There's a whole bunch of crossover and a whole lot of parallel evolution.
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This policy shift has been accompanied by a parallel evolution in the Republican demographic coalition.
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Nor is it only in their social arrangements that elephants show signs of parallel evolution with humans.
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The flightless rails are "among the most species-rich examples of parallel evolution in vertebrates" according to one paper.
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Adaptive radiation and the emergence of ecomorphs is closely related to a phenomenon known as parallel evolution—where identical physical and behavioral characteristics emerge in unrelated species that are geographically isolated.
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"What we have started to see is that there is a clear parallel evolution between the perception of this potential agreement with the Commission and the evolution of the market," de Guindos said.
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Call it parallel evolution, call it Hollywood's love of familiar tropes, even call it the kind of corporate piggybacking that leads to waves of similar films hitting theaters on top of each other, as studios try to take advantage of each others' marketing.
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The increasing group sizes and longer social interactions — from "one hour a day to two hours in the earliest species of Homo, thence four to five hours in modern humanity" — in turn reinforce the parallel evolution of the genes we inherit and the culture we pass down.
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Given the obvious real-world resonances of the three books (the admittedly more fantastical Borne tackles out-of-control capitalism via a futuristic desert city terrorized by a giant flying psychotic bear), VanderMeer organized a three-way conversation to examine what he calls their "parallel evolution"—as well as dicuss how to take on a troubling present reality in an meaningful and productive way.
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Whether it comes from studios trying to ride each other's publicity coattails, or just parallel evolution as different producers chase the same ideas through the zeitgeist, it's still fairly common to see, say, the dystopian evil-twin fantasies Double and The Enemy coming out in the same year, or White House Down and Olympus Has Fallen — both White House invasion action movies — fighting for supremacy at the box office.
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This has made the internal nares a case of parallel evolution rather than a homology between lungfish and tetrapods.
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L. alexandri represents an example of parallel evolution, sharing a similar morphology and lifestyle to species of the distantly related Chaca catfish.
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Naginata are almost identical in appearance to both the glaive and the guan dao, and it is most likely result of parallel evolution.
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This may indicate that large iguanodontians and dicraeosaurids (especially Brachytrachelopan) were ecological analogs, resulting from parallel evolution in two distantly related dinosaurian lineages.
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In the case of coadapted cellular machinery as diverse as the transcriptosome, this parallel evolution may involve sequences with no other obvious connection.
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However, these similarities appear to derive from parallel evolution between these two groups. A larger number of cranial and postcranial characters support their relationship with allosaurids.
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The facial pit underwent parallel evolution in pitvipers and some boas and pythons. It evolved once in pitvipers and multiple times in boas and pythons.Pough et al. 1992. Herpetology: Third Edition.
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Duftner; Sefc; Koblmüller; Taborsky; and Sturmbauer (2007). Parallel evolution of facial stripe patterns in the Neolamprologus brichardi/pulcher species complex endemic to Lake Tanganyika. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 45: 706–715.
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Recurrent evolution can also be described as recurring or repeated evolution. The distinction between convergent and parallel evolution is somewhat unresolved in evolutionary biology. Some authors have claimed it is a false dichotomy while others have argued there are still important distinctions. These debates are important when considering recurrent evolution as their basis is in the degree of phylogenetic relatedness among the organisms being considered and convergent and parallel evolution are the major sources of recurrent evolution.
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Language groups in the Caucasus are closely correlated to genetic ancestry. O.Balanovsky et al., "Parallel Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus Region", Mol Biol Evol00 (2011), doi:10.1093/molbev/msr126.
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Peronopsis palmadon is intermediate between Peronopsidae and Condylopygidae, but it is not clear whether P. palmadon is ancestral to the Condylopigidae, a condylopigid exhibiting regression towards ancestral characters, or an example of parallel evolution.
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Several of these studies have suggested that the gnetophytes and angiosperms have independently derived characters, including flower-like reproductive structures and tracheid vessel elements, that appear shared but are actually the result of parallel evolution.
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These are examples of parallel evolution. The Hawaiian honeycreepers have several species adapted to feed on nectar. The Hawaiian tree Metrosideros polymorpha is heavily dependant on the pollination of the more or less nectarivorous honeycreepers.
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The placement of Hecastocleis in the tree could also be incorrect due to parallel evolution an reversal of earlier mutations. However, the support in the analysis for the separation of Hecastocleis from the Gochnatieae is strong.
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However more recent genetic studies show that E. vernicosa is more distantly related to the E. johnstonii/E. subcrenulata complex, and the apparent morphological clinal intergradation between E. vernicosa and E. subcrenulata is probably a result of parallel evolution.
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In this predator-prey relationship, a parallel evolution of both species is observed through genomic and phenotypic modifications, producing in subsequent generations a better adaptation of one of the species that is counteracted by the evolution of the other, following a co-evolutionary model known Red Queen hypothesis. However, the evolutionary mechanisms present in M.xanthus that produce this parallel evolution are still unknown.Nair, Ramith R.; Vasse, Marie; Wielgoss, Sébastien; Sun, Lei; Yu, Yuen-Tsu N.; Velicer, Gregory J. "Bacterial predator-prey coevolution accelerates genome evolution and selects on virulence-associated prey defences", Nature Communications, 2019, 10:4301.
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Divergent evolution is always coupled with convergent evolution, as they are both similar and different in various facets such as whether something evolves, what evolves, and why it evolves. It is instructive to compare divergent evolution with both convergent and parallel evolution.
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The specific name, carpenteri, honors the type specimen's collector, British physician and entomologist Geoffrey Douglas Hale Carpenter.Parker HW (1927). "Parallel evolution in some opisthoglyphous snakes, with the description of a new species". Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Ninth Series 20: 81-86.
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Disagreement on whether the evolution of the camera eye within cephalopods and within vertebrates is a parallel evolution or a convergent evolution still exists, although is mostly resolved. The current standing is that of a convergent evolution for their analogous camera-type eye.
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Those maintaining that it is a parallel evolution state that there is evidence that there was a common ancestor containing the genetic information for this eye development. This is evidenced by all bilaterian organisms containing the gene Pax6 which expresses for eye development.
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Negastriinae is a subfamily of click beetles in the family Elateridae.Robin Kundrata, Nicole L. Gunter, Dominika Janosikova & Ladislav Bocak (2018) Molecular evidence for the subfamilial status of Tetralobinae (Coleoptera: Elateridae), with comments on parallel evolution of some phenotypic characters. Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny 76: 137-145.
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Parallel evolution is the development of a similar trait in species descending from the same ancestor. It is similar to divergent evolution in that the species descend from the same ancestor, but it differs in that the trait is the same while in divergent evolution the trait is not. An example of parallel evolution is that certain arboreal frog species, 'flying' frogs, in both Old World families and New World families, have developed the ability of gliding flight. They have "enlarged hands and feet, full webbing between all fingers and toes, lateral skin flaps on the arms and legs, and reduced weight per snout-vent length".
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Professor Clarke was the first theorist to advance a hypothesis regarding the evolution of elements. This concept emerged early in his intellectual career. His "Evolution and the Spectroscope" (1873) appear in Popular Science Monthly. It noted a parallel evolution of minerals, accompanying that of plant life.
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Comparisons based on DNA sequences indicate species with hysterothecia do not share a single ancestor and therefore species with hysterothecia can be found in several fungal orders.Mugambi GK, Huhndorf SM, 2009. Parallel evolution of hysterothecial ascomata in ascolocularous fungi (Ascomycota, Fungi). Systematics and Biodiversity 7: 453–464.
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A Raetic variant is conjectured to be at the origin or parallel evolution of the Elder Futhark ᛟ. Omega was also adopted into the Latin alphabet, as a letter of the 1982 revision to the African reference alphabet. It has had little use. See Latin omega.
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Language groups in the Caucasus have been found to have a close correlation to genetic ancestry. O.Balanovsky et al., "Parallel Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus Region", Mol Biol Evol00 (2011), doi:10.1093/molbev/msr126. A genetic study in 2015 by Fu et al.
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Hedgehog is also involved in segmentation in the annelid worms; because parallel evolution seems unlikely, this suggests a common origin of segmentation between the two phyla. Whilst Hh does not induce the formation of segments, it seems to act to stabilize the segmented fields once they have appeared.
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Opsin Evolution in Damselfish: Convergence, Reversal, and Parallel Evolution Across Tuning Sites. Journal of Molecular Evolution, vol 75, pages 79-91. It has an average length of 9.0 cm, but can reach lengths of 14.0 cm. It has 12 dorsal spines, and 15 to 17 dorsal soft rays.
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Some are also flightless at some time during their moult periods.Horsfall & Robinson (2003): p. 209 Flightlessness in rails is one of the best examples of parallel evolution in the animal kingdom. Of the roughly 150 historically known rail species, 31 extant or recently extinct species evolved flightlessness from volant (flying) ancestors.
