It's a striking example of convergent evolution, separated by time.
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Other evidence for his thesis includes convergent evolution, which happens when
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Another possibility is convergent evolution, in which similar physical characteristics appear in unrelated species.
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Unrelated species sometimes arrive at remarkably similar anatomies through a process called convergent evolution.
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Which makes the convergent evolution of a similar mythology among liberals all the more notable.
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That's how convergent evolution works—similar evolutionary pressures could lead to unrelated but similar-looking animals.
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And it's going to take a lot more research to explain this striking example of convergent evolution.
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For oviraptorosaurs, the beaks were "convergent evolution," when similar features evolve independently among different groups of animals.
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"It's just a new example of the extreme convergent evolution we find in bioluminescence," Dr. Widder said.
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Other examples of convergent evolution include wings in bats and birds, and color in penguins and killer whales.
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It's a classic case of convergent evolution, which describes how unrelated organisms develop similar adaptations to their respective environments.
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If true, this would be an example of convergent evolution, which is when two populations independently evolve similar features.
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The lower Congo River's depths have made it a natural lab for convergent evolution, yielding fish with unexpected features.
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It's this amazing system of convergent evolution, when the same or similar traits evolve in response to similar selection pressures.
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We aren't looking at convergent evolution, but rather clones of one model for organizing the nation implemented across the world.
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It's a striking example of convergent evolution between birds and mammals, in which similar traits have independently emerged in different species.
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Call it a case of convergent evolution, wherein two companies arrived at similar looking products after approaching hardware from different angles.
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But sometimes, totally different species that face similar pressures end up independently evolving the same features, a process known as convergent evolution.
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Call it convergent evolution if you will — as a matter of fact, something similar occurred with Lenovo Smart Clock and standard Facebook Portal.
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In simple terms, the karrkaratul is a rare example of truly convergent evolution—combining helpful adaptations from both placental moles and distantly-related marsupials.
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Illustration: Andrey AtuchinIchthyosaurs and dolphins are the archetypal examples of convergent evolution in action, in which two completely unrelated species acquire near identical characteristics.
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This is a great example of convergent evolution at work, when animals in different habitats stumble upon the same solution independent of one another.
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An iconic three-foot-tall flightless bird with a close resemblance to a penguin, it was one of the greatest examples of convergent evolution.
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The result is a stunning reminder that convergent evolution—when organisms independently evolve similar traits—is not only a geographical phenomenon, but a temporal one.
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CONVERGENT evolution—the arrival, independently, by different species at the same answer to a question posed by nature—is a topic of great interest to biologists.
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In a remarkable case of convergent evolution, ichthyosaurs came to resemble dolphins and whales: They breathed air, gave birth to young, and were probably warm-blooded.
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Se Jin Song, a biologist at the University of California San Diego and the study's lead author, had previously studied the convergent evolution of gut bacteria.
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Dr. Boothby said that trehalose sugar and TDPs were an example of convergent evolution, where nature has found two different ways to protect organisms from desiccation.
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This would be an example of convergent evolution, which is when two unrelated organisms independently develop similar features because of the evolutionary pressures of their environments.
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This is likely an example of convergent evolution—vertebrates and cephalopods branched off long ago, yet they both developed the same way to create complex nervous systems.
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By looking at specifics in the genetic changes of parrots and humans, researchers in the future may develop a better understanding of the powers of convergent evolution.
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Its hostile currents and depths of more than 700 feet are an incredible natural laboratory for studying convergent evolution, or how diverse species develop similar environmental adaptations.
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Archaeopteryx was dubbed a "convergently bird-like non-avialan theropod," which means a non-avian feathered dinosaur that acquired bird-like characteristics through the processes of convergent evolution.
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In fact, most experts agree that many of the features in early green algae could have evolved independently more than once in a phenomenon known as convergent evolution.
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The appearance of similar characteristics in creatures that are not closely related, like the wings of birds, bats and the extinct flying reptiles called pterosaurs, is called convergent evolution.
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The blue coral snake's venom does practically the same thing, and scientists say it's a good example of convergent evolution (where a similar trait emerges independently in different species).
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There are well-respected scientists who predict that life will be extremely similar and be humanoid, and they base that on the idea of convergent evolution, but I disagree.
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"The apparent convergent evolution in placentals and Somalian blind cavefish is really interesting, and I think there's exciting potential for future studies to expand on these results," Grossnickle told Gizmodo.
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But, whatever the particulars, the discovery Mr Smithwick and Dr Vinther have made is a nice example of convergent evolution, showing that what works today worked in the Cretaceous, too.
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The pressures of evolution to adapt to certain environments and certain prey availabilities results in convergent evolution, meaning that a certain body shape and function will be optimal to survive.
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That gives biologists a tool with which to explore the phenomenon of convergent evolution, in which unrelated lines with similar ways of life evolve similar adaptations that help them to thrive.
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This looks like a classic case of convergent evolution, but no one has been able to prove the point by demonstrating a benefit derived from it that is connected directly with brood parasitism.
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It is a classic example of convergent evolution, in which two organisms that are not closely related develop similar features because of the environment they adapted to and the ecological role they played.
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He said it was one of the most apparent cases of convergent evolution, where two unrelated organisms evolve to look or function alike because of the similar niches they fill in their environments.
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This is a great example of convergent evolution, where nature has found a way to do the same thing...but through two very different means—one using a sugar and the other a protein.
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Moreover, termites were originally called "white ants" by Europeans, and the name stuck on account of their remarkable similarity to ants, a consequence of convergent evolution (though ants and termites are only very distantly related).
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Their study details a striking example of convergent evolution, which is when two species have similar traits even though their shared ancestor didn't have that trait—when the species diverged, it evolved in them separately.
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But the new features are the same in many cases, an instance of what biologists call convergent evolution, making it very hard to assign each group to its right place on the dinosaur family tree.
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O'Brien said the structure was an example of "convergent evolution" in which disparate organisms independently evolve similar features, like the wings of birds, bats and the extinct flying reptiles called pterosaurs, to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.
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Convergent evolution (when similar traits, like the wings of birds, bats and insects, appear independently in separate evolutionary branches) allows cognitive capacities to pop up at the most unexpected places, such as face recognition in paper wasps or deceptive tactics in cephalopods.
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They are thus, as Conrad Labandeira of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, and his colleagues describe in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, examples of convergent evolution: the emergence in unrelated groups of similar bodies, to permit the pursuit of similar ways of life.
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The evolution of non-avian dinosaurs during the Cenozoic would have been constrained by the same continental movements that gave us the endemic faunas of Australia and Madagascar, so there would likely have been convergent evolution of dinosaur groups like with placental mammals and Australian marsupials.
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This is a notable example of "convergent evolution," where species that arise independently at great distances from each other end up looking and behaving similarly by responding to similar challenges in their environments, the researchers said in their study, which was published Monday in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution.
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He and his team report that the neck mechanisms seen in their extinct turtle and in modern-day cryptodires is an example of convergent evolution, meaning that both P. oberndorferi and present-day cryptodires evolved the ability independently of each other because of the evolutionary advantages that it offered them in their environments.
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Nature, in other words, in a stunning example of parallel or convergent evolution, found an entirely other and far earlier path to complex cognition: an alien intelligence that not only links directly back to minds we've long believed to be forever lost to us, like the dinosaurs', but that can also be wounded, under duress, in the same ways our minds can.
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Disagreement on whether the evolution of the camera eye within cephalopods and within vertebrates is a parallel evolution or a convergent evolution still exists, although is mostly resolved. The current standing is that of a convergent evolution for their analogous camera-type eye.
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In the Neotropical realm, toucans occupy the hornbills' ecological niche, an example of convergent evolution.
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Rhamdia zongolicensis is morphologically indistinguishable from Rhamdia reddelli. This is interpreted as resulting from convergent evolution.
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This suggests it is the product of convergent evolution and has been selected for on many separate occasions.
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In Australia, the marsupial Chaeropus also developed hooves similar to those of artiodactyls, an example of convergent evolution.
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Haplotype convergence is the unrelated appearance of identical haplotypes in separate populations, through either convergent evolution or random chance.
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These changes in structure have produced forelimbs adapted for different tasks. bird and the bat wing are examples of convergent evolution. However, anatomical comparisons can be misleading, as not all anatomical similarities indicate a close relationship. Organisms that share similar environments will often develop similar physical features, a process known as convergent evolution.
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Nectar spurs are present in many clades across the angiosperms, and are often cited as an example of convergent evolution.
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However, Buniapone is more closely related to other species and the similarities are deemed to have evolved through convergent evolution.
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"The panda's peculiar thumb." Natural History 87 (Nov.): 20-30. which discusses the Panda's sesamoid bone, an example of convergent evolution.
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These similarities are the result of convergent evolution, since, while quite unrelated to modern rabbits, Pachyrukhos filled the same ecological niche.
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The communities of giant Dendrosenecio and giant lobelias found on these African mountains are an exceptional example of parallel or convergent evolution and repeated convergent evolution between these two groups; providing evidence that the unusual features of these plants are an evolutionary response to a challenging habitat and an environment which can be easily described for biogeographic analysis.
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The Phyllurus geckos resemble the Uroplatus geckos of Madagascar. This is an example of convergent evolution because they are not closely related.
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This structure was shared by derived ornithomimids, troodontids and caenagnathids, but was not present in basal tyrannosauroids like Dilong paradoxus, indicating convergent evolution.
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A comparable leg-structure and behaviour can be found in the Neotropical crane hawk; a case of convergent evolution. The call is a whistled '.
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However, there are also "Forced Moves" or "Good Tricks" that will be discovered repeatedly, either by natural selection (see convergent evolution) or human investigation.
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It is unclear as to whether the Malpighian tubules of arachnids and those of the Uniramia are homologous or the result of convergent evolution.
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As none of these are species particularly closely related to each other, the adaptation has probably arisen independently in each, an example of convergent evolution.
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The enzymology of proteases provides some of the clearest known examples of convergent evolution. The same geometric arrangement of triad residues occurs in over 20 separate enzyme superfamilies. Each of these superfamilies is the result of convergent evolution for the same triad arrangement within a different structural fold. This is because there are limited productive ways to arrange three triad residues, the enzyme backbone and the substrate.
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The evolution of anoles has been widely studied, and they have been described as a "textbook example of adaptive radiation and convergent evolution". Especially the widespread convergent evolution seen in anoles living in the Greater Antilles has attracted the attention of scientists, and resulted in comparisons with the Darwin's finches of the Galápagos Islands, lemurs of Madagascar and cichlid fish in the African Great Lakes.
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Some scientists have argued that there is a continuum between parallel and convergent evolution, while others maintain that despite some overlap, there are still important distinctions between the two. When the ancestral forms are unspecified or unknown, or the range of traits considered is not clearly specified, the distinction between parallel and convergent evolution becomes more subjective. For instance, the striking example of similar placental and marsupial forms is described by Richard Dawkins in The Blind Watchmaker as a case of convergent evolution, because mammals on each continent had a long evolutionary history prior to the extinction of the dinosaurs under which to accumulate relevant differences.
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The snakes of the genus Hypnale in southern India and Sri Lanka look quite similar to those of this genus, possibly an example of convergent evolution.
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The classes highlighted in red contain species with webbed feet. In all these cases, webbed feet arose homologously and independently of other classes through convergent evolution.
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Like most of the Cretaceous marine fauna, Protosphyraena became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic; the resemblance to living swordfish apparently results from convergent evolution.
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The similarity of their social structure to that of ants is attributed to convergent evolution. Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps.
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The overall long serpentine body shape of Basilosaurids show signs of convergent evolution with mosasaurs which suggests that this body plan seems to have been rather successful.
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These results suggest that nectar spurs may represent a case of convergent evolution on the genetic level, where the nectar spur has developed through different developmental pathways.
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In this case, the resemblances to early whales would be due to convergent evolution among ungulate-like herbivores that developed adaptations related to hunting or eating meat.
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This allows for different nutritional strategies, and because of this, cichlids are able to colonize different habitats. The structural diversity of the lower pharyngeal jaw could be one of the reasons for the occurrence of so many cichlid species. Convergent evolution took place over the course of the cichlid radiation, synchronous with different trophic niches.Moritz Muschick, Adrian Indermaur, Walter Salzburger : Convergent Evolution within Adaptive Radiation of Cichlid Fishes .
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In biological systems phenotype can be said to supervene on genotype. This is because any genotype encodes a finite set of unique phenotypes, but any given phenotype is not produced by a finite set of genotypes. Innumerable examples of convergent evolution can be used to support this claim. Throughout nature, convergent evolution produces incredibly similar phenotypes from a diverse set of taxa with fundamentally different genotypes underpinning the phenotypes.
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If falcons are more distantly related to other birds of prey, the horusornithids would rather be basal relatives of hawks that somewhat resembled falcons due to convergent evolution.
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This similarity to trilobites could also be an example of convergent evolution. Spriggina may have been predatory, and may have played a role in initiating the Cambrian transition.
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Conus geographus produces a distinct form of insulin that is more similar to fish insulin protein sequences than to insulin from more closely related molluscs, suggesting convergent evolution.
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But this may simply be convergent evolution or symplesiomorphies, considering that the Copromorphoidea otherwise appear to possess the characteristic synapomorphies of the Obtectomera, which are absent in Aluctoidea.
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These families have no significant amino acid sequence similarity and in most cases are thought to be an example of convergent evolution. The α-CAs are found in humans.
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Many instances of convergent evolution are known in plants, including the repeated development of C4 photosynthesis, seed dispersal by fleshy fruits adapted to be eaten by animals, and carnivory.
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With more proteins with a ferroxodin-reducing activity discovered in both families as well as novel families, this enzyme activity is now seen as an example of convergent evolution.
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Convergent evolution is an alternative explanation for why organisms such as coral reef fish and benthic marine invertebrates such as sponges and nudibranchs have come to resemble each other.
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Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last common ancestor of those groups. The cladistic term for the same phenomenon is homoplasy. The recurrent evolution of flight is a classic example, as flying insects, birds, pterosaurs, and bats have independently evolved the useful capacity of flight.
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The family Oriolidae is not related to the New World orioles, despite their similar size, diet, behaviour and contrasting plumage patterns. Rather, these similarities are an example of convergent evolution.
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However, sequence similarity searches designed to identify present-day WH2 domains fail to recognise β-thymosins, (and vice versa) and the sequence and functional similarities may result from convergent evolution.
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Leonerasaurus was a small non-sauropod sauropodomorph, showing an unusual combination of basal and derived characters. This indicates that the evolution of early sauropodomorphs witnessed a great degree of convergent evolution.
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Hawaiian honeyeaters did not evolve from the similar looking Australasian honeyeaters, but instead represent a striking case of convergent evolution. The authors proposed a family, Mohoidae, for these two extinct genera.
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It is structurally unrelated to the chymotrypsin-clan of serine proteases, but uses the same type of catalytic triad in the active site. This makes it a classic example of convergent evolution.
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The process of turning milk into cheese dates back earlier than 5200 BC. Genetic analysis shows lactase persistence has developed several times in different places independently in an example of convergent evolution.
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The resemblances are due to convergent evolution brought about by a similar nectar-feeding lifestyle. Some sunbird species can take nectar by hovering like a hummingbird, but they usually perch to feed.
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Homology between features indicate that those features have been derived from a common ancestor. Alternatively, homoplasy between features describes those that can resemble each other, but derive independently via parallel or convergent evolution.
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Sloth bears probably arose during the Middle Pliocene and evolved in the Indian subcontinent. The sloth bear shows evidence of having undergone a convergent evolution similar to that of other ant-eating mammals.
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These examples appear to result from convergent evolution, as they represent isolated cases in different clades. Based on its unique characteristics, Lawver et al. (2016) assigned Pachycorioolithus to its own monotypic oofamily, Pachycorioolithidae.
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Insect mouthparts show many examples of convergent evolution. The mouthparts of different insect groups consist of a set of homologous organs, specialised for the dietary intake of that insect group. Convergent evolution of many groups of insects led from original biting-chewing mouthparts to different, more specialised, derived function types. These include, for example, the proboscis of flower- visiting insects such as bees and flower beetles, or the biting-sucking mouthparts of blood-sucking insects such as fleas and mosquitos.
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One example is evolution on islands which is a remarkably predictable example of convergent evolution where the same phenotypes consistently evolve for the same reasons. Organisms released from predation tend to become larger, while organisms limited by food tend to become smaller. Yet there are almost infinite numbers of genetic changes that might lead to changes in body size. Another example of convergent evolution is the loss of sight that almost universally occurs in cave fish living in lightless pools.
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Seed dispersal by ants (myrmecochory) has evolved independently more than 100 times, and is present in more than 11,000 plant species. It is one of the most dramatic examples of convergent evolution in biology.
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This would then be an example of convergent evolution, avialans, therizinosaurians, and ornithischian dinosaurs all developed a similar hip anatomy independently of each other, possibly as an adaptation to their herbivorous or omnivorous diets.
