. A brother, David Crabiel, was a longtime member of the Middlesex County Board of Freeholders and twice a candidate for Congress. Crabiel attended Milltown public schools, graduated from New Brunswick High School, and in 1936 received a BS in civil engineering from Rutgers University. In 1936 he joined the Franklin Construction Company as a civil engineer; he later served as president of Great Notch Granule Company and as president of F.E. Schroeder, Inc.
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In general, there are two types of granulation: wet granulation and dry granulation. Granulation can be thought of as the opposite of milling; it is the process by which small particles are bound together to form larger particles, called granules. Granulation is used for several reasons. Granulation prevents the "demixing" of components in the mixture, by creating a granule which contains all of the components in their required proportions, improves flow characteristics of powders (because small particles do not flow well), and improves compaction properties for tablet formation.
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The miRNAs of oncomir-1 and its paralogs are likely contribute to tumorigenesis by disregulating critical target genes such as ones involved in apoptosis, proliferation and blocking differentiation or cell cycle exit. The miR-17-92 Cluster has been implicated in Medulloblastoma (MB) which is the most common paediatric malignant brain tumour. It arises when cerebellar granule neurone progenitor (GNP) cells fail to properly migrate and differentiate. MB can be induced by 2 inherited cancer syndromes, one of which is called the Gorlin syndrome and is caused by a mutated PATCHED(PTCH) gene.
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Monocercomonoides is a genus of flagellate Excavata belonging to the order Oxymonadida. It was established by Bernard V. Travis and was first described as those with "polymastiginid flagellates having three anterior flagella and a trailing one originating at a single basal granule located in front of the anteriorly positioned nucleus, and a more or less well-defined axostyle".Travis, B. V. 1932. A Discussion of Synonymy in the Nomenclature of Certain Insect Flagellates, with the Description of a New Flagellate from the Larvae of Ligyrodes relictus Say (Coleoptera-Scarabaeidae).
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Visinin-like protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the VSNL1 gene. This gene is a member of the visinin/recoverin subfamily of neuronal calcium sensor proteins. The encoded protein is strongly expressed in granule cells of the cerebellum where it associates with membranes in a calcium- dependent manner and modulates intracellular signaling pathways of the central nervous system by directly or indirectly regulating the activity of adenylyl cyclase. Alternatively spliced transcript variants have been observed, but their full-length nature has not been determined.
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However, as time has gone by, researchers such as Pessoa, generalized this concept with help from evidence of EEG recordings, and concluded that the amygdala helps an organism to define a stimulus and therefore respond accordingly. However, when the amygdala was initially thought to be linked to fear, this gave way for research in the amygdala for emotional processes. Kheirbek demonstrated research that the amygdala is involved in emotional processes, in particular the ventral hippocampus. He described the ventral hippocampus as having a role in neurogenesis and the creation of adult-born granule cells (GC).
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Logo of Upjohn Pill & Granule, later The Upjohn Company The Upjohn Company was a pharmaceutical manufacturing firm founded in 1886 in Kalamazoo, Michigan, by Dr. William E. Upjohn, an 1875 graduate of the University of Michigan medical school. The company was originally formed to make friable pills, which were specifically designed to be easily digested. These could be "reduced to a powder under the thumb", a strong marketing argument at the time. In 1995, Upjohn merged with Pharmacia AB to form Pharmacia & Upjohn; the company is now owned by Pfizer.
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An ideal granulation will contain all the constituents of the mix in the correct proportion in each granule and segregation of granules will not occur. Many powders, because of their small size, irregular shape or surface characteristics, are cohesive and do not flow well. Granules produced from such a cohesive system will be larger and more isodiametric (roughly spherical), both factors contributing to improved flow properties. Some powders are difficult to compact even if a readily compactable adhesive is included in the mix, but granules of the same powders are often more easily compacted.
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The first of these, the dentate gyrus (DG), is actually a separate structure, a tightly packed layer of small granule cells wrapped around the end of the hippocampus proper, forming a pointed wedge in some cross-sections, a semicircle in others. Next come a series of Cornu Ammonis areas: first CA4 (which underlies the dentate gyrus), then CA3, then a very small zone called CA2, then CA1. The CA areas are all filled with densely packed Pyramidal cells similar to those found in the neocortex. After CA1 comes an area called the subiculum.
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While both stress granules and processing bodies are associated with mRNAs, processing bodies have been long proposed to be sites of mRNA degradation because they contain enzymes like DCP1/2 and XRN1 that are known to degrade mRNAs. However, others have demonstrated that mRNAs associated with processing bodies are largely translationally repressed but not degraded. It has also been proposed that mRNAs selected for degradation are passed from stress granules to processing bodies, though there is also data suggesting that processing bodies precede and promote stress granule formation.
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Eosinophil peroxidase is secreted by eosinophil cells into the tissue at the site of infection. Activation of cells in the face of an infection leads to the release of granule contents and externalization of protein and chemical agents from the cell. Having diverged from myeloperoxidase and lactoperoxidase, these three enzymes now perform distinct but not non-overlapping roles; lactoperoxidase helps maintain the sterility of mammalian milk; myeloperoxidase and eosinophil peroxidase inhabit granules and play roles in host defense—an example of how the concept of a single chemical function can be harnessed in myriad ways in nature.
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Early neuroanatomists, including Santiago Ramón y Cajal, considered the nervous system fixed and incapable of regeneration. The first evidence of adult mammalian neurogenesis in the cerebral cortex was presented by Joseph Altman in 1962, followed by a demonstration of adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus in 1963. In 1969, Joseph Altman discovered and named the rostral migratory stream as the source of adult generated granule cell neurons in the olfactory bulb. Up until the 1980s, the scientific community ignored these findings despite use of the most direct method of demonstrating cell proliferation in the early studies, i.e.
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Still the extensive (mushroomed) agro-research did not lead to any large scale use in the feed industry due to analytical research analysing the pancreatic digestibility of starches of several genotypes. Waxy starch of the genome type ae, as also the genome type du and su2, for starches with a high amylose content, show an excellent digestibility. Thus, amylopectin, waxy starches alone, cannot be correlated to good digestibility. Sandsted suggests that digestibility could lie more in the structure of starch granule, in differences in bonding of the starch molecules and in possible anomalous linkages between the molecules.
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Cylinder capacities also have an upper limit of 256 sectors per cylinder or eight granules per cylinder, while the system supports (for hard drives with multiple platters of storage media) a maximum of eight heads per drive. The disk's directory cylinder is placed during the format process on the middle-numbered cylinder; thus a standard 40 cylinder disk has its directory installed on cylinder 20. This reduces the average distance (and access time) that the drive's read/write head must move to access the directory. The first sector of the disk directory contains the Granule Allocation Table (GAT).
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Recent developments in next-generation sequencing have allowed for greater understanding of the diversity eukaryotic cells achieve through splice variants. Transcribed mRNA must reach the intended dendritic spine for the spine to express L-LTP. Neurons may transport mRNA to specific dendritic spines in a package along with a transport ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex; the transport RNP complex is a subtype of an RNA granule. Granules containing two proteins of known importance to synaptic plasticity, CaMKII (Calmodulin-dependent Kinase II) and the immediate early gene Arc, have been identified to associate with a type of the motor protein kinesin, KIF5.
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By deactivating these interneurons, Losonczy showed that fear memories could be suppressed and contextual fear conditioning could thus be prevented. This discovery is significant to research into the mechanism psychiatric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder. In 2015, Losonczy and his PhD student Nathan Danielson discovered the role of neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus in memory formation and pattern separation. To perform this study, Losonczy used two-photon microscopy and calcium imaging to image newborn granule cells in the mouse hippocampus and compare them with mature neurons as the mice traveled through subtly different contexts.
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One of the common uses of Ogg pages is to allow the editing of Ogg files without a reduction in quality or the need to transcode files. Any series of pages within a stream can be preceded by the stream's header pages (pages with an absolute granule position of 0) and be decoded properly by media players. This technique can be used to losslessly crop a media file. Multiple cropped segments can be appended to each other with a process known as chaining provided that the serial numbers of these segments are modified to unique numbers.
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The protease targets of intracellular inhibitory serpins have been difficult to identify, since many of these molecules appear to perform overlapping roles. Further, many human serpins lack precise functional equivalents in model organisms such as the mouse. Nevertheless, an important function of intracellular serpins may be to protect against the inappropriate activity of proteases inside the cell. For example, one of the best-characterised human intracellular serpins is Serpin B9, which inhibits the cytotoxic granule protease granzyme B. In doing so, Serpin B9 may protect against inadvertent release of granzyme B and premature or unwanted activation of cell death pathways.