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The two genera are not sister taxa and thus may have evolved their small sizes via parallel evolution. They are separated by the East African Rift. The first genus to be introduced to scientific literature was Galago by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. The genus was based on a smaller species from West Africa.
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Cisek, "Ioan Theodorescu-Sion", p.251 According to Cisek, this preference hurt Sion's art for the next few years, but began to wear out with the completion of La isvorul Troiței.Cisek, "Ioan Theodorescu-Sion", p.251-252 In the context of Romanian artistic modernity, the parallel evolution of Sion and Iosif Iser has intrigued various commentators.
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Marine mammals have evolved several times, developing similar flippers. The forelimbs of cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sirenians presents a classic example of convergent evolution. There is widespread convergence at the gene level. Distinct substitutions in common genes created various aquatic adaptations, most of which constitute parallel evolution because the substitutions in question are not unique to those animals.
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Asama virus is related to soricine shrew-borne hantaviruses that are found in North America, Europe, and Asia. This relation was discovered through phylogenetic analyses. The relationship between the two hantaviruses may suggest parallel evolution associated with cross-species transmission.Bennett, Shannon N., Laurie Diznie, Laarni Sumibcay, Satoru Arai, Luis A. Ruedas, Jin-Won Song, and Richard Yanagihara.
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Astianthus is now usually placed in Bignoniaceae incertae sedis. Alwyn Howard Gentry called Astianthus "a very isolated genus with no obvious affinities" and further wrote that "the superficial resemblance to Chilopsis is apparently due to parallel evolution for the same type of riparian site". Astianthus has not yet been sampled for DNA in a molecular phylogenetic study.
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Kawakita, A.; Takimura, A.; Terachi,, T.; Sota, T.; Kato, M. (2004) "Cospeciation analysis of an obligate pollination mutualism: haveGlochidion trees (Euphorbiaceae) and pollinating Epicephala moths (Gracillariidae) diversified in parallel?" Evolution. 58: 2201–2214. Although leafflower moths actively pollinate Glochidion flowers, the adult moths also lay eggs inside the flowers, where their caterpillars later consume a subset of the developing seeds in the fruit.
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Cebrionini is a tribe of click beetles from the Elateridae family; formerly ranked as a subfamily, they are now considered a tribe within the subfamily Elaterinae.Robin Kundrata, Nicole L. Gunter, Dominika Janosikova & Ladislav Bocak (2018) Molecular evidence for the subfamilial status of Tetralobinae (Coleoptera: Elateridae), with comments on parallel evolution of some phenotypic characters. Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny 76: 137-145.
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It was presumed that cooperative breeding—present in many or most members of the Maluridae, Meliphagidae, Artamidae and Corvidae, among others—is a common apomorphy of this group.Cockburn (1996) But as evidenced by the updated phylogeny, this trait is rather the result of parallel evolution, perhaps because the early Passeri had to compete against many ecologically similar birds (see near passerine).
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The circumscription of the genus has varied greatly. Phylogenetic studies have shown that the widely used broad circumscription as a pantropical genus is polyphyletic, but it remains to be seen how this will affect the classification of the genus. Five polyphyletic clades of Schefflera exist, all of which are geographically isolated from one another. This implies parallel evolution of traits within the genus.
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The Condylopygoidea are an isolated branch in the Agnostina suborder that occur approximately contemporaneously with the Peronopsidae, the earliest representatives of the main branch of the Agnostina. One species, Peronopsis palmadon, appears intermediate between Peronopsidae and Condylopygidae, but it is not clear whether P. palmadon is ancestral to the Condylopigidae - a regression towards ancestral characters or an example of parallel evolution.
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Its humerus is still very slender, between the form seen in ordinary bird wings and the thickened condition found in modern penguins. On the other hand, the tarsometatarsus shows a peculiar mix of characters found in modern and primitive forms. Whether this signifies that the genus is an ancestor of modern taxa or represents a case of parallel evolution is unknown.
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Zimmermann favored the reconstruction of phylogenetic lineages across species based on evolution of single phenotypic characters. He acknowledged that it is often impossible to know exactly the genealogical relationships between groups of organisms without experimentation, and basing phylogenetic relationships solely on phenetic similarities only increases the risk of influence of convergent evolution, parallel evolution, and atavism on analysis of evolutionary relationships.
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As skiing became more specialized, so too did ski boots, leading to the splitting of designs between those for alpine skiing and cross-country skiing.Seth Masia "A Short History of Ski Boots" at SkiingHistory.org Modern skiing developed as an all-round sport with uphill, downhill and cross-country portions. The introduction of the cable binding started a parallel evolution of binding and boot.
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Krypto, with Superboy, in his first appearance, from Adventure Comics #210 (March 1955). Art by Curt Swan and Stan Kaye. On Krypton, parallel evolution led to the emergence of analogous species to Terran cats, simians, birds and dogs, which were domestic companion animals as they were on Earth. As explained in his first appearance, Krypto was originally the toddler Kal-El's dog while they were on Krypton.
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Illustration of the disks Unlike most bats, T. tricolor clings head- up from its roost. This phenomenon is observed in six bat species in two genera, Thyroptera and Myzopoda. The former are known as disk-winged, and the latter as sucker-footed. The two groups represent an occurrence of the parallel evolution of a feature, but the two forms of adhesive anatomy are utilized differently.
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In phylogenetics, maximum parsimony is an optimality criterion under which the phylogenetic tree that minimizes the total number of character-state changes is to be preferred. Under the maximum-parsimony criterion, the optimal tree will minimize the amount of homoplasy (i.e., convergent evolution, parallel evolution, and evolutionary reversals). In other words, under this criterion, the shortest possible tree that explains the data is considered best.
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There is widespread convergence at the gene level. Distinct substitutions in common genes created various aquatic adaptations, most of which constitute parallel evolution because the substitutions in question are not unique to those animals. When comparing cetaceans to pinnipeds to sirenians, 133 parallel amino acid substitutions occur. Comparing and contrasting cetaceans-pinnipeds, cetaceans-sirenians, and pinnipeds-sirenians, 2,351, 7,684, and 2,579 substitutions occur, respectively.
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They are assumed to have had a cartilaginous housing of the ear mechanism. Nimravid feet were short, indicating they walked in a plantigrade or semiplantigrade posture. Although some nimravids physically resembled the sabre-toothed cats of the genus Smilodon, they were not closely related, but evolved a similar form through parallel evolution. They possessed synapomorphies with the barbourofelids in the cranium, mandible, dentition, and postcranium.
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After a certain time of parallel evolution between the ground and the vegetation, a state of steady balance is reached. This stage of development is called climax by some ecologists and "natural potential" by others. Succession is the evolution towards climax. Regardless of its name, the equilibrium stage of primary succession is the highest natural form of development that the environmental factors are capable of producing.
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This fact can be used to study the coevolution of gene function. Dogs accompanied humans when they first migrated into new environments. Both dogs and humans have adapted to different environmental conditions, with their genomes showing parallel evolution. These include adaptation to high altitude, low oxygen hypoxia conditions, and genes that play a role in digestion, metabolism, neurological processes, and some related to cancer.
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While convergent evolution and parallel evolution are both forms of recurrent evolution they involve multiple lineages whereas recurrent evolution can also take place in a single lineage. As mentioned before, recurrent evolution within a lineage can be difficult to detect in organisms with longer generation times; however paleontological evidence can be used to show recurrent phenotypic evolution within a lineage. The distinction between recurrent evolution across lineages and recurrent evolution within a lineage can be blurred because lineages do not have a set size and convergent or parallel evolution takes place among lineages that are all part of or within the same greater lineage. When speaking of recurrent evolution within a lineage, the simplest example is that given above, of the on-off switch used by bacteria in phase variation, but it can also involve phenotypic swings back and forth over longer periods of evolutionary history.
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They are likely descended from the lineage of the oriental scops-owl (O. sunia), and share common ancestry with the scops owls found in Madagascar and the Comoros. The Mascarenotus grouping was found to be non-monophyletic, with the species having evolved the same morphology in parallel evolution, with the Rodrigues owl forming an outgroup to the clade containing the Mauritius owl and the Rainforest scops owl and Seychelles scops owl.
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Additional species were described in 2018 and 2020. A notable character is the possession of wing scales like members of Lepidoptera, but these were suggested to have been evolved in parallel evolution from hairs or setae. Their flattened morphology and small size suggests they were adapted to living in small crevaces, the morphology of the mouth suggests that they were phytophagous, and ingested small particles, perhaps including pollen grains.
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Writing to Arthur Keith in 1927, he remarked "when our Oligocene ancestor is found it will not be an ape, but it will be surprisingly pro-human".Lewin, 1997, p. 56. His student William K. Gregory called Osborn's idiosyncratic view on man's origins as a form of "Parallel Evolution", but many creationists misinterpreted Osborn, greatly frustrating him, and believed he was asserting humankind had never evolved from a lower life form.Lewin, 1997, p. 57.
