Every week or so the disequilibrium sneaked up on me.
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But in the face of this near-term disequilibrium, let's avoid making bad decisions.
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The former governor spoke of a "disequilibrium" in the world economy becoming increasingly serious.
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Also, Cruz is a product of political disequilibrium rather than a creator of it.
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Indeed it looks a little like 2006, an era that Pimco dubbed a "stable disequilibrium".
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"If you remove one of those elements, there is a disequilibrium somewhere," Mr. Villeneuve said.
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The system had entered a state of disequilibrium because political communication was undergoing a revolution.
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Making Sense Of Disequilibrium In The Markets First, let's briefly revisit that college Psych 43 class.
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The persistent draw down in Saudi stocks is obviously a disequilibrium phenomenon since it cannot continue forever.
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We are in an economic disequilibrium and in saying that I have just explained all the anomalies above.
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The muffling turned into dizziness—a kind of light-headed disequilibrium akin to a pot-induced body buzz.
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The worry is whether, in this hot summer of disequilibrium, her country is adequate to the task. ♦
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In politics, as Riker notes, because of the inevitability of internal contradictions, disequilibrium may only be one issue away.
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When a schema no longer matches a sudden change in the environment, the world moves into a state of disequilibrium.
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His disequilibrium started with the receipt of a $1.26 million check and intensified during his journey from Monterey to Santa Monica.
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"Disequilibrium has replaced equilibrium, although it is difficult to recognize this economic phantom as long as volatility is contained," he said.
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There's a moment of giddy disequilibrium as we realize that the world's most celebrated inventor is a tattooed 40-something named Santiago.
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But while change is hard and uncomfortable, the process of equilibration makes us stronger – and better able to respond to the next disequilibrium.
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Mars, however, shows no sign of such chemical disequilibrium, yet many still hope it might prove to support a small amount of simple life.
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"The global financial crisis is an opportunity to rebalance those scales, to take uncertainty and disequilibrium seriously, to make the heterodox orthodox," Haldane said.
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"These results support the recommendations to creditors to increase their contribution to global demand in order to support adjustment of global disequilibrium," de Cos said.
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This would not be surprising for a book of imperial Chinese literature, but in a collection of modern writing the disequilibrium need not be so marked.
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The disequilibrium in this space will be the catalyst behind a number of changes, which will include a laser focus on profit margins and cost efficiency.
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The uneven spacing that would be caused by the tree moving to the A could create a "disequilibrium" that could also disturb some with the disorder.
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The disequilibrium of that political moment led not only to the beginning of the fourth party system but also to the birth of the primary system.
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The G.O.P. and the Democratic Party are reeling in the disequilibrium created by the latest communications revolution, the membership careering out of the party leaders' control.
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The Internet, like all new communications technologies, has contributed to a period of political disequilibrium, one in which, as always, party followers have been revolting against party leaders.
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"Every country has something to do," she said, running through a list of fiscal as well as structural changes needed to correct the inequality and disequilibrium in the global economy.
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The sense of disequilibrium surrounding the White House was exacerbated by Trump's latest attack on Sessions on Wednesday, over the attorney general's handling of an investigation into alleged surveillance abuses.
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While some experienced a constant disequilibrium and brain fog that were similar to mine, others had become accustomed to a pattern of short periods of relative health alternating with longer periods of vertigo.
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For entrepreneurs who have been conditioned to turn their growth dials up to 11, let's call it the "hyper-growth schema," the process of adapting to more measured and metric-driven growth presents disequilibrium.
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"By the disequilibrium that still exists between supply and demand of foreign exchange, it is expected that we will see further pressures on the depreciation of the national currency," Massano said in an interview with O Pais.
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Instead, what often rankled him were the ethical issues that lay at the core of combat photography, like the appropriateness of depicting torture or the disequilibrium that came from being able to photograph only one side of the story.
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A sense of disequilibrium The Hicks news Wednesday was just the latest in a succession of broadsides to hit the scandal-plagued White House in the last 48 hours that suggest Mueller's probe is getting ever closer to the President.
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"Another crisis is certain, and the failure…to tackle the disequilibrium in the world economy makes it likely that it will come sooner rather than later," Mervyn King has said in his new book, which was exclusively serialized in the U.K. Telegraph newspaper at the weekend.
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The decision will exacerbate a widespread feeling in Europe that the United States, after so long as a force for stability in the Western world, is now a source of disequilibrium and disruption and is set on a political course that will ultimately damage the transatlantic alliance.
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"Without reform of the financial system, another crisis is certain, and the failure ... to tackle the disequilibrium in the world economy makes it likely that it will come sooner rather than later," King said in an extract of his new book published by the Sunday Telegraph newspaper.
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Beyond giving us pop-culture Easter eggs, he is able to render esoteric and unfortunately named aspects of the science of inheritance (hi there, linkage disequilibrium!) in ways that give the lay reader a sense of how genetics works without yet another ninth-grade exhumation of Gregor Mendel.
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" Put another way, Pimco, which had assets under management of $1.5 trillion as of March 31, said "the global economy finds itself today in a state of disequilibrium that has remained stable thus far only via three policy props: zero or near-zero interest rate policy, QE (Quantitative Easing), and levering up in China, some other emerging market economies and the European periphery.
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"In particular, during this longest cycle where we saw prices crash by over 80 percent at one point, where we saw the supply and demand balance in (a period of) disequilibrium that had never been witnessed, where we saw more than 100 U.S. companies file for bankruptcy with all the negative consequences on the industry, the regions where they operate … no party was insulated," he said.
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You can see in other pieces in the show, including "Dismantling" (2015), "Remains II" (2015), and "Packed" (2014), the kind of functional relationship that the artist has developed with his element: rubber as a side-effect of mastery, so that works that are born from the action of constant stretching and expanding, or stretching and collapsing, become almost painterly, contemplative objects, abstracted from the world of tensions and disequilibrium.
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A flickering moment in April saw hope that his "grand scheme" might be embraced: modest reparations (with Britain's share ceded to other victims of German aggression), cancellation of all inter-Allied war debts (America would bear the brunt of that burden), the establishment of a European free trade zone (to sidestep likely chaos in international commerce from the confused patchwork of new nations emerging in the east), and a new international loan to nurse the continent through a difficult period of economic disequilibrium.
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Despite its prevalence, the neoclassical synthesis had its Keynesian critics. A strain of disequilibrium or "non-Walrasian" theory developed that criticized the synthesis for apparent contradictions in allowing disequilibrium phenomena, especially involuntary unemployment, to be modeled in equilibrium models. Moreover, they argued, the presence of disequilibrium in one market must be associated with disequilibrium in another, so involuntary unemployment had to be tied to an excess supply in the goods market. Many see Don Patinkin's work as the first in the disequilibrium vein.
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While American economists quickly abandoned disequilibrium models, European economists were more open to models without market clearing. Europeans such as Edmond Malinvaud and Jacques Drèze expanded on the disequilibrium tradition and worked to explain price rigidity instead of simply assuming it. Malinvaud (1977) used disequilibrium analysis to develop a theory of unemployment. He argued that disequilibrium in the labor and goods markets could lead to rationing of goods and labor, leading to unemployment.
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Linkage disequilibrium can be caused by a low frequency of recombinations between two loci when they are very close together on a chromosome. The closer two loci are, the more likely they are to exhibit linkage disequilibrium. Thus, markers that are only 100 kb apart display significantly greater linkage disequilibrium than markers that are 100–5,000 kb apart. Because standard linkage analysis methods typically assume no linkage disequilibrium exists between loci, Bailey- Wilson's group has developed approaches to streamline these methods to study sets of dense genetic markers.
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Disequilibrium macroeconomics is a tradition of research centered on the role of disequilibrium in economics. This approach is also known as non-Walrasian theory, equilibrium with rationing, the non-market clearing approach, and non- tâtonnement theory. Early work in the area was done by Don Patinkin, Robert W. Clower, and Axel Leijonhufvud. Their work was formalized into general disequilibrium models, which were very influential in the 1970s.
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In spite of its name, linkage disequilibrium may exist between alleles at different loci without any genetic linkage between them and independently of whether or not allele frequencies are in equilibrium (not changing with time). Furthermore, linkage disequilibrium is sometimes referred to as gametic phase disequilibrium; however, the concept also applies to asexual organisms and therefore does not depend on the presence of gametes.
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Because background selection is a result of deleterious new mutations, which can occur randomly in any haplotype, it does not produce clear blocks of linkage disequilibrium, although with low recombination it can still lead to slightly negative linkage disequilibrium overall.
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In genetics, association mapping, also known as "linkage disequilibrium mapping", is a method of mapping quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that takes advantage of historic linkage disequilibrium to link phenotypes (observable characteristics) to genotypes (the genetic constitution of organisms), uncovering genetic associations.
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A disequilibrium occurs due to a non-equilibrium price giving a lack of balance between supply and demand. Excess supply is one of the two types of disequilibrium in a perfectly competitive market, excess demand being the other. When quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded, the equilibrium level does not obtain and instead the market is in disequilibrium. An excess supply prevents the economy from operating efficiently.
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Monetary disequilibrium theory is a product of the monetarist school and is mainly represented in the works of Leland Yeager and Austrian macroeconomics. The basic concepts of monetary equilibrium and disequilibrium were, however, defined in terms of an individual's demand for cash balance by Mises (1912) in his Theory of Money and Credit. Monetary disequilibrium is one of three theories of macroeconomic fluctuations which accord an important role to money, the others being the Austrian theory of the business cycle and one based on rational expectations.Leland B. Yeager,The Significance of Monetary Disequilibrium, pp. 369-420.
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However, there are information lost in the process such as linkage disequilibrium and zygosity information.
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In population genetics, linkage disequilibrium (LD) is the non-random association of alleles at different loci in a given population. Loci are said to be in linkage disequilibrium when the frequency of association of their different alleles is higher or lower than what would be expected if the loci were independent and associated randomly. Linkage disequilibrium is influenced by many factors, including selection, the rate of genetic recombination, mutation rate, genetic drift, the system of mating, population structure, and genetic linkage. As a result, the pattern of linkage disequilibrium in a genome is a powerful signal of the population genetic processes that are structuring it.
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White maize lines had increased diversity and no evidence of linkage disequilibrium associated with a selective sweep.
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One popular family-based association mapping is the transmission disequilibrium test. For details, see Family based QTL mapping.
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Kenneth A Zahringer,Monetary Disequilibrium Theory and Business Cycles, pp. 1-19. # As the name suggests the monetary-disequilibrium theory is a strictly monetary explanation of a set of economic phenomenon. It does not take into account the real economic factors like real savings or market processes that influence business cycles.
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In the case D_{AB}=0 we have p_{AB} = p_A p_B and the alleles A and B are said to be in linkage equilibrium. The subscript "AB" on D_{AB} emphasizes that linkage disequilibrium is a property of the pair {A, B} of alleles and not of their respective loci. Other pairs of alleles at those same two loci may have different coefficients of linkage disequilibrium. Linkage disequilibrium in asexual populations can be defined in a similar way in terms of population allele frequencies.
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These are some of the earliest known metabolisms (see methanogenesis). In a case such as this, scientists might search for a disequilibrium in the geochemical cycle, which would point to a reaction happening more or less often than it should. A disequilibrium such as this could be interpreted as an indication of life.
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Robert W. Clower (1965) introduced his "dual-decision hypothesis" that a person in a market may determine what he wants to buy, but is ultimately limited in how much he can buy based on how much he can sell. Clower and Axel Leijonhufvud (1968) argued that disequilibrium formed a fundamental part of Keynes's theory and deserved greater attention. Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman formulated general disequilibrium models in which individual markets were locked into prices before there was a general equilibrium. These markets produced "false prices" resulting in disequilibrium.
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Linkage disequilibrium helped researchers identify which C4 structural variant an individual had by looking at the SNP haplotypes. The SNP haplotypes and the C4 alleles were linked which was why they were in linkage disequilibrium, meaning that they segregated together. A single structural C4 variant was associated with many different SNP haplotypes, but different SNP haplotypes where associated with only one C4 structural variant. This was due to the linkage disequilibrium which allowed the researchers to determine the C4 structural variant easily by looking at the SNP haplotype.
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The association between the alleles A and B can be regarded as completely random—which is known in statistics as independence—when the occurrence of one does not affect the occurrence of the other, in which case the probability that both A and B occur together is given by the product p_{A} p_{B} of the probabilities. There is said to be a linkage disequilibrium between the two alleles whenever p_{AB} differs from p_A p_B for any reason. The level of linkage disequilibrium between A and B can be quantified by the coefficient of linkage disequilibrium D_{AB}, which is defined as : D_{AB} = p_{AB} - p_A p_B, provided that both p_A and p_B are greater than zero. Linkage disequilibrium corresponds to D_{AB} eq 0 .
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Soros's writings focus heavily on the concept of reflexivity, where the biases of individuals enter into market transactions, potentially changing the fundamentals of the economy. Soros argues that different principles apply in markets depending on whether they are in a "near to equilibrium" or a "far from equilibrium" state. He argues that, when markets are rising or falling rapidly, they are typically marked by disequilibrium rather than equilibrium, and that the conventional economic theory of the market (the "efficient market hypothesis") does not apply in these situations. Soros has popularized the concepts of dynamic disequilibrium, static disequilibrium, and near-equilibrium conditions.
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In the case of foreclosures many will choose to live in an environment that is similar to their childhood experiences so that they may remain unchanged. When disequilibrium occurs in the life of foreclosures, the effects may be especially devastating. When disequilibrium occurs a period of re-construction begins. These periods of re-construction are called the moratorium-achievement-moratorium-achievement (MAMA) cycles.
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This must involve some sort of chemical disequilibrium, which can be exploited for metabolism. Geological processes are independent of life, and if scientists are able to constrain the geology well enough on another planet, then they know what the particular geologic equilibrium for that planet should be. A deviation from geological equilibrium can be interpreted as both an atmospheric disequilibrium and agnostic biosignature.
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Furthermore, it is also possible to define linkage disequilibrium among three or more alleles, however these higher-order associations are not commonly used in practice.
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When information is new and cannot fit into existing schema this is called disequilibrium and this is an unpleasant state for the child's development. When disequilibrium happens, it means the person is frustrated and will try to restore the coherence of his or her cognitive structures through accommodation. If the new information is taken then assimilation of the new information will proceed until they find that they must make a new adjustment to it later down the road, but for now the child remains at equilibrium again. The process of equilibration is when people move from the equilibrium phase to the disequilibrium phase and back into equilibrium.
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He believed that parents familiar with these sequences will become more patient and understanding during times of disequilibrium and instability knowing that they will eventually disappear.
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Many medications used to treat seizures, depression, anxiety, and pain affect the vestibular system and the central nervous system which can cause the symptom of disequilibrium.
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Israel Kirzner, an economist of the Austrian School, sees the entrepreneur as an arbitrageur who is alert to opportunities for profit that exist due to market disequilibrium.
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In statistical genetics, linkage disequilibrium score regression (LDSR or LDSC) is a technique that aims to quantify the separate contributions of polygenic effects and various confounding factors, such as population stratification, based on summary statistics from genome-wide association studies (GWASs). The approach involves using regression analysis to examine the relationship between linkage disequilibrium scores and the test statistics of the single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from the GWAS. Here, the "linkage disequilibrium score" for a SNP "is the sum of LD r2 measured with all other SNPs". LDSC can be used to produce SNP-based heritability estimates, to partition this heritability into separate categories, and to calculate genetic correlations between separate phenotypes.
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Journal of Adolescence, 33, 683-698. Transitions are often inspired by disequilibrium in identity. Marcia Marcia, J. E. (2010). Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development.
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In statistics, McNemar's test is a statistical test used on paired nominal data. It is applied to 2 × 2 contingency tables with a dichotomous trait, with matched pairs of subjects, to determine whether the row and column marginal frequencies are equal (that is, whether there is "marginal homogeneity"). It is named after Quinn McNemar, who introduced it in 1947. An application of the test in genetics is the transmission disequilibrium test for detecting linkage disequilibrium.
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Knapp, Seuchter, Baur (1987) "The haplotype-relative-risk" (HRR) method for analysis of association in nuclear families. Am J Hum Genet 52:1085-10093,1993 While the HRR method has proven an effective means of avoiding population stratification biases, another family-based association test known as the transmission disequilibrium testa b c Spielman RS, McGinnis RE, Ewens WJ (Mar 1993). "Transmission test for linkage disequilibrium: the insulin gene region and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)".
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Thomas W, Fullan A, Loeb DB, McClelland EE, Bacon BR, Wolff RK (1998). "A haplotype and linkage-disequilibrium analysis of the hereditary hemochromatosis gene region". Hum Genet 102: 517–25.
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When compared, it was found that the two patterns matched. Researchers used this information to conclude that the linkage disequilibrium block of the FTO gene acts upon IRX3. These results were also supported by the presence of the H3K4me1 enhancer signature left behind during both HCNE-driven expression and IRX3 expression. In summary, persons at high risk for Type 2 Diabetes and obesity have a highly methylated 7.7 kb region in the linkage disequilibrium block of the FTO gene.
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Meiotic recombination through crossing over is thought to be a mechanism by which a cell promotes correct segregation of homologous chromosomes and repair of DNA damages. Crossing over requires a DNA double-stranded break followed by strand invasion of the homolog and subsequent repair. Initiation sites for recombination are usually identified by mapping crossing over events through pedigree analysis or through analysis of linkage disequilibrium. Linkage disequilibrium has identified more than 30,000 hotspots within the human genome.
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High linkage disequilibrium between marker SNPs (e.g., rs12979860) and candidate explanatory genetic variants (e.g., IFNL4-ΔG/TT) present a challenge in identifying functional polymorphisms. However, weaker linkage disequilibrium between IFNL4-ΔG/TT and IFNL4 rs12979860 in populations of African ancestry facilitate comparison of those polymorphisms, and in African American populations IFNL4-ΔG/TT was shown to be a better predictor than rs12979860 for response to treatment with pegylated interferon-α/ribavirin therapy and spontaneous HCV clearance.
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Tumors within the nerve canaliculi initially present with unilateral sensorineural hearing loss, unilateral tinnitus, or disequilibrium (vertigo is rare, on account of the slow growth of neuromas). Speech discrimination out of proportion to hearing loss, difficulty talking on the telephone are frequent accompaniments. Tumors extending into the CPA will likely present with disequilibrium or ataxia depending on the amount of extension on the brainstem. With brainstem extension, midfacial and corneal hypesthesia, hydrocephalus, and other cranial neuropathies become more prevalent.
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His subsequent writings tilted towards a laissez-faire approach to monetary reform. In his 1989 paper "Can Monetary Disequilibrium Be Eliminated", he advocated that government "be banished from any role in the monetary system other than that of defining a unit of account or numeraire.""Can Monetary Disequilibrium Be Eliminated", Cato Journal 9, pp. 405–19, Cato Institute The month before his death Yeager wrote about the "destructive and ignorant" trade policy of United States President Donald Trump.
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Studies of general disequilibrium have been considered the "height of the neoclassical synthesis"Romer, 5. and an immediate precursor to the new Keynesian economics that followed the decline of the synthesis. Studies of general disequilibrium showed that the economy behaved differently depending on which markets (for example, the labor or the goods markets) were out of equilibrium. When both the goods and the labor market suffered from excess supply, the economy behaved according to Keynesian theory.
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Monetary disequilibrium theory has always been a part of the Austrian Monetary theory. Significant features of the monetary-disequilibrium theory except the inclusion of the stable price level have been present in the Austrian theory for a long time. Mostly modern Austrian economists emphasize the effects of inflation more than the harm caused by rapid deflation. This is mainly because inflation is a more immediate problem in the current system and deflation is a result of prior inflation.
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Furthermore, ethnic specific GWA studies show that each group has varied detectability of variants in terms of: frequency, linkage disequilibrium – the co-inheritance of SNPs through generations – and the actual loci themselves.
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For example, the presence of oxygen and methane together could indicate the kind of extreme thermochemical disequilibrium generated by life.Where are they? (PDF) Mario Livio and Joseph Silk. Physics Today, March 2017.
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Chromosome botany, p36. Allen & Unwin, London. Debate has tended to centre round the question, could the component genes in a super-gene have started off on separate chromosomes, with subsequent reorganization, or is it necessary for them to start on the same chromosome? Many scientists today believe the latter, because some linkage disequilibrium is initially needed to select for tighter linkage, and linkage disequilibrium requires both the previous existence of polymorphisms via some other process, like natural selection, favouring gene combinations.
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66 fig. 2; Lieberman analyzes the sculpture's "almost brutal realism" and "flawlessly controlled disequilibrium" (p 67), revealed in circling the sculpture. The statue was bought for the Medici and transferred to Florence in 1572.
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Work by Catling and his students is also the first to accurately quantify the thermodynamic disequilibrium in planetary atmospheres of the Solar System, which has been proposed as a means to look for life remotely.
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Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones, the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation, thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium. However, if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative, it is in disequilibrium with the local climate. Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate. The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier.
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For example, populations that represent recent mixtures of geographically separated ancestral groups can exhibit longer-range linkage disequilibrium between susceptibility alleles and genetic markers than is the case for other populations. Genetic studies can use this admixture linkage disequilibrium to search for disease alleles with fewer markers than would be needed otherwise. Association studies also can take advantage of the contrasting experiences of racial or ethnic groups, including migrant groups, to search for interactions between particular alleles and environmental factors that might influence health.
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In medicine, disequilibrium refers to impaired equilibrioception that can be characterised as a sensation of impending fall or of the need to obtain external assistance for proper locomotion. It is sometimes described as a feeling of improper tilt of the floor, or as a sense of floating. This sensation can originate in the inner ear or other motion sensors, or in the central nervous system. Neurologic disorders tend to cause constant vertigo or disequilibrium and usually have other symptoms of neurologic dysfunction associated with the vertigo.