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The entorhinal cortex (EC) is a structure in the brain located in the medial temporal lobe. The EC is composed of six distinct layers. The superficial (outer) layers, which includes layers I through III, are mainly input layers that receive signals from other parts of the EC. The deep (inner) layers, layers IV to VI, are output layers, and send signals to different parts of the EC and the brain. Layers II and III project to the CA3 area of the hippocampal formation (via the perforant path) and to the granule cells of the dentate gyrus, respectively.
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When the substrate concentration in the bulk liquid is high, the granule-former organisms can store the organic matter in form of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate to be consumed in the famine period, giving an advantage over filamentous organisms. When an anaerobic feeding is applied this factor is enhanced, minimising the importance of short settling time and higher hydrodynamic forces. : Short settling time: This hydraulic selection pressure on the microbial community allows the retention granular biomass inside the reactor while flocculent biomass is washed-out. (Qin et al. 2004Qin L. Liu Y. and Tay J-H (2004).
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A porous bioceramic granule of an orthobiologic calcium composition manufactured by Cam Bioceramics Bioceramics and bioglasses are ceramic materials that are biocompatible.P. Ducheyne, G. W. Hastings (editors) (1984) CRC metal and ceramic biomaterials vol 1 Bioceramics are an important subset of biomaterials.J. F. Shackelford (editor)(1999) MSF bioceramics applications of ceramic and glass materials in medicine H. Oonishi, H. Aoki, K. Sawai (editors) (1988) Bioceramics vol. 1 Bioceramics range in biocompatibility from the ceramic oxides, which are inert in the body, to the other extreme of resorbable materials, which are eventually replaced by the body after they have assisted repair.
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Emergence of these self-organized hippocampal events are dependent on interactions between various pyramidal and granule neurons with different types of the interneurons in this circuit. Pyramidal cells of CA3 and CA1 dendritic layer region are important in generating these waves, and they affect the subiculum, parasubiculum, entorhinal cortex, and ultimately neurons of the neocortex. During SWRs, which last approximately 100 milliseconds, 50,000-100,000 neurons discharge in synchrony, making SWRs the most synchronous event in the brain. An important concept about the neuronal populations participating in these events is the fact that they are experience-dependent.
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The stem-like cone granules, fewer in number than the rod granules, are placed close to the membrana limitans externa, through which they are continuous with the cones of the layer of rods and cones. They do not present any cross-striation, but contain a pyriform nucleus, which almost completely fills the cell. From the inner extremity of the granule a thick process passes into the outer plexiform layer, and there expands into a pyramidal enlargement or foot plate, from which are given off numerous fine fibrils, that come in contact with the outer processes of the cone bipolars.
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At its zenith, upwards of of cement was being shipped out on a weekly basis to feed the vast building program. The modern FIBC transports a growing figure of over of product each year and is used to handle, store and move products as varied as cereals to powdered chemicals and flour to animal feeds. With a capacity of up to and load capability ranging from FIBCs are highly cost effective, easily recyclable and ideal for virtually any free-flowing granule, powder, pellet or flake. FIBCs are also being developed to hold and filter fluid products.
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It remains unclear how the hippocampus enables new memory formation, but one process, called long term potentiation (LTP), occurs in this brain region. LTP involves long- lasting strengthening of synaptic connections after repeated stimulation. While the dentate gyrus shows LTP, it is also one of the few regions of the mammalian brain where adult neurogenesis (the formation of new neurons) takes place. Some studies hypothesize that new memories could preferentially use newly formed granule cells of the dentate gyrus, providing a potential mechanism for distinguishing multiple instances of similar events or multiple visits to the same location.
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Looking deeper into the tissue affected, single-cell imaging showed there were 3 main types of cells that make up the hippocampus. When observing cell activity and the number of cells of the hippocampus of rats, it was found that the CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cells continued to be active and of the same volume. However, the number of granule cells of the dentate gyrus continuously decreased with age; the function of these cells also declined leading Barnes and her team to conclude these gyrus cells are the weak link of the hippocampal circuit involved in memory.
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Molecular machinery driving exocytosis in neuromediator release. The core SNARE complex is formed by four α-helices contributed by synaptobrevin, syntaxin and SNAP-25, synaptotagmin serves as a calcium sensor and regulates intimately the SNARE zipping.Assembly of the SNAREs into the "trans" complexes likely bridges the opposing lipid bilayers of membranes belonging to cell and secretory granule, bringing them in proximity and inducing their fusion. The influx of calcium into the cell triggers the completion of the assembly reaction, which is mediated by an interaction between the putative calcium sensor, synaptotagmin, with membrane lipids and/or the partially assembled SNARE complex.
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This condition is associated with a loss-of-function mutation in SNAP29 gene, encoding a member of the SNARE family of proteins which is involved in intracellular vesicle fusion. Decrease in SNAP29 expression was found to result in abnormal lamellar granule maturation and secretion. Lamellar granules are organelles found in the upper epidermal layers of skin and is responsible for secretion of lipids, proteases and their inhibitors to stratum corneum during the formation of epidermal barrier. Due to the abnormal vesicle trafficking as a consequence of decreased SNAP29 there is abnormal deposition of epidermal lipids and proteases.
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It is also observed that basal dendrites of the prefrontal cortex are larger and more complex in comparison to the smaller and simpler dendrites that can be seen within the visual cortex. Basal dendrites are capable of vast amounts of analog computing, which is responsible for many of the different nonlinear responses of modulating information in the neocortex. Basal dendrites additionally exist in dentate granule cells for a limited time before removal via regulatory factors. This removal usually occurs before the cell reaches adulthood, and is thought to be regulated through both intracellular and extracellular signals.
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When the Cabot Center opened in 1954 the building included a dirt floor track & field facility, not uncommon at the time. Now known as the Solomon Indoor Track, the facilities have undergone a number of renovations, including the installation of a 120-yard banked track in 1971, followed by the installation of a flat rubber surface track. In 2008 the facilities were revamped once again, installing an embedded granule track featuring four-lane straightaways, two-lane ovals, and a pole vault pit. Additionally, a turf infield has been included to allow training by many of the University's sports teams.
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This has been further proved with the analysis of lipofuscin granule autofluoresence in normal human and rhesus macaque retinas by AOSLO. Comparison of this fluorescence in normal and diseased retinas with simultaneous imaging of cone structure and cone/retinal pigment cell ratio analysis has been shown to be possible and in the future may allow for the tracking of retinal damage from retinal dystrophies.Morgan JI, Dubra A, Wolfe R, Merigan WH, Williams DR. "In vivo autofluorescence imaging of the human and macaque retinal pigment epithelial cell mosaic." Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2009 Mar;50(3):1350-9.
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ISRIB (integrated stress response inhibitor) is an experimental drug which reverses the effects of eIF2α phosphorylation with an IC50 of 5 nM. It was discovered by the Walter lab at UCSF through a semi-automated screening of a large library of small molecules. It has also been shown to inhibit eIF2α phosphorylation-induced stress granule (SG) formation. Since eIF2α phosphorylation is known to be involved in memory formation, ISRIB was tested to see whether it would be active in vivo, and was found to readily cross the blood-brain barrier, with a half-life of 8 hours.
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Place cell responses are shown by pyramidal cells in the hippocampus and by granule cells in the dentate gyrus. Other cells in smaller proportion are inhibitory interneurons, and these often show place-related variations in their firing rate that are much weaker. There is little, if any, spatial topography in the representation; in general, cells lying next to each other in the hippocampus have uncorrelated spatial firing patterns. Place cells are typically almost silent when a rat is moving around outside the place field but reach sustained rates as high as 40 Hz when the rat is near the center.
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Moreover, it was found that CB has an inhibitory effect on the uptake of sucrose-3H by chang- strain human liver cells and in CB-treated cells alterations in the appearance and location of microfilaments were observed. Furthermore, it was found that CB reversibly inhibits melanin granule movement in melanocytes. One year later, research on the influence of cytochalasin B on chloroplasts was done. It was found that the light-oriented movement of chloroplasts is reversibly inhibited by cytochalasin B. In 1973 researches found that cytochalasin B is a powerful non-competitive inhibitor of glucose transport.
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Cortical granule (CG) distribution within cortex of human oocyte at metaphase II Cortical granules are regulatory secretory organelles (ranging from 0.2 um to 0.6 um in diameter) found within oocytes and are most associated with polyspermy prevention after the event of fertilization. Cortical granules are found among all mammals, many vertebrates, and some invertebrates. Within the oocyte, cortical granules are located along the cortex, the region furthest from the cell's center. Following fertilization, a signaling pathway induces the cortical granules to fuse with the oocyte's cell membrane and release their contents into the oocyte's extracellular matrix.
