Sentences Generator
And
Your saved sentences

No sentences have been saved yet

"Punic" Definitions
  1. of or relating to Carthage or the Carthaginians
  2. FAITHLESS, TREACHEROUS
  3. the Phoenician dialect of ancient Carthage
"Punic" Synonyms
Carthaginian deceitful dishonest treacherous duplicitous false tricky devious deceptive sly untrustworthy crafty cunning crooked unscrupulous guileful fraudulent underhand shifty shady wily More
"Punic" Antonyms
honest authentic frank truthful candid open true direct sincere straightforward forthright honourable(UK) ingenuous faithful honorable(US) reliable respectable actual incorruptible virtuous loyal devoted trustworthy dependable steadfast constant dedicated trusty committed devout staunch unwavering trusted dutiful patriotic allegiant down-the-line

1000 Sentences With "Punic"

How to use Punic in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "Punic" and check conjugation/comparative form for "Punic". Mastering all the usages of "Punic" from sentence examples published by news publications.

type: All Declarative Interrogative Exclamative

structure: All Simple Compound Complex Compound-Complex

length: All <=10 words 10-20 words 20-30 words 30-50 words

But ultimately, Hannibal was defeated during the Second Punic War between Carthage and Rome (218-201 BCE).
Another is the Italian filmmaker Giovanni Pastrone, who made this lavish 1914 costume drama, set during the Second Punic War.
They predict an inevitable international clash of interests there—a sort of postmodern replay of the Punic wars between Carthage and Rome.
The Punic Wars, from 265 B.C. to 146 B.C., lasted longer, but was made up of three wars between Rome and Carthage.
Hannibal Barca, the Carthaginian commander in the second Punic war against Rome, which resulted in Iberia's loss, is famous for bringing war elephants to Europe.
Rome defeated wealthy, mercantile Carthage in the Punic Wars (246-146 BC), forging a warrior culture and the mightiest war machine of the ancient world.
For years, historians have scratched their heads over which route the Carthaginian general Hannibal took across the Alps to invade Rome during the Second Punic War.
The Punic Wars can be said to have lasted over two millenniums, until 1985, when the mayors of Rome and Carthage agreed to an official peace treaty.
"We need to clear and clean two zones, the Punic Port (in the area's south) and the Roman Circus - the two black points for UNESCO," Bayoudh told the Thomson Reuters Foundation.
But if the site is conclusively proved to have been visited by Hannibal and his army of Punic vengeance, one of the most significant outstanding mysteries in military history will finally be resolved.
However, his success led to his greatest victory, at Cannae in 216 B.C. The Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage raged on until 202 B.C., when Hannibal was defeated at the Battle of Zama.
A Teutonic knight spears a man in the 1000 Prussian conquest, elephants pummel people in the Punic Wars, skulls are piled high in a representation of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, and a soldier is posed in profile in Chwast's woodcut for the 2006 Iraq War.
In subsequent centuries, Malta was conquered by the Carthaginians, who were of course originally Phoenicians, too (in the fifth century B.C.), and, during the Second Punic War (between Carthage and Rome), by the Romans (in 270 B.C.), at which point Malta was placed under the governorship of Sicily.
The area was the Roman military and commercial corridor of choice between the Alps and the Rhône; the Punic general Hannibal passed through with his elephants up from North Africa to challenge Rome, allegedly leaving behind the pintade (guinea hen), a succulent cousin of the turkey, traditionally raised in the Drôme.
Though the great general would ultimately lose the Carthaginian-Roman conflict, called the Second Punic War, to his worthy rival Scipio Africanus, Hannibal's brash yet cunning style is still emulated by modern military strategists, and the nightmare of his invasion haunted the Roman empire for the rest of its existence.
Gottleib), then her rise in the large, dark and expensive houses she enters through her brother's dazzling little shows of memory and cognition (he talks about the Punic Wars!) and through her suitor, a stubborn, liberal-leaning wealthy man who is attracted to Chaya, and even more to her squashed cabbage-leaf role in his Gilded Age world.
Introduction in Late Punic epigraphy: an introduction to the study of Neo-Punic and Latino- Punic inscriptions. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, . However, it may be that the existence of Punic facilitated the spread of Arabic in the region,Jongeling, K., & Kerr, R.M. (2005). Late Punic epigraphy: an introduction to the study of Neo-Punic and Latino- Punic inscriptions.
Late Punic epigraphy: an introduction to the study of Neo-Punic and Latino- Punic inscriptions. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, pp. 114, .
Jongeling, K., & Kerr, R.M. (2005). Late Punic epigraphy: an introduction to the study of Neo-Punic and Latino- Punic inscriptions. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, pp. 114, .
The Punic Wars. Roman HistoryAppian of Alexandria (162). "The Third Punic War. Roman History" the coastal population was mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.
The Punic Wars. Roman HistoryAppian of Alexandria (162). "The Third Punic War. Roman History" the coastal population spoke mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.Jongeling, K., & Kerr, R.M. (2005).
Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa," p. 295. No inscription in Punic script on stone can be dated later than the 2nd or 3rd century.Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa," p. 269. Latin script was used to write Punic in the 4th and 5th centuries.
Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, pp. 71, . as Punic and Arabic are both Semitic languages and share many common roots.Ager, S. (1998). Punic.
In fact, the settlement and its name seem to have come from Punic colonists at some time before the 3rd century. Its Punic name ("Seagull Island") was then transcribed into Greek and Latin. Punic Icosium was only a small trading post.
Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa," p. 307ff. Punic was spoken at the highest level of society: the emperor Septimius Severus (reigned 193–211) was born in Leptis Magna and spoke Punic as well as Latin and Greek, while his sister supposedly had little command of Latin at all.Karel Jongeling and Robert M. Kerr, Late Punic Epigraphy (Mohr Siebeck, 2005), p. 4; Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa," p. 305.
Augustine, who was from North Africa, several times mentions Punic; he observed that it was related to Hebrew and Syriac, and his knowledge of Punic helped him figure out transliterated Semitic words from the Bible.Jongeling and Kerr, Late Punic Epigraphy, p. 4.
The museum has a fine collection of Punic ceramics found from the late 19th century. A number of lamps were found during the excavation of pottery kilns dating back to the Third Punic War.Edward Lipinski [eds.],Dictionary of the Phoenician and Punic civilization, ed.
After the fall of Carthage in the Punic Wars, most of northwest Africa was left to the Roman client states of Numidia and Mauretania but Punic culture continued to thrive in Septem, whose Berber residents mostly continued to speak Punic into the reign of Augustus.
Appian, The Punic Wars, 4.23Livy, XXX.6Appian, The Punic Wars, 4.23 Almost all sources (except Cassius Dio) agree that the losses of the Romans were minimal.
A passage from Augustine has often been interpreted as indicating that they called themselves Chanani (Canaanites),Augustine Unfinished Commentary on Paul's Letter to the Romans 13 but it has recently been argued that this is a misreading. In modern scholarship, the term 'Punic' is exclusively used to refer to Phoenicians in the Western Mediterranean. Specific Punic groups are often referred to with hyphenated terms, like 'Siculo-Punic' or 'Sardo-Punic'. This practice has ancient roots: Hellenistic Greek authors sometimes referred to the Punic inhabitants of North Africa ('Libya') as 'Liby-Phoenicians'.
The Punic language, also called Canaanite or Phoenicio-Punic, is an extinct variety of the Phoenician language, a Canaanite language of the Semitic family. It was spoken in Northwest Africa and several Mediterranean islands by the Punic people throughout Classical antiquity, from the 8th century BC to the 6th century AD.
Some small pre-Roman finds have also been made. In addition, numerous inscriptions in Punic and Latin were found.Karel Jongeling. Handbook of Neo-Punic Inscriptions Tübingen 2008, p 155 ff.
In addition to the Punic walls, Roman harbors, and Byzantine catacombs, there are ruins of the Byzantine acropolis and basilica; the Roman horse track, cisterns, the theater; and a Punic necropolis.
Andrew Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa: Function and Display," in Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds, pp. 266–268. A striking occurrence of Neo-Punic is found at the otherwise thoroughly Roman temple of Roma and Augustus, built 14–19 AD at Leptis Magna.Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa," p. 282. One of the latest Neo- Punic inscriptions on a monument dates to the reign of Domitian (81–96 AD).
The Phoenician goddess Ashtart was supplanted by Tanit at Carthage.See History of Punic era Tunisia#Punic religion.See also History of early Islamic Tunisia regarding its probable influence on the received Muslim practice.
The town's Punic name (, probably pronounced "Kirthan", with a hard, breathy /tʰ/ sound) is probably not the Punic word meaning "town", which was written with a Q (i.e., qoph) rather than a K (kaph).Mazard, Corpus, n° 523-529. Instead, it is likely a Punic transcription of an existing Berber placename.. This was later Latinized as Cirta.
The subject of the statue is heavily disputed. It clearly belongs within the Greek sculptural tradition, but Motya was a Punic settlement. Which of these two factors should be given preeminence in interpreting the statue is an open question. Scholars who foreground the Punic context of the sculpture have seen it as depicting a Punic priest.
Ruins of Carthage The Carthaginians were rivals to the Greeks and Romans. Carthage fought the Punic Wars, three wars with Rome: the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC), over Sicily; the Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC), in which Hannibal invaded Europe; and the Third Punic War (149 to 146 BC). Carthage lost the first two wars, and in the third it was destroyed, becoming the Roman province of Africa, with the Berber Kingdom of Numidia assisting Rome.
The Phoenicians retrieved 12 October 2009 Technical achievements of the Punic people of Carthage include the development of uncolored glass and the use of lacustrine limestone to improve the purity of iron. Most of the Punic culture was destroyed as a result of the Punic Wars fought between Rome and Carthage, from 264 to 146 BC,Chris Scarre, "The Wars with Carthage", The Manawy Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995), 24–25. but traces of language, religion and technology could still be found in Africa during the early Christianisation, from AD 325 to 650. After the Punic Wars, Romans used the term Punic as an adjective meaning treacherous.
Carthaginian influence sphere before the First Punic War. After its defeat by the Romans in the First Punic War (264 BC-241 BC), Carthage compensated for its loss of Sicily by rebuilding a commercial empire in Hispania. The major part of the Punic Wars, fought between the Punic Carthaginians and the Romans, was fought on the Iberian Peninsula. Carthage gave control of the Iberian Peninsula and much of its empire to Rome in 201 BC as part of the peace treaty after its defeat in the Second Punic War, and Rome completed its replacement of Carthage as the dominant power in the Mediterranean area.
Jongeling, K., Robert M. Kerr. 2005. Late Punic epigraphy: an introduction to the study of Neo-Punic and Latino-Punic Inscriptions This latter system was used first with foreign words and was then extended to many native words as well. A third practice reported in the literature is the use of the consonantal letters for vowels in the same way as had occurred in the original adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet to Greek and Latin, which was apparently still transparent to Punic writers: hē 10px for and 'ālep 10px for . Later, Punic inscriptions began to be written in the Latin alphabet, which also indicated the vowels.
Punic is known from inscriptions (most of them religious formulae) and personal name evidence. The play Poenulus by Plautus contains a few lines of vernacular Punic which have been subject to some research because unlike inscriptions, they largely preserve the vowels. Augustine of Hippo is generally considered the last major ancient writer to have some knowledge of Punic and is considered the "primary source on the survival of [late] Punic". According to him, Punic was still spoken in his region (Northern Africa) in the 5th century, centuries after the fall of Carthage, and there were still people who called themselves "chanani" (Canaanite: Carthaginian) at that time.
UNESCO declared the Punic town of Kerkouane and its necropolis a World Heritage Site in 1985, citing among other things that the remains constitute the only example of a Phoenicio-Punic city to have survived.
The Second Punic War had similar effects in the Southern Italy.
Such a large number would prove essential in Second Punic War.
The First Punic war began eleven years later, in 264 BC.
A Punic coin featuring Tanit, minted in Punic Carthage between 215 and 205 BCE. Tanit was worshiped in Punic contexts in the Western Mediterranean, from Malta to Gades into Hellenistic times. From the fifth century BCE onwards, Tanit's worship is associated with that of Baal Hammon. She is given the epithet ('face of Baal') and the title , the female form of ('chief').
The chapter on Spain concludes with the war against Sertorius in roughly 61 BC. Likewise, the chapter on the Hannibalic wars only recounts the battles that took place on the Italian Peninsula during the second Punic war, while the chapters on the Punic War recount all the action that occurred in northern Africa during the first and second Punic war.
Ultimately, all of Carthage's North African and Iberian territories were acquired by Rome. Note that "Carthage" was not an 'empire', but a league of Punic colonies (port cities in the western Mediterranean) like the 1st and 2nd Athenian ("Attic") leagues, under leadership of Carthage. Punic Carthage was gone, but the other Punic cities in the western Mediterranean flourished under Roman rule.
Kerkouane or Kerkuane (, Karkwān) is the site of an ancient Punic city in north-eastern Tunisia, near Cape Bon. Kerkouane was one of the most important Punic cities, with Carthage, Hadrumetum (modern Sousse), and Utica. This Phoenician city was probably abandoned during the First Punic War ( BCE) and was not rebuilt by the Romans. It had existed for almost 400 years.
Archaeological Site of Carthage View of two columns at Carthage Punic culture and agricultural sciences, when arrived at Carthage from eastern Mediterranean, gradually adapted to the local African conditions. The merchant harbor at Carthage was developed after settlement of the nearby Punic town of Utica, and eventually the surrounding African countryside was brought into the orbit of the Punic urban centers, first commercially, then politically. Direct management over cultivation of neighbouring lands by Punic owners followed.Stéphanie Gsell, Histoire ancienne de l'Afrique du Nord, volume four (Paris 1920). A 28-volume work on agriculture written in Punic by Mago, a retired army general (c. 300), was translated into Latin and later into Greek.
Following the fall of Carthage, a "Neo-Punic" dialect emerged that diverged from Punic in terms of spelling conventions and the use of non-Semitic names, mostly of Libyco-Berber origin. Notwithstanding the destruction of Carthage and assimilation of its people into the Roman Republic, Punic appeared to have persisted for centuries in the former Carthaginian homeland. This is best attested by Augustine of Hippo, himself of Berber descent, who spoke and understood Punic and served as the "primary source on the survival of [late] Punic". He claims the language was still spoken in his region of North Africa in the fifth century, and that there were still people who self identified as chanani (Canaanite: Carthaginian).
Augustine himself did not speak a Berber language; his use of Punic is unclear.Cf., William M. Green, "Augustine's Use of Punic" at 179–190, in Semitic and Oriental Studies presented to Prof. Wm. Popper (Univ.of California 1951).
Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica, 23.1.2 Punic army in order to reach Messana.
Remains of Ta' Ġawhar Tower in Safi The remains of six Punic-Roman towers have been identified in Malta. They are believed to have been built while the island was part of the Punic or Roman Empires. Their architecture suggests a late Punic origin, and they remained in use throughout the Roman period, until at least the 3rd century AD. Evidence suggest that the towers were used to defend the island.Sagona, Claudia (2015), 'Melita and Gaulos during the Punic Period, in "The Archeology of Malta", Cambridge University Press, , p. 239.
In later Punic, the laryngeals and pharyngeals seem to have been entirely lost. Neither these nor the emphatics could be adequately represented by the Latin alphabet, but there is also evidence to that effect from Punic script transcriptions.
Punic was used for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius (1st century AD), and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century, some bilingual with Latin.Miles, "Communicating Culture, Identity, and Power," pp. 58–59. Inscriptions might also be trilingual: one pertaining to Imperial cult presents "the official Latin, the local Punic, and the Greek of passing traders and an educated or cosmopolitan elite".
Ta' Ġawhar Tower is a round Punic-Roman tower in the village of Safi, Malta. The tower is the best preserved of the six Punic-Roman towers in Malta at approximately seven wall courses high. The tower was probably built at the time of the Punic Wars, although it continued in use during the Roman period before its destruction in the 3rd century AD.
The Punic form of its name was (). The Tabula Peutingeriana calls it Thacora.
The Punic name of the town was (). The Latin name ' has Berber roots.
During the Third Punic War, the government of Hadrumetum supported the Romans against CarthageAppian, The Punic Wars, §94. and, after Carthage's destruction in 146, it received additional territory and the status of a free city in thanks.CIL, Vol.I, p.84.
Dionysius planned to take advantage of the situation by launching a combined land and sea attack on the Punic forces before they recovered or received reinforcements. Eighty ships were manned and, under the command of Leptines and Pharakidas,Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol. 4, pp136 were to attack the Punic ships beached at the Bay of Dascon. Dionysius elected to command the soldiers attacking the Punic camp.
Rusippisir is the latinization of the town's Punic name, which probably meant "Cape Rosemary".
The western Phoenicians were arranged into a multitude of self-governing city-states. Carthage had grown to be the largest and most powerful of these city-states by the fifth century BC and gained increasingly close control over Punic Sicily and Sardinia in the fourth century BC, but other communities remained outside their control. In the course of the Punic wars (264–146 BC), the Romans challenged Carthaginian hegemony in the western Mediterranean, culminating in the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, but the Punic language and Punic culture endured under Roman rule, surviving in some places until Late Antiquity.
Carthaginians spoke a variety of Phoenician called Punic, a Semitic language originating in their ancestral homeland of Phoenicia (present-day Lebanon). Like its parent language, Punic was written from right to left, consisted of 22 consonants without vowels, and is known mostly through inscriptions. During classical antiquity, Punic was spoken throughout Carthage's territories and spheres of influence in the western Mediterranean, namely northwest Africa and several Mediterranean islands. Although the Carthaginians maintained ties and cultural affinity with their Phoenician homeland, their Punic dialect gradually became influenced by various Berber languages spoken in and around Carthage by the ancient Libyans.
Modern linguistics has proved that Maltese is in fact derived from Arabic, probably Siculo-Arabic specifically, with a large number of loanwords from Italian. However, Punic was indeed spoken on the island of Malta at some point in its history, as evidenced by both the Cippi of Melqart, which is integral to the decipherment of Punic after its extinction, and other inscriptions that were found on the islands. Punic itself, being Canaanite, was more similar to Modern Hebrew than to Arabic. Like its Phoenician parent, Punic was written from right to left, in horizontal lines, without vowels.
Hanno the Great was given command of the Punic army, which was raised from Carthaginian citizens and mercenaries recruited from abroad, plus cavalry squadrons and 100 elephants. Hanno sailed to Utica in the spring of 241 BC, obtained siege equipment from the city and overran the rebel camp, the rebels fleeing before the charging Punic elephants. Hanno, accustomed to fighting Libyans and Numidians, did not anticipate any further trouble and left his army for Utica. However, the rebels regrouped, and observing lax discipline among the Punic troops, launched a surprise sortie and routed the Punic army while Hanno was absent,Polybius 1.74.
After Carthage's defeat in the Punic Wars, Rusadir passed into the control of the Roman client state Mauretania. It minted its own bronze coins, with Punic text and a bearded head (possibly Baal Hammon) obverse and a bee between ears of wheat reverse.
Polybius, Istorion, 11: 1–3. After the 2nd Punic War, their history is less clear.
Marcus Junius Pera (fl. 230216 BC) was a Roman politician during the Second Punic War.
F. Lazenby, The First Punic War, p. 72. although he became censor in 258 BC.
People of Punic origin prospered again as traders, merchants and even politicians of the Roman Empire. Septimius Severus, emperor of Rome and a proud Punic, was said to speak Latin with a Punic accent. Under his reign Carthaginians rose to the elites and their deities entered their imperial cult. Carthage was rebuilt about 46 BC by Julius Caesar and settlements in the surrounding area were granted to soldiers who had retired from the Roman army.
When a century later a new Roman colony was built, all Punic remains would be swamped in the later architecture. Humbert studied the area, drew an accurate map and escorted many travelers who visited the area. This led to him becoming an expert on the topography of the ancient site. In 1817 Humbert made a monumental discovery when a plowing farmer stumbled upon four Punic stelae and two fragments with Punic inscriptions on them.
The Punic army at first managed to create difficulties for the Italian Greeks stationed on the left of the Greek battle line, but the Syracusan right wing scattered their Punic counterparts before the Carthaginians gained any decisive advantage. The Greeks ultimately managed to defeat the Carthaginians in a hotly contested battle.Church, Alfred J., Carthage, p39 The Punic army fled the field leaving almost 6,000 dead behind. Daphnaeus chose to regroup his soldiers before giving chase.
Punic, the Semitic language of the Carthaginians, continued to be used in North Africa during the Imperial period.Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, pp. 201, 213. Before the Roman conquest in 146 BC, nearly all Punic inscriptions had been votive to the deities Tanit and Ba'al or funerary commemorations, but during the Roman era a broader range of content is found in Neo-Punic, often appearing with parallel texts in Latin or Greek.
Coin struck during the Punic occupation. The images are from the classical Tarentine coins, but the coin follows Punic coinage standards. During the Second Punic War, the Romans heavily garrisoned the city for fear that it might go over to Hannibal. However, a group of Tarentine hostages held in Rome were caught trying to escape and thrown from the Tarpeian Rock as traitors; probably because of this, anti-Roman feeling in the city increased greatly.
The late-Roman historian Ammianus claims that Juba II of Numidia read Punici lbri, or "punic books", which may have been Carthaginian in origin. Ammianus also makes reference to Punic books existing even during his lifetime in the fourth century AD, which suggests that some works survived, or at least that Punic remained a literary language. Other Roman and Greek authors reference the existence of Carthaginian literature, most notably Hannibal's writings about his military campaigns. The Roman comedy Poenulus, which was apparently written and performed shortly after the Second Punic War, had as its central protagonist a wealthy and elderly Carthaginian merchant named Hanno.
The founders of Carthage also established a Tophet, which was altered in Roman times. A Carthaginian invasion of Italy led by Hannibal during the Second Punic War, one of a series of wars with Rome, nearly crippled the rise of Roman power. From the conclusion of the Second Punic War in 202 BC, Carthage functioned as a client state of the Roman Republic for another 50 years.Appian, The Punic Wars. livius.org Following the Battle of Carthage which began in 149 BC during the Third Punic War, Carthage was conquered by Rome in 146 BC. Following its conquest, the Romans renamed Carthage to Africa, incorporating it as a province.
Carthage never recovered militarily after the Second Punic War,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. XV, para. 24 but quickly did so economically and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission after the neighbouring Numidians allied to Rome robbed/attacked Carthaginian merchants. Treaties had forbidden any war with Roman allies, and defence against robbing/pirates was considered as "war action": Rome decided to annihilate the city of Carthage.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p.
The significantly-divergent later form of the language that was spoken in the Tyrian Phoenician colony of Carthage is known as Punic and remained in use there for considerably longer than Phoenician did in Phoenicia itself by arguably surviving into Augustine of Hippo's time. The Punic throughout its existence co-existed with the Berber language which is native to Tunisia (Including Carthage) and North Africa. Punic disappeared some time after the destruction of Carthage by the Romans and the Berbers. It is possible that Punic may have survived the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in some small isolated area: the geographer al-Bakri describes a people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or Coptic in the city of Sirte in rural Ifriqiya, a region in which spoken Punic survived well past its written use.
As far as language (not the script) is concerned, some borrowings from Punic appear in modern Berber dialects: one interesting example is agadir "wall" from Punic gader. Perhaps the most interesting case of Punic influence is that of the name of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising Portugal and Spain), which, according to one of the theories, is derived from the Punic I-Shaphan meaning "coast of hyraxes", in turn a misidentification on the part of Phoenician explorers of its numerous rabbits as hyraxes. Another case is the name of a tribe of hostile "hairy people" that Hanno the Navigator found in the Gulf of Guinea. The name given to those people by Hanno the Navigator's interpreters was transmitted from Punic into Greek as gorillai and was applied in 1847 by Thomas S. Savage to the western gorilla.
In the fourth century, Augustine of Hippo, himself of Berber heritage, noted that Punic was still spoken in the region by people who identified as Kn'nm, or "Chanani", as the Carthaginians had called themselves. Settlements across North Africa, Sardinia, and Sicily continued to speak and write Punic, as evidenced by inscriptions on temples, tombs, public monuments, and artwork dating well after the Roman conquest. Punic names were still used until at least the fourth century, even by prominent denizens of Roman Africa, and some local officials in formerly Punic territories used the title Some Punic ideas and innovations survived Roman conquest and even became mainstream in Roman culture. Mago's manual on farming and estate management was among the few Carthaginian texts to be spared from destruction, and was even translated into Greek and Latin by order of the Senate.
The Battle of Tarentum in March 212 BC was a military engagement in the Second Punic War.
With Rome and Carthage brought into conflict, the Syracuse/Mamertine conflict escalated into the First Punic War.
Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 2006, pp. 221-222 A number of Punic amulets are also on display.
Plutarch, Numa, 20.Orosius, iv.12 § 2. However, Livy says that this event took place "after the First Punic War", so some modern scholars place it in 241 BC, when Aulus Manlius Torquatus—Titus' uncle—was consul in order to celebrate the end of the First Punic War.
Mago (, ) was a (possibly fictitious) Carthaginian writer, author of an agricultural manual in Punic which was a record of the farming knowledge of the Berbers from North Africa and the Phoenicians from Lebanon. The Punic text has been lost, but some fragments of Greek and Latin translations survive.
He wrote a history of the Punic wars published in 1990Bagnall, Nigel The Punic Wars Thomas Dunne Books, 1990, and, two years after his death, he had a history of the Peloponnesian War published.Bagnall, Nigel The Peloponnesian War Thomas Dunne Books, 2004, He died on 8 April 2002.
Later writers would not exercise the same restraint. In the later seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries, the Punic Wars would become the preferred metaphor for the prevailing political situation; in England, the long-standing competition with France was analogized in Punic-War terms -- with England as victorious Rome. The great critic Samuel Johnson would eventually complain that he was sick of hearing about the subject; "he would be rude to anyone who mentioned the Punic Wars...."L. B. Seeley, ed.
Accordingly, the Punic city-state had once exerted great economic influence on the surrounding Berber polities and peoples. Yet Carthage directly ruled only an ample territory adjacent to the city and its developed network of trading posts. These Punic enclaves were situated at short intervals along the Mediterranean coast of Africa from Tripolitania westward.Carthage had also directly ruled in various Mediterranean islands and in lands of Hispania, but these were already lost as a result of the Second Punic War.
The name Africanus originated with Scipio Africanus, who defeated Carthage (in North Africa) during the Second Punic War.
In 146 BC, after the Third Punic War, it became part of the new Roman province of Africa.
The Phoenician and Punic name () or () seems to mean "Angle Cape". It was used for the cape and hills at the south end of the Bay of Hammamet and for the main settlement near the cape. The Punic name was variously hellenized as Rhouspînon (),Strabo, Geogr., Book XVII, Ch. iii, §12.
Bithia was founded by the Phoenicians in the 8th century as Bitan (, ,. "Palace"). It fell under Carthaginian control until the Punic Wars, when it became Roman. Punic culture survived well into the Roman period. It was abandoned in the early 7th century, when the population fled inland to escape Arab raids.
A Berber settlement probably predated the Punic one. Imported Greek ceramics dating to the 4th century have been found.
The monuments combine a number of different architectural styles introduced by the Carthaginians, frequently referencing Hellenistic and Punic motifs.
Punic control was also extended inland over the Libyans. Punic influence on inland regions is seen from the early sixth century, notably at Althiburos, where Punic construction techniques and red-slip pottery appear at this time. Armed conflicts with the Libyans are first attested in the early fifth century, with several revolts attested in the fourth century (398, 370s, 310-307 BC). In the late fourth century, Aristotle reports that the Carthaginians dealt with local discontent by resettling poor citizens in cities in Libya.
The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage. The main cause of the Punic Wars was the clash of interests between the existing Carthaginian Empire and the expanding Roman sphere of influence. The Romans were initially interested in expansion via Sicily, part of which lay under Carthaginian control. At the start of the first Punic War, Carthage was the dominant power of the Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power in Italy.
Scipio's intervention technically exceeded the mandate of his command and crossed into the provincia of his consular colleague Crassus.H.H. Scullard, Scipio Africanus in the Second Punic War (Cambridge University Press, 1930),p. 170; Nigel Bagnall, The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage, and the Struggle for the Mediterranean (St. Martin's Press, 1990), p. 273.
Western Old World in 200 BC, showing borders of the Numidian kingdoms after the Second Punic War. During the Punic Wars, Syphax was the king of the largest Numidian kingdom, the Masaesyli. In 213 BC, Syphax ended his alliance with Carthage. In 208 BC, he rejoined after marrying Sophonisba, daughter of Hasdrubal Gisco.
The source for most aspects of the Punic Wars (the term Punic comes from the Latin word Punicus (or Poenicus), meaning "Carthaginian", and is a reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry.) is the historian Polybius ( – ). His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics, but he is best-known for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC. He accompanied his patron and friend, the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus, in North Africa during the Third Punic War, during which the siege of Carthage took place; the modern consensus is that this proximity causes the normally reliable Polybius to recount Scipio's actions in an excessively favourable light. In addition, significant portions of The Histories account of the Third Punic War have been lost. The account of the Roman historian Livy, who relied heavily on Polybius, is much used by modern historians of the Punic Wars, but after 167 BC it has survived only as a list of its contents.
Lonely Planet, p. 101. The Siege of Aspis in 255BC was the first African battle of the First Punic War.
The Roman peoples' judgement were, however, correct: Scipio Aemilianus successfully took Carthage in 146, thus ending the Third Punic War.
The outnumbered Greek ships now gave way and the Punic expedition safely landed near Motya.Church, Alfred J. Carthage, p. 33.
Sidi Safi is a municipality in north-western Algeria. It includes the ruins of the Punic and Roman settlement Camarata.
C14 dating indicates that this rostrum could have belonged to the Carthaginian fleet.J.F. Lazenby, The First Punic War, p. 73.
Appian, The Punic Wars, 30 After the Punic Wars and the Roman conquest of Hispania, Roman military acquired peninsular horses and riders as auxiliaries. Particularly famous examples are found in the late alae quinquagenaria, which contained three Astur Ala Asturum forces, two Arevaci Ala Arevacorum and a famed Vetton contingent named Ala Hispanorum Vettonum.
Finally, a number of late inscriptions from what is now Constantine, Algeria dated to the first century BC make use of the Greek alphabet to write Punic, and many inscriptions from Tripolitania, in the third and fourth centuries AD use the Latin alphabet for that purpose.Jongeling, K. and Robert Kerr. Late Punic epigraphy. P.2.
Other good anchorages nearby became Phoenician and then Carthaginian ports at what are now Tangiers and Cadiz. After Carthage's destruction in the Punic Wars, most of northwest Africa was left to the Roman client states of Numidia andaround AbylaMauretania. Punic culture continued to thrive in what the Romans knew as "Septem". After the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC, Caesar and his heirs began annexing north Africa directly as Roman provinces but, as late as Augustus, most of Septem's Berber residents continued to speak and write in Punic.
Carthaginian shekel, dated 237-227 BC, depicting the Punic god Melqart (equivalent of Hercules/Heracles), most likely with the features of Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal Barca; on the reverse is a man riding an elephant Greek cities contested with Carthage for the Western Mediterranean culminating in the Sicilian Wars and the Pyrrhic War over Sicily, while the Romans fought three wars against Carthage, known as the Punic Wars,Herodotus, V2. 165–7Polybius, World History: 1.7–1.60 "Punic" meaning "Phoenician" in Latin, as Carthage was a Phoenician colony grown into a kingdom.
Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to Northwest Africa and Europe, where it was adopted by the Greeks. Later, the Etruscans adopted a modified version for their own use, which, in turn, was modified and adopted by the Romans and became the Latin alphabet.Edward Clodd, Story of the Alphabet (Kessinger) 2003:192ff Punic colonisation spread Phoenician to the western Mediterranean, where the distinct Punic language developed. Punic also died out, but it seems to have survived far longer than Phoenician, perhaps into the 9th century AD.
Contemporaneous funerary texts found in Christian catacombs in Sirte, Libya bear inscriptions in Ancient Greek, Latin, and Punic, suggesting a fusion of the cultures under Roman rule. There is evidence that Punic was still spoken and written by commoners in Sardinia at least 400 years after the Roman conquest. In addition to Augustine of Hippo, Punic was known by some literate North Africans until the second or third centuries (albeit written in Roman and Greek script) and remained spoken among peasants at least until the end of the fourth century.
Whitney Smith states that the crescent was first emblazoned on standards and buildings in the Punic state of Carthage, located in present-day Tunisia. Since appearing on the Ottoman flag, they were widely adopted by Muslim countries, and have become known as symbols of Islam, when in fact, they may be cultural symbols. Likewise, the sun is often represented with the crescent on ancient Punic artifacts and is associated with the ancient Punic religion, especially with the Sign of Tanit.The Phoenician solar theology by Joseph Azize, page 177.
The Third Punic War was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between Carthage and Rome and lasted from 149 to 146 BC. The war was fought entirely within Carthaginian territory, in modern northern Tunisia. When the Second Punic War ended in 201 BC one of the terms of the peace treaty prohibited Carthage from waging war without Rome's permission. Rome's ally, King Masinissa of Numidia, exploited this to repeatedly raid and seize Carthaginian territory with impunity. In 149 BC Carthage sent an army, under Hasdrubal, against Masinissa, the treaty notwithstanding.
Gurzil was an important ancient Berber deity. He is known from two sources, the Latin poem Iohannis by the 6th-century Christian Roman poet Corippus and a Neo-Punic inscription from Lepcis Magna.A. F. Elmayer, "The Libyan God Gurzil in a Neo-Punic Inscription from Tripolitania", Libyan Studies 13 (1982), pp. 49–50. Neo-Punic inscription naming Gurzil According to Corippus, the Laguatan of Tripolitania carried a representation of Gurzil in the form of a bull into battle against the Romans when they revolted along with the Austurii in AD 546.
Barak ברק means lightning in Hebrew. Barcas, the surname of the famous Hamilcar Barca, is the Punic equivalent of the name.
John Briscoe, "the Second Punic War", in A. E. Astin et al. (ed.), Cambridge Ancient History, vol. VIII, pp. 51, 52.
Ana Margarida Costa Arruda dos Santos Gonçalves (born in 1955) is a Portuguese historian and archaeologist specialized in Phoenician-Punic archaeology.
The Punic name for the town was (). Zarai is mentioned in the Antonine ItineraryAnt. It., 35. and in the Tabula Peutingeriana.
The date of establishment of the law is uncertain. It was likely implemented sometime in between the first two Punic wars.
The Phoenicians and the West: politics, colonies and trade. Cambridge University Press. From the eighth century BC, most of Tunisia's inhabitants spoke the Punic language, a variant of the Phoenician language influenced by the local Numidian language. Also, already at that time, in the regions near to Punic settlements, the Berber that was used evolved considerably.
The fortlet was rectangular, with sides of by , and covered . It was originally thought to be surrounded by a single Punic ditch but investigation revealed there to be two Punic ditches separated by a wide berm.Walker (1989), pp. 22–23. The inner ditch was wide and deep while the outer ditch was wide and deep.Walker (1989), p. 23.
Carthage encouraged the cultivation of grain and cereals and prohibited fruit trees. Tharros, Nora, Bithia, Monte Sirai etc. are now important archaeological sites where Punic architecture and city planning can be studied. In 238 BC, following the First Punic War the Romans took over the whole island, incorporating it into the province of Corsica et Sardinia, under a praetor.
Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995), discussion of wine making and its 'marketing' at 273–276. Lancel says (at 274) that about wine making, Mago was silent. Punic agriculture and rural life are addressed at 269–302. In Punic farming society, according to Mago, the small estate owners were the chief producers.
The First Punic War centered on naval warfare. The Second Punic War started with Hannibal's invasion of Italy by crossing the Alps. He famously won the encirclement at the Battle of Cannae. However, after Scipio invaded Carthage, Hannibal was forced to follow and was defeated at the Battle of Zama, ending the role of Carthage as a power.
Rusippisir was established as a colony on the trade route between Phoenicia and the Strait of Gibraltar. Its port was nearby Iomnium (present-day Tigzirt). It later fell under Carthaginian and then, after the Punic Wars, Roman hegemony. Punic steles in Rusippisir continued to be produced well into the imperial period and there was tophet in the town.
Large water storage areas under Tas-Silġ were recently found and mapped, and they probably date to the Punic or Roman eras.
When Carthage's empire fell to Rome during the Punic Wars, Lixus, Chellah, and Mogador became outposts of the province of Mauretania Tingitana.
They provided more than money though as they also served as privateers and ship owners in the First and Second Punic Wars.
Ben Kiernan has labelled the destruction of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War (149–146 BCE) "The First Genocide".
As witnessed by the ancient sources (Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica and Pausanias, Description of Greece) since the sixth century BC this population opposed fiercely to the domination of Carthage. After the end of the First Punic War in 238 BC the Romans occupied the main strongholds of the Punic Sardinia, but the people of the interior opposed even to the new invaders. In 227 BC, Corsica and Sardinia became the second Roman province (the first was Sicily). The outbreak of the Second Punic War and the victories of Hannibal in the Italian Peninsula provoked new stirrings of rebellion in Sardinia where, after the Roman defeat at the Battle of Cannae, the Sardinian-Punic landowner and military Hampsicora, helped by the Carthaginians and by Ilienses, organized a new uprising.
He wrote around 401: Besides Augustine, the only proof of Punic-speaking communities at such a late period is a series of trilingual funerary texts found in the Christian catacombs of Sirte, Libya: the gravestones are carved in Ancient Greek, Latin and Punic. It may have even survived the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, as the geographer al-Bakri describes a people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or Coptic in Sirte, where spoken Punic survived well past written use. However, it is likely that Arabization of the Punics was facilitated by their language belonging to the same group (both were Semitic languages) as that of the conquerors and so they had many grammatical and lexical similarities. The idea that Punic was the origin of Maltese was first raised in 1565.
The last issues before the Third Punic War attest to the city's revitalization, as they are again pure silver with a serrate edge.
Thermus was also responsible for legislation confirming peace with Carthage after the Second Punic War.Livy 30.43.2–3; Polybius 15.18–19; Cassius Dio frg.
5 The people's assembly chose Hannibal of Paropos, son of another Hamilcar and a veteran of the First Punic War as Hamilcar's deputy.
Although Rome was successful in the first two Punic Wars, as it vied for dominance with the seafaring Punic city-state of Carthage in North Africa (modern day Tunisia), it suffered a number of humiliations and damaging reverses in the course of these engagements, especially at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. Rome nonetheless managed to win the Second Punic War thanks to Scipio Africanus in 201 BC. After its defeat Carthage ceased to be a threat to Rome, and was reduced to a small territory, equivalent to what is now northeastern Tunisia. However, in 152 BC Cato the Censor visited Carthage as a member of a senatorial embassy sent to arbitrate a conflict between the Punic city and Massinissa, the king of Numidia. Cato, a veteran of the Second Punic War, was shocked by Carthage's wealth, which he considered dangerous for Rome. He then restlessly called for its destruction, ending all his speeches with the phrase, even when the debate was on a completely different matter.
Phoenician was written with the Phoenician script, an abjad (consonantary) originating from the Proto- Canaanite alphabet that also became the basis for the Greek alphabet and, via an Etruscan adaptation, the Latin alphabet. The Punic form of the script gradually developed somewhat different and more cursive letter shapes; in the 3rd century BC, it also began to exhibit a tendency to mark the presence of vowels, especially final vowels, with an aleph or sometimes an ayin. Furthermore, around the time of the Second Punic War, an even more cursive form began to develop,Jongeling, K. and Robert Kerr. Late Punic epigraphy. P.10.
This suggests that, unlike the Punic community of Roman Sardinia, Punic settlers and refugees endeared themselves to Roman authorities by adopting a readily intelligible government. Three sufetes serving simultaneously appear in first century AD records at Althiburos, Mactar, and Thugga, reflecting a choice to adopt Punic nomenclature for Romanized institutions without the actual, traditionally balanced magistracy. In those cases, a third, non-annual position of tribal or communal chieftain marked an inflection point in the assimilation of external African groups into the Roman political fold. Sufes, the Roman approximation of the term sufet, appears in at least six works of Latin literature.
Carthage is best remembered for its conflicts with the Roman Republic, which was almost defeated in the Second Punic War, an event that likely would have changed the course of human history, given Rome's subsequent central role in Christianity, European history, and Western civilization. At the height of its power before the First Punic War, Greek and Roman observers often wrote admirably about Carthage's wealth, prosperity, and sophisticated republican government. But during the Punic Wars and the years following Carthage's destruction, accounts of its civilization generally reflected biases and even propaganda shaped by these conflicts.Dexter Hoyos, The Carthaginians, Routledge, pp. 220-221.
Bilingual Latin-Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya In the provinces of Africa westwards of Cyrenaica (a region colonised by Greeks since the 7th century BC), the people of Carthage and other Phoenician colonies spoke and wrote Punic, with Latin common in urban centers. Other Roman Africans spoke Afroasiatic languages (Libyan, Numidian), debatably early versions of Berber.Clackson and Horrocks, The Blackwell History of the Latin Language, pp. 86–87; Millar, "Local Cultures in the Roman Empire," pp. 128–129, expressing skepticism about identifying the non-Punic languages of North Africa as "Berber".
The fall of Carthage's Iberian territories came in the Second Punic War. In the year 209 BC, after the Romans had landed on Iberia under the command of Scipio Africanus, they captured the centre of Punic power in Iberia, Nova Carthago (modern day Cartagena). They then moved south and faced the Punic army of Hasdrubal Barca in the Battle of Baecula but were not able to prevent him from continuing his march to Italy in order to reinforce his brother Hannibal. The catastrophic defeat of Carthaginian forces at Ilipa in 206 BC sealed the fate of the Carthaginian presence in Iberia.
Bilingual Latin-Punic inscription at the theatre in Leptis Magna, Roman Africa (present-day Libya) References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin, particularly in Egypt, where Coptic predominated, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube. Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as Punic, Gaulish, and Aramaic in assuring the correct understanding and application of laws and oaths.Rochette, pp. 558–559. In the province of Africa, Libyco-Berber and Punic were used in inscriptions and for legends on coins during the time of Tiberius (1st century AD).