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The Emmelichthyidae are a family of small to medium-sized marine fish known commonly as rovers. The family was once much larger, including a wide range of plankton-eating fish, but most of the genera were discovered to be unrelated examples of parallel evolution, and were moved to other families. The rovers are distributed in tropical and warmer temperate waters in the Indo-Pacific, southern Pacific, eastern Atlantic, and Caribbean Sea.WoRMS (2014). Emmelichthyidae.
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The Joy programming language in computer science is a purely functional programming language that was produced by Manfred von Thun of La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia. Joy is based on composition of functions rather than lambda calculus. It has turned out to have many similarities to Forth, due not to design but to a sort of parallel evolution and convergence. It was also inspired by the function-level programming style of John Backus's FP.
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Phytosaurs are an extinct group of large, mostly semiaquatic Late Triassic archosauriform reptiles. Phytosaurs belong to the family Phytosauridae and the order Phytosauria. Phytosauria and Phytosauridae are often considered to be equivalent groupings containing the same species, but some studies have identified non-phytosaurid phytosaurians. Phytosaurs were long-snouted and heavily armoured, bearing a remarkable resemblance to modern crocodilians in size, appearance, and lifestyle, as an example of convergence or parallel evolution.
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The Chatham rail (Cabalus modestus) is an extinct flightless species of bird in the family Rallidae. It was endemic to Chatham, Mangere and Pitt Islands, in the Chatham archipelago of New Zealand.Marchant and Higgins (1993) Auckland Museum Illustration from 1907 The Chatham rail and the Dieffenbach's rail, both flightless, were sympatric on the Chatham Islands. Their sympatry suggests parallel evolution after separate colonisation of the Chatham Islands by a common volant ancestor.
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The air tracts are however, much simpler than in the typical ankylosaurid condition, and are not convoluted while lacking bony turbinate bones. The nasal cavity is separated into two halves along the midline by a bone wall. This septum is continued to below by the vomers, which are keeled, the keel featuring a pendulum-shaped appendage. Another similarity with Ankylosauridae is the presence of a secondary bone palate, a possible case of parallel evolution.
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Illustrated by Iser, the magazine enlisted Vinea as a literary columnist—inaugurating the adolescent poet's parallel evolution into an opinion journalist with socially radical views.Cernat, p.30, 61-75, 92-94, 97-108, 132-134, 131-145, 148, 205-208, 403 Rebelling against traditional, positivist criticism, the young author made sustained efforts to familiarize his public with aesthetic alternatives: Walt Whitman and Guillaume Apollinaire's poetry, Gourmont's essays, the theoretical particularities of Russian Symbolism etc.Cernat, p.
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Raninidae is a family of unusual crabs, sometimes known as "frog crabs", on account of their frog-like appearance. They are taken by most scientists to be quite primitive among the true crabs. They closely resemble the (unrelated) mole crabs, due to parallel evolution or convergent evolution. In both groups, the claws are modified into tools for digging, and the body is a rounded shape that is easy to bury in sand.
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Unfortunately the game died down in Finland at the end of the 1990s and the last organized league was played in 2000. A similar version has also been continuously played at Michigan Technological University since the early 1990s on both outdoor and indoor rinks, with the rules differing in that official broomball shoes are illegal, but a regulation broomball is used. It is unknown whether this represents a growth of Moscow Broomball or whether it was a parallel evolution.
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A structure can be homologous at one level, but only analogous at another. Pterosaur, bird and bat wings are analogous as wings, but homologous as forelimbs because the organ served as a forearm (not a wing) in the last common ancestor of tetrapods, and evolved in different ways in the three groups. Thus, in the pterosaurs, the "wing" involves both the forelimb and the hindlimb. Analogy is called homoplasy in cladistics, and convergent or parallel evolution in evolutionary biology.
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Hippoids are adapted to burrowing into sandy beaches, a habit they share with raninid crabs, and the parallel evolution of the two groups is striking. The whole body is almost ovoid, the first pereiopods have no claws, and the telson is long, none of which are seen in related groups. Unlike most other decapods, sand crabs cannot walk; instead, they use their legs to dig into the sand. Members of the family Hippidae beat their uropods to swim.
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These may be caused by environmental swings, for example the natural fluctuations in the climate or a pathogenic bacteria moving between hosts, and represent the other major source of recurrent evolution. Recurrent evolution caused by convergent and parallel evolution, and recurrent evolution caused by environmental swings, are not necessarily mutually exclusive. If the environmental swings have the same effect on the phenotypes of different species, they could potentially evolve in parallel back and forth together through each swing.
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As skiing became more specialized, so too did ski boots, leading to the splitting of designs between those for alpine skiing and cross- country skiing. Modern skiing developed as an all-round sport with uphill, downhill and cross-country portions. The introduction of the cable binding started a parallel evolution of binding and boot. The binding looped a strap around the back of the boot to hold it forward into a metal cup at the toe.
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Carlos Ferrás Sexto (Santiago de Compostela, Galicia, 1965) is a Galician geographer and academic. Carlos Ferrás is a senior lecturer at the Department of Geography of the University of Santiago de Compostela. He is also the director of the Socio-Territorial Research Group and the Centre for Euro- Regional Studies Galicia/North Portugal. Ferrás Sexto completed his PhD under the supervision of Patrick O'Flanagan, conducting a comparative study on the parallel evolution and rural change between Ireland and Galicia.
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However, recent genetic studies have found that tinamous nest well within the ratite tree, and are the sister group of the extinct moa of New Zealand. Similarly, the small kiwi of New Zealand have been found to be the sister group of the extinct elephant birds of Madagascar. These findings indicate that flightlessness and gigantism arose independently multiple times among ratites via parallel evolution. Predatory megafaunal flightless birds were often able to compete with mammals in the early Cenozoic.
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Others cite parallel evolution. Given Reeders' history and circumstance, it is entirely likely he knew both arts. Despite the origin, known or not, in the Liu Seong system there is an inherent use of angulation that tends to be very advantageous in a combat situation, coupled with continuous non-stop entry and penetration. The art doesn't, however, 'go around' to someone to strike, it 'goes to' the target with the use of angles to avoid the opponent's attack.
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It can be inferred from those genes which act on the serotonin system in the brain that these have given rise to less aggressive behavior when living in a crowded environment. In 2007, a study found that dog domestication was accompanied by selection at three genes with key roles in starch digestion: AMY2B, MGAMand SGLT1, and was a striking case of parallel evolution when coping with an increasingly starch-rich diet caused similar adaptive responses in dogs and humans.
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The legs and underparts are patterned with black dots, and the tail is marked with black spots proximally and rings distally. It has large feet and unusually large canine teeth, resembling those of the big cats, although these appear to be the result of parallel evolution. Marbled cats range from in head-body length with a long and thickly furred tail that indicates the cat's adaptation to an arboreal lifestyle, where the tail is used as a counterbalance. Recorded weights vary between .
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In many secondarily aquatic vertebrates, the non-bony tissues of the forelimbs and/or hindlimbs are fused into a single flipper. Some remnant of each digit generally remains under the soft tissue of the flipper, though digit reduction gradually occurs such as in baleen whales (mysticeti). Marine mammals evolving flippers represents a classic example of convergent evolution, and by some analyses, parallel evolution. Full webbing of the digits in the manus and/or pes is present in a number of aquatic tetrapods.
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Colony inversion is believed to have arisen twice in the order Chlamydomonadales. Spheroidal colony formation differs between the two lineages: rotation of daughter protoplasts during successive cell divisions in Astrephomene, and inversion after cell divisions in Eudorina. Schematic representation of the phylogenetic relationships of the volvocine algae and the parallel evolution of the spheroidal colony. Volvocine algae range from the unicellular Chlamydomonas to the multicellular Volvox through various intermediate forms and are used as a model for research into the evolution of multicellularity.
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During the continuous European development of the pike, Japan experienced a parallel evolution of pole weapons. In Classical Japan, the Japanese style of warfare was generally fast-moving and aggressive, with far shallower formations than their European equivalents. The naginata and yari were more commonly used than swords for Japanese ashigaru foot soldiers and dismounted samurai due to their greater reach. Naginata, first used around 750 AD, had curved sword-like blades on wooden shafts with often spiked metal counterweights.
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Linhevenator was assigned to the Troodontidae by the describers. It possesses a combination of "primitive" (basal) and derived characters, but was found to be a derived troodontid in a phylogenetic analysis, in a polytomy with Troodon and a clade formed by Zanabazar and Saurornithoides. This position was seen by the authors as an indication for an evolutionary trend in the Troodontidae of shortening the forelimbs and for a parallel evolution of large sickle-claws with both the troodontids and the dromaeosaurids.