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Convergent evolution misled taxonomy in schizothoracine fishes (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 134: 323–337 Qi, D. (2016). Fish of the Upper Yellow River. Pp. 233–252 in: G.J. Brierley et al. (eds.).
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Taken together, this suggests that most of the AFPs and antifreezes arose after the lineages that gave rise to these various insects diverged. The similarities they do share are the result of convergent evolution.
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Mayr et al. (2018) commented to try and classify all southern hemisphere birds into a single clade is premature as it may not illustrate the complex relationships and the convergent evolution birds have undergone.
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Although Huxley was opposed by the very influential Owen, his conclusions were accepted by many biologists, including Baron Franz Nopcsa, while others, notably Harry Seeley, argued that the similarities were due to convergent evolution.
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The occurrence of mobbing behavior across widely different taxa, including California ground squirrels, is evidence of convergent evolution. Another way the comparative method can be used here is by comparing gulls with distantly related organisms. This approach relies on the existence of convergent evolution, where distantly related organisms evolve the same trait due to similar selection pressures. As mentioned, many bird species such as the swallows also mob predators, however more distantly related groups including mammals have been known to engage in this behavior.
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Parallel and convergent evolution lead to homoplasy when different species independently evolve or gain a comparable trait, which diverges from the trait inferred to have been present in their common ancestor. When the similar traits are caused by an equivalent developmental mechanism, the process is referred to as parallel evolution. The process is called convergent evolution when the similarity arises from different developmental mechanisms. These types of homoplasy may occur when different lineages live in comparable ecological niches that require similar adaptations for an increase in fitness.
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Aldinede Gruyter. (Smith & Winterhalder 1992). They can be identified as analogous traits of exhibit the process of convergent evolution. Geographical distribution of cultural traits can vary through diffusion and can be explained by an evolutionary framework.
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The remaining similarities between birds and alvarezsaurs, like the keeled sterna, are another case of homoplasy; where the derived alvarezsaurids developed birdlike characters through convergent evolution, rather than inheriting them from a common ancestor with birds.
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Unlike the flatter, more rounded snouts of other capitosaurs, Vladlenosaurus had a wedge- shaped snout. This characteristic is also seen in trematosaurians, although it was independently acquired in both cases as a result of convergent evolution.
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The presence of lekking in these related species may have resulted from convergent evolution. In the Hawaiian Drosophila however, leks occur on the smooth surface of a fern leaf instead of the underside of a bracket fungus.
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True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. 359 pp. . In an example of convergent evolution, they show many similarities to the arboreal pit vipers of Asia and South America.
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It also has a distinct juvenile plumage, more rufous above and has a heavy pattern, especially below. This uncannily resembles, e.g., the gray thrasher (Toxostoma cinereum) from Baja California, but is apparently a case of convergent evolution.
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However, belonging to the tribe Ponerini, they are evidently ponerines and the army-ant like characters are deemed to have evolved through convergent evolution. Compared to other ponerines, colonies are large, consisting of 1,000 to 2,000 individuals.
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It is also a clear and simple example of convergent evolution in humans because it involves a single gene. Other examples of convergent evolution, such as the light skin of Europeans and East Asians or the various means of resistance to malaria, are much more complicated.left The shift towards settled communities based on farming was a significant cultural change, which in turns might have accelerated human evolution. Agriculture brought about an abundance of cereals, enabling women to wean their babies earlier and have more children over shorter periods of time.
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Heliconius butterflies such as Heliconius numata benefit from mimicking other unpalatable species of butterfly in their local habitat, such as Melinaea, because doing so spreads the cost of educating predators. Such mimicry is termed Müllerian and may result in convergent evolution. Work has been done to try to understand the genetic changes responsible for the convergent evolution of wing patterns in comimetic species. Molecular work on two distantly related Heliconius comimics, Heliconius melpomene and Heliconius erato, has revealed that homologous genomic regions in the species are responsible for the convergence in wing patterns.
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When Gierliński and his team tried to publish the study, they received harsh criticism due to the findings going against the widely accepted hypothesis of early hominins or primates evolving in Africa alone. According to the study, the Trachilos footprints may represent an early hominin or primate species that may have evolved hominin-like feet independently, outside of Africa. This suggests the possibility of convergent evolution. The theory of convergent evolution suggests the possibility of two or more different species adapting similar traits and characteristics to each other, resulting in a similar species.
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A prime example of despeciation is convergent evolution due to the fact that it causes two species that live in same environment to become the same due to the similar functions and behaviors that it must partake in to survive in that habitat. Common examples of convergent evolution are Mullerian and Batesian mimicry. Batesian mimicry is when one species that is harmless mimics a more threatening, or intimidating, species as to prevent it from being killed. Mullerian mimicry is when two organisms mimic each other as to prevent either species from being killed by predators.
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Although Zhonjianichthys appears more advanced than its relatives due to the back- positioned eyes and the thicker skin, this may be convergent evolution and it may not, therefore, be particularly closely related to the ancestors of modern chordates.
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It is due to convergent evolution however. They feed on plant sap, mostly of Chenopodiaceae and Caryophyllaceae. Piesma linnavouri have been found on Acacia (Fabaceae). Mcateella have been found on many host plants but mostly Acacia and Proteaceae.
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The species has a small rootstock - a corm which can be found in sandy and rocky soils. It produces long and slender leaves. The plant looks much like the popular Crocus. It is in convergent evolution with it.
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Marine mammals have evolved several times. Over the course of their evolution, they develop streamlined hydrodynamic bodies. The forelimb thus develops into a flipper. The forelimbs of cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sirenians presents a classic example of convergent evolution.
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Thus, it is likely a case on convergent evolution dictated by the environmental constraints. In May 2014, The International Institute for Species Exploration selected S. oceana as one of the Top 10 New Species of the previous year.
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The protein has been divided into a few subdomains organized similarly to eukaryotic IF proteins. Not every researcher is convinced that it is a homolog of intermediate filaments, suggesting instead that the similarity might have arose via convergent evolution.
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Over time, various types of Korean spears have developed and evolved. The designs are similar to those of spears found elsewhere in Asia and the world, as much due to a process of convergent evolution as to external influence.
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Toucans are usually found in pairs or small flocks. They sometimes fence with their bills and wrestle, which scientists hypothesize they do to establish dominance hierarchies. In Africa and Asia, hornbills occupy the toucans' ecological niche, an example of convergent evolution.
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Instead, the muskox's closest living relatives appear to be the gorals of the genus Naemorhedus, nowadays common in many countries of central and east Asia. The vague similarity between takin and muskox must therefore be considered an example of convergent evolution.
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Both genera lack ornamentation such as spines and carinae, but are thought to have reached that state independently, through convergent evolution. The closest living relative of Homarus is Nephrops norvegicus, while the closest relatives of Homarinus are Thymops and Thymopides.
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There is still no sign of the bony neck frill or prominent facial horns which would develop in later ceratopsians. Bony horns protrude from the skull of P. sibiricus, but these are thought to be an example of convergent evolution.
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This is a symbiotic arrangement, the client fish benefits from having its parasites removed and the shrimp benefits from the extra nutrition it receives. Six species of shrimp from three different families have developed this practice, a case of convergent evolution.
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J. Linn. Soc. 87: 611–624. PDF fulltext Another way to tell the two species apart is the lack of spots on its white tail feathers (present in the downy). Their outward similarity is a spectacular example of convergent evolution.
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Functionally similar features that have arisen through convergent evolution are analogous, whereas homologous structures or traits have a common origin but can have dissimilar functions. Bird, bat, and pterosaur wings are analogous structures, but their forelimbs are homologous, sharing an ancestral state despite serving different functions. The opposite of convergence is divergent evolution, where related species evolve different traits. Convergent evolution is similar to parallel evolution, which occurs when two independent species evolve in the same direction and thus independently acquire similar characteristics; for instance, gliding frogs have evolved in parallel from multiple types of tree frog.
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This means that the extant genera evolved analogous traits, such as locomotion methods, size, habitat, and many other traits independently from one another as opposed to from their last common ancestor. This makes tree sloths “one of the most striking examples of convergent evolution known among mammals”. Recently obtained molecular data from collagen and mitochodrial DNA sequences fall in line with the diphyly (convergent evolution) hypothesis, but have overturned some of the other conclusions obtained from morphology. These investigations consistently place two-toed sloths close to mylodontids and three-toed sloths within Megatherioidea, close to Megalonyx, megatheriids and nothrotheriids.
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Divergent evolution is always coupled with convergent evolution, as they are both similar and different in various facets such as whether something evolves, what evolves, and why it evolves. It is instructive to compare divergent evolution with both convergent and parallel evolution.
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Australodelphis mirus is an extinct Pliocene dolphin.The Paleobiology Database Australodelphis page A. mirus is known from fossils found in the Sørsdal Formation, Mule Peninsula, Vestfold Hills, East Antarctica. The genus has been described as an example of convergent evolution with beaked whales.
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Evolutionary relationships between different alpha solenoid proteins are difficult to trace due to the low sequence homology of the repeats. Convergent evolution of similar protein structures from ancestrally unrelated proteins is thought to be significant in the evolutionary history of this fold class.
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However, this brain region is absent in nonmammals. Self-recognition may be a case of convergent evolution, where similar evolutionary pressures result in similar behaviors or traits, although species arrive at them by different routes, and the underlying mechanism may be different.
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Convergent evolution and paraphyly of the hawk‐eagles of the genus Spizaetus (Aves, Accipitridae)–phylogenetic analyses based on mitochondrial markers. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 45(4), 353-365.Gamauf, A., Gjershaug, J. O., Kvaløy, K., Røv, N., & Haring, E. (2005).
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However, they also possess enlarged retroarticular processes, which contrasts with the condition in Manubrantlia. Thus, the large size of the arcadian process is believed to be an example of convergent evolution between lapillopsids and lydekkerinids, as many other factors separate the two families.
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Molecular Biology and Evolution 2000, 17:1826-1832. Burhinus are best placed in Charadriiformes. They resemble bustards (family: Otididae) and have been previously classified with them in Gruiformes. Their placement in Gruiformes is considered convergent evolution, as both orders have the same lifestyle and biotopes.
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Changes in the Mc1r gene sequence are not responsible for the colour difference in the mice sampled from New Mexico, however, leading the researchers to conclude that the almost identical dark coat colours developed multiple times in rock pocket mice, an example of convergent evolution.
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Oxybelis is a genus of colubrid snakes, endemic to the Americas, which are commonly known as vine snakes. Though similar in appearance to the Asian species of vine snakes of the genus Ahaetulla, they are not related, and are an example of convergent evolution.
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Tarbosaurus-like articulations between the skull bones are also seen in Alioramus from Mongolia, suggesting that it, and not Tyrannosaurus, is the closest relative of Tarbosaurus. Similarities between Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus might, therefore, be related to their large size, independently developed through convergent evolution.
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Its teeth are similar to those of another group of cynodonts called Traversodontidae, but the similarities are likely the result of convergent evolution. Aside from its larger size, Titanogomphodon differs from Diademodon in having a bony projection on the postorbital bar behind the eye socket.
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"Angiosperm phylogeny: 17 genes, 640 taxa". American Journal of Botany 98(4):704-730. This suggests that the catkin flower arrangement has arisen at least twice independently by convergent evolution, in Fagales and in Salicaceae.Cronk Q. C. B., Needham I., and Rudall P. J. 2015.
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Evolution of catkins: inflorescence morphology of selected Salicaceae in an evolutionary and developmental context. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2015; 6: 1030. Such a convergent evolution raises questions about what the ancestral inflorescence characters might be and how catkins did evolve in these two lineages.
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Inoculum 46: 34 (Newsletter of Mycological Society of America). Monacrosporium, and Trinacrium. It has been suggested that the anamorph specialization illustrates convergent evolution occurring among mycelial fungi in aquatic and low-nitrogen habitats. This hypothesis has been borne out by recent phylogenetic and morphological studies.
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Through DNA sequencing, Salvia was shown to not be monophyletic but to consist of three separate clades (Salvia clades I–III) each with different sister groups. They also found that the staminal lever mechanism evolved at least two separate times, through convergent evolution. Walker and Sytsma (2007) clarified this parallel evolution in a later paper combining molecular and morphological data to prove three independent lineages of the Salvia lever mechanism, each corresponding to a clade within the genus. It is surprising to see how similar the staminal lever mechanism structures are between the three lineages, so Salvia proves to be an interesting but excellent example of convergent evolution.
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As another example, the anole lizards of the Greater Antilles are a rare example of convergent evolution, adaptive radiation, and the existence of ecological equivalents: the anole lizards evolved in similar microhabitats independently of each other and resulted in the same ecomorphs across all four islands.
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This species shows an amazingly complex display repertoire, in some respects similar to that of several Phidippus species (P. johnsoni, P. femoratus) and Portia fimbriata. However, this is likely to be convergent evolution. Alternative mating tactics have been described, depending on the location of the female.
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Through the process of convergent evolution, there are at least two unrelated protein folds that share the same DNA-3-methyladenine glycosylase activity. The first, the AlkA N-terminal domain, is found in bacteria . The second, methylpurine-DNA glycosylase (MPG) is found in vertebrates including humans.
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This suggests that the evolution of a non-coding piece of DNA that regulates the transcription of nearby genes can be the reason behind similar phenotypic coloration between distant species, making it hard to determine if the trait is homologous or simply the result of convergent evolution.
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Research with domesticated foxes has shown that the likely mechanism for this convergent evolution was the selection of tame behavior in dogs. This finding suggests that perhaps humans had to evolve a propensity to cooperate before cultural evolution was able to take place (Hare & Tomasello, 2005).
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In anatomy, two anatomical structures are considered to be analogous when they serve similar functions but are not evolutionarily related, such as the legs of vertebrates and the legs of insects. Analogous structures are the result of convergent evolution and should be contrasted with homologous structures.
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The white-rumped swift (Apus caffer) is a species of swift. Although this small bird is superficially similar to a house martin, it is not closely related to that passerine species. The resemblances between the swallows and swifts are due to convergent evolution reflecting similar life styles.
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The diving-petrels bear strong resemblances to the smaller auk species (i.e. the Dovekie or Little Auk), though they are completely unrelated. This likeness is a prime example of convergent evolution, since the two have similar niches in their ecosystem, therefore they have evolved similar traits.
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Triopticus is a genus of archosauriform reptile from the Late Triassic of Texas, United States. It contains a single species, Triopticus primus, described in 2016 by Stocker et al. It has an unusually domed head reminiscent of the later pachycephalosaurian dinosaurs in an example of convergent evolution.
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The common use of the catalytic triad for hydrolysis by multiple clans of proteases, including the PA clan, represents an example of convergent evolution. The differences in the catalytic triad within the PA clan is also an example of divergent evolution of active sites in enzymes.
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Species in this genus range in body length from about four to 8.5 mm. They have moderately long legs. The greatly enlarged chelicerae can be almost twice as long as the body. While they share this feature with the Nipponopsalididae, this is a case of convergent evolution.
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Phylliroe is a genus of average sized (up to ), highly transparent pelagic nudibranchs, marine gastropod molluscs in the order Opisthobranchia, that consists of two known species. It is notable for being an open-ocean hunter that resembles a fish in body plan and locomotion, an example of convergent evolution.
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Eco-morphological configurations and convergent evolution of species and communities; in Ecology and Evolution of Communities (eds). M.L. Cody and J.M. Diamond. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 258–291 The following year the links between vertebrate morphology and ecology were finally established creating the foundations of modern ecomorphology.
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But, unlike penguins, puffins can fly, as flightless birds would not survive alongside land-based predators such as polar bears and foxes; there are no such predators in the Antarctic. Their similarities indicate that similar environments, although at great distances, can result in similar evolutionary developments, i.e. convergent evolution.
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However, this is actually a case of convergent evolution between cryptoclidids and elasmosaurs.O’Keefe FR. 2002. The evolution of plesiosaur and pliosaur morphotypes in the Plesiosauria (Reptilia: Sauropterygia). Paleobiology, 28, 1, 101-112 The clade of cryptoclidids creates a unique tree in relation to the paleomorphology of discovered specimens.
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However, scientists do not consider Yunnanosaurus to be especially close to the sauropods in phylogeny because the remaining portions of the animals body are distinctly "prosauropod" in design. This critical difference implies that the similarity in dentition between Yunnanosaurus and sauropods might be an example of convergent evolution.
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Subtilisin is a serine protease in prokaryotes. Subtilisin is evolutionarily unrelated to the chymotrypsin-clan, but shares the same catalytic mechanism utilising a catalytic triad, to create a nucleophilic serine. This is the classic example used to illustrate convergent evolution, since the same mechanism evolved twice independently during evolution.