Round tower designs were already established at the time of the Punic period. Indeed, historians hold that the Maltese archipelago in the third century was at the aim of Carthage and the Romans by invading the native Punic civilisation. Despite these plausible arguments it is also argued that the tower may have been built by the Punic people and then embellished by the Romans. From the findings it is also suggested that the Romans may have built it in the form of a folly to overlook the plantation of the olive trees which originate in the area since Roman times.
Agathocles of Syracuse captured the town in 310 during the Third Sicilian War, as part of his failed attempt to move the conflict to Africa. Hadrumetum later provided refuge to Hannibal and other Carthaginian survivors after their 202 defeat at Zama, which decided the outcome of the Second Punic War. The total length of the Punic fortifications was apparently ; some ruins survive.
Poenulus, also called The Little Carthaginian or The Little Punic, is a Latin comedic play for the early Roman theatre by Titus Maccius Plautus, probably written between 195 and 189 BC.Gregor Maurach, Der Poenulus des Plautus (Carl Winter, 1988; ), p. 33. The play is noteworthy for containing text in Carthaginian Punic, spoken by the character Hanno in the fifth act.
The etymology of the name Arabio is unknown, but it is undoubtedly of Semitic origin. It might be the same as that of "Arab" or else derive from the Punic word rab, meaning "leader". The same word existed in biblical Hebrew (chief) and in Aramaic (governor, head of a professional class). The initial A- likely represents a berberisation of the Punic root.
The city was founded with the Punic name (), similar to Semitic transcriptions of Tayinat in Turkey. Head also transcribes it as Thainath. The Punic name was transcribed into Greek as Thaína () and Thenae (Θεναί), and into Latin variously as Thenae, Thaena, and Thaenae. Strabo called the town Thena (ἡ Θένα) and Ptolemy called it both Thaina (Θαίνα) and Theaenae (Θέαιναι).
The genus name bears the name of the region where it was discovered, Tataouine, and the epithet honours Hannibal, a Carthaginian punic military commander.
A Phoenician-Punic grammar, p. 10. Handbook of Oriental Studies: Section One, the Near East and the Middle East 54. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
Rachel Feig Vishnia, State, Society, and Popular Leaders in Mid- Republican Rome, 241–167 B.C. (Routledge, 1996), p. 78; Bagnall, Punic Wars, p. 273.
Lucius Coelius Antipater largely based much of his Latin history of the Second Punic War on Silenus; Polybius, Livy, and Cicero also referenced him.
Moreover, in the square some ruins of Punic walls are visible. Near the square, in Via Maqueda, has its location the Faculty of Jurisprudence.
The main source for most aspects of the Punic Wars is the historian Polybius ( – ), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics, but he is best known for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC. He accompanied his patron and friend, the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus, in North Africa during the Third Punic War; this causes the normally reliable Polybius to recount Scipio's actions in a favourable light. In addition, significant portions of The Histories account of the Third Punic War have been lost. The account of the Roman annalist Livy, who relied heavily on Polybius, is much used by modern historians of the Punic Wars, but all that survives of his account of events after 167 BC is a list of contents.
Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 154-163 & 202-205. Archaeological evidence shows that the gladius has disappeared; various short semispathae supplement the older pugionesStephenson, I.P., 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 76-80.Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 154, 164 & 202. while medium-long spathae replace the medium-short gladii.Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 154-157 & 202-205. These have the same straight double-edged blades as older Roman swords.Stephenson, I.P., 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 61-80.Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 154-164 & 202-205.
Although the initial Punic armada at Syracuse contained 208 warships and 3,000 transports, it is unknown how many were permanently stationed there for the siege.
The author supports the view that the Third Punic War marked a change in Roman foreign policy. She also summarises (pp. 79–88) the large number of different views on the subject among modern historians. There is still no academic consensus on the causes of the Third Punic War, which appears completely irrational, as the (fragmentary) justifications of the war detailed by ancient authors make no sense.
The depiction of aspects of the Punic religion, together with the use of the Greek alphabet, testifies to the resilience of Punic and Greek culture in Malta long after the arrival of the Romans. In the 1st century BC, Roman Senator and orator Cicero commented on the importance of the Temple of Juno, and on the extravagant behaviour of the Roman governor of Sicily, Verres.
One issue of bronze coins in two denominations—Tanit the god of sun on the obverse and a galloping horse reverse—was coined at Kerkouane on Cape Bon during the resistance to the invasion of Regulus amid the First Punic War. A great deal of highly debased coins were struck at the end of the First Punic War, however, to deal with the empire's revolting mercenaries.
St. Paul's catacombs are part of a large cemetery once located outside the walls of the ancient Roman city of Melite, now covered by the smaller Mdina and Rabat. It also comprises the catacombs of Saint Agatha, San Katald, St. Augustine and many others. The cemetery probably originated in the Phoenician-Punic period. As in Roman tradition, Phoenician and Punic burials were located outside city walls.
Miles, Richard (2010). Carthage Must Be Destroyed: The Rise and Fall of an Ancient Civilization. United States: Penguin Books. p. 13. . Latin vernacular had several reference to Punic culture, including mala Punica ("Punic Apples") for pomegranates; pavimentum Punicum to describe the use of patterned terracotta pieces in mosaics; and plostellum Punicum for the threshing board, which had been introduced to the Romans by Carthage.
Cippi and stelae of limestone are characteristic monuments of Punic art and religion, found throughout the western Phoenician world in unbroken continuity, both historically and geographically. Most of them were set up over urns containing cremated human remains, placed within open-air sanctuaries. Such sanctuaries constitute some of the most best preserved and striking relics of Punic civilization. Few specifics are known about Carthaginian rituals or theology.
He started collecting antiquities, and began compiling notes about the history, customs and language of Tunisia. He took a special interest in the peninsula near Tunis where the ancient city of Carthage had once been. Although the location of Roman Carthage was known, the exact location of Punic Carthage was a matter of dispute. After the Third Punic War the Romans had completely destroyed the site.
At the height of the city's influence, its empire included most of the western Mediterranean. The empire was in a constant state of struggle with the Roman Republic, which led to a series of conflicts known as the Punic Wars. After the third and final Punic War, Carthage was destroyed then occupied by Roman forces. Nearly all of the territory held by Carthage fell into Roman hands.
Carthaginian coin depicting Hasdrubal Barca (245–207 BC), younger brother of Hannibal (247–c.182 BC) wearing a diadem Carthaginian coin possibly depicting Hannibal as Hercules (i.e. Heracles) Hamilcar had at least three daughters and at least three sons. His first daughter was married to Bomilcar, who was a suffete of Carthage and may have commanded the Punic fleet in the Second Punic war.
The inscription in Phoenician and Greek, from a book printed in 1772 by Francisco Pérez Bayer. Later studies of Phoenician grammar compared Punic specimens with Hebrew texts. Work on the cippi now focused on a fuller understanding of Phoenician grammar, as well as the implications of the discovery of Phoenician texts in Malta. Johann Joachim Bellermann believed that the Maltese language was a distant descendant of Punic.
Macomades was established as an inland Punic trading post under the name (, "Place"). It was about from Cirta. It issued its own bronze coins with an Egyptian-style god's head obverse and a reverse bearing either a hog and galloping horse or a disk in a crescent, a symbol of the Punic goddess Tanit. It was a town in the Roman province of Numidia.
Punic praying statuette, c. 3rd century BC Sardo-Punic mask showing a Sardonic grin The Punics, Carthaginians or Western Phoenicians, were a group of peoples in the Western Mediterranean who traced their origins to the Phoenicians. In modern scholarship, the term 'Punic' – the Latin equivalent of the Greek- derived term 'Phoenician' – is exclusively used to refer to Phoenicians in the Western Mediterranean, following the line of the Greek East and Latin West. They included mainly the inhabitants of its core homeland Ancient Carthage (modern Tunis), as well as those colonial inhabitants of the settlements that acknowledged Carthaginian leadership elsewhere in North Africa, western Sicily, southern Sardinia, Malta, Ebusus, and southern Hispania.
Carthage once again prospered and even became the number-two trading city in the Roman Empire, until Constantinople took over that position. As Christianity spread in the Roman Empire, it was especially successful in Northwest Africa, and Carthage became a Christian city even before Christianity was legal. Saint Augustine, born in Thagaste (modern-day Algeria), considered himself Punic, and left some important reflections on Punic cultural history in his writing. One of his more well known passages reads: "It is an excellent thing that the Punic Christians call baptism itself nothing else but ‘salvation’, and the sacrament of Christ's body nothing else but ‘life’".
Between the ninth and seventh centuries BC, the Phoenicians established colonies throughout the western Mediterranean, particularly in North Africa, western Sicily, Sardinia, and southern Iberia. Carthage soon became the largest of these communities, establishing particularly close economic, cultural, and political ties with Motya in western Sicily and Sulci in Sardinia. Although coinage began to be minted by Greek communities in Sicily and Southern Italy around 540 BC, Punic communities did not begin producing coins until around 425 BC. The first Punic mints were in western Sicily, at Motya and Ṣyṣ (probably Panormus, modern Palermo). The coinage that these communities produced is known as Siculo-Punic coinage.
Carthage, in modern-day Tunisia, was the Phoenicians' most successful colony and survived in its Punic form until its destruction in 146 BC by Roman forces at the end of the Punic Wars. The colony shared an indelible association with wine and was described in the 4th century as having countrysides full of grapevines and olives. Carthaginian wine produced from the Bagradas river valley was particularly popular. The city of Carthage also served as a center of knowledge, exemplified by the work of the Punic writer Mago, who consolidated the agricultural and viticultural knowledge of the 3rd- and 2nd-century BC Mediterranean world into a 28-volume set.
Philinus of Agrigentum (3rd-century BCE) was a historian who lived during the First Punic War, who is said to have written history from a pro-Carthaginian standpoint. His writings were used as a source by Polybius and Diodorus for their descriptions of the First Punic War.Polybius, 1:14-15 Although Polybius uses Philinus' writings, he also accuses him of being biased and inconsistent. Philinus maintained that the initial Roman intervention in Sicily at the start of the First Punic War violated a treaty between Rome and Carthage from 306 B.C.E. which recognized Roman sovereignty on the Italian peninsula and Carthaginian control in Sicily.
Larus (supposedly died 207 BC) was a leader of Cantabrian mercenaries in the Carthaginian army during the Second Punic War, according to Silius Italicus's poem Punica.
The Battle of Lake Tunis was a series of engagements of the Third Punic War fought in 149 BC between the Carthaginians and the Roman Republic.
He was consul during the second year of the Third Punic War, which he conducted so lackadaisically that he was replaced by Scipio the following year.
Hannibal's alleged hatred of Rome and all Romans might also have been an idea of Roman propaganda to justify the second and eventually the third Punic war.
These worldwide important languages evolved from Vulgar Latin, which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans during the Second Punic War, beginning in 210 BC.
Also, as it was the case for the other dialects,Souag, L. (2007). Jabal Al- Lughat: Gafsa and the African neolatin language. Punic probably survived the Arabic conquest of the Maghreb: the geographer al-Bakri described in the 11th century people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or Coptic in rural Ifriqiya, a region where spoken Punic survived well past its written use.Jongeling, K., & Kerr, R.M. (2005).
The existing power structures, infrastructure, and urbanized culture continued largely unchanged. In 216 BC, two Sardo-Punic notables from Cornus and Tharros, Hampsicora and Hanno, led a revolt against the Romans. Punic culture remained strong during the first centuries of the Roman domination, but over time the civic elites adopted Roman cultural practices and Latin became first the prestige language and then the speech of the majority of the inhabitants.
Scipio was awarded the "Africanus", as his adoptive grandfather had been. The formerly Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the Roman province of Africa with Utica as its capital. The province became a major source of grain and other foodstuffs. Numerous large Punic cities, such as those in Mauretania, were taken over by the Romans, although they were permitted to retain their Punic system of government.
The history of the site goes back to the Punic and Numidian periods. The findings in the ruins of the ancient city testifies of a cultural diversity of the city influenced as well by Berbers, Carthaginians and mainly by Romans. The inscriptions that have been found are in three ancient languages, Latin, Libyan, and Punic. Epigraphy reflects particular local cults to Ba'al Hammon (equivalent to Roman Saturn) and Mercury.
Pointing to stories of Punic travelers like Hanno the Navigator. If true, trade with Carthage possibly started as early as the 6th century B.C. Well before the known start of Ghana in 300B.C.-300A.D. It is very possible that the decline of Carthage after the Punic Wars left the Soninke clans cut off & tradeless as Carthage kept their source of African gold secret. (A tradition the Wangara would continue).
Carthage had similar treaties with Etruscan, Punic and Greek cities in Sicily. By the end of the 6th Century BC, Carthage had conquered most of the old Phoenician colonies e.g. Hadrumetum, Utica and Kerkouane, subjugated some of the Libyan tribes, and had taken control of parts of the North African coast from modern Morocco to the borders of Cyrenaica. It was also fighting wars to defend its Punic colonies and commerce.
At the end of the Third Punic War, it was settled by many Punic refugees after the Romans' destruction of Carthage in 146. Under Roman rule, it obtained the status of a free city under Julius Caesar in 46 and became a Roman colony in 146. It formed part of the province of ByzacenaJoseph Bingham, Origines Ecclesiasticae, Volume 3 (Straker, 1843) p. 241. and was the seat of a Christian bishop.
The mercenary revolt (240–237) following the First Punic War was also largely and actively, though unsuccessfully, supported by rural Berbers. Picard (1970; 1968) at 203–209. According to Aristotle, the Carthaginians had associations akin to the Greek hetairiai, which were organizations roughly analogous to political parties or interest groups. Punic inscriptions reference mizrehim, which appeared to have been numerous in number and subject, ranging from devotional cults to professional guilds.
114 took command. The standing Punic army was in Sicily and recruiting a new one would have been time-consuming and probably very costly (Himilco's abandonment would have made mercenaries wary), so he rallied Carthaginian citizens to man the walls while the Punic navy kept the city supplied, as the Libyans had no ships to counter the Carthaginian fleet. Mago then used bribes and other means to quell the rebels.
The site is currently being excavated by Catalan University of Barcelona. In antiquity, Altiburus lay on the road from Carthage to Theveste, 35 km from El Kef on the confluence of two streams, north of the present location of Dawwar Awlad Gama. The name of the town comes from the Punic language and evidence of inscription there suggest a strong Punic population element. The Emperor Hadrian granted the town Municipium status.
The city of Carthage (site of its ruins near present-day Tunis) was founded by Phoenicians coming from the eastern Mediterranean coast. Its name, pronounced Kart Hudesht in their Punic language, meant "new city".. Here kart meant "city", hudesht "new" (pronounced Carchedon in ancient Greek). The Punic idiom is a Canaanite language, in the group of Northwest Semitic languages.Cf. Lancel, Serge (1995) Carthage: A History. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 351–360. .
Sicilia () was the first province acquired by the Roman Republic. The western part of the island was brought under Roman control in 241 BC at the conclusion of the First Punic War with Carthage. A praetor was regularly assigned to the island from c.227 BC. The Kingdom of Syracuse under Hieron II remained an independent ally of Rome until its defeat in 212 BC during the Second Punic War.
127 What followed shortly afterwards was the battle of the Great Plains, which ended with another crushing defeat of Hasdrubal Gisgo and Syphax.Caven, Punic Wars, pp. 242-243; Scullard, Scipio Africanus, pp. 128-131 Carthage had to recall its armies from Italy for a last decisive encounter that took place in 202 BC, and resulted in a final defeat and a peace treaty, ending the Second Punic War in 201 BC.
After the Punic Wars ended in Roman victory, Althiburos formed part of Africa. It retained a local Punic-style dual magistracy under sufetes well into the early empire, although at one point the city conceived a regional innovation and installed three executives at once. In the 2nd century, under the emperor Hadrian, it was granted municipal status and Italian rights under the name '.Alfred Merlin, « Fouilles à Althiburos (Medeina) », CRAI, vol.
Bagnall, N. The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage, and the Struggle for the Mediterranean. Macmillan, 2005, , , pages 168, 200-3.Bagnall, N. The Punic Wars, 264-146 BC: 264-146 BC. Osprey Publishing, 2002, , , pages 56, 61, 66. Nevertheless, the discovery of the treaty led to debates in the Roman Senate about how to handle Macedonia and, eventually led to the outbreak of the First Macedonian War (214-205 BC).
The Punic- Roman city was about three times the size of present-day Mdina, extending into a large part of modern Rabat. Melite's walls had a thickness of around and were surrounded by a -long ditch. Very little remains of the Punic-Roman walls of Melite still survive. The remains of a city gate or tower were discovered in Saqqajja in modern Rabat, about below the current street level.
Warfare in the Classical World. pp. 98-99. The Punic navy was built around the trireme, Carthaginian citizens usually served alongside recruits from Libya and other Carthaginian domains.
The Punic soldiers were uneasy about desecrating tombs, and they panicked when a plague broke out in the Carthaginian camps. The Carthaginians lost many men, including Hannibal himself.
Tiberius Sempronius Ti. f. Ti. n. Gracchus (died 212 BC) was a Roman Republican consul in the Second Punic War. He was son of Tiberius Sempronius Ti. f.
Smith, W. (Ed.). (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology (Vol. 3, p. 744). (see below a detailed description of events during the Second Punic War).
District of Punic Byrsa Byrsa was a walled citadel above the Phoenician harbour in ancient Carthage, Tunisia, as well as the name of the hill it rested on.
He was not given sufficient resources thoughCassius Dio, XVII, Appian, The Punic Wars, II, 7 and had to spend a year in preparations for the expedition from Sicily.
Boarding-bridge diagram The corvus (meaning "crow" or "raven" in Latin) was a Roman naval boarding device used in sea battles against Carthage during the First Punic War.
Punic influence, however, remained vibrant on the islands with the famous Cippi of Melqart, pivotal in deciphering the Punic language, dedicated in the 2nd century BC. Also the local Roman coinage, which ceased in the 1st century BC, indicates the slow pace of the island's Romanization, since the very last locally minted coins still bear inscriptions in Ancient Greek on the obverse (like "ΜΕΛΙΤΑΙΩ", meaning "of the Maltese") and Punic motifs, showing the resistance of the Greek and Punic cultures. The Greeks settled in the Maltese islands beginning circa 700 BC, as testified by several architectural remains, and remained throughout the Roman dominium. They called the island Melite ().Lycophron, AlexandraProcopius, History of the Wars, 7.40 At around 160 BC coins struck in Malta bore the Greek ‘ΜΕΛΙΤΑΙΩΝ’ (Melitaion) meaning ‘of the Maltese’. By 50 BC Maltese coins had a Greek legend on one side and a Latin one on the other. Later coins were issued with just the Latin legend ‘MELITAS’.
After securing the safety of Carthage, Mago moved to Sicily, where the Punic city of Solus had been sacked by Dionysius sometime in 396 BC. Carthage was unwilling or unable to provide Mago with additional forces, and he had to make do with the Punic garrison left by Himilco and whatever forces he could gather in Sicily.Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol IV, p169 The Carthaginians caught a break when Dionysius chose not to invade the Punic territories in western Sicily immediately lifting the siege of Syracuse. The Elymians had stayed loyal to Carthage since the start of the war, while the Sicilian Greeks and Sikans were not threatening and most of the Sicels were not hostile when Mago arrived in Sicily. Instead of trying to recover the lost Punic conquests through force, Mago adopted a policy of cooperation and friendship, giving aid to Greeks, Sikans, Sicels, Elymians and Punics regardless of their prior standing with Carthage.
Official state terminology of the late Republic and Roman Empire repurposed the word sufet to refer to Roman-style local magistrates serving in Africa Proconsularis, although a sufet appears as far-flung as Volubilis in modern-day Morocco. The institution is attested in more than forty post-Carthaginian cities, ranging from the Third Punic War to the second century CE reign of Commodus. Settlements governed by sufetes included Althiburos, Calama, Capsa, Cirta, Gadiaufala, Gales, Limisa, Mactar, Thugga and Volubilis. Unlike the continuity of Punic inhabitance in Sardinia, the sufet's prevalence in interior regions of Roman Africa, which were previously unsettled by Carthage, suggests that settlers and Punic refugees endeared themselves to Roman authorities by adopting a readily intelligible government.
However, it is likely that arabization of the Punics was facilitated by their language belonging to the same group (both being Semitic languages) as that of the conquerors and thus having many grammatical and lexical similarities. Most Punic speakers may have been linguistically Berberized and/or Latinized after the fall of Carthage. The ancient Libyco-Berber alphabet that is still in irregular use by modern Berber groups such as the Tuareg is known by the native name Tifinagh, possibly a derived form of a cognate of the name "Punic". Still, a direct derivation from the Phoenician-Punic script is debated and far from established since the two writing systems are very different.
The Roman Theatre of Carthago Nova and Cathedral ruins of Cartagena Although there are some ruins from the Carthaginian period, like the remains of the Punic rampart (built in 227 BC with the foundation of the city), most of its oldest monuments date from the time of the Roman Empire when Cartagena flourished. The archaeologist Blanca Roldán studied this Punic Rampart and other Punic remains, especially on the Molinete Hill. Among its numerous Roman remains, the recently restored Roman theatre of Carthago Nova is prominent and is one of the city's landmarks. work on it started at the end of the 2nd century BC. The Roman Theatre Museum was recently officially inaugurated.
Carthage's military provides a possible glimpse into the criteria of citizenship. Greek accounts describe a "Sacred Band of Carthage" that fought in Sicily in the mid fourth century BC, using the Hellenistic term for professional citizen soldiers selected on the basis of merit and ability. Roman writings about the Punic Wars describe the core of the military, including its commanders and officers, as being made up of "Liby-Phoenicians", a broad label that included ethnic Phoenicians, those of mixed Punic-North African descent, and Libyans who had integrated into Phoenician culture. During the Second Punic War, Hannibal promised his foreign troops Carthaginian citizenship, as well as wealth and land, if they proved victorious over the Romans.
The fibula is of particular interest because it is decorated with a human head in the style of the La Tène culture, associated with the Celts, showing Celtic or Celtiberian influence on the Iberian societies of the east coast of the peninsula. The hoard also included forty eight silver coins, including twenty two of Hispano-Punic origin, five local Iberian coins, three from Emporion, two from Massilia, and one from Rome. The Hispano-Punic coins were some of the last issued by the Barcids of Carthage (including one depicting Hannibal), whilst the Roman coin is an early denarius. These imply the hoard was buried around the time of, or shortly after, the Second Punic War.
Shortly after this event, Dionysius, along with his brother Leptines, sailed forth with a flotilla to escort a supply convoy crucial for Syracuse. It is not known who the commander was in Syracuse in their absence, but his actions netted a significant success for the Greeks. Firstly, after spotting an unescorted Punic corn ship in the Great Harbour, five Syracusan ships sailed out and captured it. While the prize was being brought in, 40 Punic ships sailed forth, and promptly the whole Syracusan navy (number of ships not mentioned, but probably outnumbering the Carthaginian contingent, there is no mention of who the admiral was) engaged the Punic squadron, sinking 4 ships and capturing 20 including the flagship.
The Siege of Aspis or Clupea was fought in 255BC between Carthage and the Roman Republic. It was the first fighting on African land during the First Punic War.
Appius Claudius Pulcher (Latin: APP•CLAVDIVS•P•F•APP•N•PVLCHER) (died 211 BC) was a Roman politician of the 3rd century BC, active in the Second Punic War.
The blockade of Tunis was conducted late in 238 BC by Carthaginian forces against the mercenaries who had mutinied against Carthage in the wake of the First Punic War.
After the Punic Wars, Carthage lost control of the colony to the Roman-allied kings of Mauretania. Its name during this time appears in Greek and Roman sources variously as Tenga, Tinga, Titga, &c.; It maintained strong ties to its Carthaginian heritage, issuing bronze coins with Punic legends reading "City of Titga" (, ), "City of Tinga" (, ), or "people of Tinga" (, ). These bore Baal or (via interpretatio Graeca) Demeter's head obverse and wheat reverse.
Bust of Tanit found in the Carthaginian necropolis of Puig des Molins, dated 4th century BC, housed in the Museum of Puig des Molins in Ibiza, Spain Tanit in Phoenician and Punic inscriptions. was a Punic and Phoenician goddess, the chief deity of Ancient Carthage alongside her consort Baal-Hamon.The standard survey is: . An extensive critical review by G. W. Ahlström appeared in Journal of Near Eastern Studies 45(4), October 1986, pp. 311-314.
Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests. Carthaginian hoplite (Sacred Band, end of the 4th century BC) Carthage was a Phoenician colony on the coast of Tunisia. Carthaginian culture came into contact with the Greeks through Punic colonies in Sicily and through their widespread Mediterranean trade network. While the Carthaginians retained their Punic culture and language, they did adopt some Hellenistic ways, one of the most prominent of which was their military practices.
After the final Carthaginian naval defeat at the Aegates Islands,Walbank 1979, p. 187 the Carthaginians surrendered and accepted defeat in the First Punic War. Hamilcar Barca (Barca meaning lightning),Dodge 1994, p. 131 a leading member of the patriotic Barcine party in Carthage and a general who operated with ability in the course of the First Punic War, sought to remedy the losses that Carthage had suffered in Sicily to the Romans.
Ruins in Ténès Ténès was founded as a Phoenician port in or before the 8th centuryBC. As with other Phoenician colonies, it fell under the hegemony of Carthage around the 6th centuryBC and of the Romans after the Punic Wars. Its Punic name was latinized as Cartenna or Cartennae, a plural which suggested the existence of a separate Berber settlement nearby. Ptolemy mentions that the local tribes were known as the "Bakoyta".
Starting with the Punic Wars, Berbers are, however, mentioned in surviving works of classical Greek and Roman authors and these sources provide some details in the descriptions of Berber events.Cf. Abdallah Lauroui, in his L'Histoire du Maghreb: Un essai de synthèse (Paris: Librairie François Maspero 1970), translated as The History of the Maghreb. An Interpretive Essay (Princeton University 1977), 30. During the three Punic Wars, Rome directly entered into permanent relations with the Berber people.
To top things off, the Libyans, angered by the desertion of their kinsmen in Africa, rebelled. They gathered an army of 70,000 and besieged Carthage. Mago, the victor of Catana, took command. The standing Punic army was in Sicily and recruiting a new one was time consuming and probably very costly (Himilco's misdeed would have made mercenaries wary), so he rallied Carthaginian citizens to man the walls while the Punic navy kept the city supplied.
During the Second Punic War, Syphax sued for peace between Hannon Barca and Publius Cornelius Scipio after the Romans had landed in Africa. With the help of Masinissa, Publius Scipio's troops set fire to Syphax's camp. The king Masinissa added Syphax's former territory to his eastern kingdom Massylii as a reward gained through military victory against Carthage. After the Second Punic War, Massinissa combined the Amazigh people into a united nation with an agricultural industry.
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus fought in the Second Punic War, though he never faced Hannibal himself, he played a major part in defeating him. At the start of the Second Punic War Gnaeus served as a legate in the army of his younger brother Publius who was consul at the outbreak of the war in 218 BC. From 218 BC until his death in 211 BC he fought against the Carthaginians in Spain.
Armies of the ancient Roman-Germanic wars made use of light cavalry as patrolling squads, or armed scouts, and often had them in the front lines during regional battles. During the Punic Wars, one of Carthage's main advantages over Roman armies was its extensive use of Numidian light cavalry. Partly because of this, the Roman general Scipio Africanus recruited his own cavalry from Sicily before his invasion of Tunisia during the Second Punic War.
Unfortunately, surviving Punic writings are very scarce aside from funerary and votive inscriptions; remains of the ancient Berber script is also limited. The earliest written reports come from later Greek and Roman authors. From discovery of archaic material culture and such writings, early Berber culture and society, and religion, can be somewhat surmised. Tunisia remained the leading region of the Berber peoples throughout the Punic era (and Roman, and into the Islamic).
War in Africa – the Second Punic War at Zama. In the Second Punic War, Rome realized again that it had to strike at and defeat Carthage in its own homeland. Under Scipio Africanus, Roman forces did do it convincingly, with significant aid by the horsemen of Numidia under Masinissa. The patchwork of both African-based and other forces available to Hannibal at Zama was a far cry from what he had enjoyed in Italy.
The very factors that gave rise to the Talaiotic Period spelled its doom. Construction of talaiots ceased, and many of them were destroyed or converted for different uses. The nearby Punic center of Ebusus, present-day Ibiza, increased its commercial influence to include the Gymnesian Islands; this economic extension in effect transformed itself into an actual Punic colonization of the Gymnesian Islands. The Mediterranean subsequently became dominated by the Roman and Carthaginian Empires.
Marcus Cornelius Cethegus (c. 248 BC196 BC) was a Roman Republican consul and censor during the Second Punic War, best known as a political ally of his kinsman Scipio Africanus.
The military works were the first type of infrastructure built by the Romans in Hispania, due to the confrontation on the peninsula with the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War.
The Cluvii were of Campanian origin. The earliest member of the family appearing in history was Faucula Cluvia, a courtesan at Capua during the Second Punic War.Livy, xxvi. 33, 34.
The base denomination was the shekel, probably pronounced in Punic. Carthage issued ½-shekel, shekel (7.20 g), 1⅔-shekel, double shekel, and triple shekel coins. 5-shekel pieces were issued in Sicily.
The village was destroyed by fire, probably at the end of the eighth century BC and was later sporadically attended in Punic and Roman times, as witnessed by some pottery found.
Hasdrubal Barca (245– 22June 207BC), a latinization of ʿAzrubaʿal () son of Hamilcar Barca, was a Carthaginian general in the Second Punic War. He was the brother of Hannibal and Mago Barca.
His mother Marcia allegedly tortured two Punic prisoners to death in revenge. According to Livy, he had at least two surviving sons and one surviving daughter when he returned to Carthage.
The city is situated on the site of the ancient Numistri, at the foot of the Apennines, the scene of a battle between Hannibal and Marcellus in the Second Punic War.
Rusadir was an ancient Punic and Roman town at what is now Melilla, Spain, in northwest Africa. Under the Roman Empire, it was a colony in the province of Mauretania Tingitana.
The Carthaginian presence in Iberia lasted from 575 BC to 206 BC when the Carthaginians were defeated by the Roman Republic at the Battle of Ilipa in the Second Punic War.
The Minucii originally came from Brixia in Cisalpine Gaul. That city had received a Roman colony shortly before the Second Punic War, and its inhabitants received Roman citizenship in 41 BC.
Ruins of the Punic and then Roman town of Tharros From the 8th century BC, Phoenicians founded several cities and strongholds on strategic points in the south and west of Sardinia, often peninsulas or islands near estuaries, easy to defend and natural harbours, such as Tharros, Bithia, Sulci, Nora and Caralis (Cagliari). The north, the eastern coast and the interior of the island continued to be dominated by the indigenous Nuragic civilization, whose relations with the Sardo-Punic cities were mixed, including both trade and military conflict. Intermarriage and cultural mixing took place on a large scale. The inhabitants of the Sardo- Punic cities were a mixture of Phoenician and Nuragic stock, with the latter forming the majority of the population.
The Punic religion was based on that of their Phoenician forefathers, who worshiped Baal Hammon and Melqart, but merged Phoenician ideas with Numidian and some Greek and Egyptian deities, such as Apollo, Tanit, and Dionysus, with Baal Hammon being clearly the most important Punic god. Punic culture became a melting pot, since Carthage was a big trading port, but the Carthaginians retained some of their old cultural identities and practices. The Carthaginians carried out significant sea explorations around Africa and elsewhere from their base in Carthage. In the 5th century BC, Hanno the Navigator played a significant role in exploring coastal areas of present-day Morocco and other parts of the African coast, specifically noting details of indigenous peoples such as at Essaouira.
After securing the safety of Carthage, Mago moved to Sicily, where the Punic city of Solus had been sacked by Dionysius sometime in 396 BC. Carthage was unwilling or unable to provide Mago with additional forces, and he had to make do with the Punic garrison left by Himilco and whatever forces he could gather in Sicily.Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol IV, p. 169 The Carthaginians caught a break when Dionysius chose not to invade the Punic territories in Western Sicily immediately lifting the siege of Syracuse. The Elymians had stayed loyal to Carthage since the start of the war, while the Sicilian Greeks and Sikans were not threatening and most of the Sicels were not hostile when Mago arrived in Sicily.
The Punic fleet was undermanned as some of the crews had perished in the plague, and many of their ships were deserted. The Greek ships had also achieved total surprise, the Punic ships at Dascon, which included 40 quinqueremes,Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.73 could not be manned and launched in time to face the assault and soon the whole Syracuse navy joined the attack. Greek ships rammed and sunk some as they lay at anchor, some ships were boarded and captured by Greek soldiers after a brief skirmish, while the horsemen, now led by Dionysius, set fire to some of the ships, some of which drifted away when their anchor cables burnt. Punic soldiers and sailors leapt into the water and swam ashore.
In the mid-2nd-century BC Rome was the dominant power in the Mediterranean region, while Carthage was a large city state in the north east of what is now modern Tunisia. The Carthaginians were referred to by the Romans by the Latin word (or ), and is a reference to Carthage's Phoenician origin. "Punic" derives from this usage. Carthage and Rome had fought the 23-year-long First Punic War from 264 to 241 BC and the 17-year-long Second Punic War between 218 and 201 BC. Both wars ended with Roman victories; the Second when the Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal, the premier Carthaginian general of the war, at the Battle of Zama, south west of Carthage.
It should be pointed out that the sources on the Punic forces are rare and not easily accessible because they are almost exclusively written by their opponents in war.Ameling, Walter Karthago: Studien zu Militär, Staat und Gesellschaft An inscription discovered in Carthage seems to confirm the doubts raised by the lack of sources concerning members of the nobility in the trading business. The translation (which is, like all translations from the Punic, disputed in details) only mentions in the existing parts merchants among the people with little money, while owners of producing facilities are mentioned among those with more money. Similar doubts were raised earlier because our only source on a Punic trader is the play Poenulus and the Carthaginian presented there is a rather humble merchant.
The first find most probably belonging to the monumental complex of Mont'e Prama was recovered in 1965. It is a fragmented head in sandstone, found at the bottom of the sacred well of Banatou (Narbolia). Originally, the fragment of Banatou was held as Punic, given the large presence of Punic artifacts and the alleged absence of Nuragic statuary. The uncovering of the statues at the necropolis of Monti Prama had to wait almost ten further years.
His kingdom was however not long-lived. Didrachm, 490–483 BC. The city was disputed between the Romans and the Carthaginians during the First Punic War. The Romans laid siege to the city in 262 BC and captured it after defeating a Carthaginian relief force in 261 BC and sold the population into slavery. Although the Carthaginians recaptured the city in 255 BC the final peace settlement gave Punic Sicily and with it Akragas to Rome.
A Carthaginian peace is the imposition of a very brutal "peace" achieved by completely crushing the enemy. The term derives from the peace imposed on Carthage by Rome. After the Second Punic War, Carthage lost all its colonies, was forced to demilitarize and pay a constant tribute to Rome and could enter war only with Rome's permission. At the end of the Third Punic War, the Romans systematically burned Carthage to the ground and enslaved its population.
After Agathocles sued for peace, Carthage enjoyed a brief, unchallenged period of control of Sicily, which ended with the Pyrrhic War. The Sicilian Pyrrhic expedition, the second phase of the Pyrrhic War (280-265 BC), which ultimately led to the Punic Wars, can be considered the ultimate part of the Greek-Punic wars. Pyrrhus of Epirus arrived in Sicily to rescue the island from the Carthaginians. He conquered Palermo, Eryx and Iaitias but his siege of Lilybaeum failed.
In lands outside Punic political control, independent Berbers cultivated grain and raised horses on their lands. Yet within the Punic domain that surrounded the city-state of Carthage, there were ethnic divisions in addition to the usual quasi feudal distinctions between lord and peasant, or master and serf. This inherent instability in the countryside drew the unwanted attention of potential invaders.Gilbert and Colette Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage (1958; 1968) at 83–85 (invaders), 86–88 (rural proletariat).
The presence of significant remains of pottery on the site found during the excavations suggests the existence of workshops nearby which produced ceramic ware intended to be used within the temple site. However, the presence of imported ware was also confirmed by the make-up of the pottery. Numerous Punic bronze coins were also found on site. In the Roman era, the Punic temple was converted into a sanctuary of Juno, which was the Roman equivalent to Astarte.
These eastern powers soon began to be overshadowed by those farther west. In North Africa, the former Phoenician colony of Carthage rose to dominate its surroundings with an empire that contained many of the former Phoenician holdings. However, it was a city on the Italian Peninsula, Rome, that would eventually dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. Spreading first through Italy, Rome defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars, despite Hannibal's famous efforts against Rome in the Second Punic War.
The Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus has been interpreted as an assertion of Rome's civil and religious authority, either throughout the Italian peninsula or within Roman territories, following the recent Punic War and subsequent social and political instability.During the Punic crisis, some foreign cults and oracles had been repressed, on much smaller scale and not outside Rome itself. See Erich S. Gruen, Studies in Greek culture and Roman policy, BRILL, 1990, pp.34-78: on precedents see p.
Even though Rome had drawn up an earlier treaty with Carthage following the First Punic War, a complete disregard to the agreement led it to annex Sardinia and Corsica by force during the Mercenary War. In 238 BC, the Carthaginians, accepting their defeat in the First Punic War, surrendered Corsica and Sardinia, which together became a province of Rome. This marked the beginning of Roman domination in the Western Mediterranean. The Romans ruled the area for 694 years.
One of the Maktar inscriptions - the Punic language "grand dedicatory inscription" Numerous inscriptions are recorded through the ruins.Robert M. Kerr, Latino-Punic Epigraphy: A Descriptive Study of the Inscriptions (Mohr Siebeck, 2010). French archaeological excavations began in 1914, and were continued from 1944 on a large scale. Although not fully excavated, the ruins unearthed so far, especially of the thermal baths and the Schola of the Juvenes, mark this as one of the most remarkable ancient sites in Tunisia.
Adorned Statue of the Punic Goddess Tanit, from the necropolis of Puig des Molins, Ibiza, Spain (fifth-third centuries BC). Archaeology Museum of Catalonia (Barcelona, Spain).Lingering mutual animosity and renewed tensions along their borderlands led to the Second Punic War (218 to 202 BC), which involved factions from across the western and eastern Mediterranean. The war is marked by Hannibal's surprising overland journey to Rome, particularly his costly and strategically bold crossing of the Alps.
The fire spread to the camp but was put out after part of the camp was burnt.Church, Alfred J., Carthage, pp58 The Punic army could not offer assistance as they were busy fending off attacking Greek soldiers. Some Greeks from Syracuse manned some of the merchant vessels and boats, sailed to Dascon and towed some of the derelict Punic ships away, along with whatever spoils they could scavenge. Meanwhile, the fort at Dascon had also fallen into Greek hands.
Punic Mercenaries stationed in Sardinia had rebelled in 239 BC, besieged Boaster and all Carthaginians in a citadel and later executed them after the fort fell. They managed to take over all Punic territories in Sardinia. Carthage sent a mercenary force under Hanno to retake the island in 239 BC, but this group also rebelled, killed Hanno and their Carthaginian officers and joined the rebels in Sardinia. The rebels requested Rome to take over Sardinia, which was turned down.
Unplanned Wars: The Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars. Walter de Gruyter, 1998, , , p. 151. In reality, because summer had elapsed by the time the second delegation reached Hannibal and concluded the treaty, its terms were never executed (military operations were usually suspended in winter). Furthermore, the discovery of the alliance by the Roman senate nullified the element of surprise, which greatly diminished the treaty's value in the context of the Second Punic War.
Buruni, was an ancient Roman city of the Bagradas Valley identifiable with Henchir-El-Dakhla in modern Tunisia.Carte des routes et des cités de l'est de l'Africa à la fin de l'Antiquité, 2010, p. 202-203. There is no record of the city in Punic or pre Roman Berber, times, and is presumed to be a Roman foundation, probably of coloni status. The Bagradis valley became Roman after the Third Punic War about 146BCAppian, Punica 112.
It may also be a testimony to "the participation of the people, the Libyphenicians, in the war effort of the metropolis of Carthage well before the outbreak of the first Punic war". The armour seems to be in any case a "probable and indirect witness" of the armies or mercenaries of the Carthaginian wars, "probably acquired in Campania" during the Italian stay of the Punic army, between 211 and 203 BC, which makes it an exceptional object.
Thenae was founded as a Phoenician colony on the Mediterranean coast of what is now southeastern Tunisia. Along with the rest of ancient Tunisia, it passed into Carthaginian and then Roman control during the time of the Punic Wars. Thenae issued its own bronze coins around the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus, with a female head (either Serapis or Astarte) obverse and a four- columned temple reverse. It also bore the town's name in Punic characters.
Punic culture remained long predominant, with the city minting bronze coins as late as Augustus with Punic inscriptions. Some bore Astarte's head obverse and a lyre reverse; others bore "Poseidon"'s head obverse and a capricorn reverse. Roman Africa was less arid than modern Tunisia, and Thysdrus and the surrounding lands in Byzacena were an important center of olive oil production and export. Its greatest importance occurred under the Severan dynasty in the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries.
Hannibal Barca (; , Ḥannibaʿl Barqa; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded Carthage's main forces against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War. He is widely considered one of the greatest military commanders in world history. His father, Hamilcar Barca, was a leading Carthaginian commander during the First Punic War. His younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal, and he was brother- in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair; who also commanded Carthaginian armies.
Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 179-182 & 216-218. Although the representational evidence, including gravestones and tombs, usually shows soldiers without armor, the archaeological evidence includes remains of scale armor, mail armor, and helmets.Stephenson, I.P., 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 25-51.Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 170-178 & 208-216.
The gens Digitia was a plebeian or family at Rome. Members of this gens are first mentioned during the Second Punic War.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, Editor.