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Left tarsometatarsus is clearly visible. While these fused bones are best known from birds and their relatives, avians are neither the only group nor the first to possess tarsometatarsi. In a remarkable case of parallel evolution, they were also present in the Heterodontosauridae, a group of tiny ornithischian dinosaurs quite unrelated to birds. The oldest remains of this taxon date from the Late Triassic more than 200 million years ago, and predate the first birds with tarsometatarsi by nearly 100 million years.
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In some cases, it might be under contract to the local hospital, and dispatched from there. In many cases, small independent ambulance companies were simply dispatched by a family member or employee, employed part-time in many cases. Ambulance dispatchers required little in the way of qualifications, apart from good telephone manners and a knowledge of the local geography. In a parallel evolution, the development of 9-1-1 as a national emergency number began in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, in 1959.
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Thioester containing protein (TEPs) appeared early in animal evolution: members of this family have been identified in diverse organisms as nematodes, insects, molluscs, fish, birds and mammals. TEP1 in Anopheles gambiae is the one of the best studied of these molecules. Despite close structural and functional similarities, phylogenic analysis has shown that TEP1 and other arthropod thioester proteins actually form a separate clade from vertebrate complement factors. This data suggests that their complement-like activity is a likely example of parallel evolution.
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Though genetic studies of the Vombatidae have been undertaken, evolution of the family is not well understood. Wombats are estimated to have diverged from other Australian marsupials relatively early, as long as 40 million years ago, while some estimates place divergence at around 25 million years. While some theories place wombats as miniaturised relatives of diprotodonts, such as the rhinoceros-sized Diprotodon, more recent studies place the Vombatiformes as having a distinct parallel evolution, hence their current classification as a separate family.
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Modern ultra-sound echolocating species such as bats and toothed whales show highly evolved prestin, and this prestin shows identical sequence alterations over time. Unusually, the sequences thus apparently evolved independent from each other during different time periods. Furthermore, the evolution of neurotransmitter receptor systems (acetylcholine) that regulate the motor feedback of the outer hair cells coincides with prestin evolution in therians. This suggests that there was a parallel evolution of a control system and a motor system in the inner ear of therian mammals.
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Land vertebrates evolved middle ears independently in each major lineage, and are thus the result of parallel evolution. The configurations of the middle ears of monotreme and therian mammals can thus be interpreted as convergent evolution or homoplasy. Thus evidence from fossils demonstrate homoplasies for the detachment of the ear from the jaw. Furthermore, it is apparent that the land- based eardrum, or tympanic membrane, and connecting structures such as the Eustachian tube evolved convergently in multiple different settings as opposed to being a defining morphology.
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Most fish do not have choanae, instead they have two pairs of external nostrils: each with two tubes whose frontal openings lie close to the upper jaw, and the posterior openings further behind near the eyes. A 395-million-year-old fossil lobe-finned fish called Kenichthys campbelli has something between a choana and the external nostrils seen on other fish. The posterior opening of the external nostrils has migrated into the mouth. In lungfish, the inner nostrils are regarded as an example of parallel evolution.
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Parallel and convergent evolution lead to homoplasy when different species independently evolve or gain a comparable trait, which diverges from the trait inferred to have been present in their common ancestor. When the similar traits are caused by an equivalent developmental mechanism, the process is referred to as parallel evolution. The process is called convergent evolution when the similarity arises from different developmental mechanisms. These types of homoplasy may occur when different lineages live in comparable ecological niches that require similar adaptations for an increase in fitness.
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The Thornton lab has also been able to show that evolution is irreversible studying the glucocorticoid receptor. This receptor was changed by seven mutations in a cortisol receptor, but reversing these mutations didn't give the original receptor back. Indicating that epistasis plays a major role in protein evolution – an observation that in combination with the observations of several examples of parallel evolution, support the neutral network model mentioned above. Other earlier neutral mutations acted as a ratchet and made the changes to the receptor irreversible.
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These differences show that deviations among D. mettleri can be supported through the stepping stone hypothesis. Each of the relatives of D. mettleri that are closest phylogenetically do not inhabit the Sonoran Desert region; therefore, the four species of Drosophila that do inhabit the Sonoran Desert region experienced parallel evolution instead of speciation within the desert. The species endemic to the Sonoran region, other than D. mettleri, are D. nigrospiracula, D. mojavensis, and D. melanogaster. The Sonoran Desert landscape shows the heavy dispersal of host cacti.
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Montage showing the coat variation of the dog. Being the first domesticated species has created a strong bond between dogs and humans and entwined their histories. There is an extensive list of genes that showed signatures of parallel evolution in dogs and humans. A suite of 311 genes under positive selection in dogs are related to a large number of overlapping loci which show the same patterns in humans, and these play a role in digestion, neurological processes, and some being involved with cancers.
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These traits are too numerous to have been easily developed by parallel evolution. In the taxa's four premolars, double rooted second premolar and unreduced canine and last molar, the teeth of Altanius are too primitive to be omomyoids, best resembling the Carpolestidae, a group of Plesiadapiformes. The dentition is also not dissimilar from primitive adapoids Donrusselia and Cantius. However, its high lingual cusps and short talonids, the basin at the distal end of the lower molars, are traits too derived for this specimen to be a primitive omomyoid ancestor.
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Evidence suggests that a close relationship has existed between pocket gophers and chewing lice for significant periods of time. It has been posited that this relationship is due to the fact that both of these creatures habits make them quite well suited for parallel evolution. By tunneling underground, these gophers are creating a slightly more palatable environment than had existed before, and this environment would become populated with organisms. These organisms would become gradually adapted, not only to the tunnel environment, but likely also to the gophers who created the tunnels.
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2004) The facial pit underwent parallel evolution in pitvipers and some boas and pythons, having evolved once in pitvipers and multiple times in boas and pythons.(Pough et al. 1992) The electrophysiology of the structure is similar between the two lineages, but they differ in gross structural anatomy. Most superficially, pitvipers possess one large pit organ on either side of the head, between the eye and the nostril (Loreal pit), while boas and pythons have three or more comparatively smaller pits lining the upper and sometimes the lower lip, in or between the scales.
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Below is a cladogram from Rücklin (2011): Denison (1978) separated Selenosteidae into two informal groups, the "American" genera (i.e., those taxa from the Upper Famennian Cleveland Shales, such as Selenosteus and Gymnotrachelus), and the "European" genera (i.e., those taxa from the Upper Frasnian Kellwasserkalk facies of Germany, and later, Morocco, like Rhinosteus and Microsteus). Denison notes that the differences between the two groups, such as how the American genera tend to have slightly smaller orbits, and slightly longer cheeks, may suggest the similarities between them are due to parallel evolution.
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Hotspot loci for color patterning have been found homologous between co-mimics H. erato and H. melpomene, strengthening evidence for parallel evolution between the two species, across morph patterns.Counterman, B. A., F. Araujo- Perez, H. M. Hines, S. W. Baxter, C. M. Morrison, D. P. Lindstrom, R. Papa, L. Ferguson, M. Joron, R. H. Ffrench-Constant, C. P. Smith, D. M. Nielsen, R. Chen, C. D. Jiggins, R. D. Reed, G. Halder, J. Mallet, and W. O. McMillan (2010). "Genomic Hotspots for Adaptation: The Population Genetics of Mullerian Mimicry in Heliconius erato". PLOS Genetics 6.
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In the Anthropoidea, evidence indicates that the Old World and New World primates went through parallel evolution. Primatology, paleoanthropology, and other related fields are split on their usage of the synonymous infraorder names, Simiiformes and Anthropoidea. According to Robert Hoffstetter (and supported by Colin Groves), the term Simiiformes has priority over Anthropoidea because the taxonomic term Simii by van der Hoeven, from which it is constructed, dates to 1833. In contrast, Anthropoidea by Mivart dates to 1864, while Simiiformes by Haeckel dates to 1866, leading to counterclaims of priority.
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This presumably serves some function in social signalling, since the colors become more pronounced in breeding adults. In frigatebirds, the gular skin (or gular sac or throat sac) is used dramatically. During courtship display, the male forces air into the sac, causing it to inflate over a period of 20 minutes into a startling huge red balloon. Because cormorants are closer relatives of gannets and anhingas (which have no prominent gular pouch) than of frigatebirds or pelicans, it can be seen that the gular pouch is either plesiomorphic or was acquired by parallel evolution.
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The eastern dwarf galagos are a group of seven species of strepsirrhine primates of the family Galagidae, native to East Africa. They were formerly classified in the genus Galagoides but have been moved to their own genus, Paragalago, based on genetic evidence, and supported by differences in vocalizations and morphology. The three western/Congolian species remain in Galagoides. The two genera are not sister taxa and thus apparently evolved their small sizes and some morphological similarities via parallel evolution, although members of the eastern group tend to be larger.