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Eyes are expensive, and in lightless cave pools there is little reason for fish to have eyes. Yet, despite the remarkably consistent convergent evolution producing sightless cave fish, the genetics that produce the loss of sight phenotype is different nearly every time. This is because phenotype supervenes on genotype.
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The skull of these animals have a long, thin snout filled with small, sharp conical teeth. This is due to champsosaurs and gharials occupying similar Ecological niches: Hunting small aquatic prey in rivers and swamps. This is a classic example of convergent evolution. More primitive choristoderes have shorter, broader snouts.
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Some reference works and databases have regarded Cephalaspidomorphi as a Linnean class whose sole living representatives are the lampreys. Evidence now suggests that lampreys acquired the characters they share with cephalaspids by convergent evolution. As such, many newer works about fishes classify lampreys in a separate group called Petromyzontida or Hyperoartia.
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If true, this would indicate that the similarities between this species and the grey nurse shark arose as the result of convergent evolution. Fossil teeth belonging to the smalltooth sand tiger have been found from Lower Pliocene from 5.3 to 3.6 million years ago (Mya) in deposits in Italy and Venezuela.
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Bark beetles: biology and ecology of native and invasive species, pp.41-84. Ambrosia beetles are an ecological guild, but not a phylogenetic clade. The ambrosia habit is an example of convergent evolution, as several groups evolved the same symbiotic relationship independently.Farrell, B. D., A. S. O. Sequeira, et al.
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The rock cavy is a fairly large rodent weighing up to . Like other cavy species, their tails are vestigial or absent. Their backs are grey-brown and their bellies tan to light brown. In appearance and habit, they closely resemble the unrelated African rock hyraxes (an example of convergent evolution).
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Structural and systematic conchology: an introduction to the study of the Mollusca. Volume III. Philadelphia, published by the author, page 267. The similarity of the shells of Juliidae to those of bivalves does not mean that these snails are closely related to bivalves; this is an example of convergent evolution.
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Two of these genes (THRB and ARNT2) are known to play a role in the HIF-1 pathway, a pathway implicated in previous work reported in Tibetan and Andean studies. This supports the concept that adaptation to high altitude arose independently among different highlanders as a result of convergent evolution.
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Tanganyicia is a genus of tropical freshwater snails with an operculum, aquatic gastropod mollusks in the family Paludomidae.Strong E. E. & Glaubrecht M. (2002). "Evidence for convergent evolution of brooding in a unique gastropod from Lake Tanganyika: anatomy and affinity of Tanganyicia rufofilosa (Caenogastropoda, Cerithioidea, Paludomidae)". Zoologica Scripta 31(2): 167-184. .
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Silvio Renesto (2005) found similarities in the postcranial skeleton of Pachystropheus and the thalattosaur genus Endennasaurus; according to Renesto, these similarities may indicate that Pachystropheus and Endennasaurus are close relatives, but they might as well simply be a case of a convergent evolution triggered by the aquatic lifestyle of both taxa.
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Actinomycetes are soil microorganisms. They are a type of bacteria, but they share some characteristics with fungi that are most likely a result of convergent evolution due to a common habitat and lifestyle.Sylvia, David M., Jeffry J. Fuhrmann, Peter G. Hartel, and David A. Zuberer. Principles and Applications of Soil Microbiology.
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Due to superficial similarities in foliage and plant structure between cycads and palms they are often confused with each other. They also can occur in similar climates. In reality, they belong to completely different phyla, and are not closely related at all. The similar structure is evidence of convergent evolution.
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Despite this similarity and the historical inclusion of all three in the laevis group, A. phyllorhinus does not appear to be closely related to the two others, which however do appear to be close relatives and part of the "Phenacosaurus" group. The proboscis is likely the result of convergent evolution.
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Edwards agrees that Danziella may be part of the stem group of the zosterophylls and hence the lycophyte clade, but says that it could also belong elsewhere and show convergent evolution of the mechanism by which the sporangia split to release spores. Hao and Xue in 2013 listed the genus as a zosterophyll.
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Garrick, J.A.F. (1982). "Sharks of the genus Carcharhinus". NOAA Technical Report, NMFS CIRC-445. However, this interpretation was not supported by Gavin Naylor's 1992 allozyme analysis, which suggested that these similarities are the product of convergent evolution and that the closest relative of the spinner shark is the copper shark (C. brachyurus).
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The methods applied to infer convergent evolution depend on whether pattern-based or process-based convergence is expected. Pattern-based convergence is the broader term, for when two or more lineages independently evolve patterns of similar traits. Process-based convergence is when the convergence is due to similar forces of natural selection.
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Calotriton and Triturus are estimated to have split approximately 8 Mya ago. This may have been associated with adaptation to fast-running, well-oxygenated mountain streams (instead of ponds in Triturus), leading to some superficial similarity with Euproctus in convergent evolution: strongly depressed head and body, and reduction or even absence of lungs.
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They also have independent evolutionary origins into aquatic habitats, with sea kraits diverging earlier from other Australasian elapids. Thus, sea kraits and sea snakes are an example of convergent evolution into aquatic habitats within the Hydrophiinae snakes. Sea kraits are also often confused with land kraits (genus Bungarus), which are not aquatic.
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Anolis lizards are some of the best examples of both adaptive radiation and convergent evolution. Populations of lizards on isolated islands diverge to occupy separate ecological niches, mostly in terms of the location within the vegetation where they forage (such as in the crown of trees vs. the trunk vs. underlying shrubs).
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Convergent evolution within an adaptive radiation of cichlid fishes. Current Biology, 24(18): 2362–2368. There are several important behaviors that are associated with pit- spawning, including parental care, food provisioning,Wisenden, B. D. et al. 1995. Fin digging and leaf lifting by the convict cichlid, Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum: examples of parental food provisioning.
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Like all corvids, carrion crows show intelligent behaviour. For example, they can discriminate between numerosities up to 30, flexibly switch between rules, and recognise human and crow faces. Given the difference in brain architecture in crows compared to primates, these abilities suggest that their intelligence is realised as a product of convergent evolution.
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Tanganyicia rufofilosa is a species of tropical freshwater snail with an operculum, an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Paludomidae.Strong E. E. & Glaubrecht M. (2002). "Evidence for convergent evolution of brooding in a unique gastropod from Lake Tanganyika: anatomy and affinity of Tanganyicia rufofilosa (Caenogastropoda, Cerithioidea, Paludomidae)". Zoologica Scripta 31(2): 167-184. .
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Nerz, J. 1998. Rediscovery of an outstanding Nepenthes: N. aristolochioides (Nepenthaceae). Carnivorous Plant Newsletter 27(3): 101–114. The unique adaptations of these taxa are thought to represent an example of convergent evolution, whereby two organisms that are not closely related independently acquire similar characteristics while evolving in separate, but comparable, ecosystems.
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Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a "whole-plant" resistance response that occurs following an earlier localized exposure to a pathogen. SAR is analogous to the innate immune system found in animals, and although there are many shared aspects between the two systems, it is thought to be a result of convergent evolution.
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Nothrotheriops shastensis (Nothrotheriidae, La Brea) The common ancestor of the two existing sloth genera dates to about 28 million years ago, with similarities between the two- and three- toed sloths an example of convergent evolution to an arboreal lifestyle, "one of the most striking examples of convergent evolution known among mammals". The ancient Xenarthra included a much greater variety of species, with a wider distribution, than those of today. Ancient sloths were mostly terrestrial, and some reached sizes that rival those of elephants, as was the case for Megatherium. Megalonyx wheatleyi (Megalonychidae) fossil (AMNH) and restoration Paramylodon harlani (Mylodontidae, San Diego) Sloths arose in South America during its long period of isolation and eventually spread to a number of the Caribbean islands as well as North America.
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They have a camera-type eye which consists of an iris, a circular lens, vitreous cavity (eye gel), pigment cells, and photoreceptor cells that translate light from the light-sensitive retina into nerve signals which travel along the optic nerve to the brain. For the past 140 years, the camera-type cephalopod eye has been compared with the vertebrate eye as an example of convergent evolution, where both types of organisms have independently evolved the camera-eye trait and both share similar functionality. Contention exists on whether this is truly convergent evolution or parallel evolution. Unlike the vertebrate camera eye, the cephalopods' form as invaginations of the body surface (rather than outgrowths of the brain), and consequently they lack a cornea.
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Parallel mutation (sometimes referred to as Homoplasy) or convergent evolution occurs when separate lineages have the same mutation independently occur at the same site in the genome. Saturation occurs when a single site experiences multiple mutations. Parallel mutations and saturation result in the underestimation of the mutation rate because they are likely to be overlooked.
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Some species of sunbirds of Africa, southern and southeastern Asia, and Australia resemble hummingbirds in appearance and behavior, as do perhaps also the honeyeaters of Australia and Pacific islands. These two groups, however, are not related to hummingbirds, as their resemblance is due to convergent evolution. The hummingbird moth is often mistaken for a hummingbird.
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Leimacomys has been transferred back and forth between the Dendromurinae and the Murinae since its discovery. It most closely resembles Lophuromys, which has been transferred to a newly erected Deomyinae on the basis of molecular data. The association with Lophuromys is thought to be due to convergent evolution due to similar diets.Dieterlen, F. 1976.
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The nuthatch vanga of Madagascar (formerly known as the coral-billed nuthatch) and the sittellas from Australia and New Guinea were once placed in the nuthatch family because of similarities in appearance and lifestyle, but they are not closely related. The resemblances arose via convergent evolution to fill an ecological niche.Harrap & Quinn (1996) pp.
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As for the evolution of cooperation, evidence from cooperative pulling experiments provides support for the theory that cooperation evolved multiple times independently. The fact that basic characteristics of cooperation are present in some mammals and some birds points to a case of convergent evolution. Within social animals, cooperation is suspected to be a cognitive adaptation.
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The courtship display of the Dead Sea sparrow was thought to have evolved separately in a similar environment from that of these species, in an example of convergent evolution. However, studies of sparrow mitochondrial DNA indicate that these species are either derived from or are the closest relatives of the Palaearctic black-bibbed sparrows.
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Resemblances between swifts and swallows are due to convergent evolution, reflecting similar life styles based on catching insects in flight. The family name, Apodidae, is derived from the Greek ἄπους (ápous), meaning "footless", a reference to the small, weak legs of these most aerial of birds.Jobling (2010) pp. 50–51.Kaufman (2001) p. 329.
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Thus, the group traditionally classified as a single family, Rafflesiaceae, was actually composed of at least four distinct and very distantly related clades, with their similarities due to convergent evolution under their common parasitic lifestyle. A goal of taxonomy is to classify together only plants that all share a common ancestor, i.e., are monophyletic.
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The dynamic instability of ParM and eukaryotic microtubules is believed to be an example of convergent evolution. L ParM spontaneously forms short polymer segments when it is present in the cytoplasm. These segments serve to very efficiently "search" for the R1 plasmids, and also maintains a favorable concentration of ParM monomer units for polymerization.
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The monomeric and dimeric forms do not have detectable sequence similarity and are most likely not evolutionarily related; they are instead examples of convergent evolution. Although dimeric HPts likely originate from degenerate histidine kinases, it is possible that monomeric HPts have a number of distinct origins, as there are few evolutionary constraints on the structure.
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The Bishop's ‘ō‘ō or Molokai ‘ō‘ō (Moho bishopi) is a member of the extinct genus of the ‘ō‘ōs (Moho) within the extinct family Mohoidae. It was previously regarded as member of the Australo-Pacific honeyeaters (Meliphagidae).Fleischer R.C., James H.F., and Olson S.L. (2008). Convergent Evolution of Hawaiian and Australo-Pacific Honeyeaters from Distant Songbird Ancestors.
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The superficial resemblance to American Kingsnakes is more likely an example of convergent evolution, Much Like the similarities between the South American Emerald Tree Boa (Corallus caninus) and the Indo-Australian Green Tree Python (Morelia viridis). The king rat snake is also uncommonly found in the exotic pet trade. Distribution: China, North Vietnam, Taiwan, Japan (Ryukyu Islands).
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Blyth's swift (Apus leuconyx), is a small bird, superficially similar to a house martin. It is, however, completely unrelated to those passerine species, since swifts are in the order Apodiformes. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution reflecting similar life styles. These birds have very short legs which they use only for clinging to vertical surfaces.
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Cook's swift (Apus cooki) is a small bird, superficially similar to a house martin. It is, however, completely unrelated to those passerine species, since swifts are in the order Apodiformes. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution reflecting similar life styles. These birds have very short legs which they use only for clinging to vertical surfaces.
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Mongooses bear a striking resemblance to many mustelids, but belong to a distinctly different suborder—the Feliformia (all those carnivores sharing more recent origins with the cats) and not the Caniformia (those sharing more recent origins with the dogs). Because mongooses and mustelids occupy similar ecological niches, convergent evolution has led to similarity in form and behavior.
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Through gene duplication, it is possible for divergent evolution to occur between two genes within a species. Similarities between species that have diverged are due to their common origin, so such similarities are homologies. In contrast, convergent evolution arises when an adaptation has arisen independently, creating analogous structures such as the wings of birds and of insects.
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Lampreys and hagfish appear to have evolved, by convergent evolution, an adaptive immune response that is independent and distinct from the adaptive immune systems of higher vertebrates. Lymphocyte-like cells in these fish express highly variable lymphocyte receptor genes, which undergo somatic rearrangements reminiscent of the manner in which mammalian immunoglobulin genes are rearranged during development.
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Despite the high level of diversity and anatomical disparity within Poposauroidea, certain features of the clade can be determined, particularly in the structure of the snout and pelvis (hip). Many of these features are examples of convergent evolution with dinosaurs, with bipedal poposauroids such as Poposaurus and shuvosaurids having been mistaken for theropod dinosaurs in the past.
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Lunostoma was a small animal, branches being about 1.3 mm wide. It is unique among Rhabdomesina bryozoans in featuring "scutes", crescent-shaped structures on the proximal side of apertures. The function of these structures, which resemble the lunaria of cystoporate bryozoans, is unclear, and it is possibly an example of convergent evolution. Otherwise it is similar to Saffordotaxis.
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The dendritic organ is likely a product of convergent evolution with other vertebrate salt- secreting organs. The role of this organ was discovered by its high NKA and NKCC activity in response to increasing salinity. However, the Plotosidae dendritic organ may be of limited use under extreme salinity conditions, compared to more typical gill-based ionoregulation.
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Even so, interbreeding can result in a lineage being overwhelmed and absorbed by a related more numerous lineage. Simulation studies suggest that phylogenetic trees are most accurately recovered from data that is morphologically coherent (i.e. where closely related organisms share the highest proportion of characters). This relationships is weaker in data generated under selection, potentially due to convergent evolution.
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Marine mammals have evolved several times, developing similar flippers. The forelimbs of cetaceans, pinnipeds, and sirenians presents a classic example of convergent evolution. There is widespread convergence at the gene level. Distinct substitutions in common genes created various aquatic adaptations, most of which constitute parallel evolution because the substitutions in question are not unique to those animals.
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Tridentatae was originally categorized as within Seriphidium due to floral, inflorescence, and leaf morphological similarities, until McArthur et al.’s analysis in 1981, which explained these similarities as convergent evolution. Old World Seriphidium, with 125 species native to Europe and temperate Asia, was a previous classification of Seriphidium. North American or "New World" Seriphidium and Old World Seriphidium.
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Most taxa differ morphologically from other taxa. Typically, closely related taxa differ much less than more distantly related ones, but there are exceptions to this. Cryptic species are species which look very similar, or perhaps even outwardly identical, but are reproductively isolated. Conversely, sometimes unrelated taxa acquire a similar appearance as a result of convergent evolution or even mimicry.
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Several groups of plants later developed pitted tracheid cells independently through convergent evolution. In living plants, pitted tracheids do not appear in development until the maturation of the metaxylem (following the protoxylem). In most plants, pitted tracheids function as the primary transport cells. The other type of vascular element, found in angiosperms, is the vessel element.
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Stem-stereospondyli, Rhinesuchidae, Rhytidostea, Trematosauroidea, Capitosauroidea. Handbuch der paläoherpetologie Part 3B. 203p A study by Dias & Schultz (2003) reassigned Australerpeton to the family Rhinesuchidae within the suborder Stereospondyli based on an earlier evaluation of the family. In this study, the close similarities between Australerpeton and archegosaurids were attributed to convergent evolution as a result of similar semi-aquatic lifestyles.
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Reconstruction of the male (with head clasper) and female Ctenurella had a long, whip-like tail, large eyes, and robust upper and lower jaw tooth plates. Males also had hook-shaped sex organs, known as claspers. Since analogous features are also found in the unrelated living chimaeras, chimaeras and ptyctodonts are thought to be an example of convergent evolution.
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H. ustulata is common in the arid climate of Southwestern United States, ranging from California through Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, and as far north as Nevada, Oklahoma, and Kansas.Alcock, John. "Convergent Evolution in Perching and Patrolling Site Preferences of Some Hilltopping Insects of the Sonoran Desert." The Southwestern Naturalist 29.4 (1984): 475-80. JSTOR. Web.