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Manipulation of IRX3 and IRX5 pathways has also been shown to decrease obesity markers in human cell cultures. Genetic variants of FTO and IRX3 genes are in high linkage disequilibrium and are associated with obesity risk.
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One explanation for the mixed results is the possibility of other variants which are in linkage disequilibrium with the 118A>G variant and thus contribute to different haplotype patterns that more specifically associated with opioid dependence.
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Zhu, W., Yu, J., Nie, Y., Shi, X., Liu, Y., Li, F., & Zhang, X. L. (2014). Disequilibrium of M1 and M2 macrophages correlates with the development of experimental inflammatory bowel diseases. Immunological Investigations, 43(7), 638–652.
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New classical economists argued that abandoning the disequilibrium models of Keynesianism and focusing on structure- and behavior-based equilibrium models would remedy these faults. Keynesian economists responded by building models with microfoundations grounded in stable theoretical relationships.
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His most recent work applies this framework to explicating the reasons for success of industrial clusters, particularly those found in Taiwan, China and India. His book published in 2006, Strategizing, Disequilibrium and Profit (Stanford University Press), took these issues as framework to explore the evolution of industries and strategizing behaviors of firms theoretically. Strongly influenced by Joseph A. Schumpeter, Mathews viewed the disequilibrium and the dynamics of the economic system as both a setting and outcome of firms’ strategizing behaviours. Entrepreneurship plays a central role in creating the bundles of resources, activities and routines.
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Selective sweeps can be detected by measuring linkage disequilibrium, or whether a given haplotype is overrepresented in the population. Since a selective sweep also results in selection of neighbouring alleles, the presence of a block of strong linkage disequilibrium might indicate a 'recent' selective sweep near the centre of the block. Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep. If a specific site experiences strong and persistent purifying selection, linked variation tends to be weeded out along with it, producing a region in the genome of low overall variability.
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"Taking Markets Seriously: Groundwork for a Post-Walrasian Macroeconomics", in David Colander, ed., Beyond Microfoundations, pp. 21–37. • Herschel I. Grossman (1971). "Money, Interest, and Prices in Market Disequilibrium," Journal of Political Economy,79(5), p p. 943–961.
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Grossman and Barro expanded on their work and produced the classic textbook Money, Employment, and Inflation in 1976.Kolmar, 803. Following his work on disequilibrium, Grossman made several contributions to the study of economic policy and political economy.Spolaore (2008).
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For rs8099917, linkage disequilibrium with IFNL4-ΔG/TT is strong in Asian populations, moderate in Europeans, and weak in Africans. The IFNL4-ΔG/TT and rs117648444 variants present in three observed haplotypes that can modify or abrogate the IFNL4 protein.
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This evidence of linkage disequilibrium supports the hypothesis that most, if not all, CCR5 Δ32 alleles arose from a single mutational event. Finally, the CCR5 Δ32 allele has a unique geographical distribution indicating a single Northern origin followed by migration.
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The formal definition of fundamental disequilibrium was never determined, leading to uncertainty of approvals and attempts to repeatedly devalue by less than 10% instead. Any country that changed without approval or after being denied was then denied access to the IMF.
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The countries that joined the IMF between 1945 and 1971 agreed to keep their exchange rates secured at rates that could be adjusted only to correct a "fundamental disequilibrium" in the balance of payments, and only with the IMF's agreement.
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There developed a lively interest in fixed price economies, and specifically in a three-good macroeconomic model, first formulated by Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman (1971) and then studied extensively by Edmond Malinvaud (1977). That model invited empirical estimation. The new statistical challenges posed by "disequilibrium econometrics" were attacked at CORE by two students of Jacques Drèze, namely Henri Sneessens (1981) and Jean-Paul Lambert (1988). Following a joint paper by Drèze and Sneessens (71), a major project (the European Unemployment Program) directed by Jacques Drèze and Richard Layard led to estimation of a common disequilibrium model in ten countries (B4, 93, 94).
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It was soon clear that without a thorough reform of the public sector, controlling inflation would be impossible. Both plans introduced a price freeze and eliminated indexation, but there were differences between them, and with the Cruzado Plan. Neither was able to address the public-sector disequilibrium effectively. The objective of the Summer Plan, for instance, was mainly to avoid hyperinflation in an election year. In fact, the public-sector disequilibrium became virtually locked in as a result of the 1988 constitution, which created advantages for various segments of society without indicating how these advantages would be paid for.
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If all genes are in linkage equilibrium, the effect of an allele at one locus can be averaged across the gene pool at other loci. In reality, one allele is frequently found in linkage disequilibrium with genes at other loci, especially with genes located nearby on the same chromosome. Recombination breaks up this linkage disequilibrium too slowly to avoid genetic hitchhiking, where an allele at one locus rises to high frequency because it is linked to an allele under selection at a nearby locus. Linkage also slows down the rate of adaptation, even in sexual populations.
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Disequilibrium can be shown as: S + T + M ≠ I + G + X Therefore, it can be shown as one of the below equations where: Total leakages > Total injections $150 (S) + $250 (T) + $150 (M) > $75 (I) + $200 (G) + $150 (X) Or Total Leakages < Total injections $50 (S) + $200 (T) + $125 (M) < $75 (I) + $200 (G) + $150 (X) The effects of disequilibrium vary according to which of the above equations they belong to. If S + T + M > I + G + X the levels of income, output, expenditure and employment will fall causing a recession or contraction in the overall economic activity. But if S + T + M < I + G + X the levels of income, output, expenditure and employment will rise causing a boom or expansion in economic activity. Circular Flow of Income effects of saving To manage this problem, if disequilibrium were to occur in the five sector circular flow of income model, changes in expenditure and output will lead to equilibrium being regained.
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Evidence for self-cleaning in gecko setae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102, 385–389. They also use the contact mechanical model to suggest that self- cleaning occurs by an energetic disequilibrium between the adhesive forces attracting a dirt particle to the substrate and those attracting the same particle to one or more spatulae. In other words, the Van der Waals interaction energy for the particle-wall system requires a sufficiently great number of particle-spatula systems to counterbalance; however, relatively few spatulae can actually attach to a single particle, therefore the contaminant particles tend to attach to the substrate surface rather than the gecko's toe due to this disequilibrium.
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Bayesian approaches, originally pioneered in concept in 2001, attempt to explicitly model preexisting genetic architecture, thereby accounting for the distribution of effect sizes with a prior that should improve the accuracy of a polygenic score. One of the most popular modern Bayesian methods uses "linkage disequilibrium prediction" (LDpred for short) to set the weight for each SNP equal to the average of its posterior distribution after linkage disequilibrium has been accounted for. LDpred tends to outperform simpler methods of pruning and thresholding, especially at large sample sizes; for example, its estimations have improved the predicted variance of a polygenic score for schizophrenia in a large data set from 20.1% to 25.3%.
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Firstly, African populations exhibit greater genetic diversity and less linkage disequilibrium because of their long history. Secondly, genetic similarity is directly correlated with geographic proximity. Lastly, some loci reflect selection in response to environmental gradients. Therefore, some argue, human racial groups do not appear to be distinct ethnic groups.
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Spolaore (2008). The article explored the idea that disequilibrium in one market can have spillover effects to another market, creating a distinction between notional demand and effective demand. Barro and Grossman expanded on their work and produced the classic textbook Money, Employment, and Inflation in 1976.Kolmar, 803.
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However, during a selective sweep, selection for a positively selected gene variant will also result in selection of neighbouring alleles and less opportunity for recombination. Therefore, the presence of strong linkage disequilibrium might indicate that there has been a recent selective sweep, and can be used to identify sites recently under selection. There have been many scans for selective sweeps in humans and other species, using a variety of statistical approaches and assumptions. In maize, a recent comparison of yellow and white corn genotypes surrounding Y1—the phytoene synthetase gene responsible for the yellow endosperm color, shows strong evidence for a selective sweep in yellow germplasm reducing diversity at this locus and linkage disequilibrium in surrounding regions.
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Studies of extant dogs cannot exclude the possibility of earlier domestication events that subsequently died out or were overwhelmed by more modern populations. In 2016, this finding was questioned by a whole genome study that included linkage disequilibrium data from east Asian indigenous dogs and found these exhibited a lower level than those of the central Asian dogs, indicating an East Asia origin. This assessment was then called to question because of a negative bias caused by the low coverage used in the genome sequences. In 2017, a literature review found that because it is known that the genetic bottlenecks associated with formation of breeds raise linkage disequilibrium, the comparison of purebred with village dogs was not appropriate.
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For example, the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region is a complex of tightly linked genes all acting in the immune system, but has no claim to be a supergene, even though the component genes very likely have epistatic effects and are in strong disequilibrium due in part to selection.
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Two coding variants, G1 and G2, have been recently identified with relevance to human phenotypes. The G1 is a pair of two non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in almost complete linkage disequilibrium. G2 is an in-frame deletion of the two amino acid residues, N388 and Y389.Citation Needed.
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The language of chaos theory is also frequently adopted. In it, the learner's mind reaches a state of disequilibrium where old patterns have broken down. This is the phase transition of cognitive development. Self-organization (the spontaneous creation of coherent forms) sets in as activity levels link to each other.
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The cerebellopontine angle syndrome is a distinct neurological syndrome of deficits that can arise due to the closeness of the cerebellopontine angle to specific cranial nerves.Rolak LA. Neurology Secrets, 4th Ed. Chapter 10, "Cerebellar Disease." Elsevier. Indications include unilateral hearing loss (85%), speech impediments, disequilibrium, tremors or other loss of motor control.
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"Clark Warburton and the Development of Monetarism since the Great Depression," History of Political Economy, 11(3),p. 425 and reviver of classic monetary-disequilibrium theory and the quantity theory of money.Michael D. Bordo and Anna J. Schwartz, 1979. "Clark Warburton: Pioneer Monetarist," Journal of Monetary Economics, 5(1), pp. 43–65.
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The Bio.PopGen module adds support to Biopython for Genepop, a software package for statistical analysis of population genetics. This allows for analyses of Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, linkage disequilibrium and other features of a population's allele frequencies. This module can also carry out population genetic simulations using coalescent theory with the fastsimcoal2 program.
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Wicksell's work had a clear Austrian connection as he relied on Eugen Ritter von Böhm-Bawerk's theory of capital in developing the concepts.Steven Horwitz, Monetary Disequilibrium Theory and Austrian Macroeconomics, pp. 75-80. The representative of the British monetary- equilibrium approach was mainly Dennis Robertson. Mises relationship to the theory is ambiguous.
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The Wicksellian DifferentialFirst known reference is in Profiting from Monetary Policy, T.Aubrey (Thomson Reuters Infostream Q2 2011) is derived from Knut Wicksell's theory of interest and is an approximation of the extent of disequilibrium in an economy. Formula: Wicksellian Differential = Natural Rate of Interest - Money Rate of Interest Wicksell argued in Interest and PricesWicksell, Knut Interest and Prices (1898) that the equilibrium of a credit economy could be ascertained by comparing the money rate of interest to the natural rate of interest. In modern terminology this equates to comparing the cost of capital with the return on capital. In economies where the natural rate is higher than the money rate, credit growth will drive a positive disequilibrium in an economy.
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When the natural rate of interest is lower than the money rate, the demand for credit dries up leading to a negative disequilibrium and capital destruction. Wicksell also argued that prices would be stable when the two rates of interest were in equilibrium, an idea that was subsequently demonstrated to have been flawed by Gunnar Myrdal and Friedrich Hayek in the late 1920s and early 1930s.See G. Myrdal, Monetary Equilibrium and F. Hayek, Prices and Production The Wicksellian Differential therefore provides an alternative estimation of the extent of disequilibrium in a credit-based economy to more standard Taylor Rule approaches which attempt to estimate deviations from a general equilibrium based on the fluctuations in output and the general price level.
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Like with HCV, linkage disequilibrium poses a challenge in identifying the functional polymorphism for these associations. In a study of HCV-infected African Americans and European ancestry patients undergoing liver transplantation, donor genotype for IFNL4-ΔG/TT was a stronger predictor of post-transplant fibrosis progression than genotype for rs12979860. However, in a second study on patients of European ancestry with chronic hepatitis C, linkage disequilibrium between IFNL4-ΔG/TT, IFNL4 rs12979860 and another variant in IFNL3 3’ untranslated region (rs4803217) was too strong to discern genotype differences for hepatic inflammation and fibrosis. In contrast to results from studies of HCV clearance, no differences between genotypes that generated different variants of the IFNL4 protein (IFNL4 P70S) were found for either fibrosis or inflammation.
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Wicksell's main thesis, the disequilibrium engendered by real changes leads endogenously to an increase in the demand for money – and, simultaneously, its supply as banks try to accommodate it perfectly. Given full employment (a constant Y) and payments structure (constant V), then in terms of the equation of exchange, MV = PY, a rise in M leads only to a rise in P. Thus, the story of the Quantity theory of money, the long-run relationship between money and inflation, is kept in Wicksell. Wicksell's main thesis, the disequilibrium engendered by real changes leads endogenously to an increase in the demand for money – and, simultaneously, its supply as banks try to accommodate it perfectly. Primarily, Say's law is violated and abandoned by the wayside.
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One example involves spillovers from the labor market to the goods market. If there is labour market disequilibrium such that individuals cannot supply all the labor they want to supply, then the amount that they are able to supply will influence their demand for goods; the demand for goods, contingent on the constraint on the amount of labor that can be supplied, is their effective demand for goods. In contrast, if there were no labor market disequilibrium, individuals would simultaneously choose both their quantity of labor to supply and the quantity of goods to purchase, and the latter would be their notional demand for goods. In this example, the effective demand for goods would be less than the notional demand for goods.
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Paraglacial means unstable conditionsRenwick, W.H. 1992: Equilibrium, disequilibrium, and nonequilibrium landforms in the landscape. Geomorphology 5, 265-76 caused by a significant relaxation time in processes and geomorphic patterns following glacial climates.Church, Michael and June M Ryder, Paraglacial Sedimentation: A Consideration of Fluvial Processes Conditioned by Glaciation, GSA Bulletin; October 1972; v. 83; no.
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Following a joint paper by Drèze and Sneessens (71), a major project (the European Unemployment Program) directed by Jacques Drèze and Richard Layard led to estimation of a common disequilibrium model in ten countries (B4, 93, 94). The results of that successful effort were to inspire policy recommendations in Europe for several years.Dehez 2006.
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Symptoms of the mild degree of Disequilibrium syndrome is often missed with other dialysis complications. Like malignant hypertension, uremia, encephalopathy, subdural haemorrage, hyper and hypoglycaemia, electrolyte imbalances etc. However moderate and severe degree of DDS should not be missed and need immediate care. Unless it would result in severe neurological issues and finally death. 1\.
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The key symptom of disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier. This indicates a diminishment of the accumulation zone. The result is marginal recession of the accumulation zone margin, not just of the terminus. In effect, the glacier no longer has a consistent accumulation zone and without an accumulation zone cannot survive.
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Stephens conducted postdoctoral research with Peter Donnelly at the University of Oxford. It was there that he developed STRUCTURE along with Jonathan Pritchard, a widely used computer program for determining population structure and estimating individual admixture. He then went on to develop the influential Li and Stephens model as an efficient model for linkage disequilibrium.
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Herschel Ivan Grossman (6 March 1939 – 9 October 2004) was an American economist best known for his work on general disequilibrium with Robert Barro in the 1970sSpolaore (2008). and later work on property rights and the emergence of the state.Kolmar, 813. Grossman received a bachelor of arts from the University of Virginia (1960), a B.Phil.
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This isolation led to the implication of more genes as the causes of quadrupedalism. The fact that chromosome 9p24 had no effect on some families points to the genetic heterogeneity of the syndrome. Another approach for establishing the genealogy has been to compare UTS with similar syndromes such as disequilibrium syndrome (DES) and Joubert syndrome.
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The descendants are now scattered all over the United States. Family names, street names and tombstones in Catholic cemeteries are the current traces of emigration from Ticino. A demographic disequilibrium (almost all emigrants were men) was the main negative consequence for the villages in Valle Maggia. Many women took men's jobs, and the more difficult pastures were abandoned.
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At each locus, individuals are grouped by their genotype, and statistical tests are performed to determine whether measured trait values for one group differ significantly from the overall mean for all groups. Identified loci may not be QTLs themselves, but are likely in linkage disequilibrium—and therefore strongly associate—with the loci actually influencing the trait.
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This disequilibrium made it appear that A1 and other class I gene-alleles were disease factors, when these alleles were only attached to a long segment of conserved DNA that had disease associated genes on the other end. In at least 2 diseases, the risk of autoimmune disease extends beyond the class II region of the haplotype.
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The report declared further investigation pointless, "as it was public knowledge that the movement and its leadership were guilty of engaging in organized criminality". The report also proposed that where MST activists could "cause electoral disequilibrium", the activists' right to vote be withdrawn by striking them from the voter registry.Pedrinho A. Guareschi, Alinne Hernandez, Manuel Cardenas, orgs.
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This process creates linkage disequilibrium between selected alleles, with the magnitude of resulting genetic correlations influencing evolutionary outcomes. If the genetic correlation is high relative to the heritability of the male ornament, then a runaway process can occur leading to extreme sexually selected traits, such as the incredible eye spans observed in male stalk-eyed flies.
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Whether or not a selective sweep has occurred can be investigated in various ways. One method is to measure linkage disequilibrium, i.e., whether a given haplotype is overrepresented in the population. Under neutral evolution, genetic recombination will result in the reshuffling of the different alleles within a haplotype, and no single haplotype will dominate the population.
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The excess demands in different markets can influence each other. The presence of excess demand in one market influences effective demand or supply in another market, which may influence the degree of disequilibrium in the latter market; in turn, the constraints imposed on participants in that market influence their effective demand or supply in the former market.
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These include PDHA1, PDHA1, Xq21.3, Xq13.3, Zfx, Fix, Il2rg, Plp, Gk, Ids, Alas2, Rrm2p4, AmeIX, Tnfsf5, Licam, and Msn. The time to most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) ranges from fixed to ~1.8 million years, with a median around 700ky. These studies roughly plot to the expected fixation distribution of alleles, given linkage disequilibrium between adjacent sites.
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There is a continuing process of increasing the technical composition of capital to the detriment of job creation resulting at least on the labour market in stagnation. The law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall nowadays usually is interpreted in terms of disequilibrium analysis, not the least in reaction to the Okishio critique.
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The authors also found evidence of positive selection. The gene with the strongest positive selection was NLRP1, which has two haplotypes undergoing selective sweeps. The first haplotype is seven amino acids in strong linkage disequilibrium. This haplotype is global and seems to be moving toward fixation, which started in Asia and is still occurring in Europe and Africa.
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Galiani believed that there are many shocks to the economy, which can cause disequilibrium and it takes long time for the restoration of equilibrium. He thanked that something instead of the natural law needed to face the challenge and shocks. Administration dealt with the ‘sudden movements’ of the economy, such as shortages in the wheat supply.
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Structural unemployment is also involuntary. Economists have several theories explaining the possibility of involuntary unemployment including implicit contract theory, disequilibrium theory, staggered wage setting, and efficiency wages. The officially measured unemployment rate is the ratio of involuntary unemployment to the sum of involuntary unemployment and employment (the denominator of this ratio being the total labor force).
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HLA-C is a locus on chromosome 6, which encodes for many HLA-C alleles that are Class-I MHC receptors. HLA-C, localized proximal to the HLA-B locus, is located on the distal end of the HLA region. Most HLA-C:B haplotypes are in strong linkage disequilibrium and many are as ancient as the human species itself.
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The IMF sought to provide for occasional discontinuous exchange-rate adjustments (changing a member's par value) by international agreement. Member nations were permitted to adjust their currency exchange rate by 1%. This tended to restore equilibrium in their trade by expanding their exports and contracting imports. This would be allowed only if there was a fundamental disequilibrium.
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The more mundane case of credit rationing occurs when the credit market is, for one reason or another, out of equilibrium. This could be either because of some friction in the market, or some government policy (such as anti-usury laws), which prevent supply and demand from being equalised. Disequilibrium outcomes are temporary adjustments to shocks as the economy moves back to the long run equilibrium—the equilibrium that will attain over some indeterminate amount of time in the absence of more external shocks. The main distinguishing factor between equilibrium and disequilibrium rationing in the credit markets is that the latter is not a long term feature, and can be alleviated through changes in policy or simply through time, and does not necessarily reflect chronic or structural features of the credit market.
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In a candidate gene studies, associations with IFNL4 genotype have been reported for prostate cancer and Kaposi's sarcoma. IFNL4-ΔG associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer among men with sexually transmitted infections. In a Swiss cohort, men who carried the rs8099917-G allele, which is in linkage disequilibrium with IFNL4-ΔG in European populations, had an increased risk of Kaposi's sarcoma.
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Disequilibrium processes like degassing, rapid CO2 uptake etc. modify clumped isotopic composition of carbonate minerals specifically at low temperatures. They variably enrich or deplete the system in heavy isotopes of C and O. Since clumped isotope abundance depends on abundance of isotopes of C and O, they are also modified. Another very prominent effect here is that of pH of precipitating fluid.
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Plagioclase and pyroxene are the dominant minerals, with amphibole and olivine being secondary components. The magma feeding the volcano probably formed from the mixing of magmas of distinct temperatures, as indicated by various clues indicating significant thermal disequilibrium between various components. The eruption of La Poruña appears to have been accompanied by a change in the magma system of the general volcano.
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Drèze and Sneessens proposed and estimated a disequilibrium model of Belgium's open economy (71). This model became the prototypical model estimated by the European Unemployment Programme, which under the guidance of Drèze and Richard Layard developed similar models for ten countries (B4, 93, 94). The results of that successful effort were to inspire policy recommendations in Europe for several years.