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In 2017 she received the Golden Nica award at the Ars Electronica festival for her K-9_topology series. In this opus, which consist of four projects ('Ecce Canis', 'I Hunt Nature and Culture Hunts Me', 'Hybrid Family', and 'ARTE_mis') she addressed the topics of parallel evolution of human and dog. From 2008 she is a featured artist and production partner of Kapelica Gallery in Ljubljana. In her artistic work she often employs biotechnological tools, meaning that her art works are often created in laboratory settings in which she collaborated with scientists and technologists.
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Georgian England was essentially a violent society and this was reflected in many gambling- or alcohol-fuelled incidents which occurred at cricket matches. The situation moderated during the course of the 18th century as social change introduced less tolerance of violence in everyday life. Cricket mirrored social change and there was a parallel evolution with the result that cricket-related violence became less frequent.Malcolm p. 27. The importance of gambling was illustrated in 1730 when a match between teams sponsored by Richmond and Gage was cancelled "on account of Waymark, the Duke's man, being ill".
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Fossils of both the Malagasy pygmy hippopotamus and H. lemerlei show a cursorial adaptation, distinct from the hippos on the African continent, and they would have been much better runners. This common trait is a possible indicator that both species of Malagasy hippo descended from a common ancestor, and that the similarities to the modern hippopotamus and pygmy hippopotamus are a case of parallel evolution. The Malagasy pygmy hippopotamus is classified along with the modern Liberian pygmy hippopotamus, but researchers sometimes place the Liberian hippo in two different genera. The pygmy hippopotamus was originally classified as Choeropsis by Samuel G. Morton in 1849.
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He published his 1994 type description for C. hancockii in the journal Palaeontographica Americana. In his type description Manchester noted the generic name is derived from similarity of the fossils to the nuts of Corylus. The specific epithet hancockii was chosen in honor of the amateur paleobotanist Alonzo W. Hancock, for his work establishing the field station next to the Clarno Nut Beds. Though originally informally identified as palm fruits, Coryloides is considered either to have been a sister genus of the hazelnuts in Corylus, or as an example of parallel evolution in the subfamily Coryloideae.
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Despite this traditional naming, all sloths actually have three toes on each rear limb, although two-toed sloths have only two digits on each forelimb. The two groups of sloths are from different, distantly related families, and are thought to have evolved their morphology via parallel evolution from terrestrial ancestors. Besides the extant species, many species of ground sloths ranging up to the size of elephants (like Megatherium) inhabited both North and South America during the Pleistocene Epoch. However, they became extinct during the Quaternary extinction event around 12,000 years ago, together with most large bodied animals in the New World.
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Functionally similar features that have arisen through convergent evolution are analogous, whereas homologous structures or traits have a common origin but can have dissimilar functions. Bird, bat, and pterosaur wings are analogous structures, but their forelimbs are homologous, sharing an ancestral state despite serving different functions. The opposite of convergence is divergent evolution, where related species evolve different traits. Convergent evolution is similar to parallel evolution, which occurs when two independent species evolve in the same direction and thus independently acquire similar characteristics; for instance, gliding frogs have evolved in parallel from multiple types of tree frog.
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This size appears to be the top length in fully grown individuals, as indicated by the advanced age of ZPAL MgD-III/3, which features areas of bone resorption and bone remodeling on the femur and tibia. The describing authors indicated some distinguishing traits. Gobihadros differs from all known other non-hadrosaurid hadrosauroids in possessing a double-layered tomial edge of the premaxilla and the presence of as much as three teeth per tooth position in the lower jaw. These are typical hadrosaurid traits and were concluded to have been acquired separately by the Hadrosauridae in a process of parallel evolution.
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Capybara, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris Emperor tamarin, Saguinus imperator The invasions of South America started about 40 Ma ago (middle Eocene), when caviomorph rodents arrived in South America. Their subsequent vigorous diversification displaced some of South America's small marsupials and gave rise to – among others – capybaras, chinchillas, viscachas, and New World porcupines. (The independent development of spines by New and Old World porcupines is another example of parallel evolution.) This invasion most likely came from Africa. The crossing from West Africa to the northeast corner of Brazil was much shorter then, due to continental drift, and may have been aided by island hopping (e.g.
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In 1941, the biologist Ernst Mayr proposed that the white swamphen was a partially- albinistic population of Australasian swamphens. Mayr suggested that the blue swamphens remaining on Lord Howe Island were not stragglers, but had survived because they were less conspicuous than the white ones. In 1967, the ornithologist James Greenway also considered the white swamphen a subspecies (with P. stanleyi a synonym) and considered the white individuals albinos. He suggested that the similarities between the wing feathers of the white swamphen and the takahē were due to parallel evolution in two isolated populations of reluctant fliers.
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Kavitha Jayakrishnan (2011), Dancing Architecture: the parallel evolution of Bharatanātyam and South Indian Architecture, MA Thesis, Awarded by University of Waterloo, Canada, page 25 Bharatanatyam remained exclusive to Hindu temples through the 19th century. It was banned by the colonial British government in 1910, but the Indian community protested against the ban and expanded it outside the temples in the 20th century. Modern stage productions of Bharatanatyam has been spread out and popular throughout India that has been done in different ways and have incorporated technical performances, pure dance based on non-religious ideas and fusion themes.
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Due to the rarity and highly specific nature of such changes, it is less likely that they could arise independently by either convergent or parallel evolution (i.e. homoplasy) or synapomorphy. Other confounding factors such as differences in evolutionary rates at different sites or among different species also generally do not affect the interpretation of a CSI. By determining the presence or absence of CSIs in an out-group species, one can infer whether the ancestral form of the CSI was an insert or deletion and this can be used to develop a rooted phylogenetic relationship among organisms.
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Its habitat was a richly vegetated coastal area that was dotted by – possibly brackish – lakes or small rivers (Chiappe 1993), and it might thus be that the present species represents a case of parallel evolution with waders and similar semi- aquatic forms, or even a running bird similar to an oversized courser, and quite unlike anything living today. It was a rather advanced species of enantiornithine and possibly quite closely related to Enantiornis and Avisaurus, but more likely closer to other Euenantiornithes (Sanz et al. 1995). Its exact relationships, as with most enantiornithine birds, are unresolved however.
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Eyes in various animals show adaptation to their requirements. For example, the eye of a bird of prey has much greater visual acuity than a human eye, and in some cases can detect ultraviolet radiation. The different forms of eye in, for example, vertebrates and molluscs are examples of parallel evolution, despite their distant common ancestry. Phenotypic convergence of the geometry of cephalopod and most vertebrate eyes creates the impression that the vertebrate eye evolved from an imaging cephalopod eye, but this is not the case, as the reversed roles of their respective ciliary and rhabdomeric opsin classes and different lens crystallins show.
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However, other research by Barnett and Faurby, through examining mitochondrial DNA and reanalyzing morphology, has suggested reversing the reclassification: the American cheetah developed cheetah-like characteristics through parallel evolution, but it is most closely related to Puma and not to the modern cheetah of Africa and Asia. Moreover, Faurby notes that no Acinonyx fossils have been found in North America, and no Miracinonyx fossils elsewhere. However, O'Brien et al. (2016) posit that the supposed homoplasy between the genera is controversial, as it is asserted that is not necessarily any conclusive anatomical or genetic basis for dismissing a homologous relationship between Acinonyx and Miracinonyx.
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Born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Diegal Leger moved to Montreal in 1982. Between two academic diplomas he will become Rawgged MC. He is a founder of the Students for the Advancement of Hip Hop Culture at Concordia University, responsible for the symposium on hip-hop culture that was held in Montreal from 2002-2005 and again in 2009; and in Port-au-Prince in September 2011. Leger is also a founding member of Solid’Ayiti, an association dedicated to cooperation between artistic and academic communities in Montreal and Haiti. He continues his parallel evolution in the worlds of medicine and music.
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Stapeliads are often regarded as a climax group within the family because of their often structurally complex flowers. Certain aspects of these reproductive parts mirror the pollination systems in the Orchid family and represent a case of parallel evolution though both groups are quite unrelated and have developed similar, though not identical means to achieve the ultimate goal of pollination and therefore reproduction. Most stapeliads use flies as pollinators, that are attracted to odours resembling dung or rotting meat, emanating from the flowers. Many of the flowers also bear some physical resemblance to rotting animal carcasses, leading to their popular name of Carrion Flowers.
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An early attempt to maintain a live specimen had it placed in a container of sand and fed on pieces of bread, but this died within a day. The behaviour and whereabouts of both species of Notoryctes were well known to the inhabitants who lived in the same regions, often incorporated into myth and referred to by a variety of names. Since the earliest published description, local peoples have provided information and have been involved in their collection for curious visitors. The genus Notoryctes closely resembles a placental mammal found in Africa, known as the golden mole, and this is thought to be an example of convergent, rather than parallel, evolution.