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The bird is superficially similar to a large barn swallow or house martin. It is, however, completely unrelated to those passerine species, since swifts are in the order Apodiformes. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution, reflecting similar life styles. Swifts have very short legs which they use only for clinging to vertical surfaces.
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Some genera and species have laurel forest foliage due to convergent evolution. Dodonaea viscosa flowers The flowers are small and unisexual, or functionally unisexual, though plants may be either dioecious or monoecious. They are usually found in cymes grouped in panicles. They most often have four or five petals and sepals (petals are absent in Dodonaea).
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Burnupia is a genus of small freshwater snails or limpets, aquatic gastropod mollusks that are traditionally placed in the family Planorbidae. However, according to the molecular markers (COI, 18S rRNA), the genus Burnupia differs from ancylids and from Planorboidea.Albrecht C., Wilke T., Kuhn K., Streit B. (2004). "Convergent evolution of shell shape in freshwater limpets: the African genus Burnupia".
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These findings identify myrmecochory as a prime example of convergent evolution. In addition, phylogenetic comparison of myrmecochorous plant groups reveal that more than half of the lineages in which myrmecochory evolved are more species rich than their non-myrmecochorous sister groups. Not only is myrmecochory a convergent trait, but it also promotes diversification in multiple flowering plants lineages.
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They also showed high variance in their lineages. It is hypothesized that the pseudogenization of Tas1r2 occurred through convergent evolution where carnivorous species lost their ability to taste sweet because of dietary behavior. Umami is also a taste receptor where the function has been lost in many species. The predominant umami taste receptors are Tas1r1/Tas1r3.
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The plain swift (Apus unicolor) is a medium-sized swift. Although this bird is superficially similar to a barn swallow or house martin, it is not related to those passerine species. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution reflecting similar life styles. Swifts have very short legs that they use only for clinging to vertical surfaces.
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Nalini Nadkarni (born 1954 in Honolulu, Hawaii) is an American ecologist who pioneered the study of Costa Rican rain forest canopies. Using mountain climbing equipment to make her ascent, Nadkarni first took an inventory of the canopy in 1981, followed by two more inventories in 1984.Nadkarni, N.M. 1981. Canopy Roots: Convergent Evolution in Rainforest Nutrient Cycles.
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The function of the protocarnivorous habit, however, need not be directly related to lack of nutrient access. Some classic protocarnivorous plants represent convergent evolution in form but not necessarily in function. Plumbago, for example, possesses glandular trichomes on its calyces that structurally resemble the tentacles of Drosera and Drosophyllum.Schlauer, 1997 The function of the Plumbago tentacles is, however, disputed.
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The convergent evolution between the South American Gymnotiforms and the African Mormyridae is remarkable, with the electric organ being produced via the substitution of the same amino acid in the same voltage-gated sodium channel despite the two groups of fish being on different continents and the evolution of the electric sense organ being separated in time by around 60 million years.
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Pouched rats are found throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa with the exception of southern Africa. They are characterized by having large cheek pouches and a distinctive molar morphology. The molars are very similar to the type seen in the subfamily Murinae, but pouched rats probably evolved this similarity through convergent evolution. There are three very different genera of pouched rats.
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Salim Ali's swift (Apus salimalii) is a small bird, superficially similar to a house martin. It is, however, completely unrelated to those passerine species, since swifts are in the order Apodiformes. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution reflecting similar life styles. These birds have very short legs which they use only for clinging to vertical surfaces.
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This enzyme is one of the few examples of convergent evolution. The two separate versions of this enzyme have different amino acid sequences. 3-Dehydroquinate dehydratase is also commonly referred to as Dehydroquinate dehydratase and DHQD. Other names include 3-dehydroquinate hydrolase, DHQase, 3-dehydroquinase, 5-dehydroquinase, dehydroquinase, 5-dehydroquinate dehydratase, 5-dehydroquinate hydro-lyase, and 3-dehydroquinate hydro-lyase.
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The bird is in the monotypic genus Mystacornis. The species is an example of convergent evolution: its bill and body shape adapted to its habit of looking for insect prey in the leaf litter, eventually becoming so similar to that of ground- babblers that early naturalists initially classified the Crossley's vanga into what was then known as the babbler family, Timaliidae.
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Because males are smaller, they crawl and swim faster than females. Body adaptations, especially a paddle-like tail, help yellow-lipped sea kraits to swim. These adaptations are also found in more distantly related sea snakes (Hydrophiinae) because of convergent evolution. However, because of the differences in motion between crawling and swimming, these same adaptations impede the snake's terrestrial motion.
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The 16S rRNA gene sequences of picked arthromitus filaments shows them to form a diverse but closely related group of arthropod-derived sequences within the Lachnospiraceae. The cluster lies close to Clostridium piliforme. Although members of Candidatus Arthromitus share morphological traits with members of Candidatus Savagella, they are quite phylogenetically distant and their filamentous morphology may be just an example of convergent evolution.
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Thus, the similarities between the prairie falcon and the hierofalcons are a good example of convergent evolution, with the prairie falcon and similar looking and behaving Old World forms such as the saker and lanner falcons not being the closest of related species, but instead ecological equivalents.Helbig et al. (1994), Wink et al. (1998), Griffiths (1999), Wink & Sauer-Gürth (2000), Wink et al.
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Beilschmiedia falls within the Lauraceae, a family of aromatic evergreen trees or shrubs. Many botanical species are similar in foliage to the Lauraceae due to convergent evolution. Those plants are adapted to high rainfall and humidity. The patterns of speciation in the Lauraceae indicate, since the onset of aridification on the continents 15 million years ago (Mya), rainforest species diversified.
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Babakotia radofilai and all other sloth lemurs share many traits with living sloths, demonstrating convergent evolution. It had long forearms, curved digits, and highly mobile hip and ankle joints. Its skull was more heavily built than that of indriids, but not as much as in the larger sloth lemurs. Its dentition is similar to that of all other indriids and sloth lemurs.
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However, some scholars (such as Ciochon, Holdroyd and Gunnell) suggest that their similarities to simians is the result of convergent evolution and that they should instead be considered Adapiformes. According to Beard et al., Siamopithecus is the most basal form of amphipithecid. They vary in size from 6–7 kg (Siamopithecus and Pondaungia), to 1–2 kg (Myanmarpithecus), with Bugtipithecus being even smaller.
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The characteristic W-shape of the cuttlefish eye Pupil expansion in Sepia officinalis Cuttlefish, like other cephalopods, have sophisticated eyes. The organogenesis and the final structure of the cephalopod eye fundamentally differ from those of vertebrates such as humans. Superficial similarities between cephalopod and vertebrate eyes are thought to be examples of convergent evolution. The cuttlefish pupil is a smoothly curving W-shape.
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Traditionally the phylogenetic inner relationships of tremarctines had Plionarctos and Tremarctos being basal groups with respect to a short-faced bear clade of Arctodus and Arctotherium. A study of the affinities of bears belonging to Arctotherium indicates that they were more closely related to the spectacled bear than to Arctodus, implying convergent evolution of large size in the two lineages.
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The black-banded flycatcher (Ficedula timorensis), also known as the Timor flycatcher, is a species of bird in the family Muscicapidae. In the past the species was considered to be related to the Australasian robins but this was as the result of convergent evolution. It is endemic to Timor island. The black-banded flycatcher is small with a broad bill and distinctive plumage.
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More recent studies using in situ hybridization studies have located large diameter neurons in the trigeminal ganglia (TG) that are unique to vampire bats and extremely similar to those found in IR-sensitive snakes. Although the morphological organization of neurons suggests convergent evolution with IR-sensing snakes lineages, it remains unclear what the exact neural pathway is for infrared sensing in vampire bats.
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Juvenile Boophis cf. roseipalmatus Montagne d'Ambre Boophis entingae from Montagne d'Ambre, photographed in 2017 Boophis is the only genus in the mantellid frog subfamily Boophinae. They are commonly known as bright-eyed or skeleton frogs. They show typical 'tree frog' traits, and are a good example of convergent evolution with morphologically similar species in the families Hylidae and Rhacophoridae, among others.
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C. maculosus possesses small, sunken eyes protected by serrated eyelids and eye linings. Its nostrils are connected to its nasal cavity by only a narrow downward slit. This nasal structure is adaptive for preventing nasal blockage from burrowing in sand. Other sand-burrowing American lizards have also developed similar nasal structures via convergent evolution, including species in the genera Uracentron, Holbrookia, and Phrynosoma.
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1969 - Subtilisin (PDB file 1sbt ) was a second type of serine protease with a near-identical active site to the trypsin family of enzymes, but with a completely different overall fold. This gave the first view of convergent evolution at the atomic level. Later, an intensive mutational study on subtilisin documented the effects of all 19 other amino acids at each individual position.
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Zimmermann favored the reconstruction of phylogenetic lineages across species based on evolution of single phenotypic characters. He acknowledged that it is often impossible to know exactly the genealogical relationships between groups of organisms without experimentation, and basing phylogenetic relationships solely on phenetic similarities only increases the risk of influence of convergent evolution, parallel evolution, and atavism on analysis of evolutionary relationships.
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Ferredoxin NADP reductases are present in many organisms, including plants, bacteria, and the mitochondria of eukaryotes. However, these proteins belong to two unrelated protein families and are an example of convergent evolution. The plant-type FNRs (, ) include the plastidic FNRs seen in plants. The glutathione- reductase-type FNRs (, ), sometimes named adrenodoxin-NADP+ reductase for distinction, are seen in the mitochondria of eukaryotes.
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This persistent, low-level inflammation was later shown to confer enhanced resistance to a wide array of viruses. This phenotype results from a previously-unrecognized function of ISG15 to negatively regulate IFN signaling, which is absent in murine systems. Other higher-order mammals (e.g. pig and dog), however, have achieved this negative regulatory function of ISG15, seemingly by convergent evolution.
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The existence of resistance to batrachotoxins and the use of those toxins as chemical defences by several bird families have led to competing theories as to its evolutionary history. Jønsson (2008) suggested that it was an ancestral adaptation in Corvoidea songbirds, and that further studies would reveal more toxic birds. Dumbacher (2008) argued instead that it was an example of convergent evolution.
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There is debate over the placement of the position of this genus within the order Lamniformes. It has been traditionally considered a gracile member of the family Lamnidae, but some recent authors have suggested it is a robust member of the family Odontaspididae. Either way, the species is an example of convergent evolution. The lack of associated material makes confident placement difficult.
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The small flowers are radially symmetrical, with six tepals, usually joined at the base, six stamens and a superior ovary. The fruit is usually a berry with few seeds. Species vary from herbaceous perennials to tree-like forms (e.g. Dracaena). There are several examples of convergent evolution between species in this subfamily and those in other subfamilies of the Asparagaceae sensu lato.
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It has a long, shaggy fur, a mane around the face, and long, sickle-shaped claws. It is lankier than brown and Asian black bears. It shares features of insectivorous mammals and evolved during the Pleistocene from the ancestral brown bear through convergent evolution. Sloth bears breed during spring and early summer and give birth near the beginning of winter.
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These results notwithstanding, analysis of mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 as well as nuclear β-fibrinogen intron 7 sequence dataWinker & Pruett (2006) shows that Swainson's thrush is the most ancient North American species of its genus; it is not closely related to other Catharus and the outward similarities with the other North American species are due to convergent evolution.
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Any similarities between ailuropodines and ailurids are likely due to convergent evolution as the fossil record has shown the "false thumb" has been required independently for different purposes.Salesa, Manuel J., et al. "Evidence of a false thumb in a fossil carnivore clarifies the evolution of pandas." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103.2 (2006): 379-382.
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Trans Zool Soc Lond 34:263–345Mayr G (2011) The phylogeny of charadriiform birds (shorebirds and allies)––reassessing the conflict between morphology and molecules. Zool J Linn Soc 161:916–934 however this is also considered convergent evolution. DNA-DNA hybridisation as well as RAG-1 and myoglobin intron-II sequence data supports a link to Recurvirostridae.Sibley CG & Ahlquist JE (1990) Phylogeny and classification of birds.
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Several evolutionary groups are still recognizable. However, combining the available evidence suggests that there has also been a great deal of convergent evolution; for example the cliff shags are a convergent paraphyletic group. The proposed division into Phalacrocorax sensu stricto (or subfamily "Phalacrocoracinae") cormorants and Leucocarbo sensu lato (or "Leucocarboninae") shagsvan Tets (1976), Siegel-Causey (1988) does have some degree of merit.Kennedy et al.
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The black-eared shrike-babbler (Pteruthius melanotis) is a bird species in the vireo family, Vireonidae. It was traditionally considered as an aberrant Old World babbler and formerly placed in the family Timaliidae. It was long noted that their habits resembled those of vireos, but this was previously ascribed to the result of convergent evolution. It is found in Southeast Asia from the Himalayas to western Malaysia.
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After being referred to the Dinosauria by Moodie in 1906 it was later reclassified by Ostrom in 1971 as a crocodilian relative. Based on new material from the Morrison Formation at Fruita, Colorado, in 2005 Göhlich et al. identified it as a basal crocodylomorph ("sphenosuchian"). It is considered an example of convergent evolution, due to the similarities to caenagnathid dinosaurs, with which it was not closely related.
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Due to morphological similarities with the fungus-growing ants, Emery (1922) placed the genus within the tribe Attini. Weber (1958) attributed the shared similarities to convergent evolution, and Bolton (2003) finally moved the genus to Stenammini. Unlike the attines of the New World, Proatta species are predators and scavengers, and while fungus may grow in refuse piles in the nest, the ants do not actively cultivate fungus.
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Laurel forests are characterized by evergreen and hardwood trees, reaching up to in height. Laurel forest, laurisilva, and laurissilva all refer to plant communities that resemble the bay laurel. Some species belong to the true laurel family, Lauraceae, but many have similar foliage to the Lauraceae due to convergent evolution. As in any other rainforest, plants of the laurel forests must adapt to high rainfall and humidity.
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The enzymology of proteases provides some of the clearest examples of convergent evolution. These examples reflect the intrinsic chemical constraints on enzymes, leading evolution to converge on equivalent solutions independently and repeatedly. Serine and cysteine proteases use different amino acid functional groups (alcohol or thiol) as a nucleophile. In order to activate that nucleophile, they orient an acidic and a basic residue in a catalytic triad.
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The woodcreepers (Dendrocolaptinae) comprise a subfamily of suboscine passerine birds endemic to the Neotropics. They have traditionally been considered a distinct family Dendrocolaptidae, but most authorities now place them as a subfamily of the ovenbirds (Furnariidae). They superficially resemble the Old World treecreepers, but they are unrelated and the similarities are due to convergent evolution. The subfamily contains around 57 species in 15 to 20 genera.
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Tang, Y.; C. Li; K. Wanghe; C. Feng; C. Tong; F. Tian; and K. Zhao (2019). Convergent evolution misled taxonomy in schizothoracine fishes (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 134: 323–337 Qi, D.; Y. Chao; Y. Zhao; M. Xia; and R. Wu (2018). Molecular evolution of myoglobin in the Tibetan Plateau endemic schizothoracine fish (Cyprinidae, Teleostei) and tissue- specific expression changes under hypoxia.
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The peculiar belief that this bird also occurred in Africa is due to confusion of the yellow-breasted meadowlarks with certain longclaws (Macronyx), quite unrelated African songbirds. Specifically the Cape longclaw (M. capensis) and the yellow- throated longclaw (M. croceus) share similar habitat and habits, explaining the long hind toe; their plumage pattern however is all but identical, a striking example of convergent evolution.
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The retinal chromophore is found solely in the opsin branch of this large gene family, meaning its occurrence elsewhere represents convergent evolution, not homology. Microbial rhodopsins are, by sequence, very different from any of the GPCR families. The term bacterial rhodopsin originally referred to the first microbial rhodopsin discovered, known today as bacteriorhodopsin. The first bacteriorhodopsin turned out to be of archaeal origin, from Halobacterium salinarum.
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Classification of sauropterygians has been difficult. The demands of an aquatic environment caused the same features to evolve multiple times among reptiles, an example of convergent evolution. Sauropterygians are diapsids, and since the late 1990s, scientists have suggested that they may be closely related to turtles. The bulky-bodied, mollusc-eating placodonts may also be sauropterygians, or intermediate between the classic eosauropterygians and turtles.
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Thus, the name limpet is used to describe various extremely diverse groups of gastropods that have independently evolved a shell of the same basic shape (see convergent evolution). And although the name "limpet" is given on the basis of a limpet-like or "patelliform" shell, the several groups of snails that have a shell of this type are not at all closely related to one another.