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In nearly all species, there is an obvious disequilibrium between frequency and severity of aggression in males versus females. Males are almost always the more aggressive sex and there are genetic differences that back up this observation. A common explanation for this phenomenon is the higher testosterone levels in males. Testosterone levels have a direct effect on neurotransmitter functioning contributing to physical aggression.
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Most cases are diagnosed in people between the ages of 30 and 60, and men and women appear to be affected equally. Most vestibular schwannomas occur spontaneously in those without a family history. One confirmed risk factor is a rare genetic mutation called NF2. The primary symptoms of vestibular schwannoma are unexplained progressive unilateral hearing loss and tinnitus and vestibular (disequilibrium) symptoms.
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Avoidance is the primary treatment. Better alternatives are Nocturnal or Daily Dialysis, which are far more gentle processes for the new dialysis patient. Dialysis disequilibrium syndrome is a reason why hemodialysis initiation should be done gradually, i.e. it is a reason why the first few dialysis sessions are shorter and less aggressive than the typical dialysis treatment for end-stage renal disease patients.
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Contraction of the triceps surae induce plantar flexion (sagittal plane) and stabilization of the ankle complex in the transverse plane. Functional activities include primarily movement in the sagittal plane, stabilization during locomotion (walking, running), restraining the body from falling and power jumping. By controlling the disequilibrium torque, the triceps surae can affect force through the exchange of potential into kinetic energy.
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The histology of spontaneous tumorigenesis in canines is attributed to the multiplicity and complexity of the disease. The heterogeneity of its development encompasses inherited, epigenetic, and environmental factors. The selective breeding techniques used with domestic dogs causes certain breeds to be at high risk for specific cancers. Selection for specific phenotypes in dog breeding causes long-range linkage disequilibrium in their DNA.
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Thus we have : D_n = (1-c)^n\; D_0. If n \to \infty, then (1-c)^n \to 0 so that D_n converges to zero. If at some time we observe linkage disequilibrium, it will disappear in the future due to recombination. However, the smaller the distance between the two loci, the smaller will be the rate of convergence of D to zero.
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A decrease in the value of a country's money was called a devaluation, while an increase in the value of the country's money was called a revaluation. It was envisioned that these changes in exchange rates would be quite rare. However, the concept of fundamental disequilibrium, though key to the operation of the par value system, was never defined in detail.
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In terms of the five sector circular flow of income model the state of equilibrium occurs when the total leakages are equal to the total injections that occur in the economy. This can be shown as: Savings + Taxes + Imports = Investment + Government Spending + Exports OR S + T + M = I + G + X. This can be further illustrated through a fictitious economy where: S + T + M = I + G + X $100 + $150 + $50 = $50 + $100 + $150 $300 = $300 Therefore, since the leakages are equal to the injections the economy is in a stable state of equilibrium. This state can be contrasted to the state of disequilibrium where unlike that of equilibrium the sum of total leakages does not equal the sum of total injections. By giving values to the leakages and injections the circular flow of income can be used to show the state of disequilibrium.
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Tishkoff graduated with a Bachelor of Science in genetics and a Bachelor of Arts in anthropology from the University of California, Berkeley in 1989. She went on to receive her Master of Philosophy in human genetics from the Yale School of Medicine in 1992. Tishkoff completed her formal education upon acquiring her PhD in genetics from Yale University in 1996, under the continued advisement of Kenneth Kidd. While working in the Kidd Lab, Tishkoff developed an interest in African genomics and evolution, leading her to write her thesis on the “Patterns of nuclear haplotype frequency variation and linkage disequilibrium in a global sample of human populations”. Shortly after completing her PhD, Tishkoff continued the research started in her thesis, and consequently published a paper titled “Global patterns of linkage disequilibrium at the CD4 locus and modern human origins” in the journal Science.
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The Luzon fruit bat, a member of the order Chiroptera, is a small bat that is common to Luzon island.Roberts, Trina E. Divergence, diversity, distance, and disequilibrium: comparative phylogeography of six Philippine fruit bats (Chiroptera; Pteropodidae). Diss. University of Chicago, Pritzker School of Medicine, Committee on Evolutionary Biology, 2005. It exhibits dark blackish brown coloration, with a lighter color appearing on the abdominal area, usually grey.
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In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of Stressful Transitions Across the Lifespan (pp. 19-34). doi: 10.1007/978-1-4419-0748-6_2 outlines how status change occurs as it relates to disequilibrium. Crisis in identity comes in the form of later adult life cycle stages and various life events. Depending on the individual, particular life events such as death of a loved one, job loss, moving, etc.
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The 6q QTL contains single-nucleotide polymorphisms distributed across three linkage disequilibrium blocks, in an intergenic region between MYB and HBS1L. Thain showed that this interval contains regulatory sequences. She has investigated how QTL regulates the expression of MYB and HBS1L. These two QTLs (6q and 2p), and a single-nucleotide polymorphism on the HBB cluster account for around half of the variability in HbF levels.
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In 2010, with the steady growth of the central government's fiscal revenue, local governments started to manifest disagreements. By 2015, when the central government's fiscal revenue reached 50% of the total amount, the central government's fiscal expenditure accounted for only 15%, which aggravated the disequilibrium between the central and local governments' financial powers, making it hard for local governments to go through budgeting and implementation process.
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Walras also proposed a dynamic process by which general equilibrium might be reached, that of the tâtonnement or groping process. The tâtonnement process is a model for investigating stability of equilibria. Prices are announced (perhaps by an "auctioneer"), and agents state how much of each good they would like to offer (supply) or purchase (demand). No transactions and no production take place at disequilibrium prices.
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These investments create a new imbalance, requiring another balancing investment. One sector will always grow faster than another, so the need for unbalanced growth will continue as investments must complement existing imbalance. Hirschman states “If the economy is to be kept moving ahead, the task of development policy is to maintain tensions, disproportions and disequilibrium”. This situation exists for all societies, developed or underdeveloped.
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They are spontaneous changes. That is, orthograde changes are generated by the spontaneous elimination of asymmetries in a thermodynamic system in disequilibrium. Because orthograde changes are driven by the internal geometry of a changing system, orthograde causes can be seen as analogous to Aristotle's formal cause. More loosely, Aristotle's final cause can also be considered orthograde, because goal oriented actions are caused from within.
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A sliding windows method is employed to repeatedly apply PCA to short chromosomal regions. This reduces the data produced and also does not require exponential search time. Yet it is not feasible to apply the PCA method to large chromosomal data sets as it is computationally complex. The most commonly used approach, block-based method, exploits the principle of linkage disequilibrium observed within haplotype blocks.
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Arlequin is a free population genetics software distributed as an integrated GUI data analysis software. It performs several types of tests and calculations, including Fixation index (Fst, also known as the "F-statistics"), computing genetic distance, Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, linkage disequilibrium, mismatch distribution, and pairwise difference tests. The newest version is 3.5.2.2 and is available only on Microsoft Windows as zip archive and installation executables.
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Société Générale was nationalised in 1945. It now had a single shareholder: the State. The period from 1945 to 1958 was characterised in France by rapid economic recovery but also a greater disequilibrium in the balance of payments, calling for continued exchange controls and virtually permanent credit control measures. It was not until 1959 that the economy really recovered, but credit controls were reinforced due to persistent inflationary pressures.
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Analyzing which spots on the array are bound by the tags allows the determination of the SNP identities at the genomic loci represented by those tags. The SNPs targeted by MIP can then be used in areas of research such as quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis or genome-wide association studies (GWAS) where the SNPs are used in either indirect linkage disequilibrium studies or directly screened for causative mutations.
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A link has been shown between ANCA-associated vasculitis and SNPs in the COL11A2 gene in a Genomewide Association Study. It is proposed that this association may be due to linkage disequilibrium between a SNP in the HLA-DP locus and SNPs in COL11A2. This is theorised as the SNP in the HLA molecule was found to be very strongly associated with these diseases with evidence for a single genetic association.
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Normal profit varies both within and across industries; it is commensurate with the riskiness associated with each type of investment, as per the risk- return spectrum. Only normal profits arise in circumstances of perfect competition when long-run economic equilibrium is reached; there is no incentive for firms to either enter or leave the industry.Lipsey, 1975. pp. 285–59. Profits can be theorized by the phenomena of equilibrium or disequilibrium.
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Under dirigisme (dirigism), France used indicative planning and established a number of state-owned enterprises in strategic sectors of the economy. The concept behind indicative planning is the early identification of oversupply, bottlenecks and shortages so that state investment behavior can be quickly modified to reduce market disequilibrium so that stable economic development and growth can be sustained. France experienced its Trente Glorieuses (Thirty Glorious), years with economic prosperity.
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His 1971 microeconomics textbook and his econometrics textbook, Statistical Methods in Econometrics, have since become classics. Malinvaud's main contribution to macroeconomics is represented in his slim 1977 book, Theory of Unemployment Reconsidered which provided a clear and unified reconstruction of dynamic "disequilibrium" macroeconomics; this theory built on previous results of Clower, Leijonhufvud, and "Non-Walrasian" theory. Malinvaud's influence on the subsequent generation of European economists has been profound.
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Irradiance plays a part in climate modeling and weather forecasting. A non-zero average global net radiation at the top of the atmosphere is indicative of Earth's thermal disequilibrium as imposed by climate forcing. The impact of the lower 2014 TSI value on climate models is unknown. A few tenths of a percent change in the absolute TSI level is typically considered to be of minimal consequence for climate simulations.
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Moreover, President Echeverría's leftist rhetoric and actions—such as abetting illegal land seizures by peasants—eroded investor confidence and alienated the private sector. The balance of payments disequilibrium became unmanageable as capital flight intensified, forcing the government in 1976 to devalue the peso by 58 percent. The action ended Mexico's twenty-year fixed exchange rate. Mexico accepted an IMF adjustment program and received financial backing from the United States.
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She received her Ph.D. in economics from Yale University in 1971. Her dissertation was titled "Employment, Output and Capital Accumulation in an Open Economy: A Disequilibrium Approach" under the supervision of Nobel laureates James Tobin and Joseph Stiglitz, who later called Yellen one of his brightest and most memorable students. Two dozen economists earned their Ph.D from Yale in 1971, but Yellen was the only woman in that doctoral class.
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Tagger is a web tool available for evaluating and selecting tag SNPs from genotypic data such as the International HapMap Project. It utilizes pairwise methods and multimarker haplotype approaches. Users can upload HapMap genotype data or pedigree format and the linkage disequilibrium patterns will be calculated. Tagger options allow for the user to specify chromosomal landmarks, which indicate regions of interest in the genome for picking tag SNPs.
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The selection maintaining the polymorphism maximises the species' niche by expanding its feeding opportunity. The genetics of this situation cannot be clarified in the absence of a detailed breeding program, but two loci with linkage disequilibrium is a possibility. Another interesting dimorphism is for the bills of young finches, which are either 'pink' or 'yellow'. All species of Darwin's finches exhibit this morphism, which lasts for two months.
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Healthy vaginal microbiota consists of species which neither cause symptoms or infections, nor negatively affect pregnancy. It is dominated mainly by Lactobacillus species. BV is defined by the disequilibrium in the vaginal microbiota, with decline in the number of lactobacilli. While the infection involves a number of bacteria, it is believed that most infections start with Gardnerella vaginalis creating a biofilm, which allows other opportunistic bacteria to thrive.
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The opposite also happens, as there instances on which populations considered to be Mestizo show genetic frequencies very similar to continental European peoples in the case of Mestizos from the state of Durango or to European derived Americans in the case of Mestizos from the state of Jalisco."Renin gene haplotype diversity and linkage disequilibrium in two Mexican and one German population samples", Sagepub, Retrieved on 21 February 2018.
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That selection strengthened in European and Asian populations. As a result, whereas ~95% of individuals of African ancestry carry at least one copy of the IFNL4-ΔG allele and are able to produce IFNL4, that percentage drops to ~50% in Europeans and <15% in Asians. Comparison of African and East Asian populations revealed the IFNL4-TT allele to be among the most differentiated variants genome-wide. It is unlikely HCV infection exerted the selection pressure that created these striking differences, as HCV did not become common until the twentieth century, and chronic HCV infection has too long of a course to majorly impact reproduction. There is high linkage disequilibrium between the IFNL4-ΔG/TT variant and the rs12979860 and rs8099917 SNPs. Linkage disequilibrium between IFNL4-ΔG/TT and IFNL4 rs12979860 is complete in Asian populations (r2=1.0) and strong among those of European (r2>0.9), but weaker in African populations (r2~0.7).
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WGAViewer is a bioinformatics software tool which is designed to visualize, annotate, and help interpret the results generated from a genome wide association study (GWAS). Alongside the P values of association, WGAViewer allows a researcher to visualize and consider other supporting evidence, such as the genomic context of the SNP, linkage disequilibrium (LD) with ungenotyped SNPs, gene expression database, and the evidence from other GWAS projects, when determining the potential importance of an individual SNP.
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This diagram illustrates how sex might create novel genotypes more rapidly. Two advantageous alleles A and B occur at random. The two alleles are recombined rapidly in a sexual population (top), but in an asexual population (bottom) the two alleles often arise in separate lineages and compete with each other. Clonal interference is a phenomenon in evolutionary biology, related to the population genetics of organisms with significant linkage disequilibrium, especially asexually reproducing organisms.
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A bipolar disorder association study identified C11orf86 as one of many genes found in a region of linkage disequilibrium on chromosome 11. Despite evidence of some association, C11orf86 was not found to be in an area of particular significance. C11orf86 is down-regulated from non-neoplastic mucosa to adenomas and carcinomas, down-regulated in renal cell carcinoma, and harbors chromosomal gains that are significantly associated with pure mucinous subtypes in mucinous carcinoma.
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Although large vestibular aqueducts are a congenital condition, hearing loss may not be present from birth. Age of diagnosis ranges from infancy to adulthood, and symptoms include fluctuating and sometimes progressive sensorineural hearing loss and disequilibrium. It is possible that a small portion of those with large vestibular aqueducts will not exhibit auditory symptoms such as hearing loss. While this is uncommon, hearing loss can progress later in life especially after head trauma.
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Hawley contended that "the environment, population, and the ecosystem tend to move toward equilibrium" (Human Ecology, p. 10). In his book, Human Ecology, Hawley wrote that humans will modify their behavior patterns to fit with changes in their biophysical environment. Through this adaption human groups can either evolve or expand into complex societies. For systemic change to occur, such as expansion of a population, disequilibrium is required along with multiple challenges to the environment.
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Population genetics models are used to infer which genes are undergoing selection. One common approach is to look for regions of high linkage disequilibrium and low genetic variance along the chromosome, to detect recent selective sweeps. A second common approach is the McDonald–Kreitman test. The McDonald–Kreitman test compares the amount of variation within a species (polymorphism) to the divergence between species (substitutions) at two types of sites, one assumed to be neutral.
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Disequilibrium syndrome (DES) was first described in the 1970s as a non- progressive, neurological disorder. In a 2005 study, DES was renamed as VLDLR- associated cerebellar hypoplasia (VLDLRCH) after its cause was linked to a disruption in the VLDLR gene. At least six mutations affecting the homozygous recessive allele of the VLDLR gene have been identified and found to cause VLDLRCH. Several of these mutations have been localized to specific exons encoding the gene.
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A. thaliana is a predominantly self-pollinating plant with an outcrossing rate estimated at less than 0.3%. An analysis of the genome-wide pattern of linkage disequilibrium suggested that self-pollination evolved roughly a million years ago or more. Meioses that lead to self-pollination are unlikely to produce significant beneficial genetic variability. However, these meioses can provide the adaptive benefit of recombinational repair of DNA damages during formation of germ cells at each generation.
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This is typically seen in animal hormone receptors. Upregulation of receptors, on the other hand, can result in super- sensitized cells especially after repeated exposure to an antagonistic drug or prolonged absence of the ligand. Some receptor agonists may cause downregulation of their respective receptors, while most receptor antagonists temporarily upregulate their respective receptors. The disequilibrium caused by these changes often causes withdrawal when the long-term use of a drug is discontinued.
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As a consequence, the genome of H. werneckii is relatively large (49.9 Mb) with 15974 predicted genes. Genes encoding metal cation transporters, which are thought to play a role in halotolerance, experienced several additional gene duplications at various points during their evolution. A homothallic mating locus was found in all sequenced genomes, although one of the mating genes may have been inactivated in some strains. Despite this, phylogenetic analyses and linkage disequilibrium analyses indicate that H. werneckii is asexual.
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However, a self-adjustment (negative feedback) takes place normally: when prices rise more people are encouraged to sell, while fewer are encouraged to buy. This puts a limit on volatility. However, once positive feedback takes over, the market, like all systems with positive feedback, enters a state of increasing disequilibrium. This can be seen in financial bubbles where asset prices rapidly spike upwards far beyond what could be considered the rational "economic value", only to fall rapidly afterwards.
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Scientists demonstrated that most of personality traits cluster together and they also cluster with most neuropsychiatric disorders and are therefore related. In research, scientists used linkage disequilibrium regression score to investigate the correlation between personality traits and psychiatric disorder. According to LDSC, there is a positive correlation between major depression disorder and neuroticism and a small correlation between schizophrenia and neuroticism; these correlation have also been confirmed in twins studies. Also, neuroticism and openness show strong genetic correlation.
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In summary, these results indicate that the association of rs1990622 with age at onset explains, in part, the wide range in the onset of disease among GRN mutation carriers. The rs1990622 or another variant in linkage disequilibrium could act in a manner similar to APOE in Alzheimer disease, increasing risk for disease in the general population and modifying AAO in mutation carriers. Genetic variation in TMEM106B may influence risk for FTLD-TDP by modulating secreted levels of GRN.
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Gesell believed that even newborns could regulate their own development, and demonstrated that babies were able to determine their own schedules for eating & sleeping. Gesell also observed self-regulatory mechanisms in personality, overall integration and equilibrium. He interpreted development as a process where behavior advances in a spiral pattern, alternating between equilibrium and disequilibrium as children enter new phases. While tensions arise, these self-regulatory mechanisms ensure that the organism never goes too far in one direction.
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Excess supply in a perfectly competitive market is the "extra" amount of supply, beyond the quantity demanded. As an example, suppose the price of a television is $600, the quantity supplied at that price is 1000 televisions, and the quantity demanded is 300 televisions. This illustrates that sellers are seeking to sell 700 more televisions than buyers are willing to purchase. Hence, an excess supply of 700 televisions exists, indicating that the market is in a state of disequilibrium.
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His interest is devoted to real re- equilibrating mechanisms. There are two possible solutions to disequilibrium: the first one is negative and consists of factor mobility (emigration of a part of the laboring force). When the other solution prevails, new productive branches are created in the country: these new industries compete in quality and price with those located abroad, toward which the demand for imported goods was addressed. This process of import substitution re-equilibrates the balance of commerce.
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Limacina helicina, a pteropod Temperature also has a large impact on the saturation state of calcium carbonate species, as the level of disequilibrium (degree of saturation) strongly influences reaction rates. Comeau et al. point out that cold locations such as the Arctic show the most dramatic decreases in aragonite saturation state (Ω) associated with climate change. This particularly affects pteropods since they have thin aragonite shells and are the dominant planktonic species in cold Arctic waters.
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The only reason Earth's environment does not decay into an equilibrium state is that it receives a daily dose of sunshine and that, in turn, is due to the sun "polluting" interstellar space with decreasing entropy. The sun's fusion power is only possible due to the gravitational disequilibrium of matter that arose from cosmic expansion. In this essence, the vacuum energy can be viewed as the key cause of the negative entropy (i.e. structure) throughout the universe.
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Due to selective breeding some breeds have become restricted in their DLA genes, with a limited subset of DLA alleles occurring within the breed. This explains some of the variation in immune responses among breeds. This occurs because there is a strong linkage disequilibrium that exists between DLA class II loci. The pattern displayed by the genetic differences among human ethnic groups is analogous to the pattern displayed by the distribution of DLA types in different canine breeds.
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Ménière's disease usually starts confined to one ear; it appears that it extends to both ears in about 30% of cases. People may start out with only one symptom, but in MD all three appear with time. Hearing loss usually fluctuates in the beginning stages and becomes more permanent in later stages. MD has a course of 5–15 years, and people generally end up with mild disequilibrium, tinnitus, and moderate hearing loss in one ear.
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On Earth, life has greatly altered the atmosphere in a way that would be unlikely for any other processes to replicate. Therefore, a departure from equilibrium is evidence for a biosignature. For example, the abundance of methane in the Earth's atmosphere is orders of magnitude above the equilibrium value due to the constant methane flux that life on the surface emits. Depending on the host star, a disequilibrium in the methane abundance on another planet may indicate a biosignature.
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Unintentional perforation (rupture) has been described in blast injuries and air travel, typically in patients experiencing upper respiratory congestion that prevents equalization of pressure in the middle ear. It is also known to occur in swimming, diving (including scuba diving), and martial arts. Patients suffering from tympanic membrane rupture may experience bleeding, tinnitus, hearing loss, or disequilibrium (vertigo). However, they rarely require medical intervention, as between 80 and 95 percent of ruptures recover completely within two to four weeks.
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This is especially true between inbred lines. In populations LD exists because of selection, physical closeness of the genes that causes low recombination rates or due to recent crossing or migration. On a population level, processes that influence linkage disequilibrium include genetic linkage, epistatic natural selection, rate of recombination, mutation, genetic drift, random mating, genetic hitchhiking and gene flow. When a group of SNPs are inherited together because of high LD there tends to be redundant information.
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Status–income disequilibrium (sometimes abbreviated SID) occurs when a desirable high status job has a relatively low income. It is a variation on the sociological term status inconsistency. The phrase was coined by The New York Times columnist David Brooks in his 1996 article "The Tragedy of SID". He wrote: David Brooks characterized the "sufferers" from SID in a long list, which includes TV news producers, museum curators, classical music performers, White House aides, and politicians, among others.