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Although the gymnures are more closely related to the hedgehogs, full grown gymnures superficially resemble large rats or shrews, or the North American Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginianis), which shares similar habits and ecological niches (an example of parallel evolution). The gymnure's body plan is believed to resemble that of the earliest mammals, with a large toothy head about 1/3 the length of the total body, a naked furless tail for balance and thermoregulatory purposes, and a plantigrade stance. In direct contrast to the closely related hedgehogs, gymnures are not spiny. They also have an outstanding sense of smell, and tactile response in the snout region.
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Through DNA sequencing, Salvia was shown to not be monophyletic but to consist of three separate clades (Salvia clades I–III) each with different sister groups. They also found that the staminal lever mechanism evolved at least two separate times, through convergent evolution. Walker and Sytsma (2007) clarified this parallel evolution in a later paper combining molecular and morphological data to prove three independent lineages of the Salvia lever mechanism, each corresponding to a clade within the genus. It is surprising to see how similar the staminal lever mechanism structures are between the three lineages, so Salvia proves to be an interesting but excellent example of convergent evolution.
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While most famous forms such as Gomphotherium had long lower jaws with tusks, which is the ancestral condition for the group, after these forms became extinct, the surviving gomphotheres had short jaws with either vestigal or no lower tusks (brevirostrine), looking very similar to modern elephants, an example of parallel evolution. Beginning after 2 Mya, they were gradually replaced by mammoths and mastodons in most of North America, with the last two genera, Cuvieronius persisting in southern North America and Notiomastodon having a wide range over most of South America, until the end of the Pleistocene. The name "gomphothere" comes from Ancient Greek (), "peg, pin; wedge; joint" plus (), "beast".
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Recurrent evolution is a broad term, but is usually used to describe recurring regimes of selection within or across lineages. While most commonly used to describe recurring patterns of selection, it can also be used to describe recurring patterns of mutation, for example transitions are more common than transversions. It encompasses both convergent evolution and parallel evolution and can be used to describe the observation of similar repeating changes through directional selection as well as the observation of highly conserved phenotypes or genotypes across lineages through continuous purifying selection over large periods of evolutionary time. The changes can be observed at the phenotype level or the genotype level.
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Nicrosaurus (/nɛkroʊˈsɔrəs/) is an extinct genus of phytosaur reptile existing during the Late Triassic period. Although it looked like a crocodile (and probably lived like the more terrestrial crocodylomorphs), it was not closely related to these creatures, instead being an example of parallel evolution. The main difference between Nicrosaurus (and all other phytosaurs) and modern crocodiles is the position of the nostrils – Nicrosaurus's nostrils, or external nares, were placed directly in front of the forehead, whereas in crocodiles, the nostrils are positioned on the end of the snout. A 2013 study has also found that illium of Nicrosaurus is quite distinctive from all other phytosaurs.
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The subfamily Taklamakaniinae was erected to bring together the genera Nanshanaspis, Pseudampyxina, and Taklamakania, (and then, later, Kongqiangheia) on the basis that they all have only three thoracic segments. Analysis of adult anatomy of these genera and larval stages of other raphiophorids showed they most probably developed through paedomorphosis from three different ancestors, so provide an example of parallel evolution. Nanshanaspis closely resembles young Globampyx, Pseudampyxina strongly looks like juvenile Raymondella, and Taklamakania is almost identical to early stages of Ampyxina. Since the three genera of the Taklamakaniinae have been demonstrated to be unrelated to each other, this subfamily is regarded as polyphyletic, and has been synonymized with the Raphiophorinae.
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A typical basal trait is the orientation of the pubic bone to the rear, similar to the situation in the Dromaeosauridae and basal birds. This proves that the orientation to the front with later troodontids, is a reversal and not a trait directly inherited from older theropods that also possess a forward pointing pubic bone. Another basal character is the lack of a bulla, a swollen region on the underside of the braincase. This indicates that the similar bulla with the Ornithomimosauria presents a case of parallel evolution and is not a proof for a Bullatosauria, an earlier presumed close relationship between troodontids and ornithomimosaurs.
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In the 1920s, Saigon was the center of open anticolonial contestation in Vietnam. Following the events of Spring 1926, Saigon's public sphere reframed and saw a parallel evolution toward the constitution of ideologically marked "opinion newspapers" (journaux d’opinion). Contrasted with Journaux d’information, "opinion newspapers" was arguably the distinctive sort of Vietnamese political journalism that appealed to a diverse readership with their collective forums, contributions by specialists, broad political orientation, and clear commercial strategy. After the events of Spring 2016, "opinion newspapers" located themselves within an ideologically diversified spectrum of opposition, and Marxist and socialist theories had growing influence on many journalists, a response to the colonial authorities’ resistance to political dialogue and the colon newspapers’ anticommunist hysteria.
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Xenophagy (Greek "strange" + "eating") and allotrophy (Greek "other" + "nutrient") are changes in established patterns of biological consumption, by individuals or groups. • In entomology, xenophagy is a categorical change in diet, such as an herbivore becoming carnivorous, a predator becoming necrophagous, a coprophage becoming necrophagous or carnivorous, or a reversal of such changes.Insects and plants: parallel evolution and adaptations - Page 29 Pierre Jolivet - 1986 "Xenophagy is a complete change in diet, the herbivorous diet becoming carnivorous or vice versa, predators becoming necrophagous, coprophages becoming necrophagous or carnivorous, and so on." Allotrophy is a less extreme change in diet, such as in the case of the seven- spot ladybird, which can diversify a diet of aphids to sometimes include pollen.
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Journal of Hymenoptera Research 16: 51–146 Undoubtedly, many more await discovery, as they are easily overlooked and difficult to study due to their extremely small size (most have an overall length of around 0.3 mm). Virtually nothing is known about the biology of these insects, but because of their size, and simple ovipositors, entomologists assume they are idiobiont parasitoids on the eggs of various insects. Psocoptera have been suggested as likely hosts based on circumstantial evidence. They were originally treated as an aberrant subfamily of the chalcidoid family Mymaridae but because of morphological differences, are now usually considered in their own superfamily, Mymarommatoidea, and their similarity to Mymaridae is thought to be a result of parallel evolution.
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"Diffusionism" in its original use in the 19th and early 20th century did not preclude migration or invasion. It was rather the term for assumption of any spread of cultural innovation, including by migration or invasion, as opposed "evolutionism", assuming the independent appearance of cultural innovation in a process of parallel evolution, termed "cultural evolutionism". Opposition to migrationism as argued in the 1970s had an ideological component of anti-nationalism derived from Marxist archaeology, going back to V. Gordon Childe. Childe in the interwar period combined "evolutionism" and "diffusionism" in arguing an intermediate position that each society developed in its own way, but strongly influenced by the spread of ideas from elsewhere.
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Berlin: Springer-Verlag. . (NOTE: this PDF is from the page proofs, and is not identical to the published version) The fungi that are parasitized by myco-heterotrophs are typically fungi with large energy reserves to draw on, usually mycorrhizal fungi, though there is some evidence that they may also parasitize parasitic fungi that form extensive mycelial networks, such as Armillaria. Examples of fungi parasitized by myco- heterotrophic plants can be found among the ectomycorrhizal, arbuscular mycorrhizal, and orchid mycorrhizal fungi. The great diversity in unrelated plant families with myco-heterotrophic members, as well as the diversity of fungi targeted by myco-heterotrophs, suggests multiple parallel evolution of myco-heterotrophs from mycorrhizal ancestors.
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The venom clade included Anguidae for phylogenetic reasons and adopted a previously suggested clade name: Toxicofera. It was estimated that the common ancestral species that first developed venom in the venom clade lived on the order of 200 million years ago. The venoms are thought to have evolved after genes normally active in various parts of the body duplicated and the copies found new use in the salivary glands. Among snake families traditionally classified as venomous, the capacity seems to have evolved to extremes more than once by parallel evolution; 'non-venomous' snake lineages have either lost the ability to produce venom (but may still have lingering venom pseudogenes) or actually do produce venom in small quantities (e.g.
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Sagrada Família, a UNESCO World Heritage Site The architecture of Barcelona has had a parallel evolution to that of the rest of the Catalan and Spanish architecture, and has followed in diverse ways the multiple trends that have been produced in the context of the history of Western architecture. Throughout its history, Barcelona has welcomed various cultures and civilizations, which have contributed their concept of art and have left their legacy for posterity, from the first Iberian settlers, through the Roman colonizers, the Visigoths, and a brief Islamic period, until the emergence in the Middle Ages of Catalan art, language and culture, in which the Romanesque and Gothic were very fruitful periods for the artistic development of the region.
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Hyperdiffusionists deny that parallel evolution or independent invention took place to any great extent throughout history; they claim that all major inventions and all cultures can be traced back to a single culture.Legend and lore of the Americas before 1492: an encyclopedia of visitors, explorers, and immigrants, Ronald H. Fritze, 1993, p. 70 Early theories of hyperdiffusionism can be traced to ideas about South America being the origin of mankind. Antonio de León Pinelo, a Spaniard who settled in Bolivia, claimed in his book Paraíso en el Nuevo Mundo that the Garden of Eden and the creation of man had occurred in present-day Bolivia and that the rest of the world was populated by migrations from there.