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Moeritherium was a rotund semi-aquatic mammal with short, stubby legs that lived about 37-35 million years agoKoehl, D. 2006 The genus Moeritherium, ancestor of elephants. Downloaded on 6 December 2006. Its body shape and lifestyle demonstrate convergent evolution with pigs, tapirs, and the pygmy hippopotamus. Moeritherium was smaller than most or all later proboscideans, standing only high at the shoulder and weighing .
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The scientific name heterophyllus, "different leaves", refers to the variation in leaf shape between spiny and entire. The common name holly osmanthus refers to the similarity in leaf shape to that of the holly (Ilex aquifolium), an example of convergent evolution with a common objective of deterring browsing; the two may be distinguished easily by the leaf arrangement, alternate in Ilex aquifolium and opposite in Osmanthus heterophyllus.
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Without a statistical model underlying the method, its estimates do not have well- defined uncertainties. # Convergent evolution. When considering a single character state, parsimony will automatically assume that two organisms that share that characteristic will be more closely related than those who do not. For example, just because dogs and apes have fur does not mean that they are more closely related than apes are to humans.
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Rusingoryx is a genus of extinct alcelaphine bovid artiodactyl closely related to the wildebeest. It contains only one species, R. atopocranion, that lived on the plains of Kenya during the Pleistocene. Rusingoryx is known for its strange pointed nose with a large nasal dome. This structure represents an instance of convergent evolution with the crests of hadrosaurid dinosaurs, which were used for display and vocalization.
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Eggs of Apus pallidus The pallid swift (Apus pallidus) is a small bird, superficially similar to a barn swallow or house martin. It is, however, completely unrelated to those passerine species, since the swifts are in the order Apodiformes. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution reflecting similar life styles. Swifts have very short legs which they use only for clinging to vertical surfaces.
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In phylogenetics, maximum parsimony is an optimality criterion under which the phylogenetic tree that minimizes the total number of character-state changes is to be preferred. Under the maximum-parsimony criterion, the optimal tree will minimize the amount of homoplasy (i.e., convergent evolution, parallel evolution, and evolutionary reversals). In other words, under this criterion, the shortest possible tree that explains the data is considered best.
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Map of Life, Convergent Evolution Online. Formerly, many Old World species were placed here, as Mabuya was a kind of "wastebasket taxon". These Old World species are now placed in the genera Chioninia, Eutropis, and Trachylepis. Under the older classification, the New World species were referred to as "American mabuyas", and now include the genera Alinea, Aspronema, Brasiliscincus, Capitellum, Maracaiba, Marisora, Varzea, and Copeoglossum.
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All four species inhabit the benthic zone of deep water habitat, typically deeper than 200 metres (and significantly deeper in the case of Graneledone), and so Norman et al. propose that the presence of the margins is the result of convergent evolution. Their function is unknown; it is possible that they act as an aid in ensnaring prey or as an aid in swimming.
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Sequestration of dsRNA is a common viral counter-defense strategy against RNA silencing, evolved in a form of evolutionary arms race between virus and host. The p19 protein is not unique in this role; in an example of convergent evolution, this strategy appears to have evolved at least three times in distinct viral lineages using proteins with distinct structures and physical means of binding RNA.
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The white-winged chough (Corcorax melanorhamphos) is one of only two surviving members of the Australian mud-nest builders family, Corcoracidae, and is the only member of the genus Corcorax. It is native to southern and eastern Australia and is an example of convergent evolution as it is only distantly related to the European choughs that it closely resembles in shape, and for which it was named.
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While analyses of morphology suggest a close relationship between Homarinus and Homarus, molecular analyses using mitochondrial DNA reveal that they are not sister taxa. Both genera lack ornamentation such as spines and carinae, but are thought to have reached that state independently, through convergent evolution. The closest living relative of Homarus is Nephrops norvegicus, while the closest relatives of Homarinus are Thymops and Thymopides.
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The pinyon jay (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) is a jay between the North American blue jay and the Eurasian jay in size. The voice is described as a rhythmic krawk-kraw-krawk repeated two or three times. It is the only member of the genus Gymnorhinus. Its overall proportions are very nutcracker-like and indeed this can be seen as convergent evolution as both birds fill similar ecological niches.
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Choughs have uniformly black plumage, lacking any paler areas as seen in some of their relatives. The two Pyrrhocorax are the main hosts of two specialist chough fleas, Frontopsylla frontalis and F. laetus, not normally found on other corvids. The Australian white-winged chough, Corcorax melanorhamphos, despite its similar shape and habits, is only distantly related to the true choughs, and is an example of convergent evolution.
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Although these cephalopods have only kinocilia and no stereocilia, the sensory cells and their arrangement are analogous to the hair cells and lateral line in vertebrates, indicating convergent evolution. Arthropods are different from other invertebrates as they use surface receptors in the form of mechanosensory setae to function in both touch and hydrodynamic sensing. These receptors can also be deflected by solid objects or water flow.
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No subspecies of M. vivesi have been recognised. The closest relatives of M. vivesi are other New World species of Myotis which are not adapted to piscivory, rather than the other piscivorous bats in the genus. This indicates that the adaptations to catching fish in M. vivesi and other species are the result of convergent evolution. No fossils attributable to M. vivesi have been discovered.
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The wrist also changes the tautness of the patagium, a furry parachute-like membrane that stretches from wrist to ankle. It has a fluffy tail that stabilizes in flight. The tail acts as an adjunct airfoil, working as an air brake before landing on a tree trunk. The colugos, Petauridae, and Anomaluridae are gliding mammals which are similar to flying squirrels because of convergent evolution.
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As a result of the domestication process there is evidence of convergent evolution having occurred between dogs and humans. Dog evolution and domestication is tightly linked with that of humans. Dogs suffer from the same common diseases – such as cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and neurological disorders – as do humans. The underlying disease pathology is similar to humans, as is their responses and outcomes to treatment.
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The bat has the longest tongue (8.5 cm) relative to its body size of any mammal. Its tongue is 150% the size of its overall body length. By convergent evolution, pangolins, the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), and the tube-lipped nectar bat all have a tongue that is detached from their hyoid bones and extend past the pharynx deep into the thorax. This extension lies between the sternum and the trachea.
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The exact physiological basis of crown shyness is not certain. The phenomenon has been discussed in scientific literature since the 1920s.TASS III: Simulating the management, growth and yield of complex stands The variety of hypotheses and experimental results might suggest that there are multiple mechanisms across different species, an example of convergent evolution. Some hypotheses contend that the interdigitation of canopy branches leads to “reciprocal pruning” of adjacent trees.
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Species have an army-ant life style, including group predation and nomadism. Queens are similar to the true army ants (subfamily Dorylinae). That is, Onychomyrmex queens are dichthadiiform, having a broadened head, very small eyes, worker-like alitrunk without wings or sclerites, and an elongated bulky gaster. However, belonging to the tribe Amblyoponini, they are evidently amblyoponines and the army-ant like characters are deemed to have evolved through convergent evolution.
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While convergent evolution is often illustrated with animal examples, it has often occurred in plant evolution. For instance, C4 photosynthesis, one of the three major carbon-fixing biochemical processes, has arisen independently up to 40 times. About 7,600 plant species of angiosperms use carbon fixation, with many monocots including 46% of grasses such as maize and sugar cane, and dicots including several species in the Chenopodiaceae and the Amaranthaceae.
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Mudskippers (Periophthalmus gracilis shown) are among the most land adapted of fish (excepting, from a cladistic perspective, tetrapods), and are able to spend days moving about out of water. Amphibious fish are fish that are able to leave water for extended periods of time. About 11 distantly related genera of fish are considered amphibious. This suggests that many fish genera independently evolved amphibious traits, a process known as convergent evolution.
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The monophyly of Malacostraca is widely accepted. This is supported by several common morphological traits which are present throughout the group and is confirmed by molecular studies. However, a number of problems make it difficult to determine the relationships between the orders of Malacostraca. These include differences in mutation rates in different lineages, different patterns of evolution being apparent in different sources of data, including convergent evolution, and long branch attraction.
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Hackett, S. J. et al. (2008) A related study addressed the issue of paleognath phylogeny exclusively. It used molecular analysis and looked at twenty unlinked nuclear genes. This study concluded that there were at least three events of flightlessness that produced the different ratite orders, that the similarities between the ratite orders are partly due to convergent evolution, and that the Palaeognathae are monophyletic, but the ratites are not.
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Notable genera in Apteronotoidea that perform JAR include Eigenmannia and Apteronotus. Though they evolved the JAR separately, the South American and African taxa have convergently evolved nearly identical neural computational mechanisms and behavioral responses to avoid jamming, with only minor differences.Kawasaki, M. (1975) Independently evolved jamming avoidance responses in Gymnotid and Gymnarchid electric fish: a case of convergent evolution of behavior and its sensory basis. J. Comp. Physiol. 103:97-121.
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In 1875, they were separated as Odontolcae. The group was often considered to be related to loons and grebes, or to the Paleognathae (based on perceived similarities in the bony palate). These similarities, however, as the more recently determined fact that the osteons of their bones – at least in Hesperornis – were arranged in a pattern similar to that in Neognathae, are today considered to be due to convergent evolution.
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The twelve segmented antennae are long, being approximately , and have a notably short scape. The second flagellomere is elongated, a trait shared with other Cretaceous ants, possibly due to convergent evolution. The antennae sockets point the antenna nearly vertically off the head and there are several groups of spines on ridges and the frons. The metapleural gland has a small opening which shows on the mesosoma above the rear leg.
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Pigeon skeleton; numbers 10 and 11 indicates the tibiotarsus The tibiotarsus is the large bone between the femur and the tarsometatarsus in the leg of a bird. It is the fusion of the proximal part of the tarsus with the tibia. A similar structure also occurred in the Mesozoic Heterodontosauridae. These small ornithischian dinosaurs were unrelated to birds and the similarity of their foot bones is best explained by convergent evolution.
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In 1990, Marshall et al. (1990) considered the Cretaceous stagodontids to be members of Sparassodonta, but this was criticized by later authors. Marshall and Kielan-Jaworowska (1992) considered sparassodonts to be closely related to deltatheroidans, but this was also criticized. Most of these hypotheses were based on similar adaptations for carnivorous diets in sparassodonts, opossums, dasyuromorphians, stagodonts, and deltatheroidans, which are highly prone to convergent evolution within mammals.
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This puts mesonychids as a distant relative of cetaceans rather than an ancestor, and their somewhat similar physiology was possibly a result of convergent evolution. The oldest identified cetacean is the ambulocetid Himalayacetus dating to 52.5 million years ago (predating the terrestrial pakicetids), though the exact dating of Himalayacetus to Pakicetus is debated. Ambulocetidae also includes Gandakasia. Ambulocetidae is endemic to the Indian subcontinent, and spans the early to middle Eocene.
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Shenshou is thought to be arboreal because it had a light frame, a prehensile and elongated tail, and hands and feet which had evolved for clutching and enabled the animal to climb. These features, including the large incisors of Shenshou, made the animal resemble a squirrel. However, Shenshou are not the direct ancestors of squirrels, the resemblance being purely due to convergent evolution. Individuals are believed to have weighed .
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Old World army ants are divided between the Aenictini and Dorylini tribes. Aenictini contains more than 50 species of army ants in the single genus, Aenictus. However, the Dorylini contain the genus Dorylus, the most aggressive group of driver ants; 70 species are known. Originally, some of the Old World and New World lineages of army ants were thought to have evolved independently, in an example of convergent evolution.
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Caecilians are unique among amphibians in having mineralized dermal scales embedded in the dermis between the furrows in the skin. The similarity of these to the scales of bony fish is largely superficial. Lizards and some frogs have somewhat similar osteoderms forming bony deposits in the dermis, but this is an example of convergent evolution with similar structures having arisen independently in diverse vertebrate lineages. Cross section of frog skin.
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At the time that glyptodonts evolved, the apex predators in the island continent of South America were phorusrhacids, a family of giant flightless carnivorous birds. In physical appearance, glyptodonts superficially resembled the much earlier dinosaurian ankylosaurs and, to a lesser degree, the recently extinct giant meiolaniid turtles of Australia. These are examples of the convergent evolution of unrelated lineages into similar forms. The largest glyptodonts could weigh up to 2,000 kilograms.
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All-trans-retinal is also an essential component of microbial, opsins such as bacteriorhodopsin, channelrhodopsin, and halorhodopsin. In these molecules, light causes the all-trans-retinal to become 13-cis retinal, which then cycles back to all-trans-retinal in the dark state. These proteins are not evolutionarily related to animal opsins and are not GPCRs; the fact that they both use retinal is a result of convergent evolution.
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European treefrog (Hyla arborea) A treefrog, or tree frog, is any species of frog that spends a major portion of its lifespan in trees, known as an arboreal state. Several lineages of frogs among the Neobatrachia have given rise to treefrogs, although they are not closely related to each other. Millions of years of convergent evolution have resulted in very similar morphology even in species that aren't very closely related.
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Marsupials have adapted to many habitats, reflected in the wide variety in their build. The largest living marsupial, the red kangaroo, grows up to in height and in weight, but extinct genera, such as Diprotodon, were significantly larger and heavier. The smallest members of this group are the marsupial mice, which often reach only in body length. Some species resemble placental mammals and are examples of convergent evolution.
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"Right Whales and Flamingos: Convergent Evolution on a Grand Scale?". p.36-42. Johns Hopkins University Press. Retrieved on September 06, 2017 Balaenids are also robustly built by comparison with the rorquals, and lack the grooves along the throat that are distinctive of those animals. They have exceptionally large heads in comparison with their bodies, reaching 40% of the total length in the case of the bowhead whale.
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The mudnest builder family Corcoracidae itself is now placed in a narrower 'Core corvine' group, which contains the crows and ravens, shrikes, birds of paradise, fantails, monarch flycatchers, and drongos. It is only distantly related to the European chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), and Alpine chough (P. graculus), which are members of the crow family Corvidae. The similarities in appearance of dark plumage and downturned bill are the result of convergent evolution.
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Trapeziidae is a family of crabs, commonly known as coral crabs. All the species in the family are found in a close symbiosis with cnidarians. They are found across the Indo-Pacific, and can best be identified to the species level by the colour patterns they display. Members of the family Tetraliidae were previously included in the Trapeziidae, but the similarities between the taxa is the result of convergent evolution.
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Titanosaurs are classified as sauropod dinosaurs. They are a highly diverse group form the dominant clade of Cretaceous sauropods. Within Sauropoda, titanosaurs were once classified as close relatives of Diplodocidae due to their shared characteristic of narrow teeth, but this is now known to be the result of convergent evolution. Titanosaurs are now known to be most closely related to euhelopodids and brachiosaurids; together they form a clade named Titanosauriformes.
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Several species are highly convergent with other Ranidae "torrent frogs". A. archotaphus and its relatives for example very much resemble Odorrana livida. In another incidence of convergent evolution yielding adaptation to habitat, the tadpoles of Amolops, Huia, Meristogenys as well as Rana sauteri have a raised and usually well-developed sucker on their belly. This is useful in keeping in place in rocky torrents, where these frogs grow up.
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Despite his resemblance to an Earth monkey, due to convergent evolution producing analogous species to fill similar ecological niches, Beppo is from the planet Krypton. He was originally one of Jor-El's test animals. Luckily for him, Beppo decided to stow away aboard baby Kal-El's rocket to Earth and was thus saved from its destruction. Upon landing, Beppo hopped out unseen and went off on his own for some months.
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Temperament, whether an animal is bold or shy, has also been found to predict success. As for the evolution of cooperation, evidence from cooperative pulling experiments appears to support the theory that cooperation evolved multiple times independently. The fact that basic characteristics of cooperation are present in some mammals and some birds points to a case of convergent evolution. Within social animals, cooperation is suspected to be a cognitive adaptation.
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The production of ergatoid queens has developed across at least 16 subfamilies and 55 genera. It has been suggested that this convergent evolution toward ergatoids stems from the DCF behavior that most ergatoid-producing species exhibit. It has also been suggested that the production of ergatoid queens is advantageous as it is less costly, and ergatoid queens may have higher survival rates than winged, independent colony forming queens.
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Auks are superficially similar to penguins having black-and- white colours, upright posture and some of their habits. Nevertheless, they are not closely related to penguins, but rather are believed to be an example of moderate convergent evolution. Auks are monomorphic (males and females are similar in appearance). Extant auks range in size from the least auklet, at 85 g (3 oz) and , to the thick-billed murre, at and .
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The thorny devil was first described by the biologist John Edward Gray in 1841. While it is the only species contained in the genus Moloch, many taxonomists suspect another species might remain to be found in the wild. The thorny devil is only distantly related to the morphologically similar North American horned lizards of the genus Phrynosoma. This similarity is usually thought of as an example of convergent evolution.
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They use a moth pheromone for this, which resembles the one used by the bolas spiders of the genus Mastophora. Though they belong to the same family, the two genera are not closely related, so this is likely an example of convergent evolution. All species are pale yellow-white with scattered, small, white, brown and black random spots, or in some species transverse bands. Females have a body length of about .