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ESO's Very Large Telescope. A number of studies have used the spectra of HR 8799's planets to determine their chemical compositions and constrain their formation scenarios. The first spectroscopic study of planet b (performed at near-infrared wavelengths) detected strong water absorption, which indicates a hydrogen-rich atmosphere. Weak methane and carbon monoxide absorption in this planet's atmosphere was also detected, indicating efficient vertical mixing of the atmosphere and a disequilibrium / ratio at the photosphere.
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Because of this expense, firms sometimes do not always change their prices with every change in supply and demand, leading to nominal rigidity. Generally, the effect on the firm of small shifts in price (by changes in supply and/or demand, or else because of slight adjustments in monetary policy) is relatively minor compared to the costs of notifying the public of this new information. Therefore, the firm would rather exist in slight disequilibrium than incur the menu costs.
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Cys282Tyr (or C282Y) is a mutation in the HFE gene that has been linked to most cases of hereditary hemochromatosis. Genetic techniques indicate that this mutation occurred roughly 60–70 generations ago or between 600 and 800 CE, assuming a generation length of 20 years.Ajioka RS, Jorde LB, Gruen JR et al. (1977). "Haplotype analysis of hemochromatosis: evaluation of different linkage-disequilibrium approaches and evolution of disease chromosomes". American Journal of Human Genetics 60: 1439–47.
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In some cases, such raids have led to intense conflict in which dozens or even hundreds of people are injured or killed. In his book, Cattle bring us to our enemies: Turkana ecology, politics, and raiding in a disequilibrium system, J. Terrence McCabe cites several incidents in which raiding caused several deaths. McCabe notes that such raids often occur between the Turkana and the Pokot and that raiding seems to have increased in intensity over the last few years.
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The T102C polymorphism has been shown to be in complete linkage disequilibrium with the rs6311 (A-1438G). A less well investigated SNP of this gene is rs7997012. Meta-analyses seem to indicate that the SNP is not directly associated with schizophrenia, not with Alzheimer's Disease, and two initial studies seem to indicate that it is not associated with Parkinson's disease. There have been multiple studies of the effect of this SNP on clozapine treatment response in schizophrenia.
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Uner Tan syndrome falls into this category because it has similar symptoms to other cerebellar ataxia disorders such as Disequilibrium Syndrome (DES-H) and Cayman Syndrome. These symptoms include dysarthria, nystagmus, and hypoplasia of the cerebellum and vermis. Human geneticist Tayfun Ozcelik discovered homozygosity in a region on chromosome 9p24 in Uner Tan syndrome individuals. The very low density lipoprotein receptor gene (VLDLR) is located in this region, which is involved in the migration of neuroblasts within the brain.
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He has been member of the Scientific Committee and of the Board of the formerly Center of Experimental Economics at LUISS University, Rome, for the years 1989–1996 (.now CESARE) He has been member of the Scientific Committee, and coordinator of the section for Monetary Theory and responsible of the CNR Research "Foundations of Monetary Theory and the Monetary Policy in both Rational Expectations and Disequilibrium models" at O.C.S.M, LUISS University of Rome (,now (CASMEF) for the years 1989–1996.
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Example of a genome-wide scan for QTL of osteoporosis Traditionally, mapping polygenes requires statistical tools available to help measure the effects of polygenes as well as narrow in on single genes. One of these tools is QTL-mapping. QTL-mapping utilizes a phenomenon known as linkage disequilibrium by comparing known marker genes with correlated phenotypes. Often, researchers will find a large region of DNA, called a locus, that accounts for a significant amount of the variation observed in the measured trait.
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24 November 2014. The close spatial association of alleles for loci involved in the train in males, and for preference for more exuberant trains in females, on the chromosome (linkage disequilibrium) causes a positive feedback loop that exaggerates both the male traits and the female preferences. Another hypothesis is sensory bias, in which females have a preference for a trait in a nonmating context that becomes transferred to mating. Multiple causality for the evolution of female choice is also possible.
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In humans, certain alleles of this gene have been statistically associated with an increased risk of developing late-onset Alzheimer's Disease.; One study has found that TOMM40 risk alleles appears twice as often in people with Alzheimer's disease than those without it. Because TOMM40 is located on chromosome 19, and is closely adjacent to APOE, another gene known to be associated with Alzheimer's, another study has suggested that the statistically significant correlation of TOMM40 with Alzheimer's is due to linkage disequilibrium.
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Second, the increased homozygosity in selfers removes the opportunity for competition among homologous alleles. Third, theoretical work has shown that the greater linkage disequilibrium in selfing compared to outcrossing genomes may in some, albeit rather limited, cases cause selection for reduced transposition rates. Overall, this reasoning leads to the prediction that asexuals/selfers should experience a lower load of selfish genetic elements. One caveat to this is that the evolution of selfing is associated with a reduction in the effective population size.
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Simulation models are presented which incorporate two factors, land use pattern and means of dispersal, to assess potential responses of forest species to climatic warming. Study areas displayed a range of human influence on the landscape, from heavily forested areas to areas dominated by urbanization and agriculture. The effect of establishing corridors (greenways) through fragmented landscapes is also assessed. Results indicate that many species may be unable to track shifts in climatically-controlled range limits, resulting in widespread disequilibrium between vegetation and climate.
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Moreover, only half of the pupae reached the adult phase, resulting in gender disequilibrium. Although these results reflect a laboratory setting, the general lack of success for T. penetrans’s reproductive (opportunistic) R-strategy is surprising given the number of fleas that a single person can attract. The low survival rate suggests that a concentrated public health effort directed at any point in the flea’s life cycle is likely to deal a crippling blow to the overall population of the flea in the area.
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Keynes's successors debated the exact formulations, mechanisms, and consequences of the Keynesian model. One group emerged representing the "orthodox" interpretation of Keynes; They combined classical microeconomics with Keynesian thought to produce the "neoclassical synthesis" that dominated economics from the 1940s until the early 1970s. Two camps of Keynesians were critical of this synthesis interpretation of Keynes. One group focused on the disequilibrium aspects of Keynes's work, while the other took a fundamentalist stance on Keynes and began the heterodox post-Keynesian tradition.
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While Keynes's theories prevailed in this period, his successors largely abandoned his informal methodology in favor of Samuelson's. By the mid 1950s, the vast majority of economists had ceased debating Keynesianism and accepted the synthesis view; however, room for disagreement remained. The synthesis attributed problems with market clearing to sticky prices that failed to adjust to changes in supply and demand. Another group of Keynesians focused on disequilibrium economics and tried to reconcile the concept of equilibrium with the absence of market clearing.
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Biogenic methane production is the main contributor to the methane flux coming from the surface of Earth. Methane has a photochemical sink in the atmosphere, but will build up if the flux is high enough. If there is detectable methane in the atmosphere of another planet, especially with a host star of G or K type, this may be interpreted as a viable biosignature. A disequilibrium in the abundances of gas species in an atmosphere can be interpreted as a biosignature.
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These methods reconstruct complex phylogenetic models with hybridization that best fit the genetic relationships among the sampled taxa and provide estimates for drift and introgression. Other phylogenetic network methods that account for incomplete lineage sorting and hybridization may also help. Methods based on linkage disequilibrium decay or methods inferring ancestry tracts can be used to date recent admixture or introgression events as over time ancestry tracts are continuously broken down by recombination. With increasing genome stabilization, individuals should vary less in local ancestry.
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Princeton: Princeton U. Pr. If the population is panmixic, then Geospiza conirostris exhibits a balanced genetic polymorphism and not, as originally supposed, a case of nascent sympatric speciation. The selection maintaining the polymorphism maximises the species' niche by expanding its feeding opportunity. The genetics of this situation cannot be clarified in the absence of a detailed breeding program, but two loci with linkage disequilibrium is a possibility. Another interesting dimorphism is for the bills of young finches, which are either "pink" or "yellow".
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Basic Books, 2009, p. 255. Gaia evolves through a cybernetic feedback system operated unconsciously by the biota, leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface essential for the conditions of life depend on the interaction of living forms, especially microorganisms, with inorganic elements. These processes establish a global control system that regulates Earth's surface temperature, atmosphere composition and ocean salinity, powered by the global thermodynamic disequilibrium state of the Earth system.
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Disequilibrium credit rationing can occur for one of two reasons. In the presence of usury laws, if the equilibrium interest rate on loans is above the legally allowable rate, the market cannot clear and at the maximum allowable rate the quantity of credit demanded will exceed the quantity of credit supplied. A more subtle source of credit rationing is that higher interest rates can increase the risk of default by the borrower, making the potential lender reluctant to lend at otherwise attractively high interest rates.
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Although the genome of a higher organism (eukaryotes) contains millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), genotyping arrays are pre- determined to detect only a handful of such markers. The missing markers are predicted using imputation analysis. Imputation of un-genotyped markers has now become an essential part of genetic and genomic studies. It utilizes the knowledge of linkage disequilibrium (LD) from haplotypes in a known reference panel (for example, HapMap and the 1000 Genomes Projects) to predict genotypes at the missing or un-genotyped markers.
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Depending on the relative importance assigned to the various forces of evolution, three perspectives provide evolutionary explanations for molecular evolution. Selectionist hypotheses argue that selection is the driving force of molecular evolution. While acknowledging that many mutations are neutral, selectionists attribute changes in the frequencies of neutral alleles to linkage disequilibrium with other loci that are under selection, rather than to random genetic drift. Biases in codon usage are usually explained with reference to the ability of even weak selection to shape molecular evolution.
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Sometimes they eat the same food as the first round, while other times they move to a second food item, usually a dessert. If three competitors make it to the third round, then the two that eat the most in the third round move on, unless somebody vomits first. After the third round, if two competitors are left, a fourth round of extreme activities is done in a "sudden barf" format: first to "hurl", loses. Sometimes the extreme activity is done blindfolded to induce disequilibrium and nausea.
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Applying this technology to the characterization and discovery of regulatory variant alleles, Vockley et al. characterized the effects of human genetic variation on non-coding regulatory element function, measuring the activity of 100 putative enhancers captured directly from the genomes of 95 members of a study cohort. This approach enables the functional fine-mapping of causal regulatory variants in regions of high linkage disequilibrium identified by eQTL analyses. This approach provides a general path forward to identify perturbations in gene regulatory elements that contribute to complex phenotypes.
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Much to her horror, she finds out that said masked killers are trained mercenary groups killing multiple civilians. Sabian explains that he sent the mercenaries to make the experiment look successful, and eventually to help balance the wealth disequilibrium amongst the rich and the poor. Updale protests this tampering, realizing that the NFFA only wants to eradicate the poor to save the expense of social programs. Knowing that his corruption has been exposed, Sabian has Updale taken away and killed, and erases all footage of the event.
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Proposed nomenclature for mating type genes of filamentous Ascomycetes. Fungal Genetics and Biology 31:1-5 Genotyping of S. turcica populations has shown that sexual reproduction in a given population might be commonplace, extremely rare, or anywhere in between. Genotyping of 264 isolates of S. turcica from temperate and tropical regions found that tropical populations had very high genetic diversity, an equal proportion of the two mating types, and low amounts of linkage disequilibrium between different genetic loci, all suggestive of frequent sexual mating and recombination.
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Genotyping arrays designed for GWAS rely on linkage disequilibrium to provide coverage of the entire genome by genotyping a subset of variants. Because of this, the reported associated variants are unlikely to be the actual causal variants. Associated regions can contain hundreds of variants spanning large regions and encompassing many different genes, making the biological interpretation of GWAS loci more difficult. Fine-mapping is a process to refine these lists of associated variants to a credible set most likely to include the causal variant.
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Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated. However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a phenomenon known as linkage. This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles occur together on a single chromosome compared to expectations, which is called their linkage disequilibrium.
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Methane (CH4) on Mars - potential sources and sinks. The presence of methane in the atmosphere of Mars is an area of ongoing research and a highly contentious subject. Because of its tendency to be destroyed in the atmosphere by photochemistry, the presence of excess methane on a planet can be an indication that there must be an active source. With life being the strongest source of methane on Earth, observing a disequilibrium in the methane abundance on another planet could be a viable biosignature.
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The transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) was proposed by Spielman, McGinnis and Ewens (1993) as a family-based association test for the presence of genetic linkage between a genetic marker and a trait. It is an application of McNemar's test. A specificity of the TDT is that it will detect genetic linkage only in the presence of genetic association. While genetic association can be caused by population structure, genetic linkage will not be affected, which makes the TDT robust to the presence of population structure.
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Natural selection can act on specific alleles both directly or indirectly. In direct selection, the frequency of the selected allele is favored to the extreme. In cases where an allele is indirectly selected, its frequency increases due to a different linked allele experiencing selection (linkage disequilibrium). The condition of the hybrids under selection can play a role in post-zygotic isolation, as hybrid inviability (a hybrid unable to mature into a fit adult) and sterility (the inability to produce offspring entirely) prohibit gene flow between populations.
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Efforts have been made in associating copy number variations with specific haplotype SNPs by analyzing the linkage disequilibrium, using these associations, one is able to recognize copy number variations in the genome using SNPs as markers. Next- generation sequencing techniques including short and long read sequencing are nowadays increasingly used and have begun to replace array-based techniques to detect copy number variations. In contrast to array-based techniques, sequencing-based detection methods readily identify other classes of structural variation such as inversions and translocations.
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2011 Jan;29(1):38-9. Current methods of next generation sequencing are capable of identifying heterozygous loci, but they are not well suited to identify which polymorphisms exist on the same (in cis) or allelic (in trans) strand of DNA. Haplotype information contributes to the understanding of the potential functional effects of variants in cis or in trans. Haplotypes are more frequently resolved by inference through comparison with parental genotypes, or from population samples using statistical computational methods to determine linkage disequilibrium between markers.
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This is called linkage disequilibrium, a common phenomenon that arises from the shared evolutionary history of neighboring genetic variants. Further restriction can be achieved by multiple-testing different sets of SNPs selected at various thresholds, such as all SNPs which are genome-wide statistically-significant hits or all SNPs p < 0.05 or all SNPs with p < 0.50, and the one with greatest performance used for further analysis; especially for highly polygenic traits, the best polygenic score will tend to use most or all SNPs.
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Although less parsimonious than recent gene flow, the observation may have been due to ancient population sub-structure in Africa, causing incomplete genetic homogenization within modern humans when Neanderthals diverged while early ancestors of Eurasians were still more closely related to Neanderthals than those of Africans to Neanderthals. On the basis of allele frequency spectrum, it was shown that the recent admixture model had the best fit to the results while the ancient population sub-structure model had no fit–demonstrating that the best model was a recent admixture event that was preceded by a bottleneck event among modern humans—thus confirming recent admixture as the most parsimonious and plausible explanation for the observed excess of genetic similarities between modern non-African humans and Neanderthals. On the basis of linkage disequilibrium patterns, a recent admixture event is likewise confirmed by the data. From the extent of linkage disequilibrium, it was estimated that the last Neanderthal gene flow into early ancestors of Europeans occurred 47,000–65,000 years BP. In conjunction with archaeological and fossil evidence, the gene flow is thought likely to have occurred somewhere in Western Eurasia, possibly the Middle East.
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Drunken trees are not a completely new phenomenon—dendrochronological evidence can date thermokarst tilting back to at least the 19th century. The southern extent of the subarctic permafrost reached a peak during the Little Ice Age of the 16th and 17th centuries, and has been in decline since then. Permafrost is typically in disequilibrium with climate, and much of the permafrost that remains is in a relict state. However, the rate of thawing has been increasing, and a great deal of the remaining permafrost is expected to thaw during the 21st century.
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For them, French Canadians must conquer administrative positions of importance in the federal government. In doing so, French Canadians would gain the maximum from the system in place, and, with their hands on the levers of control, would be able to give themselves a place in the federation. Chaput cannot approve this option because according to him it is founded on two fundamental errors. First, the population of Canada is not homogeneous: the demographic disequilibrium between the English element and the French element is too great for integration to succeed.
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A haplotype of MYH9 (haplotype E1) was previously associated with the increased prevalence of glomerulosclerosis and non-diabetic end stage renal disease in African Americans and in Hispanic Americans. However, subsequent studies showed that this association is explained by strong linkage disequilibrium with two haplotypes (haplotypes G1 and G2) in the neighboring APOL1 gene. Nevertheless, some studies suggest an association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in MYH9 with CKD that appears to be independent of the linkage with APOL1 G1 and G2. Inherited MYH9 mutations may be responsible for non-syndromic hearing loss.
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The plumes' composition, as measured by the INMS, is similar to that seen at most comets. Cassini also found traces of simple organic compounds in some dust grains, as well as larger organics such as benzene (), and complex macromolecular organics as large as 200 atomic mass units, and at least 15 carbon atoms in size. The mass spectrometer detected molecular hydrogen (H2) which was in "thermodynamic disequilibrium" with the other components, and found traces of ammonia (). A model suggests that Enceladus's salty ocean (-Na, -Cl, -CO3) has an alkaline pH of 11 to 12.
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The term is commonly used in real estate appraisal, since real estate markets are generally considered both informationally and transactionally inefficient. Also, real estate markets are subject to prolonged periods of disequilibrium, such as in contamination situations or other market disruptions. Appraisals are usually performed under some set of assumptions about transactional markets, and those assumptions are captured in the definition of value used for the appraisal. Commonly, the definition set forth for U.S. federally regulated lending institutions is used, although other definitions may also be used under some circumstances:Federal Register Vol.
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The imprinted gene is silenced through epigenetic mechanisms. Candidate genes and susceptibility alleles for autism are identified using a combination of techniques, including genome-wide and targeted analyses of allele sharing in sib-pairs, using association studies and transmission disequilibrium testing (TDT) of functional and/or positional candidate genes and examination of novel and recurrent cytogenetic aberrations. Results from numerous studies have identified several genomic regions known to be subject to imprinting, candidate genes, and gene- environment interactions. Particularly, chromosomes 15q and 7q appear to be epigenetic hotspots in contributing to ASD.
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A characteristic value of the maximum potential intensity, v_p, is . However, this quantity varies significantly across space and time, particularly within the seasonal cycle, spanning a range of . This variability is primarily due to variability in the surface enthalpy disequilibrium ( \Delta k ) as well as in the thermodynamic structure of the troposphere, which are controlled by the large-scale dynamics of the tropical climate. These processes are modulated by factors including the sea surface temperature (and underlying ocean dynamics), background near-surface wind speed, and the vertical structure of atmospheric radiative heating.
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Family based association designs aim to avoid the potential confounding effects of population stratification by using the parents or unaffected siblings as controls for the case (the affected offspring/sibling). Two similar tests are most commonly used, the transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) and haploid- relative-risk (HRR). Both measure association of genetic markers in nuclear families by transmission from parent to offspring. If an allele increases the risk of having a disease then that allele is expected to be transmitted from parent to offspring more often in populations with the disease.
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It is speculated that coarse high temperature magnesites are formed from mantle derived fluids whereas cryptocrystalline ones are precipitated by circulating meteoric water- taking up carbon from dissolved inorganic carbon pool, soil carbon and affected by disequilibrium isotope effects. Magnesites forming in lakes and playa settings are in general enriched in heavy isotopes of C and O because of evaporation and CO2 degassing. This reflects in the clumped isotope derived temperature being very low. These are affected by pH effect, biological activity as well as kinetic isotope effect associated with degassing.
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In the meantime, Jean-Pascal Bénassy (1975) and Yves Younès (1975) had approached the same problem from a macroeconomic angle, for the more restrictive case of fixed prices. There developed a lively interest in fixed price economies, and specifically in a three-good macroeconomic model, first formulated by Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman (1971) and then studied extensively by Edmond Malinvaud (1977). That model invited empirical estimation. The new statistical challenges posed by "disequilibrium econometrics" were attacked at CORE by two students of Jacques Drèze, namely Henri Sneessens (1981) and Jean-Paul Lambert (1988).
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He won the 1982 Grand Prix of Nikkei Economics Book Award for his book, Disequilibrium Dynamics – A Theoretical Analysis of Inflation and Unemployment, the 1993 Suntory Academic Award for his book, On Money,Money (Kahei Ron),（Chikuma- shobo,1993. 3; Chikuma-Gakugei-Bunko, 1998.3） and the 2003 Kobayashi Hideo Award for his book, What Will Become of the Corporation?To Whom does the Corporation Belong? (Kaisha ha Dareno Mono ka), (Heibon-sha, 2005.6) In 2007, he was awarded the Purple Ribbon Medal for academic distinction by the Government of Japan.
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Given that behavioral syndromes come with perceived costs, it would be expected for evolution to have selected against them. As such, there are four primary reasons for the persistence of behavioral syndromes: (1) pleiotropy, linkage disequilibrium, or other mechanistic restrictions; (2) the benefit of consistency to mitigate against errors; (3) the benefits of specialization; and (4) the benefits of predictability in social interactions. It is important to emphasize that while these may mitigate the costs associated with limited behavioral plasticity, behavioral syndromes themselves do not necessarily imply they create sub- optimal behavior. See Misconceptions.
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The paper was in direct response to Alan Blinder and Robert Solow's results, which had implied that the long term implications of government borrowing would be compensated for by the wealth effect. The paper is among the most cited in macroeconomics. Its implications of his Ricardian equivalence are still being debated. Barro collaborated with Herschel Grossman to produce the influential 1971 article "A General Disequilibrium Model of Income and Employment," which for many years held the distinction of being the most cited article published in the American Economic Review.