The Roman name ' is a latinization of the Punic name (), meaning "Francolin Cape" and referring to nearby Cape Matifou. Ptolemy hellenized the name as Rhoustónion (),Ptol., Geogr., Book IV, Ch. ii, §6.
These issues mean that information on the siege of Carthage is less certain than is usual for the Punic wars. Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions.
The Punic name of the town was simply Kapara (, ), meaning "Village". The Greek name appears in surviving coins as Solontînos () but appears variously in other sources as Solóeis (),Thuc. Soloûs (),Diod., Eth.
This breach of the recently signed treaty is considered by modern historians to be the single greatest cause of war with Carthage breaking out again in 218BC in the Second Punic War.
The architecture of the elegant tower tomb of his contemporary Syphax shows Greek or Punic influence.Tomb of Syphax is at Siga near Oran. Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1996) pp. 27–31.
Hasdrubal Gisco (died 202BC), a latinization of the name ʿAzrubaʿal son of Gersakkun (),. was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia (Hispania) and North Africa during the Second Punic War.
Serrati, John, and Christopher Smith. "Garrisons and Grain: Sicily between the Punic Wars" In Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus: New Approaches in Archaeology and History, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 115-133.
Triumphal arch and an extensive necropolis excavated by the French.Josephine Crawley Quinn, Nicholas C. Vella, The Punic Mediterranean (Cambridge University Press, 2014). The site includes many megalithic tombs TUNESIEN: Route 14 - offroad-reisen.com.
While many cities, including the Gallic states and the Carthaginian Republic, had a double-headed chief magistracy, another title was often used, such as the Punic sufet, Duumvir, or native styles like Meddix.
James Millingen, Ancient Coins, pp. 33-35; Sestini, Lett. Num. vol. vii. pl. 1. During the 4th century BC coinage became scarce. Punic coins and Corinthian staters were the principal currencies in circulation.
The First Punic War, a pivotal war between Rome and Carthage in the 3rd century BC, was largely a naval conflict. And the naval Battle of Actium established the Roman empire under Augustus.
After defeating Carthage in the Second Punic War, the Romans governed all of the Iberian Peninsula for centuries, expanding and diversifying the economy and extending Hispanic trade with the greater Republic and Empire.
These issues mean that of the three Punic wars, the third is the one about which the least is reliably known. Other sources include coins, inscriptions, archaeological evidence and empirical evidence from reconstructions.
Ben Younès points out that many testimonies present in the Punic necropolises excavated at the beginning of the 20th century have disappeared, even though they could have provided much information on this civilisation.
Jo Ann Hackett (born August 14, 1949) is an American scholar of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and of Biblical Hebrew and other ancient Northwest Semitic languages such as Phoenician, Punic, and Aramaic.
Thurii now sunk completely into the condition of a dependent ally of Rome, and was protected by a Roman garrison. No mention is found of its name during the wars with Pyrrhus or the First Punic War, but it plays a considerable part in the Second Punic War with Hannibal. It was apparently one of the cities which revolted to the Carthaginians after the battle of Cannae. In another passage, Livy places its defection more precisely in 212 BC.Liv. xxii. 61, xxv. 1.
The subsequent Roman attack on Carthaginian forces at Messana triggered the first of the Punic Wars. Over the course of the next century, these three major conflicts between Rome and Carthage would determine the course of Western civilization. The wars included a dramatic Carthaginian invasion led by Hannibal, which nearly brought an end to Rome. During the First Punic Wars, the Romans under the command of Marcus Atilius Regulus managed to land in Africa, though were ultimately repelled by the Carthaginians.
Although born 150 years after the events of Laevinus' life, Livy's account of the Second Punic War provides the most detailed narrative of Laevinus' career. One must, however, be wary of Livy's pro-Roman bias, which tends to emphasise Roman victory and virtue. Other ancient accounts which refer to Laevinus include those of Polybius, Eutropius, Plutarch, Cicero, and Solinus. There is no modern historical work which solely discusses Laevinus, but he appears in narratives and analyses of the Punic Wars.
Instead of trying to recover the lost Punic conquests through force, Mago adopted a policy of cooperation and friendship, giving aid to Greeks, Sikans, Sicels, Elymians and Punics regardless of their prior standing with Carthage.Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.90 Many of the Greeks had been victims of the duplicity and aggression of Dionysius (he had destroyed Greek cities Naxos, Leontini and Catana and driven out the population) and even preferred to live under Punic rule.Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol. 4 pp.
The commission insisted that both sides agree to their final decision. Masinissa agreed, but Carthage refused because of how unfavorable previous Roman decisions had been. Cato, who had served in the Roman Legion during the Second Punic War, was convinced by Carthage's refusal to accept the commission that the Third Punic War was needed. Cato made a series of speeches to the senate all of which ended with "Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam" (Moreover, I advise that Carthage should be destroyed).
Rather, any date concerning the establishment of the Lex Hieronica must be derived from indirect evidence. Some scholars suggest that the Lex Hieronica was only implemented after 210 BCE.Serrati, John, and Christopher Smith. "Garrisons and Grain: Sicily between the Punic Wars" In Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus: New Approaches in Archaeology and History Edinburgh University Press, 2000. p. 125 In 210 BCE Valerius Laevinus led an army against Syracuse due its defection to Carthage during the second Punic war and conquered the city.
Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due to Roman allegations of "Punic Faith," referring to the breach of protocols that ended the First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, and a Carthaginan attack on a stranded Roman fleet. Scipio and Carthage had worked out a peace plan, which was approved by Rome. The terms of the treaty were quite modest, but the war had been long for the Romans. Carthage could keep its African territory but would lose its overseas empire.
Towards the end of their Western Mediterranean dominance, political coordination between local and colonial Carthaginians was likely expressed through a regional hierarchy of sufetes. For example, some epigraphic evidence from Punic-era Sardinia is dated with four names: the years' magistrates not only on the island, but also at home in North Africa. Further inscriptional evidence of sufetes found in the major settlements of Roman Sardinia indicates that the office, having endured there for three centuries under Carthaginian sovereignty, was utilized by the descendants of Punic settlers to refuse both cultural and political assimilation with their mainland Italian conquerors. Punic-style magistracies appear epigraphically unattested only by the end of the first century BCE, although two sufetes wielded power in Bithia as late as the mid-second century CE.
After securing the safety of Carthage, Mago moved to Sicily, where the threat of a Syracusan invasion of Carthaginian western Sicily was ever-present, with the Punic city of Solus having been sacked by Dionysius in 396 BC. Carthage was unwilling or unable to provide Mago with additional forces, and he had to make do with the Punic garrison left by Himilco and whatever forces he could gather in Sicily.Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol IV, p169 The Carthaginians gained some time when Dionysius chose not to invade the Punic territories in western Sicily immediately after the disaster at Syracuse. Mago chose to use the opportunity wisely. The Elymians had stayed loyal to Carthage, the Sicilian Greeks and Sikans were not threatening and most of the Sicels were not hostile.
Roman mosaics in the Domvs Romana of ancient Melite According to Latin historian Livy, the Maltese Islands passed into the hands of the Romans at the start of the Second Punic War in the year 218 BC. As written by Livy, the commander of the Punic garrison on the Island surrendered without resistance to Tiberius Sempronius Longus, one of the two consuls for that year who was on his way to North Africa. The archipelago became part of the province of Sicily, but by the 1st century AD it had its own senate and people's assembly. By this time, both Malta and Gozo minted distinctive coins based on Roman weight measurements. In the Roman period, the Punic city of Maleth became known as Melite, and it became the administrative hub of the Island.
The Battle of Petelia was an ambush during the Second Punic War that took place in the summer of 208 BC near Petelia. The Carthaginian general Hannibal surprised and destroyed a large Roman detachment.
526 ("Caecilia Gens").Livy, iv. 7. The Caecilii Metelli were one of the most powerful families of the late Republic, from the decades before the First Punic War down to the time of Augustus.
During the Second Punic War its territory was alternately traversed or occupied by the Romans and by Hannibal,Liv. xxii. 13, 17, 18, xxvi. 9. but no mention is made of the town itself.
Book 8 gives the history of the defeat of Carthage which concludes the Second Punic War. Book 9 shows Scipio returns to Rome for his triumphal victory celebration at the steps of the Capitol.
From this time until his death in 215 BC he remained loyal to the Romans, and frequently assisted them with men and provisions during the Punic war.Livy xxi. 49–51, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21.
Among the captured were two of Masinissa's sons. This became the final excuse for Rome to attack Carthage. In 149 BC, Masinissa died of old age. His death occurred during the Third Punic War.
The Battle of Baecula was a major field battle in Iberia during the Second Punic War. Roman Republican and Iberian auxiliary forces under the command of Scipio Africanus routed the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Barca.
Mattingly et al., The Roman Imperial Coinage, vol. I, p. 177.Titus was sent to Sardinia, which had just come under Roman control in the aftermath of the First Punic War (264 BC – 241 BC).
His consulship, however, was annulled, likely due to accusations of a faulty election. In 215, during the Second Punic War, Laevinus was elected praetor peregrinusLivy 23.24.4 with command of the Roman forces in Apulia.Polybius 8.1.
The deal was not regretted, for the collection started Etruscan studies in the Netherlands. Humbert around this time also bought a smaller collection of Roman, Egyptian and Punic antiquities, and shipped everything to the Netherlands.
After Rome's expansion during the First Punic War (263-241 BC), Roman imperialism around the Mediterranean Sea saw the beginnings of economic exploitations of newly formed provinces. This naval activity increased throughout the third century.
During the Second Punic War Taranto (then called Tarentum) was first captured by the Carthaginians during the Battle of Tarentum (212 BC) and then recaptured by the Romans in the Battle of Tarentum (209 BC).
Their language, Punic, was a dialect of Phoenician. The first Phoenicians settled in the western Mediterranean in the twelfth century BC and formed part of trading networks linked to Tyre and Sidon in Phoenicia. Although links with Phoenicia were retained throughout their history, they also developed close relations with other peoples of the western Mediterranean and developed cultural traits distinct from those of the Phoenician motherland. Some of these were shared by all western Phoenicians, while others were restricted to individual regions within the Punic sphere.
The word Punicus comes from Punic, a Latin word for "Phoenician" borrowed from Ancient Greek phonikeos.Etymology of Punicus It has been suggested that Punicus received this name not from birth, but as a title after gaining military experience around Carthaginian forces in Southern Hispania. Alternatively, it is also possible that he was a Phoenician by blood, a Lusitanian of Phoenician ancestry, or merely a Hispanian whose name sounded like Punic to Roman chroniclers. An 18th-century chronicle gives Punicus the alternate name of "Appimanus".
After its destruction at White Tunis, the "Sacred Band" disappears from historical record. Although Carthaginian citizen infantry appear in historical sources during later wars, their numbers are significantly higher, implying an emergence levy of all available citizens, rather than an elite force. Larger citizen forces turned out during the First Punic War (namely the Battle of Bagradas), the Mercenary War, and the Third Punic War, but the "Sacred Band" or any other elite unit is not mentioned in any surviving accounts of these wars.
Evidently, long before and after the Islamic conquest, there was some popular sense of a strong and long-standing cultural connection between the Berbers and the Semites of the Levant,See Early History of Tunisia. naturally with regard to Carthage,The Phoenicians of Tyre who founded and settled in Carthage spoke and wrote in a Canaanite language, a division of Northwest Semitic, called Punic (Lancel, Carthage. A history (1992, 1995) at 351-360), and transplanted their culture to Africa.See History of Punic era Tunisia.
Mago chose not to try to recover the lost Punic conquests of 405 BC through force. Instead, he adopted a policy of cooperation and friendship, giving aid to Greeks, Sikans, Sicels and Elymians regardless of their prior standing with Carthage.Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.90 Many of the Greeks had been victims of the duplicity and aggression of Dionysius (he had destroyed Greek cities Naxos, Leontini and Catana and driven out the population) and even preferred to live under Punic rule.Freeman, Edward A. History of Sicily Vol.
By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars.
Hamilcar Barca during the first Punic war and Quintus Fabius Maximus during the second had adopted a strategy on encamping near their enemy and constantly skirmishing without engaging in pitched battle. Successive Carthaginian commanders faced similar tactics from the Greeks during their campaign in 406, when the Greeks harassed the Punic supply lines and brought them close to disaster. Dionysius now adopted the same strategy. He encamped with his army but refused battle, while the Carthaginians camped nearby, the Sicels were employed to do the harassment.
The Battle of the Aegates was a naval battle fought on 10 March 241 BC between the fleets of Carthage and Rome during the First Punic War. It took place among the Aegates Islands, off the western coast of the island of Sicily. The Carthaginians were commanded by Hanno, and the Romans were under the overall authority of Gaius Lutatius Catulus, but Quintus Valerius Falto commanded during the battle. It was the final and deciding battle of the 23-year-long First Punic War.
View of Kerkouane seaside The Necropolis of Kerkouane is an ancient cemetery located approximately northwest of the Punic city of Kerkouane in northeastern Tunisia. The necropolis consists of a series of vaults set in a seaside hill, four primary chamber-tombs, and a surrounding burial area. In 1985, UNESCO declared Kerkouane and its necropolis a World Heritage Site, because "[t]he remains constitute the only example of a Phoenicio-Punic city to have survived." The necropolis was discovered in 1929 by a local Islamic schoolteacher.
The Oretani remained independent until the late 3rd Century BC, when their powerful King Orison was defeated at the Battle of Helicen in 228 BC.Appian, Iberiké, 6. Orison's defeat in 227 BCDiodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, 25, 42. and the subsequent alliance with Carthage, however, caused major friction with their Germani allies who continued to resist Punic expansion until being subdued by Hannibal in 221 BC; the latter were certainly amongst the Oretani troops sent to Africa at the outbreak of the Second Punic War.
One possible explanation for this is that many Roman slaves were foreigners of Greek origin. Plautus would sometimes incorporate passages in other languages as well in places where it would suit his characters. A noteworthy example is the use of two prayers in Punic in Poenulus, spoken by the Carthaginian elder Hanno, which are significant to Semitic linguistics because they preserve the Carthaginian pronunciation of the vowels. Unlike Greek, Plautus most probably did not speak Punic himself, nor was the audience likely to understand it.
This root is the equivalent of the Numidian root mess, "leader", which is in turn the root of the name of Arabio's father, Masinissa. It was first proposed by the numismatist Jean Mazard in 1955 that Arabio's given name was the same as that of his father and that Roman authors referred to him merely by the Punic form with which they were more familiar. The Numidian and Punic languages belong to the Berber and Semitic branches of the Afro-Asiatic language family, respectively.
In the context of the French protectorate of Tunisia, particularly from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, Punic necropolises were extensively excavated. At the archaeological site of Carthage, excavations were mainly carried out by White Fathers, such as Alfred Louis Delattre. The opening of the tombs was often the object of mundane ceremonies, attracting the French colonial population. The cuirass, made in Campania or Apulia, was found on 20 February 1909, during excavations of a Punic tomb with a well during earthworks.
The Roman fleet sailed from Tarraco and was positioned only 10 miles to the north of the Carthaginian position when the warnings reached Gnaeus Scipio. Gnaeus manned his ships with picked legionaries, and now sailed down to attack the Punic fleet. Hasdrubal's army scouts detected the approaching Roman fleet before the Punic navy and warned their fleet of the coming danger through fire signals. Most of the crews had been foraging, and they hastily had to man their ships and sail out in a disorderly manner.
By the 5th century BCE, the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, Carthage, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being. Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (later Tripoli), Libdah (later Leptis Magna) and Sabratha. These cities were in an area that was later called Tripolis, or "Three Cities", from which Libya's modern capital Tripoli takes its name. In 630 BCE, the Ancient Greeks colonized Eastern Libya and founded the city of Cyrene.
She currently teaches at the University of Algiers. Her doctoral research was undertaken at Paris-Sorbonne, where she studied the cult of Aesculapius and his assimilation with the Punic god Eshmun and a Libyan healing deity.
Writing in the 1st century B.C., Diodorus Siculus, mentions Hanno in his account of the First Punic War and refers to him as “Hanno, son of Hannibal”, to distinguish him from other Carthaginians of that name.
Punic mosaics were found at sites around Kerkouane or Byrsa hill at Carthage dating to Roman times, a mosacis with pictorial representation, combined with high quality marble, has been found, especially on the site of Chemtou.
Hanno reluctantly agreed, but the talks failed again. The Romans seized Hanno and imprisoned him. Hanno was thus compelled to withdraw the Carthaginian garrison from Messana. These events triggered the beginning of the First Punic War.
The poet, Aulus Persius Flaccus. Modern woodcut. The gens Persia was a minor plebeian family at Rome. Members of this gens are first mentioned during the Second Punic War, but they only occasionally occur in history.
Ironically, it was this elder Cato's fanatic hatred of Carthage that spurred Rome to later destroy the Punic city-state (146 BC). Bowder, ed., Who was Who in the Roman World (Cornell Univ. 1980), 52–53.
The city of Tharros, located on the western side of the island on the Sinis peninsula, was one of the main producers of jewels in the Punic world, as testified by the rich funerary kits found in the Punic necropolis. It was one of the cities that rebelled against Roman rule during the Second Punic War and supported Hampiscora's revolt. Located on the northeastern side of Sardinia, Olbia was a rich port town. Although its name seems to be of Greek origin, the city was already under Carthaginian control by the 5th century BC. Its massive walls, still visible today, date back to the 4th century BC. Its strategic position in the Mediterranean trade routes was indisputable, so much that when the Romans occupied the island in 238 BC, the city became an important military base for the Roman navy.
Following a centuries-long series of conflicts with the Sicilian Greeks, its growing competition with Rome culminated in the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), which saw some of the largest and most sophisticated battles in antiquity, and nearly led to Rome's destruction. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage and established a new city in its place a century later. All remaining Carthaginian dependencies, as well as other Phoenician city-states, came under Roman rule by the first century AD. Notwithstanding the cosmopolitan character of its empire, Carthage's culture and identity remained staunchly Phoenician, or Punic. Like other Phoenician people, its society was heavily urbanised and oriented towards seafaring and trade, reflected in part by its more famous innovations and technical achievements, including serial production, uncolored glass, the threshing board, and the cothon.
From a cultural perspective, the Roman period is notable for the arrival in Malta of several highly placed Roman families, whose progeny form part of the Maltese nation today. These include the Testaferrata family (originally, "Capo di Ferro"), today one of Malta's premier noble families. Whether the origins of Maltese culture can be found in the Eastern Mediterranean or North Africa, the impact on Malta of Punic culture is believed to have persisted long after the Island's incorporation into the Roman Republic in 218 BCE: > ... at least during the first few centuries of Roman rule, tradition, > customs and language were still Punic despite romanization of the place. > This is in agreement with what can be read in the Acts of the Apostles, > which call the Maltese "barbarians", that is using a language that was > neither Greek nor Latin, but Punic.
The gens Catia was a plebeian family at Rome from the time of the Second Punic War to the 3rd century AD. The gens achieved little importance during the Republic, but held several consulships in imperial times.
Under the leadership of the Barcid family, Ancient Carthage expanded its possessions in Spain from 237 to 218 BC after the end of the First Punic War in 241 BC and the Mercenary War in 238 BC.
Certain civilizations have attracted so much attention that their study has been specifically named. These sub-disciplines include Assyriology (Mesopotamia), Classical archaeology (Greece and Rome), Etruscology (Etruria), Egyptology (Egypt), and Phoenician-Punic archeology (Phoenicia and its colonies).
Gaius Claudius Nero (c. 247 BCc. 189 BC) was a Roman general active during the Second Punic War against the invading Carthaginian force, led by Hannibal Barca. He should not be confused with the Roman Emperor Nero.
212; John of Antioch, fr. 13, F.H.G. IV, p. 547. The first known historical king of the Mauri, Baga, ruled during the Second Punic War of 218–201 BC. The Mauri were in close contact with Numidia.
Siege of Syracuse () is a 1960 historical drama film about the Roman Siege of Syracuse, which took place between 213 and 212 B.C., during the Second Punic War with Carthage. The film was directed by Pietro Francisci.
Hamilcar probably fought an inconclusive battle at Drepanum, but there is cause to doubt this.Lazenby, John .F, ‘’First Punic War’’, pp146 Hamilcar next raided Locri in Bruttium and the area around Brindisi in 247 BC,Polybius 1.56.
The original Phoenician city was probably named Aynuk (, ).Krahmalkov, Phoenician Punic Dictionary, p. 47. It was also known as Jazirat, "The Island". It is mentioned in the Annals of Thutmose III at the Karnak Temple as Artou.
Shadrafa (šdrpʾ, šdrbʾ,Stefan Weninger, The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook (2012), p. 476. σατραπας, i.e. "satrap") is a poorly- attested Canaanite (Punic) god of healing or medicine. His cult is attested in the Roman era (c.
In the 18th century, French scholar Jean- Jacques Barthélemy deciphered the extinct Phoenician alphabet using the inscriptions on these cippi. In 255 BC, the Romans raided Malta during the First Punic War, devastating much of the island.
The minimum property requirement for service in the legions, which had been suspended during the Second Punic War, was effectively ignored from 201 BC onward in order to recruit sufficient volunteers. Between 150 BC and 100 BC, the manipular structure was gradually phased out, and the much larger cohort became the main tactical unit. In addition, from the Second Punic War onward, Roman armies were always accompanied by units of non-Italian mercenaries, such as Numidian cavalry, Cretan archers, and Balearic slingers, who provided specialist functions that Roman armies had previously lacked.
The origins of the city of Béni Khalled go back to the Amazighen era, when it had the name "Sholl". It was later influenced by the Punic civilization after the establishment of Carthage; epigraphic texts show the history of the municipal system of the city during the Punic and Roman era. The city acquired the Roman municipal system which especially includes municipal councils and ceremonial. No mention has been traced of the city of Béni Khalled in old Arabic sources; there is only some information about the Muslim "conquest" of the Cape Bon.
The term refers to the outcome of a series of wars between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage, known as the Punic Wars. The two empires fought three separate wars against each other, beginning in 264 BC and ending in 146 BC. At the end of the Third Punic War, the Romans laid siege to Carthage. When they took the city, they killed most of the inhabitants, sold the rest into slavery, and destroyed the entire city. There is no ancient evidence for modern accounts that the Romans sowed the ground with salt.
This decision to face a siege proved so unpopular among the Sicilian Greek allies that they deserted the army and made for their respective cities. Once there, they manned the countryside castles and awaited the Carthaginians. Himilco arrived at Catana two days after the battle with the Carthaginian army,Freeman, Edward A., Sicily, pp176 his presence ensuring security of the Punic fleet. Both the Punic army and the navy were accorded a few days rest, during which time Mago repaired his damaged ships and refitted the captured Greek ships.
En route to Sicily, the Punic fleet suffered losses, possibly severe, due to poor weather. After landing at Ziz, the Punic name for Panormus, modern-day Palermo, Hamilcar was then decisively defeated by Gelo at the Battle of Himera, which was said to have occurred on the same day as the Battle of Salamis.Herodotus, 7.166 Hamilcar was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame. The loss caused changes in the political and economic landscape of Carthage, the old government of entrenched nobility was ousted, replaced by the Carthaginian Republic.
A Carthaginian coin from Sicily depicting a horse in front of a palm tree (called Phoinix in Greek), fourth century BC. The English adjective Punic is used in modern scholarship exclusively to refer to the Western Phoenicians. The proper nouns Punics and Punes were used in the sixteenth century, but are obsolete and in current usage there is no proper noun. Punic derives from the Latin poenus and punicus, which were used mostly to refer to the Carthaginians and other western Phoenicians. These terms derived from the Ancient Greek word Φοῖνιξ (Phoinix), pl.
Other ancient historians whose accounts of the Third Punic War or its participants have also been largely lost include Plutarch, Dio Cassius and the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus. The account of the 2nd century CE Greek historian Appian has survived and is relied on by modern historians. The modern historian Bernard Mineo states that it "is the only complete and continuous account of [the Third Punic War]". It is thought to have been largely based on Polybius's account, but a number of problems with it have been identified.
Slingshots from 2009 and 1992 The society publishes a bi-monthly journal, "Slingshot"."Warhammer Ancient Battles, Wargames in the Ancient World", 1998, p144 It has been described as the periodical of most interest to ancient Wargamers.Hannibal and the Punic Wars, Warhammer Historical, p110 Some of the articles are quite technical - ancient military maneuvers, ancient arms and armor and similar, as well as material specifically about wargaming, such as rules and war game reports. It is occasionally referenced in academic publications.e.g. Sabin in The second Punic war: a reappraisal (London 1996) p67 and p73.e.g.
The Romans had thereby broken the Treaty of Lutatius which had ended the First Punic War. After the First Punic War, Carthaginian possessions in Spain were limited to a handful of wealthy coastal cities: Gades, Malaca, Abdera and Sexi. In 237 BC, Spain south of the Tagus River was a land of well-developed agriculture, silver mines and fortified settlements. Hamilcar sought the creation of a new Carthaginian Empire in Spain that would make up for the loss of the Carthage's central Mediterranean island possessions and be even stronger.
The allied infantry appears to have been divided into cohortes. The first mention of such units, which were eventually adopted by the legions (after the Social War), is in Livy's account of the Second Punic War. The size of the allied cohorts is uncertain, and may not originally have been standard units at all, but simply a generic term denoting the contingent from each socius. However, Livy's account of Scipio Africanus' operations in Spain during the Second Punic War mentions Italian allied units of 460, 500 and 600 men which he terms cohortes.
By this account, the Tyro-Sidonian dialect, from which the Punic language eventually emerged, spread across the Mediterranean through trade and colonization, whereas the ancient dialect of Byblos, known from a corpus of only a few dozen extant inscriptions, played no expansionary role.Charles R. Krahmalkov. Phoenician- Punic Dictionary. p. 10. 2000. However, the very slight differences in language and the insufficient records of the time make it unclear whether Phoenician formed a separate and united dialect or was merely a superficially defined part of a broader language continuum.
With the final destruction of Carthage, and the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC, Rome was the master of sea power in the Mediterranean. In both the Second and Third Punic Wars, Roman sea power was predominant, though not vigorously exercised. This caused restrictions for the Carthaginian communication forces and forced them to keep strong defensive garrisons in Spain and their home territory. However, the conquest of Carthage also eliminated the threat of maritime warfare as there was no longer any sea powers left to challenge Roman supremacy.
This enterprise coincided with the expedition of Xerxes against mainland Greece in 480 BC, prompting speculation about a possible alliance between Carthage and Persia against the Greeks, although no firm evidence of this exists. The Punic fleet was battered by storms en route, and the Punic army was destroyed and Hamilcar killed in the Battle of Himera by the combined armies of Himera, Akragas and Syracuse under Gelo. Carthage made peace with the Greeks and paid a large indemnity of 2000 silver talents, but lost no territory in Sicily.
It is not known if the city of Himera had played a part in the battle of Selinus. Selinus would later serve as the base for Hermocrates of Syracuse for his raiding on Punic territory in 407, who would rebuild the walls of Selinus. The peace of 405 would allow Greeks to resettle in Selinus, but as a city, Selinus would never rise to its former glory, and would never again be a threat to Segesta. It was finally destroyed during the First Punic War by Carthage, and its citizens were relocated to Lilybaeum.
Strabo believes the account to be fraudulent, in part noting that the inscriptions on those pillars mentioned nothing about Heracles, speaking only of the expenses incurred by the Phoenicians in their making. Another temple to Melqart was at Ebyssus (Ibiza), in one of four Phoenician sites on the island's south coast. In 2004 a highway crew in the Avinguda Espanya, (one of the main routes into Ibiza), uncovered a further Punic temple in the excavated roadbed. Texts found mention Melqart among other Punic gods Eshmun, Astarte and Baʻl.
The town was affected by the Carthaginian conquest in the 6th century BC. A dozen new families settled subsequently in Monte Sirai, as witnessed by many hypogeum-tombs of Punic types; the rite of cremation, prevalent during the Phoenician period, was substituted by the entombment. The city wall was strengthened around 375 BC, roughly the period of appearance of the first local tophet. A subsequent restoration of the fortifications was carried out after the First Punic War; under the Roman rule all the military facilities were dismantled. Around 110 BC the site was inexplicably abandoned.
Gaius Duilius (lived during the 3rd century BC) was a Roman politician and admiral involved in the First Punic War. Not much is known about his family background or early career, since he was a novus homo, meaning not belonging to a traditional family of Roman aristocrats. He managed, nevertheless, to be elected consul for the year of 260 BC, at the outbreak of the First Punic war. As junior partner of the patrician Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina, Duilius was given the command of the rear fleet, not expected to see much action.
Hannibal's route (red) during the Second Punic War. The Iberian tribes (green) fought against the Carthaginian army in the Pyrenees. The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the Iberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini (Ἀνδοσίνους) during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by the Aquitanian, Basque and Iberian languages, the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating to this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer Polybius in his Histories during the Punic Wars.
The remaining Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the Roman province of Africa with Utica as its capital. The province became a major source of grain and other foodstuffs. Numerous large Punic cities, such as those in Mauretania, were taken over by the Romans, although they were permitted to retain their Punic system of government. A century later, the site of Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city by Julius Caesar, and would become one of the main cities of Roman Africa by the time of the Empire.
During the Second Punic War, Illiturgis tried to be on both the Roman and Carthaginian sides. When Rome had the upper hand in the battle for Spain, they would support Rome so as to keep themselves alive and well, this would also apply when Carthage had the advantage in Spain. However, this switching of sides did not sit well with Rome and was only made worse as the war progressed. In 215 BC, during the Second Punic War, the Spanish city of Illiturgis had become a colony of the Roman Republic.
Publius Manlius Vulso held the office of praetor in the middle of the Roman fight against Hannibal, which is called the Second Punic war (218-201 BC). He commanded two legions in order to defend Sardinia against the Carthaginians. Yet a Punic fleet led by Hamilcar ravaged at the end of the summer of 210 BC Olbia, a city on the north-east coast of the island. When Manlius and his army appeared on the battlefield the Carthaginians sailed on and devastated the district of Carales (today Cagliari).
Extraordinary governors of this kind were seen already during the First Punic War and occur again during the Second Punic War. Assuming that there was a quaestor at Lilybaeum, it is unclear whether this position was created immediately after the end of the war or sometime later, or if it was one of the quaestores which already existed, that is one of the quaestores classici (treasurers of the fleet), that had first been created in 267 BC,Geraci e Marcone, op. cit., p. 90. when the number of quaestores was increased from four to eight.
The "Togatus Barberini", depicting a Roman senator holding the imagines (effigies) of deceased ancestors in his hands; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid 1st century BC A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300, but it was massively upgraded about forty years later, during the First Punic War. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the Carthaginian ("Punic") pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle.
Sagona, Claudia (2015), 'Melita and Gaulos during the Punic Period', in "The Archeology of Malta", Cambridge University Press, , p. 239. In 1960 Doctor David Trump has brought to the attention of a Roman cistern not far from the tower. This structure is historically important as the use of cement, that at times is thought to be a modern use, was used by the Romans that does not date to the Punics. This concludes that the origins of the tower is Punic but that the tower was readopted by the Romans.
Parts of the ditch have survived under present-day St. Rita Street and the Church of St. Paul. The lower foundations of some Punic-Roman ramparts, consisting of rusticated ashlar blocks three courses high still in situ, were found near the Magazine Curtain in the western part of Mdina. The only other remains of the ancient walls are Punic-Roman masonry blocks which were reused in the medieval period. These include a wall around Greeks Gate, and some stones which were discovered in excavations at Inguanez Street and the Xara Palace.
Nemesis of the Roman Empire is a real-time strategy role-playing video game developed by Haemimont Games and published by Enlight Software. The sequel to Celtic Kings: Rage of War, the game is set in the Punic Wars and allows the player to take control of one of four nations, as well as Hannibal the Great. In Spain the game was released on November 27, 2003 under the title Imperivm II: Conquest of Hispania, and in Italy as Imperivm II: The Punic Wars, by the publisher FX Interactive.
Blench, Roger. 2018. Reconciling archaeological and linguistic evidence for Berber prehistory. Hence, although Berber had split off from Afroasiatic several thousand years ago, Proto-Berber itself can only be reconstructed to a period as late as 200 A.D. Blench noted that Berber is considerably different from other Afroasiatic branches, but modern-day Berber languages display low internal diversity. The presence of Punic borrowings in Proto-Berber points to the diversification of modern Berber language varieties subsequent to the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C.; only Zenaga lacks Punic loanwords.
87, suggests that Venus began as an abstraction of personal qualities, later assuming Aphrodite's attributes. Remains of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar, Rome. In 217 BC, in the early stages of the Second Punic War with Carthage, Rome suffered a disastrous defeat at the battle of Lake Trasimene. The Sibylline oracle suggested that if the Venus of Eryx (, a Roman understanding of the Punic goddess Astarte), patron goddess of Carthage's Sicilian allies, could be persuaded to change her allegiance, Carthage might be defeated.
Final act of the Second Punic War with the battle of Zama (202 BC) In 203 BC, Hannibal was recalled from Italy by the war party in Carthage. After leaving a record of his expedition engraved in Punic and Greek upon bronze tablets in the temple of Juno Lacinia at Crotona, he sailed back to Africa. His arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, which placed him in command of a combined force of African levies and his mercenaries from Italy. In 202 BC, Hannibal met Scipio in a fruitless peace conference.
In the Mercenary War (241-238 BC), a rebellion was instigated by mercenary soldiers of Carthage and African allies. Berber soldiers participated after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. Berbers succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars; in 146 BC the city of Carthage was destroyed.
The Punic name of the settlement was written () or (),Edward Lipiński, Itineraria Phoenicia (2004), p. 345.Brogan, Wilson, "Lepcis" in: The Oxford Classical Dictionary (4th ed. 2012), p. 821. signifying either a new "construction" or a "naval station".
Hanno (, ) was a Carthaginian general, prominent in the events leading to the start of the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC). Satellite photo of the Strait of Messina. The Strait of Messina, Italian mainland in the distance.
Ancient Carthage gained control of coastal Algeria by the 4th century BC. The empire's influence on Algerian architecture is visible in the adoption of hybridized styles that integrated Punic, Hellenistic, and Roman architecture into pre existing architectural traditions.
Africa Proconsularis (125 AD) Mididi (, , or , ) was a Carthaginian and Roman settlement during antiquity, located at what is now Henchir-Medded, Tunisia. 14 neo-punic inscriptions, known as the Mididi inscriptions, were found in Mididi by René Basset.
The last dictators to lead an army in the field were Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus in 217, and Marcus Junius Pera the following year, during the early stages of the Second Punic War.Broughton, vol. I, pp. 243, 248.
Pulex Geminus was a Roman statesman during the Second Punic War, and the early decades of the second century BC. He was a renowned warrior, whose martial prowess was commemorated on coins issued by several of his descendants.
Forum of Althiburos. Forum of Althiburos. Althiburos was an ancient Numidian city at the confluence of two local rivers when it passed into Punic influence and then control. It formed part of the road linking Carthage to Theveste.
The Punic Wars would erupt between these two powers, and the islands of Mallorca and Menorca would be forcibly dragged into what is called the Post-Talaiotic Period (also known as the Balearic Culture or Post-Talaiotic Culture).
2 Polybius reports that Rome was both physically and economically exhausted at the end of the first Punic war.Poly. 1.58.9 For this reason, it seems reasonable that Romans would have sought to recuperate through the existing tax structures.
Gaius Stern, "Electoral Irregularity and Chicanery during the Second Punic War," CAMWS 2011, citing Liv. 23.21.7, 30.26.10, c.f. 25.5.2–3. The holding of seats in the two highest colleges was not repeated until either Julius Caesar or possibly Sulla.
Aristotle, Politics 2.1273b: 19-20 These settlements had to provide tribute and military manpower when required, but remained self-governing. There is some onomastic evidence for intermarriage between Punic people and Libyans in the fourth and third centuries BC.
The hired workers might be considered 'rural proletariat', drawn from the local Berbers. Whether there remained Berber landowners next to Punic-run farms is unclear. Some Berbers became sharecroppers. Slaves acquired for farm work were often prisoners of war.
Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa," pp. 284, 286. Inscriptions in Libyan use a script similar to tifinagh, usually written vertically from the bottom up. The 23 characters are "of a rather rigid geometric form".
Marble, wood, and mules were also important exports. New towns were founded, especially in the Majarda valley near Carthage; many prior Punic and Berber settlements prospered.Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge Univ. 1971) p. 35.
Lucius Postumius Megellus (c. 300 BC – 253 BC) was a politician and general during the middle years of the Roman Republic. He was elected consul in 262 BC, and fought during the early years of the First Punic War.
Tensions remained high between the two states, and both continued to expand in the western Mediterranean. When Carthage besieged the Roman-protected town of Saguntum in eastern Iberia in 218 BC, it ignited the Second Punic War with Rome.
World War II, Punic Wars and Napoleonic wars)Moddb review on moddb.com (archived) with a variety of rules, units and many options, such as "low luck" which reduces the number of dice rolled making game depend more on strategy.
99-119 The dialect may also possess a Punic substrate. Additionally, Maghrebi Arabic has a Latin substratum, which may have been derived from the African Romance that was used as an urban lingua franca during the Byzantine Empire period.
Rome became dominant in the Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC after defeating the Samnites, the Gauls and the Etruscans for control of the Italian Peninsula. In the Punic Wars (264-146) the Romans defeated its major rival Carthage.
Carthage in Flames () is a 1960 Italian historical drama film directed by Carmine Gallone and starring Pierre Brasseur, José Suárez, Daniel Gélin and Anne Heywood.BFI.org The film depicts the last of the Punic Wars between the Roman Republic and Carthage.
Segesta again became part of the Carthaginian hegemony in 305 BC when Carthage and Syracuse agreed to terms. Segesta defected to Pyrrhus in 278 BC, was back in Punic hands by 275 BC and finally defected to Rome in 263 BC.
These vessels are a type of incense burner or thymaterion, which is commonly found in pottery assemblages at Punic sites from this period. Its presence may support attempts to read the iconography of these coins in terms of Carthaginian religion.
Before the close of the First Punic War (241 BC), Thermae was besieged and taken by the RomansPol. i. 39; Diod. xxiii. 20. Exc. H. p. 506. but the city seems to have been treated with unusual favour by its conquerors.
The Carthaginian town came under Roman hegemony after the Punic Wars. In 46, the town was the first in Africa to ally itself with Julius Caesar during his civil war.Jul. Caes., Bell. Afr., Book VI, §7, and Book IX, §1.
Manius Otacilius Crassus was a Roman consul of Samnite origins and served during the Punic Wars. His consular colleague in 263 BC was Manius Valerius Maximus Corvinus Messalla,Polybius, 1.16 and in 246 BC his colleague was Marcus Fabius Licinus.
A number of temples to Cybele in Rome have been identified. Originally an Anatolian mother goddess, the cult of Cybele was formally brought to Rome during the Second Punic War (218 to 201 BCE) after a consultation with the Sibylline Books.
Valca died at the age of thirty-four and when Claus was five years old. His name was derived from the actual historical figure Hamilcar Barca, Carthaginian general during the First Punic War and father of the famous tactician Hannibal.
During the Second Punic War it had a defensive wall, but this did not prevent the Romans from storming it and massacring the citizens. The Cathedral of San Donato has a crypt which was originally a Greek temple, with Doric columns.
Nothing is known on their activity as consuls; they possibly served in Sicily, where most of the operations of the First Punic War took place that year. The two colonies of Brundisium and Fregenae were founded during their term.Velleius, i. 14.
The Carthaginian Senate debated the matter at length, and the influence of Hannibal finally secured a verdict for accepting Segestan submission to the Punic hegemony and lending aid to Segesta. Hannibal was authorized to aid Segesta by any means necessary.
Allied cities of the Punic hegemony contributed contingents for the army as well. Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. Greeks hired from Sicily and Italy fought as hoplites.
Hannibal Gisco (, ; -258BC) was a Carthaginian military commander in charge of both land armies and naval fleets during the First Punic War against Rome. His efforts proved ultimately unsuccessful and his eventual defeat in battle led to his downfall and execution.
This deity is the Punic Astarte/Tanit, usually associated with Saturn in Africa. Iuno Caelestis is thence in turn assimilated to Ops and Greek Rhea.Varro Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum 1, fr. 23 Cardauns apud Tertullian Ad Nationes II 2, 15: fr.
Broughton, vol. I, pp. 174, 205, 206, 210, 232, 233. His father served during the First Punic War, but his capture by the Carthaginians in 260 earned him the unsavoury agnomen Asina ("she-ass"), which was retained by his son.
Karthago tells about Carthage in the First Punic War. The main character of the books is Xanthippus of Carthage. Important characters include Hamilcar Barca and Marcus Atilius Regulus. Germaani ja leijona tells about venatio, animal fights staged in the arena.
Caven, B. Punic Wars. London: George Werdenfeld and Nicholson Ltd., 1980. On the morning of the battle, as the forces drew up, a Carthaginian officer named Gisgo reportedly remarked to Hannibal that the size of the Roman army was astonishing.
Following the Second Punic War, Massyli and eastern Masaesyli were joined to form Numidia, located in historic Tunisia. Both Roman and Hellenic states gave its famous ruler, Masinissa, honors befitting esteemed royalty.Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1996) at 24-27 (kingdoms).
He built, with his brother, a temple dedicated to the goddess Flora and instituted the Floralia. He was elected Consul in 232 BC with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. They served during a transition period between the First and the Second Punic War.
Mary Beard, The Roman Triumph, The Belknap Press, 2007, p. 23. The Punic Wars saw many similar introductions of foreign cult, including the Phrygian cult to Magna Mater, who also had mythical links to Troy. See also Beard et al., Vol.
Therefore, the Romans preemptively invaded the Po region in 225 BC. By 220 BC, the Romans had annexed the area as Cisalpine Gaul.Fagan, Garret G. "The History of Ancient Rome". Lecture 13: "The Second Punic War". Teaching Company, "Great Courses" series.