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The cladogram link between coelophysids and ceratosaurs is an exception, it would place the origin of coelophysids much too late. The simplest explanation is convergent evolution - ceratosaur bones evolved independently into a shape that resembles that of the earlier coelophysids. The other possibility is that ceratosaurs evolved much earlier than the fossil record suggests. Most dinosaur fossils have been found in the Norian-Sinemurian, Kimmeridgian-Tithonian, and Campanian-Maastrichtian periods.
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This would have given the animal an appearance similar to modern bats, in an example of convergent evolution. However, in bats, the membrane stretches between the fingers only, no styliform wrist bone being present. Ossified styliform bones are found, however, in the wings of some modern gliding animals like flying squirrels. The greater glider, and the prehistoric gliding rodent Eomys quercyi, also have a similarly long cartilaginous styliform element.
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Bork P, Sander C, Valencia A: Convergent evolution of similar enzymatic function on different protein folds: the hexokinase, ribokinase, and galactokinase families of sugar kinases. Protein Sci 1993, 2: 31-40. The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP:D-fructose-phosphate 6-phosphotransferase. Other names in common use include fructose-1-phosphate kinase, 1-phosphofructokinase (phosphorylating), D-fructose-1-phosphate kinase, fructose 1-phosphate kinase, and 1-phosphofructokinase.
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Convergent evolution is when distantly related species independently evolve similar solutions to the same problem. For example, fish, penguins and dolphins have each separately evolved flippers as a solution to the problem of moving through the water. What has been found between dogs and humans is something less frequently demonstrated: psychological convergence. Dogs have independently evolved to be cognitively more similar to humans than we are to our closest genetic relatives.
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Abdounodus ("Abdoun tooth") is an extinct genus of mammal known from the middle Paleocene of northern Africa. The sole species, A. hamdii, is known from teeth discovered in the Ouled Abdoun Basin of present-day Morocco in 2001. Traditionally considered a mioclaenid "condylarth", recent studies place it as a basal afrothere closely related to Ocepeia, demonstrating the close convergent evolution between perissodactyls and herbivorous afrotheres and bridging paenungulates with other afrotheres.
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The various genera of the Panopeidae are morphologically similar, partly as a result of many instances of convergent evolution to similar habitats and food preferences. Crabs of the family Panopeidae are all free-living (not commensal or parasitic), and typically live in soft-bottomed parts of the ocean, lending them the common name "mud crabs" (a name also shared by other organisms). They burrow into the sediment and feed on a variety of marine invertebrates.
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Spindle cells appear to play a central role in the development of intelligent behavior. As well as in humans and the rest of the great apes, spindle neurons are also found in the brains of both Asian and African elephants, as well as humpback whales, fin whales, killer whales, sperm whales, bottlenose dolphins, Risso's dolphins, and beluga whales. The remarkable similarity between the elephant brain and the human brain supports the thesis of convergent evolution.
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The pied shrike-babbler (Pteruthius flaviscapis) is a bird species traditionally considered an aberrant Old World babbler and placed in the family Timaliidae. But as it seems, it belongs to an Asian offshoot of the American vireos and may well belong in the Vireonidae. Indeed, since long it was noted that their habits resemble those of vireos, but this was believed to be the result of convergent evolution. It is endemic to Java.
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Promeropidae was also once classified in the Australian Meliphagidae (honeyeaters) family, because of their shared and unique tongue structure, behaviour, and nest-building. There was no evidence of common lineage, however, and similarities appear to be from convergent evolution. Analysis of protein structure from egg whites and red blood cells showed that sugarbirds are derived specialists of African starlings. Genetically, the Promerops genus is most closely related to the Cinnyricinclus and Onychognathus genera.
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Since these have evolved separately, the similar appearance is due to convergent evolution. This was used as early evidence for natural selection. Some high Arctic species like the snowy owl and polar bear however remain white all year round. In military usage, soldiers often either exchange their disruptively-patterned summer uniforms for thicker snow camouflage uniforms printed with mainly-white versions of camouflage patterns in winter, or they wear white overalls over their uniforms.
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Smooth adhesive pads are an example of convergent evolution between amphibians (geckos and frogs), arthropods and mammals (possum). The mechanisms involved even appear to be similar. This could indicate that this method of locomotion has found its optimal form in many species of animals. Hairy attachment systems of the gekkonid lizards and spiders do not produce fluids, these organisms rely on van der Waals interactions for the generation of strong attractive forces.
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Some arboreal mammals, notably primates and marsupials, have shades of violet, green, or blue skin on parts of their bodies, indicating some distinct advantage in their largely arboreal habitat due to convergent evolution. The green coloration of sloths, however, is the result of a symbiotic relationship with algae. Coat color is sometimes sexually dimorphic, as in many primate species. Coat color may influence the ability to retain heat, depending on how much light is reflected.
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It also had a comparatively high . The sternum was fused into a single, large, continuous plate, another feature that evolved independently in coelurosaurs (convergent evolution). Limusaurus also had a furcula, or wishbone, which previously was unknown among ceratosaurians. The head of the humerus (upper arm bone) was bulging, and the , a forward-directed bony flange of the humerus that served for muscle attachment, was long and angled; these features were typical for ceratosaurians.
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New World orioles are a group of birds in the genus Icterus of the blackbird family. Unrelated to Old World orioles of the family Oriolidae, they are strikingly similar in size, diet, behavior, and strongly contrasting plumage, a good example of convergent evolution. As a result, the two have been given the same vernacular name. Males are typically black and vibrant yellow or orange with white markings, females and immature birds duller.
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Such characteristics may have developed homoplasiously (from convergent evolution) among multiple lineages due to similar lifestyles, which can bias phylogenetic analyses to reconstruct them as homologies (derived from shared ancestry). The persistence of these reconstructed relationships even after the removal of aquatic characteristics points to their robustness. Below, the phylogenetic tree from the phylogenetic analysis published by Huang, Motani, and colleagues in 2019, in the description of Chaohusaurus brevifemoralis, is partially reproduced.
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The mushrooms have thick gills of a variable colour, ranging from yellow to rust but staining darker, and the yellow flesh has a mild taste. The mushrooms leave a rusty-brown spore print, while the spores themselves measure from in length. The species is most similar in appearance to G. arenophilus and G. fulgens, but can be differentiated from both morphologically. Despite the similarities, it is not closely related to either, suggesting convergent evolution.
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In paleontology, an Elvis taxon (plural Elvis taxa) is a taxon that has been misidentified as having re-emerged in the fossil record after a period of presumed extinction, but is not actually a descendant of the original taxon, instead having developed a similar morphology by convergent evolution. This implies that the extinction of the original taxon is real, and one taxon containing specimens from before and after the extinction would be polyphyletic.
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The crural gland produces a venom secretion containing at least nineteen peptides; superadded by non-nitrogenous components. Those peptides that have been sequenced and identified fall into three categories: defensin- like peptides (OvDLPs), C-type natriuretic peptides (OvCNPs), and nerve growth factor (OvNGF). The OvDLPs are related to, though distinct from, those involved in reptilian venom production. This appears to be an example of convergent evolution of venom genes from existing immune system genes (defensins).
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Early classifications depended on morphological comparison only, but because of extensive convergent evolution, these do not provide a reliable phylogeny. Although a substantial effort was made through molecular phylogenetic studies, the relationships within the Brassicaceae have not always been well resolved yet. It has long been clear that the Aethionema are sister of the remainder of the family. One analysis from 2014 represented the relation between 39 tribes with the following tree.
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Dogs have also shown some interesting but limited abilities at social cognition in a series of studies by Hare and Tomasello (2005). Dogs have the ability to read human social cues, even to a greater extent than chimpanzees. Dogs are able to respond to human pointing, the human gaze, and subtle human nods without training. Researchers now believe that these abilities are the result of convergent evolution between humans and dogs through domestication.
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Dolphins display convergent evolution with fish and aquatic reptiles Dolphins are descendants of land-dwelling mammals of the artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulates). They are related to the Indohyus, an extinct chevrotain-like ungulate, from which they split approximately 48 million years ago. The primitive cetaceans, or archaeocetes, first took to the sea approximately 49 million years ago and became fully aquatic by 5–10 million years later. Archaeoceti is a parvorder comprising ancient whales.
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Despite their name, they are not related to adders, which are members of the family Viperidae, and their similar appearance is due to convergent evolution. They normally take 2–3 years to reach adult size. Females are generally slightly larger than the males. They can also be easily distinguished from other Australian snakes because of a small, worm like lure on the end of their tail, which is used to attract prey.
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Euphorbia horrida, the African milk barrel, is a species of flowering plant in the family Euphorbiaceae, native to South Africa. It is a cactus-like shrub showing remarkable similarities to the true cacti of the New World, and thus an example of convergent evolution. Growing to , it has blue-green, heavily ridged spiny stems carrying solitary green flowers in summer. In temperate regions it must be grown in heated conditions under glass.
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This interaction between plants and mammal has been compared to those on other continents, such as the squirrels and agoutis, and posited as an example of convergent evolution. The lack of size difference in the sexes corresponds to a limited home range for males, the inability to range beyond the female also allows greater attention to sexual competitors. The high level of overlaps in range of a local populous allows high population densities.
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The snout scales in Amazon Basin specimens are also much smaller than in their Northern, Southern and Western counterparts found, for example, in Surinam, Venezuela, Bolivia, and French Guiana. Hybrid forms between the Northern Shield Corallus caninus and the Amazon Basin form are also known to exist. C. caninus appears very similar to the green tree python (Morelia viridis) from southeast Asia and Australia. Only very distantly related, this is an example of convergent evolution.
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While the purpose for toxicity in these birds is not certain, the presence of batrachotoxins in these species is an example of convergent evolution. It is believed that these birds gain the toxin from batrachotoxin- containing insects that they eat, and then secrete it through the skin. Batrachotoxin has also been found in a few Colombian frog species: golden poison frog (Phyllobates terribilis), black-legged poison frog (P. bicolor), and Kokoe poison frog (P. aurotaenia).
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It can be differentiated from its close cousin, the golden takin, largely by its coat color among other morphological differences, in addition to a different range of habitat. The takin was previously considered closely related to the Arctic muskox. Physical similarities have now been found to be due to convergent evolution and not through a common ancestor. DNA sequencing recently revealed various sheep are close relatives (goats, tahrs, sheep, bharal, Barbary sheep).
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Raninidae is a family of unusual crabs, sometimes known as "frog crabs", on account of their frog-like appearance. They are taken by most scientists to be quite primitive among the true crabs. They closely resemble the (unrelated) mole crabs, due to parallel evolution or convergent evolution. In both groups, the claws are modified into tools for digging, and the body is a rounded shape that is easy to bury in sand.
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SAM-V riboswitch is the fifth known riboswitch to bind S-adenosyl methionine (SAM). It was first discovered in the marine bacterium Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique and can also be found in marine metagenomes. SAM-V features a similar consensus sequence and secondary structure as the binding site of SAM-II riboswitch, but bioinformatics scans cluster the two aptamers independently. These similar binding pockets suggest that the two riboswitches have undergone convergent evolution.
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The large orb web of Araneus diadematus (European garden spider). There is no consistent relationship between the classification of spiders and the types of web they build: species in the same genus may build very similar or significantly different webs. Nor is there much correspondence between spiders' classification and the chemical composition of their silks. Convergent evolution in web construction, in other words use of similar techniques by remotely related species, is rampant.
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Romulus is a fictional comic book supervillain appearing in books published by Marvel Comics, in particular those featuring Wolverine. He is the leader of the Lupines, a species resembling humans that he claims evolved from canines instead of primates through convergent evolution. A shadowy character whose origin and motives remain a mystery, he is shown to have orchestrated most major events in the life of Wolverine, manipulating and controlling him for most of his life.
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This differs from the angiosperm condition, which results in the separation of the egg cell and endosperm. Comparative molecular research on the genome of G. gnemon has revealed that gnetophytes are more closely related to conifers than they are to angiosperms. The rejection of the anthophyte hypothesis, which identifies gnetales and angiosperms are sister taxa, leads to speculation that the process of double fertilization is a product of convergent evolution and arose independently among gnetophytes and angiosperms.
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Cheating, where either a cleaner sometimes harms its client, or a predatory species mimics a cleaner, also occurs. Predatory cheating is analogous to Batesian mimicry, as where a harmless hoverfly mimics a stinging wasp, though with the tables turned. Some genuine cleaner fish, such as gobies and wrasse, have the same colours and patterns, in an example of convergent evolution. Mutual resemblance among cleaner fish is analogous to Müllerian mimicry, as where stinging bees and wasps mimic each other.
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Astrobiologists Dirk Schulze-Makuch and William Bains, reviewing the history of life on Earth, including convergent evolution, concluded that transitions such as oxygenic photosynthesis, the eukaryotic cell, multicellularity, and tool-using intelligence are likely to occur on any Earth-like planet given enough time. They argue that the Great Filter may be abiogenesis, the rise of technological human-level intelligence, or an inability to settle other worlds because of self-destruction or a lack of resources.
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The Dalat shrike-babbler (Pteruthius annamensis) is a bird species traditionally considered an aberrant Old World babbler and placed in the family Timaliidae. But as it seems, it belongs to an Asian offshoot of the American vireos and may well belong in the Vireonidae. Indeed, since long it was noted that their habits resemble those of vireos, but this was believed to be the result of convergent evolution. It is endemic to southern Vietnam on the Da Lat Plateau.
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Similarities which have no adaptive relevance cannot be explained by convergent evolution, and therefore they provide compelling support for universal common descent. Such evidence has come from two areas: amino acid sequences and DNA sequences. Proteins with the same three-dimensional structure need not have identical amino acid sequences; any irrelevant similarity between the sequences is evidence for common descent. In certain cases, there are several codons (DNA triplets) that code redundantly for the same amino acid.
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In deciduous tropical lauraceae, leaf loss coincides with the dry season in tropical, subtropical and arid regions. In temperate or polar climates the dry season is due to the inability of the plant to absorb water available by to be in the form of ice. In convergent evolution ecological or physical coincidences, drive toward a similar solution, including analogous structures. The dispersal of seeds is due to birds that swallow them, so the berries shape attract to birds.
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Its most strongly supported subclade is the sister pair of N. inermis and N. dubia, having 95% support. Although N. aristolochioides resembles N. klossii in some respects, the two species are geographically isolated from each other and are not thought to be closely related. The unique adaptations of these taxa might represent an example of convergent evolution, whereby two organisms that are not closely related independently acquire similar characteristics while evolving in separate, but comparable, ecosystems.
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A phylogeny showing when gill slits may have arisen. It is thought that gill slits were subsequently lost in echinoderms. The presence of pharyngeal slits in hemichordates led to debates of whether this structure was homologous to the slits found in chordates or a result of convergent evolution. With the placement of hemichordates and echinoderms as a sister group to chordates, a new hypothesis has emerged-suggesting that pharyngeal gill slits were present in the deuterostome ancestor .
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Gheerbrant et al. noted these features and some others are shared with the pantodonts Haplolambda and Leptolambda, but due to many differences between the two, including number of teeth, the similarities are thought to be the result of convergent evolution. The dental traits Ocepeia shares with primitive eutherians include large canines, simplified premolars, and the above-mentioned lack of a hypocone. The selenodont molars and vestigial third incisors are traits shared with paenungulates and proboscideans, respectively.
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An Elvis taxon is a look-alike that has supplanted an extinct taxon through convergent evolution. A zombie taxon is a taxon that contains specimens that have been collected from strata younger than the extinction of the taxon. Later such fossils turn out to be freed from the original seam and refossilized in a younger sediment. For example, a trilobite that gets eroded out of its Cambrian-aged limestone matrix, and reworked into Miocene-aged siltstone.
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A 1977 study argued that these similarities are the result of convergent evolution, and placed Caluromys, Caluromysiops and Glironia in a new subfamily, Caluromyinae. In another similar revision, the bushy-tailed opossum was placed in its own subfamily, Glironiinae. The cladogram below, based on a 2016 study, shows the phylogenetic relationships of the bushy-tailed opossum. The generic name is a compound of the Latin glir ("dormouse") and Greek suffix -ia (pertains to "quality" or "condition").
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The clade Eutherocephalia contains the majority of therocephalians, yet the phylogenetic relations of the groups within it remain unclear. Eutherocephalia is supported as a true clade in many phylogenetic analyses, but the placement of groups like Akidnognathidae, Hofmeyriidae, Whaitsiidae, and Baurioidea, all of which lie within Eutherocephalia, remains debated. The Eutherocephalians evolved several mammal-like traits through convergent evolution with the Cynodonts. Among those traits were the loss of palatine teeth and the reduction of the parietal eye.