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Parallel fibers pass orthogonally through the Purkinje neuron's dendritic arbor, with up to 200,000 parallel fibers forming a Granule-cell-Purkinje-cell synapse with a single Purkinje cell. Each Purkinje cell receives approximately 500 climbing fiber synapses, all originating from a single climbing fiber. Both basket and stellate cells (found in the cerebellar molecular layer) provide inhibitory (GABAergic) input to the Purkinje cell, with basket cells synapsing on the Purkinje cell axon initial segment and stellate cells onto the dendrites. Purkinje cells send inhibitory projections to the deep cerebellar nuclei, and constitute the sole output of all motor coordination in the cerebellar cortex.
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Bed material load comprises the bed load and the portion of the suspended load that is sourced from the bed. Three common bed material transport relations are the "Ackers-White", "Engelund-Hansen", "Yang" formulae. The first is for sand to granule-size gravel, and the second and third are for sand though Yang later expanded his formula to include fine gravel. That all of these formulae cover the sand-size range and two of them are exclusively for sand is that the sediment in sand- bed rivers is commonly moved simultaneously as bed and suspended load.
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Sachs joined the faculty at Case Western Reserve University in 1957 and was made a full professor in 1966. He left Case Western Reserve to become the section chief of neurochemistry at The Roche Institute of Molecular Biology. Through his research, Sachs discovered the relationship between neurophysin, an intracellular chaperone protein and vasopressin, the neurohormone that is critical for maintaining water balance in the body. He hypothesized that neurophysin and vasopressin are both part of a larger, inactive precursor protein, a prohormone, which is then enzymatically cleaved and processed within the secretory granule to produce and secrete both peptide products.
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As a rule of thumb, one could say that each cytoarchitectonic field that contributes to the commissural projection also has a parallel associational fiber that terminates in the ipsilateral hippocampus. The inner molecular layer of dentate gyrus (dendrites of both granule cells and GABAergic interneurons) receives a projection that has both associational and commissural fibers mainly from hilar mossy cells and to some extent from CA3c Pyramidal cells. Because this projection fibers originate from both ipsilateral and contralateral sides of hippocampus they are called associational/commissural projections. In fact, each mossy cell innervates both the ipsilateral and contralateral dentate gyrus.
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M. Vesiculatus is similar to Sassanidotus gracillis because they both have a large telson and narrow metasoma but M. Vesiculatus is shown to have three granules near the terminal granule on the pedipalp movable finger. M. Vesiculatus also has very pronounced carapacial and metasomal carination, and its metasomal segment are seen to be larger than that of M. caucasicus and smaller than that of M. eupeus. M. Vesiculatus is different than these three other species in that its median eyes are much larger, its vesicle and aculeus is smaller, and it has a stouter carination on its pedipalp.
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In patients who have dysphagia, testing may first be done to exclude an anatomical cause of dysphagia, such as distortion of the anatomy of the esophagus. This usually includes visualization of the esophagus with an endoscope, and can also include barium swallow X‑rays of the esophagus. Endoscopy is typically normal in patients with nutcracker esophagus; however, abnormalities associated with gastroesophageal reflux disease, or GERD, which associates with nutcracker esophagus, may be seen. Barium swallow in nutcracker esophagus is also typically normal, but may provide a definitive diagnosis if contrast is given in tablet or granule form.
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The original plan was that Fibergen would build its plants adjacent to paper-making plants to process their waste, but this plan failed because it required paper-making plants to commit to long-term contracts to dispose of their waste, which they were unwilling to do. The granule business became the focus of Fibergen, helped in part by enzymologist Anatole Klyosov. In 1997 the company acquired Black Clawson for $110 million. In 2001, Thermo Electron fully spun out Thermo Fibrotek, which changed its name to Kadant at the same time; the Fibrogen division was renamed to Kadant Composites at the same time.
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Potassium polyacrylate works similar to a sponge under the soil surface. It is composed of a set of polymeric chains, which are linked together chemically to become a water-insoluble, net-like matrix that gently attracts and holds hydrogen molecules. The immense size and weight of its molecular structure allows each potassium polyacrylate granule to absorb over 500 times its original weight in purified water. It does not ‘bind’ water tightly. The potassium polyacrylate granules release just the right amount of water in response to a plant’s root suction. There is no waterlogging or other ill effects caused by ‘free’ water filling air cavities in the soil.
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In 1996, Kelley and his students showed that IGF-I is a survival factor for both hematopoietic cells and cerebellar granule neurons. Prior to their research, IGF-I was only known as a peptide that promotes the growth and development of muscle tissue in humans. Their discovery helped in the understanding how white blood cells live, die and develop into mature cells that actively defend the body against infectious diseases. Kelley and his team discovered that IGF-I acts by maintaining cellular expression of a survival protein known as Bcl-2, and this is accomplished by activating the key intracellular enzyme PI 3-kinase.
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Hatched area: stratum lacunosum-moleculare (LM). CA1, subregion of the hippocampus without mossy fibers; FI, fimbria hippocampi; FD, fascia dentata; OL and ML, outer and middle molecular layers of the fascia dentata; SG, supragranular layer; GC, granular cells. In the hippocampus, the mossy fiber pathway consists of unmyelinated axons projecting from granule cells in the dentate gyrus that terminate on modulatory hilar mossy cells and in Cornu Ammonis area 3 (CA3), a region involved in encoding short-term memory. These axons were first described as mossy fibers by Santiago Ramón y Cajal as they displayed varicosities along their lengths that gave them a mossy appearance.
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A set of large folds are conventionally used to divide the overall structure into ten smaller lobules. Because of its large number of tiny granule cells, the cerebellum contains more neurons than the rest of the brain put together, but it only takes up 10% of total brain volume.The Brain From Top To Bottom The cerebellum receives nearly 200 million input fibers; in contrast, the optic nerve is composed of a mere one million fibers. The unusual surface appearance of the cerebellum conceals the fact that the bulk of the structure is made up of a very tightly folded layer of gray matter, the cerebellar cortex.
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Primary sources for TDS in receiving waters are agricultural runoff and residential (urban) runoff, clay- rich mountain waters, leaching of soil contamination, and point source water pollution discharge from industrial or sewage treatment plants. The most common chemical constituents are calcium, phosphates, nitrates, sodium, potassium, and chloride, which are found in nutrient runoff, general stormwater runoff and runoff from snowy climates where road de-icing salts are applied. The chemicals may be cations, anions, molecules or agglomerations on the order of one thousand or fewer molecules, so long as a soluble micro- granule is formed. More exotic and harmful elements of TDS are pesticides arising from surface runoff.
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In the 2000s it became clear that only one page version will be used. The sixth byte of each page specifies type flags. The value 1 specifies that the page contains data of a packet continued from the previous page. The value 2 specifies that this is the first page of the stream, and the value 4 specifies that this is the last page of the stream. These values can be combined with addition or logical OR. The next 8 bytes, or 64 bits, is called the absolute granule position which is a synthetic value that encodes the Decode Timestamp, the Presentation time stamp and distance to first-needed reference.
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Therefore, presence of AmmTX3 in the solitary nucleus cells blocks the A-type potassium current almost completely. Similar effects have been found in the hippocampus, substantia nigra, and cerebellum granule cells of rats and mice. While AmmTX3 nearly completely blocks the transient component of the A-type potassium current in cerebellar granular neurons at 0.5 μM, the sustained component of the current, which is thought to be Kv3.1 mediated, seems unaffected, in contrast to Aa1 and BmTX3. AmmTX3 is predominantly used in research setting, where it is often injected into specific brain areas to learn more about the role of Kv4 channels in those areas.
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Most basal dendrites enter the hilus. These hilar dendrites are shorter and thinner, and have fewer side branches. A second excitatory cell type in the hilus is the mossy cell, that projects its axons widely along the septotemporal axis, (running from the septal area to the temporal lobe) with the ipsilateral projection skipping the first 1–2 mm near the cell bodies, an unusual configuration, hypothesized to prepare a set of cell assemblies in CA3 for a data retrieval role, by randomizing their cell distribution. Between the hilus and the granule cell layer is a region called the subgranular zone which is the site of neurogenesis.
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Members of this genus are weakly cracked to distinctly areolate, with a scattered to whole thalli. Some of the species of this genus are disc-shaped with plicate lobes at the circumference; these lobes may appear chalky white, grayish, greenish or brownish. Some possess vegetative means of propagation such as isidia (column-like structures of fungal and algal cells normally found on the top- side or outer cortex of the lichen) and soredia (structures that produce soralia, granule-like masses of intertwined fungal and algal cells occurring on top of the cortex and on the margins). They have characteristic ascomata which are mostly immersed but occasionally emergent.
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NK cells normally occupy the GI tract where they contribute to innate immunity by becoming active in killing pathogen-infected and cancerous cells. The proliferating lymphocytes in NKCE and LG express CD56 and CD7 proteins on their cell surface membrane, CD3γ protein in their cytoplasm, and granzyme B, perforin, and T-cell intracellular antigen-1 cytotoxic proteins within their cytoplasmic granules. This pattern of protein expression identifies these cells as NK cells that, because of their expression of the cytotoxic granule-bound proteins, have been activated. However, the cause(s) for the activation of these cells as wells as for their rapid proliferation to produce NKCE and LG is unknown.