A Punic amphora fragment found underneath an archer's bust, offers a secure terminus ante quem non of the 4th century BC for the violent deposition of the sculptures. The archaeologist Carlo Tronchetti talking about that fragment wrote that the formation of the archaeological context: Bronze model of Nuragic vessel. Cagliari, Museo Archeologico Nazionale. A fragment of a Mont'e Prama-like statue was found at the holy well of Banatou (Narbolia), not far from nuraghe s'Uraki, together with mixed Punic and Nuragic pottery; but difficulties accompanying the excavations do not allow a reliable dating of this sculpted head.
The term Punic comes from the Latin word (or ), meaning "Carthaginian", and is a reference to the Carthaginians' Phoenician ancestry. The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius (– BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics, but he is known today for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC, or about a century after the end of the war. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view.
During this time the people on Malta mainly cultivated olives and carob and produced textiles. During the First Punic War, the island was conquered after harsh fighting by Marcus Atilius Regulus. After the failure of his expedition, the island fell back in the hands of Carthage, only to be conquered again in 218 BC, during the Second Punic War, by Roman Consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus. After that, Malta became Foederata Civitas, a designation that meant it was exempt from paying tribute or the rule of Roman law, and fell within the jurisdiction of the province of Sicily.
A painting from the 16th century showing a caravel being provisioned in the port of Lagos depicting Africans and Europeans Replica of the caravel Boa Esperança Lagos's slave market. Built in 1444, it was colonial Europe's first slave market Lagos is an ancient maritime town with more than 2000 years of history. The name Lagos comes from a Celtic settlement, derived from the Latin Lacobriga, the name of the settlement was established during the pre-Punic civilizations. It became an early settlement of the Carthaginians, who recruited Celtic tribesmen in their war against the Romans (the Punic Wars).
A Carthaginian shekel, dated 237-227 BC, depicting the Punic god Melqart (equivalent of Hercules/Heracles), most likely with the features of Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal Barca; on the reverse is a man riding a war elephant Between the First and Second Punic Wars, Carthage only issued bronze coins in North Africa, although the Barcids issued gold and silver coins in Spain bearing the head of Melqart obverse and a horse and palm tree reverse. The gold coins were produced at a weight of 7.50 g, reflecting a value of 12 silver shekels each at a bullion exchange rate of 1:11⅓.
Cartagenna and Dermèche correspond with the lower city, including the site of Punic Carthage; Byrsa is associated with the upper city, which in Punic times was a walled citadel above the harbour; and La Malga is linked with the more remote parts of the upper city in Roman times. French-led excavations at Carthage began in 1921, and from 1923 reported finds of a large quantity of urns containing a mixture of animal and children's bones. René Dussaud identified a 4th-century BC stela found in Carthage as depicting a child sacrifice.Dussaud, Bulletin Archéologique (1922), p. 245.
During the First Punic War, the members of Barcid family played a prominent role in the fighting against the Romans, particularly Hamilcar Barca. After the war, Hamilcar commanded the Punic forces that defeated the former Carthaginian mercenaries, who had rebelled against Carthage in the Mercenary War. After the suppression of the rebellion, Hamilcar Barca understood that Carthage needed to strengthen its economic and military base to confront Rome, which had invaded and annexed Carthaginian Sardinia and Corsica. Rome had also ordered Carthage to pay an indemnity 1,200 talents of silver to cripple Carthage's war-making capacity.
Accua was a small town of ancient Apulia, mentioned only by Livy as one of the places recovered by Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus from the Carthaginians in the fifth year of the Second Punic War, 214 BCE. It appears from this passage to have been somewhere in the neighbourhood of Luceria, but its exact site is unknown. Vibius Accuaeus, was a native of Accua; he led a cohort of Paelignian soldiers in the Roman army in 212 BCE, during the Second Punic War, and fought with conspicuous bravery. It is not certain whether Vibius was his praenomen or his nomen.
The Greek probably translated the site's Punic name, although some prefer to imagine it transcribes an Iberian placename involving the words lug ("water") and cant ("cliff").See Jacques R. Pauwels, Beneath the Dust of Time: A History of the Names of Peoples and Places, London, 2009. The city enjoyed its peak between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD, and the majority of the city's remains bear a Roman stamp. The town was refounded as Lucentum (from Latin ', "Place of Light" or "Bright Place") after P. Cornelius Scipio conquered the area in the course of the Second Punic War.
Nearly a century after the fall of Carthage, a new "Roman Carthage" was built on the same site by Julius Caesar between 49 and 44 BC. It soon became the center of the province of Africa, which was a major breadbasket of the Roman Empire and one of its wealthiest provinces. By the first century, Carthago had grown to be the second-largest city in the western Roman Empire, with a peak population of 500,000. Punic language, identity, and culture persisted several centuries into Roman rule. Two third-century Roman emperors—Septimius Severus and his son and successor Caracalla—were of Punic descent.
Other Carthaginian deities attested in Punic inscriptions were Eshmun, the god of health and healing; Resheph, associated with plague, war, or thunder; Kusor, god of knowledge; and Hawot, goddess of death. Astarte, a goddess connected with fertility, sexuality, and war, seems to have been popular in early times, but became increasingly identified through Tanit. Similarly, Melqart, the patron deity of Tyre, was less prominent in Carthage, though he remained fairly popular. His cult was especially prominent in Punic Sicily, of which he was a protector, and which was subsequently known during Carthaginian rule as "Cape Melqart".
Aside from some ancient translations of Punic texts into Greek and Latin, as well as inscriptions on monuments and buildings discovered in Northwest Africa, not much remains of Carthaginian literature. When Carthage was sacked in 146 BC, its libraries and texts were either systematically destroyed or, according to Pliny the Elder, given to the "minor kings of Africa".Dexter Hoyos, The Carthaginians, Routledge, pp. 105-106. The only noteworthy Punic writing to survive is Mago's voluminous treatise on agriculture, which was preserved and translated by order of the Roman Senate; however, only some excerpts and references in Latin and Greek remain.
The Punic navy had a fleet of 50 quinqueremes and 5 triremes stationed there. However, only 32 Quinqueremes were manned at the start of the Second Punic War. Hasdrubal commanded this force and was to set out for Italy in 217 BC to reinforce Hannibal. Hannibal left another army under Hanno in Catalonia, consisting of 10,000 foot and 1,000 horse on his way to Italy in 218 BC. Left in command of Hispania when Hannibal departed to Italy in 218 BC, Hasdrubal was destined to fight for six years against the brothers Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio.
Jonathan's magic talent is to reanimate the deceased, and he rallies his zombies to form an army to fight the Punic invasion from Mundania, but falls to the same bewitchment as Trent and Dor. Humphrey assumes the throne, and prepares himself for battle against the Punic horde and its leader Hasbinbad. He informs Imbri, much to the chagrin of the Gorgon, that he is not destined to be the saviour of Xanth, and that he expects to make a tragic mistake in battle. Before departing to the battle, Humphrey identifies his successor: Dor's father Bink, whom everybody assumed had no magic talent.
The name appears first in Polybius (second century BC) to indicate the peoples and territory west of Carthage including the entire north of Algeria as far as the river Mulucha (Muluya), about west of Oran. The Numidians were composed of two great tribal groups: the Massylii in eastern Numidia, and the Masaesyli in the west. During the first part of the Second Punic War, the eastern Massylii, under their king Gala, were allied with Carthage (a 'Punic', i.e. Phoenician, Semitic, mercantile sea empire called after its capital in present-day Tunisia), while the western Masaesyli, under king Syphax, were allied with Rome.
Petrarch's reference to Livy places much value in the historical integrity of his Africa and sets the groundwork as being true past events. The main plot, being the ancient historical events of the Second Punic War, are taken directly from Livy's extensive Roman work of the "Foundation of the City" Books 21 to 30. The coronation for the historical work of Cornelius Scipio and the Second Punic War in the Africa shows the creditability and trust for Petrarch. He was later labelled "father of humanism" for the reconstruction of Livy's records that he did on various previously lost versions.
Then the Libyans, angered by the desertion of their kinsmen in Sicily, gathered an army numbering 70,000 men and besieged Carthage itself. Mago, the victor of Catana, took command. The standing Punic army was in Sicily and recruiting a new one would have been time-consuming and probably very costly (Himilco's abandonment of his mercenaries in Sicily would have made them wary), so he rallied the Carthaginian citizens to man the walls while the Punic navy kept the city supplied, as the Libyans had no ships to counter the Carthaginian fleet. Mago then used bribes and other means to quell the rebels.
"Rollig, 1983 The only other substantial source for Phoenician-Punic are the excerpts in Poenulus, a play written by the Roman writer Plautus. Within the corpus of inscriptions only 668 words have been attested, including 321 hapax legomena (words only attested a single time), per Wolfgang Röllig's analysis in 1983.Rollig, 1983, "The Phoenician- Punic vocabulary attested to date amounts to some 668 words, some of which occur frequently. Among these are 321 hapax legomena and about 15 foreign or loan words. In comparison with Hebrew with around 7000-8000 words and 1500 hapax legomena (8), the number is remarkable.
Focusing on the finds at Tas-Silġ, scholar Antonio Tempio proposes that the archipelago was regularly visited by traders from Pithekoūsai, which had a mixed Carthaginian–Greek populace. Greek influence was only reinforced after the First Punic War, when Malta was annexed to the Roman Republic, later becoming part of the Roman Empire alongside Roman Greece. This was especially the case in Gozo, where archeological finds document the extensive circulation of Ancient Greek coinage. While Punic was still spoken locally into the 1st century AD and perhaps even later, it faced competition from both Latin and Greek (see Cippi of Melqart).
The Lenormant Relief, from the Athenian Acropolis, depicting the rowers of an "aphract" Athenian trireme, . Found in 1852, it is one of the main pictorial testaments to the layout of the trireme. There were two chief design traditions in the Mediterranean, the Greek and the Punic (Phoenician/Carthaginian) one, which was later copied by the Romans. As exemplified in the trireme, the Greeks used to project the upper level of oars through an outrigger (parexeiresia), while the later Punic tradition heightened the ship, and had all three tiers of oars projecting directly from the side hull.
Marcus Claudius Marcellus re- emerged onto both the political and military scene during the Second Punic War, in which he took part in important battles. In 216 BC, the third year of the Second Punic War, Marcellus was elected as a praetor. A praetor served either as an elected magistrate or as the commander of an army, the latter of which duties Marcellus was selected to fulfil in Sicily. Unfortunately, as Marcellus and his men were preparing to ship to Sicily, his army was recalled to Rome owing to the devastating losses at Cannae, one of the worst defeats in Roman history.
Livy mentions an oppidum parvum (small town) called Cissis and Polybius talks about a polis called Kissa (Κίσσα).Livy 21, 60; Polybius 3, 76, 5. Tarraco is mentioned for first time shortly after the arrival of Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus at Empúries in 218 BC at the start of the Second Punic War which began the Roman conquest of Hispania. Livy writes that the Romans conquered a field of Punic supplies for Hannibal's troops near Cissis and took the city. A short time later, the Romans were attacked "not far from Tarraco" (haud procul TarraconeLivy 21, 60, 1ff.).
Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 88. In 255, the Spartan general marched on Regulus, still encamped at Tunis, who accepted the battle to avoid sharing the glory with his successor. However, the flat land near Tunis favoured the Punic elephants, which crushed the Roman infantry on the Bagradas plain; only 2,000 soldiers escaped, and Regulus was captured. The consuls for 255 nonetheless won a new sounding naval victory at Cape Hermaeum, where they captured 114 warships. This success was spoilt by a storm that annihilated the victorious navy: 184 ships of 264 sank, 25,000 soldiers and 75,000 rowers drowned.
This decision to face a siege proved so unpopular among the Sicilian Greek allies that they deserted the army and made for their respective cities. Once there, they manned the countryside castles and awaited the Carthaginians. Himilco arrived at Catana two days after the battle with the Carthaginian armyFreeman, Edward A., Sicily, Phoenician, Greek & Roman, pp176 after a 110 km trek around Mt. Etna, and his presence ensured security of the Punic fleet. Both the Punic army and navy were accorded a few days rest, during which time Mago repaired his damaged ships and refitted the captured Greek ships.
Dionysius also acted aggressively, sending out sorties to attack Carthaginian patrols and winning several skirmishes, but the overall tactical situation remained unchanged. In the meantime, Polyxenos had managed to gather a naval squadron in Greece, and under the command of Pharakidas of Sparta, 30 triremes managed to reach Syracuse. The Spartan had apparently captured a number of Punic ships, and the Carthaginian blockade ships had let his ships through thinking a Punic squadron was returning from patrol.Polyanios II.11 The Greeks as well as the Carthaginians were now dependent on overseas supplies for sustaining their efforts.
The Battle of Lake Trasimene was fought when a Carthaginian force under Hannibal ambushed a Roman army commanded by Gaius Flaminius on 21 June 217 BC, during the Second Punic War. It took place on the north shore of Lake Trasimene, to the east of Cortona, and resulted in a heavy defeat for the Romans. The First Punic War between Carthage and Rome ended in 241 BC after 23 years. In 219 BC the quasi-monarchial, autonomous ruler of the Carthaginian territories in south-east Iberia, Hannibal, besieged, captured and sacked the Roman protected town of Saguntum.
Afroasiatic language family. With adjustment this map may illustrate the relative situation of widely spoken, ancient Berber. Except for the Punic language spoken at Carthage and its sphere of trade, (also except for the Ethiopian {marked here Tigre & Amharic}), the Semitic 'branch' languages were not generally spoken in ancient Africa. Later with the spread of Islam (after 632), Arabic supplanted remnant Punic, and also other non-Semitic 'branch' languages of Afroasiatic: ancient Egyptian by the Nile, and in many areas of North Africa the Berber languages.Cf., Joseph R. Applegate, "The Berber Languages" at 96-118, 96-97, in Afroasiatic. A Survey (1971).
In the sequence of the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic defeats Carthage who had colonies in the Mediterranean Coast of the Iberian Peninsula. This marked the first incursion of the Roman Republic into the peninsula and possibly the first clash between Lusitanians and Romans, as the Lusitanians fought, during the Punic Wars, on the Carthaginian side as mercenaries. In 194 BC, a war broke out between the Romans and the Lusitanians, who were an autonomous people.Appian's History of Rome By 179 BC, the Romans had mostly succeeded in pacifying the region and signed a peace treaty.
This created an issue when settling border disputes with neighboring kingdom, and Roman ally, Numidia. After repaying its debt to Rome fifty years after the Second Punic War, Carthage repelled against Numidian invaders and ultimately suffered a military defeat. This attack angered Rome because they did not give such consent to Carthage, and thus declared war. This began the Third Punic War which lasted just four years and ended with Carthage being completely destroyed and all its people enslaved. With Carthage’s defeat, its lands and territories, including the area encompassing Naraggara, were claimed by Rome and formed as Africa Proconsularis.
Hannibal lived during a period of great tension in the western Mediterranean Basin, triggered by the emergence of the Roman Republic as a great power after it had established its supremacy over Italy. Although Rome had won the First Punic War, revanchism prevailed in Carthage, symbolised by the alleged pledge that Hannibal made to his father never to be a friend of Rome. The Second Punic War broke out in 218 BC after Hannibal's attack on Saguntum, an ally of Rome in Hispania. He then made his famous military exploit of carrying war to Italy by crossing the Alps with his African elephants.
Grotta della Vipera, Cagliari (Viper grotto) The existence and understanding of direct statements of the proto-Sardinian (pre-punic and pre-Latin) language or languagesSanna Gigi, Sardoa Grammata, S'Alvure ed., Oristano, 2004; Sanna Gigi, La stele di Nora, P.T.M. Editrice, Mogoro, 2009Massimo pittau, Origine e parentela dei Sardi e degli Etruschi, Carlo Delfini Editore, Sassari, 1995; La lingua Sardiana o dei Protosardi, Ettore Gasparini Editore, Cagliari, 2001 being hotly debated, the first written artifact from the island dates back to the Phoenician period with documents such as the Nora Stele or the trilingual inscription (Punic- Latin-Greek) from San Nicolò Gerrei.Theodor Mommsen, CIL, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Inscriptiones Sardiniae, G. Reimerum, Berlin, 1883, 7th paragraph, pag.816; Greek text: ᾽Ασκληπίῳ Μήρρη ὰνάθημα βῶμον ἔστμσε Κλέων ό ὲπἰ τῶν άλῶν καιὰ πρόσταγμα – Latin text: Cleon salariorum sociorum servus Aescolapio Merre donum dedit lubens merito merente This last artifact symbolizes the passage of the island from a Punic cultural and linguistic influence to a Roman one.
But the city was also endowed since the Punic time with numerous and large cisterns dug into the rock to collect rainwater and which can be seen today in various parts of the city. There were at least three cemeteries, one that was the same Punic necropolis of Tuvixeddu, another in the area around the churches of St. Lucifer and San Saturn, and Bonaria hill, and a third along the current Viale Regina Margherita, the burial site of the classiari or detachment of sailors of the fleet of Misenum, which was based at the city port. Along the main road out of the city to Turris, near the Punic necropolis, a mausoleum tomb dedicated to Attilia Pomptilla was built by her husband, Philip Cassio. Known as Viper's Cave, it is decorated with an impressive cycle of Greek and Latin CARMINA that can be considered the first literary work produced in Sardinia and surviving to the present day, the beginning of the literary history of the island.
Carthage gained control over the town during the 3rd century, when inscriptions reveal that the inhabitants venerated Baal Hammon and buried their dead in urns in the Punic style. A capital from a temple of Tanit is preserved at the site's museum.
Hoyos, Dexter. 2011. A companion to the Punic Wars. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. page 328 Archimedes opposed the arguments of Aristotle, pointing out that it was impossible to separate mathematics and nature and proved it by converting mathematical theories into practical inventions.
Axiocerses punicea, the rainforest scarlet or Punic scarlet, is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae. It is found in Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and possibly the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The habitat consists of forests. Adults are attracted to flowering shrubs.
Polybius, i. 87. Leptis recovered from the damage and, at the time of the Second Punic War, was one of the wealthiest cities of Emporia. Its tribute to Carthage was equivalent to one Attic talent ( of fairly pure silver) per day.Livy, xxxiv. 62.
However, given that the name 'Laelius' only begins to appear with the retelling of the Second Punic War, it may be the case that he (and his family, none of whom are mentioned before this time) is even more lowborn than is assumed.
In the First Punic War its name is repeatedly mentioned. In 260 BC, a body of Roman troops were encamped in the neighbourhood when they were attacked by Hamilcar and defeated with heavy loss.Pol. i. 24; Diod. xxiii. 9. Exc. H. p. 503.
Excavated as part of an archaeological project in the 1960s, the site was abandoned for several decades. In 1996, the University of Malta restarted excavations, uncovering Neolithic and Late Bronze Age remains, and substantial deposits associated with ritual offerings in the Punic era.
During the Punic crisis, some foreign cults and oracles had been repressed, on much smaller scale and not outside Rome itself. See Erich S. Gruen, Studies in Greek culture and Roman policy, BRILL, 1990, pp.34-78: on precedents see p.41 ff.
During the Punic Wars, Naravas had joined the army of Spendius. During a critical time, he switched his allegiance to Hamilcar Barca of Carthage. In 239 BC, he arrived at Hamilcar's camp with 2,000 horsemen. This probably saved the Carthaginian army from destruction.
This social system had been stable after the Conflict of the Orders, since economically both the patricians and the plebeians were relatively both well off. Italy was dominated by small landowners. However, sometime after the Punic Wars, this changed due to various factors.
Timici minted its own bronze coins with Punic legends. Under the Romans, Timici was a native town (') in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis.Timici at gcatholic.org. The town was previously identified with the ruins at Aïn Témouchent,, including "Plan de Timici Colonia (Aïn Temouchent)".
During the Second Punic War, Philip V of Macedon allied himself with Hannibal.Matyszak, The Enemies of Rome, p. 47Grant, The History of Rome, p. 115 Fearing possible reinforcement of Hannibal by Macedon, the senate dispatched a praetor with forces across the Adriatic.
Today, the ethnic identity of Tunisians is the product of a centuries-long historical trajectory, with the Tunisian nation today being a junction of the Amazigh and Punic substratum, as well as Roman, Arab, Andalusian, Turkish, and French cultural and linguistic input.
Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus was a Roman patrician, who became consul in 256 and 250 BC. He has been remembered as another militarily successful Roman consul; his military achievements significantly contributed to the victory of the Romans in the First Punic War.
Pride of Carthage is a 2005 novel about the Second Punic War by American author David Anthony Durham. It was first published by Doubleday, in the United States, 2005. The book was translated into Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, and Swedish.
The Publicii Malleoli flourished from the middle of the third century BC to the beginning of the first. Bibulus refers to a tippler, one known for drinking.Chase, p. 111. Members of this family are mentioned in the time of the Second Punic War.
Scipio, however, dazzled the commission,Bagnall, Punic Wars, p. 274. while Pleminius was left to take the fall for plundering the Temple of Proserpina and murdering the tribunes Publius Matienus and Marcus Sergius.Livy 29.6–9, 16–22; Diodorus Siculus 27.4; Valerius Maximus 1.1.
The Falisci took advantage of the First Punic War to declare their independence, but their revolt ended in 241 BC with the death of 15,000 Falisci and the destruction of Falerii; the survivors were moved to a less defensible city, Falerii Novi.
Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus (fl. late 3rd to early 2nd century BC) was a Roman military officer and Senator who was elected Roman consul twice, and appointed dictator once. He fought in the Second Punic War and the First and Second Macedonian Wars.
The Sulpicii Galbae first came to prominence during the Second Punic War, and remained distinguished until the first century AD, when Servius Sulpicius Galba claimed the title of Emperor.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, pp. 203–207 ("Galba").
The Nilo-Mesopotamian cluster of sectors, including the Macedonian Empire Sector, the Alexandrian- Roman, Alexandrian-Punic, Indo-Turanian and Europo-American (which includes our own timeline), there was an Aryan invasion of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor about four thousand elapsed years ago.
Statue from Skikda's museum The Phoenicians and Carthaginians established a trading post and fort named (, "Jug Cape") after Skikda's nearby cape. Falling under Roman hegemony after the Punic Wars, the name was Latinized as RusicadePlin., Nat. Hist., Book V, §22; Tab. Peut.
Representational evidence and recovered laths, as well as arrowheads and bracers, show Roman use of composite bows.Stephenson, I.P., 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 81-88.Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp.
The gens Ninnia was a plebeian family at Rome. Members of this gens are first mentioned at Capua during the Second Punic War, and are found at Rome towards the end of the Republic.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, p.
Polybius, Istorion, 3, 13. The Vaccei appear to have taken no part in the 2nd Punic War, though in 193-192 BC they joined the combined force of Carpetani, Vettones, and Celtiberians that was defeated by Consul Marcus Fulvius at the battle of Toletum.
Bishop and Coulston suggest that some or all were made from broken spathae.Stephenson, I.P., 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment: The Later Empire, Tempus, p. 79.M.C. Bishop & J.C.N. Coulston, 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, Oxbow Books, p. 157.
The sagittarius was armed with a composite bow (arcus), shooting an arrow (sagitta),Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome (Paperback). M.C. Bishop, J.C. Coulston. Oxbow Books 2005. made of horn, wood, and sinew held together with hide glue.
"New Light on Fr Magri's > exploration of the Hypogeum: Notes from correspondence with the British > Museum.", Malta Archaeological Review, Issue 6, 41-46. Malta, 2005. Magri, Emmanuel > Three Punic Inscriptions re-discovered in Malta. Edited with translation and > Commentary, Malta: Government Printing Office, 1901.
Carthaginian expansion in Sicily caused this disruption of the local monetary system. However, native Sicilian coinage lost even more ground during the 3rd century BC and largely disappeared. The Second Punic War was the cause of this latter disruption. Only rarely bronze coins were struck.
Retrieved 5 August 2013. The explosion also destroyed the Punic or Phoenician necropolis, whose excavation works had featured in National Geographic in 1924. Parodi Álvarez, Manuel Jesús “La fundación de Cádiz por los fenicios” in NG nº 108 National Geographic (Spain). Retrieved 4 August 2013.
Gunugus was a Berber and Carthaginian town from around 550.Barrington Atlas, 2000, pl. 30 C3. It may have also been the site of a Greek colony at some point After the Punic Wars, Gunugus was the site of a Roman colony established by Augustus.
For date of earliest recorded ludi Cereales, see Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 30.39.8.For a summary of the period, see Cornell, T., The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.1000–264 BC), Routledge, 1995, 258 - 271.
Following the Second Punic War and the loss of several lucrative overseas territories, the Carthaginians embraced agriculture to restore the economy and pay the costly war indemnity to Rome, which ultimately proved successful; this most likely heightened the importance of agriculture in Carthaginian society.
Lixus is the site of an ancient Roman-Berber-Punic city located in Morocco, just north of the modern seaport of Larache on the bank of the Loukkos River. The location was one of the main cities of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana.
Nothing is known of Licinius Crassus's mother or his childhood or early youth, or for that matter, his year of birth. He was probably born during the First Punic War (ca. 250-245 BC), and educated and trained much like noble Romans of his day.
Brent (1999), p. 59: citing Suetonius, Augustus 31.1–2. cf. official reactions to "foreign cult" during the Punic crises, above. Despite their lack of political influence under the Empire, the augurate, as with its fellow quattuor amplissima collegia, continued to confer prestige on its members.
Trilingualism was perhaps not uncommon among educated people who came from regions where a language other than Latin or Greek was spoken. The Latin novelist Apuleius also wrote in Greek, and had learned Punic from his mother.Moatti, "Translation, Migration, and Communication," p. 111, note 9.
The first Battle of Herdonia was fought in 212 BC during the Second Punic War between Hannibal's Carthaginian army and Roman forces led by Praetor Gnaeus Fulvius Flaccus, brother of the consul. The Roman army was destroyed, leaving Apulia free of Romans for the year.
The quincunx was an ancient Roman bronze coin produced during the Roman Republic. It was not part of the standard Roman monetary system. It was only produced during the Second Punic War (218 to 204 BC), by mints at Luceria (mod. Lucera), Teate (mod.
34-35 Imported goods included food, slaves, metals and luxury goods, while exports consisted largely of pottery, gold and silver.Aubert p. 167 Rome's commercial interests were further expanded after Sicily and Sardinia become a province at the end of the First Punic War.Aubert p.
25-26 This conflict foreshadowed the Second Punic War and the lex Claudia in a number of ways. Firstly, elite citizens profited from supplying provisions overseas for the war effort.Bleckmann p. 93 Secondly, it tells us about the links between Roman warfare and shipping.
The gens Tremellia was a plebeian family at Rome. The gens is first mentioned towards the end of the Second Punic War, but never obtained much importance. None of its members held the consulship until the Empire. They bore the surnames of Scropa and Flaccus.
Numidia provided some of the highest quality cavalry of the Second Punic War, and the Numidian cavalry played a key role in a number of battles, both early on in support of Hannibal and later in the war after switching allegiance to the Roman Republic.
129-135 it is the site of the ancient Punic temple of Eshmoun on the Byrsa, which was renamed "Mount Louis- Philippe". Thus, the first block of the building, designed by Germain Architects, was placed on the 25 August 1840,Pierre Gandolphe, op. cit., p.
Sextus Julius Caesar was a Roman praetor in 208 BC, during the Second Punic War. He is thought to be the ancestor of all of the later Julii Caesares who appear in history.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 537.
The capture of Malta was the successful invasion of the Carthaginian island of Malta (then known as Maleth, Melite or Melita) by forces of the Roman Republic led by Tiberius Sempronius Longus in the early stages of the Second Punic War in 218 BC.
Surviving Punic texts portray an organized caste of temple priests and acolytes performing different types of functions for a variety of prices. Priests were cleanshaven, unlike most other people. In the first centuries of the city, ritual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived from Phoenician traditions.
7 These sources suggest that Rome imposed an agricultural tithe on some of its Sicilian subjects prior to the second Punic war. However, it remains impossible to determine when the Romans appropriated Hiero's taxation system or when it was applied to all of Sicily.
In contrast, the Romans suffered only 2,500 casualties. The last major battle of the Second Punic War resulted in a loss of respect for Hannibal by his fellow Carthaginians. The conditions of defeat were such that Carthage could no longer battle for Mediterranean supremacy.
Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, Greek and Latin sources. Polybius was an analytical historian and wherever possible personally interviewed participants in the events he wrote about. Only the first book of the 40 comprising The Histories deals with the First Punic War. The accuracy of Polybius's account has been much debated over the past 150 years, but the modern consensus is to accept it largely at face value, and the details of the war in modern sources are almost entirely based on interpretations of Polybius's account.
Olive-telated equipment at the site. The site has been in use since prehistoric times; a couple of tombs date back to the Zebbug and possibly the Borg in-Nadur phases of the Maltese Bronze Age. The first building on the site was probably built in the Phoenician-Punic period, when the site was used intermittently for agriculture. A small number of structures remain from this period and one burial bears a neo-Punic inscription. In the Roman period, the site’s position on the slopes of a fertile valley and vicinity to the Roman harbour at Salina meant that it was ideally suited to the production of olive oil.
At the beginning of the 3rd century an African, chosen at random, would have expressed himself more easily in Greek than in Latin; two hundred years later, St. Augustine and the poet Dracontius had at best but a slight knowledge of Greek. As to local dialects, we know little. No work of Christian literature written in Punic has come down to us, though there can be no doubt that the clergy and faithful used a language much spoken in Carthage and in the coast towns of the Proconsular Province. The lower and middle classes spoke Punic, and the Circumcellions were to be among the last of its defenders.
Edward Stanley Robinson challenged this interpretation, on the grounds that a Greek pun would be surprising on a Punic coin. However, Greek was widely known and spoken in the Carthaginian-controlled portion of Sicily; on several earlier Siculo-Punic coinages, the coin legends are in Greek. An alternative explanation is that the palm was a symbol of the sun god Baal Hammon - if he was a sun-god - but there is not much evidence for this, except that the palm was a symbol of the Greek sun god, Apollo, at Delos. On sub-group E, two unusual double-tiered pots appear on the obverse in between the letters of the legend.
Phoenician ship carved on the face of a sarcophagus. 2nd century AD. Initially a small Phoenician harbor for maritime trading in the western Mediterranean, the settlement lay 30 km (18.5 mil) north of Utica and 50 km (31 mil) northwest of Carthage, other cities founded by Phoenicians. Around 950 BC the city came under the influence of Carthage during the reign of Queen Dido/Elissa, In 309 BC, during the Greek–Punic Wars and after the defeat of Agathocles, the city and Sicily returned to the Carthaginian Republic. Several Carthaginian generals used its port during the Punic Wars of 264-146 BC – such as Hamilcar Barca, Mago, Hasdrubal and Hannibal.
The symbol called the sign of Tanit was related to the goddess of the same name, paredre of Ba'al Hammon in the Punic pantheon from the first discoveries. The proximity of the sign with the Egyptian anse cross (ankh) was put forward, the linkage of Punic Carthage with the pharaonic civilization can corroborate this origin. It was perceived as a representation of the connection of the terrestrial or chthonic world with the celestial world, the two raised branches being two arms raised in prayer. The motif has also been interpreted as having an apotropaic purpose, the Punics being eager to protect themselves from the evil eye.
By the time of the Punic Wars, the government of Ancient Carthage was headed by a pair of annually elected sufetes. Livy's account of the Punic Wars affords a list of the procedural responsibilities of the Carthaginian sufet, including the convocation and presidency of the senate, the submission of business to the People's Assembly, and service as trial judges. Their number, term, and powers are therefore similar to those of the Roman consuls, with the notable difference that Roman consuls were also commanders-in-chief of the Roman military, a power apparently denied to the sufetes. The term sufet was not, however, reserved for the heads of the Carthaginian state.
Once the scale of the conflict had escalated beyond them, the Mamertines were lost to the historical record and their fate is lost, swallowed up in the larger events of the Punic wars. After the First Punic War, however, their name was not quite forgotten in the ancient world since "Mamertine wine" from the vineyards of north-eastern tip of Sicily was still known and enjoyed in the 1st century. It was the favourite of Julius Caesar and it was he who made it popular after serving it at a feast to celebrate his third consulship. Even centuries after the Mamertine occupation, the inhabitants of Messana were still called Mamertines.
During the 3rd century BC, the Barcids comprised one of the leading families in the ruling oligarchy of Carthage. Realizing that the expansion of the Roman Republic into the Mediterranean Sea threatened the mercantile power of Carthage, they fought in the First Punic War (264–241 BC) and prepared themselves for the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). The Barcids founded several Carthaginian cities in the Iberian peninsula, some of which still exist today. Note for example Mahón and Qart Hadast (more famous under the Latin translation of its name: "Carthago Nova" or New Carthage) which currently bears the name of Cartagena in modern-day Spain.
Following Carthage's destruction, Rome established Africa Proconsularis, its first province in Africa, which roughly corresponded to Carthage's northwest African territory. Utica, which had allied itself with Rome during the final war, was granted tax privileges and made the regional capital, subsequently becoming the leading center of Punic trade and culture. In 122 BC, Gaius Gracchus, a populist Roman senator, founded the short-lived colony of Colonia Iunonia, after the Latin name for the Punic goddess Tanit, Iuno Caelestis. Located near the site of Carthage, its purpose was to provide arable lands for impoverished farmers, but it was soon abolished by the Roman Senate to undermine Gracchus' power.
However, the city walls withstood the attack and no breaches could be made for the Punic infantry to exploit. Hannibal then sent sappers, who dug tunnels under the walls and collapsed sections of it by setting fire to the wooden support beams.Diodorus Siculus, 13.59.8 Carthaginian infantry then attacked through the gap, but the Himerans repulsed the Punic assault on the city, and then threw up makeshift walls to close the breaches.Diodorus Siculus 13.59.4-6 Sometime after this event, Syracusan general Diocles arrived with 3,000 Syracusan hoplites, 1,000 soldiers from Akragas, and another 1,000 mercenaries, and entered the city. Joining the Himeran force of about 10,000 troopsChurch, Alfred J. Carthage, pp.
Messengers from Carthage reached Mago in the land of the Ingauni, and he set sail for Africa with a part of his army. Some sources claim that Mago died during this voyage from the wound that he suffered in the battle, but others state that he returned to Liguria soon after his departureCassius Dio, XVII and stayed there for at least two more years.Appian, The Punic Wars, VIII, 49; IX, 59 It is certain that for five years after the end of the Second Punic war the Romans had to fight the remnants of the Carthaginian forces in Northern Italy.Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol.
The Rif has been inhabited by Berbers since prehistoric times. As early as the 11th century BC, the Phoenicians began to establish trading posts, with approval of or partnership with the local Berbers and started interbreeding thus starting a Punic language, on the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts, and founded cities such as Tetouan, Melilla (Rusadir) and, in the 5th century BC, Tangier (called Tingi, back then). Later the Phoenician power gave way to an independent Carthage city-state, as the major power in the region. After the Third Punic War, Carthage was supplanted by Rome, and the Rif became part of the province of Mauretania.
After losing control of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica in the First Punic War, Carthage began to expand into the south of the Iberian peninsula. Soon afterwards, the Second Punic War began. Much of that war between Carthage and Rome took place in Hispania until Scipio Africanus effectively seized control of Hispania from Hannibal and the Carthaginians in the Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC. Four years later, Carthage surrendered and ceded its control of the region to Rome after Carthage's defeat in 201 BC.Grout, James. Encyclopaedia Romana In 197 BC, the peninsula was divided into two provinces because of the presence of two military forces during its conquest.
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius ( – BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now lost manual on military tactics, but he is best known for The Histories, written sometime after 167 BC, or about a century after the Battle of Ecnomus. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral—between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Most Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now lost, Greek and Latin sources.
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius ( – 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a manual on military tactics not extant but he is best known for his work The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC about a century after the battle. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, Greek and Latin sources.
In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the larger and heavier vessels adopted in this period lacked the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram, while their sturdier construction reduced the ram's effect even in case of a successful attack. The Roman adaptation of the was a continuation of this trend and compensated for their initial disadvantage in ship-manoeuvring skills. The added weight in the prow compromised both the ship's manoeuvrability and its seaworthiness, and in rough sea conditions the became useless; part way through the First Punic War the Romans ceased using it.
It has a circular opening dug into a block of limestone, with an opening for rainwater at one end. Although no water source feeds the cistern, the permanent spring of Għajn Bierda, which flows a hundred yards to the south-east, may have been deviated to lower ground, providing the buildings with a year-round supply of fresh water. Site plan of the Megalithic and Punic-Roman remains at Ras ir-Raħeb A main point of interest of the remains at Ras ir-Raħeb is the integration of two rough stone megaliths within the Punic-Roman structure. These are the remains of an earlier, prehistoric structure.
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius ( – 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics, but he is known today for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC, or about a century after the Battle of Drepana. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, Greek and Latin sources.
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius ( – 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics, but he is known today for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC, or about a century after the Battle of the Aegates. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, Greek and Latin sources.
The version of Livy and Polybius is supported by other ancient historians, such as FlorusFlorus, Epitome of Roman History, Book I, Section 22 and Frontinus.Frontinus, Stratagems, II, 5.29 In “The Punic Wars”, a part of his “Roman History”, Appian relates another story of the events. According to Appian, Scipio detached only Massinissa and his horsemen to prevent Syphax from rendering help to Hasdrubal.Appian, History of Rome, The Punic Wars, 4.20 With the bulk of his legionaries, the Roman commander suddenly attacked Hasdrubal's camp and slaughtered almost all of his soldiers, because those who initially made their escape were rounded up by the Roman cavalry.
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius (– BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now lost manual on military tactics, but he is best known today for his Histories, written sometime after 146 BC, or about a century after the end of the war. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, Greek and Latin sources.
Malta had been Carthaginian territory since 480 BC. During the First Punic War, the island suffered a devastating raid by a Roman army under Gaius Atilius Regulus Serranus in 257 BC, but it remained under Carthaginian rule. When the Second Punic War broke out in 218 BC, a Carthaginian force of around 2,000 men under the command of Hamilcar, son of Gisco garrisoned the Maltese Islands. Despite the Carthaginian defeat at the Battle of Lilybaeum, the Romans were concerned that a Carthaginian-led revolt might break out in Sicily. In order to prevent this, Malta – Carthage's nearest base to Sicily – had to be captured.
During the 4th century BC, Rome began to rise as a Mediterranean power rival to the north African based Carthage. After suffering defeat to the Romans in the First Punic War (264–241 BC), the Carthaginians began to extend their power into the interior of Iberia from their south eastern coastal settlements but this empire was to be short lived. In the Second Punic War (218–202 BC), the Carthaginian general Hannibal marched his armies, which included Iberians, from Iberia, across the Pyrenees and the Alps and attacked the Romans in Italy. Despite many victories, he was finally defeated and the Romans took revenge by destroying Carthage.
Before the second Punic war, there was no historiography in Rome; but the clash of civilisations it involved proved a potent stimulus to historiography, which was taken up by the two senators (and participants in the war), Quintus Fabius Pictor and Lucius Cincius Alimentus, who may be considered the "Founders" of Roman Historiography.E Breisach, Historiography (2007) p. 44-5 Q. Fabius Pictor wrote a history of Rome in Greek, not Latin. This choice of writing about the war in Greek arose from a need to address the Greeks and counter another author, Timaeus, who also wrote a history of Rome until the Second Punic War.
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius ( – 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a now-lost manual on military tactics, but he is known today for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC, or about a century after the Battle of Cape Hermaeum. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view. Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, Greek and Latin sources.
Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC and so Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several, now-lost, Greek and Latin sources. Polybius was an analytical historian and wherever possible personally interviewed participants in the events he wrote about. Only the first book of the forty comprising The Histories deals with the First Punic War. The accuracy of Polybius's account has been much debated over the past 150 years, but the modern consensus is to accept it largely at face value, and the details of the battle in modern sources are almost entirely based on interpretations of Polybius's account.
By the middle of the 2nd century BC, the Plebeians (commoners) saw a worsening economic situation.Abbott, 77 The long military campaigns, in particular those of the Punic Wars, had forced citizens to leave their farms, which often caused those farms to fall into a state of disrepair. This situation was made worse during the Second Punic War, when Hannibal fought the Romans throughout Italy, and the Romans adopted a strategy of attrition and guerilla warfare in response. When the soldiers returned from the battlefield, they often had to sell their farms to pay their debts, and the landed aristocracy quickly bought these farms at discounted prices.
Peter Alexander René van Dommelen (born 1966, Terneuzen) is a Dutch archaeologist and academic, who specialises in the archaeology of the Western Mediterranean and Phoenician-Punic archaeology. Since July 2015, he has been Director of the Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World at Brown University.
The many amphorae with Punic markings subsequently found about ancient Mediterranean coastal settlements testify to Carthaginian trade in locally made olive oil and wine.Plato (c. 427 – c. 347) in his Laws at 674, a-b, mentions regulations at Carthage restricting the consumption of wine in specified circumstances.
Ancient temple in Salina, 1810 The islanders were allies of the Carthaginians against Rome during the Punic Wars. Although the Battle of the Lipari Islands in 260 BC led to a Carthaginian victory, the Romans later sacked Lipari and their domination led to a period of poverty.
His work ended with his own recollections of the Second Punic War, although it is unclear whether he survived long enough to record it entirely. His account was highly partisan towards Rome, blaming the war on Carthage and particularly on the Barca family of Hamilcar and Hannibal.
The Battle of Messana in 264 BC was the first military clash between the Roman Republic and Carthage. It marked the start of the First Punic War. In that period, and after the recent successes in southern Italy, Sicily became of increasing strategic importance to Rome.
Taparura was an ancient Berber, Punic and Roman city in the location of modern-day Sfax, Tunisia. It was a former Catholic diocese. The same ancient name is revived since the 1980's as a coastal urban development project on the location of former chemical industries.
Legions of Death is a one or two-player strategy video game published for the Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum personal computers. It requires players to control the navies of ancient Rome and Carthage during the Punic Wars, in order to conquer the Mediterranean Sea.
A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. 1st ed., University of California Press, 2005, www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1ppxrv. While these ideas were not fully understood, the Twelve Tables play a significant role in the basis of the early American legal system.