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The Tugars are a horde of alien humanoids that devour humans as "cattle", circling the world and devouring one-fifth of the people in each city-state roughly every 20 years. However the men of the 35th have a substantial advantage over the beings of this world: guns. The Tugars are biologically very close to humans, and can contract some of the same diseases. They evolved on another world and resemble humans due to convergent evolution.
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Ectosymbiosis has independently evolved through convergent evolution in all domains of life. Sea urchins, with their many spines provide protection for the ectosymbiotic parasites that live on them. Ectosymbiosis allows niches to form that would otherwise be unable to exist without the support of their host. Inherently this added niche opens up a new branch off of the evolutionary tree The evolutionary success of ectosymbiosis is based on the benefits experienced by the parasite and the host.
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Pol & Norell (2004) found Zosuchus davidsoni to be sister to Sichuanosuchus and Shantungosuchus, the three forming a basal clade of crocodyliforms based on the presence of a ventrally deflected posterior region of the mandibular rami. A 2018 cladistic analysis found Zosuchus, along with Sichuanosuchus, Shantungosuchus, and Shartegosuchidae, to form a basal mesoeucrocodyliform clade, Shartegosuchoidea.Kathleen N. Dollman; James M. Clark; Mark A. Norell; Xu Xing; Jonah N. Choiniere (2018). "Convergent evolution of a eusuchian-type secondary palate within Shartegosuchidae".
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This is an example of convergent evolution. Pill millipedes can be distinguished from woodlice on the basis of having two pairs of legs per body segment instead of one pair like all isopods. Pill millipedes have 12 to 13 body segments and about 18 pairs of legs, whereas woodlice have 11 segments and only seven pairs of legs. In addition, pill millipedes are smoother, and resemble normal millipedes in overall colouring and the shape of the segments.
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Sordes preserved pycnofibers Most or all pterosaurs had hair-like filaments known as pycnofibers on the head and torso. The term "pycnofiber", meaning "dense filament", was coined by palaeontologist Alexander Kellner and colleagues in 2009. Pycnofibers were unique structures similar to, but not homologous (sharing a common origin) with, mammalian hair, an example of convergent evolution. A fuzzy integument was first reported from a specimen of Scaphognathus crassirostris in 1831 by Georg Augustus Goldfuss, but had been widely doubted.
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Phenetic analyses are unrooted, that is, they do not distinguish between plesiomorphies, traits that are inherited from an ancestor, and apomorphies, traits that evolved anew in one or several lineages. A common problem with phenetic analysis is that basal evolutionary grades, which retain many plesiomorphies compared to more advanced lineages, appear to be monophyletic. Phenetic analyses are also liable to be misled by convergent evolution and adaptive radiation. Cladistic methods have attempted to solve those problems.
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All other forms blend in well with tree bark upon which they rest during the day. Some of these tree bark forms have developed a flap of skin, running the length of the body, known as a "dermal flap", which they lay against the tree during the day, scattering shadows, and making their outline practically invisible. These geckos bear a resemblance to geckos of the genera Phyllurus and Saltuarius of Australia. This is an example of convergent evolution.
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Palate and upper dentition of R. equinus Rhynchippus was about in length and weighted up to , with a deep body and three clawed toes on each foot.Patterson & Pires Costa, 2012, p.83 Although its teeth were extremely similar to those of horses or rhinos, Rhynchippus was actually a relative of Toxodon, having developed teeth suitable for grazing through convergent evolution. Unlike its relatives, Rhynchippus had no large tusks; they were the same size and shape as the incisors.
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Cuckoo bumblebee Bombus (Psithyrus) rupestris killed by owners of the nest it was trying to usurp, Bombus lapidarius workers Nest usurpation is when the queen of one species of eusocial insects takes over the colony of another species. Cuckoo bumblebees (Psithyrus) and brood-parasitic paper wasps (e.g., Polistes sulcifer) are known for usurpation.Cervo R, Macinai V, Dechigi F, Turillazzi S. (2004). “Fast growth of immature brood in a social parasite wasp: a convergent evolution between avian and insect cuckoos”.
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Gemuendina stuertzi is a placoderm of the order Rhenanida, of the seas of Early Devonian Germany. In life, Gemuendina resembled a scaly ray with an upturned head, or a large-finned stargazer. G. stuertzi is often invoked as an example of convergent evolution- with its flat body and huge, wing-like pectoral fins it has a strong, albeit superficial similarity to rays. Unlike rays, however, both Gemuendina`s eyes and nostrils were placed atop the head, facing upward.
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3 mya. Three species are poly- or paraphyletic in the present taxonomical arrangement and either subspecies need to be reassigned and/or species split up. The blue- headed wagtail (AKA yellow wagtail and many other names), especially, has always been a taxonomical nightmare with over a dozen currently accepted subspecies and many more invalid ones. The two remaining "monochrome" species, Mekong and African pied wagtail may be closely related, or a most striking example of convergent evolution.
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Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa, commonly known as the European mole cricket, is widespread in Europe and has been introduced to the eastern United States. The scientific name is derived from the Latin 'gryllus' meaning a cricket and 'talpa', a mole, and is descriptive because of the fine dense fur by which it is covered and its subterranean habits,ARKive.org: Gryllotalpa . Retrieved 14 May 2015 and because of the mole-like forelegs adapted for digging, a good example of convergent evolution.
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Human populations such as some Tibetans, South Americans and Ethiopians live in the otherwise uninhabitable high mountains of the Himalayas, Andes and Ethiopian Highlands respectively. The adaptation of humans to high altitude is an example of natural selection in action. High- altitude adaptations provide examples of convergent evolution, with adaptations occurring simultaneously on three continents. Tibetan humans and Tibetan domestic dogs share a genetic mutation in EPAS1, but it has not been seen in Andean humans.
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Bork P, Sander C, Valencia A: Convergent evolution of similar enzymatic function on different protein folds: the hexokinase, ribokinase, and galactokinase families of sugar kinases. Protein Sci 1993, 2: 31-40. The systematic name of this enzyme class is ATP:D-tagatose-6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase. The members of the PfkB/RK family are identified by the presence of three conserved sequence motifs and their enzymatic activity generally shows a dependence on the presence of pentavalent ions.
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These two species are not closely related, however, and are likely to be separated in different genera.Weibel, Amy C. & Moore, William S. (2005): Plumage convergence in Picoides woodpeckers based on a molecular phylogeny, with emphasis on convergence in downy and hairy woodpeckers. Condor 107(4): 797–809. (HTML abstract)Moore, William S.; Weibel, Amy C. & Agius, Andrea (2006): Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of the woodpecker genus Veniliornis (Picidae, Picinae) and related genera implies convergent evolution of plumage patterns. Biol.
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Other members of this family (also known as the Ribokinase family) include ribokinase (RK) adenosine kinase (AK), fructokinase, and 1-phosphofructokinase.Bork P, Sander C, Valencia A: Convergent evolution of similar enzymatic function on different protein folds: the hexokinase, ribokinase, and galactokinase families of sugar kinases. Protein Sci 1993, 2: 31-40.Spychala J, Datta NS, Takabayashi K, Datta M, Fox IH, Gribbin T, Mitchell BS: Cloning of human adenosine kinase cDNA: sequence similarity to microbial ribokinases and fructokinases.
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These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of trochophore larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods because they are both segmented. Now, this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla. Among lesser phyla of invertebrates are the Hemichordata, or acorn worms, and the Chaetognatha, or arrow worms. Other phyla include Acoelomorpha, Brachiopoda, Bryozoa, Entoprocta, Phoronida, and Xenoturbellida.
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The active site is exposed to the solvent via a perpendicular channel that consists of Arg150, Tyr146, Asp20, Pro67, His98, and His19. Although mechanistically similar to triosephosphate isomerase (TIM), MGS contains widely dissimilar protein folding that prevents structural alignment with TIM which suggests convergent evolution of their chemical reactions. However, Asp71 in MGS may act similarly to the Glu165, the catalytic base in TIM. Additionally, His19 and His98 may perform the role of the electrophilic catalyst similar to His95 in TIM.
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Microgale jenkinsae is placed with the family Tenrecidae. Members of this family "do not have a wide geographic distribution. They are most numerous and diverse on the island of Madagascar, but a few species are also found in western central Africa." Various species in the family are similar to "hedgehogs, shrews, opossums, mice and even otters; and members of the family occupy a diverse collection of habitats, including aquatic, arboreal, terrestrial and fossorial," this is a result of convergent evolution.
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The genera of plants within the tribe Stapelieae are all to varying degrees stem succulents. Many of the species resemble cacti, though are not closely related, as an example of convergent evolution. The stems are often angular, mostly four-angled in cross-section, but in some species there are six or more, with some species of Hoodia having more than thirty angles. In size they vary from less than 2.5 cm/1" in length to over 2 m/6" tall.
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Convergent evolution and paraphyly of the hawk‐eagles of the genus Spizaetus (Aves, Accipitridae)–phylogenetic analyses based on mitochondrial markers. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, 45(4), 353-365. The history of the American Spizaetus genus has been indicated by the diversity of hawk- eagles found in the fossil records in the United States and Mexico. At least five such species have been described, having presumably radiated from basal hawk-eagles of Asian origin across the Bering Land Bridge.
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A skeletal diagram of Acherontiscus Adelospondyls share a variety of traits with other lepospondyls, although whether these traits are an example of convergent evolution is a controversial topic. Like the aïstopods and lysorophian "microsaurs", they had very elongated bodies similar to that of snakes and eels. In addition, they lacked limbs (similarly to the aïstopods), although forelimbs were supposedly found in various adelogyrinids in the late 1960s. Andrews & Carroll (1991) found that all cases of forelimb bones in adelogyrinids were actually misinterpretations.
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Adaptations to arboreal lifestyle are understood to evolve through convergent evolution. However, many arboreal vertebrates share similar physical mechanisms (grasping, clinging, hooking)Hildebrand, M. & Goslow, G. E. J. 2001 Analysis of vertebrate structure, 5th edn. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Suminia is referred to as the earliest known arboreal tetrapod due to the suggested grasping abilities inferred from the notably enlarged and phalangiform carpal 1 and tarsal 1 which indicate that they possess a divergent first digit, capable of grasping.
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It is unknown when river dolphins first ventured back into fresh water. River dolphins are thought to have relictual distributions, that is, their ancestors originally occupied marine habitats, but were then displaced from these habitats by modern dolphin lineages. Many of the morphological similarities and adaptations to freshwater habitats arose due to convergent evolution; thus, a grouping of all river dolphins is polyphyletic. Amazon river dolphins are actually more closely related to oceanic dolphins than to South Asian river dolphins.
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In many secondarily aquatic vertebrates, the non-bony tissues of the forelimbs and/or hindlimbs are fused into a single flipper. Some remnant of each digit generally remains under the soft tissue of the flipper, though digit reduction gradually occurs such as in baleen whales (mysticeti). Marine mammals evolving flippers represents a classic example of convergent evolution, and by some analyses, parallel evolution. Full webbing of the digits in the manus and/or pes is present in a number of aquatic tetrapods.
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Evolution at an amino acid position. In each case, the left-hand species changes from having alanine (A) at a specific position in a protein in a hypothetical ancestor, and now has serine (S) there. The right- hand species may undergo divergent, parallel, or convergent evolution at this amino acid position relative to the first species. When two species are similar in a particular character, evolution is defined as parallel if the ancestors were also similar, and convergent if they were not.
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Two major concepts of comparative anatomy are: # Homologous structures - structures (body parts/anatomy) which are similar in different species because the species have common descent and have evolved, usually divergently, from a shared ancestor. They may or may not perform the same function. An example is the forelimb structure shared by cats and whales. # Analogous structures - structures similar in different organisms because, in convergent evolution, they evolved in a similar environment, rather than were inherited from a recent common ancestor.
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The use of adhesive pads for locomotion across non-horizontal surfaces is a trait that evolved separately in different species, making it an example of convergent evolution. The power of adhesion allows these organisms to be able to climb on almost any substance. The exact mechanisms of arthropod adhesion are still unknown for some species but this topic is of great importance to biologists, physicists and engineers. These highly specialized structures are not restricted to one particular area of the leg.
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Unrelated birds might have developed ratite-like anatomies multiple times around the world through convergent evolution. McDowell (1948) asserted that the similarities in the palate anatomy of paleognathes might actually be neoteny, or retained embryonic features. He noted that there were other feature of the skull, such as the retention of sutures into adulthood, that were like those of juvenile birds. Thus, perhaps the characteristic palate was actually a frozen stage that many carinate bird embryos passed through during development.
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The neural pathway of JAR in the African Gymnarchus is nearly identical to that of the Gymnotiformes, with a few minor differences. S-units in Gymnarchus are time coders, like the T-units in Gymnotiformes. O-units code the signal's intensity, like P-units in Gymnotiformes, but responds over a narrower range of intensities.Bullock, T., Behrend, K., Heiligenberg, W. (1975) Comparison of the jamming avoidance responses in Gymnotid and Gymnarchid electric fish: A case of convergent evolution of behavior and its sensory basis.
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Compared to other flowering plant orders, the taxonomy is poorly understood due to their great diversity, difficulty in identification, and limited study. The order Cucurbitales in the eurosid I clade comprises almost 2600 species in 109 or 110 genera in eight families, tropical and temperate, of very different sizes, morphology, and ecology. It is a case of divergent evolution. In contrast, there is convergent evolution with other groups not related due to ecological or physical drivers toward a similar solution, including analogous structures.
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Some species are trees that have similar foliage to the true laurels due to convergent evolution. The patterns of speciation in the Cucurbitales are diversified in a high number of species. They have a pantropical distribution with centers of diversity in Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia. They most likely originated in West Gondwana 67–107 million years ago, so the oldest split could relate to the break-up of Gondwana in the middle Eocene to late Oligocene, 45–24 million years ago.
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And a new name is required for this grand family of > vegetarians. So I hereby christen them the Phytodinosauria, the "plant > dinosaurs". Both sauropodomorphs and ornithischians are characterized by their “blunt, spoon-crowned teeth suitable for cropping plants” and these would not be an instance of convergent evolution, both groups adapting to a herbivorous mode of living, but a sign they were descended from a plant-eating common ancestor. Bakker classified the Phytodinosauria as a superorder of mostly herbivorous dinosaurs within the Dinosauria.
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There is debate about the evolutionary origin of this domain. One study has suggested that a single ancestral enzyme could have diverged into several families, while another suggests that a stable TIM- barrel structure has evolved through convergent evolution. The TIM-barrel in pyruvate kinase is 'discontinuous', meaning that more than one segment of the polypeptide is required to form the domain. This is likely to be the result of the insertion of one domain into another during the protein's evolution.
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Nearly all of its different sections consists of clusters of closely related species whose determination is one of the hardest tasks in a closer study of the Anatolian flora. One of the most successful growth forms of Turkish Astragali is the thorn cushion, which is very characteristic of the dry mountains of inner Anatolia. Such thorn cushions were not exclusively invented by many Astragali. Really striking examples of convergent evolution are the impressive thorn cushions of Onobrychis cornuta, also belonging to the Fabaceae.
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Malagasy hippopotamuses were first discovered in the mid-19th century by Alfred Grandidier, who unearthed nearly 50 individual hippos from a dried-up swamp at Ambolisaka near Lake Ihotry, a few miles from the Mozambique Channel. In 1989, Scandinavian palaeontologist Solweig Stuenes described H. madagascariensis and H. lemerlei from these bones. It has been classified as a species of pygmy hippopotamus (genus Choeropsis or Hexaprotodon), though similarities may simply be due to convergent evolution. Other Malagasy hippos are classified into the genus Hippopotamus.
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The elephant's brain is similar to a human brain in terms of structure and complexity; the elephant's cortex has as many neurons as that of a human brain, suggesting convergent evolution. Elephants exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, including those associated with grief, learning, mimicry, art, play, a sense of humor, altruism, use of tools, compassion, cooperation, self-awareness, memory and possibly language. All point to a highly intelligent species that is thought to be equal with cetaceans and primates.
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279x279px Hypocephalus armatus can reach a body length of about . This rare species has an evident sexual dimorphism, as the very strong legs of the males are more developed than in females. It is similar in appearance to a mole cricket through convergent evolution. In both sexes the flight wings are absent, the prothorax is ovoid and shiny black, the dark brown elytra are welded together and the hind legs are much heavier than the others and adapted for digging.
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Two major alternatives presented themselves. One possibility was that Haestasaurus was indeed a, basal, member of the Titanosauria. Alternatively, Haestasaurus was a basal member of the larger clade of the Macronaria, a close relative of Camarasaurus, Janenschia or Tehuelchesaurus. The authors favoured the last possibility because the traits pointing to a membership of the Titanosauria, such as a robust humerus and a robust ulna, could easily have been developed in a process of convergent evolution, as adaptations for weight-bearing.