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Psychology plays a part in the neoclassical economics because aggregate behavior always falls back to individual behavior. In market equilibrium of no net profits, individuals are constrained maximisers of their objective functions. Psychology would therefore attempt to explain short-run, disequilibrium behavior in a manner which would be consistent with the no net profit market equilibrium. Keynes' theory that individuals behave under conditions of fundamental uncertainty and that decentralised markets always produce full employment and efficient use of resources has been broadly consistent with individual behavior in real world conditions.
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Soon after the work of Barro and Grossman, disequilibrium models fell out of favor in the United States, and Barro abandoned Keynesianism and adopted new classical, market clearing hypotheses. Diagram based on Malinvaud's typology of unemployment shows curves for equilibrium in the goods and labor markets given wage and price levels. Walrasian equilibrium is achieved when both markets are at equilibrium. According to Malinvaud the economy is usually in a state of either Keynesian unemployment, with excess supply of goods and labor, or classical unemployment, with excess supply of labor and excess demand for goods.
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When there is a BOP disequilibrium, either by the market forces or policy measures for readjustments, SWAN model is helpful. Internal Balance looks forward to acquiring full employment with lowest possible inflation, whereas External Balance looks towards a "No surplus - No deficit" position in the economy. Any point above the internal balance line (or curve) would have inflation, and any point below it would have unemployment. Similarly, any point above the external balance line (or curve) would depict a surplus, and any point below it would depict a deficit scenario.
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Illumina analysis has demonstrated that TMEM151A is one of 336 genes that may be used, in combination with the other genes, to diagnose colorectal cancer and/or the stage of that cancer. Specifically, TMEM151A is significantly upregulated in human monocytes circulating in the blood during colorectal cancer. TMEM151A is in linkage disequilibrium with gene CACNA1C; CACNA1C mutation is significantly associated with bipolar disorder p < 0.05. An unspecified variant of TMEM151A is one of 27 genes (out of 47,296 rare exonic variants that were analyzed) that has been associated with major depression disorder in Mexican Americans.
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KIAA1704 has at least a 5 fold expression loss associated with mantle cell lymphoma. In a second study, researchers used a linkage disequilibrium mapping study of locus 13q13-14 to investigate potential susceptibility for autism over a 1.5 Mb linkage peak, including KIAA1704. A single marker PDTPhase analysis was performed for four SNPs for KIAA1704; however, none of the SNPs were statistically significant in associating the marker with the loci. An expression study found that KIAA1704 is significantly up-regulated in U937 cells (macrophage-like human cell line) when treated with nicotine.
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Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low-elevation region of the glacier. Since higher elevations are cooler, the disappearance of the lowest portion decreases overall ablation, thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium. If the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative, it is in disequilibrium with the climate and will melt away without a colder climate and/or an increase in frozen precipitation. Methods for measuring retreat include staking terminus location, global positioning mapping, aerial mapping and laser altimetry.
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In this region of the Cascades, winter snowpack has declined 25% since 1946, and summer temperatures have risen 0.7 °C (1.2 °F) during the same period. The reduced snowpack has occurred despite a small increase in winter precipitation—thus, it reflects warmer winter temperatures leading to rainfall and melting on glaciers even during the winter. As of 2005, 67% of the North Cascade glaciers observed are in disequilibrium and will not survive the continuation of the present climate. These glaciers will eventually disappear unless temperatures fall and frozen precipitation increases.
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Music was regarded as a powerful healing tune and that different sounds had the ability to create different mental states of health. One of the original building blocks of early Ottoman medicine was humoralism, and the concept of illness to be a result of disequilibrium among the four humors of the body. The four physiological humors each related to one of the four elements: blood and air, phlegm and water, black bile and earth, yellow bile and fire. Medicinal treatments in early Ottoman medicine often include the use of foods and beverages.
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Giles published his theory of sexual desire in The Nature of Sexual Desire in 2008.The Nature of Sexual Desire, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2008. Sexologists usually account for sexual desire either in terms of social constructionism or as a biological characteristic essential to reproduction. Giles rejects both these views, and attempts to show by a phenomenological approach that sexual desire is an existential need rooted in the human condition, based on a feeling of incompleteness from the experience of one's own gender as a form of disequilibrium.
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The underlying genetics of reinforcement can be understood by an ideal model of two haploid populations experiencing an increase in linkage disequilibrium. Here, selection rejects low fitness Bc or bC allele combinations while favoring combinations of BC alleles (in the first subpopulation) and bc alleles (in the second subpopulation). The third locus A or a (the assortive mating alleles) have an effect on mating pattern but is not under direct selection. If selection at B and C cause changes in the frequency of allele A, assortive mating is promoted, resulting in reinforcement.
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Demographic modelling should only be applied to small sets of taxa because with increasing number of taxa model complexity increases and the number of model parameters such as timing, amounts and direction of gene flow, and population sizes and split times can quickly become too high. The fit of the demographic models to the data can be assessed with the site frequency spectrum or with summary statistics in an Approximate Bayesian Computation framework. It is also possible to gain more power by combining information from linkage disequilibrium decay patterns and the allele frequency spectrum.
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A tag SNP is a representative single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in a region of the genome with high linkage disequilibrium that represents a group of SNPs called a haplotype. It is possible to identify genetic variation and association to phenotypes without genotyping every SNP in a chromosomal region. This reduces the expense and time of mapping genome areas associated with disease, since it eliminates the need to study every individual SNP. Tag SNPs are useful in whole-genome SNP association studies in which hundreds of thousands of SNPs across the entire genome are genotyped.
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That means that the common SNP can explain only a small portion of the variance due to genetic factors and that common diseases are influenced by multiple common alleles of small effect size. Another hypothesis is that common diseases are caused by rare variants that are synthetically linked to common variants. In that case the signal produced from GWAS is an indirect (synthetic) association between one or more rare causal variants in linkage disequilibrium. It is important to recognize that this phenomenon is possible when selecting a group for tag SNPs.
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For life to have metabolic activity, it must be able to take advantage of a thermodynamic disequilibrium in the environment. This can occur when rocks from the mantle that are rich in the mineral olivine are exposed to seawater and react with it to form serpentine minerals and magnetite. Non-equilibrium conditions are also associated with hydrothermal vents, volcanism, and geothermal activity. Other processes that might provide habitats for life include roll front development in ore bodies, subduction, methane clathrate formation and decomposition, permafrost thawing, infrared radiation and seismic activity.
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It was known that copy number variation in the human genome is important but at this point of time, it had not yet been fully understood. Human genome variation itself is very diverse as there are many types including inversions, duplication, SNPs, and other forms. They surveyed the genomes of 270 individuals, from a variety of populations, for copy number variants with technologies such as SNP arrays. Their results showed that many copy number variants had specific arrangements of linkage disequilibrium which revealed the copy number variation in all of the different populations.
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The Lander–Green algorithm is an algorithm, due to Eric Lander and Philip Green for computing the likelihood of observed genotype data given a pedigree. It is appropriate for relatively small pedigrees and a large number of markers. It is used in the analysis of genetic linkage.Lander, E.S. and Green, P. (1987) "Construction of multilocus genetic linkage maps in humans", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 84 (8), 2363-2367 Abecasis, G.R., Wigginton, J.E. (2005) "Handling Marker-Marker Linkage Disequilibrium: Pedigree Analysis with Clustered Markers", Am J Hum Genet.
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Bagayogo, Shaka (1989). Places and Power Theory in the Mande World: Today and in the Past (445-459) Fadenya is seen as the source of political and social change in the Mande world, for upheaval of the existing social order occurs due to the tension of fadenya. Fadenya is associated with “centrifugal forces of social disequilibrium: envy, jealousy, competition, self-promotion”. Reprinted as Fadenya is the catalyst and root of all sociopolitical changes in the Mande world, “the conceptual vehicle of dymanism in Mande society”, and thus carries with it all of those connotations.
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Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline, modern population genetics encompasses theoretical, lab, and field work. Population genetic models are used both for statistical inference from DNA sequence data and for proof/disproof of concept. What sets population genetics apart today from newer, more phenotypic approaches to modelling evolution, such as evolutionary game theory and adaptive dynamics, is its emphasis on genetic phenomena as dominance, epistasis, the degree to which genetic recombination breaks up linkage disequilibrium, and the random phenomena of mutation and genetic drift. This makes it appropriate for comparison to population genomics data.
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"Lachmann (1973) p. 32 The persistence of profits in a market economy, Lachmann's argument went, is due to the persistence of disequilibrium in some sector of the economic system; "As in a kaleidoscope, the constellation of forces operating in the system as a whole is ever changing." And, Lachmann concluded, it is "kaleido-statics rather than static equilibrium" the method of analysis that is most appropriate to "the reality of the market economy." This led Lachmann to assert that an "equilibrium rate of profit is...a contradiction in terms.
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For a single grain of mineral, the dose rate (D_R) can be determined by measuring the concentrations of uranium, potassium and thorium by direct mass spectrometric analysis of quartz or feldspar grains. Ge-Gamma, INAA, X-ray flourescnce and ICP-MS or ICP-OES are spectrometers that can could be used. Other methods for the determination the dose rate include: (1) overburden cosmic dose rate estimation, (2) water content attenuation method, and (3) disequilibrium dose rate correction method. An average dose rate is usually calculated as representative of the dose rate.
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Planned economies employ antecedent co- ordination of the economy. In contrast a market economy atomises its agents by definition, the expectations which form the basis of their decisions are always based on uncertainty. There is a poverty of information which often leads to disequilibrium that can only be corrected in a market ex post (after the event), and thus resources are wasted. An advantage of antecedent planning is removal of significant degrees of uncertainty in a context of coordinated and unified information gathering and decision-making prior to the commitment of resources.
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Humans do not just use cognitive processes in learning but the affective processes they go through also plays an important role. For example, learners learn better when they have a certain level of disequilibrium (frustration), but not enough to make the learner feel completely overwhelmed. This has motivated affective computing to begin to produce and research creating intelligent tutoring systems that can interpret the affective process of an individual. An ITS can be developed to read an individual's expressions and other signs of affect in an attempt to find and tutor to the optimal affective state for learning.
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Loosely speaking, one may say that this is because recombination is greatly influenced by the proximity of one gene to another. If two genes are located close together on a chromosome, the likelihood that a recombination event will separate these two genes is less than if they were farther apart. Genetic linkage describes the tendency of genes to be inherited together as a result of their location on the same chromosome. Linkage disequilibrium describes a situation in which some combinations of genes or genetic markers occur more or less frequently in a population than would be expected from their distances apart.
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Therefore, this will be a permanent source of disequilibrium in the system. The third finding is that demand is going to play a major role in determining the structure of the main macroeconomic variables over time. Even through the formation of long-term prices, demand has a vital role to play in shaping the production quantities: The second part of the book, from chapters 7 to 11, develops all the consequences derived from the dynamic model of chapters 4 and 5. The long term evolution of the major variables is explained in its composition: employment, wages, profitsand capital/output and capital/labour ratios.
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Prominent use of the strong linkage disequilibrium patterns was an important tool. Disease after disease was mapped to critical genomic intervals. By positional cloning the culpable genes were identified based on the occurrence of pathogenic mutations. The number of diseases studied is approximately 24, including a few “non-Finnish” disorders such as Peutz–Jeghers syndrome, and a few in which the de la Chapelle group precision mapped the region but the gene was found by others. These extensive findings were published between approximately 1987 (Choroideremia, a “Finnish” disorder), and 2011 (MOPD1 disease in the Ohio Amish).
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Their subject matter includes representations of animals including bison and, arguably, several different bird species. Some workers, however, consider that the "bird" figures are more likely to be female anthropomorphs. The engravers seem to have made use of the naturally uneven cave surface in their carvings and it is likely that they relied on the early-morning sunlight entering the caves to illuminate the art. Thin layers of calcium carbonate flowstone overlaying some of the engravings were dated using the uranium-series disequilibrium method, which showed the oldest of these flowstones to have formed at least 12,800 years ago.
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A1-B8 serotype was associated with a number of diseases as "HL-A"' antigens were first being described. Among these were coeliac disease, autoimmune active chronic hepatitis, myasthenia gravis, Adrenocortical hyperfunction-Cushing's syndrome, primary biliary cirrhosis.Lymphotoxin alpha is encoded with HLA A-B region However, as study sizes increased and D serotypes were described in more detail, the association of these loci moved from the MHC class I loci to the MHC class II loci. Underlying this move was the HLA A1-B8-DR3-DQ2 haplotype, a haplotype that is in acute linkage disequilibrium in the European population.
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For example, Easton Glacier (pictured below) will likely shrink to half its size, but at a slowing rate of reduction, and stabilize at that size, despite the warmer temperature, over a few decades. However, the Grinnell Glacier (pictured below) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears. The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered, while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare, melting and has thinned. Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate.
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Understanding why Uranus emits such a small amount of heat can only be done in the context of thermodynamic modeling of the atmosphere (density, pressure, and temperature). Therefore, the atmosphere needs to be characterized from both a composition and a thermodynamic point of view. The chemical information to retrieve is the elemental concentrations, especially of disequilibrium species, isotopic ratios and noble gases, in combination with information regarding the distribution of aerosol particles with depth. Twenty days before entry, the atmospheric probe would separate from the spacecraft and enter the outer atmosphere of Uranus at an altitude of 700 km at 21.8 km/s.
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Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are important in locating specific variations in genome sequences that lead to disease. Privacy preserving algorithms that identify SNPs significantly associated with diseases are based on introducing random noise to aggregate statistics to protect individual privacy. In another study, the nature of linkage disequilibrium is utilized in selecting the most useful datasets while maximizing protection of patient privacy with injected noise; however, it may lack effective disease association capabilities. Critics of these methods note that a substantial amount of noise is required to satisfy differential privacy for a small ratio of SNPs, an impracticality in conducting efficient research.
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DNA sequence information underpins genetic research, enabling discoveries of important biological or medical benefit. Compared with previous discovery strategies, a whole-genome sequencing study is no longer constrained by differing patterns of linkage disequilibrium, thus, in theory, is more possible to directly identify the genetic variants contributing to biological traits or medical outcomes. The rapidly evolving high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have now allowed the rapid generation of large amounts of sequence data for the purpose of performing such whole-genome sequencing studies, at a reasonable cost. SequenceVariantAnalyzer, or SVA, is software that analyzes genetic variants identified in such studies.
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Two young French economists, Jean-Pascal Bénassy (1975) and Yves Younès (1975), approached the same problem from a macroeconomic angle, for the more restrictive case of fixed prices. There developed a lively interest in fixed- price economies, and specifically in a three-good macroeconomic model, first formulated by Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman (1971) and then studied extensively by Edmond Malinvaud (1977). That model invited empirical estimation. The new statistical challenges posed by "disequilibrium econometrics" were attacked at CORE by two students of Jacques Drèze, namely Henri Sneessens (1981) and Jean-Paul Lambert (1988), whose dissertations were published and widely read.
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In economics, quantity adjustment is the process by which a market surplus leads to a cut-back in the quantity supplied or a market shortage causes an increase in supplied quantity. It is one possible result of supply and demand disequilibrium in a market. Quantity adjustment is complementary to pricing. In the textbook story, favored by the followers of Leon Walras, if the quantity demanded does not equal the quantity supplied in a market, "price adjustment" is the rule: if there is a market surplus or glut (excess supply), prices fall, ending the glut, while a shortage (excess demand) causes price to rise.
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The posterior canal detects rolling motion, or motion about the X axis; the anterior canal detects pitch, or motion about the Y axis; the horizontal canal detects yaw motion, or motion about the Z axis. When a medication is toxic in the vestibule or the semi-circular canals, the patient senses loss of balance or orientation rather than losses in hearing. Symptoms in these organs present as vertigo, difficulties walking in low light and darkness, disequilibrium, oscillopsia among others. Each of these problems is related to balance and the mind is confused with the direction of motion or lack of motion.
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There are geological and atmospheric processes that produce free oxygen, so the detection of oxygen is not necessarily an indication of life. The processes of life result in a mixture of chemicals that are not in chemical equilibrium but there are also abiotic disequilibrium processes that need to be considered. The most robust atmospheric biosignature is often considered to be molecular oxygen () and its photochemical byproduct ozone (). The photolysis of water () by UV rays followed by hydrodynamic escape of hydrogen can lead to a build-up of oxygen in planets close to their star undergoing runaway greenhouse effect.
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The Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem is useful in several applications including plasma physics, "All these references base their discussion of the Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem on Niels Bohr's physical model, in which perfectly reflecting walls are necessary to provide the currents that cancel the net contribution from the interior of an element of plasma, and result in zero net diamagnetism for the plasma element." Diamagnetism of a purely classical nature occurs in plasmas but is a consequence of thermal disequilibrium, such as a gradient in plasma density. Electromechanics and electrical engineering also see practical benefit from the Bohr–van Leeuwen theorem.
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The onset of CNH in all patients regardless of age can be a precursor to ensuing deterioration in patients with infiltrative tumors of the brainstem and medulla. These patients experience prolonged series of CNH before succumbing to the associated deterioration of medullary cardiovascular center, which ultimately results in death. In addition to clinical consequences of a positive CNH diagnosis, sustained hyperventilation also has a marked effect on daily life activities, and may significantly impede a patient’s ability to eat or talk. The persistent hypocarbia, alkalotic pH, and resultant electrolyte disequilibrium may also alter a patient’s mood or mental state.
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Scientist have obtained ice cores from the Upper Fremont Glacier and found that there have been measurable changes in the atmosphere over the past several hundred years. The Upper Fremont Glacier and the Quelccaya Ice Cap in the Andes of South America both show nearly identical atmospheric records, which indicate a global linkage of atmospheric conditions over time. The small glaciers in the forest are less able to resist melting than the great ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica. Once a glacier begins retreating, it may fall into disequilibrium and be unable to find mass balance (accumulation versus melting rate) at any size.
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With a lack of investors and entrepreneurs, cash flows cannot be directed into various sectors that influence balanced economic growth. Hirschman contends that deliberate unbalancing of the economy according to the strategy is the best method of development and if the economy is to be kept moving ahead, the task of development policy is to maintain tension, disproportions and disequilibrium. Balanced growth should not be the goal but rather the maintenance of existing imbalances, which can be seen from profit and losses. Therefore, the sequence that leads away from equilibrium is precisely an ideal pattern for development.
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The rover landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012. The Gaia hypothesis stipulates that any planet with a robust population of life will have an atmosphere in chemical disequilibrium, which is relatively easy to determine from a distance by spectroscopy. However, significant advances in the ability to find and resolve light from smaller rocky worlds near their star are necessary before such spectroscopic methods can be used to analyze extrasolar planets. To that effect, the Carl Sagan Institute was founded in 2014 and is dedicated to the atmospheric characterization of exoplanets in circumstellar habitable zones.
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Risch has worked on the genetic structure of human groups, for instance multiple levels of structure above the level of the individual increasing in scale up to the level of race. He has translated these results into theoretical impacts on, for instance, rate of decay of linkage disequilibrium, and practical application in personalised medicine. For instance, using the Framingham data, he showed that population stratification leads not only to a fewer heterozygotes than predicted from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium but also to spouses sharing identical genotypes at all ancestrally informative markers, accounted for by ancestry-related assortative mating in the previous generation.
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For example, Easton Glacier in Washington state, U.S. will likely shrink to half its size but at a slowing rate of reduction and stabilize at that size despite the warmer temperature over a few decades. However, the Grinnell Glacier in Montana, U.S. will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears. The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered, while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare, is melting and has thinned. Small glaciers with minimal altitude range are most likely to fall into disequilibrium with the climate.
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Evolutionary neoteny can arise in a species when those conditions occur, and a species becomes sexually mature ahead of its "normal development". Another explanation for the neoteny in domesticated animals can be the selection for certain behavioral characteristics. Behavior is linked to genetics which therefore means that when a behavioral trait is selected for, a physical trait may also be selected for due to mechanisms like linkage disequilibrium. Often, juvenile behaviors are selected for in order to more easily domesticate a species; aggressiveness in certain species comes with adulthood when there is a need to compete for resources.
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When genome-wide genotype data and phenotypes from large population samples are available, one can estimate the relationships between individuals based on their genotypes and use a linear mixed model to estimate the variance explained by the genetic markers. This gives a genomic heritability estimate based on the variance captured by common genetic variants. There are multiple methods that make different adjustments for allele frequency and linkage disequilibrium. Particularly, the method called High-Definition Likelihood (HDL) can estimate genomic heritability using only GWAS summary statistics, making it easier to incorporate large sample size available in various GWAS meta-analysis.
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Within a family, linkage occurs when two genetic markers (points on a chromosome) remain linked on a chromosome rather than being broken apart by recombination events during meiosis, shown as red lines. In a population, contiguous stretches of founder chromosomes from the initial generation are sequentially reduced in size by recombination events. Over time, a pair of markers or points on a chromosome in the population move from linkage disequilibrium to linkage equilibrium, as recombination events eventually occur between every possible point on the chromosome. Two loci are said to be in linkage equilibrium (LE) if their inheritance is an independent event.
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In 1968 he published a famous scholarly book entitled On Keynesian Economics and the Economics of Keynes. Leijonhufvud's monetary economics vitally depended on the earlier work of his friend and mentor, the American economist Robert W. Clower. In the book, Leijonhufvud argued that John Hicks' IS/LM (Investment—Saving / Liquidity preference—Money supply) formulation of Keynes General Theory was inadequate as an explanation for the "involuntary unemployment" in John Maynard Keynes's writings. Rather, Leijonhufvud's reading of Keynes emphasizes disequilibrium phenomena, which cannot be addressed in the IS/LM framework, as central to Keynes' explanation of unemployment and economic depression.
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The benefit of polygenic scores is that they can be used to predict the future for crops, animal breeding, and humans alike. Although the same basic concepts underlie these areas of prediction, they face different challenges that require different methodologies. The ability to produce very large family size in nonhuman species, accompanied by deliberate selection, leads to a smaller effective population, higher degrees of linkage disequilibrium among individuals, and a higher average genetic relatedness among individuals within a population. For example, members of plant and animal breeds that humans have effectively created, such as modern maize or domestic cattle, are all technically "related".