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Mivart was someone Darwin took seriously; Darwin prepared a point-by-point refutation which appeared in the sixth edition of Origin of Species. One of Mivart's criticisms to which Darwin responded was a perceived failure of natural selection to explain the incipient stages of useful structures. Taking the eye as an example, Darwin was able to show many stages of light sensitivity and eye development in the animal kingdom as proof of the utility of less-than-perfect sight (argument by intermediate stages). Another was the supposed inability of natural selection to explain cases of parallel evolution, to which Huxley responded that the effect of natural selection in places with the same environment would tend to be similar.
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Vasiliev p. 558 Another historian, J. B. Bury, supports that the work is entirely Greek in its construction, descriptions and ideas without any western influences: Medieval French and Greek romance followed parallel evolution, independent of each other, and both were affected by Hellenistic motives.Vasiliev p. 559 The romance also includes elements typical of the earlier, 12th-century Byzantine romances, such as the use of elaborate ekphraseis of gardens and buildings, or the occurrence of bride shows, which harkens back to earlier Byzantine practice.Kazhdan, pp. 280, 1804 In this mixture of motifs, the work represents the partial absorption of French cultural elements, following the extensive contact and intermingling of Byzantines and Franks during the period of the Crusades, and especially after the Fourth Crusade.
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Kieckhefer 1998, p. 43. This becomes a parallel evolution of spells to foreign gods or demons that were once acceptable, and frames them into a new Christian context, albeit demonic and forbidden. As the material for these manuals was apparently derived from scholarly magical and religious texts from a variety of sources in many languages, the scholars who studied these texts likely manufactured their own aggregate sourcebook and manual with which to work spells or magic. In the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci, it is stated that "Of all human opinions that is to be reputed the most foolish which deals with the belief in Necromancy, the sister of Alchemy, which gives birth to simple and natural things."Leonardo. Notebooks, Volume 2, Chapter XIX, Section III:1213.
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The latest phylogenetic analysis including Wendiceratops is reproduced below, after Chiba et al. (2017): The nose horn of Wendiceratops, erect but probably of moderate size, was by the describing authors seen as a transition between the low horns of earlier forms like Diabloceratops, Nasutoceratops and Albertaceratops and the much taller horns of derived centrosaurines such as Coronosaurus, Centrosaurus and Styracosaurus. This would imply that the also long vertical nasal horn of the Chasmosaurinae would have separately been developed in a process of parallel evolution, the second time such a horn would have evolved among the ceratopsids. Remarkably, the curled epiparietals of Wendiceratops resemble the osteoderms of two chasmosaurines: Vagaceratops and Kosmoceratops, though they differ from the latter in their saddle-shaped interspaces.
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A Japanese lymnaeid exhibits a very similar reduced shell shape, but a study of chromosome numbers suggests that Newcomb's snail's evolutionary ties lie with the rest of the Hawaiian lymnaeids, all of which are derived from North American ancestors. Therefore, it appears that parallel evolution of similar shell morphology occurred between these two distinct lineages of lymnaeid snails. At the present time, no completely accepted nomenclature exists for the genera of Hawaiian lymnaeids, although each of these snail species, including Newcomb's snail, is recognized as a valid species. Bengt Hubendick (1952) did not believe the distinctive shell form (described below) and reduced structures of the nervous system of Newcomb's snail warranted a genus (second species of the genus Erinna is considered extinct).
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Scaniacypselus fossil Taxonomists have long classified swifts and treeswifts as relatives of the hummingbirds, a judgment corroborated by the discovery of the Jungornithidae (apparently swift-like hummingbird-relatives) and of primitive hummingbirds such as Eurotrochilus. Traditional taxonomies place the hummingbird family (Trochilidae) in the same order as the swifts and treeswifts (and no other birds); the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy treated this group as a superorder in which the swift order was called Trochiliformes. The taxonomy of the swifts is complicated, with genus and species boundaries widely disputed, especially amongst the swiftlets. Analysis of behavior and vocalizations is complicated by common parallel evolution, while analyses of different morphological traits and of various DNA sequences have yielded equivocal and partly contradictory results.
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They have a camera-type eye which consists of an iris, a circular lens, vitreous cavity (eye gel), pigment cells, and photoreceptor cells that translate light from the light-sensitive retina into nerve signals which travel along the optic nerve to the brain. For the past 140 years, the camera-type cephalopod eye has been compared with the vertebrate eye as an example of convergent evolution, where both types of organisms have independently evolved the camera-eye trait and both share similar functionality. Contention exists on whether this is truly convergent evolution or parallel evolution. Unlike the vertebrate camera eye, the cephalopods' form as invaginations of the body surface (rather than outgrowths of the brain), and consequently they lack a cornea.
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While a comprehensive review of the Anatidae which unites all evidence into a robust phylogeny is still lacking, the reasons for the confusing data are at least clear: As demonstrated by the Late Cretaceous fossil Vegavis iaai — an early modern waterbird which belonged to an extinct lineage—the Anatidae are an ancient group among the modern birds. Their earliest direct ancestors, though not documented by fossils yet, likewise can be assumed to have been contemporaries with the dinosaurs. The long period of evolution and shifts from one kind of waterbird lifestyle to another have obscured many plesiomorphies, while apomorphies apparently are quite often the result of parallel evolution, for example the "non-diving duck" type displayed by such unrelated genera as Dendrocygna, Amazonetta, and Cairina. For the fossil record, see below.
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The authorization came only after a hard-fought debate about the pros and cons of public power versus private power.Kleinsorge, Paul L. (1941). The Boulder Canyon Project: Historical and Economic Aspects (Stanford: Stanford University Press). The heyday of Reclamation construction of water facilities occurred during the Depression and the 35 years after World War II. From 1941 to 1947, Civilian Public Service labor was used to carry on projects otherwise interrupted by the war effort. The last major authorization for construction projects occurred in the late 1960s, while a parallel evolution and development of the American environmental movement began to result in strong opposition to water development projects. Even the 1976 failure of Teton Dam as it filled for the first time did not diminish Reclamation's strong international reputation in water development circles.
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Although some Agrotis species occur at very high altitudes in Hawaii and female Agrotis from New Zealand are sometimes brachypterous, brachyptery in both sexes of Lepidoptera species is rare and is usually limited to wind-battered habitats, often southern oceanic islands and sparsely vegetated areas where the moths locomote by jumping. Thyrocopa includes the only species of flightless alpine moth in the Hawaiian Islands. Having studied males and females of two different species (Thyrocopa apatela and Thyrocopa kikaelekea), researchers at University of California, Berkeley concluded that they had not evolved from a flightless common ancestor nor had they dispersed to new habitats after becoming flightless. Rather, each was descended from a flying ancestor but had separately undergone wing reduction and evolved flightlessness in a case of parallel evolution occurring in less than 1 million years.
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"When in the Course" is a science fiction short story by American writer H. Beam Piper. It is a part of Piper’s Terro-Human Future History series, and is nearly identical with his 1964 Paratime short story "Gunpowder God", which was later expanded into the novel Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen. It is most likely set in the 3rd Century A.E. According to his introduction to the story, found in the book Federation, John F. Carr states that the unpublished manuscript for When in the Course was found among the late author’s papers by Ace Books. It was Mr. Carr’s belief that the story was the original story, but that it was rejected by editor John W. Campbell for its apparent use of parallel evolution as a part of the plot.
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This latter group overlapped with the Corded Ware Culture and other groups of the Late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. Nevertheless, southern Germany shows some independent developments of itself. Although a broadly parallel evolution with early, middle, and younger Bell Beaker Culture was detected, the Southern Germany middle Bell Beaker development of metope decorations and stamp and furrow engraving techniques do not appear on beakers in Austria-Western Hungary, and handled beakers are completely absent. It is contemporary to Corded Ware in the vicinity, that has been attested by associated finds of middle Corded Ware (chronologically referred to as "beaker group 2" or Step B) and younger Geiselgasteig Corded Ware beakers ("beaker group 3" or Step C). Bell Beaker Culture in Bavaria used a specific type of copper, which is characterised by combinations of trace elements.
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It follows the early expansions of hominins out of Africa, accomplished by Homo erectus and then Homo neanderthalensis. The model proposes a "single origin" of Homo sapiens in the taxonomic sense, precluding parallel evolution of traits considered anatomically modern in other regions, but not precluding multiple admixture between H. sapiens and archaic humans in Europe and Asia. H. sapiens most likely developed in the Horn of Africa between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago. The "recent African origin" model proposes that all modern non-African populations are substantially descended from populations of H. sapiens that left Africa after that time. There were at least several "out-of-Africa" dispersals of modern humans, possibly beginning as early as 270,000 years ago, including 215,000 years ago to at least Greece, and certainly via northern Africa about 130,000 to 115,000 years ago.