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Kinetoplastida (or Kinetoplastea, as a class) is a group of flagellated protists belonging to the phylum Euglenozoa, and characterised by the presence of an organelle with a large massed DNA called kinetoplast (hence the name). The organisms are commonly referred to as "kinetoplastids" or "kinetoplasts" The group includes a number of parasites responsible for serious diseases in humans and other animals, as well as various forms found in soil and aquatic environments. Their distinguishing feature, the presence of a kinetoplast, is an unusual DNA-containing granule located within the single mitochondrion associated with the base of the cell's flagellum (the basal body). The kinetoplast contains many copies of the mitochondrial genome.
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It appears that tufted cells receive strong olfactory nerve input, fire close to inhalation onset and their firing phase is relatively concentration insensitive, whereas mitral cells receive relatively weak olfactory nerve input and strong periglomerular inhibition, which delays their firing relative to the tufted cells. This escape from inhibition can be sped up by increasing the stimulating odorant concentration, and thus mitral cell firing phase acts as one possible way the olfactory system encodes concentration. The role of the mitral cell lateral dendrite and granule cell circuit is currently a bit more uncertain. One possible hypothesis implicates the system in forming sparse representation which enable more effective pattern separation.
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Presolar grains are interstellar solid matter in the form of tiny solid grains that originated at a time before the Sun was formed. Presolar stardust grains formed within outflowing and cooling gases from earlier presolar stars. The stellar nucleosynthesis that took place within each presolar star gives to each granule an isotopic composition unique to that parent star, which differs from the isotopic composition of our solar system's matter as well as from the galactic average. These isotopic signatures often fingerprint very specific astrophysical nuclear processesErnst Zinner (1998) Stellar nucleosynthesis and the isotopic composition of presolar grains from primitive meteorites, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26:147-188.
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CA3 receives input from the mossy fibers of the granule cells in the dentate gyrus, and also from cells in the entorhinal cortex via the perforant path. The mossy fiber pathway ends in the stratum lucidum. The perforant path passes through the stratum lacunosum and ends in the stratum moleculare. There are also inputs from the medial septum and from the diagonal band of Broca which terminate in the stratum radiatum, along with commisural connections from the other side of the hippocampus. The pyramidal cells in CA3 send some axons back to the dentate gyrus hilus, but they mostly project to regions CA2 and CA1 via the Schaffer collaterals.
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In the adult dentate gyrus, reelin provides guidance cues for new neurons that are constantly arriving to the granule cell layer from subgranular zone, keeping the layer compact. Reelin also plays an important role in the adult brain by modulating cortical pyramidal neuron dendritic spine expression density, the branching of dendrites, and the expression of long-term potentiation as its secretion is continued diffusely by the GABAergic cortical interneurons those origin is traced to the medial ganglionic eminence. In the adult organism the non-neural expression is much less widespread, but goes up sharply when some organs are injured. The exact function of reelin upregulation following an injury is still being researched.
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The layer(s) of magnetic particles on the surface of the disk media are magnetized (during the format process) into concentric circles of storage areas called TRACKS. Each track is divided into 256-byte sub-areas called SECTORS. Each sector is uniquely identified by a pattern of information preceding each sector called an ID FIELD. Although the number of sectors per track may vary from one media type to another, the number of sectors in each track of the same media (and in each granule) must always be a constant. Disks are organized as follows: each track is formatted into a specific number of 256-byte sectors with a maximum capacity of 32 sectors per track.
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The term Brodmann area 8 refers to a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the frontal lobe of the guenon. Located rostral to the arcuate sulcus, it was not considered by Brodmann-1909 to be topographically homologous to the intermediate frontal area 8 of the human. Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): compared to Brodmann area 6-1909, area 8 has a diffuse but clearly present internal granular layer (IV); sublayer 3b of the external pyramidal layer (III) has densely distributed medium-sized pyramidal cells; the internal pyramidal layer (V) has larger ganglion cells densely distributed with some granule cells interspersed; the external granular layer (II) is denser and broader; cell layers are more distinct; the abundance of cells is somewhat greater.
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Training of simple reflexes in Aplysia has shown a strengthening between sensory and motor neurons responsible for those reflexes; on a cellular level, for short-term memory (and thus, early LTP) potentiation leads to an increase in presynaptic neurotransmitter by means of modifications of proteins through cAMP-dependent PKA and PKC. The long-term process requires new protein synthesis and CAMP-mediated gene expression, and results in the growth of new synaptic connections. These findings have led to the question whether there is a similar process in mammals. Input to the hippocampus comes from the neurons of the entorhinal cortex by means of the perforant pathway, which synapses on the granule cells of the dentate gyrus.
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It has been shown that the axons of granule cells from the dentate gyrus synapse with hilar mossy cells and GABAergic interneurons including basket cells before reaching pyramidal cells in the CA3 region, providing input from the entorhinal cortex through the perforant pathway. Hilar mossy cell activation is thought to be necessary for the proper function of these inhibitory basket cells on CA3 pyramidal cells, although evidence has shown that sodium channel receptors can regulate basket cell function as well. The three synaptic terminals types - mossy terminals, filopodial extensions, and en passant synaptic varicosities - differ in synaptic output. Large mossy terminals synapse with 11-15 different CA3 pyramidal cells and 7-12 mossy cells.
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The method of modern industrial puffed rice production is attributed to American inventor Alexander P. Anderson, who stumbled across puffing while trying to ascertain the water content of a single granule of starch, introduced the first puffing machine at the World's Fair in Saint Louis, Missouri, in 1904. His eight "guns" that puffed grains for Fair goers were dubbed "The Eighth Wonder of the World" by an advertising billboard poster. Once the puffing principle, technique and technology had been discovered by Anderson, the competition to puff ready-to- eat American breakfast cereal took over the economy of Battle Creek, Michigan, with Kellogg's and Quaker Oats being two memorable and still active names to endure through the early puffing frenzy.
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These parallel grooves conceal the fact that the cerebellar cortex is actually a continuous thin layer of tissue tightly folded in the style of an accordion. Within this thin layer are several types of neurons with a highly regular arrangement, the most important being Purkinje cells and granule cells. This complex neural organization gives rise to a massive signal-processing capability, but almost all of the output from the cerebellar cortex passes through a set of small deep nuclei lying in the white matter interior of the cerebellum. In addition to its direct role in motor control, the cerebellum is necessary for several types of motor learning, most notably learning to adjust to changes in sensorimotor relationships.
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In 2010 Dr. Wolozin's group was one of the first groups to suggest that dysfunction of the stress granule pathway contributes to the pathophysiology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Since then, a growing body of evidence, increasingly highlights the important contributions of RNA- binding proteins (RBPs), stress granules and translational regulation in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disease. This work prompted the concept that “regulated protein aggregation”, which provides a theoretical framework for understanding the biology of neurodegenerative disease, including Alzheimer’s disease and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. The cell controls the location and disposition of RNA through the binding of RNA-binding proteins; these RNA binding proteins consolidate to form RNA granules through reversible aggregation of their low complexity domains.
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Bergmann glia (also known as radial epithelial cells, Golgi epithelial cells, or radial astrocytes) are unipolar astrocytes derived from radial glia that are intimately associated with Purkinje cells in the cerebellum. Since bergmann glia appear to persist in the cerebellum, and perform many of the roles characteristic of astrocytes, they have also been called "specialized astrocytes." Bergmann glia have multiple radial processes that extend across the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex and terminate at the pial surface as a bulbous endfoot. Bergmann glial cells assist with the migration of granule cells, guiding the small neurons from the external granular layer down to the internal granular layer along their extensive radial processes.
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Buzsáki et al., 1990 In the theta mode, the EEG is dominated by large regular waves with a frequency range of 6 to 9 Hz, and the main groups of hippocampal neurons (pyramidal cells and granule cells) show sparse population activity, which means that in any short time interval, the great majority of cells are silent, while the small remaining fraction fire at relatively high rates, up to 50 spikes in one second for the most active of them. An active cell typically stays active for half a second to a few seconds. As the rat behaves, the active cells fall silent and new cells become active, but the overall percentage of active cells remains more or less constant.
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After the highest peak of expression, Gabrb3 expression is down-regulated substantially in the thalamus and inferior olivary body of the mouse. By adulthood, the level of expression in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus drops below developmental expression levels, but the expression in the cerebellum does not change postnatally. The highest levels of Gabrb3 expression in the mature mouse brain occur in the Purkinje and granule cells of the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and the piriform cortex. In humans, the beta-3 subunit, as well as the subunits of its two neighbouring genes (GABRG3 and GABRA5), are bi-allelically expressed within the cerebral cortex, indicating that the gene is not subjected to imprinting within those cells.