36 C apud Augustin de Civitate Dei IV 23; 16 fr. 240 C apud Tertullian above II 12, 18; Macrobius Saturnalia I 10, 20. Uni is here the Punic goddess, in accord with the identification of Pyrgi. Her paredra was the Phoenician god Ba'al, interpreted as Saturn.
55Hoyos, B. Dexter, Unplanned Wars: The Origins of the First and Second Punic Wars (1998), pg. 109 After possibly campaigning in western Sicily for a brief timeHoyos, pgs. 109-110 they then spent the remainder of their consulate besieging and finally capturing the town of Agrigentum.Broughton, pg.
Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult, and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War. The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled.
Mason's novel The Barbarians (1954) is the story of Cealwyn, an Ancient Briton. Cealwyn is kidnapped by Carthaginians, but escapes and fights his former captors during the First Punic War. The Pulp Swordsmen: Cealwyn by Morgan Holmes, at REHupa Website, April 11th, 2010. Retrieved June 4th, 2019.
The Cornelii Mammulae held several praetorships, beginning at the time of the Second Punic War, but they never attained the consulship, and disappeared after about fifty years. Their surname is a diminutive of mamma, a breast.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, p.
In 406 BC Hannibal Mago died in a plague that broke out during the siege of Agrigento. This person should not be confused with the much more famous Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca who led the Carthaginian forces during the Second Punic War about two centuries later.
E.C. Nischer, D. van Berchem, and more recently, M.C. Bishop and J.C.N. Coulston attribute mainly an expansion to Diocletian, and the reorganization to Constantine I and his successors.Bishop, M.C., and Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment, From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, p. 199.
Usually, only Sicilians could purchase the rights to become decumani. However, occasionally there were Italian decumani in Sicily.Serrati, John, and Christopher Smith. "Garrisons and Grain: Sicily between the Punic Wars" In Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus: New Approaches in Archaeology and History, Edinburgh University Press, 2000. p.
125 King Hiero the II of Syracuse had a lucrative tax system in place over his subjects.Serrati, John, and Christopher Smith. "Garrisons and Grain: Sicily between the Punic Wars" In Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus: New Approaches in Archaeology and History. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, p.
Personal Names in the Phoenician and Punic Inscriptions. P.313-314 It is equivalent to the Hebrew name Haniel. Greek historians rendered the name as Anníbas (). The Carthaginians did not use hereditary surnames, but typically were distinguished from others bearing the same name using patronymics or epithets.
The Iberians of the time were renowned for the design and manufacture of high-quality weapons, most notably the gladius Hispaniensis, the "Spanish sword", which remained the standard close-combat weapon of Roman infantrymen until the 3rd century AD. Although Polybius states that the gladius was adopted by the Romans during the Second Punic War, it is clear from elsewhere in his own narrative that it was already in use during the Gallic invasion of 225 BC.Polybius II.30, 35Wallbank (1957) 704 The gladius replaced the generally shorter stabbing-swords of Italic design used until then.Goldsworthy (2003) 29 The Romans were able to marry, from the time for the 2nd Punic War, the superb design of the gladius with the finest-quality steel then available in western Europe, the ferrum Noricum, from the Alpine kingdom of Noricum (roughly modern Austria). The pilum, a heavy javelin that eventually all Roman foot-soldiers were equipped with, was probably also of Spanish design and also adopted during the First Punic War.
Dionysius again attacked Punic possessions in 368 BC, and laid siege to Lilybaeum. The defeat of his fleet was a severe setback. After his death in 367 BC, his son Dionysius II made peace with Carthage, and Carthage retained her Sicilian possessions west of the Halcyas and Himeras rivers.
A more systematic survey of both Punic and Roman-era remains is due to Alfred Louis Delattre, who was sent to Tunis by cardinal Charles Lavigerie in 1875 on both an apostolic and an archaeological mission.Azedine Beschaouch, La légende de Carthage, éd. Découvertes Gallimard, Paris, 1993, p. 94.
Evidently Carthage also had an institution of elders who advised the Suffets, similar to a Greek gerusia or the Roman Senate. We do not have a Punic name for this body. At times its members would travel with an army general on campaign. Members also formed permanent committees.
A self-published book Imperator: Italia by Erich 'B' Hartmann, presumably part of a trilogy or series, has Laelius as a second narrator charting events of the Second Punic War while he converses (or recollects) with the first narrator, Polybius, who is collecting materials for his eponymous Histories.
The attack was repulsed by Hadrian's governor, the historian Arrian,N. J. E. Austin & N. B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military & Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople. London: Routledge, 2002, p. 4 who subsequently installed a Roman "adviser" in Iberia.
98-99 which is not mentioned being present at Gela. The Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. The Punic navy was built around the trireme, Carthaginian citizens usually served alongside recruits from Libya and other Carthaginian domains.
This family flourished for about a century from the time of the Second Punic War.Isidore, Origines, xix. 19. The surname Gracchanus was assumed by one of the Junii in the latter part of the second century BC, on account of his friendship with Gaius Gracchus.Pliny the Elder, xxxiii. 2.
It contains the mountain Pizzuta, the National Park of the Sila, Montagnella Park, and the Giglietto Valley. Crotone was founded in 710 BCE. It participated in the Second Punic War against the Roman Republic. The province contains 27 comuni (singular: comune), listed at comuni of the Province of Crotone.
Gunugus or Gunugu (, ) was a Berber and Carthaginian town in northwest Africa in antiquity. It passed into Roman control during the Punic Wars and was the site of a colony of veteran soldiers. It survived the Vandals and Byzantines but was destroyed during the Muslim invasion of the area.
Flamininus' early career was peculiar, as he skipped several steps of the cursus honorum. The Second Punic War that was raging in Italy created several unusual careers, that of Scipio Africanus being the most famous example. It started in 208 as military tribune, a junior military position.Broughton, vol.
The Roman construction succeeds a Punic installation according to the discoverer of the site.Gabriel-Guillaume Lapeyre et Arthur Pellegrin, Carthage punique (814-146 avant J.-C.), éd. Bibliothèque historique, Paris, 1942, p. 38 Indeed, it is there that outcrops the only known spring in the site of Carthage.
The name of Alife has Samnite origin, although a settlement in the hills around the city existed probably since the Iron Age. After the First Punic War, it became a Roman municipium, with the name of Alliphae - the ruins of which extend to the nearby comune of Sant'Angelo d'Alife.
Hannibal (also known as Hannibal: Rome's Worst Nightmare) is a 2006 television film, presented as a dramatised documentary, made by the BBC. It is narrated by Kenneth Cranham. The film is chiefly centred on the Italian campaign of Hannibal, the famous Carthaginian general during the Second Punic War.
He was born and raised in Leptis Magna (southeast of Carthage, modern Libya, North Africa). Geta was of Berber, Libyco-Punic and Roman ancestry. This Geta was more politically active than his father. Geta was appointed one of the decemviri stlitibus judicandis, which in part involved judging lawsuits.
Drepanum (Trapani), conquered along with Eryx at the end of the First Punic War, became a flourishing commercial city, owing primarily to the port, its geographic location on Mediterranean sea routes, its active sea salt industry, which had been developed already in Phoenician times, and the extraction of coral.
The Romans and Trade. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). It is possible that the Second Punic War as well as profiteering influenced the passage of the lex Claudia. Many affluent Romans were involved in business as well as war, and an example of this is conflict over Saguntum.
He destroyed or captured 44 ships, and was the first Roman to receive a naval triumph, which also included captive Carthaginians for the first time.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 84. Although Carthage was victorious on land at Thermae in Sicily, the corvus made Rome invincible on the waters.
338 Carthage was almost defenceless, and submitted when besieged.Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 339 However, the Romans demanded complete surrender and removal of the city into the (desert) inland far off any coastal or harbour region, and the Carthaginians refused. The city was besieged, stormed, and completely destroyed.
The navy thereafter declined in size.Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, p. 156 The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term.Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p.
However, since these men were political appointees, the actual handling of the fleets and of separate squadrons was entrusted to their more experienced legates and subordinates. It was therefore during the Punic Wars that the separate position of praefectus classis ("fleet prefect") first appeared.Livy, AUC XXVI.48; XXXVI.
Purpureo was a military tribune in 210 BC during the Second Punic War. After the Battle of Numistro against Hannibal, he was left behind in charge of the wounded with a small number of guards, while the consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus pursued the enemy.Livy, History of Rome 27.2.
Octavius was from the plebeian gens Octavia and was the first member of the gens to be elected consul. His father also had the praenomen Gnaeus and was a praetor in 205 BC who fought in the Second Punic War. His grandfather, Gnaeus Octavius Rufus was quaestor 230 BC.
The Battle of Nepheris was the second battle of the Third Punic War that took place at Nepheris in 147 BC. The battle was fought between the forces of the Roman Republic, commanded by Scipio Aemilianus, and the forces of Carthage who were commanded by Diogenes of Carthage.
Serrati, John, and Christopher Smith. "Garrisons and Grain: Sicily between the Punic Wars" In Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus: New Approaches in Archaeology and History, pp. 115-133 Comparatively, after conquering the port city of Lilybaeum, the Romans left in place the existing Carthaginian tariffs.Cic. Verr 2.2.171, 185. 2.3.
The Phoenician alphabet proper remained in use in Ancient Carthage until the 2nd century BC (known as the Punic language), while elsewhere it diversified into numerous national alphabets, including the Aramaic and Samaritan, several Anatolian scripts, and the early Greek alphabets. In the Near East, the Aramaic alphabet became especially successful, giving rise to the Jewish square script and Arabic scripts, among others. "Phoenician proper" consists of 22 consonant letters only, leaving vowel sounds implicit, although certain late varieties use matres lectionis for some vowels. As the letters were originally incised with a stylus, they are mostly angular and straight, although cursive versions steadily gained popularity, culminating in the Neo-Punic alphabet of Roman-era North Africa.
The Ebro in Miranda de Ebro. In antiquity, the Ebro was used as the dividing line between Roman (north) and Carthaginian (south) expansions after the First Punic War (264–241 BC). When the Roman Republic, fearful of Hannibal's growing influence in the Iberian Peninsula, made the city of Saguntum (considerably south of the Ebro) a protectorate of Rome, Hannibal viewed the treaty violation as an aggressive action by Rome and used the event as the catalyst to the Second Punic War. One of the earliest Cistercian monasteries in Spain, Real Monasterio de Nuestra Señora de Rueda ( Monastery of Our Lady of the Wheel), is located on the banks of the Ebro in Aragon.
Many of the Greeks had been victims of the duplicity and aggression of Dionysius (he had destroyed Greek cities Naxos, Leontini and Catana and driven out the population) and even preferred to live under Punic rule.Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol. 4, pp58 – pp59 The Carthaginians allowed Greeks from Naxos, Catana and Leontini, made refugees by Dionysius, along with Sicels and Sikans to settle in Punic territory, while alliances were made with Sicel tribes being threatened by Dionysius.Diod. X.IV.90 The Greeks cities, free of Carthaginian over lordship since 398 BC, now moved from a pro Syracuse position to a neutral one, either feeling threatened by Dionysius or because of the activities of Mago.
Dido and Aeneas, from a Roman fresco, Pompeian Third Style (10 BC – 45 AD), Pompeii, Italy The oxhide story which explains the name of the hill is most likely of Greek origin since Byrsa means "oxhide" in Greek, not in Punic. The name of the hill in Punic was probably just a derivation from Semitic brt "fortified place". But that does not prevent other details in the story from being Carthaginian, albeit still not necessarily historical. Michael Grant in Roman Myths (1973) claims that "Dido-Elissa was originally a goddess", and that she was converted from a goddess into a mortal (if still legendary) queen sometime in the later fifth century BCE by a Greek writer.
Antas Temple Roman bridge of Turris Libisonis, Porto Torres, Sardinia Carales was the biggest city in the entire province, reaching a population of 30,000 inhabitants. Its existence as an urban center went back to at least the 8th century BC, with Florus calling it urbs urbium, the city among the cities. Sardinia and Carales came under Roman rule in 238 BC, shortly after the First Punic War, when the Romans defeated the Carthaginians. No mention of it is found on the occasion of the Roman conquest of the island, but during the Second Punic War it served as the praetor's headquarters (Titus Manlius Torquatus) from whence he conducted his operations against Hampsicora and the Sardo-Carthaginian army.
Cato was known for finishing nearly every speech in the Senate, regardless of the subject, with the phrase ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam—"Moreover, I am of the opinion that Carthage ought to be destroyed". In particular, the growing Roman Republic sought the famously rich agricultural lands of Carthage and its African territories, which had been known to the Romans following their invasion in the previous Punic War. Carthage's border war with Rome's ally Numidia, though initiated by the latter, nonetheless provided the pretext for Rome to declare war. The Third Punic War was a much smaller and shorter engagement than its predecessors, primarily consisting of a single main action, the Battle of Carthage.
They practised highly advanced and productive agriculture, using iron ploughs, irrigation, crop rotation, threshing machines, hand-driven rotary mills, and horse mills, the latter two being invented by the Carthaginians in the sixth and fourth centuries BC, respectively. Carthaginians were adept at refining and reinventing their agricultural techniques, even in the face of adversity. After the Second Punic War, Hannibal promoted agriculture to help restore Carthage's economy and pay the costly war indemnity to Rome (10,000 talents or 800,000 Roman pounds of silver), which proved successful.Pliny 33,51 Strabo reports that even in the years leading up to the Third Punic War, the otherwise devastated and impoverished Carthage had made its lands flourish once more.
67 Carthage signed treaties with the cities of Selinus, Himera, and Zankle by 490. The pretext for launching the Punic Sicilian expedition of 480 was the restoration of the deposed tyrant of Himera. The Sicilian Greeks under the tyrants Gelo of Syracuse and Theron of Akragas had crushed the Punic expedition in the 1st battle of Himera in 480 BC. Carthage had stayed away from Sicilian Greek affairs following the defeat for 70 years, during which time Greek culture started to penetrate the Elymian, Sikanian, and Sicel cities. The political landscape in Sicily also changed as Greek tyrants were replaced by democracy and oligarchy, the domain of Syracuse shrunk, and infighting between Greek cities flared up in Sicily.
Firstly, Segesta decided to submit to Carthage and become a dependent ally. This probably meant that Segesta would retain internal and commercial autonomy, but surrender control of foreign policy, pay for any Punic garrison housed in Elymian territory and perhaps pay tribute in return for Carthaginian protection. Secondly, one of the Suffets of Carthage was Hannibal Mago, a member of the Magonid dynasty – and no lover of Greeks. From the Carthaginian prospective, probably three factors stood out: A victory of Selinus would mean a strong power in Western Sicily capable of threatening Punic interests, submission of Segesta would enlarge the Carthaginian domain, while any intervention risked a war with the mighty Syracuse.
The Mercenary War, also known as the Truceless War, was a mutiny by troops employed by Carthage at the end of the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC), backed by an uprising of African settlements revolting against Carthaginian control. It lasted from 241 to late 238 or early 237 BC and ended with Carthage suppressing both the mutiny and the revolt. The war began in 241 BC as a dispute over the payment of wages owed to 20,000 foreign soldiers who had fought for Carthage on Sicily during the First Punic War. When a compromise seemed to have been reached the army erupted into full-scale mutiny under the leadership of Spendius and Matho.
Limestone blocks at the site Of greater interest is an ivory plaque, with a low relief of a crouching boar that is not of Classical Greek influence and may indicate the survival of Punic culture. Two clay satyr masks on vessel legs were also found, and classified as Punic. The remains of a clay figurine of a nude male youth, broken from the waist upwards, however, is probably a late Hellenistic work. Several other pieces of clay figurines, including another male nude and a draped female holding a small pyxes, a small grotesque head of a bald and bearded old man, and a fragment of a cloaked figure were collected from among the debris.
At Pyrgi, one of the ports of Caere, excavations had since 1956 revealed the existence of a sacred area, intensely active from the last quarter of the 4th century, yielding two documents of a cult of Uni. Scholars had long believed the Etruscan goddess Uni was strongly influenced by the Argive Heras and had her Punic counterpart in the Carthaginian goddess Tanit, identified by the Romans as Juno Caelestis.Cf. Martianus Capella: Saturni Caelestis Iuno, in region XIV of Heaven. Nonetheless Augustine of Hippo had already stated that Juno was named Astarte in the Punic language,Augustinus Quaestiones in Heptateuchum VII 16 a notion that the discovery of the Pyrgi lamellae has proved correct.
Whether the Germani were clients or allies of the wealthy Iberian Oretani people during the 3rd century BC remains unclear, though they certainly supported the powerful Oretanian King Orison at the Battle of Helicen in 228 BC (Helike in the Greek sources, perhaps Elche de la Sierra, Elche or another Oretanian city) against the Carthaginians under Hamilcar Barca.Appian, Iberiké, 6. Orison’s defeat in 227 BCDiodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, 25, 42. and the Oretani's subsequent alliance with Carthage, however, caused a major friction with their Germani allies, who continued to resist Punic expansion until being subdued by Hannibal in 221 BC; the latter were certainly amongst the Oretani troops sent to Africa at the outbreak of the Second Punic War.
Circa 220 BC, three large Berber kingdoms had arisen. Markedly influenced by Punic civilization, they had nonetheless endured as separate Berber entities, their culture surviving throughout the long reign of Carthage. West to east these kingdoms were: (1) the Mauri (in modern Morocco) under king Baga; (2) the Masaesyli (in northern Algeria) under Syphax, who then controlled two capitals: to the west Siga (near modern Oran) and to the east Cirta (modern Constantine); and (3) the Massyli (south of Cirta, west and south of nearby Carthage), ruled by Gala [Gaia] (the father of Masinissa). Following the Second Punic War, Massyli and eastern Masaesyli were joined to become Numidia, located in historic Tunisia.
Celtiberian biglobular daggers Celtiberian antennas swords The Celtiberians were the most influential ethnic group in Iberia when the Mediterranean powers (Carthage and Rome) started their conquests. In 220 BC, the Punic army was attacked when preparing to cross the Tagus river by a coalition of Vaccei, Carpetani and Olcades. Despite these clashes, during the Second Punic War the Celtiberians served most often as allies or mercenaries of Carthage in its conflict with Rome, and crossed the Alps in the mixed forces under Hannibal's command. Under Scipio Africanus, the Romans were able to secure alliances and change the allegiances of many Celtiberian tribes, using these allied warriors against the Carthaginian forces and allies in Spain.
Hannibal crosses the Alps during the Second Punic War The 3rd century BC started the first day of 300 BC and ended the last day of 201 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period. In the Mediterranean Basin, the first few decades of this century were characterized by a balance of power between the Greek Hellenistic kingdoms in the east, and the great mercantile power of Carthage in the west. This balance was shattered when conflict arose between ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. In the following decades, the Carthaginian Republic was first humbled and then destroyed by the Romans in the First and Second Punic Wars.
There is a problem of chronological order in the tomb excavated at the beginning of the 20th century. Indeed, the archaeological material found predates the First Punic War and therefore predates the hypothesis formulated by the excavator, dating the armour to the Second Punic War. The study of the archaeological environment of the armour thus makes its chronology hypothetical according to Yann Le Bohec. According to a classification of the mid-1990s, one of the amphorae dates from the first half of the 4th century BC or even the end of the 5th century BC. A second amphora, which is a local copy of Italian pottery, can be dated to the same period.
Quintus Baebius Tamphilus (fl. late-3rd century BC) was a praetor of the Roman Republic who participated in negotiations with Hannibal attempting to forestall the Second Punic War. Little is known of Baebius's life and political career, but it is likely that he held the praetorship before 218 BC. When Hannibal besieged Saguntum (now Sagunto), an ally of Rome, the Saguntines petitioned for assistance, and in response the Senate sent Baebius and Publius Valerius Flaccus as envoys to Spain, with instructions to demand that Hannibal leave Saguntum alone. They two were then to proceed to Carthage to ask for his surrender as punishment for breaking the treaty that had been concluded at the end of the First Punic War.
La Découverte, Paris, 1991, . Hannibal's profile appears on the Tunisian five dinar bill issued on 8 November 1993, as well as on another new bill put into circulation on 20 March 2013. His name is also given to a private television channel, Hannibal TV. A street in Carthage, located near the Punic ports, bears his name as well as a stop of the Carthage metro, the TGM "Carthage Hannibal". Since 2011, Hannibal is one of the main characters, with Scipio Africanus, of the "Ad Astra" manga in which Mihachi Kagano traces the course of the Second Punic War.ki-oon.com « Ad Astra : quand l'histoire s'écrit et se dessine ! », Ki-oon, 9 septembre 2014.
This community may have maintained the Columna Lactaria;John Bert Lott, The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome (Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 11–12 online. Robert E.A. Palmer thought that the milk-offerings of Punic cult might shed light on the significance of the column.Palmer, Rome and Carthage at Peace, p. 102.
Large estates (called latifundia) were over 500 iugera. In the late Republican era, the number of latifundia increased. Wealthy Romans bought land from peasant farmers who could no longer make a living. Starting in 200 BC, the Punic Wars called peasant farmers away to fight for longer periods of time.
The text is over 50 words and dates from the Second Punic War, 218-201. Fischer also reports a Celt-Iberian coin from Spain of the first century B.C. inscribed with Libyan letters. Ibid. at 93. Today the script descendent from the ancient Libyan remains in use; it is called Tifinagh.
Bulla Regia The Punic name of the town appears on its currency as (). This has been suggested to have been a contraction of (), meaning "House" or "Temple of Baal". The name Bulla Regia is Latin for "Royal Bulla". The epithet refers to its status as the Numidian capital under Masinissa.
Astin, Scipio Aemilianus, p. 50, supposes that Corculum was also a member of this embassy. Cato was impressed by the prosperity of the Punic city and noticed that it had "lots of timber", which could be used to build ships (in order to make war against Rome).Livy, Periochae, 47.
2; Plutarch Pyrrh. 16; Florus i. 18. § 7. They gave a still more striking proof of fidelity during the Second Punic War, by adhering to the Roman cause after the battle of Cannae, when so many of the Italian allies, including the greater part of the Samnites, went over to Hannibal.
"Another Punic Wreck in Sicily: its ram." IJNA4.2:201. As opposed to other Early Bronze Age ship and boat models, this model was not found in a burial context. This model is thought to be a child's toy or a piece of art, instead of a burial offering.Johnston, P.F. 1985.
The temple overlooked the Circus Maximus and the Temple of Vesta, and faced the Palatine Hill. It became an important repository for plebeian and senatorial records.Cornell, T., The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.1000–264 BC), Routledge, 1995, p. 264.
Tiberius was the most distinguished young officer in the Third Punic War, Rome's last campaign against Carthage. He was the first to scale Carthage's walls; before that he saved an army of 20,000 men by skilled diplomacy. As the boys grew up, they developed strong connections with the ruling elite.
To be self-aware of how the approach ancient evidence, of course, is included in the challenge.Cf., Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome. From prehistory to the first Punic war (University of California 2005), e.g., his chapter 3, "The ancient sources for early Roman history" at 59–77.
They fought in a loose formation, supporting the heavier troops. They were eventually phased out by the time of Second Punic War. In the later Roman Republic the term was used for civil servants who assisted the elected magistrates, particularly in the courts, where they acted as ushers and clerks.
403 online. and it has been doubted that the lusus presented under Sulla was the Troy Game. A similar-sounding event during the ludi Romani at the time of the Second Punic War is also uncertain as evidence for an earlier staging.Scheid and Svenbro, The Craft of Zeus, p. 40.
Sights include the cathedral of Santa Maria d'Eivissa (14th century), located at the top of the Dalt Vila, and the Punic necropolis of Puig des Molins. Nearby is also the monument of Christ, the Sacred Heart of Jesus, a statue inspired by Christ the Redeemer, which is north of the city.
Gaius Aquillius Florus was a consul of the Roman Republic in the year 259 BC. His colleague was Lucius Cornelius Scipio. During the First Punic War, Aquillius Florus was proconsul of Sicily for the year 258T.R.S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (American Philological Association, 1951, 1986), vol. 1, p.
Its ruins include various distinctly Carthaginian features. The Punic town was known to the Greeks as the "White Cliff" or "White Fort", variously given as (), (), and ()."Roman Policy in Spain", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, p.209. Livy translated the second sense of the Greek name into Latin, calling the settlement .
Concluding the Roman Republic would soon eclipse Carthage, he made a treaty with the Republic in 263 BC and remained faithful to it until his death, sparing his subjects the consequences of the First Punic War. In fact for some years Roman troops had severely damaged the cities in western Sicily.
Scipio Africanus, one of Rome's greatest commanders, was a proconsul during the Second Punic War. He was one of the few proconsuls who did not first serve as consul. A proconsul was an official of ancient Rome who acted on behalf of a consul. A proconsul was typically a former consul.
Among his other services to science must be noticed his collection of Punic inscriptions (Reise in Tunis und Tripolis, Leipzig, 1870), and the editing of Adolph von Wrede's remarkable journey in Hadramut (Reise in Hadramaut, &c.;, Brunswick, 1870). After long suffering from neuralgia, Maltzan died by his own hand at Pisa.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Cotta had a history of building roads for Rome, as he had overseen the construction of a military road in Sicily (as consul in 252 BC, during the First Punic War) connecting Agrigentum (modern Agrigento) and Panormus (modern Palermo).The Cambridge Ancient History. [New] ed.
The Marsala Ship is the earliest warship known from archeological evidence.Frost, 1972, p. 116: “... The most recent campaign off this area of the Isola Lunga has just closed (September 1971). [...] a Punic ship of such unique importance has been found that all other work was discontinued in its favour.” Anzovin, p.
Kebili is one of the oldest oases in Tunisia and North Africa. It holds the earliest hard evidence of human habitation in Tunisia (found near the town) and dates back about 200,000 years. Kebili, along with many other Tunisian cities, became part of the Roman Empire after the Punic Wars.
However, following Alexander's death at an early age, the empire quickly fell apart. The 3rd- century Great Ludovisi sarcophagus depicts a battle between Romans and Goths. Meanwhile, Rome was gaining power, following a rebellion against the Etruscans. During the three Punic Wars, the Romans defeated the neighboring power of Carthage.
The Roman attempt during the second consulship of Lucius Manlius Vulso ultimately failed, but it shows his leadership abilities through his capacity to keep recruiting sailors, even after a serious loss. With these abilities, he was able to help Rome stay on the path to winning the First Punic War.
Kirkham, pp. 113-14Secretum There were two Scipios spoken about in Petrarch's epic poem. They were Scipio the Elder (235 B.C. - 183 B.C.) and his grandson Scipio the Younger (185 B.C. - 129 B.C.). Cornelius Scipio the Elder is the main character and is the victor of the Second Punic War.
In the century prior to the Punic Wars, boarding had become increasingly common and ramming had declined, as the larger and heavier vessels adopted in this period lacked the speed and manoeuvrability necessary to ram, while their sturdier construction reduced the ram's effect even in the case of a successful attack.
Its theme is the Second Punic War and the conflict between the two great generals Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. The poem was re-discovered in either 1416 or 1417 by the Italian humanist and scholar Poggio Bracciolini. A depiction of Hannibal crossing the Alps, a significant scene in the Punica.
47 (straits closed). The Phoenicians themselves had followed the Minoans in the ancient sea trade, Ibid., pp. 23–29. In the 530s there had been a three sided naval struggle between the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Etrusco-Punic allies; the Greeks lost Corsica to the Etruscans and Sardinia to Carthage.
St. Augustine (354–430), Bishop of Hippo (modern Annaba), was born at Tagaste in Numidia (modern Souk Ahras), his mother being St. Monica (who evidently was of Berber heritage).Cf., William M. Green, "Augustine's Use of Punic" pp. 179–190, in Semitic and Oriental Studies presented to Prof. Wm. Popper (Univ.
The name of Claus Valca's father was derived from Hamilcar Barca, the leading commander of Carthaginian forces during the First Punic War and father of the talented tactician Hannibal.. An Anatoray general was named after Vitellius, who led the Roman Empire for several months during the Year of the Four Emperors..
Marcus Junius Silanus was one of the most successful Roman commanders in the Spanish theatre of the Second Punic War. He is best remembered for his defeat of Hanno and Mago in Celtiberia in 207 BC.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 819 ("Silanus, Junius", No. 1).
The praetor, Q. Mucius Scavola, was also sick. Payment and provisions from Rome were irregular. Hampsicora, a Punic-Sardinian landowner, asked for aid from Carthage. Carthage sent an officer named Hanno to finance the revolt and then raised an army similar to that of Mago's for an expedition to Sardinia.
A supporter of the war, the consul Appius Claudius Caudex (Caecus' brother) turned to the Tribal Assembly to get a favourable vote, by notably promising booty to voters.Which assembly was consulted has led to many discussions in the academic literature. Goldsworthy favours the Centuriate Assembly, cf. The Punic Wars, p. 69.
Autaritus announced that he would do the same with all Punic prisoners that fell into rebel hands in future. Hamilcar killed his prisoners and announced a policy of equal measure toward future rebel prisoners, thus ending any chance of desertion from the rebel army and the truceless war began in earnest.
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (died 211 BC) was a Roman noble, general and statesman during the third century BC. He played a major part in the Second Punic War establishing Roman Rule in the east of the Iberian Peninsula and tying up several Carthaginian armies keeping them from reinforcing Hannibal.
Serrati, John, and Christopher Smith. "Garrisons and Grain: Sicily between the Punic Wars" In Sicily from Aeneas to Augustus: New Approaches in Archaeology and History, 115-33. Edinburgh University Press, 2000. p. 124 In some instances Cicero refers to a provision pertaining to tax collection to the edict of Verres.
Whether Silius committed his philosophic dialogues and speeches to writing or not, we cannot say. His only preserved work is his epic poem entitled Punica, about the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) in seventeen books, comprising some twelve thousand lines, making it the longest preserved poem in Latin literature.
The resulting Second Illyrian War was brief (220-219) resulting in the unseating of Demetrius and his taking refuge with the court of Macedon. A new client-king, Gentius, sat on the throne of Ardiaei. Peace came to the Adriatic under Roman control. The Second Punic War was upon them.
Rusguniae was established as a colony along the trade route between the Strait of Gibraltar and Phoenicia. It consisted of a small fortress on Cape Matifou. It eventually fell under Carthaginian control, probably during the 6th century. After the Punic Wars, the area fell under Roman hegemony and Augustus established a colony therePlin.
The Catii may have been of Vestinian origin; Gaius Catius, who served under Marcus Antonius, is said to have belonged to this ancient race.Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares, x. 23. However, members of the family were already at Rome by the time of the Second Punic War, when Quintus Catius was plebeian aedile.Livy, xxvii.
Azemmour is generally identified as the Punic Azama, latinized as Asama. Before 1486, it was a dependency of the King of Fez. In 1486 its inhabitants became vassals and tributaries of João II of Portugal. In 1513 Azemmour's governor Moulay Zayam refused to pay the tribute and mustered a powerful, well-equipped army.
Southern & Dixon 1996, p. 15. E.C. Nischer, D. van Berchem, and more recently, M.C. Bishop and J.C.M. Coulston attribute mainly an expansion to Diocletian, and the reorganization to Constantine I and his successors.Bishop, M.C., and Coulston, J.C.M., 2006, Roman Military Equipment, From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, p. 199.
The Phoenician and Punic name for the place was (), "Southern", or (), "The Southern". A similar structure appears in the Phoenician name for old Cadiz, which appears as Gadir ("Stronghold") or Agadir ("The Stronghold"). The ancient transcriptions of the name show a great deal of variation. Different Greeks hellenized the name as Adrýmē (),.
The Temple of Juno Caelestis is a archaeological site in Dougga, Tunisia. The ruined temple was dedicated to the Roman goddess Juno, herself an evolution of the Punic goddess Tanit. The temple was built between 222 and 235 AD, and is one of the best preserved temples dedicated to Juno in Africa.
He defeated the Pentri, the largest Samnite tribe. There were two republican proconsuls who did not previously hold the position of consul. During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) Scipio Africanus volunteered to lead the second Roman expedition against the Carthaginians in Spain. He was too young to have been a consul.
Hamilcar is named as another Carthaginian writing on agriculture (at 219).Serge Lancel, Carthage (Paris: Arthème Fayard 1992; Oxford: Blackwell 1995), discussion of wine making and its 'marketing' at 273–276. Lancel says (at 274) that about wine making, Mago was silent. Punic agriculture and rural life are addressed at 269–302.
Zama, also known as Xama, in what is now Tunisia is best known for its connection with what is called the Battle of Zama, in which, on 19 October 202 BC, Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal, ending the Second Punic War with victory for the Roman Republic, and breaking the power of Ancient Carthage.
An odometer for measuring distance was first described by Vitruvius around 27 and 23 BC, although the actual inventor may have been Archimedes of Syracuse (c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) during the First Punic War. Hero of Alexandria (10 AD – 70 AD) describes a similar device in chapter 34 of his Dioptra.
His paternal grandfather was also a consul in 238 BC. His mother's identity is not known. His father was not the same Publius Sempronius Gracchus who served as tribune of the plebs in 189 BC. Instead his father had possibly died during the Second Punic War, since no further references exist to him.
Hybla Gereatis, however, played an important role in the Second Punic War, in the 3rd century BCE. A possible explanation of how the term arose is from a corruption of the rho in Greek "Megara" to a lambda generating "Megala" (meaning "greater"). The coins of Hybla Major bear the Greek legend "HYBLA MEGALAS".
The Asinii came from Teate, the chief town of the Marrucini, an Oscan-speaking people related to the Samnites. Silius Italicus mentions a certain Herius who lived around the beginning of the Second Punic War, who was said to have been an ancestor of the Asinii.Silius Italicus, Punica, xvii. 453.Livy, Epitome 73.
6, Livy 21.1.5 could rely on support from this party. There is no clear record of the political activity in Carthage at this time. The political clout of the incumbent leaders was probably weakened by the defeat in the First Punic War, their mismanagement of the Mercenary troops and finally the Sardinia Affair.
The gens Magia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Members of this gens are first mentioned at the time of the Second Punic War. Although several of them performed useful service to the Roman state, none of the Magii ever held the consulship.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol.
Goldsworthy (2000) 49 The cavalry role of equites dwindled after the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), as the number of equestrians became insufficient to provide the senior officers of the army and general cavalrymen as well. Equites became exclusively an officer-class, with the first class of commoners providing the legionary cavalry.
The Malta International Airport is also located in Gudja. The area has been inhabited since prehistoric times, evident from remains still in situ. Scarce Punic remains were found in an area known as Xlejli, within the village. Several remains of the Roman period are scattered in the whereabouts, notoriously the Ħal Resqun Catacombs.
Thereafter the Berbers more frequently enter into the early light of history provided by various Greek and Roman historians. Yet unfortunately, apart from the Punic inscriptions, little Carthaginian literature has survived.B. H. Warmington, "The Carthiginian Period", in General History of Africa, volume III. Ancient Civilizations of Africa (UNESCO 1990), 246-260, at 246.
The gens Otacilia, originally Octacilia, was a plebeian family at Rome. The gens first rose to prominence during the First Punic War, but afterwards lapsed into obscurity. The first of the family to obtain the consulship was Manius Otacilius Crassus, in 263 BC.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p.
The image was destroyed. The combination of royal and priestly functions in Ierna is not otherwise attested among ancient Berbers. The Neo-Punic inscription is partially damaged and resists interpretation. The last four letters of the first line spell the name of Gurzil, while the first four of the second line spell Satur.
The areas around Żebbuġ have been inhabited for millennia. There are Bronze Age remains on Ta' Kuljat hill, and even older remains can be found to the north, close to Qbajjar Bay. Punic tombs were also found at Qbajjar. Over the following centuries, the area was then inhabited only by a few farmers.
Freeman, Edward A., Sicily: Phoenician, Greek Roman, pp145 - pp147 After wintering at Akragas, Himilco moved on Gela. It is not known if the Carthaginians had received any reinforcement during the winter to make up their losses, but Himilco had left the Punic fleet at Motya, thus becoming dependent of a long supply line.
Ounga was a Phoenician and Carthaginian colony under the name (, , "New Place"). The coastal town was the intersection of the road from Carthage to Tacape and the road branching off to Sufetula.Imperium.ahlfeldt.se: Macomades Minores/Iunci, Bordj Younga After the Punic Wars, the area fell under Roman control. The name was latinized to Macomades.
Safi () is a village in the Southern Region of Malta, bordering Żurrieq and Kirkop. It has a population of 2,126 people as of March 2014. The formation of the village, as known today, goes back to the Punic-Roman period. The village of Ħal Safi is surrounded by four other major villages.
Nebuchadnezzar II had conquered Canaan in 572BC with the intention of appropriating the rich Tyrian trade, and with the transition to Carthaginian domination of the western Mediterranean, Malake became in 573BC a colony of the Punic empire of Carthage, which sent its own settlers. The mercantile nature of the city, which developed during Phoenician rule, had taken hold, as well as such idiosyncratic cultural features as the religious cults devoted to the gods Melqart and Tanit. The second half of the sixth century BC marks the transition between the Phoenician and the Punic periods of Málaga. When the Phoenician city-states of the eastern Mediterranean were assimilated into the Persian empire in the 6th century BC, Carthage took advantage of their diminishing control over maritime trade.
The window tombs of the Tal-Minta Catacombs bring to mind both Punic and Christian traditions; it is not clear if the burials were originally Christian, or converted to Christian use at a later date. The architectural similarities between late-Punic tombs and Christian hypogea in Malta suggest that the underground burials of early Christians took on Punico- Roman traditions and gave them new significance. Although the agape table, a common feature of early Christian burials, and altar indicate that the place may have at some point been used for Christian burials, no clear Christian iconography survives in any of the three hypogea. The discovery of other hypogea, mostly of Christian orientation, around Mqabba suggests that the area was once the location of a sizeable community.
In the various independent Phoenician city-states—on the coasts of present-day Lebanon and western Syria, the Punic colonies on the Mediterranean Sea, and in Carthage itself—a shofeṭ (Punic: šūfeṭ) was a non-royal magistrate granted control over a city-state, sometimes functioning much in the same way as a Roman consul; for example, both offices served a one-year term in pairs of two. The officeholder's role as a diplomatic executive, representative of a collective citizenry, is evidenced by an inscription written by the sufet Diomitus at Sidon in the late third century BCE. He boasts of his chariot race victory at the Nemean Games in Greece, perpetuating political favor as "the first of the citizens" to do so.
Shortly afterwards, Rome became involved in Sicily, fighting against the Carthaginians in the First Punic War. The end result was the complete conquest of Sicily, including its previously powerful Greek cities, by the Romans. Roman entanglement in the Balkans began when Illyrian piratical raids on Roman merchants led to invasions of Illyria (the First and, Second Illyrian Wars). Tension between Macedon and Rome increased when the young king of Macedon, Philip V, harbored one of the chief pirates, Demetrius of Pharos (a former client of Rome). As a result, in an attempt to reduce Roman influence in the Balkans, Philip allied himself with Carthage after Hannibal had dealt the Romans a massive defeat at the Battle of Cannae (216 BC) during the Second Punic War.
Iberia during the Second Punic War, showing the short-lived Carthaginian (yellow) and Roman (red) territories and allies After the First Punic war, the massive war debt suffered by Carthage led them to attempt to expand their control over the Iberian peninsula. Hamilcar Barca began this conquest from his base at Cádiz by conquering the Tartessian Guadalquivir river region, which was rich in silver. After Hamilcar's death, his son-in-law Hasdrubal continued his incursions into Iberia, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modern Cartagena) and extending his influence all the way to the southern bank of the river Ebro. After Hasdrubal's assassination in 221 BC, Hannibal assumed command of the Carthaginian forces and spent two years completing the conquest of the Iberians south of the Ebro.
The Punic domain in Sicily by 500 BC contained the cities of Motya, Panormus and Soluntum. By 490 BC, Carthage had concluded treaties with the Greek cities of Selinus, Himera, and Zankle in Sicily. Gelo, the tyrant of Greek Syracuse, backed in part by support from other Greek city-states, was attempting to unite the island under his rule since 485 BC. When Theron of Akragas, father in law of Gelo, deposed the tyrant of Himera in 483 BC, Carthage decided to intervene at the instigation of the tyrant of Rhegion, who was the father-in-law of the deposed tyrant of Himera. Hamilcar prepared the largest Punic overseas expedition to date and after three years of preparations, sailed for Sicily.
Carthaginian shekel, dated 237-227 BC, depicting the Punic god Melqart (equivalent to Hercules), most likely with the features of Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal Barca; on the reverse is a man riding a war elephant Little is known of Hasdrubal's early life. He was present, along with his brother Hannibal, when his father, Hamilcar, besieged the city of Helike. Hamilcar was forced to flee and drowned in the Jucar River. Little is known about his activities during the time Hasdrubal the Fair led the Punic forces in Spain, or during the campaigns of Hannibal Barca in Spain and his Siege of Saguntum. Hannibal, when he set out for Italy in 218 BC, left a force of 13,000 infantry, 2,550 cavalry and 21 war elephants in Iberia.
Traditional allies of the Lusitani, the Vettones helped the latter in their struggle against the advancing Carthaginians led by Hasdrubal the Fair and Hannibal in the late 3rd century BC. At first placed under nominal Punic suzerainty by the time of the Second Punic War, the Vettones threw off their yoke soon after 206 BC. However, a mercenary contingent of Vettones accompanied Hannibal on his march to Italy, led by the chieftain Balarus.Silius Italicus, Punica, 3. At the Lusitanian Wars of the 2nd century BC they joined once again the Lusitani under Punicus, Caesarus and Caucenus in their attacks on Baetica, Carpetania, the Cyneticum and the failed incursion on the North African town of Ocilis (modern Asilah, Morocco) in 153 BC.Appian, Iberiké, 57.Livy, Periochae, 47.