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Currently, about 30 cave populations are known, dispersed over three geographically distinct areas in a karst region of San Luis Potosí and far southern Tamaulipas, northeastern Mexico. Among the various cave population are at least three with only full cave forms (blind and without pigment), at least eleven with cave, "normal" and intermediate forms, and at least one with both cave and "normal" forms but no intermediates. Studies suggest at least two distinct genetic lineages occur among the blind populations, and the current distribution of populations arose by at least five independent invasions. The eyed and eyeless forms of A. mexicanus, being members of the same species, are closely related and can interbreed making this species an excellent model organism for examining convergent and parallel evolution, regressive evolution in cave animals, and the genetic basis of regressive traits.
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According to Wolpoff, multiregionalism was misinterpreted by William W. Howells, who confused Weidenreich's hypothesis with a polygenic "candelabra model" in his publications spanning five decades: Through the influence of Howells, many other anthropologists and biologists have confused multiregionalism with polygenism i.e. separate or multiple origins for different populations. Alan Templeton for example notes that this confusion has led to the error that gene flow between different populations was added to the Multiregional hypothesis as a "special pleading in response to recent difficulties", despite the fact: "parallel evolution was never part of the multiregional model, much less its core, whereas gene flow was not a recent addition, but rather was present in the model from the very beginning" (emphasis in original). Despite this, multiregionalism is still confused with polygenism, or Coon's model of racial origins, from which Wolpoff and his colleagues have distanced themselves.Wolpoff, M. H. and R. Caspari. 1997.
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Genetic studies have shown that the closest relatives of the olingos are actually the coatis; the divergence between the two groups is estimated to have occurred about 10.2 million years (Ma) ago during the Tortonian age, while kinkajous split off from the other extant procyonids about 22.6 Ma ago during the Aquitanian age. The similarities between kinkajous and olingos are thus an example of parallel evolution. The diversification of the genus apparently started about 3.5 million years ago, when B. neblina branched off from the others; B. gabbii then split off about 1.8 Ma ago, and the two lowland species, B. alleni and B. medius, diverged about 1.3 Ma ago. The dating and biogeography modeling suggest that the earliest diversification of the genus took place in northwestern South America shortly after the ancestors of olingos first invaded the continent from Central America as part of the Great American Interchange.
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Thus we could say that if two organisms possess a shared character, they should be more closely related to each other than to a third organism that lacks this character (provided that character was not present in the last common ancestor of all three, in which case it would be a symplesiomorphy). We would predict that bats and monkeys are more closely related to each other than either is to an elephant, because male bats and monkeys possess external testicles, which elephants lack. However, we cannot say that bats and monkeys are more closely related to one another than they are to whales, though the two have external testicles absent in whales, because we believe that the males in the last common ancestral species of the three had external testicles. However, the phenomena of convergent evolution, parallel evolution, and evolutionary reversals (collectively termed homoplasy) add an unpleasant wrinkle to the problem of estimating phylogeny.
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Haldane's statistical analysis of selection for the melanic variant in peppered moths became a well known part of his effort to demonstrate that mathematical models that combined natural selection with Mendelian genetics could explain evolution — an effort that played a key role in the foundation of the discipline of population genetics, and the beginnings of the modern synthesis of evolutionary theory with genetics. In peppered moths, the allele for dark-bodied moths is dominant, while the allele for light-bodied moths is recessive, meaning that the typica moths have a phenotype (visible or detectable characteristic) that is only seen in a homozygous genotype (an organism that has two copies of the same allele), and never in a heterozygous one. This helps explain how dramatically quickly the population changed when being selected for dark colouration. The peppered moth Biston betularia is also a model of parallel evolution in the incidence of melanism in the British form (f.
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Voloshinov devotes the last portion of Marxism and the Philosophy of Language to a treatment of reported speech in order to show social and temporal relations between utterances to be integral properties of language. This was taken up by Roman Jakobson in an essay entitled: "Shifters and Verbal Categories," and influenced the development of the Prague School of functional linguistics as well as linguistic anthropology. Through an entirely parallel evolution, Volosinov's model of dialogism, of meaning being functionally contextual and of cognition/consciousness emerging from verbal behaviour, prefigured the empirically derived poststructuralist model of language and cognition Relational Frame Theory which emerged in the 1990s, and upon which CBT and ACT therapies are based. Some scholars believe that works bearing Voloshinov's name were actually authored by his colleague Mikhail Bakhtin,The Bakhtin Circle at Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy although the topic is still the subject of debate; a few of these works have been added to reprinted editions of Bakhtin's collected works.
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In the microbial world, a relationship of predation can be established similar to that observed in the animal world. Considered, it has been seen that E. coli is the prey of multiple generalist predators, such as Myxococcus xanthus. In this predator-prey relationship, a parallel evolution of both species is observed through genomic and phenotypic modifications, in the case of E. coli the modifications are modified in two aspects involved in their virulence such as mucoid production (excessive production of exoplasmic acid alginate ) and the suppression of the OmpT gene, producing in future generations a better adaptation of one of the species that is counteracted by the evolution of the other, following a co-evolutionary model demonstrated by the Red Queen hypothesis.Nair, Ramith R.; Vasse, Marie; Wielgoss, Sébastien; Sun, Lei; Yu, Yuen-Tsu N.; Velicer, Gregory J. "Bacterial predator-prey coevolution accelerates genome evolution and selects on virulence-associated prey defences", Nature Communications, 2019, 10:4301.
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If this was true and males were exploiting female predation responses, then hungry females should be more receptive to male trembling - Proctor found that unfed captive females did orient and clutch at males significantly more than fed captive females did, consistent with the sensory exploitation hypothesis. Further evidence for the sensory exploitation hypothesis resulted from a cladistic analysis comparing 28 characters between other water mites of the family Unionicolidae and identified the most likely evolutionary scenario (the fewest reversal of character states and the fewer parallel evolution of character states (homoplasies)) for the origin of both the trembling behaviour and the 'net stance'. If male courtship trembling behaviour only ever evolved after the net stance evolved in the species analyzed, then this support the idea that trembling was an exploitation of a preexisting female sensory system. The cladograms generated showed two equally plausible evolutionary histories: the 'net stance' and trembling either evolved concomitantly in the common ancestor of Neumania and Unionicola (a closely related mite in the same family (confamilial)) or net stance evolved and then trembling evolved twice afterwards.
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27-28; Ratz, Wolfgang. Review on Auf der Kippe. In: Literarisches Österreich Nr. 2/08, Vienna 2008, p. 20-21. she highlights the sophisticated use of a detail-rich language which is "steeped in subtle and sensitive humor".Reichel, Ingrid: “Es lebe die Satire!” In: Etcetera (ISSN 1682-9115) Nr. 36, St. Pölten 2009, p. 76: “(...) von einem sensiblen und feinen Humor durchwachsen (...)” Despite many explicit allusions to several world religions, Ingrid Reichel states that the novel is a book for “readers with humor, for reasoners (…), for darwinists, on no account for creationists, to a lesser extent for people of faith, but rather for atheists, … and fundamentalists drop out entirely”.Reichel, Ingrid: “Es lebe die Satire!” In: Etcetera (ISSN 1682-9115) Nr. 36, St. Pölten 2009, p. 76: “für Menschen mit Humor, für Denkende (...), für Darwinisten, auf keinen Fall für Kreationisten, weniger für Gläubige, eher für Atheisten, … Fundamentalisten scheiden völlig aus.” Another aspect is identified by Karin Gayer when pinpointing the parallel evolution of the patriarchal hierarchy in the narrated society and the alluded social matriarchy, the first resembling chimpanzee communities and the second representing those of bonobos. In addition, she points out the strength of the women characters.
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He found the Chatham Islands species more similar to the red rail than the latter was to the Rodrigues rail, and proposed that the Mascarene Islands had once been connected with the Chatham Islands, as part of a lost continent he called "Antipodea". Forbes moved the Chatham Islands bird to its own genus, Diaphorapteryx, in 1893, on the recommendation of Newton, but later reverted to his older name. The idea that the Chatham Islands bird was closely related to the red rail and the idea of a connection between the Mascarenes and the Chatham Islands were later criticised by the British palaeontologist Charles William Andrews due to no other species being shared between the islands, and the German ornithologist Hans F. Gadow explained the similarity between the two rails as parallel evolution. 1907 restoration of the similar Rodrigues rail by Frederick William Frohawk, based on old accounts In 1945, the French palaeontologist Jean Piveteau found skull features of the red and Rodrigues rail different enough for generic separation, and in 1977, the American ornithologist Storrs L. Olson stated that though the two species were similar and derived from the same stock, they had also diverged considerably, and should possibly be kept separate.
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