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The cerebellar elements that are important in receiving input, including the mossy fibers and the monodendritic brush cells in the granule cell layer, and generating output signals, most notably the dentate nucleus, are stricken with tau protein inclusions. Strangely, the substantia nigra is most often uninvolved or only mildly involved, but cases of extreme degeneration do exist. PiD has several unique biochemical characteristics that allow for its identification as opposed to other pathological subtypes of frontotemporal lobar degeneration. The most striking of these is that this disease, which has tau protein tangles present in many affected neurons, contains only one or as many as two of the six isoforms of the tau protein.
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Activated CTL then travels throughout the body searching for cells that bear that unique MHC Class I + peptide. When exposed to these infected or dysfunctional somatic cells, effector CTL release perforin and granulysin: cytotoxins that form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions and water to flow into the infected cell, and causing it to burst or lyse. CTL release granzyme, a serine protease encapsulated in a granule that enters cells via pores to induce apoptosis (cell death). To limit extensive tissue damage during an infection, CTL activation is tightly controlled and in general requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T-cells (see below).
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In collaboration with Russell Hynes, Wes Taylor, Frances Leggett, and Claudia Sheedy at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Bailey recently developed a patented bioherbicide to control broadleaved weeds in turfgrass. The indigenous fungus Phoma macrostoma was formulated to control weeds such as dandelion, clover, wild mustard, and ragweed, without harming crops and grasses. It can be applied as a granule to soil before the weeds emerge, which prevents establishment for 1-3 months, or applied post-emergence, which causes affected weeds to turn white and die due to a lack of chlorophyll. Bailey has also been involved in numerous scientific projects in the U.S., Syria, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, India, Switzerland, and Belgium.
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On microscopic examination, involved tissues show commonly show areas of necrosis and cellular infiltrates that are centered around and often injure or destroy small blood vessels. The infiltrates contain large granule-containing lymphocytes that express cell surface CD2, cytoplasmic CD3ε, and cell surface CD56 as well the cytoplasmic intracellular proteins, perforin, granzyme B, and T cell intracellular antigen-1 (TIA-1). These cells exhibit evidence of EBV infection as determined by in situ hybridization assays to detect one of the virus's latent products, typically EBER-1/2 micoRNAs. Identification of the genetic abnormalities cited above in the cells may be of help in establishing the diagnoses and be of use for selecting novel therapeutic approaches to individual patients.
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A cat using an automated fully-plumbed self cleaning litterbox with reusable plastic granules, which has a cleaning cycle that includes: automated scooping, waste flushing to laundry drain, cold water granule wash, deodorization, followed by a heated drying of the litter granules. Self-cleaning litter boxes employ technology that automates the litter box emptying procedure. Some models have electric combing mechanisms that automatically scoop the clumps out of the litter box into a sealed, disposable-bag-lined container after the animal has used it. These models use a pressure pad or an infrared light to determine when the cat has left the box and will comb the box after so many minutes have passed, to avoid disturbing the cat.
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Other recent data indicate that physical exercise can fully reconstitute the proliferative defect of stem cells that follows the ablation of the BTG1 gene, suggesting that the pool of neural stem cells maintains a hidden form of plasticity which is tightly controlled by BTG1; hence, BTG1 might prevent the depletion of stem cells in the presence of strong neurogenic stimuli or of neural degenerative stimuli. Btg1 plays a role also in the expansion of cerebellar granule precursor cells. In fact the deletion of Btg1 leads in mouse to uncontrolled proliferation of the cerebellar precursor cells during the early postnatal period. Consequently, in the adult, the cerebellum lacking Btg1 is significantly larger and the motor coordination is heavily impaired.
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Orun, A. and G.Smith, "Micro- Structural Analysis of Tablet Surface Layers by Intelligent Laser Speckle Classification (ILSC) Technique: an Application in the Study of both Surface Defects and Subsurface Granule Structures",Journal of Pharmaceutical Innovation, (2017)DOI 10.1007/s12247-017-9290-0 # \- Industrial material identification : Depending on laser-material surface interaction, ILSC can identify and discriminate the different materials that are used in industrial production areas (e.g. metal, wood, plastic, etc.)6\. Orun, A. and A. Alkis, "Material identification by surface reflection analysis in combination with bundle adjustment technique", Pattern Recognition Letters,24(2003) to make the production process in fully automated form by eliminating the most of environmental undesired lightening effects.
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On November 20, 1996 an IV urea unit (POPKA) was built which aims to increase added value for residual Ammonia (Ammonia excess) and CO2 gas which is wasted into the atmosphere to produce granular urea products. The factory with a projected production capacity of 570,000 tons per year was completed on April 12, 1999. The investment value for the construction of the POPKA factory was USD 44 million and Rp 139 billion. The Kaltim 4 factory was built in 1999 with a projected capacity of 570,000 tons of urea granule and 330,000 tons of ammonia per year. Construction of the urea plant was completed in mid-2002, while the ammonia plant was completed in early 2003.
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The mechanism of P-body assembly inhibition by gephyronic acid has not been characterized, but initial studies suggest that the mode of action could be through stalling ribosomes on mRNA or by reflecting early steps of translation initiation, such as binding of ribosomal subunits or initiation factors. The same study also found that gephyronic acid inhibits eIF2α-phosphorylation and formation of stress granules under stress conditions. Stress granules contain non-translating mRNAs and translation initiation factors, suggesting that they may form as a result of aggregation of mRNPs stalled during translation initiation. By monitoring immunofluresence of an established stress granules marker, it was found that stress granule formation was inhibited in the presence of gephyronic acid.
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The Sun's photosphere is around 100 kilometers thick, and is composed of convection cells called granules—cells of plasma each approximately 1000 kilometers in diameter with hot rising plasma in the center and cooler plasma falling in the narrow spaces between them, flowing at velocities of 7 kilometer per second. Each granule has a lifespan of only about twenty minutes, resulting in a continually shifting "boiling" pattern. Grouping the typical granules are super granules up to 30,000 kilometers in diameter with lifespans of up to 24 hours and flow speeds of about 500 meter per second, carrying magnetic field bundles to the edges of the cells. Other magnetically-related phenomena include sunspots and solar faculae dispersed between the granules.
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This gene is a transcribed pseudogene belonging to the calcium sensitive chloride conductance protein family. To date, all members of this gene family map to the same site on chromosome 1p31-p22 and share high degrees of homology in size, sequence and predicted structure, but differ significantly in their tissue distributions. This gene contains several nonsense codons compared to other family members that render the transcript a candidate for nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD), although this gene is translated into a well characterized protein which has been shown to decorate mucin granule containing vesicles. Protein structure prediction methods suggest the N-terminal region of CLCA3 protein is a zinc metalloprotease, and the protein is not an ion channel per se.
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The role of the CB1 receptor in the regulation of motor movements is complicated by the additional expression of this receptor in the cerebellum and neocortex, two regions associated with the coordination and initiation of movement. Research suggests that anandamide is synthesized by Purkinje cells and acts on presynaptic receptors to inhibit glutamate release from granule cells or GABA release from the terminals of basket cells. In the neocortex, these receptors are concentrated on local interneurons in cerebral layers II-III and V-VI. Compared to rat brains, humans express more CB1 receptors in the cerebral cortex and amygdala and less in the cerebellum, which may help explain why motor function seems to be more compromised in rats than humans upon cannabinoid application.
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One mouse study looking at medulloblastoma growth in mice to study the Aspm gene, an ortholog to human ASPM, suggests that Aspm expression may drive postnatal cerebellar neurogenesis. This process occurs late in embryogenesis and immediately after birth over a time span of about 2 weeks in mice and 12 months in humans, and is regulated by the expression of the Shh gene. In proliferating cerebellar granule neuron progenitors (CGNPs), Shh expression in mouse models showed four times the amount of Aspm expression than those deprived of Shh expression in- vivo. This induction of Aspm and up-regulation during cerebellar neurogenesis was also seen in real-time PCR, where its expression was relatively high at the peak of neurogenesis and much lower at the end of neurogenesis.
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Defects in the encoded protein have been shown to be a cause of Papillon-Lefevre disease, an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by palmoplantar keratosis and periodontitis. Cathepsin C functions as a key enzyme in the activation of granule serine peptidases in inflammatory cells, such as elastase and cathepsin G in neutrophils cells and chymase and tryptase in mast cells. In many inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), inflammatory bowel disease, asthma, sepsis, and cystic fibrosis, a significant portion of the pathogenesis is caused by increased activity of some of these inflammatory proteases. Once activated by cathepsin C, the proteases are capable of degrading various extracellular matrix components, which can lead to tissue damage and chronic inflammation.