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In macroeconomics, equilibrium in the goods market occurs when the supply of goods (output) equals the demand for goods (the sum of various types of expenditure--consumer expenditure, government expenditure on goods, net expenditures by people outside the country on the country's exports, fixed investment expenditure on physical capital, and intended inventory investment). If these are indeed equal for a particular time period, there is no unintended inventory investment and there is goods market equilibrium. If they are not equal, there is disequilibrium in the goods market. This is reflected in the presence of positive or negative unintended inventory investment.
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Genomic imprinting is another example of epigenetic regulation of gene expression. In this instance, the epigenetic modification(s) causes the offspring to express the maternal copy of a gene or the paternal copy of a gene, but not both. The imprinted gene is silenced through epigenetic mechanisms. Candidate genes and susceptibility alleles for autism are identified using a combination of techniques, including genome-wide and targeted analyses of allele sharing in sib-pairs, using association studies and transmission disequilibrium testing (TDT) of functional and/or positional candidate genes and examination of novel and recurrent cytogenetic aberrations.
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When looked at further, it was shown to have increased methylation levels in a haplotype associated with Type 2 Diabetes. To find exactly which portion of the gene led to the higher levels of risk, one group of researchers performed a sliding window analysis. Using the information, they narrowed the search down to the 46 kb linkage disequilibrium block, and within that region found a 7.7 kb region in which methylation levels were abnormally high. Pyrosequencing found that this difference was due to single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that created CpGs across the haplotype. Within this 7.7 kb, haplotype-specific methylation area, a highly conserved non-coding element (HCNE) was found.
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They probably represent the Florentine Neoplatonists' view of humanity's ideal Platonic form, without the mar of Original Sin, to which the lower figures are all subject. Kenneth Clark wrote that "their physical beauty is an image of divine perfection; their alert and vigorous movements an expression of divine energy". Below the painted cornice around the central rectangular area is a lower register depicting a continuation of the Chapel's walls as a trompe-l'œil architectural framework against which figures press, with powerful modelling. The figures are drastically foreshortened and are at larger scale than the figures in the central scenes, "creating a sense of spatial disequilibrium".
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In 1929 the Communist Academy in Moscow published "The Capitalist Cycle: An Essay on the Marxist Theory of the Cycle", a 1927 report by Bolshevik theoretician Pavel Maksakovsky to the seminar on the theory of reproduction at the Institute of Red Professors of the Communist Academy. This work explains the connection between crises and regular business cycles based on the cyclical dynamic disequilibrium of the reproduction schemes in volume 2 of "Capital". This work rejects the various theories elaborated by "Marxian" academics. In particular it explains that the collapse in profits following a boom and crisis is not the result of any long term tendency but is rather a cyclical phenomenon.
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Beginning in 1997 a main component of de la Chapelle's research has centered on detecting and annotating gene mutations that predispose to thyroid cancer, TC. Relying on ample experience from work with the Finnish Disease Heritage (see above) the de la Chapelle laboratory has used linkage and linkage disequilibrium analysis in search of genes with high penetrance. For genes with low penetrance, genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) has been carried out. Presently some 10 high-penetrance genes and some 15 low-penetrance variants have been found and annotated. It is becoming increasingly clear that many predisposing genes of high penetrance exist, but each is rare or ultra-rare.
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The tympanum uses a repetition of one that property appears on the far wall and is supported by two relief pilasters that extend from the top of the altar and once framed a now absent altarpiece.Bellini, Rolando; Busignani, Alberto and Krulik, Barbara S., Camera picta. Cappella Guzzetti, Cortona Italia, University of Washington Press, Vallecchi Editore, Firenze, 1994 Sherman was commissioned and over numerous years (1987–1994) painted and decorated the chapel with secular metaphors dealing centrally with biological disequilibrium and celestial glory rendered earthly. The triangular space enclosed by the tympanum is painted a sky blue which tints the huge eye of god at its center.
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Thus, bitter taste perception may affect dietary behaviors by influencing both taste preferences and metabolic hormonal regulation. 50px Text was copied from the preprint version, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Three variants in the TAS2R38 gene – rs713598, rs1726866, and rs10246939 – are in high linkage disequilibrium in most populations and result in amino acid coding changes that lead to a range of bitter taste perception phenotypes. The PAV haplotype is dominant; therefore, individuals with at least one copy of the PAV allele perceive molecules in vegetables that resemble PROP as tasting bitter, and consequently may develop an aversion to bitter vegetables.
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Of particular interest is a common SNP leading to the amino acid Arginine at the 83rd position to be replaced by Glycine. This variant is found to exist in approximately half of all caucasians, while a quarter of caucasians are homozygous for the allele. Although mainly studied in the context of caucasians, the SNP actually exists with a greater frequency in people of African descent, where the gene frequency is 70%. This SNP (rs10927887) was originally implicated in congestive heart failure after investigations into the heat shock protein HSPB7 showed that the CLCNKA gene was in linkage disequilibrium, meaning that the two genes are often not separated during recombination.
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In humans Sp7 has been mapped to 12q13.13. It has 78% homology to another Sp family member, Sp1, especially in the regions which code for the three Cys-2 His-2 type DNA- binding zinc fingers. Sp7 consists of three exons the first two of which are alternatively spliced, encoding a 431-residue isoform and an amino-terminus truncated 413-residue short protein isoform A GWAS study has found that bone mass density (BMD) is associated with the Sp7 locus, adults and children with either low or high BMD were analyzed showing that several common variant SNPs within the 12q13 region were in an area of linkage disequilibrium.
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Keynesian and Post-Keynesian economists, and their underconsumptionist predecessors criticize general equilibrium theory specifically, and as part of criticisms of neoclassical economics generally. Specifically, they argue that general equilibrium theory is neither accurate nor useful, that economies are not in equilibrium, that equilibrium may be slow and painful to achieve, and that modeling by equilibrium is "misleading", and that the resulting theory is not a useful guide, particularly for understanding of economic crises. Robert Clower and others have argued for a reformulation of theory toward disequilibrium analysis to incorporate how monetary exchange fundamentally alters the representation of an economy as though a barter system.• Robert W. Clower (1965).
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The expansion of humans from Africa affected the distribution of genetic variation in two other ways. First, smaller (founder) populations experience greater genetic drift because of increased fluctuations in neutral polymorphisms. Second, new polymorphisms that arose in one group were less likely to be transmitted to other groups as gene flow was restricted. Populations in Africa tend to have lower amounts of linkage disequilibrium than do populations outside Africa, partly because of the larger size of human populations in Africa over the course of human history and partly because the number of modern humans who left Africa to colonize the rest of the world appears to have been relatively low.
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He exhaustively cataloged the central and surface angles of these spherical triangles and their related chord factors. Fuller was continually on the lookout for ways to connect the dots, often purely speculatively. As an example of "dot connecting" he sought to relate the 120 basic disequilibrium LCD triangles of the spherical icosahedron to the plane net of his A module.(915.11Fig. 913.01, Table 905.65) The Jitterbug Transformation provided a unifying dynamic in this work, with much significance attached to the doubling and quadrupling of edges that occurred, when a cuboctahedron is collapsed through icosahedral, octahedral and tetrahedral stages, then inside- outed and re-expanded in a complementary fashion.
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In genetics, a haplotype block is a region of an organism's genome in which there is little evidence of a history of genetic recombination, and which contain only a small number of distinct haplotypes. According to the haplotype-block model, such blocks should show high levels of linkage disequilibrium and be separated from one another by numerous recombination events. The boundaries of haplotype blocks cannot be directly observed; they must instead be inferred indirectly through the use of algorithms. However, some evidence suggests that different algorithms for identifying haplotype blocks give very different results when used on the same data, though another study suggests that their results are generally consistent.
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There are two main ways that the term "haplotype block" is defined: one based on whether a given genomic sequence displays higher linkage disequilibrium than a predetermined threshold, and one based on whether the sequence consists of a minimum number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that explain a majority of the common haplotypes in the sequence (or a lower-than-usual number of unique haplotypes). In 2001, Patil et al. proposed the following definition of the term: "Suppose we have a number of haplotypes consisting of a set of consecutive SNPs. A segment of consecutive SNPs is a block if at least α percent of haplotypes are represented more than once".
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However, permafrost may form under present-day polar climates where glaciers retreat or land emergence exposes unfrozen ground. Washburn (1973) concluded that most continuous permafrost is in balance with the present climate at its upper surface, but changes at the base depend on the present climate and geothermal heat flow; in contrast, most discontinuous permafrost is probably unstable or "in such delicate equilibrium that the slightest climatic or surface change will have drastic disequilibrium effects".Washburn, A. L., 1973: Periglacial processes and environments. Edward Arnold, London, 320 pp. p.48 Under warming conditions, the increasing depth of the summer active layer has significant impacts on the hydrologic and geomorphic regimes.
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His review article (RMP) laid out how long-wave asymptotic theory would be the basis of research worldwide in the analysis of thin- films, droplet spreading, and micro/nano -science flows. Davis has studied the dynamics of metallic foams and devised a unique numerical simulation based on a network model that can be used to follow in time a regular foam as it becomes disorganized. In Material Science, Davis pioneered the coupling of morphological instabilities and material anisotropy and was the first to give results for rapid solidification in which thermodynamic disequilibrium generates banding. He has written a book “Theory of Solidification” for Cambridge University Press.
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The Hidden Agenda of Sigrid Sugden has received editorial reviews from School Library Journal and CM Magazine. School Library Journal described Sigrid's "motivation and growth" as "believable and heartbreaking". CM Magazine submitted a "highly recommended" review, wrote that "the reader proceeds with an unusual sense of disequilibrium", and described the characters as "complex and flawed" yet having "redeeming admirable qualities". CM also wrote that MacLean "places readers inside a whirlpool and shakes everything up", "helps readers to understand bullies and bullying", "pushes the story ahead, yet provides enough information about the characters", and "understands the minds of adolescents and the complexities of life for pre- teens and teenagers".
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A good's price typically changes about every four to six months or, if sales are excluded, every eight to eleven months. While some studies suggested that menu costs are too small to have much of an aggregate impact, Laurence Ball and David Romer (1990) showed that real rigidities could interact with nominal rigidities to create significant disequilibrium. Real rigidities occur whenever a firm is slow to adjust its real prices in response to a changing economic environment. For example, a firm can face real rigidities if it has market power or if its costs for inputs and wages are locked-in by a contract.
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Large dogs accompanying the humans may have accelerated the rate of decline of carnivores that competed for game, therefore humans expanded across Eurasia, encountered wolves, domesticated some and possibly caused the decline of others. The study concluded that admixture had confounded the ability to make inferences about the place of dog domestication. Past studies based on SNPs, genome-wide similarities with Chinese wolves, and lower linkage disequilibrium might reflect regional admixture between dogs with wolves and gene flow between dog populations, with divergent dog breeds possibly maintaining more wolf ancestry in their genome. The study proposed that analysis of ancient DNA might be a better approach.
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Risch has conducted significant work on the nature of human differences on a geographical scale. For instance, he used social and genetic data to analyse genetic admixture from White, African, and Native American ancestry in Puerto- Rico, as well as relating this to geographical variation in social status. Risch considers that genetic drift is a more compelling explanation for the carrier frequency of lysosomal storage diseases in Ashkenazi Jews than heterozygote advantage, in light of analysis of the results of recent genetic testing by his collaborators and himself. After mapping torsion dystonia by linkage disequilibrium (LD) analysis he found it was genetically dominant and was a founder mutation.
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Traditional explanations of marketing phenomena typically rely on assumed patterns of external shocks, random noise or inherently stochastic processes to account for the complex dynamics within marketing systems. Chaos Theory explains at least a component of disorderly market behavior in terms of deterministic feedback mechanisms reflected in the rules governing system members’ behavior and interactions. This feedback represents non-linearity and occurs in two forms: (1) the reinforcing growth effect of positive feedback; and (2) the damping effect of negative feedback. Chaos theory also offers alternative explanations for the existence of various types of marketing institutions as 'disequilibrium mechanisms' designed to buffer or reduce the effects of complex dynamics.
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Common symptoms most frequently reported include a persistent sensation of motion usually described as rocking, swaying, or bobbing, disequilibrium with difficulty maintaining balance; it is seldom accompanied by a true spinning vertigo. Chronically fatigued, sufferers can become fatigued quickly with minimal exertion and some might experience neck and back pain. Other symptoms include the feeling of pressure in the brain, mostly around the frontal lobe area, headaches and/or migraine headaches, ophthalmodynia periodica (ice pick stabbing headaches in the early stages of MdDs), ear pain, ear fullness and possibly tinnitus. Fluctuations in weather also affect sufferers, in particularly hot weather and barometric pressure changes.
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The symptoms of MdDS may be extremely debilitating and fluctuate high and low on a daily basis; it greatly affects the daily life and working capacity of sufferers with many having to relinquish work; it also limits most other daily and social activities. Sufferers can have low quality of life in both the physical and emotional realms, comparable to people who have multiple sclerosis with many symptoms being of a similar nature. High levels of disequilibrium can contribute to suffers not being able to drive a car or walk far and this can create varying levels of anxiety in some or possibly depression due to the significant level of disability.
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In the autism study, a subset of families in which at least one child with autism also has abnormal cholesterol levels are of particular interest. Bailey-Wilson develops and tests novel computational methods to analyze genetic markers. Her group is especially interested in using machine learning methods to detect causal variants that have limited or no marginal effects on risk of a disease but which do show strong interaction effects (with either other genetic variants or with environmental risk factors). She is also working to address the effects of linkage disequilibrium, or the nonrandom association of closely spaced loci, on genetic interaction tests and machine learning methods.
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During the second half of the 1980s, it became increasingly clear that a large-scale fiscal reform, one that enabled noninflationary financing of the public sector, was needed not only to control inflation but also to restore the public sector's capacity to invest. Both were essential for an economic recovery. However, political obstacles prevented the reform from materializing. And, because inflation had become the most visible symptom of the public-sector disequilibrium, there were several attempts to bring inflation under control through what came to be known as "heterodox economic shocks". The period saw three such shocks: the Cruzado Plan (1986), the Bresser Plan (1987), and the Summer Plan (1989).
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The effective population size is most commonly measured with respect to the coalescence time. In an idealised diploid population with no selection at any locus, the expectation of the coalescence time in generations is equal to twice the census population size. The effective population size is measured as within-species genetic diversity divided by four times the mutation rate \mu, because in such an idealised population, the heterozygosity is equal to 4N\mu. In a population with selection at many loci and abundant linkage disequilibrium, the coalescent effective population size may not reflect the census population size at all, or may reflect its logarithm.
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If the alleles at those loci are non-randomly inherited then we say that they are at linkage disequilibrium (LD). LD is most commonly caused by physical linkage of genes. When two genes are inherited on the same chromosome, depending on their distance and the likelihood of recombination between the loci they can be at high LD. However, LD can be also observed due to functional interactions where even genes from different chromosomes can jointly confer an evolutionarily selected phenotype or can affect the viability of potential offspring. In families LD is highest because of the lowest numbers of recombination events (fewest meiosis events).
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This type of detection technique offers a high genomic resolution and precise location of the repeat in the genome, and it can also detect other types of structural variation such as inversions. In addition, another way of detecting copy number variation is using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Due to the abundance of the human SNP data, the direction of detecting copy number variation has changed to utilize these SNPs. Relying on the fact that human recombination is relatively rare and that many recombination events occur in specific regions of the genome known as recombination hotspots, linkage disequilibrium can be used to identify copy number variations.
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Uranium–thorium dating, also called thorium-230 dating, uranium-series disequilibrium dating or uranium-series dating, is a radiometric dating technique established in the 1960s which has been used since the 1970s to determine the age of calcium carbonate materials such as speleothem or coral. Unlike other commonly used radiometric dating techniques such as rubidium–strontium or uranium–lead dating, the uranium-thorium technique does not measure accumulation of a stable end-member decay product. Instead, it calculates an age from the degree to which secular equilibrium has been restored between the radioactive isotope thorium-230 and its radioactive parent uranium-234 within a sample.
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Problems exist with making the neoclassical general equilibrium theory compatible with an economy that develops over time and includes capital goods. This was explored in a major debate in the 1960s—the "Cambridge capital controversy"—about the validity of neoclassical economics, with an emphasis on the economic growth, capital, aggregate theory, and the marginal productivity theory of distribution. There were also internal attempts by neoclassical economists to extend the Arrow-Debreu model to disequilibrium investigations of stability and uniqueness. However a result known as the Sonnenschein- Mantel-Debreu theorem suggests that the assumptions that must be made to ensure that the equilibrium is stable and unique are quite restrictive.
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A neutral mutation that is in linkage disequilibrium with other alleles that are under selection may proceed to loss or fixation via genetic hitchhiking and/or background selection. While many mutations in a genome may decrease an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce, also known as fitness, these mutations are selected against and not passed on to future generations. The most commonly observed mutations detectable as variation in the genetic makeup of organisms and populations appear to have no visible effect on the fitness of individuals and are therefore neutral. The identification and study of neutral mutations has led to the development of the neutral theory of molecular evolution.
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The effect of linkage disequilibrium in slowing down the rate of adaptive evolution arises from a combination of the Hill–Robertson effect (delays in bringing beneficial mutations together) and background selection (delays in separating beneficial mutations from deleterious hitchhikers). Linkage is a problem for population genetic models that treat one gene locus at a time. It can, however, be exploited as a method for detecting the action of natural selection via selective sweeps. In the extreme case of an asexual population, linkage is complete, and population genetic equations can be derived and solved in terms of a travelling wave of genotype frequencies along a simple fitness landscape.
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Kleidon, Axel. How does the earth system generate and maintain thermodynamic disequilibrium and what does it imply for the future of the planet?. Article submitted to the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society on Thu, 10 Mar 2011 The existence of a planetary homeostasis influenced by living forms had been observed previously in the field of biogeochemistry, and it is being investigated also in other fields like Earth system science. The originality of the Gaia hypothesis relies on the assessment that such homeostatic balance is actively pursued with the goal of keeping the optimal conditions for life, even when terrestrial or external events menace them.
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Tilted and jagged planes, along with roughhewn materials are used throughout the building in a form of "controlled imperfection," intended to create the impression of trauma and disequilibrium. The building's massing largely remains low to the ground, with only the building's eastern portions only rising above the ground. A significant portion of the building is made out of concrete, with of cast in place concrete used throughout the building; in addition to 3,750 tonnes of reinforced steel. Many of the exterior and interior walls of the building are placed on a variety of angles, from 90 degrees to 31 degrees, with eight different angles in all used throughout the building.
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The giant is separated from the foreground by the mountains, thereby providing a feeling of depth. It is turned away and facing to the left creating a perspective further removed from the viewer and forming a diagonal opposition to the direction of the fleeing crowd. The effect of the light, which possibly indicates sunset, surrounds and highlights the clouds that encircle the giant's waist as described in Arriaza's poem: This slanting light is fractured and interrupted by the mountain peaks increasing the sensation of disequilibrium and disorder. The effect is similar to Luis de Góngora's famous "dubious daylight" (Fable of Polyphemus and Galatea v. 72.).
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Portes's current research interests include international finance, international macroeconomics, macroprudential regulation, European integration, and European bond markets. He has written extensively on sovereign debt, European monetary and financial issues, international capital flows, centrally planned economies and transition, macroeconomic disequilibrium, and European integration. His study (with Richard Baldwin and Joseph Francois) on the Eastern Enlargement of the European Union was widely cited in the public policy debate leading up to the 2004 Enlargement. His work on collective action clauses in sovereign bond contracts, on the international role of the euro, on international financial stability and on European bond markets has been directed towards policy as well as academic publications.
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In the above discussion, it has been assumed that the genotype probabilities at each locus are calculated independently; that is, the entire genotype is partitioned into independent genotypes at each locus, whose probabilities are calculated independently. However, due to linkage disequilibrium the genotypes of nearby loci are in general not independent. As a result, partitioning the overall genotype instead into a sequence of overlapping haplotypes allows these correlations to be modelled, resulting in more precise probability estimates through the incorporation of population-wide haplotype frequencies in the prior. The use of haplotypes to improve variant detection accuracy has been applied successfully, for instance in the 1000 Genomes Project.
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Mao was concerned about the speed of capital accumulation and the production of the means of production. He was of the opinion that China was on the right course of balancing heavy industry on one hand, and light industry and agriculture on the other. Unlike in the Soviet Union and some Eastern European countries the disequilibrium resulted in “a shortage of goods on the market and an unstable currency”, in China the supply of grain, raw materials, and daily necessities were stable. He urged to increase the investment in agriculture and light industry so that the accumulation of capital could be enhanced for the development of heavy industry.
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Holmes' proposal resolved the phase disequilibrium objection (the underlying fluid was kept from solidifying by radioactive heating from the core). However, scientific communication in the '30 and '40s was inhibited by the war, and the theory still required work to avoid foundering on the orogeny and isostasy objections. Worse, the most viable forms of the theory predicted the existence of convection cell boundaries reaching deep into the earth that had yet to be observed. In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing confirmed the existence of a rise in the central Atlantic Ocean, and found that the floor of the seabed beneath the sediments was chemically and physically different from continental crust.
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The goal of the Epley or modified Epley maneuver is to restore the equilibrium of the vestibular system, more specifically to the semicircular canals to treat the symptoms associated with BPPV. There is compelling evidence that free- floating otoconia, probably displaced from the otolithic membrane in the utricle are the main cause of this disequilibrium. Recent pathological findings also suggest that the displaced otoconia typically settle in the posterior semicircular canal in the cupula of the ampulla and render it sensitive to gravity. The cupula move in relation to the acceleration of the head during rotary movements and signal to the brain via action potentials which way the head is moving in relation to its surroundings.