The Carthaginian or Punic shekel was typically around 7.2 grams in silver and 7.5 grams in gold (suggesting an exchange rate of 12:1). They were apparently first developed on Sicily during the mid-4th century BC.. They were particularly associated with the payment of Carthage's mercenary armies and were repeatedly debased over the course of each of the Punic Wars, although the Carthaginian Empire's expansion into Spain under the Barcids before the Second and recovery under Hannibal before the Third permitted improving the amount and quality of the currency. Throughout, it was more common for Carthage's holdings in North Africa to employ bronze or no coinage except when paying mercenary armies and for most of the specie to circulate in Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily.
1–3 Hamilcar managed to inflict severe casualties on the Romans soon after, and when the Roman consul requested a truce to bury his dead, Hamilcar replied that his quarrel was with the living only and the dead had already settled their dues, and granted the truce.Lazenby, J.F, The First Punic War, p 149 The actions of Hamilcar, and his immunity to defeat, plus the stalemate at the siege of Lilybaeum caused the Romans to start building a fleet in 243 BC to seek a decision at sea. However, the constant skirmishing without ultimate victory may have caused the morale of some of Hamilcar's troops to crack and 1,000 Celtic mercenaries tried to betray the Punic camp to the Romans, which was foiled.Polybius 2.7.
Later, after the battle, in 540 BCE, they founded Elea in southern Italy (Magna Grecia). The Phocaeans had managed to establish their base at a time when Carthage was engaged in defending Punic colonies in Sicily (Greeks had started to encroach on Punic cities in 580 BCE) and conquering territory in Sardinia, Tyre was facing Persian domination and the Etruscans were engaged in expansion across Italy, starting with the formation of the Etruscan League. The Greeks started to prey on Carthaginian and Etruscan trade from Corsica, which continued unchecked for five years. However, fearing that the Greeks would threaten their colonies in North Italy and Sardinia next, the Etruscans and Carthaginians joined forces to oppose the Greeks around 540 BCE.
Eastern hemisphere at the beginning of the 2nd century BC. Eastern hemisphere at the end of the 2nd century BC. The 2nd century BC started the first day of 200 BC and ended the last day of 101 BC. It is considered part of the Classical era, although depending on the region being studied, other terms may be more suitable. It also considered to be the end of the Axial Age. In the context of the Eastern Mediterranean, it is referred to as the Hellenistic period. Fresh from its victories in the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic continued its expansion into neighboring territories, eventually annexing Greece and the North African coast, after destroying the city of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War.
220–221 The two generals met on a plain between Carthage and Utica on October 19, 202 BC, at the final Battle of Zama. Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due largely to Roman distrust of the Carthaginians as a result of the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, the breach of protocols which ended the First Punic War (known as Punic Faith), and a perceived breach in contemporary military etiquette due to Hannibal's numerous ambushes. Hannibal arranged his infantry in three phalangial lines designed to overlap the Roman lines. His strategy, so oft reliant upon subtle stratagems, was simple: a massive forward attack by the war elephants would create gaps in the Roman lines, which would be exploited by the infantry, supported by the cavalry.
The Ksour Essef cuirass is an ancient breastplate found in a Punic tomb in 1909 not far from Ksour Essef, Tunisia. This piece of armour, generally dated to the 3rd century BC, is of Italiote origin and comes from Southern Italy. Its discovery in Tunisia led researchers to link it to the expeditions of the Second Punic War led in Italy by the Carthaginian general Hannibal between 211 and 203 BC This hypothesis, although tempting, is now widely questioned following in-depth examination, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, of the various objects found in the tomb. The cuirass is nowadays kept in the Bardo National Museum in Tunis, as is the archaeological material found in the same tomb.
The main source for almost every aspect of the First Punic War is the historian Polybius ( – 118 BC), a Greek sent to Rome in 167 BC as a hostage. His works include a manual on military tactics, not extant but he is known today for The Histories, written sometime after 146 BC, or about a century after the siege. Polybius's work is considered broadly objective and largely neutral as between Carthaginian and Roman points of view, including as it does the views of earlier, pro- Carthaginian historians such as Philinus of Agrigentum. Carthaginian written records were destroyed along with their capital, Carthage, in 146 BC. Polybius's account of the First Punic War is based on several lost Greek and Latin sources.
He is frequently confused with the annalist Lucius Cincius Alimentus, who fought in the Second Punic War,In his classic history of Latin literature, Teuffel distinguishes the two, as in the 1891 English translation. So too Wiseman, Clio's Cosmetics, p. 15, note 39. and some scholars still maintain that Cincius Alimentus was also the antiquarian.
From Roman period until the Arab conquest, Latin, Greek and Numidian further influenced the language, called Neo-Punic to differentiate it from its older version. Lancel, S. (1992). Carthage. Paris: Fayard, pp. 587 This also progressively gave birth to African Romance, a Latin dialect, influenced by Tunisia's other languages and used along with them.
Phoenician, particularly in its North African Punic form, was brought to Algeria by Carthage's influence, it was an influential language in the region ; Augustine learned it, and quotes occasional phrases. However, by his time the language was losing ground to Latin, and no trace of it survives now (apart from occasional names of places).
The novel opens at the alternate close of the Second Punic War. Hannibal offers terms to the Romans: abandon their city and move north of the Alps, or be destroyed. The Romans, under the dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus, accept the offer and withdraw into Germania, vowing to return. The Carthaginians declare victory and go home.
Hasdrubal's wife denouncing her husband before Scipio Africanus by Pietro della Vecchia, c. 1650 Hasdrubal the Boetharch (, ʿAzrubaʿal) was a Carthaginian general during the Third Punic War. Little is known about him. "Boetharch" was a Carthaginian office, the exact function of which is unclear but which is not to be confused with the Greek boeotarch.
The immense effort of building 1,000 galleys during the war laid the foundation for Rome's maritime dominance for 600 years. The end of the war sparked a major but unsuccessful revolt within the Carthaginian Empire. The unresolved strategic competition between Rome and Carthage led to the eruption of the Second Punic War in 218 BC.
Roger Blench suggests that Proto-Berber speakers spread into North Africa from the Nile River valley around 4000 to 5000 years ago, after splitting off from early Afroasiatic. Blench, Roger. 2018. Reconciling archaeological and linguistic evidence for Berber prehistory. In this model, early Berbers borrowed many words from contact with Carthaginian Punic and Latin.
Astin, "Aemilianus and Cato", p. 178. Besides, Aemilianus was the friend of Manius Manilius—the consul of 149 who started the operations against Carthage—and personally directed the final assault on the Punic city (in 146).Astin, Scipio Aemilianus, p. 83. Zonaras wrongly tells that at this occasion Corculum advised sparing the Carthaginians once again.
In 146 BC, the Third Punic War ends, Carthage is put under fire by the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus. The ancient Carthaginian territories become the Roman province of Africa, and Vaga fall finally in hands the Numidian Kingdom, since it was before a de jure Numidian territory and now it's officially under the Numidian rule.
During this initial phase, the usual field reconnaissance was also conducted - patrols might be sent out, raids mounted to probe for weaknesses, prisoners snatched, and local inhabitants intimidated.Adrian Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, (Cassell 2001) pp. 43–78 Morale. If the field of potential battle were near, the movement became more careful and more tentative.
Like other Phoenician colonies, Leptis came to pay tribute to Carthage.Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 19. After the First Punic War, Leptis was at the center of the Mercenary War, a revolt of the Carthaginian mercenaries led by Mathos. This was suppressed with difficulty through the coöperation of Hamilcar Barca and Hanno the Great in 238BC.
In 2016, an ancient Carthaginian individual, who was excavated from a Punic tomb in Byrsa Hill, was found to belong to the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup. The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late 6th century BCE, and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb.
In 276 BCE, however, during the expedition of Pyrrhus to Sicily, the Selinuntines voluntarily joined Pyrrhus, after the capture of Heracleia.Diodorus Siculus xxii. 10. Exc. H. p. 498. By the First Punic War, Selinunte was again under Carthaginian control, and its territory was repeatedly the theater of military operations between the Romans and the Carthaginians.
The gens Raecia, also spelled Racia, was a minor plebeian family at ancient Rome. Members of this gens are first mentioned at the time of the Second Punic War. Marcus Raecius was praetor in 170 BC. However, after this the family fell into obscurity until imperial times.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol.
This was probably caused by the Punic Wars, which had a profound impact on the economy of the Tyrrhenian coast. The only material evidence of the Archaic Greek city consists of some silver coins with the legend LAFINON and symbols similar to those of the coins of Sybaris, dated between 500 and 440 BCE.
Pyrrhus of Epirus then controlled the city until it fell under Roman Republic rule. The city Crotone participated in the Second Punic War, in which, it rebelled and fought against its Roman Republic rulers. The province of Crotone was formed in 1992 from land that had previously been part of the province of Catanzaro.
There are no complete male statues preserved. Hair on the male figures is depicted as a compact mass with curls depicted with notched lines. Truszkowski argues that the female sculptures date primarily to the period prior to the Punic Wars and that the shift to male statues, with more Hellenistic styling, occurred during the conflicts.
According to , while women were usually excluded, they voluntarily contributed to Tributum during the Second Punic War. The Triumvirs later demanded woman paid the tax. Hortensia then argued that woman had never paid tax before that point, and were not obliged which resulted in the exemption of most of the 1,400 woman requested to pay.
The missing sections include three of the triumphs of Camillus, the entire period of the Second Punic War, and all but the last triumph celebrated by Caesar. Shorter gaps occur from 502 to 496, 494 to 486, 329 to 326, 263 to 260, 191 to 189, 104 to 98, and 34 to 29 BC.
In 238 BC the Carthaginians, as a result of their defeat by the Romans in the first Punic War, surrendered Sardinia to Rome. Sardinia together with Corsica became a Roman province (Corsica et Sardinia), however the Greek geographer Strabo confirms the survival, in the interior of the island, of Nuragic culture even in Imperial times.
Stele dedicated to the popular god Mars. Mars was identified with Cosus, the prominent pre-Roman god in coastal Castro region. During the Punic Wars, the Romans became aware of the Castro region's rich deposits of gold and tin. Viriathus, leading Lusitanian troops, hindered the expansion of the Roman Republic north of the river Douro.
Akragas hired the Spartan general Dexippus with a band of 1,500 hoplites and some Campanian mercenaries (previously serving under Hannibal Mago at Himera) to augment their force of 10,000 troops.Kern, Paul B. Ancient Siege Warfare, p. 169. Syracuse posted a fleet of forty triremes at Eryx to watch for the movement of the Punic navy.
This can be seen through the establishment of the Apollinares around the time of the Second Punic War.Scullard, H. H. Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981. Print These public affairs were meant to honor the gods by either consisting of sporting competitions, such as the Apollinares, or religious rituals.
The gens Pedania was a minor plebeian family at Rome. Members of this gens are first mentioned at the time of the Second Punic War, but they achieved little prominence until imperial times, when the ill-starred Lucius Pedanius Secundus attained the consulship under Nero.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p.
Beyond the city, many pre-existing Punic and Berber towns found fresh vigor and prosperity. Many new settlements were founded, especially in the rich and fertile Bagradas (modern Medjerda)river valley, north and northwest of Carthage.Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge Univ. 1971) at 35. An aqueduct about 120 km.
This association, alongside the approval of Panaetius, gave him access to the Scipionic Circle. When Scipio Aemilianus died mysteriously in 129 BC, Tubero was responsible for the funeral arrangements. With Cynic-like aesthetics, he arranged Punic couches with goatskin covers and Samian pottery. The lack of public grandeur, allegedly, lost him the election for praetorship.Cic.
Baal Hammon, properly Baʿal Ḥammon or English: “Lord Hammon” Ḥamon (Phoenician: baʿl ḥamūn; Punic: '), was the chief god of Ancient Carthage. He was a weather god considered responsible for the fertility of vegetation and esteemed as King of the Gods. He was depicted as a bearded older man with curling ram's horns.Brouillet, Monique Seefried, ed.
After settling Messana Dionysius attacked the Sicels and took Smeneous (exact location unknown) and Morgantina, around which the Punic city Solus and Sicel city Cephaloedium was betrayed to him, the Sicel town of Enna was sacked and the booty fattened his coffers.Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.78 Syracusan territory by now had expanded to border Agyrium.
105-113 Today's Tifinagh is thought by some scholars to be descended from Punic, but this is still under debate. Additionally, the Proto-Sinaitic Wadi el-Hol inscriptions indicate the presence of an extremely early form of the script in central Egypt (near the modern city of Qena) in the early 2nd millennium BC.
In Scipio's absence, the soldiers under Pleminius lapsed into looting, which the officers attempted to restrain. Discipline dissolved utterly, and the Roman forces divided into warring troops. The men attached to Pleminius got the worst of it, and reported to him with a display of wounds and complaints of ill treatment.Bagnall, Punic Wars, p. 273.
Warfare contributed to a significant portion of Rome's income.Bleckmann, Bruno. "Roman War Finances in the Age of the Punic Wars" from Hans Beck, Martin Jehne and John Serrati (eds.) Money and Power in the Roman Republic. (Brussels: Editions Latomus, 2016), p. 84 As a result, war generals and their goods, including their ships, were needed.
Dionysius did not immediately march against the Punic possessions in Sicily but took time to order his realm. He probably did not wish to provoke Carthage more than necessary. The Sicilian Greek cities, which had thrown off the Carthaginian over-lordship, were more or less friendly with Syracuse.Freeman, Edward A., History of Sicily Vol.
The naval Battle of Alalia took place between 540 BCE and 535 BCE off the coast of Corsica between Greeks and the allied Etruscans and Carthaginians. A Greek force of 60 Phocaean ships defeated a Punic-Etruscan fleet of 120 ships while emigrating to the western Mediterranean and the nearby colony of Alalia (now Aléria).
Of Roman origin, the family has thousand-year roots in Italy, and traditionally asserts a line of descent from the gens Hostilia, whose line took the surname Mancinus, all the way back to Lucius Hostilius Mancinus who was consul in 145 BC and a commander of the Roman fleet during the Third Punic War.
Seville Province, Estepa, Andalucia.com, accessed 24 Feb 2014 Estepa is mentioned in classical sources as Astapa and Ostippo. The Romans destroyed the Carthaginian city of Astapa during the Punic Wars, as described by Titus Livius. In the Roman epoch, the town bore the name Ostippo, a free city linked to the Conventus de Astigi (Écija).
Carthage's long and frequent interaction with the Berber peoples surrounding them, are not known to us from their accounts because we possess no Punic writings. Serge Lancel, Carthage. A History (Oxford: Blackwell 1992, 1995) at 358-360. We do know that Mago of Carthage began to employ Berbers as mercenaries in the sixth century.
Djinet was a Phoenician and Carthaginian colony under the name Kissi or Kishi (, , if Lipiński's interpretation of an inscription found there is accepted) The name was hellenized as Kissḗ.Ptol., Geogr. After the Punic Wars, it fell under Roman control. Its name was Latinized as Cissi and it was placed into the province of Mauretania Caesariensis.
Ras il-Wardija is a promontory in the limits of San Lawrenz, on the southwest coast of Gozo, Malta. It contains the remains of a Punic-Roman sanctuary, which was excavated by Italian archaeologists in the 1960s. The area is privately owned and it is currently in a dilapidated state.Zammit, V. (1997, February 9).
Two cognomina of the gens are known from Republican times: Celer, which means "swift", belonged to a family of the Ninnii at Capua during the Second Punic War. The surname Quadratus is found amongst the Ninnii at Rome in the time of Cicero. The consular family of imperial times bore the cognomen Hasta, or the derived Hastianus.
Revak the Rebel (a.k.a. The Barbarians, a.k.a. Rivak the Barbarian) is a 1960 film set in Iberia in the days leading up to the outbreak of the Second Punic War. Jack Palance plays an Iberian prince whose nation and family are so abused by the Carthaginians that he turns to the Romans for help in achieving his revenge.
The roof is supported by twelve large square pillars. This is one of the most impressive structures from the Punic-Roman period which survive in Malta. A protective boundary wall exists around the cistern, which was included in early-1900s survey maps of the area. Presumably, this was constructed after the expropriation of the site in 1881.
Instead, it ordered Hamilcar to negotiate a peace treaty with the Romans, which he left up to his subordinate Gisco. The Treaty of Lutatius was signed and brought the First Punic War to its end: Carthage evacuated Sicily, handed over all prisoners taken during the war, and paid an indemnity of 3,200 talents over ten years.
The Road to Rome is a play by American author Robert Sherwood. The plot revolves around Hannibal's attempt to capture Rome during the Second Punic War. It was Sherwood's first published play.. The play opened on Jan. 31, 1927 at the Playhouse Theatre in New York City and was considered a success, running until the next January.
The Maltese language has historically been classified in various ways, with some claiming that the ancient Punic language (another Semitic language) was its origin instead of Siculo-Arabic, while others believed the language to be one of the Berber languages (another family within Afroasiatic), and under the Fascist Kingdom of Italy, it was classified as regional Italian.
When Angius wrote these words, the nuragic palace of Barumini had not yet been excavated. The stratigraphy has highlighted the abandonment of the nuraghe already in ancient times due to a fire and a collapse. It was then re-frequented by Punic people and later by the Romans. The oldest layer of settlements has not yet been excavated.
The last remains of a distinct Punic culture probably disappeared somewhere in the chaos during the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The demographic and cultural characteristics of the region were thoroughly transformed by turbulent events such as the Vandals' wars with Byzantines, the forced population movements that followed and the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century AD.
Like the coinage produced by the Greek communities in the western part of the island, it was minted solely in silver on the Attic-Euboic weight standard, and its iconography was mostly adapted from other pre-existing Sicilian coinages - principally those of Himera, Segesta, and Syracuse. This Siculo-Punic coinage probably preceded Phoenicia's own Tyrian shekels, which developed .
A electrum (silver-and-gold) Carthaginian coin bearing the wreathed head of Tanit. billon Carthaginian tridrachm coin bearing the wreathed head of Tanit. The Siculo- Carthaginian issues of the First Punic War include one series featuring Melqart ("Hercules") obverse and a horse's head reverse. More commonly, Carthaginian currency featured a female head identified as the goddess Tanit.
Phoenician colonies often duplicated their names, as with the two "New Towns" distinguished in English as Carthage and Cartagena. This name was hellenized Léptis (). Under the Romans, the Punic name was Latinized as Lepcis or Leptis. It was known variously as , ', or Leptiminus', all meaning "Lesser Leptis" to distinguish it from the "Greater Leptis" in what is now Libya.
The region around Leptis came under direct Roman rule following the Third Punic War in 146BC. In Roman times, Leptis was a free city () with its own autonomous government. Local coins were minted with Greek legends (viz. ); later coins with Latin inscriptions may show its elevation to colony (') status or may have originated in Leptis Magna.
Carthage and Rome fought the 17-year-long Second Punic War between 218 and 201 BC which ended with a Roman victory. The peace treaty imposed on the Carthaginians stripped them of all of their overseas territories, and some of their African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents was to be paid over 50 years. Hostages were taken.
During Roman times this part of the Maghreb of North Africa was much more fertile than today and supported a much larger population. Following the Third Punic War the area was incorporated into Africa Proconsularis of the Roman Empire. They found an area already renown for its productivityRobinson, J., ed. The Oxford Companion to Wine (Third ed.).
In 2001, the journal Ugarit- Forschungen published the article "The First Inscription in Punic – Vowel Differences in Linear A and B" by Jan Best, claiming to demonstrate how and why Linear A notates an archaic form of Phoenician.. This was a continuation of attempts by Cyrus Gordon in finding connections between Minoan and West Semitic languages.
The gens Cosconia was a plebeian family at Rome. Members of this gens are first mentioned in the Second Punic War, but none ever obtained the honours of the consulship; the first who held a curule office was Marcus Cosconius, praetor in 135 BC.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. I, p. 863 ("Cosconia Gens").
The Veneti seem to have begun contact with Rome in the third century BC. They established amicitia with Rome against the Gauls c. 238 BC.Polybius, 2.23.3; Strabo, Geog. 5.1.9 During the Second Punic War, the Veneti were again allied with the Romans against the Celts, Iberians, and the Carthaginian expedition (218-203 BC) led by Hannibal.
In 2016, an ancient Carthaginian individual, who was excavated from a Punic tomb in Byrsa, Tunisia, was found to belong to the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup. The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late sixth century BCE, and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from the Iberian Peninsula to the Maghreb.
The Battle of Tarentum of 209 BC was a battle in the Second Punic War. The Romans, led by Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, recaptured the city of Tarentum that had betrayed them in the first Battle of Tarentum in 212 BC. This time the commander of the city, Carthalo, turned against the Carthaginians, and supported the Romans.
Maharbal (, ; centuryBC) was a Numidian army commander in charge of the cavalry under Hannibal and his second-in-command during the Second Punic War. Maharbal was a very close friend to Hannibal and admired him greatly."Battle of Cannae." World at War: Understanding Conflict and Society, ABC-CLIO, 2019, worldatwar-abc-clio-swb.orc.scoolaid.net/Search/Display/1559815.
The gladius hispaniensis (adopted by the Romans from an Iberian design, probably during the First Punic War (260-41 BC), was a short (median length: 450 mm) stabbing-sword that was designed for close-quarters fighting. It was standard for the Principate infantry (both legionary and auxiliary). The cavalry used the spatha (It. spada, French épée, Sp. espada, Rom.
The Greeks then cut off supplies to the Carthaginian camp and almost caused a mutiny in the Punic army. Himilco saved the situation by managing to defeat the Syracusan fleet and capturing the grain convoy bound for Akragas. The Greeks, faced with starvation, abandoned Akragas, which was sacked by Himilco. The siege had lasted for eight months.
In November 2003, they released Die Siedler IV: Community Pack. The expansion features four fan-created single-player campaigns based on real historical conflicts; the Roman attack on Carthage during the Third Punic War, the Viking invasion of England, the Huaxtec resistance against Spanish Conquistadors, and the battle for Troad during the Wars of the Diadochi.
The gens Scribonia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Members of this gens first appear in history at the time of the Second Punic War, but the first of the Scribonii to obtain the consulship was Gaius Scribonius Curio in 76 BC.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p. 758 ("Scribonia Gens").
Colette Picard and Gilbert Ch. Picard , LE SANCTUAIRE PUNIQUE DE CIRTA Revue Archéologique Sixième Série, vol47 (Jan-Jun 1956), pp. 196-199.Dexter Hoyos, A Companion to the Punic Wars (John Wiley & Sons, 26 May 2015) p451.Leslie Dossey, Peasant and Empire in Christian North Africa (University of California Press, 2010) p224. and a Roman Era theater.
Bink and Imbri prepare for battle alone, armed with Humphrey's numerous spells and potions. They set aside a box marked "Pandora". He and Imbri are victorious but are separated in the battle. When Imbri tracks down Bink, she finds that he has killed the Punic leader Hasbinbad, but has been taken with the Horseman's power nonetheless.
They are repeatedly described by authors like Strabo and Thucydides as being among the best fighting forces in the Mediterranean Sea area, as well as, according to Livy, the most elite unit in Hannibal's army (id roboris in omni exercitu). Polybius cites them as the reason for the Carthaginian victory in several battles during the Second Punic War.
Hannibal renewed his efforts the following day. Archers and slingers positioned on top of the six siege towers again cleared the walls of Greek defenders at different sections of the city wall.Diodorus Siculus, 13.55.6-7 Six battering rams were again employed against the walls and ultimately several breaches were made for the Punic infantry to exploit.
Claudius explicitly went against Roman law, which states that consuls were forbidden from leaving the front that was assigned to him without permission from the Senate. Claudius must have believed that if he lost nothing would matter, and if he won he would be forgiven for his actions. Claudius and Livius awoke to discover the Punic army was gone.
According to The Encyclopedia of Religion, the Lady of Elche is believed to have a direct association with Tanit, the goddess of Carthage, who was worshiped by the Punic-Iberians., Macmillan Library Ref. USA - Iberian Religion - page 549. Similarly, the sculpture presents features of the Celtiberian culture (the mitre and the pendants) and the own Iberian (fibula).
Made of travertine, it has the hourglass shape that came into use in Rome around the time of the Second Punic War. The Ara Calvini ("Altar of Calvinus"), sometimes called the Ara Dei Ignoti ("Altar of the Unknown God"), is in the collections of the Antiquario Palatino (Palatine Hill Museum).Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary, pp. 20–21.
Location of Carthage and Carthaginian sphere of influence prior to the First Punic War (264 BCE). Trade routes of the Phoenicians. Map of the tribes of Israel, seen, Tyre and Sidon are included in this area. History of the Jews in Carthage refers to the history and presence of people of Jewish ancestry in ancient Carthage.
The Siege of Saguntum was a battle which took place in 219 BC between the Carthaginians and the Saguntines at the town of Saguntum, near the modern town of Sagunto in the province of Valencia, Spain. The battle is mainly remembered today because it triggered one of the most important wars of antiquity, the Second Punic War.
Carthage National Museum is a national museum in Byrsa, Tunisia. Along with the Bardo National Museum, it is one of the two main local archaeological museums in the region. The edifice sits atop Byrsa Hill, in the heart of the city of Carthage. Founded in 1875, it houses many archaeological items from the Punic era and other periods.
Yet in this schema considered among the "assimilated" might be very poor immigrants from other regions of the Empire. These imperial distinctions overlay the preexisting stratification of economic classes, e.g., there continued the practice of slavery, and there remained a coopted remnant of the wealthy Punic aristocracy.Soren, Khader, Slim, Carthage (Simon and Schuster 1990) at 179.
The Battle of Carteia was a naval battle of the Second Punic War, fought between the navy of the Roman Republic and a Carthaginian fleet in 206 BC near the ancient city of Carteia in southern Spain. The Roman navy was commanded by Gaius Laelius and the Carthaginian navy by Adherbal. The battle resulted in a Roman victory.
Plaster casts of the stern and keel of the Punic ship Its architecture and contents show that it was not a merchant cargo ship. A merchant cargo ship made regular journeys and required large containers for storing water. It also needed grinders and mortars for dried food. It would normally carry large pots for communal cooking.
The first was the Battle of Asculum (279 BC), which was the first of King Pyrrhus of Epirus's Pyrrhic victory against the Roman Republic during the Pyrrhic War. This was followed by the Battle of Asculum (209 BC), during the Second Punic War, in which Hannibal defeated a Roman army commanded by Marcus Claudius Marcellus in an indecisive battle.
Abacaenum was not the only Sicel town to be a victim of Dionysius. He attacked and took Smeneous (exact location unknown) and Morgantina, around the same time that the Punic city Solus and the Sicel city Cephaleodium were betrayed to him. The booty captured from these cities filled his coffers. The Sicel town of Enna was sacked next.
27 The Romans recognized their weakness in naval power and tactics, especially after the incident of the Lipari Islands. With this in mind they constructed the corvus, a plank to link ships together at sea. The inventor of the corvus is unknown, but it could have been a Syracusan, such as Archimedes.J.F. Lazenby, The First Punic War, p. 70.
The citadel dominated the city below and formed the principal military installation of Carthage. Its name appeared on Carthaginian currency under the form (). It was besieged by Scipio Aemilianus Africanus in the Third Punic War when the city was defeated and destroyed in 146. The Byrsa citadel was the seat of the proconsul of Africa within the Roman Empire.
2: Siculi trilingues, which might be Latin, Greek and Punic Numerous Jewish and Samaritan communities are attested on the island in the Imperial period, although they usually appear in the record using Greek or Latin.. From the 5th century the Greek language appears to have experienced a recovery that lasted into the period of Muslim domination.
Satellite view of the Bay of Cádiz Very little remains of the Phoenician language, but numismatic inscriptions record that they knew the site as or (, ), meaning "The Wall", "The Compound", or (by metonymy) "The Stronghold"."Phoenician and Punic Inscriptions", p. 141. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Accessed 24 July 2013.
Chieti), Larinum (mod. Larino), and northern Apulia. A coin with the same value was minted in Capua, during the Second Punic War, after the defeat of Cannae. The word quincunx comes from Latin quinque which means "five" and uncia which means "one twelfth", because the coin was valued at five-twelfths of an as (also called a libra).
Cato 'Uticensis', a praetor in 54 and a political leader of Caesar's optimate opponents. was at Utica with Juba I. Cato was widely admired, but also widely mocked.Cato's posthumous title 'Uticensis' refers to the Punic city of Utica, where he died. This Cato was a descendant of the famous Cato the Elder (234–149, Consul 195).
Lucullus, the cognomen of a branch of the Licinii, which first occurs in history towards the end of the Second Punic War, is probably derived from lucus, a grove, or perhaps a diminutive of the praenomen Lucius. The surname does not appear on any coins of the gens.Chase, p. 113.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol.
Little is known about the origins or history of the Barca family prior to the Punic Wars. Quoting Tony Bath, "The Barca family, which originally came from Cyrene, was a powerful one but not at that time among the first families of Carthage". (Cyrene was in modern Libya).Bath, Tony, Hannibal's Campaigns, p18 Unfortunately Tony Bath omits references.
For the period between 221 and 219, all of the incumbents survived, so it is possible that Livy was incorrect about a second consulship. He also served at one time as augur. According to Livy, in 218 BC, at the onset of the Second Punic War, he was in Sicily serving as propraetor.Livy, XXI, 49.5-7.
During the Republic, command of a fleet was given to a serving magistrate or promagistrate, usually of consular or praetorian rank.Rodgers (1976), p. 60 In the Punic Wars for instance, one consul would usually command the fleet, and another the army. In the subsequent wars in the Eastern Mediterranean, praetors would assume the command of the fleet.
After the Punic Wars, Cartennae was dominated by the Romans. The first emperor Augustus established a colony of veterans from the 2nd Legion there. in 30 and the city started to grow in importance. Augustus even founded in what is now coastal Algeria the following Roman colonies: Igilgili, Saldae, Tubusuctu, Rusazu, Rusguniae, Aquae Calidae, Zuccabar and Gunugu.
According to Livy, the fight started early in the morning. Marcellus put his "I Legion" and "Right Alae Sociorum" in the front line.Titus Livius, Ab Urbe Condita, XXVII,2,8 During the combat both units were relieved by the "III Legion" and "Left Alae". Punic forces described by Livy included Balearic slingers and Spanish infantry, as well as elephants.
Appian wrote that his 'treaties were longed for in subsequent wars'.Appian, Roman History: The Foreign Wars, Book 6: The Wars in Spain, pp. 43 Unlike previous praetors he spent time to negotiate and cultivate personal relations with tribal leaders. This was reminiscent of the friendly relations established by Scipio Africanus during the Second Punic War.
Extraordinary circumstances called for extraordinary sacrifice: in one of the many crises of the Second Punic War, Jupiter Capitolinus was promised every animal born that spring (see ver sacrum), to be rendered after five more years of protection from Hannibal and his allies.Beard et al., Vol 1, 32-36. The "contract" with Jupiter is exceptionally detailed.
The gens Mummia was a plebeian family at Rome. Members of this gens are first mentioned after the Second Punic War, and within a generation, Lucius Mummius Achaicus became the first of the family to obtain the consulship. Although they were never numerous, Mummii continued to fill the highest offices of the state through the third century AD.
Velites were used against the Carthaginians' war elephants in the Punic Wars. Polybius describes the typical veles as having a helmet and parma, a small round shield., Polybius, I.33.9, VI.21.7, VI.22.4. Greek language military treatises of Late Antique and later Byzantine periods of the Roman Empire call all light troops psiloi, regardless of their defensive equipment.
The name 'Libyphoenician' was then coined for the cultural and ethnic mix surrounding Punic settlements, particularly Carthage. Political skills and civic arrangements encountered in Carthage, as well as material culture, such as farming techniques, were adopted by the Berbers for their own use.Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1996) at 34.Gabriel Camps, Les Berbères (Edisud 1996) at 19-21.
See below Berber language history regarding Afroasiatic.Cf., Brian Doe, Southern Arabia (New York: McGraw-Hill 1971) at 25 (moon god ['LMQH], sun goddess Dhat Hamym). Later many other supernatural entities became identified and personalized as gods, perhaps influenced by Egyptian or Punic practice; yet the Berbers seemed to be "drawn more to the sacred than to the gods."J.
The Battle of Agrigentum (Sicily, 262 BC) was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War and the first large-scale military confrontation between Carthage and the Roman Republic. The battle was fought after a long siege which started in 262 BC and resulted both in a Roman victory and the beginning of Roman control of Sicily.
At a later period we find it again independent, but apparently on friendly terms with the Carthaginians, on which account it was attacked and taken by Agathocles, 307BC.Id. xx. 56. In the First Punic War it was reduced by the Roman fleet under Atilius Calatinus and Scipio Nasica, 254BC, but by treachery and not by force of arms.
The cognomina Regillus and Buca apparently belonged to short-lived families. Regillus appears to be derived from the Sabine town of Regillum, perhaps alluding to the Sabine origin of the gens. The Aemilii Regilli flourished for about two generations, beginning at the time of the Second Punic War.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol.
They gained everlasting fame from the exploits of Marcus Claudius Marcellus, one of Rome's finest generals, and a towering figure of the Second Punic War, who was five times consul, and won the spolia opima, defeating and killing the Gallic king, Viridomarus, in single combat.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, p. 927 ("Marcellus", no. 2).
Porto Santo Stefano. Porto Ercole. The promontory, probably already inhabited by the Etruscans, was a personal property of the Domitii Ahenobarbi family, who obtained it in return for the money they lent to the Roman Republic in the Punic Wars. The current name probably finds its origin here, since Argentarii was the name of money lenders in ancient Rome.
Her name shows her links to two Roman gentes, the Paccia and the Marcia - the latter also included Ulpia Marciana, elder sister of the emperor TrajanBirley, Anthony R. (1999) [1971]. Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. . She originated in Leptis Magna and was of Punic or Libyan origin, but virtually nothing else is known of her.
The Greeks then cut supplies to the Carthaginian camp and almost caused a mutiny in the Punic army. Himilco saved the situation by managing to defeat the Syracusan fleet and capturing the grain convoy bound for Akragas. The Greeks, faced with starvation, abandoned Akragas, which was sacked by Himilco. The siege had lasted for 8 months.
Appian wrote that Gracchus' ‘treaties were longed for in subsequent wars’.Appian, Roman History, The Foreign Wars, Book 6, The Spanish wars, 43 Unlike previous praetors he spent time to negotiate and cultivate personal relations with tribal leaders. This was reminiscent of the friendly relations established by Scipio Africanus during the Second Punic War.Livy, The History of Rome, 40.47.
Verr 2.5.56 Hence, it was declared to be free from paying an agricultural tithe. Therefore, there must have been an agricultural tax to be exempted from in Sicily prior to 213 BCE. Finally, Livy claims that all the Sicilians had paid tax to Rome in kind prior to 218 BC, the outbreak of the second Punic war.Liv. 23.48.
This negated initially superior Carthaginian seamanship and ships.Adrian Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, (Cassell 2001) pp. 17–143 Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC (5000 BCE). The oldest ships yet unearthed, a group of 14 discovered in Abydos, were constructed from wooden planks which were "sewn" together.
Later, during the Second Punic War, it was devastated by Hannibal's armies, to which it refused to surrender.Reported by Silius Italicus, VIII, 398 The Roman writer Cicero had a villa in Frusino. The city obtained the citizenship rights and became a colony in Roman imperial times, when part of its lands were assigned to Roman legionaries.
Cornus was an ancient Punic-Roman town of Sardinia near Cuglieriand the location, during the revolt of Hampsicora, of a battle between a Sardinian army and the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians were also involved fighting against the Romans. The town is now unoccupied and is an archaeological site with a large well temple complex still visible.
His position was strategos, Latin imperator, the same as for a land general. The ship captains were still nauarchoi, “ship-masters.”Noting the discrepancy between the swift Punic ships and the putative Roman copies, Pitassi rejects the copy story and supposes that the Romans were building units of ships analogous by function to army units; i.e.
Fasti Capitolini, "qui scriba fuerat" (who was a scribe). In 249 BC, Pulcher was given command of the Roman navy for operations around Sicily during the First Punic War. Before the Battle of Drepana, when the sacred chickens refused to eat, he ordered them to be cast into the sea. His impious actions were blamed for the subsequent defeat.
Gisco was a Carthaginian general who served during the closing years of the First Punic War and took a leading part in the events which sparked the Mercenary War. He was a citizen of the city state of Carthage, which was located in what is now Tunisia. His date of birth and age at death are both unknown, as are his activities prior to his coming to prominence towards the end of the First Punic War. He was commander of the major base of Lilybaeum (modern Marsala) on Sicily when the Carthaginians conceded defeat in the war in 241 BC. The army commander retired to Carthage in a rage, leaving Gisco, as the next most senior commander, to negotiate peace with the Romans, which he did with the Treaty of Lutatius.
Segesta now offered to become a Carthaginian vassal for protection against Greek aggression. Carthage accepted the offer, and Hannibal Mago led an expedition to Sicily that destroyed Selinus and wiped out Himera as well in 409 BC. Greek aggression against Punic territory led to a second invasion under Hannibal and Himilco II that saw the sack of Akragas in 406 BC, Greek abandonment and Carthaginian sack of Gela and Camarina in 405 BC and the establishment of Carthaginian control over most of Sicily and the confirmation of Dionysius as tyrant of Syracuse in 405 BC as a condition of peace. The Elmians became dependent allies of Carthage, paying for any Punic garrisons in their territory, and giving up their independent foreign policy but retaining control of internal affairs.
Cutting the skin into strips, she laid out her claim and founded an empire that would become, through the Punic Wars, the only existential threat to Rome until the coming of the Vandals several centuries later. The ancient city was destroyed by the Roman Republic in the Third Punic War in 146 BC and then re-developed as Roman Carthage, which became the major city of the Roman Empire in the province of Africa. The city was sacked and destroyed by Umayyad forces after the Battle of Carthage in 698 to prevent it from being reconquered by the Byzantine Empire. It remained occupied during the Muslim period and was used as a fort by the Muslims until the Hafsid period when it was taken by the Crusaders with its inhabitants massacred during the Eighth Crusade.
Suessula is repeatedly mentioned during the wars between Romans and Samnites, as well as in the Second Punic War against Hannibal. Thus in the First Samnite War (343 BC) it was the scene of a decisive victory by Marcus Valerius Corvus over the Samnites, who had gathered together the remains of their army which had been previously defeated at Mount Gaurus (Livy vii. 37). In the following Campanian War the Suessulani followed the fortunes of the citizens of Capua, and shared the same fate, so that at the close of the contest, in 338 BC, they must have obtained the status of civitas, but without the right of suffrage (Id. viii. 14). In the Second Punic War the city played a considerable part, though apparently more from its position than its own importance.
In Phoenician writing, unlike that of abjads such as those of Aramaic, Biblical Hebrew and Arabic, even long vowels remained generally unexpressed, regardless of their origin (even if they originated from diphthongs, as in bt 'house'; Hebrew spelling has byt). Eventually, Punic writers began to implement systems of marking of vowels by means of matres lectionis. In the 3rd century BC appeared the practice of using final 'ālep 10px to mark the presence of any final vowel and, occasionally, of yōd 10px to mark a final long . Later, mostly after the destruction of Carthage in the so- called "Neo-Punic" inscriptions, that was supplemented by a system in which wāw 10px denoted , yōd 10px denoted , 'ālep 10px denoted and , ʿayin 10px denoted and hē 10px and 10px could also be used to signify .
189 As part of their plans to destroy Aryan civilization, Chamberlain wrote: "Consider, with what mastery they use the law of blood to extend their power." Chamberlain wrote that Jewish women were encouraged to marry Gentiles while Jewish men were not, so the male line "remained spotless ... thousands of side-branches are cut off and employed to infect Indo-Europeans with Jewish blood." In his account of the Punic wars between "Aryan Rome" and "Semitic Carthage", Chamberlain praised the Romans for their total destruction of Carthage in 146 BC at the end of the Third Punic War as an example of how Aryans should deal with Semites. Later, Chamberlain argued that the Romans had become too tolerant of Semites like the Jews, and this was the cause of the downfall of the Roman empire.
Marcus Livius Salinator (254 – c. 191 BC), the son of Marcus (a member of the gens Livia), was a Roman consul who fought in both the First and the Second Punic Wars, most notably during the Battle of the Metaurus. Born in 254 BC, Livius was elected consul of the Roman Republic with Lucius Aemilius Paulus shortly before the Second Illyrian War in 219 BC. After leading a successful campaign against the Illyrians, he was charged with malfeasance concerning war spoils during a mission to Carthage and was tried and found guilty on his return to Rome. After his removal as consul, he retired from public life for several years, until 210 BC. In 207 BC, during the Second Punic War, he was again elected consul (supposedly against his wishes) with Gaius Claudius Nero.
Carthaginian shekel, dated 237–227 BC, depicting the Punic god Melqart (identified with Hercules/Heracles), most likely with the features of Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal Barca; on the reverse is a man riding a war elephant Tyrian shekel Melqart (also Melkarth or Melicarthus) was the tutelary god of the Phoenician city-state of Tyre and a major deity in the Phoenician and Punic pantheons. Often titled the "Lord of Tyre" (Ba‘al Ṣūr), he was also known as the Son of Baal or El (the Ruler of the Universe), King of the Underworld, and Protector of the Universe. He symbolized the annual cycle of vegetation and was associated with the Phoenician maternal goddess Astarte. Melqart was typically depicted as a bearded figure, dressed only in a rounded hat and loincloth.
Herodotus reported that the Spartans used the feigned-retreat tactic at the Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE) to defeat a force of Persian Immortals.Herodotus VIII, 24 Before the Battle of Agrigentum, in Sicily (262 BCE)—the first pitched battle of the First Punic War, and the first large- scale military confrontation between Carthage and the Roman Republic—the Carthaginian general Hanno, son of Hannibal, was sent to provide relief to the Carthaginians besieged at Agrigentum by the Romans. Hanno told his Numidian cavalry to attack the Roman cavalry and then feign retreat. The Romans pursued the Numidians as they retreated and were brought to the main Carthaginian column, where they suffered many losses.Adrian Goldsworthy, The fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars, 265-146 BC, Cassell, 2007, , p. 79.