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Several theoretical models have been developed to explain sensorimotor calibration in terms of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum. These models derive from those formulated by David Marr and James Albus, based on the observation that each cerebellar Purkinje cell receives two dramatically different types of input: one comprises thousands of weak inputs from the parallel fibers of the granule cells; the other is an extremely strong input from a single climbing fiber. The basic concept of the Marr–Albus theory is that the climbing fiber serves as a "teaching signal", which induces a long-lasting change in the strength of parallel fiber inputs. Observations of long-term depression in parallel fiber inputs have provided some support for theories of this type, but their validity remains controversial.
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Most vertebrate species have a cerebellum and one or more cerebellum-like structures, brain areas that resemble the cerebellum in terms of cytoarchitecture and neurochemistry. The only cerebellum-like structure found in mammals is the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN), one of the two primary sensory nuclei that receive input directly from the auditory nerve. The DCN is a layered structure, with the bottom layer containing granule cells similar to those of the cerebellum, giving rise to parallel fibers that rise to the superficial layer and travel across it horizontally. The superficial layer contains a set of GABAergic neurons called cartwheel cells that resemble Purkinje cells anatomically and chemically—they receive parallel fiber input, but do not have any inputs that resemble climbing fibers.
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The pallial portions build the analytic or perceptual end of this complex, whereas the subpallial portions represent the corresponding output or efferent functional pole. The olfactory bulb is a peculiar pallial outgrowth (maybe induced by the primary olfactory fibers afferent to it, coming from the sensory neurons developed in the olfactory placode) whose projection neurons (the mitral and tufted neurons) are pallial in origin and accordingly excitatory. In contrast, the superfial periglomerulary neurons, various intermediate interneurons and the deep granule cells are all of subpallial origin and migrate tangentially out of the striatal part of the subpallium (apparently from a dorsal subsector of this domain) through the so-called rostral migratory stream into the olfactory bulb. These extremely numerous subpallial cells are all inhibitory.
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Blood cell lineage TH2 and ILC2 cells both express the transcription factor GATA-3, which promotes the production of TH2 cytokines, including the interleukins (ILs). IL-5 controls the development of eosinophils in the bone marrow, as they differentiate from myeloid precursor cells. Their lineage fate is determined by transcription factors, including GATA and C/EBP. Eosinophils produce and store many secondary granule proteins prior to their exit from the bone marrow. After maturation, eosinophils circulate in blood and migrate to inflammatory sites in tissues, or to sites of helminth infection in response to chemokines like CCL11 (eotaxin-1), CCL24 (eotaxin-2), CCL5 (RANTES), 5-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid and 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid, and certain leukotrienes like leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and MCP1/4.
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Second, the primary motor cortex is agranular: it lacks a layer IV marked by the presence of granule cells. The premotor cortex is dysgranular: it contains a faint layer IV. The premotor cortex can be distinguished from Brodmann area 46 of the prefrontal cortex, just anterior to it, by the presence of a fully formed granular layer IV in area 46. The premotor cortex is therefore anatomically a transition between the agranular motor cortex and the granular, six-layered prefrontal cortex. The premotor cortex has been divided into finer subregions on the basis of cytoarchitecture (the appearance of the cortex under a microscope), cytohistochemistry (the manner in which the cortex appears when stained by various chemical substances), anatomical connectivity to other brain areas, and physiological properties.
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Since only 43% of light occurs in the visible light spectrum, reflectance can be improved without affecting color by increasing the reflectance of UV and IR light. High surface roughness can also contribute to the low solar reflectances of asphalt shingles, as these shingles are made of many small approximately spherical granules which have a high surface roughness. To decrease this, other granule materials are being investigated, such as flat rock flakes, which could reduce the reflectance inefficiencies due to surface roughness. Another alternative is to coat the granules using a dual coat process: the outer coating would have the desired color pigment, though it may not be very reflective, while the inner coating is a highly reflective titanium dioxide coating.
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The Ulvamast Mk II: a ULV sprayer for locust control (photo taken in Niger) In the 1970s and 1980s improved application technologies such as controlled droplet application (CDA) received extensive research interest, but commercial uptake has been disappointing. By controlling droplet size, ultra-low volume (ULV) or very low volume (VLV) application rates of pesticidal mixtures can achieve similar (or sometimes better) biological results by improved timing and dose-transfer to the biological target (i.e. pest). No atomizer has been developed able to produce uniform (monodisperse) droplets, but rotary (spinning disc and cage) atomizers usually produce a more uniform droplet size spectrum than conventional hydraulic nozzles (see: CDA & ULV application equipment). Other efficient application techniques include: banding, baiting, specific granule placement, seed treatments and weed wiping.
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The handloading process can realize increased accuracy and precision through improved consistency of manufacture, by selecting the optimal bullet weight and design, and tailoring bullet velocity to the purpose. Each cartridge reloaded can have each component carefully matched to the rest of the cartridges in the batch. Brass cases can be matched by volume, weight, and concentricity, bullets by weight and design, powder charges by weight, type, case filling (amount of total usable case capacity filled by charge), and packing scheme (characteristics of granule packing). In addition to these critical items, the equipment used to assemble the cartridge also has an effect on its uniformity/consistency and optimal shape/size; dies used to size the cartridges can be matched to the chamber of a given gun.
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The target is constructed of a mosaic of electrically isolated metallic granules separated from a common plate by a thin layer of isolating material, so that the positive charge resulting from the secondary emission is stored in the granules. Finally, an electron beam periodically sweeps across the target, effectively scanning the stored image, discharging each granule, and producing an electronic signal like in the iconoscope. The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater. It was used for an outside broadcast by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch in a television set how the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph.
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311 # Divergence and convergence: In the human cerebellum, information from 200 million mossy fiber inputs is expanded to 40 billion granule cells, whose parallel fiber outputs then converge onto 15 million Purkinje cells. Because of the way that they are lined up longitudinally, the 1000 or so Purkinje cells belonging to a microzone may receive input from as many as 100 million parallel fibers, and focus their own output down to a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells. Thus, the cerebellar network receives a modest number of inputs, processes them very extensively through its rigorously structured internal network, and sends out the results via a very limited number of output cells. # Modularity: The cerebellar system is functionally divided into more or less independent modules, which probably number in the hundreds to thousands.
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These immune complexes insert themselves into small blood vessels, joints, and glomeruli, causing symptoms. Unlike the free variant, a small immune complex bound to sites of deposition (like blood vessel walls) are far more capable of interacting with complement; these medium-sized complexes, formed in the slight excess of antigen, are viewed as being highly pathogenic. Such depositions in tissues often induce an inflammatory response, and can cause damage wherever they precipitate. The cause of damage is as a result of the action of cleaved complement anaphylotoxins C3a and C5a, which, respectively, mediate the induction of granule release from mast cells (from which histamine can cause urticaria), and recruitment of inflammatory cells into the tissue (mainly those with lysosomal action, leading to tissue damage through frustrated phagocytosis by PMNs and macrophages).
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Instant coffee Close-up view of a granule of Nescafé Gold Blend instant coffee A cup of instant coffee Instant coffee, also called soluble coffee, coffee crystals, and coffee powder, is a beverage derived from brewed coffee beans that enables people to quickly prepare hot coffee by adding hot water or milk to the powder or crystals and stirring. Instant coffee is commercially prepared by either freeze-drying or spray drying, after which it can be rehydrated. Instant coffee in a concentrated liquid form is also manufactured. Advantages of instant coffee include speed of preparation (instant coffee dissolves quickly in hot water), lower shipping weight and volume than beans or ground coffee (to prepare the same amount of beverage), and long shelf life—though instant coffee can spoil if not kept dry.
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In 1999, Klein was the first to demonstrate that the HIV envelope protein could induce calcium transients in neurons and astrocytes via chemokine receptor activation. Her first author paper in the Journal of Immunology highlighting these findings provided a basis for understanding the neuronal damage and inflammation that result from HIV-1 encephalitis. In 2002, Klein helped discover that deficiency in Chemokine Receptor 2 (CCR2) decreased monocyte recruitment to the CNS which help reduce the symptoms of experimental autoimmune encephalitis. In Klein’s first author paper in development in 2001, she reported that the chemokine CXC12 and its receptor CXCR4 are important in cerebellar granule cell proliferation and migration. Klein’s work has continually shown that immune signalling in the brain contributes to brain disease pathogenesis and cognitive defects that could be treated with immune targeting therapies.
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The super-Emitron is a combination of the image dissector and the Emitron. The scene image is projected onto an efficient continuous-film semitransparent photocathode that transforms the scene light into a light-emitted electron image, the latter is then accelerated (and focused) via electromagnetic fields towards a target specially prepared for the emission of secondary electrons. Each individual electron from the electron image produces several secondary electrons after reaching the target, so that an amplification effect is produced, and the resulting positive charge is proportional to the integrated intensity of the scene light. The target is constructed of a mosaic of electrically isolated metallic granules separated from a common plate by a thin layer of isolating material, so that the positive charge resulting from the secondary emission is stored in the capacitor formed by the metallic granule and the common plate.