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A difference in the frequency of an allele or genotype of the polymorphism under test between the two groups indicates that the genetic marker may increase risk of the disease or likelihood of the trait, or be in linkage disequilibrium with a polymorphism which does. Haplotypes can also show association with a disease or trait. One of the earliest successes in this field was finding a single base mutation in the non-coding region of the APOC3 gene (apolipoprotein C3 gene) that associated with higher risks of hypertriglyceridemia and atherosclerosis using a case-control design. One problem with the case-control design is that genotype and haplotype frequencies vary between ethnic or geographic populations.
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At the coronary artery disease-associated locus 7q32.2, only a single SNP (rs11556924) is associated with coronary artery disease risk, with no other variants in strong linkage disequilibrium. The rs11556924 SNP in the ZC3HC1 gene results in an arginine-histidine polymorphism at amino acid residue 363 in NIPA. Furthermore, rs11556924 has also been associated with altered carotid intima-media thickness in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and with altered risk of atrial fibrillation. Additionally, a multi-locus genetic risk score study based on a combination of 27 loci, including the ZC3HC1 gene, identified individuals at increased risk for both incident and recurrent coronary artery disease events, as well as an enhanced clinical benefit from statin therapy.
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In macroeconomic theory, general disequilibrium is a situation in which some or all of the aggregated markets, such as the money market, the goods market, and the labor market, fail to clear because of price rigidities.Mankiw (1990), 1655. In the 1960s and 1970s, economists such as Edmond Malinvaud, Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman, Axel Leijonhufvud, Robert Clower, and Jean-Pascal Benassy investigated how economic policy would impact an economy where prices did not adjust quickly to changes in supply and demand. The most notable case occurs when some external factor causes high levels of unemployment in an economy, leading to households consuming less and firms providing less employment, leading to a rationing of both goods and work hours.
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After stroke, a marked increase in structural plasticity occurs near the trauma site, and a five- to eightfold increase from control rates in spine turnover has been observed. Dendrites disintegrate and reassemble rapidly during ischemia—as with stroke, survivors showed an increase in dendritic spine turnover. While a net loss of spines is observed in Alzheimer's disease and cases of intellectual disability, cocaine and amphetamine use have been linked to increases in dendritic branching and spine density in the prefrontal cortex and the nucleus accumbens. Because significant changes in spine density occur in various brain diseases, this suggests a balanced state of spine dynamics in normal circumstances, which may be susceptible to disequilibrium under varying pathological conditions.
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The macroeconomic policies of the 1970s left Mexico's economy highly vulnerable to external conditions. These turned sharply against Mexico in the early 1980s, and caused the worst recession since the 1930s, with the period known in Mexico as La Década Perdida, "the lost decade", i.e., of economic growth. By mid-1981, Mexico was beset by falling oil prices, higher world interest rates, rising inflation, a chronically overvalued peso, and a deteriorating balance of payments that spurred massive capital flight. This disequilibrium, along with the virtual disappearance of Mexico's international reserves—by the end of 1982 they were insufficient to cover three weeks' imports—forced the government to devalue the peso three times during 1982.
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Along with his critique of equilibrium analysis, he has the following critique with the profession's methodological emphasis on prediction as being the criterion of good theory: > Prediction of the future is possible only in systems that have stable > parameters like celestial mechanics. The only reason why prediction is so > successful in celestial mechanics is that the evolution of the solar system > has ground to a halt in what is essentially a dynamic equilibrium with > stable parameters. Evolutionary systems, however, by their very nature have > unstable parameters. They are disequilibrium systems and in such systems our > power of prediction, though not zero, is very limited because of the > unpredictability of the parameters themselves.
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As geology developed as a science, understanding of the interplay of different facets of the Earth system increased, leading to the inclusion of factors such as the Earth's interior, planetary geology and living systems. In many respects, the foundational concepts of Earth System science can be seen in the holistic interpretations of nature promoted by the 19th century geographer Alexander von Humboldt. In the 20th century, Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945) saw the functioning of the biosphere as a geological force generating a dynamic disequilibrium, which in turn promoted the diversity of life. In the mid-1960s, James Lovelock first postulated a regulatory role for the biosphere in feedback mechanisms within the Earth system.
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The last known population lived around a cave system on the remote south-facing coast of Gibraltar from 30,000 to 24,000 years ago. From the extent of linkage disequilibrium, it was estimated that the last Neanderthal gene flow into early ancestors of Europeans occurred 47,000–65,000 years BP. In conjunction with archaeological and fossil evidence, interbreeding is thought to have occurred somewhere in Western Eurasia, possibly the Middle East. Studies show a higher Neanderthal admixture in East Asians than in Europeans. North African groups share a similar excess of derived alleles with Neanderthals as non- African populations, whereas Sub-Saharan African groups are the only modern human populations with no substantial Neanderthal admixture.
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The strict requirements for producing hybrid seed led to the development of careful population and inbred line maintenance, keeping plants isolated and unable to out-cross, which produced plants that better allowed researchers to tease out different genetic concepts. The structure of these populations allowed scientist such a T. Dobzhansky, S. Wright, and R.A. Fisher to develop evolutionary biology concepts as well as explore speciation over time and the statistics underlying plant genetics. Their work laid the foundations for future genetic discoveries such as linkage disequilibrium in 1960. While breeding experiments were taking place, other scientists such as Nikolai Vavilov and Charles M. Rick were interested in wild progenitor species of modern crop plants.
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Noble's art has been presented on PBS and reviewed favorably in Art Ltd. Magazine, The San Diego Union-Tribune, and San Francisco Weekly. Thomas Larson of the San Diego Reader wrote that "enlarging the sensorium of art with sound begins with disorder," but while visual art may be viewed with "one or one hundred other hushed-up viewers," sound art is more like "a Fourth-of-July picnic, Charles-Ives polyphony, a resolute disequilibrium".Now Is Not a Good Time, by Margaret Noble Reviewing her exhibit titled, "Now Is Not A Good Time", Rebecca Romani of The Buzz wrote in 2018 of its "intriguing mix" of sewing and tatting materials and rattlesnake tails powered by tiny batteries.
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The fact that most broad phenotypic traits are regulated by multiple loci is also incompatible with the neutral theory, since it would be statistically unlikely for enough linkage disequilibrium to form across the genome if mutations were occurring randomly. The hypothesis accounts for this, since phenotypically linked fast-mutating SNPs are recognized to respond to selective pressures more rapidly than the slow-mutating more basal SNPs. The hypothesis also explains why raw genetic diversity does not flow temporally from basal to more modern as a concrete rule. The hypothesis contradicts the fixation index, which assumes the neutral theory applies across the entire genome and only considers fast-mutating autosomal DNA in population genetics analyses.
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The U.S. dollar was the currency with the most purchasing power and it was the only currency that was backed by gold. Additionally, all European nations that had been involved in World War II were highly in debt and transferred large amounts of gold into the United States, a fact that contributed to the supremacy of the United States. Thus, the U.S. dollar was strongly appreciated in the rest of the world and therefore became the key currency of the Bretton Woods system. Member countries could only change their par value by more than 10% with IMF approval, which was contingent on IMF determination that its balance of payments was in a "fundamental disequilibrium".
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Device failure requiring reimplantation is estimated to occur in 2.5–6% of the time. Up to one-third of people experience disequilibrium, vertigo, or vestibular weakness lasting more than 1 week after the procedure; in people under 70 these symptoms generally resolve over weeks to months, but in people over 70 the problems tend to persist. In the past cochlear implants were only approved for people who were deaf in both ears; a cochlear implant had been used experimentally in some people who had acquired deafness in one ear after they had learned how to speak, and none who were deaf in one ear from birth; clinical studies had been too small to draw generalizations from.
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NAM was created as a means of combining the advantages and eliminating the disadvantages of two traditional methods for identifying quantitative trait loci: linkage analysis and association mapping. Linkage analysis depends upon recent genetic recombination between two different plant lines (as the result of a genetic cross) to identify general regions of interest, with the advantage of requiring few genetic markers to ensure genome wide coverage and high statistical power per allele. Linkage analysis, however, has the disadvantages of low mapping resolution and low allele richness. Association mapping, by contrast, takes advantage of historic recombination, and is performed by scanning a genome for SNPs in linkage disequilibrium with a trait of interest.
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Twenty-five diverse corn lines were chosen as the parental lines for the NAM population in order to encompass the remarkable diversity of maize and preserve historic linkage disequilibrium. Each parental line was crossed to the B73 maize inbred (chosen as a reference line due to its use in the public maize sequencing project and wide deployment as one of the most successful commercial inbred lines) to create the F1 population. The F1 plants were then self-fertilized for six generations in order to create a total of 200 homozygous recombinant inbred lines (RILs) per family, for a total of 5000 RILs within the NAM population. The lines are publicly available through the USDA-ARS Maize Stock Center.
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To identify genes responsible for disease, association studies commonly compare case and control populations with and without phenotypic indications of the disease of interest respectively. To identify modifier loci of diseases of interest, for which causative major loci are commonly established, researchers consider a population composed only of individuals affected by the disease. Distribution of marker genotype is compared in patients with and without 'modified' phenotypes of interest to detect markers in linkage disequilibrium with potential modifier loci. Association studies for detecting markers linked to modifier loci require large populations and dense maps of genomic markers, especially to detect markers of subtle effect on phenotypes for which quantification or dichotomization may be challenging.
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In 2015, a DNA study looked at autosomal, maternal mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) and paternal Y chromosome (yDNA) diversity in purebred and village dogs from 38 countries. Some dog populations in the Neotropics and the South Pacific are almost completely derived from European dogs, and other regions show clear admixture between indigenous and European dogs. The indigenous dog populations of Vietnam, India, and Egypt show minimal evidence of European admixture, and exhibit high diversity and low linkage disequilibrium consistent with a Central Asian domestication origin, followed by a population expansion in East Asia. The study could not rule out the possibility that dogs were domesticated elsewhere and subsequently arrived in and diversified from Central Asia.
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The principle is typically used to describe closed negative-feedback systems, but applies, in general, to thermodynamically closed and isolated systems in nature, since the second law of thermodynamics ensures that the disequilibrium caused by an instantaneous shock must have a finite half-life. For full details, see: The principle has analogs throughout the entire physical world. While well rooted in chemical equilibrium and extended into economic theory, Le Chatelier's principle can also be used in describing mechanical systems in that a system put under stress will respond in such a way as to reduce or minimize that stress. Moreover, the response will generally be via the mechanism that most easily relieves that stress.
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The lack of this amino acid prevents methylation from occurring, and as said above, hypomethylation leads to increased susceptibility to Type 2 Diabetes. Type 2 diabetes associated sequence polymorphisms have been identified in 30 linkage disequilibrium (LD) blocks across the human genome, but their effects only explain a minor fraction of the observed phenotypic diversity among individuals. Previously, in other studies it has been demonstrated that connections between small methylation differences at isolated CpG sites have large differences in gene-expression levels On a genome wide scale studies have proven that hypomethylation in genes known to be associated with type 2 diabetes has been associated with an increase in susceptibility for the disease. CpG sites in particular display a small but significant case of hypomethylation consistently.
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The principal challenges are: (1) most complex diseases involve small or weak contributions from multiple genetic factors that explain only a minuscule fraction of the population variation attributed to genetic factors. (2) Biological data is inherently extremely noisy, so the underlying complexities of biological systems (such as linkage disequilibrium and genetic heterogeneity) need to be incorporated into the statistical models for disease association studies. The chances of developing many common diseases such as cancer, autoimmune diseases and cardiovascular diseases involves complex interactions between multiple genes and several endogenous and exogenous environmental agents or covariates. Many previous disease association studies could not produce significant results because of the lack of incorporation of statistical interactions in their mathematical models explaining the disease outcome.
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During the 1990s and the first several years of this millennium, microsatellites were the workhorse genetic markers for genome-wide scans to locate any gene responsible for a given phenotype or disease, using segregation observations across generations of a sampled pedigree. Although the rise of higher throughput and cost-effective single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) platforms led to the era of the SNP for genome scans, microsatellites remain highly informative measures of genomic variation for linkage and association studies. Their continued advantage lies in their greater allelic diversity than biallelic SNPs, thus microsatellites can differentiate alleles within a SNP-defined linkage disequilibrium block of interest. Thus, microsatellites have successfully led to discoveries of type 2 diabetes (TCF7L2) and prostate cancer genes (the 8q21 region).
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An example of this is if: S + T + M > I + G + X the levels of income, expenditure and output will fall causing a contraction or recession in the overall economic activity. As the income falls households will cut down on all leakages such as saving, they will also pay less in taxation and with a lower income they will spend less on imports. This will lead to a fall in the leakages until they equal the injections and a lower level of equilibrium will be the result. The other equation of disequilibrium, if S + T + M < I + G + X in the five sector model the levels of income, expenditure and output will greatly rise causing a boom in economic activity.
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The reverse salient refers to an extremely complex situation in which individuals, groups, material forces, historical influences, and other factors have idiosyncratic, causal forces, and in which accidents as well as trends play a part. On the contrary, the disequilibrium concept suggests a relatively straightforward abstraction of physical science. Additionally, while the reverse salient and bottleneck concepts share similarities and have been used interchangeably in particular contexts, the reverse salient often refers to the sub-system that not only curbs the performance or output of the collective system but also requires correction because of its limiting affect. This is not necessarily the case with bottlenecks, which are geometrically too symmetrical and therefore do not represent the complexity of system evolution.
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Conversely, if there are goods market shortages, individuals may choose to supply less labor (and enjoy more leisure) than they would in the absence of goods market disequilibrium. The amount of labor they choose to supply, contingent on the constraint on the amount of goods they can buy, is the effective supply of labor. Another example involves spillovers from credit markets to the goods market. If there is credit rationing, some individuals are constrained in the amount of funds they can borrow to finance goods purchases (including consumer durables and houses), so their effective demand for goods, as a function of this constraint, is less than their notional demand for goods (the amount they would buy if they could borrow all they want to).
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Additional precovery images were also obtained by reanalyzing data taken in 2002 at the Subaru Telescope and in 2005 and 2007 at the W.M Keck Observatory Broadband photometry of HR 8799 b shows that it has thicker clouds in its atmosphere than do older, higher surface gravity substellar objects of the same effective temperature. Near infrared H band and K band spectroscopy of HR8799b published in May 2011 indicate a hydrogen rich, dusty atmosphere with disequilibrium CO / CH4 chemistry. Near infrared spectroscopy made with the Palomar Observatory show evidence of ammonia and/or acetylene as well as carbon dioxide, and some methane. In 2015, the signals of water, carbon monoxide and methane were reported in infrared spectra taken at the Keck telescope.
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The Piano Teacher () is a 2001 French-language erotic drama film, written and directed by Michael Haneke, that is based on the 1983 novel of the same name by Elfriede Jelinek. It tells the story of an unmarried piano teacher at a Vienna conservatory, living with her mother in a state of emotional and sexual disequilibrium, who enters into a sadomasochistic relationship with her student. A co-production of Austria and France, Haneke was given the opportunity to direct after previous attempts to adapt the novel by filmmakers Valie Export and Paulus Manker collapsed for financial reasons. At the 2001 Cannes Film Festival it won the Grand Prix, with the two leads, Isabelle Huppert and Benoît Magimel, winning Best Actress and Best Actor.
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Ghrelin is a participant in regulating the complex process of energy homeostasis which adjusts both energy input – by adjusting hunger signals – and energy output – by adjusting the proportion of energy going to ATP production, fat storage, glycogen storage, and short-term heat loss. The net result of these processes is reflected in body weight, and is under continuous monitoring and adjustment based on metabolic signals and needs. At any given moment in time, it may be in equilibrium or disequilibrium. Gastric-brain communication is an essential part of energy homeostasis, and several communication pathways are probable, including the gastric intracellular mTOR/S6K1 pathway mediating the interaction among ghrelin, nesfatin and endocannabinoid gastric systems, and both afferent and efferent vagal signals.
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Interlocus sexual conflict forms the basis for interlocus contest evolution (ICE), characterized by the coevolution of genes at different loci in a species through intergenomic conflict. In other words, a disequilibrium forms as alleles for reproductive traits are substituted at different loci in opposing sexes, resulting in rapid evolution of the trait at the locus, which further fuels an arms race between the sexes. The Red Queen hypothesis postulates that evolution of a trait in one species will drive antagonistic coevolution in an opposing species and can be used to explain coevolution in cases of predatory behaviour, host-parasite relationships, and sexual selection. Of interest to interlocus sexual conflict, the Red Queen hypothesis allows for the evolution of traits that enhance reproductive fitness.
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She is using association methods that take advantage of linkage disequilibrium data, HapMap data, and the sequence of the human genome to determine the location of genetic loci that increase risk for various diseases. She has used these and other analytical methods to determine, for example, whether alleles at specific marker loci are transmitted along with a disease through generations in families with several affected members. Bailey-Wilson has also used statistical methods to determine the marker alleles that people with a specific disease carry more frequently - and disease-free people carry less frequently - than can be explained by chance. This work has helped to greatly reduce the number of target regions that investigators need to search for potential disease-related genes.
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Chart representing Malinvaud's typology includes a region with Keynesian unemployment, where there is an excess supply of goods and labor, and a region of classical unemployment, where there is an excess supply of labor and excess demand for goods. Following earlier disequilibrium research including that of Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman, work by Edmond Malinvaud clarified the distinction between classical unemployment, where real wages are too high for markets to clear, and Keynesian unemployment, involuntary unemployment due to inadequate aggregate demand. In Malinvaud's model, classical unemployment is remedied by cutting the real wage while Keynesian unemployment requires an exogenous stimulus in demand. Unlike implicit contrary theory and efficiency wages, this line of research does not rely on a higher than market-clearing wage level.
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Hydrogen Isotope Composition of Hydro-, Bio- and Geo-spheres Due to physical and chemical fractionation processes, the variations in the isotopic compositions of elements are reported, and the standard atomic weights of hydrogen isotopes have been published by the Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances of the IUPAC. The ratios of stable H isotopes are reported relative to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reference water. In the equilibrium isotope reactions of Hydrogen and Deuterium in general, enrichment of the heavy isotope is observed in the compound with the higher oxidation state. However, in our natural environment, the isotopic composition of hydrogen isotopes greatly vary depending on the sources and organisms due to complexities of interacting elements in disequilibrium states.
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From a statistical perspective, Mendelian randomization (MR) is an application of the technique of instrumental variables with genotype acting as an instrument for the exposure of interest. The method has also been used in economic research studying the effects of obesity on earnings, and other labor market outcomes. Accuracy of MR depends on a number of assumptions: That there is no direct relationship between the instrumental variable and the dependent variables, and that there are no direct relations between the instrumental variable and any possible confounding variables. In addition to being misled by direct effects of the instrument on the disease, the analyst may also be misled by linkage disequilibrium with unmeasured directly-causal variants, genetic heterogeneity, pleiotropy (often detected as a genetic correlation), or population stratification.
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Since the 1990s, there is a report of slight increase of frequency of floods in this area due to changes in land-uses in river basin area especially agriculture which causes water and soil disequilibrium, which could results in imbalances among water cycle and further exacerbated by weaknesses in urban drainage system that will bring floods in this area. The flood also causes the only road that connects between Sungai Lembing and the rest of Malaysia to being cut off on 2012 and on 2014. The materials from abandoned mines were found to be potentially polluting the rivers and groundwater with harmful materials such as arsenic, iron, copper, lead, manganese, nickel and zinc. These can affect the water quality level in the stream raising concern among environmentalists.
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Mothers must meet daily subsistence needs, attend market activities, and cope with everyday family problems; these responsibilities leave little time to travel to the clinic to have their babies immunized. The widespread practice of Vodou throughout Haiti has led to the conception of several folk diagnoses intended to explain various symptoms of mental illness, all of which pose a great risk to pregnant women. In the rural areas of Haiti, midwives deliver babies and are responsible for most prenatal and postpartum care. The first month after giving birth is spent in seclusion with the baby, while women close to the mother provide for her needs; this is believed to prevent rapid disequilibrium of the mother's body, which can be passed to the baby resulting in tetanus or diarrhea.
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IFNL4 genotypes associated with increased HCV clearance and treatment response have also been linked to increased hepatic inflammation and fibrosis progression, which can lead to development of cirrhosis and liver cancer. The rs8099917-G allele, which is in high linkage disequilibrium with IFNL4-ΔG and associates with reduced HCV clearance, has been associated with decreased necroinflammation, fibrosis and fibrosis progression. Consistent with that finding, individuals with chronic hepatitis C and the rs12979860-CC genotype tended to display higher portal inflammation, although analysis of paired biopsy results did not reveal associations between this genotype and fibrosis progression. Extending those findings, rs12979860-CC genotype was shown to be associated with increased inflammation and fibrosis not only in chronic HCV patients, but also in those with chronic hepatitis B or nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.
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Genetic association can be between phenotypes, such as visible characteristics such as flower colour or height, between a phenotype and a genetic polymorphism, such as a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), or between two genetic polymorphisms. Association between genetic polymorphisms occurs when there is non-random association of their alleles as a result of their proximity on the same chromosome; this is known as genetic linkage. Linkage disequilibrium (LD) is a term used in the study of population genetics for the non-random association of alleles at two or more loci, not necessarily on the same chromosome. It is not the same as linkage, which is the phenomenon whereby two or more loci on a chromosome have reduced recombination between them because of their physical proximity to each other.