Discovered in May 1966, the 'treasure' was unearthed by a local farmer, Francisco da Silva Campos, who was tilling his land to plant corn, and discovered a schist tomb with women's jewellery in his plot of land in Herdade do Gaio (12.5 km southeast of Sines, 7 km from the coast and 275m from Ribeira de Morgavel). Between 1966 and 1967, investigator José Miguel da Costa discovered several of these Punic graves, but all showing evidence of early tomb raiding. While the jewellery was determined to be Punic in origin, the symbolism on the artefacts were characterized as Egyptian.Some earrings show the figure of Hathor and a signet of marble, amulet, is engraved in relief with a scarab associated with Thutmose III, with the eye of Horus, the Son God.
The complex, the only example of its type in Sicily, has parallels only in Delphi, Colophon, Olympia, and .For the type at these sites, see, for example, A. Ambrogi, Vasche in età romana in marmi bianchi e colorati, Roma 1995, pag.22. The structural similarity and the items discovered (perfume bottles, Italic and Punic amphorae, as well as Syracusan, Geloan and Siculo- Punic coins from the time of Timoleon) all help to date the site between the fourth and third centuries BC. The structure experienced several renovations: the creation of the conglomerate tubs in the first group of tubs in the first room, the creation of the second group tubs in the first room, the creation of the second room, the reinforcement of the northwestern part of room 1 with a stone wall.
Statue of Viriathus at Viseu, Portugal. Warfare in ancient Iberian peninsula occupied an important place in historical chronicles, first during the Carthaginian invasion of Hispania, including the Punic Wars, and later during the Roman conquest of the peninsula. The densely bellicose character of the Pre-Roman peoples who inhabited Hispania was repeatedly shown in their conflicts against Rome, Carthage and each other.
Latin (which later developed into the brief-existent, little-known African Romance language) was the language of the Roman occupation; it became widely spoken in the coastal towns, and Augustine attests that in his day it was gaining ground over Punic. However, it gave way to Arabic and Berber after the Umayyads' conquest, leaving only a few loanwords in those two languages.
Ryan, Rank and Participation, pp. 181–183. Jacques Heurgon thinks that Corculum, supported by the two censors, passed the decree ordering the translation of the books on agriculture by the Punic author Mago, which were seized from Carthage in 146.Heurgon, "L'agronome Magon", p. 451. Corculum was re-appointed princeps in 142 by the censors Scipio Aemilianus and Lucius Mummius Achaicus.
During the Second Punic War in 216 BC, Capua, in a bid for equality with Rome, allied with Carthage. The rebellious Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania, which remained allies of Rome. Naples resisted Hannibal due to the imposing walls. Capua was eventually starved into submission in the Roman retaking of 211 BC, and the Romans were victorious.
It was a small fortified centre of the Romans, who called it Natolium, maybe built on the ruins of the Peucete Netium which was destroyed during the Punic Wars.Collenuccio da Pesaro, Historia del Regno di Napoli, Naples, 1557 After the Byzantine period, it became a countship (later a duchy). It became later a flourishing commercial centre, that had trading connections with Venice.
Himilco had garrisoned the Punic and Elymian territories in 405 BC, it is unknown if Segesta had any Carthaginian soldiers present when Dionysius besieged the city. Large Sicilian cities like Syracuse and Akragas could field up to 10,000 – 20,000 citizens,Diodorus Siculus, X.III.84 while smaller ones like Himera and Messana between 3,000Diodorus Siculus, X.IV.40 – 6,000Diodorus Siculus XIII.60 soldiers.
Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, op. cit. Fighting with gaps is thus feasible as writers like Polybius assert. According to those who support the quincunx formation view, what made the Roman approach stand out is that their intervals were generally larger and more systematically organized than those of other ancient armies. Each gap was covered by maniples or cohorts from lines farther back.
Narcao (Narcau o Nuracau in Sardinian language) is a comune (municipality) in the Province of South Sardinia in the Italian region Sardinia, located about west of Cagliari and about east of Carbonia. Narcao borders the following municipalities: Carbonia, Iglesias, Nuxis, Perdaxius, Siliqua, Villamassargia, Villaperuccio. In the frazione of Tarraseo there are remains of a Punic-Roman temple dedicated to the goddess Demetra.
A Punic ditch is a defensive v-shaped ditch with one side much steeper than the other; the ditches surrounding the fortlet had an outer face at 27 degrees and the inner face at 69 degrees. The rampart behind the ditches only survives to at its highest point. It was built from turf on top of sandy clay with a rubble foundation.
The next day the reunited Romans attacked the Samnites and completely routed them. Several other ancient authors also mention Decius' heroic acts. Modern historians are however sceptical of the historical accuracy of Livy's account, and have in particular noted the similarities with how a military tribune is said to have saved Roman army in 258 BC during the First Punic War.
In 264 BC, Roman troops were deployed to Sicily, the first time a Roman army acted outside the Italian Peninsula. At the end of the First Punic War it was a free city allied with Rome. In Roman times Messina, then known as Messana, had an important pharos (lighthouse). Messana was the base of Sextus Pompeius, during his war against Octavian.
Location of Tunisia in northern Africa. The Phoenicians were the first known immigrant population to colonise the region of present-day Tunisia. Their city of Carthage grew to importance in the first millennium BC, when it vied with Rome for western Mediterranean dominance. Between 264 and 146 BC, Rome and Carthage waged the Punic Wars, with the ultimate victory going to Rome.
Tower of the Chiesa Madre (Cathedral). The ancient Greek name of Erice was Eryx ( in Greek), and its foundation was associated with the eponymous Greek hero Eryx. It was not a Greek colony, as the Phoenicians founded it, but was largely Hellenized. It was destroyed in the First Punic War by the Carthaginians, and from then on declined in importance.
The ancient Greek writer Polybius wrote that at the time of the Second Punic War, the aristocratic element was dominant in Rome.Lintott (1994), p. 41. Even so, the people of Rome (populus romanus) held important practical and theoretical standing in the Roman state. Only the people, as represented by the assemblies, could elect magistrates, declare war, or try capital cases.
Mathos was a Libyan from the North African possessions of Carthage and was recruited into the Carthaginian Army during the First Punic War (264–241 BC) at some point prior to 241 BC. Mathos's date of birth is unknown, as are most details of his activities prior to his coming to prominence as a low-ranking officer in 241 BC.
No other Terentii appear in history until the time of the Second Punic War. Gaius Terentius Varro, one of the Roman commanders at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, was the first to hold the consulship. Members of this family are found as late as the third century AD.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, pp.
The Romans had two forts built here after the Second Punic War. According to tradition, in the 3rd century AD a Roman soldier wrote the name of Saint Susanna on one of these towers ("Torre" in Italian), hence the name. After a series of plagues and earthquakes, population from the nearby hamlet took refuge here, giving birth to the current town.
The Massylii or Maesulians were a Berber federation of tribes in eastern Numidia, which was formed by an amalgamation of smaller tribes during the 4th century BC.Nigel Bagnall, The Punic Wars, p. 270. They were ruled by a king. On their loosely defined western frontier were the powerful Masaesyli. To their east, lay the territory of the rich and powerful Carthaginian Republic.
Gaius Centenius (fl. 3rd century BC) was a propraetor of the Roman army. He fought at the Second Punic War, and was defeated at the Battle of Lake Trasimene. According to Polybius, the Roman consul Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, who was en route to meet with his co-consul Gaius Flaminius stationed at Ariminum, had sent his cavalry ahead led by Gaius Centenius.
The patrician Flaccus became a friend, political patron, and ally of the young plebeian senator Marcus Porcius Cato, later called Cato the Elder, during the earlier years of the Second Punic War. Flaccus is possibly the Valerius Flaccus who was a military tribune in 212 BC, serving under the consuls who captured Hanno's camp at Beneventum.Livy 25.14.6; Valerius Maximus 3.2.20.
The castle was declared a National Monument in 1931.Agència Valenciana del Turisme 2016. The sacking of the Iberian settlement by Hannibal in 219 BC led to the outbreak of the Second Punic War. The visible walls are largely Islamic in origin, with substantial modifications taking place after the end of Islamic rule, with the defences being strengthened and modernised.
The nomen Aulius is a patronymic surname, derived from the praenomen Aulus, just as Sextius was derived from Sextus, Marcius from Marcus, and Quinctius from Quintus.Chase, p. 129. Although there were Aulii at Rome in the fourth century BC, the gens may have been spread throughout Latium, as one of them was prefect of the allies during the Second Punic War.Livy, xxvii.
The collection boasts coins from each occupation including, Punic, Roman, Byzantine, Muslim, Norman, Aragonese, the Order of St John and British. The museum houses the most comprehensive collection of coinage from the Order of St John including rare specimens. The coins and medals mark important events. One of note is the copper fiduciary coins, introduced by La Valette following the building of Valletta.
The Roman Republic was established simultaneously with the creation of Libertas and is associated with the overthrow of the Tarquin kings. She was worshiped by the Junii, the family of Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger. In 238 BC, before the Second Punic War, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus built a temple to Libertas on the Aventine Hill. Census tables were stored inside the temple's atrium.
192-194 There were eight possible routes out of Ager Falernus, but being positioned north of the Volturnus River, and with all the bridges in Roman hands, there were only three that Hannibal could take to leave the river plain.Bagnall, Nigel, The Punic Wars, p. 186 Fabius seized this strategic opportunity presented to him and set about to trap the Carthaginian army.
He then led his troops outside the city, defeated the Syracusans in battle, and Hiero retreated back to Syracuse. The next day Claudius also defeated the Carthaginians. Following these victories Appius laid siege to Echetla but after the loss of many troops returned to Messana.Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica, 23.1 This dispute was one of the immediate causes of the First Punic War.
These differences would prove key in the conduct and trajectory of the later Punic Wars. By the third century BC, Carthage was the center of a sprawling network of colonies and client states. It controlled more territory than the Roman Republic, and became one of the largest and most prosperous cities in the Mediterranean, with a quarter of a million inhabitants.
Carthage also had communities of Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Libyans. The Egyptian god Bes was popular for warding off evil spirits, and is featured prominently in Punic mausoleums. Isis, the ancient Egyptian goddess whose cult spread across the Mediterranean, had a temple in Carthage; a well preserved sarcophagus depicts one of her priestesses in Hellenistic style.Hoyos, The Carthaginians, p. 97.
Marcus Valerius Laevinus (c. 260 BC200 BC) was a Roman consul and commander who rose to prominence during the Second Punic War and corresponding First Macedonian War. A member of the gens Valeria, an old patrician family believed to have migrated to Rome under the Sabine king T. Tatius, Laevinus played an integral role in the containment of the Macedonian threat.
This city served as the supply base for the Punic army during the campaign. The army carried their siege equipment with them to Selinus, while the Carthaginian fleet stayed at Motya.Freeman Edward A., Sicily, p. 142 Selinus, however, was forewarned of Hannibal's approach, as some of their cavalry had scouted out the Carthaginian army on their arrival at Motya and issued prompt warnings.
Soon, an opportunity came for a military campaign in 217 BC, during the Second Punic War against Hannibal Barca. Experts express some disagreement about Cato's early military life. In 214 BC, he served at Capua, and the historian Wilhelm Drumann imagines that already, at the age of 20, he was a military tribune.Wilhelm Drumann, Geschichte Roms (History of Rome), v. p.
Lixus (, ) was first settled by the Phoenicians in the 8th or 7th centuryBC and was later controlled directly from Carthage. It was part of a chain of Punic towns along the Atlantic coast of modern Morocco; other major settlements further to the south are Chellah (called Sala Colonia by the Romans)C. Michael Hogan, Chellah, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham and Mogador.
Bust of Tanit found in the Carthaginian necropolis of Puig des Molins, dated 4th century BC, housed in the Museum of Puig des Molins in Ibiza, Spain The Puig des Molins (literally "Windmills' Hill") is in Ibiza Town (Island of Ibiza, Balearic Islands, Spain), containing the Punic Necropolis of Puig des Molins, a medieval Islamic rural property, and an archaeological museum.
Chase, pp. 109, 110. Marcus Aurelius Cotta, moneyer in 139 BC, minted an unusual denarius, featuring Hercules in a biga driven by centaurs, presumably alluding to some mythological event connected with the gens, but the exact symbolism is unknown. The Aurelii Cottae were prominent from the First Punic War down to the time of Tiberius, after which they faded into obscurity.
The Romans always relied on their allies to provide cavalry. These were known as the Foederati. A typical Consular army of the 2nd Punic War would have much more auxiliary cavalry. As the commoners gained citizenship by the time of Social War and the Legionary cavalry became less, most cavalry were provided by allied nations from Numidia, Greece, Thrace, Iberia, Gaul and Germania.
Septimius Severus (145–211, r. 193–211) was born of mixed Punic Ancestry in Lepcis Magna, Tripolitania (now Libya), where he spent his youth.Lepcis Magna was formerly included in the Roman Province of Africa Proconsularis (see map above). Although he was said to speak with a Northwest African accent, he and his family were long members of the Roman cosmopolitan elite.
Roman-era Tunisia The history of Roman-era Tunisia begins with the history of the Roman Africa Province. Rome took control of Carthage after the Third Punic War (149–146). There was a period of Berber kings allied with Rome. Lands surrounding Carthage were annexed and reorganized, and the city of Carthage rebuilt, becoming the third city of the Empire.
Years after the Second Punic War, Scipio Africanus finds himself generally unliked, despite his defeat of Hannibal, many years earlier. He and his brother, Scipio Asiaticus, are accused by Marcus Porcius Cato of the theft of 500 talents intended for Rome. As his friends and loved ones abandon him, Scipio finds life after war not as easy as he thought it would be.
In 258, he was sent to Sardinia, which he had to defend against the Romans. However, he was no match for the Roman commander Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus, who defeated him. Having lost the confidence of his peers, Hannibal Gisco was subsequently executed for incompetence shortly afterwards, together with other defeated Punic generals. According to some references he was crucified by his own men.
On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare".Livy 3.63.7, 4.25.3. During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius.
The Carthaginian army was probably dependent on supplies from their strongholds and allies, being inland the Punic fleet could not have supplied them. Mago marched in the territory of Agyris, but failed to persuade him to switch sides. The Carthaginians then moved to intercept the Greek army, but Dionysius, heavily outnumbered, fell back and lured the Carthaginians away from Agryium.
Iberian falcata The falcata is a type of sword typical of pre-Roman Iberia. The falcata was used to great effect for warfare in the ancient Iberian peninsula, and is firmly associated with the southern Iberian tribes, among other ancient peoples of Hispania. It was highly prized by the ancient general Hannibal, who equipped Carthaginian troops with it during the Second Punic War.
Iberian people also occupied territory belonging to the current municipality. Iberian also occupied this area and traded with the Phoenicians who brought spices, fabrics, ceramic and splicers of glass. In the year 218 BC a war between the Romans and the Punics started and its name is Second Punic War. In the year 209 the Romans conquered Cartago Nova (currently Cartagena).
Much of the First Punic War was fought on, or in the waters near, Sicily. Away from the coasts its hilly and rugged terrain made manoeuvring large forces difficult and favoured the defence over the offence. Land operations were largely confined to raids, sieges and interdiction; in 23 years of war on Sicily there were only two full-scale pitched battles.
Silius should not be viewed as a simple transmitter of his historical sources, as "Livy in verse",von Albrecht, p. 293. but should be viewed as a poet who, while making use of historians, is not bound by the rules of historiography but rather of poetry. In choosing a historical subject, the Second Punic War, Silius had many poetic predecessors.
Amid the Samnite War, the Romans took the town in 311 . Under Roman rule, the city was the site of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Battles of Nola during Hannibal's invasion of Italy amid the Second Punic War. On two occasions (215 and 214 ), it was defended by Marcellus. It fell by treason to the Samnites during the Social War.
20 B.C.) in Books XXI–XXX, translated as The War with Hannibal (Penguin 1965). Carthage revived, causing great alarm in Rome. The Third Punic War (149–146) began following the refusal by Carthage to alter the terms of its agreement with Rome. Roman armies again came to Africa and lay siege to the ancient and magnificent city of Carthage, which rejected negotiations.
Aureus minted in 193: obverse, Septimius Severus; reverse, Legion insignia of XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix. Septimus Severus (145–211, r.193–211) was born of mixed Punic Ancestry in Lepcis Magna, Tripolitania (now Libya), where he spent his youth. Although he was said to speak with a Northwest African accent, he and his family were long members of the Roman cosmopolitan elite.
It is believed by some that Teruel and the ancient Turba are the same. Turba was the city whose disputes with the Saguntines gave Hannibal an excuse for attacking Saguntum and beginning the Second Punic War. According to the annals of Teruel it appears that Turba was not situated on the site of the present city of Teruel, but at its boundary line.
Hannibal crossed this area during the Punic Wars. As the legend goes, some of Hannibal's elephants became ensconced in the mud of the river to the east. As his elephants drowned the General mourned the death of these great beasts. As such, the river that extends through this valley became known as, and remains, the Ofanto (a corruption of Italian "elefante") River.
Rome's first province in northern Africa was established by the Roman Republic in 146 BC, following its elimination of Carthage in the Third Punic War. Africa Proconsularis or Africa Vetus (Old Africa), was governed by a proconsul. It is possible that the name "Africa" comes from the Berber word "afer" or "ifri" that designated a tribe. Utica was formed as the administrative capital.
In 1994, the body of an ancient Carthaginian individual was excavated from a 2500-year-old Punic tomb in Byrsa Hill. In 2016, he was found to belong to the rare U5b2c1 maternal haplogroup. The Young Man of Byrsa specimen dates from the late 6th century, and his lineage is believed to represent early gene flow from Iberia to the Maghreb.
The Carthaginians suffered heavy casualties and their field forces were virtually eliminated for some time.Caven, Punic Wars, pp. 241-242 According to Polybius, the combined Carthaginian and Numidian forces lost 91,500 killed or captured, with 2,500 survivors.Polybius, XIV, 6.3 Livy claims 40,000 killed, 5,000 captured and 2,500 survivors, contradicting his claim of 93,000 soldiers, while Appian gives 30,000 dead and 2,400 captured.
Lucius Scribonius Libo was a tribune of the plebs in 216 BC, during the Second Punic War. A question arose pertaining to the ransoming of Roman captives; he referred the matter to the Senate.Livy 22.61.7. He was one of the three men appointed triumviri mensarii, a commission created by a Lex Minucia, possibly to deal with a shortage of silver;Livy 23.21.6.
For when the Romans fought the Carthaginians in Spain and Africa for their lands, the commands were given to the consuls of 218 BC. One of the consuls, Sempronius Longus, was provided with 160 ships and the other consul, Cornelius Scipio, was provided with a fleet of 60 ships.Bleckmann p. 93 Both consuls had previously gained wealth during the First Punic War.Bleckmann p.
Hasdrubal, Mago, and Hanno were captured and Hiostus killed. Hampsicora fled the field, and then committed suicide. The survivors took refuge in Cornus, which was taken by assault a few days later as a result of a battle fought in a plateau known as Su campu de CorraMassimo Pittau, Cornus ("Horns field"). The Punic fleet managed to extricate some of the survivors.
The text was translated by Rosenthal (1969, p. 658) as follows: However, Cross (1973, p. 17) translated the text as follows: In some inscriptions, the name ’Ēl qōne ’arṣ (Punic: 𐤀𐤋 𐤒𐤍 𐤀𐤓𐤑 ʾl qn ʾrṣ) meaning "ʼĒl creator of Earth" appears, even including a late inscription at Leptis Magna in Tripolitania dating to the second century.Donner & Röllig 1962–1964, No. 129.
310 The number of Samnites killed and the amounts of spoils taken by the Romans have clearly been exaggerated.Salmon(1967), p. 198; Oakley(1998), p. 358 Historians have noted the many similarities between the story of Publius Decius Mus, and an event said to have taken place in Sicily in 258 when the Romans were fighting the First Punic War against Carthage.
The people of the area swore friendship to Rome in the 225 BC conflict with the Gauls and again during the invasion by Hannibal in the Second Punic War. Founded perhaps around 220-200 BC the initial influence of Rome was military and commercial. Strategically located, the town protected cities to the south. Belluno also became a supplier of iron and copper.
3 The Punic generals pursued Matho's army and won several small-scale engagements. After mustering their forces, a decisive battle was fought probably near the town of Leptis Minor. The Carthaginians destroyed the rebel army, after which the Libyan towns submitted to Carthage. When Utica and Hippo Acra held out, Hanno and Hamilcar besieged them, eventually receiving their surrender on terms.
By the winter of 238 BC, the Mercenary revolt was over. Hanno and Hamilcar unleashed reprisals against the Numidian tribes that had sided with the rebels,Diodorus Siculus 24.33 and the generals probably extended Carthaginian territory in Africa at the same time.Cornelius Nepos, Hamilcar 2.5 Carthage now began to fit out an expedition to recover Sardinia, with Hamilcar commanding Punic forces.
At Google Books. Such was their importance to Phoenician and Punic philology, that the inscriptions on the cippi became known as the Inscriptio melitensis prima bilinguis (Latin for First bilingual Maltese inscription), or the Melitensis prima (First Maltese). At Google Books. A cippus (plural cippi) is a small column. Cippi serve as milestones, funerary monuments, markers, or votive offerings. At Google Books.
For the rest of the summer he was forced to fight off the second Roman army. The next battle with Marcellus at Numistro was inconclusiveLivy, XXVII, 2; Caven, The Punic Wars, p. 189 and Hannibal was unable to regain the positions lost at the beginning of the campaign. The second defeat at Herdonia did not make the Roman Senate change its warlike stance.
Hannibal himself, like many Roman officers on the opposing side, might have been wearing a bronze musculata and carrying a falcata as his personal sidearm. The equipment of the Libyan line infantry has been much debated. Duncan Head has argued in favor of short stabbing spears.Duncan Head, Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars (Wargames Research Group, 1983) p. 144.
Cambridge University Press, 1995, 1999, p. 61. Urbanization in Roman Africa expanded on Greek and Punic cities along the coast. Aquae Sulis in Bath, England: architectural features above the level of the pillar bases are a later reconstruction. The network of cities throughout the Empire (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana.
Then, on his way to Hispania, a storm carried him to Africa and he recruited veterans who had settled there after the Second Punic War. He added a contingent in Hispania to the two from Sicily and Africa. When he arrived in Hispania he found that the report had been an exaggeration. For unknown reasons he seized the Oretani city of Inlucia.
Using the illicit Carthaginian military action as a pretext, Rome began preparing a punitive expedition. What role Rome's political divisions played in this decision is unclear. The modern historian William Harris describes these political issues as "the large historical problems involved in the Third Punic War". Modern scholars have advanced a number of theories as to why Rome was eager for war.
Livius Drusus was elected Praetor around the year 150 BC. He was then elected consul for 147 BC, alongside Scipio Aemilianus, who was possibly his first cousin.Broughton, pg. 463; Boren, pg. 29 As the Third Punic War was raging, there was enormous concern in Rome about who was going to be assigned the command of the Roman forces against Carthage.
When Carthage besieged the Roman-protected town of Saguntum in eastern Iberia in 218 BC, it ignited the Second Punic War with Rome. At the start of this war there were reports of a Carthaginian plan to recapture Lilybaeum, and several Carthaginian ships operated against the port, but the Roman consul on Sicily countered them and they came to nothing.
Page 131 in modern-day Denmark, attacked the Roman Republic in what is today known as the Cimbrian War. These two tribes, the Cimbri and the Teutons, initially inflicted the heaviest losses that Rome had suffered since the Second Punic War. The Cimbri and the Teutons were eventually defeated by the Roman legions. Initially iron was valuable and was used for decoration.
An important part of the Punic culture seems to have consisted in their devotion to the gods, and their well-known units, called Sacred Bands by our Greek sources, are regarded as the elite troops of their time. These consisted of infantry troops and cavalry units. The latter were formed by young nobles of the city devoting their life to military training.
It would be difficult to say precisely what a typical make-up of a Carthaginian army would be, but in the Punic wars, they are reported to have included Hispanics (Celtiberians, Iberians and Balearics), Gauls, Ligures, Italic (e.g. Samnites, Lucanians), native Sicilian tribesmen, Numidian cavalry, Libyans and Lybophoenicians (also called Africans), Greeks, and natural Punics from Carthage and its external settlements.
"Royal Ditch" () that marked the border between the Roman-controlled Africa and independent Berber tribes. East of the ditch, cities were fully romanized by the arrival of the Vandals Thysdrus began as a small Carthaginian and Berber village. Following the Punic Wars, it was refounded as a Roman townThysdrus's History. and probably received some of Julius Caesar's veterans as settlers in 45BC.
Silius Italicus Silius Italicus, in full Tiberius Catius Asconius Silius Italicus (c. 28 – c. 103 AD), was a Roman consul, orator, and Latin epic poet of the 1st century AD (Silver Age of Latin literature). His only surviving work is the 17-book Punica, an epic poem about the Second Punic War and the longest surviving poem in Latin at over 12,000 lines.
Naraggara was an ancient city in Africa Proconsularis located 33 kilometer northwest of modern-day El Kef, Tunisia. It is considered to be the modern-day town of Sakiet Sidi Youssef, also located in Tunisia. The name Naraggara, a Libyan inscription, suggests a pre-Roman origin for the city, along with the name being bilingual in Latin and Neo-Punic.
He had several sisters and two brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago. His brothers-in-law were Hasdrubal the Fair and the Numidian king Naravas. He was still a child when his sisters married, and his brothers-in-law were close associates during his father's struggles in the Mercenary War and the Punic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.Lancel, S. Hannibal p.6.
Also G. Dumézil "Quaestiunculae indo-italicae: 11. Iovi tauro verre ariete immolari non licet" in Revue d'études latins 39 1961 pp. 242–257. This rule seems to have had many exceptions, as the sacrifice of a ram on the Nundinae by the flaminica Dialis demonstrates. During one of the crises of the Punic Wars, Jupiter was offered every animal born that year.
The city played an important role in the First Punic War and that's because of its strong fortifications that stopped the Roman consul and general Marcus Atilius Regulus from his march of the victories over the Carthaginian cities in the region, this failure was without doubt a decisive factor in the refraction of the Africa campaign that Regulus led and later his capturing. Although this, Carthage lost the war.(French) La Nouvelle église de Béja - Abbé NEU The loyalty of Vaga to Carthage continued during the Second Punic War, as in 218 BC the city sent a strong contingent to the army of Hannibal in Iberia to help him in his preparations to invade Italy. And in 201 BC, Vaga resisted an attack from the Numidian king Massinissa who was on his route Carthage to join the troops of Scipio Africanus.
With the retreat of Dionysius, Carthaginians regained control over western Sicily, which Dionysius would not be able to eradicate during his lifetime. His failure to secure a base in western Sicily gave back the initiative to Himilco, who unsuccessfully besieged Syracuse after sacking Messina and defeating the Greek fleet at Catana, ensuring that western Sicily remain mostly free of the ravages of war. Segesta remained a dependent vassal of Carthage until the Punic Wars and was not touched by the wars between Carthage and Syracuse until 307 BC, when the city switched sides made common cause with Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, probably because of excessive Punic demands to meet their war expenses and the success of the Greeks in Africa and Sicily against Carthage. This backfired when Agathocles sacked the city after his demands were refused.
In the classical period, Spain was a mix of Celtic and Iberian tribal states, and Greek and Phoenician trading ports, with the largest state being the kingdom of Tartessus. With the eruption of war between Carthage, a Phoenician colony in North Africa and the Greeks, the Carthaginians begin extending their influence in Iberia, creating the city of New Carthage (Cartagena), in hopes of creating a trading empire. Following the First Punic War with Rome, in 237 BC, Hamilcar Barca, the famous Carthaginian general, then began the conquest of Turdetania (the successor state of Tartessus) and Gades to provide a springboard for further attacks on Rome. Hamilcar entrusted the conquest and military governance of the region to his son Hasdrubal the Fair – his other son, Hannibal, would march his troops across Hispania with elephants to lead them on Rome in the Second Punic War.
Carthage (from the Phoenician Kart-Hadasht, the "New City", written without vowels in Punic as Qrthdst) was a city in North Africa located on the eastern side of Lake Tunis, across from the center of modern Tunis in Tunisia. Though Josephus Flavius associated the city's foundation with Jews and some scholars have conjectured that small groups of Jews may have been present in Carthage as early as the Punic era, the earliest evidence of Jewish presence in the area dates to the second century C.E.Claudia Selzer, 'The Jews in Carthage and Western North Africa, 66 – 235 CE,' in Steven T.Katz (ed.) The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume Four: The Late Roman Rabbinic Period, Cambridge University Press pp.68–75, p.69.J. B. Rives, Religion and Authority in Roman Carthage: From Augustus to Constantine, Clarendon Press, 1995 p.
According to the diplomatic customs of the time, Hasdrubal demanded the handing over of hostages to make himself sure of the submission of their places of origin. Thus, he extended the newly acquired empire by skillful diplomacy, consolidating it by founding the important city and naval base of Qart Hadasht, which the Romans later called Carthago Nova (Cartagena) as the capital of the new province, and by establishing a treaty with the Roman Republic which fixed the River Ebro (the classical Iberus) as the boundary between the two powers.Polybius 2.13, 2.22 This treaty was caused because a Greek colony, Ampurias, and also Iberian Sagunto, fearful of the continuous growth of Punic power in Iberia, asked Rome for help. Hasdrubal accepted reluctantly, as Punic dominion in Iberia was not yet sufficiently established to jeopardise its future expansion in a premature conflict.
Thus he resorted to the same tactics his father Hamilcar Barca used for seven years during the First Punic war in Sicily. According to the military historian Hans Delbrück, the strategic goal behind these tactics was to induce Rome to an acceptable peace treaty in return for relinquishing the Punic base in Italy.Delbrück, Hans, Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte, I Teil: Das Altertum, Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin 1964, S. 403 Livy describes the character of the ensuing warfare in this way: “The struggle in Bruttium had assumed the character of brigandage much more than that of regular warfare. The NumidiansHannibal's mercenaries had commenced the practice, and the Bruttians followed their example, not so much because of their alliance with the Carthaginians as because it was their traditional and natural method of carrying on war.
After the Punic defeats during the Sicilian Wars of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, in which large numbers of Carthaginian citizens had been killed, the Carthaginian Senate set about enlisting mercenary forces in order to replenish the ranks of the Carthaginian army, an extraordinary technique that Carthage had employed since the late 6th century BC. Beginning with the reign of King Hanno the Navigator in 480 BC, Carthage regularly began employing Iberian infantry and Balearic slingers to support Carthaginian spearmen in Sicily, a practice that would continue until the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC. Punic recruiters toured all corners of the Mediterranean, attracting mercenaries and fugitive slaves. Gauls, Ligurians, Numidians, Libyans, Greeks, and especially Iberians. were extensively recruited by Carthage. Troops were recruited both by simple monetary contracts and through partnerships established through treaties with other states and tribes.
Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 151-152, 175 & 200-202. Archaeological evidence, from Roman burials and Scandinavian bog-deposits, shows similar spearheads, though the shafts are rarely preserved.Stephenson, I.P., 2001, Roman Infantry Equipment, pp. 52-60.Bishop, M.C. & Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, Roman Military Equipment: From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, pp. 151 & 200-202. Aside from the traditional mail and scale armour of Roman armies, it also known from archaeological finds that the Goths and Vandals commonly used lamellar armour. Constructed of overlapping metal plates laced together, lamellar was more rigid than mail or scale armour and offered considerably greater protection against blunt force trauma from weapons such as maces or axes, commonly used by heavy cavalry of the time.
Municipal charter of Morella (1233). Prehistoric remains in the area include cave paintings in Morella la Vella and Bronze Age graves at Hostal Nou. The Greeks established a treasury at Morella, but then the area became the scene of conflict between the Carthaginians and the Roman Empire during the Punic Wars. Eventually the town was Romanized and became part of the province of Tarragona.
Thucydides says that Syracuse agreed at the Congress of Gela to give Morgantina to Kamarina in return for payment of an indemnity. Kamarina was destroyed in 405 by the Carthaginians. Morgantina therefore must have been independent from at least this date, although it was soon recaptured by Dionysios of Syracuse in 396. Syracuse retained (occasionally more nominal than actual) control of Morgantina until the Second Punic War.
First, they attacked and defeated Caepio's army and then, with great confidence, took on Mallius Maximus's army and defeated it too. The battle of Arausio was considered the greatest Roman defeat since the slaughter suffered at the battle of Cannae during the Punic Wars.Lynda Telford, Sulla: A Dictator Reconsidered, pp. 45-51. In 104 BC the Cimbri and the Teutones seemed to be heading for Italy.
The gens Cantilia was a Roman family during the late Republic. It is known chiefly from a single individual, Lucius Cantilius, secretary of the pontiffs in 216 B.C., during the Second Punic War.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, Editor. After the catastrophic defeat of the Romans by Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae, Rome was beset by ill omens and superstitious dread.
It is also the only one on the island with an accessible large rock- cut cistern. This site also includes parts of olive oil producing equipment, testifying the area and the site's links to one of the most important industries in Roman Malta. The large cistern at the Ta' Kaċċatura Roman villa. The villa appears to have been built and occupied during the Punic and Roman periods.
G.J. Szemler The Priests of the Roman Republic, 149 shows only an augurship for Sulla; 131-32, 156 on Julius. On Sulla see Stern, "Electoral Irregularity and Chicanery during the Second Punic War," CAMWS 2011, citing coinage. In the senate, he opposed the young and ambitious Scipio Africanus, who wanted to carry the war to Africa. Fabius continued to argue that confronting Hannibal directly was too dangerous.
Of particular interest among the Punic tombs, the "Uraeus Tomb" and the "Fighter Tomb", decorated with paintings of palm trees and masks, still well preserved. Another famous tomb is that "of the Wheel". On the slopes of the Tuvixeddu hill there is a Roman necropolis, which overlooked the road at the exit of the city. The Roman necropolis consists mainly of arcosolium tombs and columbaria.
Pacuvius Calavius was the chief magistrate of Capua during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC). In the aftermath of the Battle of Lake Trasimene, he prevented the people of Capua from surrendering the city to Hannibal. When the Capuans finally capitulated, he dissuaded his son from a rash attempt on the life of the Carthaginian general.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, Editor.
Marcus Calpurnius Flamma was a Roman military leader and hero in the First Punic War. Flamma was a military tribune who led 300 volunteers on a suicide mission to free a consular army from a defile in which they had been trapped by the Carthaginians. Flamma was found gravely wounded under a pile of bodies but survived.Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology vol.
In 398 BC, Dionysius besieged Motya, starting a war with Carthage, and Segesta was caught in the middle again. Elymian power had further weakened by this time, as Entella had been taken over by a group of Campanian mercenaries (another group would take over Messina 115 years later and cause the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage) who were loyal to Carthage but not to Segesta.
Omek tannou or Oumouk tangou is an ancient Tunisian tradition of invocation of the rain which was inherited from the Punic and Berber tradition. It has practically disappeared nowadays. It is manifested in the form of a statue head of a woman similar to girls' dolls. The children walk her between the houses during a drought while singing "Oumouk tango, O women, ask God to rain" ().
Yet for long periods Carthage was able to manage these social difficulties.E.g., Gilbert Charles Picard and Colette Picard, The Life and Death of Carthage (Paris 1970; New York 1968) at 168–171, 172–173 (invasion of Agathocles in 310 BC). The mercenary revolt (240–237) following the First Punic War was also largely and actively, though unsuccessfully, supported by rural Berbers. Picard (1970; 1968) at 203–209.
Beyond these more settled Berbers and the Punic farming towns and rural manors, lived the independent Berber tribes, who were mostly pastoralists. In the brief, uneven review of government at Carthage found in his Politica Aristotle mentions several faults. Thus, "that the same person should hold many offices, which is a favorite practice among the Carthaginians." Aristotle disapproves, mentioning the flute-player and the shoemaker.
This oft-repeated phrase was the ultimate conclusion of all logical argument in every oration, regardless of the subject of the speech. This pattern persisted until his death in 149, which was the year in which the Third Punic War began. In other words, any subject became a pretext for reminding his fellow senators of the dangers Carthage represented.Hooper, William Davis et al. (1934).
In the west, Ptolemy maintained friendly neutrality with the Roman Republic and Carthage, which were fighting against one another in the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). He received a friendly embassy from the Romans in 210 BC, requesting a gift of grain to help feed the starving populus. It is unknown how Ptolemy responded to this request.Polybius 9.11a; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 27.4.
No mention of it is found on the occasion of the Roman conquest of the island but, during the Second Punic War, Caralis was the headquarters of the praetor, Titus Manlius Torquatus, whence he conducted his operations against Hampsicora and the Carthaginians.Livy xxiii. 40, 41. At other times it was also the Romans' chief naval station on the island and the residence of its praetor.Id. xxx. 39.
An example of this is during the Punic Wars. Rome issued coins that had the head of Roma on one side and the figure of victory on the other. Current scholarships believes Romans thought doing this would encourage the idea that Rome would prevail over her enemies. In other works, the Gemma Augustea sculpture by Dioscurides, Roma is sat in state beside Augustus in military apparel.
Pharnaces' brother, MithridatesIV Philopator Philadelphus adopted a peaceful, pro-Roman policy. He sent aid to the Roman ally Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon against Prusias II of Bithynia in 155.Polybius, XXXIII.12 His successor, Mithridates V of Pontus Euergetes, remained a friend of Rome and in 149 BC sent ships and a small force of auxiliaries to aid Rome in the third Punic War.
The ultimate etymology of the term for the country remains uncertain. It may derive from a Punic term for an indigenous population of the area surrounding Carthage. (See Terence for discussion.) The name is usually connected with Phoenician ʿafar "dust"Venter & Neuland, NEPAD and the African Renaissance (2005), p. 16 (also found in other Semitic languages), but a 1981 hypothesisNames of countries , Decret and Fantar, 1981.
100 BC, cohorts appear to have fully replaced maniples as the basic tactical unit. The Second Punic War (218–201 BC) saw the addition of a third element to the existing dual Roman/Italian structure: non-Italian mercenaries with specialist skills lacking in the legions and alae: Numidian light cavalry, Cretan archers, and slingers from the Balearic islands. From this time, these units always accompanied Roman armies.
Battle of Rhone Crossing, 90 km from mouth of the Rhone Hanno signalled Hannibal by lighting a beacon and using smoke. The main Punic army started to cross the 1000 yard wide river. The rafts carrying Numidian cavalry were furthest upstream,Cottrell (1992) p. 44 while boats carrying dismounted cavalry crossed below them, with three or four horses in tow, tied to their boats.
Legend has it that Hannibal, the Carthaginian leader crossed les Baronnies with his elephants during the Second Punic War (218 - 201 B.C.). Later the area retired Roman soldiers were given land here. After the Roman Empire collapsed in the 3rd century, hundreds of years of invasions by Franks, Lombards, Saracens and marauding bands followed. During this period local fiefs started to fortify villages and consolidate power.
The sign of Tanit is an anthropomorph symbol present on many archaeological remains of the Punic Civilization.Edward Lipinski [sous la dir. de], Dictionnaire de la civilisation phénicienne et punique, éd. Brepols, Turnhout, 1992 Both the symbol and the name of the goddess Tanit, are still frequently used within Tunisian culture such as with the tradition of Omek Tannou or the grand film prize of the Tanit d'or.
In 2000 she wrote her first science fiction novel, The Wrong Reflection, about an amnesiac who finds his given identity of "Paul Anderson" to be a fabrication. This was followed by historical novel The Sand- Reckoner, a telling of the story of Archimedes of Syracuse, Italy, from his studies at the Library of Alexandria to his involvement in the Second Punic War (218 – 202 BC).
The ground between the Carthaginian and Roman camps was flat, treeless, and barren, with a low ridge sitting midway between the camps. There were hollows and dead patches of land in the ground behind and beside the hill where soldiers could hide without being noticed.Lazenby, J.F., Hannibal’s War, p. 72 Hannibal selected a picked body of 5,000 infantry and 500Bagnall, Nigel, The Punic Wars, p.
During the Second Punic War, Hannibal abandoned the once formidable Carthaginian fleet to focus on land operations. This was caused by a victory that bred confidence and led to the eventual invasion of North Africa. Their newly founded sea prowess enabled the Roman legions to land on the coast of North Africa and bring the war out of Italy and into the laps of the Carthaginians.
The Battle of Beneventum was fought in 214 BC near modern Benevento during the Second Punic War. Roman legions under Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus defeated Hanno's Carthaginian forces, denying Hannibal reinforcements. Livy gives a brief description of the battle,Livy 24.14-16. which was part of the Roman campaign to subdue the southern Italian city-states that had joined Hannibal after the Battle of Cannae.
Mostaganem (; ) is a port city in and capital of Mostaganem province, in the northwest of Algeria. The city, founded in the 11th century lies on the Gulf of Arzew, Mediterranean Sea and is 72 km ENE of Oran. It has 245,330 inhabitants as of the 2014 census. The city was founded in the 11th century as Murustage but has origins going back to Punic and Roman times.
Mostaganem corresponds to the ancient Punic port of Murustaga. After becoming part of the Roman Empire, it was, according to some sources, officially renamed Cartennae under the emperor Gallienus (253–268).Murustaga-Mostaganem However, according to more weighty sources, Cartennae (or Cartenna or Cartennas) corresponds instead to modern Ténès, 50 km to the east.J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver (editors), The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol.
Faiss held two German patents related to the preparation of waxes for encaustic painting. One covered a method for treating beeswax so that its melting point was raised from . This occurred after boiling the wax in a solution of sea water and soda three successive times. The resulting harder wax is the same as the Punic wax referred to in ancient Greek writings on encaustic painting.
285, with a speculation that this was a response to the naval activity of the First Punic War. As a god of pure water, Fons can be placed in opposition to Liber as a god of wine identified with Bacchus.As when two characters argue over which holds imperium in Plautus's Stichus, line 696ff.; Thomas Habinek, The World of Roman Song (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), p. 186.
Its ancient history shows evidence of Punic and Roman settlements as well as Arab and Norman rule. There are Greek ruins overlooking the town which may be a temple to Demeter (Mother Earth), dating back to the time before Jesus. The family of Chicago Cubs player Anthony Rizzo was originally from Ciminna, the maternal grandparents of American director Martin Scorsese was from Ciminna as well.