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The term Brodmann area 9 refers to a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the frontal lobe of the guenon. Brodmann-1909 regarded it on the whole as topographically and cytoarchitecturally homologous to the granular frontal area 9 and frontopolar area 10 in the human. Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): Unlike Brodmann area 6 (Brodmann-1909), area 9 has a distinct internal granular layer (IV); unlike Brodmann area 6 or Brodmann area 8 (Brodmann-1909), its internal pyramidal layer (V) is divisible into two sublayers, an outer layer 5a of densely distributed medium-size ganglion cells that partially merges with layer IV, and an inner, clearer, cell-poor layer 5b; the pyramidal cells of sublayer 3b of the external pyramidal layer (III) are smaller and sparser in distribution; the external granular layer (II) is narrow, with small numbers of sparsely distributed granule cells.
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These enlargements are sites of excitatory input from mossy fibers and inhibitory input from Golgi cells. The thin, unmyelinated axons of granule cells rise vertically to the upper (molecular) layer of the cortex, where they split in two, with each branch traveling horizontally to form a parallel fiber; the splitting of the vertical branch into two horizontal branches gives rise to a distinctive "T" shape. A human parallel fiber runs for an average of 3 mm in each direction from the split, for a total length of about 6 mm (about 1/10 of the total width of the cortical layer). As they run along, the parallel fibers pass through the dendritic trees of Purkinje cells, contacting one of every 3–5 that they pass, making a total of 80–100 synaptic connections with Purkinje cell dendritic spines.
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All of these cerebellum-like structures appear to be primarily sensory-related rather than motor-related. All of them have granule cells that give rise to parallel fibers that connect to Purkinje-like neurons with modifiable synapses, but none have climbing fibers comparable to those of the cerebellum—instead they receive direct input from peripheral sensory organs. None has a demonstrated function, but the most influential speculation is that they serve to transform sensory inputs in some sophisticated way, perhaps to compensate for changes in body posture. In fact, James M. Bower and others have argued, partly on the basis of these structures and partly on the basis of cerebellar studies, that the cerebellum itself is fundamentally a sensory structure, and that it contributes to motor control by moving the body in a way that controls the resulting sensory signals.
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Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water. Potatoes that are good for making potato chips or potato crisps are sometimes called "chipping potatoes", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped. The European Cultivated Potato Database (ECPD) is an online collaborative database of potato variety descriptions that is updated and maintained by the Scottish Agricultural Science Agency within the framework of the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR)—which is run by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).
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Stem cell therapies can be especially difficult in replacing Purkinje neuron loss as unaffected granule cells can prevent axons reaching the deep cerebellar nuclei with which Purkinje cells interface. Despite these difficulties, grafted neural precursor cells have been shown to be viable and to successfully migrate into desired location in SCA1 transgenic mice models and mesenchymal stem cells have been shown to mitigate loss of dendritic arborization SCA1 mice. Positive results have been found in mice models using both stem cells from fetal neuroectoderm and adult stem cells from the lateral ventricles and the dentate gyrus. Using harvested stem cells in stem cell therapies require immunosuppression to prevent the host from rejecting the transplants; creating induced pluripotent stem cells from the host's own cells would mitigate this risk and has had some testing in other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Mitral cells receive excitatory input from olfactory sensory neurons and external tufted cells on their primary dendrites, whereas inhibitory input arises either from granule cells onto their lateral dendrites and soma or from periglomerular cells onto their dendritic tuft. Mitral cells together with tufted cells form an obligatory relay for all olfactory information entering from the olfactory nerve. Mitral cell output is not a passive reflection of their input from the olfactory nerve. In mice, each mitral cell sends a single primary dendrite into a glomerulus receiving input from a population of olfactory sensory neurons expressing identical olfactory receptor proteins, yet the odor responsiveness of the 20-40 mitral cells connected to a single glomerulus (called sister mitral cells) is not identical to the tuning curve of the input cells, and also differs between sister mitral cells.
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Thus, the larger the disk storage capacity, the larger its directory, and the greater the number of file names that can be stored on the disk. The directory record contains information such as the date the file was last modified, its update and access password codes, its access level, and other attributes such as whether it is a SYStem or PDS (Partitioned Data Set) file and if a backup has been made, the relative number of the last sector in the file, and the last byte within the last sector (or End Of File). The record also contains the physical storage in use by the file, by pointing to the cylinder, relative starting granule, and number of contiguous granules for each extent linking up the file. When a file has more than four extents, additional directory records are used as required with forward and backward pointers linking each record of each file.
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The early phase of the allergic reaction typically occurs within minutes, or even seconds, following allergen exposure and is also commonly referred to as the immediate allergic reaction or as a Type I allergic reaction. The reaction is caused by the release of histamine and mast cell granule proteins by a process called degranulation, as well as the production of leukotrienes, prostaglandins and cytokines, by mast cells following the cross-linking of allergen specific IgE molecules bound to mast cell FcεRI receptors. These mediators affect nerve cells causing itching, smooth muscle cells causing contraction (leading to the airway narrowing seen in allergic asthma), goblet cells causing mucus production, and endothelial cells causing vasodilatation and edema. The late phase of a Type 1 reaction (which develops 8–12 hours and is mediated by mast cells) should not be confused with delayed hypersensitivity Type IV allergic reaction (which takes 48–72 hours to develop and is mediated by T cells).
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BASF developed the Amflora potato, which was modified to express antisense RNA to inactivate the gene for granule bound starch synthase, an enzyme which catalyzes the formation of amylose. Amflora potatoes therefore produce starch consisting almost entirely of amylopectin, and are thus more useful for the starch industry. In 2010, the European Commission cleared the way for 'Amflora' to be grown in the European Union for industrial purposes only—not for food. Nevertheless, under EU rules, individual countries have the right to decide whether they will allow this potato to be grown on their territory. Commercial planting of 'Amflora' was expected in the Czech Republic and Germany in the spring of 2010, and Sweden and the Netherlands in subsequent years.GM potatoes: BASF at work GMO Compass 5 March 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2011. Another GM potato variety developed by BASF is 'Fortuna' which was made resistant to late blight by adding two resistance genes, blb1 and blb2, which originate from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum.
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Furthermore, the injection of 5-oxo-ETE into the skin of humans causes the local accumulation of circulating blood cells, particularly eosinophils but also to lesser extents neutrophils and monocyte-derived macrophages. The activity of 5-oxo-ETE on the two cell types known to be involved in allergy-based inflammation, eosinophils and basophils, suggests that it may be involved in promoting allergic reactions possibly by attracting through chemotaxis these cells to nascent sites of allergy and/or through stimulating these cells to release granule- bound enzymes, reactive oxygen species, or other promoters of allergic reactions. 5-Oxo-ETE's activity on human cells involved in non-allergic inflammatory diseases viz., neutrophils and monocytes, as well as its ability to attract these cell types to the skin of humans suggest that 5-oxo-ETE may also be involved in the broad category of non-allergic inflammatory diseases including those involving host defense against pathogens.
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Calcium entry into the cell causes more prolonged depolarization and increased action potentials. Usually curtailed by the hyperpolarizing local inhibition (due to the excitatory collateral system), this can lead to gradual recruitment of CA3 neurons and result in synchronized burst discharges. After hyperpolarization by calcium-dependent potassium conductance is also used as a method of controlling these bursts. Hippocampal CA3 pyramidal cells have complex dendritic arbors which receive a stratified pattern of synaptic input from a variety of sources, including: #the commissural/associational fibers from ipsi- and contra-lateral CA3 pyramidal neurons which synapse on both the basal and mid-apical dendrites in the stratum oriens and stratum radiatum #the mossy fibers from the granule cells of the dentate gyrus which synapse on the most proximal apical region, the stratum lucidum #the preforant path fibers from the entorhinal cortical pyramidal cells which synapse in the region of the most distal apical dendrites, the stratum lacunosum-moleculare.
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A trans-activation response element (TAR) miRNA, coded for by the HIV virus, down-regulates ERCC1 protein expression. TAR miRNA allows ERCC1 mRNA to be transcribed, but acts at the p-body level to prevent translation of ERCC1 protein. (A p-body is a cytoplasmic granule “processing body” that interacts with miRNAs to repress translation or trigger degradation of target RNAs.) In breast cancer cell lines, almost one third (55/167) of miRNA promoters were targets for aberrant methylation (epigenetic repression). In breast cancers themselves, methylation of let-7a-3/let-7b miRNA in particular was found. This indicates that let-7a-3/let-7b can be epigenetically repressed. Repression of let-7a can cause repression of ERCC1 expression through an intermediary step involving the HMGA2 gene. The let-7a miRNA normally represses the HMGA2 gene, and in normal adult tissues, almost no HMGA2 protein is present. (See also Let-7 microRNA precursor.) Reduction or absence of let-7a miRNA allows high expression of the HMGA2 protein.