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Some factors of breast morphology, including their density, are clearly implicated in breast cancer. While breast size is moderately heritable, the relationship between breast size and cancer is uncertain. The genetic variants influencing breast size have not been identified. Through genome-wide association studies, a variety of genetic polymorphisms have been linked to breast size. Some of these include rs7816345 near ZNF703 (zinc finger protein 703); rs4849887 and rs17625845 flanking INHBB (inhibin βB); rs12173570 near ESR1 (ERα); rs7089814 in ZNF365 (zinc finger protein 365); rs12371778 near PTHLH (parathyroid hormone-like hormone); rs62314947 near AREG (amphiregulin); as well as rs10086016 at 8p11.23 (which is in complete linkage disequilibrium with rs7816345) and rs5995871 at 22q13 (contains the MKL1 gene, which has been found to modulate the transcriptional activity of ERα).
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Instead of looking for rigidities in the labor market, new Keynesians shifted their attention to the goods market and the sticky prices that resulted from "menu cost" models of price change. The term refers to the literal cost to a restaurant of printing new menus when it wants to change prices; however, economists also use it to refer to more general costs associated with changing prices, including the expense of evaluating whether to make the change. Since firms must spend money to change prices, they do not always adjust them to the point where markets clear, and this lack of price adjustments can explain why the economy may be in disequilibrium. Studies using data from the United States Consumer Price Index confirmed that prices do tend to be sticky.
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Maddala's first faculty position was at Stanford University. He held the University Eminent Scholar position at Ohio State University upon his death; previous university affiliations included Stanford University (1963–1967), University of Rochester (1967–1975), and the University of Florida (1975–1993). Maddala published over 110 scholarly papers and wrote 12 books covering most of the emerging areas of econometrics. His 1983 book titled Limited Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics is now regarded as a classic and seminal text for advanced studies in econometrics. In econometrics methodology, Maddala’s key areas of research and exposition included distributed lags, generalized least squares, panel data, simultaneous equations, errors in variables, income distribution, switching regressions, disequilibrium models, qualitative and limited dependent variable models, self-selection models, outliers and bootstrap methods, unit roots and cointegration methods, and Bayesian econometrics.
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The enhanced carbon-to- oxygen ratio and depleted levels of C and O in planet c favor a history in which the planet formed through core accretion. However, it is important to note that conclusions about the formation history of a planet based solely on its composition may be inaccurate if the planet has undergone significant migration, chemical evolution, or core dredging. Later, in November 2018, researchers confirmed the existence of water and the absence of methane in the atmosphere of using high-resolution spectroscopy and near-infrared adaptive optics (NIRSPAO) at the Keck Observatory. The red colors of the planets may be explained by the presence of iron and silicate atmospheric clouds, while their low surface gravities might explain the strong disequilibrium concentrations of carbon monoxide and the lack of strong methane absorption.
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A capitalist economy was therefore in "equilibrium" so long as it could reproduce its social relations of production, permitting profit-making and capital accumulation to occur, but this was compatible with all sorts of market fluctuations and disequilibria. So long as workers were "back to work" each working day, maintaining the value of assets and creating new value, it was "business as usual". Only when shortages or oversupply began to threaten the existence of the relations of production themselves, and block the accumulation of capital in critical areas (for example, an economic depression, a political revolt against capitalist property or against mass unemployment), a genuine "disequilibrium" occurred; all the rest was just ordinary market fluctuations. Real social needs and their monetary expression through market demand might be two very different things.
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Mark Joseph Daly is Director of the Institute for Molecular Medicine, Finland (FIMM) at the University of Helsinki, a Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, Chief of the Analytic and Translational Genetic Unit at Massachusetts General Hospital, and a member of the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard. In the early days of the Human Genome Project, Daly helped develop the genetic model by which linkage disequilibrium could be used to map the haplotype structure of the human genome. In addition, he developed statistical methods to find associations between genes and disorders such as Crohn's disease, inflammatory bowel disease, autism and schizophrenia. Daly is considered a pioneer in the field of human genetics, and is amongst the most cited scientists in the field, and one of the top 100 most cited scientists of all time.
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Structural mutations in exon 1 of the human MBL2 gene, at codon 52 (Arg to Cys, allele D), codon 54 (Gly to Asp, allele B) and codon 57 (Gly to Glu, allele C), also independently reduce the level of functional serum MBL by disrupting the collagenous structure of the protein. Furthermore, several nucleotide substitutions in the promoter region of the MBL2 gene at position −550 (H/L polymorphism), −221 (X/Y polymorphism) and −427, −349, −336, del (−324 to −329), −70 and +4 (P/Q polymorphisms) affect the MBL serum concentration. Both the frequency of structural mutations and the promoter polymorphisms that are in strong linkage disequilibrium vary among ethnic groups resulting in seven major haplotypes: HYPA, LYQA, LYPA, LXPA, LYPB, LYQC and HYPD. Differences in the distribution of these haplotypes are the major cause of interracial variations in MBL serum levels.
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Several lines of evidence suggest that the CCR5 Δ32 allele evolved only once. First, CCR5 Δ32 has a relatively high frequency in several different European populations but is comparatively absent in Asian, Middle Eastern and American Indian populations, suggesting that a single mutation occurred after divergence of Europeans from their African ancestor. Second, genetic linkage analysis indicates that the mutation occurs on a homogenous genetic background, implying that inheritance of the mutation occurred from a common ancestor. This was demonstrated by showing that the CCR5 Δ32 allele is in strong linkage disequilibrium with highly polymorphic microsatellites. More than 95% of CCR5 Δ32 chromosomes also carried the IRI3.1-0 allele, while 88% carried the IRI3.2 allele. By contrast, the microsatellite markers IRI3.1-0 and IRI3.2-0 were found in only 2 or 1.5% of chromosomes carrying a wild-type CCR5 allele.
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As shown by Mundy and McLean (1998), contingent valuation is now widely accepted as a real estate appraisal technique, particularly in contaminated property or other situations where revealed preference models (i.e. transaction pricing) fail due to disequilibrium in the market.See, for example, Bill Mundy and Dave McLean, The Addition of Contingent Valuation and Conjoint Analysis to the Required Body of Knowledge for the Estimation of Environmental Damage to Real Estate, The Journal of Real Estate Practice and Education, 1998, McLean, Mundy, and Kilpatrick (1999) demonstrate the acceptability of contingent valuation in real estate expert testimony,Dave McLean, Bill Mundy, and John A. Kilpatrick, Summation of Evidentiary Rules for Real Estate Experts Mandated by Daubert v. Merrill Dow Pharmaceuticals, Real Estate Issues,1999, and the current standards for use of contingent valuation in litigation situations is described by Diamond (2000).
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Just as the structural parts of the human body—the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs—function independently to help the entire organism survive, social structures work together to preserve society. While reading Spencer's massive volumes can be tedious (long passages explicating the organic analogy, with reference to cells, simple organisms, animals, humans and society), there are some important insights that have quietly influenced many contemporary theorists, including Talcott Parsons, in his early work The Structure of Social Action (1937). Cultural anthropology also consistently uses functionalism. This evolutionary model, unlike most 19th century evolutionary theories, is cyclical, beginning with the differentiation and increasing complication of an organic or "super-organic" (Spencer's term for a social system) body, followed by a fluctuating state of equilibrium and disequilibrium (or a state of adjustment and adaptation), and, finally, the stage of disintegration or dissolution.
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The Republic of Biafra in June 1967, when it declared its independence from the rest of Nigeria The disequilibrium and perceived corruption of the electoral and political process led, in 1966, to back-to-back military coups. The first coup was in January 1966 and was led mostly by Igbo soldiers under Majors Emmanuel Ifeajuna and Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu. The coup plotters succeeded in assassinating Sir Ahmadu Bello and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa alongside prominent leaders of the Northern Region and also Premier Samuel Akintola of the Western Region, but the coup plotters struggled to form a central government. Senate President Nwafor Orizu handed over government control to the Army, then under the command of another Igbo officer, General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. Later, the counter-coup of 1966, supported primarily by Northern military officers, facilitated the rise Yakubu Gowon as military head of state.
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In turn, this can lead to a negative relationship between the parent and child; the relationship may suffer due to lack of attention towards the child as well as minimal parental supervision Studies have also shown that parental skills decrease after a divorce occurs; however, this effect is only a temporary change. "A number of researchers have shown that a disequilibrium, including diminished parenting skills, occurs in the year following the divorce but that by two years after the divorce re- stabilization has occurred and parenting skills have improved". Some couples choose divorce even when one spouse's desire to remain married is greater than the other spouse's desire to obtain a divorce. In economics, this is known as the Zelder Paradox, and is more common with marriages that have produced children, and less common with childless couples.
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In 1938, Henry Murray developed a system of needs as part of his theory of personality, which he named personology. He argued that everyone had a set of universal basic needs, with individual differences on these needs leading to the uniqueness of personality through varying dispositional tendencies for each need; in other words, specific needs are more important to some than to others. In his theory, Murray argues that needs and presses (another component of the theory) acted together to create an internal state of disequilibrium; the individual is then driven to engage in some sort of behavior to reduce the tension. Murray believed that the study of personality should look at the entire person over the course of their lifespan – that people needed to be analysed in terms of complex interactions and whole systems rather than individual parts – and an individual's behaviors, needs and their levels, etc.
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The proposed SPRITE atmospheric entry probe would carry a scientific instrument payload to measure Saturn's atmospheric structure, dynamics, composition, chemistry, and clouds to at least 10 bars. The conceptual payload consists of two spectrometers: a quadrupole mass spectrometer would measure noble gases and noble gas isotopes with extreme sensitivity. Of particular importance are measurements of helium (He), key to understanding Saturn's thermal evolution; and a tunable laser spectrometer that would measure molecular abundances and isotope ratios to determine the chemical structure of Saturn's atmosphere, and disequilibrium species such as carbon monoxide (), phosphine () and ethane () which can be used to infer Saturn's deep water abundance. The Atmospheric Structure Instrument (ASI) would provide the pressure and temperature profile of Saturn's atmosphere to determine the altitude profile of static stability, and when combined with cloud measurements from the nephelometer, it would elucidate processes that determine the location and structure of Saturn's multiple cloud layers.
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Population structure can be a problem for association studies, such as case- control studies, where the association could be found due to the underlying structure of the population and not a disease associated locus. By analogy, one might imagine a scenario in which certain small beads are made out of a certain type of unique foam, and that children tend to choke on these beads; one might wrongly conclude that the foam material causes choking when in fact it is the small size of the beads. Also the real disease causing locus might not be found in the study if the locus is less prevalent in the population where the case subjects are chosen. For this reason, it was common in the 1990s to use family-based data where the effect of population structure can easily be controlled for using methods such as the transmission disequilibrium test (TDT).
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Two independent preliminary analyses of GWA association with severe falciparum malaria in Africans have been carried out, one by the Malariagen Consortium in a Gambian population and the other by Rolf Horstmann (Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg) and his colleagues on a Ghanaian population. In both cases the only signal of association reaching genome-wide significance was with the HBB locus encoding the β-chain of hemoglobin, which is abnormal in HbS. This does not imply that HbS is the only gene conferring innate resistance to falciparum malaria; there could be many such genes exerting more modest effects that are challenging to detect by GWA because of the low levels of linkage disequilibrium in African populations. However the same GWA association in two populations is powerful evidence that the single gene conferring strongest innate resistance to falciparum malaria is that encoding HbS.
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Within the scope of the Polifemo, the presence of ugliness and the grotesque which taints the Arcadian landscape of the pastoral, proves predestined to annihilate both the beauty and harmony inherent in pastoral naivety, something which was cherished in both Renaissance art and the ancient bucolic.Wagschal 179 Even in paradise, where a harmonious and fruitful relationship between the loved and beloved remains a possibility, love never forms or subsists in a vacuum and is instead constantly tested and reshaped by the external realities that also allowed for it. Love eventually enters into a state of disequilibrium where both exterior circumstance and the instrinsic instability of the emotion jointly transmute the original form. The intemperance of love and the existence of evil as the result neglecting the good are deeply rooted in a non-Christian pagan morality birthed by Socrates in which excess and evil are the products of ignorance, which can be effectively ameliorated with proper education.
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His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, "If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos." These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.
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In Austrian economics, intertemporal equilibrium refers to the assertion that the economy at any one time is in disequilibrium, and that it is only when looking at it over the long term that it is in equilibrium. Austrian economists hold that it is the interest rate which coordinates this "intertemporal equilibrium", by best allocating resources throughout the production structure. Thus "intertemporal equilibrium" can only be reached when the consumption and investment choices of individuals are matched with the investment being carried out in the production structure which will allow goods to come to market in the future, in accordance with the time preference of the population. This is a central tenet of the Austrian School, represented by men such as Friedrich Hayek and Ludwig von Mises; and continued on by the Swedish School who maintain that the genius of the free market is not that it perfectly matches supply and demand, but that it encourages innovation to best meet that supply and demand.
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Association mapping is based on the idea that traits that have entered a population only recently will still be linked to the surrounding genetic sequence of the original evolutionary ancestor, or in other words, will more often be found within a given haplotype, than outside of it. It is most often performed by scanning the entire genome for significant associations between a panel of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (which, in many cases are spotted onto glass slides to create "SNP chips") and a particular phenotype. These associations must then be independently verified in order to show that they either (a) contribute to the trait of interest directly, or (b) are linked to/ in linkage disequilibrium with a quantitative trait locus (QTL) that contributes to the trait of interest. Association mapping seeks to identify specific functional genetic variants (loci, alleles) linked to phenotypic differences in a trait to facilitate detection of trait causing DNA sequence polymorphisms and selection of genotypes that closely resemble the phenotype.
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His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance. Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences. In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of The Economist, "If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos." These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.
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Genotype for the IFNL4-ΔG/TT variant (and SNPs in linkage disequilibrium with that polymorphism) associate with both spontaneous clearance of HCV infection and successful treatment of chronic hepatitis C. Interferon lambda became a focus of HCV research when studies associated the rs12979860 and rs8099917 SNPs with response to pegylated interferon-α and ribavirin treatment for chronic hepatitis C, and spontaneous HCV clearance. Compared to populations of European or Asian ancestry, African American populations demonstrated a lower frequency of the rs12979860-CC genotype, which is associated with viral clearance. That observation provided an explanation for previously observed racial differences in HCV treatment response and spontaneous clearance. The demonstrated association between genotype for the rs12979860 SNP and treatment led the US Food and Drug Administration to recommend testing for “IL28B” in clinical trials for new HCV treatments. Studies have been predominantly conducted on HCV genotype 1, but the association between IFNL4 genotype and impaired HCV clearance has been observed for other HCV genotypes as well. IFNL4-ΔG/TT is the likely primary functional variant that accounts for this association.
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He published numerous foundational papers on the effects of mating systems, selection, gene-environment interactions, linkage disequilibrium, and genetic drift on the genetic variation of inbreeding plant populations. Starting at the latter part of the 1960s and to the end of his career, Allard and co- workers focused primarily in a new area for his lab, that of ecological genetics, particularly in the plant Avena barbata. This work was greatly assisted at the end of the 1960s and throughout the 1970s and 1980s by the use of molecular markers known as isozymes combined with traditional quantitative genetics and morphological single-marker traits as well as more advanced molecular techniques as these became available in the 1980s and 1990s and were applied to Avena barbata and other species such as wild and cultivated barley and pines. An over-riding theme of Allard's lifetime work was the demonstration of "favorable epistatic combinations of alleles of different loci", or multilocus gene complexes in wild and cultivated plants that were assembled in and adapted to specific habitats.
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The eQTL analysis determines loci associated with a quantitative trait, where expression studies of loci associated with traits such as allergy are performed, with a functional explanation . Through these studies, an overlap between loci associated with allergy was observed and it loci previously implicated in autoimmune diseases. Thus, in a region of chromosome 5, presents a loci associated with allergic asthma, which is in the path of PTGER4, which encodes a prostaglandin receptor, and poses linkage disequilibrium ( LD ), which is the association between two alleles located near each other on a chromosome, which assumes more frequent than expected at random co- inheritance, as it presents a great LD with other SNPs associated with the disease of spondylitis. In addition, many loci associated with allergies are near genes involved in the differentiation of T helper cells. The association, according to the analysis can be eQTL since said SNP associated gene causes BCL6 expression, a transcription factor that suppresses the differentiation of T helper type 2 cells in animal models.
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Due to the lack of Neanderthal-derived Y-chromosomes in modern humans (which is passed on from father to son), it has also been suggested that the hybrids that contributed ancestry to modern populations were predominantly females, or the Neanderthal Y-chromosome was not compatible with H. sapiens and became extinct. According to linkage disequilibrium mapping, the last Neanderthal gene flow into the modern human genome occurred 86–37 thousand years ago, but most likely 65–47 thousand years ago. It is thought that Neanderthal genes which contributed to the present day human genome stemmed from interbreeding in the Near East rather than the entirety of Europe. However, interbreeding still occurred without contributing to the modern genome The approximately 40,000 year old modern human Oase 2 was found, in 2015, to have had 6–9% (point estimate 7.3%) Neanderthal DNA, indicating a Neanderthal ancestor up to four to six generations earlier, but this hybrid Romanian population does not appear to have made a substantial contribution to the genomes of later Europeans.
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The automatic adjustment mechanism under the gold standard is the price specie flow mechanism, which operates so as to correct any balance of payments disequilibrium and adjust to shocks or changes. This mechanism was originally introduced by Richard Cantillon and later discussed by David Hume in 1752 to refute the mercantilist doctrines and emphasize that nations could not continuously accumulate gold by exporting more than their imports. The assumptions of this mechanism are: # Prices are flexible # All transactions take place in gold # There is a fixed supply of gold in the world # Gold coins are minted at a fixed parity in each country # There are no banks and no capital flows Adjustment under a gold standard involves the flow of gold between countries resulting in equalization of prices satisfying purchasing power parity, and/or equalization of rates of return on assets satisfying interest rate parity at the current fixed exchange rate. Under the gold standard, each country's money supply consisted of either gold or paper currency backed by gold.
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The Deccan Traps shown as dark purple spot on the geologic map of India During his post-doctoral days at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Krishnaswami assisted Harmon Craig in his discovery of 210Pb-226Ra radioactive disequilibrium in the deep sea and his association with K. K. Turekian at Yale University helped develop U-Th series nuclide applications in aquatic systems which has been detailed in a book, U-Th Series Nuclides in Aquatic Systems, co-edited by him and published by Elsevier Science in 2008. His researches are known to have established the accretion rate and growth history of ocean-floor ferromanganese nodules which he estimated by radionuclide method and the work assisted in the determination of the history of sedimentation in Indian lakes and coastal regions. He applied these methods in estimating the weathering and erosion in the Himalaya and Deccan traps and for assessing their influence on global change. He was also involved in geochemical studies on the rivers of Ganges and Brahmaputra for assessing the evolution of strontium isotopes and uranium concentration in the ocean since the Cenozoic era.
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In 2009 (i.e., before the discovery of IFNL4), results from genome wide association studies (GWAS) indicated that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) near IFNL3 (rs12979860, rs8099917, and others) strongly associated with response to pegylated interferon-α and ribavirin treatment and spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. As the gene then known as IL28B was the closest known gene at the time, these genetic variants were called ‘IL28B variants’ and it was assumed that the observed associations reflected differences in the structure or regulation of that gene. However, discovery of IFNL4 revealed many of these variants to be within or nearest to IFNL4. The rs12979860 SNP is located within intron 1 of IFNL4, while rs8099917 lies in an intergenic region, but nearest to IFNL4. IFNL4 contains a polymorphism that controls the generation of the IFNL4 protein. The IFNL4-ΔG/TT (rs368234815, previously ss469415590) dinucleotide variant is composed of the rs11322783 (Δ/T) and rs74597329 (G/T) SNPs. Because those SNPs are in full linkage disequilibrium, rs368234815, rs11322783 and rs74597329 all provide the same information. In the NCBI dbSNP database, rs368234815 been merged into rs11322783.
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Whole- plant studies also showed that the xeric and mesic types differed from each other for many characters such as the flag leaf, primary stem height, number of tillers, weight and number of seeds, dry weight, and flowering time, with the mesic ecotype being generally larger and more fecund, overall, than the xeric type; further, the flag leaves of the xeric type were consistently smaller than the mesic type under many conditions. It was further shown that xeric populations that were monomorphic for the seed and leaf sheath characters and allozymes had less genetic variation for quantitative genetics characters than mesic populations; however, quantitative genetic variation existed in all xeric or mesic populations that were studied. Consequently, with all genetic characters studied, xeric populations of the xeric ecotype were more similar to each other than they were to the mesic ecotype, and the evidence indicated that the various ecotypes represented significant linkage disequilibrium and coadapted genetic complexes. For field identification purposes, the leaf sheath pubescence in the seedling stage and lemma color at seed maturity as well as the flag leaf dimensions would reliably separate the xeric from the mesic ecotypes throughout California.
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William Martin and Michael Russell suggest that the first cellular life forms may have evolved inside alkaline hydrothermal vents at seafloor spreading zones in the deep sea. These structures consist of microscale caverns that are coated by thin membraneous metal sulfide walls. Therefore, these structures would resolve several critical points germane to Wächtershäuser's suggestions at once: # the micro-caverns provide a means of concentrating newly synthesised molecules, thereby increasing the chance of forming oligomers; # the steep temperature gradients inside the hydrothermal vent allow for establishing "optimum zones" of partial reactions in different regions of the vent (e.g. monomer synthesis in the hotter, oligomerisation in the cooler parts); # the flow of hydrothermal water through the structure provides a constant source of building blocks and energy (chemical disequilibrium between hydrothermal hydrogen and marine carbon dioxide); # the model allows for a succession of different steps of cellular evolution (prebiotic chemistry, monomer and oligomer synthesis, peptide and protein synthesis, RNA world, ribonucleoprotein assembly and DNA world) in a single structure, facilitating exchange between all developmental stages; # synthesis of lipids as a means of "closing" the cells against the environment is not necessary, until basically all cellular functions are developed.
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