Though it was the smallest of the Punic Wars, the third war was to be the most decisive: The complete destruction of the city of Carthage, the annexation of all remaining Carthaginian territory by Rome, and the death or enslavement of tens of thousands of Carthaginians.Dillon Garland 2005, p. 228 The war ended Carthage's independent existence, and consequently eliminated the last Phoenician political power.
Hoyos, The Carthaginians, p. 96. Surviving Punic texts indicate a very well organized priesthood class, who were drawn mostly from the elite sectors of society, and distinguished from most of the population by being clean shaven.Charles-Picard Charles-Picard 1961, p.131 As in the Levant, temples were among the wealthiest and most powerful institutions in Carthage, and were deeply integrated into public and political life.
Smolensko only started twice in 1814. At the Newmarket-Craven meeting on 12 April, Smolensko won a match race against the colt Tiger. At the First Spring Meeting on 29 April at Newmarket, Smolensko won a 450-guinea sweepstakes race against four other horses, beating the colts Pyramus and Punic. Smolensko retired from racing in 1814 and became a breeding stallion for Charles Bunbury the following year.
These include Dexter Hoyos's Companion to the Punic Wars (2011), Nathan Rosenstein's Rome and the Mediterranean 209–146 BC (2012), Rachel Feig Vishnia's State, Society, and Popular Leaders in Mid-Republican Rome, 241–167 BC (1996), and H.H. Scullard's Roman Politics, 220–150 BC (1973). T. Robert S. Broughton's Magistrates of the Roman Republic (1951–1960) provides an overview of the political offices which Laevinus held.
At the Battle of Telamon in 225 BC, a large Celtic army was trapped between two Roman forces and crushed. In the Second Punic War, the Boii and Insubres allied themselves with the Carthaginians, laying siege to Mutina (Modena). In response, Rome sent an expedition led by L. Manlius Vulso. Vulso's army was ambushed twice, and the Senate sent Scipio with an additional force to provide support.
Other socii (pink) are concentrated in the mountainous interior Roman copper aes grave coin of the First Punic war era. (Obverse) head of Janus, the two- faced god. (Reverse) prow of a warship, a common motif of coins of this period, and virtually a symbol of the Roman Republic (c. 240 BC) Roman silver didrachm c. 225 BC. (Obverse) head of Mars, the Roman god of war.
244-247 for a detailed analysis of the evidence. On the assumption that this Gaius Fannius was not the historian who fought in the Third Punic War, in 146 BC he was a member of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus’s staff in Macedonia, who sent him as part of an embassy to the Achaean League to convince them not to enter the war against Rome.Cornell, pg.
The Battle of Lilybaeum was the first clash between the navies of Carthage and Rome in 218 BC during the Second Punic War. The Carthaginians had sent 35 quinqueremes to raid Sicily, starting with Lilybaeum. The Romans, warned by Hiero of Syracuse of the coming raid, had time to intercept the Carthaginian contingent with a fleet of 20 quinqueremes and managed to capture several Carthaginian ships.
Junius was consul in 317 BC with the patrician Quintus Aemilius Barbula. The two were joint consuls again in 311. From the mid-4th century to the early 3rd century BC, several plebeian-patrician "tickets" repeated joint terms, suggesting a deliberate political strategy of cooperation.Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005), p. 269.
In 201 BC, Rome won the Second Punic War against Carthage. Philip V of Macedon had attacked Rome's client states in the Mediterranean for 20 years. The Greek city-states, led by Athens, appealed to Rome for help. In 197 BC the Roman army of Titus Quinctius Flamininus, with his allies from the Aetolian League, marched out towards Pherae in search of Philip, who was at Larissa.
The Roman Republic sent some colonists together with a small garrison in order to control the city. The city prospered and was even allowed to coin its own money in silver and bronze. Reflecting its blend of cultures, its coins bore Punic inscriptions but images of Hercules and Dionysus. Soon Italian merchants settled in the city and started a profitable commerce with the Libyan interior.
Caracalla was born in Lugdunum, Gaul (now Lyon, France), on 4April 188 to Septimius Severus and Julia Domna, giving him Punic paternal ancestry and Arab maternal ancestry. He had a slightly younger brother, Geta, who briefly ruled as co-emperor. Caracalla's father appointed Caracalla joint Augustus and full emperor from 28 January 198. His brother Geta was granted the same title around 209 or 210.
The Roman Empire, its extent under the emperor Trajan (r. 98–117), in 117. With Numidia added, the Province became Africa Proconsularis. Following the defeat of Carthage in the Third Punic War (149–146), the Roman Republic annexed the city and its vicinity, including rich and developed agricultural lands; their long-time Berber ally Massinissa had died shortly before the fall of the city.
Carthaginian officer corps held overall command of the army, although many units may have fought under their chieftains. The Punic navy was built around the trireme, Carthaginian citizens usually served alongside recruits from Libya and other Carthaginian domains in the fleet. Carthaginians favoured light, maneuverable crafts and they carried an extra sail for speed but fewer number of soldiers than their Greek counterparts.Warry, John (1993).
On the advice of the Sibylline books, which were consulted amid anxieties surrounding the Second Punic War, Juventas was included in sacrifices in 218 BC relating to a lectisternium, a public banquet at which divine images were displayed as if the deities were participating.Livy 21.62.9 and 36.36.5; Fears, "The Cult of Virtues", pp. 835, 848 and 851–852, citing also Kurt Latte for the date.
L. Cincius Alimentus was part of the Cincia clan of ancient Rome. He was captured in one of the early battles of the Second Punic War. He spent years as a prisoner of the Carthaginian general Hannibal, whoaccording to Alimentus's later accountconfided in the Roman the details of his crossing of the Alps. He served as praetor in Sicily in 209, commanding two legions.
The sign of Tanit is an anthropomorph symbol present on many archaeological remains of the Punic Civilization.Edward Lipinski [sous la dir. de], Dictionnaire de la civilisation phénicienne et punique, éd. Brepols, Turnhout, 1992 Both the symbol and the name of the goddess Tanit, are still frequently used within Tunisian culture such as with the tradition of Omek Tannou or the grand film prize of the Tanit d'or.
At some point during 240 BC the Carthaginians raised another, smaller, force, of approximately 10,000. It included deserters from the rebels, 2,000 cavalry, and 70 elephants. This was placed under the command of Hamilcar, who had commanded the Carthaginian forces on Sicily for the last six years of the First Punic War. The rebels held the line of the Bagradas River with 10,000 men commanded by Spendius.
The battle was little more than a skirmish, but is notable as the first naval encounter of the Punic Wars and the first time Roman warships had engaged in battle. Scipio was ransomed after the battle and known thereafter as (Latin for "female donkey"). The Romans went on to win the two, larger, naval encounters that followed and establish a rough sea-going parity.
Agriculture has been successful in Campidano since the Neolithic, continuing on through the Punic and the Romans, who cultivated here grains and grape. Dams of the large Sardinian rivers nourish the artichoke and wheat cultures, also typical products of this zone. Paddy fields are present near Oristano. The Sardinians from this area, and by extension all the people inhabiting the lowlands of Southern Sardinia, are called Campidanese (, ).
From the time of Naevius onwards every great military struggle in which the Romans had been engaged had found its poet. Naevius' influence cannot be gauged because of the almost total loss of his poem on the First Punic War. Silius specifically names Virgil, Homer, and Ennius as his epic inspiration. Homer is mentioned at 13.778-797, where Silius has Scipio meet his shade in the underworld.
Tullus Hostilius defeating the army of Veii and Fidenae, modern fresco. The gens Hostilia was an ancient family at Rome, which traced its origin to the time of Romulus. The most famous member of the gens was Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome; however, all of the Hostilii known from the time of the Republic were plebeians. Several of the Hostilii were distinguished during Punic Wars.
No dictator was nominated during the Third Samnite War, and the six-month limitation on its powers made the dictatorship impractical for campaigns beyond the Italian peninsula. In 249 BC, Aulus Atilius Calatinus became the only dictator to lead an army outside Italy, when he invaded Sicily, and he was the only dictator to hold a military command during the First Punic War.Broughton, vol. I, p. 215.
The peak allows views of the west coast of the island, as far as the cliffs of Ta' Ċenċ in Gozo. A wide variety of vegetation grows on the headland, including large populations of esparto grass on the clay slopes in the area. The headland also serves as a navigational marker. The headland incorporates the ruins of a megalithic temple, as well as Punic-Roman remains.
Harmonia Harmonia (died 215 BC), was a Sicilian princess, daughter of Gelo, the son of King Hiero II of Syracuse. She was the wife of Themistius. Titus Livius' ancient history records that during the Second Punic War, the people of Syracuse rebelled against the royal family. The young king Hiero was murdered along with Themistius and Andronodorus, sons-in-law of Gelo and Hiero.
It can also cause the invading force to extend too far, allowing a pincer movement to cut them off from reinforcements. This was the cause of the British defeat at the Battle of Cowpens during the American Revolutionary War. Finally, sending too many reinforcements can leave too few defenders in the attackers' territory, allowing a counter-invasion from other areas, as happened in the Second Punic War.
Hannibal at Bay is the first game in the series and was released in 2000. The game covers the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage. The original version of the game used hard mounted game boards, which increased the selling price of the game. An updated version of Hannibal at Bay was announced on May 13, 2008 and was scheduled to be released in June 2008.
Abdera shares its name with a city in Thrace and another in North Africa. Its coins bore the inscription (). The first element in the name appears to be the Punic word for "servant" or "slave"; the second element seems shared by the Phoenician names for Agadir (now Cadiz) and Cythera but of unclear meaning. It appears in Greek sources as tà Ábdēra () and Aúdēra (),Strabo.
Julius Caesar repealed it.Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Julius Caesar, 28 Pompey's provision was re-enacted by Augustus.Cassius Dio, Roman History, 53.14.2 The concept of delegated authority was sometimes used to confer proconsular imperium on someone who had never held consular power before. During the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus volunteered to lead the second Roman expedition against the Carthaginians in Hispania.
Traditional mythological symbols had enduring popularity as well, which can be traced back to Northwest Africa's Punic heritage. Many of the early Northwest African lamps that have been excavated, especially those of high quality, have the name of the manufacturer inscribed on the base, which gives evidence of a highly competitive and thriving local market that developed early and continued to influence and bolster the economy.
These Fabergé eggs resembled standard decorated eggs, but they were made from gold and precious stones. Punic decorated egg from Iron Age II The Persian culture also has a tradition of egg decorating, which takes place during the spring equinox. This time marks the Persian New Year, and is referred to as Nowruz. Family members decorate eggs together and place them in a bowl.
Livy, XXIX.34; Cassius Dio XVII, 65-66 Thus the Roman commander received a temporary advantage, which was strengthened when Scipio was joined by Massinissa, a leader of the Massylians.Livy, XXIX.29; Appian, The Punic Wars, 3.14 Hasdrubal was impeded by the wavering of Syphax, who "failed... to render them (the Carthaginians) whole-hearted assistance" and thus allowed the Romans to ravage the country with impunity.
Throughout the winter, the Carthaginians continued to build up their forces. They prepared a fleet in order to cut the supply routes and fully blockade the Roman armyPolybius, XIV, 1.1-2, 6.7; Livy, XXX.3 and were waiting for mercenaries from Iberia and Liguria.Appian, The Punic Wars, 3.17 The actual hostilities ceased for a time due to the efforts of Syphax to arbitrate for a reconciliation.
They became Romanised. In 217 BC, Hydra started issuing coins, which often featured Iapagus, the legendary founder of the Iapyges. During Hannibal's invasion of Italy in the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), the Messapii remained loyal to the Romans. The Battle of Cannae, where Hannibal routed the forces of the Romans and their Italic allies, was fought in the heart of the neighbouring Peucetii territory.
Piero Meloni, La Sardegna romana, Sassari, Chiarella, 1975, p. 4. Roman thermae of Forum Traiani, in what is now Fordongianus. In 238 BC, taking advantage of Carthage having to face a rebellion of her mercenaries (the Mercenary War) after the First Punic War (264–241 BC), the Romans annexed Corsica and Sardinia from the Carthaginians. The two islands became the province of Corsica and Sardinia.
The history of the town starts in the 13th century b.c.e. with the founding attributed to Phoenician sailors.Lamta Archaeological Museum, Republic of Tunisia's Ministry of Culture, accessed December 2012 Leptiminus, as it was called, became an ancient port city in Tunisia that flourished under Roman rule in the time of the empire. Hannibal, following the second Punic War, disembarked here on his return from Italy.
The Greek ships then advanced on the main Punic anchorage but Carthaginians declined the challenge. The Greeks then returned to Syracuse with their spoils. This success was obtained without the leadership of Dionysius, and some of his political enemies tried to depose him upon his return at the citizen's assembly. The Spartans declined to support the dissenters and this caused the coup attempt to collapse.
Tabarka ( ') is a coastal town located in north-western Tunisia, close to the border with Algeria. Tabarka's history is a colorful mosaic of Berber, Punic, Hellenistic, Roman, Islamic, Genoese and Turkish culture. The town is dominated by an offshore rock on which is remains a Genoese castle. Nationalist leader Habib Bourguiba, later president of post-independence Tunisia, was exiled here by the French colonial authorities in 1952.
The 18th century Musmeci Palazzo, located in Piazza San Domenico. According to tradition, the city's origins trace back to Xiphonia, a mysterious Greek city now completely disappeared. In Roman times, there existed another Greek town, Akis, which was involved in the Punic Wars. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, there is a great love between Ā́cis, the spirit of the Ā́cis River, and Galatea the sea-nymph.
Hamilcar Barca's and the Roman Positions near Eryx. A generic description, not to exact scale. In 244 BC, Hamilcar transferred his army at night by seaDiodorus Siculus 24.8 to a similar position on the slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano),Lazenby, John .F, ‘’First Punic War’’, p148 from which he was able to lend support to the besieged garrison in the neighbouring town of Drepanum (Trapani).
This was refuted by Wilhelm Gesenius, who like Abela before him, held that Maltese was a dialect of Arabic. Further studies on the Melitensis prima text followed developments in the study of Phoenician grammar, comparing Punic specimens closely with Hebrew texts. In 1772, Francisco Pérez Bayer published a book detailing the previous attempts at understanding the text, and provided his own interpretation and translation. At Google Books.
Herodotus 1.166.1, 1.167.2 Some authors consider that the Greek defeat and consequent lack of Greek traders in the Gibraltar Strait led to the collapse of the Tartessian civilization in Southern Spain, while the Punic presence remained undisturbed. The uncontested, and more lucrative, river trade with the interior of Gaul became the focal point of the Greek cities of modern southern France, such as Massalia (modern Marseille).
Ptolemy's 1st African map, showing Roman Mauretania Tingitana In antiquity, the cape was known to the Phoenicians and Carthaginians as Rusadir (, ), giving its name to a nearby port (now Melilla). The name meant "Powerful" or "High Cape",. but can also be understood as "Cape of the Powerful One", in reference to Baal, Tanit, and other important Punic god.. It was known to the Romans as ().Ptol., Geogr.
Lucius served under his brother in Spain during the Second Punic War, defeating the Carthaginian commander Larus in a famous duel,Silius Italicus, Punica, 16, 46-65 and in 208 BC took a town on his own. In 206 BC, he was sent to the Senate with news of the victory in Spain.T.R.S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (1951, 1986) vol. 1, pg 300.
Cartenna's name was variously recorded by the Greeks as Karténna (), Kártina (), Kártinna (), and Karténnai (). It was usually latinized as Cartennae or Cartenna, but appears as Cartinna in Mela. These names seem to combine the Punic word for "city" () with a Berber placename element (), also seen in the Phoenician names for Cirta, Tipasa, and Sabratha. The name does not derive from the river but from nearby Cape Tenes.
Near the end of the Second Punic War, Mago was among the Ingauni, trying to block the Roman advance. At the Battle of Insubria, he suffered a defeat, and later, died of wounds sustained in the battle. Genua was rebuilt in the same year. Ligurian troops were present at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, which marked the final end of Carthage as a great power.
A. F. West believes that this is inserted commentary on the Second Punic War. In his article "On a Patriotic Passage in the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus", he states that the war "engrossed the Romans more than all other public interests combined".West, 24. The passage seems intended to rile up the audience, beginning with hostis tibi adesse, or "the foe is near at hand".
Marcus Valerius Messalla served as prefect of the fleet in Sicily in 210 BC, the ninth year of the Second Punic War, carried out a successful raid on the countryside around Utica. He was nominated dictator, but his appointment was annulled. Messalla was praetor peregrinus in 194 BC, and Roman consul for 188 BC, together with Gaius Livius SalinatorLivy, xxvii. 5, xxxiv 54, 55, xxxviii.
The Battle of Cremona was fought in 200 BC between the Roman Republic and Cisalpine Gaul. The Roman force was victorious. Towards the end of the Second Punic War, tribes in Cisalpine Gaul rebelled against the Republic, sacking the city of Placentia. The governor of the area, Lucius Furius Purpureo, following senatorial orders, disbanded all but 5,000 men in his army and took up defences at Ariminum.
In 2010, remains of foundations of the Punic-Roman walls were found when excavations were made along the Magazine Curtain. A late 14th-century stone block bearing the coat of arms of Guglielmo Murina, possibly originating from the Castellu di la Chitati, was discovered in 2012 during the restoration of D'Homedes Bastion. This block is now displayed at the Fortifications Interpretation Centre in Valletta.
Brett and Fentress, The Berbers (1996) at 24-25 (adaptation of Punic political skills).Abdallah Laroui, The History of the Maghrib (Paris 1970; Princeton 1977) at 61-62 (Phoenician pressure).D. H. Trump, The Prehistory of the Mediterranean (Yale University 1980) at 55-57. To the east, the Berbero-Libyans had already interacted with the Egyptians during the millennial rise of the ancient Nile civilization.
Alexander the Great and his time. By Agnes Savill. p. 44 During the Punic Wars, Sparta was an ally of the Roman Republic. Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the Achaean League after its defeat in the decisive Laconian War by a coalition of other Greek city-states and Rome and the resultant overthrow of its final king Nabis.
Scipio joined the Roman struggle against Carthage in the first year of the Second Punic War when his father was consul. During the Battle of Ticinus, he saved his father's life by "charging the encircling force alone with reckless daring."Polybius, The Histories 10.3.5. He survived the disaster at the Battle of Cannae, where his would-be father-in-law, the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was killed.
The Manlii Torquati were firmly aligned with the aristocratic party toward the end of the Republic, siding first with Sulla, then with Pompeius and the Liberatores. In later times, Torquatus was borne by the Junii Silani, who were descended from the Manlii. The Manlii Acidini rose to prominence during the Second Punic War, but achieved only one consulship, in 179, before fading into relative obscurity.
The Veturii occur regularly in the Fasti Consulares of the early Republic, with Gaius Veturius Geminus Cicurinus holding the consulship in 499 BC. Like other old patrician gentes, the Veturii also developed plebeian branches. The family declined in the later Republic, with the last consular Veturius holding office in 206 BC, during the Second Punic War.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. III, p.
Chase, pp. 109, 110. The Valerii Faltones flourished at the end of the third century BC, first appearing at the end of the First Punic War. Their relationship to the other Valerii is not immediately apparent, as none of the older stirpes of the gens used the praenomen Quintus, but they may have been a cadet branch of the Valerii Maximi, whose surname disappears around this time.
Gnaeus Fulvius Maximus Centumalus ( BC) was a military commander and politician from the middle period of the Roman Republic, who became consul in 298 BC. He fought in the final wars against the Etruscans and later led armies in the Third Samnite War. He was appointed dictator in 263 BC with responsibility for overseeing the start of the Roman ship building effort in the First Punic War.
Nemesis of the Roman Empire is a real- time strategy role-playing game. Set during the Punic Wars, the player can take control of one of four nations: the Romans, the Gauls, the Carthaginians, and the Iberians. Seeing the power and influence of Carthage, Roman legions were sent to Africa with orders to attack the rival city of Carthage, led by its general Hannibal.
Tusa promoted excavations in the archaeological sites of Soluntum, Segesta, Selinunte, Motya, Marsala. In the 60's Tusa was the promoter of the Sicilia Archeologica magazine. From 1964 to 1991 he was also professor of Punic Antiquities at the Faculty of Letters of the University of Palermo. He was a member of the Accademia dei Lincei in the Moral Sciences class for the Archeology category.
The Carthaginians became distinguished for their commercial ambitions and unique system of government, which combined elements of democracy, oligarchy, and republicanism, including modern examples of checks and balances. Despite having been one of the most influential civilizations in the ancient world, Carthage is mostly remembered for its long and bitter conflict with Rome, which threatened the rise of the Roman Republic and almost changed the course of Western civilization. Due to the destruction of virtually all Carthaginian texts after the Third Punic War, much of what is known about its civilization comes from Roman and Greek authors, many of whom wrote during or after the Punic Wars, and to varying degrees were shaped by the hostilities. Popular and scholarly attitudes towards Carthage reflected the prevailing Greco-Roman view, though archaeological research since the late 19th century has helped shed more light and nuance on Carthaginian civilization.
Delenda Est, a short story in Poul Anderson's Time Patrol series, is an alternate history where Hannibal won the Second Punic War, and Carthage exists in the 20th century. A duology by John Maddox Roberts, comprising Hannibal's Children (2002) and The Seven Hills (2005), is set in an alternate history where Hannibal defeated Rome in the Second Punic War, and Carthage is still a major Mediterranean power in 100 BC. Mary Gentle used an alternate history version of Carthage as a setting in her novels Ash: A Secret History and Ilario, A Story of the First History. In these books, Carthage is dominated by Germanic tribes, which conquered Carthage and set up a huge empire that repelled the Muslim conquest. In these novels, titles such as "lord-amir" and "scientist-magus" indicate a fusion of European and Northwest African cultures, and Arian Christianity is the state religion.
Reconciling archaeological and linguistic evidence for Berber prehistory. suggests that although Berber had split off from Afroasiatic several thousand years ago, Proto-Berber itself can only be reconstructed to a period as late as 200 CE, with modern-day Berber languages displaying low internal diversity. The presence of Punic borrowings in Proto-Berber points to the diversification of modern Berber language varieties subsequent to the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C.; only Guanche and Zenaga lack Punic loanwords. Additionally, Latin loanwords in Proto-Berber point to the breakup of Proto- Berber between 0-200 A.D. During the time of the Roman Empire, Roman innovations such as the ox-plough, camel, and orchard management were adopted by Berber communities along the limes, or borders of the Roman Empire, resulting in a new trading culture involving the use of a lingua franca which became Proto-Berber.
Numidia was a region of North Africa roughly within the boundaries of what is now western Tunisia and eastern Algeria. Indigenous inhabitants of Numidia remained semi-nomadic, often identified as Berbers, until Masinissa, chief of the Massaesyli tribe based near Cirta, who supported Rome during the Second Punic War (206 BC) against the nearby Punics of Carthage used the support of Rome to establish a kingdom. To do so Masinissa defeated the rival chief Syphax with the help of famed Roman general Scipio Africanus in 203 BC. Numidian horsemanship and cavalry tactics, as asserted by Polybius, contributed greatly to the development of cavalry tactics in the Roman army which helped them to victory in the Second Punic War. His alliance with Rome began to fray in the mid-second century BC among Roman fears of Masinissa's ambitions and of Carthage's resurgence on the part of Cato the Elder.
Lucan is also an important model for the writing of historical epic, geographical excursus, and Stoic tone, although Silius' approach toward the gods in much more traditional.von Albrecht, p. 984. The poem opens with a discussion of Juno's wrath against Rome on account of Aeneas' treatment of Dido and of Hannibal's character and upbringing. Hannibal attacks Saguntum and receives a Roman embassy. In Book 2, the Roman legation is heard at Carthage, but Hannibal takes the city after the defenders heroically commit suicide. The Carthaginians are catalogued, Hannibal crosses the Alps, and Jupiter reveals that the Punic War is a test of Roman manliness in Book 3. In 4 and 5 the Romans suffer defeat at Ticinus, Trebia, and Lake Trasimene. Book 6 looks back to the exploits of Marcus Atilius Regulus in the First Punic War, while Book 7 describes Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus' delaying strategy.
Beagon, The Elder Pliny on the Human Animal, p. 314 online. The column was probably destroyed by the construction of the Theater of Marcellus, beginning in the 40s BC.Robert E.A. Palmer, Carthage and Rome at Peace (Franz Steiner, 1997), p. 102. One of the neighborhoods razed for the construction of the theater was the Vicus Sobrius, where the residents offered libations of milk to a Punic god Romanized as Mercurius Sobrius.
T.P. Wiseman sums up the whole issue as the mythography of an unusually problematic foundation and early history... — A critical, chronological review of historiography related to Rome's origins. The unsavoury elements of many of the myths concerning Romulus have led some scholars to describe them as "shameful" or "disreputable."Cornell, Tim (1995), The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC).
The coat of arms of Tunisia displays a Punic galley (symbol of freedom) along with a lion holding a sword (symbol of order), and a weighing scale (symbol of justice). In the centre, just under the ship, is the national motto written in Arabic: Freedom (حرية) - Order (نظام) - Justice (عدالة). The central emblem of the national flag is seen above the shield. The background is gold in all sections.
The martyrs' trial and execution took place in Carthage under the proconsul Publius Vigellius Saturninus, whom Tertullian declares to have been the first persecutor of Christians in Africa. The Scillitan sufferers were twelve in all—seven men and five women. Their names were Speratus, Nartzalus, Cintinus (Cittinus), Veturius, Felix, Aquilinus, Laetantius, Januaria, Generosa, Vestia, Donata, and Secunda. Two of these bear Punic names (Nartzalus, Cintinus), but the rest are Latin names.
Bulla Regia was a Berber, Punic, and Roman town near present-day Jendouba, Tunisia. Its surviving ruins and archaeological site are noted for their Hadrianic-era semi-subterranean housing, a protection from the fierce heat and effects of the sun. Many of the mosaic floors have been left in place; others may be seen at the Bardo Museum in Tunis. There is also a small museum connected with the site.
La Alcudia is 10 km from the current city's location and the immediate predecessor of current day Elche. This original location was settled by the Greeks and then occupied by Carthaginians and Romans. Greeks Ionian colonists from the Achaean city Helike established their new colony, naming it Helíkē () around 600BC. It was a point of resistance against Carthaginian advance in Spain between the First and Second Punic Wars.
Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. A century later, during the Second Punic War, Pacuvius Calavius held the chief magistracy at Capua, and by a clever stratagem, prevented the Capuan senate from surrendering the city to Hannibal. Although the city eventually capitulated to the Carthaginian general, Calavius became his honored guest. When his son disclosed a plan to assassinate Hannibal, Calavius was able to dissuade him from this rash deed.
The pagan custom of burying lamps with the dead was to provide the dead with the means of obtaining light in the next world; the lamps were for the most part unlighted. It was of Asiatic origin, traces of it having been observed in Phoenicia and in the Punic colonies, but not in Egypt or Greece. In Europe it was confined to the countries under the domination of Rome.
51 and he took advantage of it. He put his brother Leptines in charge of the siege of Motya, beached all his transport ships and part of his fleet and used their crews to build the siege works. Part of the army was left at Motya while Dionysius led the rest to plunder the Elymian and Punic territories in western Sicily. He then put Segesta and Entella under siege.
Fage, J. D. (ed.) (1978) "The Libyans" The Cambridge History of Africa: From c. 500 BC to AD 1050 volume II, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, p. 141, Geographically, the name of this tribe was adopted by the Greeks for "Cyrenaica" as well as for northwestern Africa in general.. In the neo-Punic inscriptions, Libu was written as Lby for the masculine noun, and Lbt for the feminine noun of Libyan.
The gens Gellia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome, where they settled after the Second Punic War. The first of the Gellii to obtain the consulship was Lucius Gellius Poplicola, in 72 BC, but the most famous member of this gens is probably the grammarian Aulus Gellius, who flourished during the second century AD.Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. II, p. 235 ("Gellia Gens").
As a historian, he publicly rejected Gustave Flaubert's depiction of infanticide in Punic culture, described in Salammbô.Margarita Diaz-Andreu, A World History of Nineteenth-Century Archaeology 2007:159. Among his private purchases was the Nazareth Inscription, an imperial Roman inscription in Greek that was sent to him from Nazareth. Unfortunately, part of his working library was lost in the fire at the Duchess Anna Amalia Library in 2004.
References to the gladius hispaniensis are abundant in classical texts. During the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the Romans experienced firsthand the effectiveness of this sword. In the beginning of the Roman presence on the peninsula during the Second Punic War, Roman legions came into contact with Iberian mercenaries, impressed with the technical and operational levels of their swords, they quickly adopted and began using Iberian swords.
Recently, it has been proposed that the Germanic penny, ', ', &c.; may derive from an early borrowing of Punic (Pane or Pene, "Face"), as the face of Carthaginian fertility goddess Tanit was represented on nearly all Carthaginian currency. The theory is, however, still disputed. Similarly, the supposed discovery of a cache of Carthaginian coins on Corvo in 1749 is the basis for supposing that the Carthaginians reached the Azores, but remains contentious.
10 Like his predecessors, Ptolemy maintained particularly close relations with the kingdom of Syracuse under King Hiero II, but the accession of his grandson Hieronymus in 215 BC threatened to upset the careful balance that Ptolemy had maintained, since he repeatedly tried to bring the Ptolemies into the Second Punic War on the Carthaginian side.Polybius 7.2.2; Livy Ab Urbe Condita 24.26. The situation was resolved with his assassination in 214 BC.
Mauritanian cavalry under Lusius Quietus (a Berber prince) fighting in the Dacian wars. Berber cavalry fought with shield and throwing javelins. Just after defeating the Phoenicians and destructing the city of Carthage in nowadays Tunisia during the Punic Wars, the Roman armies took possession of Mauretania and divided it into two provinces. In the west, Mauritania Tingitana was developed by the creation of roads, agricultural innovations and trade expansions.
It is the last confirmed place where the Punic language was spoken, in the 5th century CE. The region had no recognized administrative centre and was infested for centuries by bandits. In Classical times, the coast was "proverbially dangerous to shipping", called "inhospita Syrtis" in Virgil's Aeneid.Book IV, line 41 John Milton's Paradise Lost Book 2 lines 939-940 speaks of "a boggy Syrtis, neither sea/Nor good dry land".
Following the defeat of Carthage in the Third Punic War, Rome set up the province of Africa Proconsularis. Afer came to be a cognomen for people from this province. The Germanic tribe of the Vandals conquered the Roman Diocese of Africa in the 5th century; the empire reconquered it as the Praetorian prefecture of Africa in AD 534. The Latin name Africa came into Arabic after the Islamic conquest as Ifriqiya.
It soon recovered from this humiliating defeat, however, and in 381 the inhabitants of Tusculum in Latium were made Roman citizens. This was the first time Roman citizenship was extended in this way. Rome went on to expand its area of influence, until by 269 the entirety of the Italian peninsula was under Roman rule. Soon afterwards, in 264, the First Punic War began; it lasted until 241.
In ancient times, most of the area now known as the Kalsa was underwater. Hamilcar and Hannibal used to dock their ships there as they prepared their attacks on the Greek city of Himera. The walls of a Punic city occupied by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians once extended to the confluence of the Papyrus and Kemonia rivers, near what is now the intersection of Via Roma and Via Vittorio Emanuele.
Ceres' temple, games and cult were at least part-funded by fines imposed on those who offended the laws placed under her protection; the poet Vergil later calls her legifera Ceres (Law-bearing Ceres), a translation of Demeter's Greek epithet, thesmophoros.Cornell, T., The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.1000–264 BC), Routledge, 1995, p. 264, citing vergil, Aeneid, 4.58.
The temple was built between 222 and 235 AD during the reign of Severus Alexander. The temple was dedicated to the Roman goddess Juno, who the residents of Dougga widely associated with the Punic goddess Tanit. As opposed to other archologoical sites at Dougga, the Temple was built on the outer edges of the city. The temples' tenemos is shaped like a crescent, a traditional symbol of Juno.
Graphic reconstruction of Nuraghe Fenu Excavations started in 1996, allowing archaeologists to study the stratigraphy of the ground. The rest of the nuraghe was re-used by Punic and Roman civilization. The five towers of the nuraghe were completely excavated, as was the residential area near tower E. The excavation uncovered fragments of ceramic, oil lamps, and coins of Roman age. They are in the museum of Sardara.
Corsica has been occupied continuously since the Mesolithic era. Its population was influential in the Mediterranean during its long prehistory. After a brief occupation by the Carthaginians, colonization by the ancient Greeks, and an only slightly longer occupation by the Etruscans, it was incorporated by the Roman Republic at the end of the First Punic War and, with Sardinia, in 238 BC became a province of the Roman Republic.Bertarelli (1929), p.
Bagnall, Nigel, The Punic Wars, The mobility of the Carthaginians was restricted at this time as their cavalry horses were being rested.Baker, G.P, Hannibal, p. 120, This had also deprived Hannibal of his best weapon against the Romans, a fact which would come into play soon. Minucius promptly attacked and drove back the spearmen posted on the hill, and then moved his camp to the top of the captured hill.
Temple of Juturna at Largo di Torre Argentina, built by Gaius Lutatius Catulus to celebrate his victory at the Aegades. The gens Lutatia, occasionally written Luctatia, was a plebeian family of ancient Rome. The first of the gens to obtain the consulship was Gaius Lutatius Catulus in 242 BC, the final year of the First Punic War. Orosius mentions their burial place, the , which lay beyond the Tiber.
Roman empire 37 ADEl Kenissia is a locality in Tunisia, North Africa. El Kenissia is south of Hadrumetum and is notable for the ruins of Civitas Pophtensis, a civitas of Roman North Africa, which include a Punic era temple complex,Paul Lachlan MacKendrick, The North African Stones Speak (UNC Press Books, 1 Dec. 2000) p21. which was excavated by the French,Carlton D, Les Fouilles D'El Kenissia (Ernest Leroux , 1906).
Iberian falcatas Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during the Punic wars was made up of Iberians and Celtiberians. Iberian warfare was endemic and based on intertribal raiding and pillaging. In set piece battle, Iberians were known to regularly charge and retreat, throwing javelins and shouting at their opponents without actually committing to full contact combat.
The cistern is likely to have been built when the city was rebuilt after the Second Punic War. The Roman forum was excavated in 1985. The original forum dated to the Late Republican period, and was largely demolished in the Early Imperial period in order to build a new forum. The replacement was built during the reign of Augustus, and paid for by Gnaeus Baebius Geminus, a local aristocrat.
Illustration of Sagunto Castle produced in 1563 by Anton van den Wyngaerde The site was apparently first settled by the Iberians in the early Iron Age. These early inhabitants belonged to the Edetani tribe. As the Carthaginian Empire expanded, the inhabitants formed a defensive alliance with Rome. The Carthaginian general Hannibal sacked the Iberian settlement in 219 BC, an action that led to the outbreak of the Second Punic War.
The seat of the bishopric was the ancient city of Siga which is identifiable with the ruins of Takembrit on the Mediterranean coast in modern Algeria. Siga was a major port city in the ancient Kingdom of Numidia, and during the Second Punic War, the kings of Siga sided with Rome.S. Gsell, Atlas archéologique de l'Algérie, Alger-Paris 1911.P. Grimal, Les fouilles de Siga, MEFR, 54, 1937, p. 108-141.
Becoming propraetor before 25 was an extraordinary achievement, but it can be explained by the fact that experienced commanders were used abroad at the end of the Second Punic War. Livy tells that he was prorogued in 204, but remains silent on the following years; he might have stayed there until the end of the war in 202.Livy, xxix. 13.Badian, "Family and Early Career", p. 109.
However, despite its notorious reputation, punishments are rarely recorded; although an admiral named Hanno was crucified for his disastrous defeat in the First Punic War, other commanders, including Hannibal, escaped such a fate. This has led some historians to speculate that the tribunal's decisions may have been influenced by familial or factional politics, given that many high-ranking military officers or their relatives and allies held political office.
The symbol of Tanit, a stylized female form with outstretched arms, appears frequently in tombs, mosaics, religious stelae, and various household items like figurines and pottery vessels. The ubiquity of her symbol, and the fact that she is the only Carthaginian deity with an icon, strongly suggests she was Carthage's paramount deity, at least in later centuries. In the Third Punic War, the Romans identified her as Carthage's protector.
In the spring of 217 BC, Hasdrubal led a joint expedition north to fight the Romans. He commanded the army, while his deputy commanded the fleet. The Punic Army and the fleet moved north side by side and encamped on the mouth of the Ebro River. Carelessness of the Carthaginian fleet enabled Gnaeus Scipio to surprise the Carthaginians and crush their naval contingent at the Battle of Ebro River.
It is unknown what role Segesta played in the war where Carthage destroyed Minoa. Segesta was neutralHerodotus 7.165- no mention of Elymians among the Punic army during the first battle of Himera (ironically Selinus had sided Carthage). The period following Himera was one of prosperity for both cities. Around 454 BC, a conflict involving Motya, Segesta, Selinus and Akragas took place, details are confusingFreeman, Edward A., History of Sicily, Vol.
Under the escort of 60 triremesDiodorus Siculus 13.54.1-5 the soldiers, supplies, and siege equipment were ferried from Africa to Motya in Sicily by 1,500 transports in the spring of 409. Levies from the Sicilian Punic cities and Segesta joined the force at Motya. Hannibal allowed one day rest for his soldiers before setting out for Selinus, capturing the city of Mazara, an outpost of Selinus, on the way.
Atilius was consul for the first time in 257 BC, with the patrician Gnaeus Cornelius Blasio, and prosecuted the First Punic War against the Carthaginians. He defeated the Carthaginian fleet off the Liparaean islands, though not without considerable loss. He then obtained possession of the islands of Lipara and Melite, which he laid waste with fire and sword. On his return to Rome, he received the honour of a naval triumph.
Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC was one of the major events of the Second Punic War, and one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare.Lancel, Serge, Hannibal, p. 71 Hannibal managed to lead his Carthaginian army over the Alps and into Italy to take the war directly to the Roman Republic, bypassing Roman and allied land garrisons and Roman naval dominance.
The battle of Cannae, where the Numidian cavalry helped to defeat the Roman cavalry, allowing the Carthaginians (blue) to encircle and defeat the Roman army (red) Numidian cavalry was a type of light cavalry developed by the Numidians. After they were used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War, they were described by the Roman historian Livy as "by far the best horsemen in Africa."Livy, Ab Urbe Condita 29.35.8.
Iberian warrior from bas-relief . The warrior is armed with a falcata and an oval shield. Iberian tribes fought for both sides in the Second Punic War, but in reality most wanted to be rid of all foreign domination. National Archaeological Museum of Spain, Madrid Hannibal had spent the winter after the siege of Saguntum in Cartagena, during which time he dismissed his troops to their own localities.
A similar fate befell the proximous city of Utica. At Tunis, a small town dating back to the Punic era, and situated near the ruins of Carthage, al-Numan founded a naval base. Muslim ships fitted for war began to assert dominance over the adjacent Mediterranean coast; hence the Byzantines then made their final withdrawal from North Africa. The Arabs called the region al-Maghrib: the "sunset land" or "the west".
9.) were not limited to Latin or even Greek, but could also be created in "Punic, Gaulish or any other" language.Digest 32.11 pr.; Ramsey MacMullen, "Provincial Languages in the Roman Empire," American Journal of Philology 87.1 (1966), p. 2. Originally, a testator's fideicommissum placed the heir under a moral rather than legal obligation,Adolf Berg, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1980, 1991), pp. 470–471.
Gaius Lutatius Catulus (Latin: C·LVTATIVS·C·F·CATVLVS) was a Roman statesman and naval commander in the First Punic War. He was born a member of the plebeian gens Lutatius. His cognomen "Catulus" means "puppy". There are no historical records of his life prior to consulship, but his career probably followed the standard cursus honorum, beginning with service in the cavalry and continuing with the positions of military tribune and quaestor.
Marius found Rome's traditional manpower reserves depleted. As inequality increased, fewer men of military age met the property requirements to serve in the legions. Yet, thousands of poor Italians, the Capite Censi or Head Count, sat idly in Rome, ineligible to serve. Seeking to use them, and with precedent for waiving the property requirements during the existential crisis that was the Second Punic War, Marius was exempted from the requirements.
First page of the 1501 edition of Petrarch's Africa Africa is an epic poem in Latin hexameters by the 14th-century Italian poet Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca). It tells the story of the Second Punic War, in which the Carthaginian general Hannibal invaded Italy, but Roman forces were eventually victorious after an invasion of north Africa led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the epic poem's hero.Bergin and Wilson, p. xix.
The First Punic War between Carthage and Rome broke out in 264BC. Carthage was a well-established maritime power in the western Mediterranean; Rome had recently unified mainland Italy south of the River Arno under its control. The immediate cause of the war was control of the Sicilian town of Messana (modern Messina). More broadly both sides wished to control Syracuse, the most powerful city-state on Sicily.
Polybius, The General History of Polybius, Book I, p. 26 This was the same Hannibal who had retreated after the conquest of Agrigentum, but not the famous Hannibal who would much later invade Italy during the Second Punic War. After Scipio Asina's surrender, the remaining fleet was placed in the hands of Duilius, and the foot soldiers were turned over to military tribunes.Polybius, The General History of Polybius, Book I, p.
His paternal great- grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Gaius Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the niece of Julius Caesar.Rowell (1962), 14. A denarius from 44 BC, showing Julius Caesar on the obverse and the goddess Venus on the reverse of the coin.
173 Dionysius moved his forces to Catana also but, due to the rash tactics of his brother Leptines, the Greek fleet was heavily defeated at the naval battle of Catana.Church, Alfred J., Carthage, pp. 53-54 Himilco next besieged Syracuse itself in the autumn of 397. After the Carthaginian forces were devastated by a plague, Dionysius managed to decimate the Punic fleet and shut up the army survivors in their camp.

No results under this filter, show 1000 sentences.

Copyright © 2024 RandomSentenceGen.com All rights reserved.