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Squire, 1992Eichenbaum and Cohen, 1993 A recent theory proposed - without questioning its role in spatial cognition - that the hippocampus encodes new episodic memories by associating representations in the newborn granule cells of the dentate gyrus and arranging those representations sequentially in the CA3 by relying on the phase precession generated in the entorhinal cortex Rats and cognitive maps The third important theory of hippocampal function relates the hippocampus to space. The spatial theory was originally championed by O'Keefe and Nadel, who were influenced by American psychologist E.C. Tolman's theories about "cognitive maps" in humans and animals. O'Keefe and his student Dostrovsky in 1971 discovered neurons in the rat hippocampus that appeared to them to show activity related to the rat's location within its environment.O'Keefe and Dostrovsky, 1971 Despite skepticism from other investigators, O'Keefe and his co-workers, especially Lynn Nadel, continued to investigate this question, in a line of work that eventually led to their very influential 1978 book The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map.
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1,4-α-glycosidic linkages in the glycogen oligomer 1,4-α-glycosidic and 1,6-glycosidic linkages in the glycogen oligomer Glycogen is a branched biopolymer consisting of linear chains of glucose residues with an average chain length of approximately 8–12 glucose units and 2,000-60,000 residues per one molecule of glycogen Glucose units are linked together linearly by α(1→4) glycosidic bonds from one glucose to the next. Branches are linked to the chains from which they are branching off by α(1→6) glycosidic bonds between the first glucose of the new branch and a glucose on the stem chain. Due to the way glycogen is synthesised, every glycogen granule has at its core a glycogenin protein. Glycogen in muscle, liver, and fat cells is stored in a hydrated form, composed of three or four parts of water per part of glycogen associated with 0.45 millimoles (18 mg) of potassium per gram of glycogen.
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It has exceptionally high potency in stimulating the chemotaxis, release of granule-bound tissue-injuring enzymes, and production of tissue-injuring reactive oxygen species of a cell type involved in allergic reactions, the human eosinophil granulocyte. It is also exceptionally potent in stimulating eosinophils to activate cytosolic phospholipase A2 (PLA2G4A) and possibly thereby to form platelet-activating factor (PAF) as well as metabolites of the 5-HETE family. PAF is itself a proposed mediator of human allergic reactions which commonly forms concurrently with 5-HETE family metabolites in human leukocytes and acts synergistically with these metabolites, particularly 5-oxo-ETE, to stimulate eosinophils. 5-Oxo-ETE also cooperates positively with at least four other potential contributors to allergic reactions, RANTES, eotaxin, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in stimulating human eosinophils and is a powerful stimulator of chemotaxis in another cell type contributing to allergic reactions, the human basophil granulocyte.
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"Let him meditate on the Self, which is made up of intelligence, and endowed with a body of spirit, with a form of light, and with an ethereal nature, which changes its shape at will, is swift as thought, of true resolve, and true purpose, which consists of all sweet odours and tastes, which holds sway over all the regions and pervades this whole universe, which is speechless and indifferent; even as a grain of rice, or a grain of barley, or a grain of millet, or the smallest granule of millet, so is this golden Purusha in the heart; even as a smokeless light, it is greater than the sky, greater than the ether, greater than the earth, greater than all existing things;--that self of the spirit (breath) is my self: on passing away from hence I shall obtain that self. Verily, whosoever has this trust, for him there is no uncertainty. Thus spake Sandilya, and so it is." Here, it is most comprehensively explained that the Ātmān within the body and the mind etc.
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Zworykin holding an iconoscope tube Diagram of the iconoscope, from Zworykin's 1931 patent An iconoscope is a camera tube that projects an image on a special charge storage plate containing a mosaic of electrically isolated photosensitive granules separated from a common plate by a thin layer of isolating material, somewhat analogous to the human eye's retina and its arrangement of photoreceptors. Each photosensitive granule constitutes a tiny capacitor that accumulates and stores electrical charge in response to the light striking it. An electron beam periodically sweeps across the plate, effectively scanning the stored image and discharging each capacitor in turn such that the electrical output from each capacitor is proportional to the average intensity of the light striking it between each discharge event. The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or camera tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge- storage technology by the Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi in the beginning of 1925."Kálmán Tihanyi (1897–1947)", IEC Techline, International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 2009-07-15.
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Brodmann area 19-1909 is a subdivision of the cerebral cortex of the guenon defined on the basis of cytoarchitecture. It is cytoarchitecturally homologous to the peristriate area 19 of the human (Brodmann-1909). Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): Compared to Brodmann area 18-1909, the pyramidal cells of sublayer 3b of the external pyramidal layer (III) are not as densely distributed, the layer is not as narrow, and its boundary with the internal granular layer (IV) is not as distinct; the cells in sublayer 3b are concentrated at its outer boundary leaving a narrow clear zone with no large pyramidal cells adjacent to layer IV; the granule cells of layer IV are less densely distributed and are intermixed with larger polymorphic cells so that, while the layer is still quite dark and prominent, it is somewhat widened and not as self-contained; the internal pyramidal layer (V) is characterized by large pyramidal ganglion cells, most in small groups, a pattern not seen in area 18; the cells in the multiform layer (VI) are clearly larger than in area 18; overall, area 19 is somewhat thicker and less densely populated than area 18.
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12(S)-HpETE, 12(R)-HETE, racemic mixtures of these 12-HETEs, and/or 12-oxo-ETE stimulate: a) the directed migration (chemotaxis) of human, rat, and rabbit neutrophils as well as rabbit macrophages; b) human neutrophils to adhere to each other (i.e. aggregate) and in cooperation with Tumor necrosis factor alpha or Platelet-activating factor, to release their granule-bound enzymes; c) the binding of human vascular epithelial cells to human monocytes; d) DNA synthesis and mitogenesis in the immortalized human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT; and e) when injected in the skin of human volunteers, the extravasation and local accumulation of circulating blood neutrophils and mononuclear cells. These results suggest these metabolites contribute to the inflammation that occurs as sites where they are formed in abnormal amounts such as in human rheumatoid arthritis, Inflammatory bowel disease, Contact dermatitis, psoriasis, various forms of Ichthyosis including Congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma, and corneal inflammatory diseases. Since BLT2 appears to mediate the responses of leukocytes to 12(S)-HpETE, 12(S)-HETE, 12(R)-HETE, and 12-oxo-ETE but GPR31 is expressed by various other cells (e.g.
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EDLUT (Event-Driven LookUp Table) is a computer application for simulating networks of spiking neurons. It was developed in the University of Granada and source code was released under GNU GPL version 3. EDLUT uses event-driven simulation scheme and lookup tables to efficiently simulate medium or large spiking neural networks.Ros, E. Carrillo, R, Ortigosa, E. M., Barbour, B, Agís, R. "Event-Driven Simulation Scheme for Spiking Neural Networks Using Lookup Tables to Characterize Neuronal Dynamics" Neural Computation 18: 2959–2993 (2006) This allows this application to simulate detailed biological neuron modelsRos, E., Carrillo, R. R., Barbour, B., Boucheny, C., Coenen., O. "Event-driven simulation of neural population synchronization facilitated by electrical coupling"IPCAT'2005: Sixth International Workshop on Information Processing in Cell and Tissues: 290–303, York, UK. August 30-September 1, 2005Carrillo, R.R., Ros, E., Tolu, S., Nieus, T., D'Angelo, E. "Event-driven simulation of cerebellar granule cells" 7th International workshop on information processing in cell and tissues (IPCAT'2007) 29–31 August 2007, Oxford, UK and to interface with experimental setups (such as a robotic arm Boucheny, C. Carrillo, R., Ros, E., Coenen, O. J.-M.
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Brodmann area 20 is a subdivision of the cerebral cortex of the guenon defined on the basis of cytoarchitecture. It is cytoarchitecturally homologous to the inferior temporal area 20 of the human (Brodmann-1909). Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): area 20 is similar to area 19 of Brodmann-1909 in the relative abundance of small cell types relative to the number of larger pyramidal cells; a very dense, wide internal granular layer (IV) composed almost exclusively of granule cells, as in area 18 of Brodmann-1909; a broad, clear internal pyramidal layer (V) with few cells; and a distinct multiform layer (VI). The major differences from areas 18 and 19 are somewhat lesser cell density; absence of a division of the external pyramidal layer (III) into sublayers 3a and 3b; layer V is more clearly distinguished from layer VI and, on average, has a greater density of pyramidal ganglion cells than in the other areas; layer VI is wider, more diffuse and has fewer cells that are concentrated in the outer part of the layer to produce a denser sublayer 6a and a less dense sublayer 6b.
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