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There is residual disagreement over which family the genus should be placed in. Traditional classification systems recognized Nelumbo as part of the Nymphaeaceae, but traditional taxonomists were likely misled by convergent evolution associated with an evolutionary shift from a terrestrial to an aquatic lifestyle. In the older classification systems it was recognized under the biological order Nymphaeales or Nelumbonales. Nelumbo is currently recognized as the only living genus in Nelumbonaceae, one of several distinctive families in the eudicot order of the Proteales.
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Other largish Aquila species, the eastern imperial, the Spanish imperial, the tawny and the steppe eagles, are now thought to be separate, close-knit clade, which attained some similar characteristics to the prior clade via convergent evolution. Genetically, the "spotted eagles" (A. pomarina, hasata and clanga), have been discovered to be more closely related to the long-crested eagle (Lophaetus occipitalis) and the black eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis), and many generic reassignments have been advocated. The genus Hieraaetus, including the booted eagle (H.
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In 1920, Georg Hieronymus transferred the species to Pellaea. The development of molecular phylogenetic methods showed that the traditional circumscription of Cheilanthes is polyphyletic. Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify it and the segregate genera that have sometimes been recognized. On the basis of molecular evidence, Amanda Grusz and Michael D. Windham revived the genus Myriopteris in 2013 for a group of species formerly placed in Cheilanthes.
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Evidence suggests the convergent evolution in perching and patrolling site preferences of H. ustulata with other hilltopping insects of the Sonoran Desert. The high mountain ridges attract the males of various hilltopping insect species, including tarantula hawk wasps, various butterflies, and bot flies. Among these ridges, certain locations are much more likely to be occupied by territorial males. Additionally, these preferred territories appear to be stable from year to year, and different species appear to have similar preferences for available sites.
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Further studies were conducted in the 1950s where it was found that although it is related to Helodermatidae, this relationship is relatively distant. The similarity is in part the result of convergent evolution and they should be recognized as separate families. Both are part of a broader Anguimorpha, but the relationship among the various families has been a matter of dispute. Several earlier studies have placed the earless monitor lizard together with Helodermatidae and Varanidae (true monitor lizards) in Varanoidea.
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The adipose fin, which is present in over 6,000 teleost species, is often thought to have evolved once in the lineage and to have been lost multiple times due to its limited function. A 2014 study challenges this idea and suggests that the adipose fin is an example of convergent evolution. In Characiformes, the adipose fin develops from an outgrowth after the reduction of the larval fin fold, while in Salmoniformes, the fin appears to be a remnant of the fold.
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Otter shrews are carnivorous and semiaquatic, preying on any aquatic animal they can find with their sensitive whiskers. All tenrecs are believed to descend from a common ancestor that lived 29–37 million years (Ma) ago after rafting from Africa to Madagascar in a single event. Tenrecs are widely diverse; as a result of convergent evolution they resemble hedgehogs, shrews, opossums or mice. All tenrecs appear to be at least somewhat omnivorous, with invertebrates forming the largest part of their diets.
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In size and shape Epalzeorhynchos generally resemble the Indian loaches (Botia), which, although they are also cypriniforms, are far too distantly related to have anything other than convergent evolution be responsible for this similarity. Alternatively, Epalzeorhynchos might be considered a plumper version of Crossocheilus, which includes the well-known Siamese algae eater (C. siamensis) and is a very close relative. Their coloration is also reminiscent of some Crossocheilus, or of the Mekong loaches (Yasuhikotakia), depending on the particular Epalzeorhynchos species.
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After aligning the two sequences, the percentage of identical base pairs is computed. A high sequence identity means that it is highly likely that these two sequences diverged from a common ancestral sequence (are homologous), and highly unlikely that these two sequences have evolved independently (see Convergent evolution). #Nonfunctionality can manifest itself in many ways. Normally, a gene must go through several steps to a fully functional protein: Transcription, pre-mRNA processing, translation, and protein folding are all required parts of this process.
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Meridiungulata might have originated in South America from a North American condylarth ancestor, and they may be members of the clade Laurasiatheria, related to other ungulates, including artiodactyls and perissodactyls. It has, however, been suggested the Meridiungulata are part of a different macro-group of placental mammals called Atlantogenata. Much of the evolution of meridiungulates occurred in isolation from other ungulates, a great example of convergent evolution. However, the argument that meridiungulates are related to artiodactyls and perissodactyls needs support from molecular sequencing.
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These toxins are thought to be derived from their diet, and may function both to deter predators and to protect the bird from parasites. The close resemblance of this species to other unrelated birds also known as pitohuis which are also poisonous is an example of convergent evolution and Müllerian mimicry. Their appearance is also mimicked by unrelated non-poisonous species, a phenomenon known as Batesian mimicry. The toxic nature of this bird is well known to local hunters, who avoid it.
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The R2 element is co-transcribed with host organism 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA). To become a fully mature R2 messenger RNA (mRNA), requires that the initial R2 transcript be processed to remove the 28S rRNA. This processing occurs via a self-cleaving ribozyme that forms at the 5' junction of the R2 RNA. This ribozyme has been found to have high structural similarity to the HDV ribozyme but they are not homologous; the two sequences are thought to have undergone convergent evolution.
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The use of venom across a wide variety of taxa is an example of convergent evolution. It is difficult to conclude exactly how this trait came to be so intensely widespread and diversified. The multigene families that encode the toxins of venomous animals are actively selected, creating more diverse toxins with specific functions. Venoms adapt to their environment and victims and accordingly evolve to become maximally efficient on a predator's particular prey (particularly the precise ion channels within the prey).
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Most non-metazoan paracaspases found in amoebas or bacteria are "type 2" paracaspases with only a caspase-like domain. The animal paracaspases are most likely not directly related to the amoeba paracaspase. It is currently unclear whether the paracaspases (and caspases) found in eukaryotes are a result from several (at least 2) independent horizontal gene transfer events from prokaryotes or if there has been a convergent evolution of (para)caspases evolved from the metacaspases in several different organisms within the eukaryotes.
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It might have been used to search out food, or as a sensory organ like narwhal tusks. Even though they are closely related to these primitive whales, the tusks were gained by convergent evolution. Tim Haines, who included the animal in an episode of Sea Monsters, thought that the tusks could be used during the mating season in jousts over females. The abstract of helps to explain why this is so: The occurrence of tusks in Odobenocetops is a convergence with narwhals.
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Both species are similar to the modern cheetah, with faces shortened and nasal cavities expanded for increased oxygen capacity, and legs proportioned for swift running. However, these similarities may not be inherited from a common ancestor, but may instead result from either parallel or convergent evolution. These were larger than a modern cheetah and similar in size to a modern northern cougar. Body mass was typically around , with a head-and-body length of , tail length around , and shoulder height of .
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It is speculated that induction was the ancestral mechanism, and that the preformistic, or inheritance, mechanism of germ cell establishment arose from convergent evolution. There are several key differences between these two mechanisms that may provide reasoning for the evolution of germ plasm inheritance. One difference is that typically inheritance occurs almost immediately during development (around the blastoderm stage) while induction typically does not occur until gastrulation. As germ cells are quiescent and therefore not dividing, they are not susceptible to mutation.
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One living species of lungfish (Lepidosiren) has external gills as larvae which transform into internal gills as adults. Despite adult dvinosaur specimens having skeletal features correlated with internal gills, some larval specimens of another dvinosaur, Isodectes preserved soft tissue external gills. Thus, the gill development of dvinosaurs (and presumably other temnospondyls) mirrored that of Lepidosiren. Despite this feature likely being an example of convergent evolution (as other lungfish exclusively possessed internal gills), it still remains a useful gauge for how temnospondyl gills developed.
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Instead it evolved multiple times and each time it evolved it used a different feature of the ant's mouth to produce the trap jaw. For instance, O. bauri’s trap jaw is built from the mandible joint; however, Strumigenys trigger is built from it upper lip. This type of evolution would be deemed as convergent evolution and the trap jaw would be considered an analogy. This is because they are all similar features but involved independently rather than a common ancestor.
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However, most authors until the 21st century preferred to include the genus in Cheilanthes. The development of molecular phylogenetic methods showed that the traditional broad circumscription of Cheilanthes is polyphyletic. Many of the morphological characters that have traditionally been used to separate the cheilanthoid ferns into genera, including Cheilanthes, are homoplasious; that is, they have appeared independently in unrelated groups, probably as a result of convergent evolution in arid environments. A molecular phylogeny of 157 cheilanthoid species by Michael D. Windham et al.
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Another study done by Michael showed that phylogenetic analysis confirms Gladbachus as a stem chondrichthyan. Strong evidence was provided to support chondrichthyans as a crown clade. It suggests that the initial evolutionary radiation of crown chondrichthyans is primarily post-Devonian, forming a significant component of the vertebrate recovery after the end-Devonian extinction. The current analyses focus on the conflicting patterns of character state distributions, implying repeated and convergent evolution of chondrichthyan-like specializations among the earliest total group members.
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Although only 3% of flowering plant species use carbon fixation, they account for 23% of global primary production. The repeated, convergent evolution from ancestors has spurred hopes to bio-engineer the pathway into crops such as rice. photosynthesis probably first evolved 30–35 million years ago in the Oligocene, and further origins occurred since, most of them in the last 15 million years. plants are mainly found in tropical and warm-temperate regions, predominantly in open grasslands where they are often dominant.
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Currently, Necromantis is listed as incertae sedis. Weithofer originally classified it as a megadermatid, and Riviliod later as a phyllostomid, but similarities to either clade were ultimately deemed to be inconclusive and likely derived from convergent evolution. More recently, a relationship with emballonurid bats has been proposed, possibly as a basal member descended from the early Eocene radiation of this clade, but currently this is inconclusive as well.Gunnell GF & Simmons NB, Evolutionary History of Bats: Fossils, Molecules and Morphology, Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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Keeled scales of a colubrid snake (banded water snake; Nerodia fasciata) In most biological nomenclature, a scale (Greek λεπίς ', Latin squama) is a small rigid plate that grows out of an animal's skin to provide protection. In lepidopteran (butterfly and moth) species, scales are plates on the surface of the insect wing, and provide coloration. Scales are quite common and have evolved multiple times through convergent evolution, with varying structure and function. Scales are generally classified as part of an organism's integumentary system.
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Nitrophorins transport NO to the feeding site. Dilution, binding of histamine and increase in pH (from pH ~5 in salivary gland to pH ~7.4 in the host tissue) facilitate the release of NO into the tissue where it induces vasodilatation. The salivary nitrophorin from the hemipteran Cimex lectularius (bedbug) has no sequence similarity to Rhodnius prolixus nitrophorins but is homologous to the inositol-polyphosphate 5-phosphatase (). It is suggested that the two classes of insect nitrophorins have arisen as a product of the convergent evolution.
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The need for salt excretion in reptiles (such as marine iguanas and sea turtles) and birds (such as petrels and albatrosses) reflects their having much less efficient kidneys than mammals. Unlike the skin of amphibians, that of reptiles and birds is impermeable to salt, preventing its release. The evolution of a salt gland in early reptiles and birds allowed them to eat aquatic plants and animals with high salt concentrations. This evolutionary development does not account for the gland in elasmobranchs, suggesting convergent evolution.
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What had become walking limbs in cetaceans and seals evolved further, independently in a reverse form of convergent evolution, back to new forms of swimming fins. The forelimbs became flippers and the hind limbs became a tail terminating in two fins, called a fluke in the case of cetaceans.Felts WJL "Some functional and structural characteristics of cetacean flippers and flukes" Pages 255–275 in: Norris KS (ed.) Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises, University of California Press. Fish tails are usually vertical and move from side to side.
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In plants they seem to have diversified using mechanisms such as gene duplications, evolution of novel genes and the development of novel biosynthetic pathways. Studies have shown that diversity in some of these compounds may be positively selected for. Cyanogenic glycosides may have been proposed to have evolved multiple times in different plant lineages, and there are several other instances of convergent evolution. For example, the enzymes for synthesis of limonene – a terpene – are more similar between angiosperms and gymnosperms than to their own terpene synthesis enzymes.
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One living species of lungfish (Lepidosiren) has external gills as larvae which transform into internal gills as adults. Despite adult dvinosaur specimens having skeletal features correlated with internal gills, some larval specimens of another dvinosaur, Isodectes preserved soft tissue external gills. Thus, the gill development of dvinosaurs (and presumably other temnospondyls, such as Uranocentrodon) mirrored that of Lepidosiren. Despite this feature likely being an example of convergent evolution (as other lungfish exclusively possessed internal gills), it still remains a useful gauge for how temnospondyl gills developed.
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Striga witchweeds (white, centre, attached to roots of host) are economically important pests of the crop plants that they parasitise. Parasitic behavior evolved in angiosperms roughly 12-13 times independently, a classic example of convergent evolution. Roughly 1% of all angiosperm species are parasitic, with a large degree of host dependence. The taxonomic family Orobanchaceae (encompassing the genera Tryphysaria, Striga, and Orobanche) is the only family that contains both holoparasitic and hemiparasitic species, making it a model group for studying the evolutionary rise of parasitism.
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A good example of convergence in plants is the evolution of edible fruits such as apples. These pomes incorporate (five) carpels and their accessory tissues forming the apple's core, surrounded by structures from outside the botanical fruit, the receptacle or hypanthium. Other edible fruits include other plant tissues; for example, the fleshy part of a tomato is the walls of the pericarp. This implies convergent evolution under selective pressure, in this case the competition for seed dispersal by animals through consumption of fleshy fruits.
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The 11 Old World porcupines tend to be fairly large, and have spikes grouped in clusters. The two subfamilies of New World porcupines are mostly smaller (although the North American porcupine reaches about in length and ), have their quills attached singly rather than grouped in clusters, and are excellent climbers, spending much of their time in trees. The New World porcupines evolved their spines independently (through convergent evolution) and are more closely related to several other families of rodents than they are to the Old World porcupines.
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Land vertebrates evolved middle ears independently in each major lineage, and are thus the result of parallel evolution. The configurations of the middle ears of monotreme and therian mammals can thus be interpreted as convergent evolution or homoplasy. Thus evidence from fossils demonstrate homoplasies for the detachment of the ear from the jaw. Furthermore, it is apparent that the land- based eardrum, or tympanic membrane, and connecting structures such as the Eustachian tube evolved convergently in multiple different settings as opposed to being a defining morphology.
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Convergent Evolution: Limited Forms Most Beautiful In addition to those families, many ferns in other groups may be considered tree ferns, such as several ferns in the family Osmundaceae, which can achieve short trunks under a metre tall, and particularly ferns in the genus Cibotium, which can grow ten metres tall. Fern species with short trunks in the genera Blechnum, Calochleana, Cnemedaria, Culcita (mountains only tree fern), Cystodium, Leptopteris, Lophosoria, Sadleria, Thyrsopteris and Todea could also be considered tree ferns in a liberal interpretation of the term.
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The sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) is a small, omnivorous, arboreal, and nocturnal gliding possum belonging to the marsupial infraclass. The common name refers to its predilection for sugary foods such as sap and nectar and its ability to glide through the air, much like a flying squirrel. They have very similar habits and appearance to the flying squirrel, despite not being closely related—an example of convergent evolution. The scientific name, Petaurus breviceps, translates from Latin as "short-headed rope-dancer", a reference to their canopy acrobatics.
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A species of shore squid Doryteuthis pealeii with expanded Protocadherin gene families differ significantly from those of the California two-spot octopus suggesting gene expansion did not occur before speciation within Cephalopods. Despite different mechanisms for gene expansion, the two- spot octopus Protocadherin genes were more similar to vertebrates than squid, suggesting a convergent evolution mechanism. The second gene family known as C2H2 are small proteins that function as zinc transcription factors. C2H2 are understood to moderate DNA, RNA and protein functions within the cell.
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The nucleophile is most commonly a serine or cysteine amino acid, but occasionally threonine or even selenocysteine. The 3D structure of the enzyme brings together the triad residues in a precise orientation, even though they may be far apart in the sequence (primary structure). As well as divergent evolution of function (and even the triad's nucleophile), catalytic triads show some of the best examples of convergent evolution. Chemical constraints on catalysis have led to the same catalytic solution independently evolving in at least 23 separate superfamilies.
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In general, sclerorynchids all developed dentition closer to that of sawsharks than modern sawfish, but they are more closely related to the latter. This similarity is considered a case of convergent evolution, where unrelated organisms evolve analogous traits. Atlanticopristis and Onchopristis exhibit similarities to a Bolivian species of sclerorhynchid Pucapristis branisi, such as the enamel ribbing and the formation of a barb on the posterior margin, however, their peduncles differ greatly. In 1987, French paleoichthyologist Henri Cappeta distinguished two groups inside of sclerorhynchidae, separating Onchopristis from Pucapristis.
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Pronghorn Order: Artiodactyla, Family: Antilocapridae Occurrence: Eastside prairies, The pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), is a species of artiodactyl mammal native to interior western and central North America. Though not a true antelope, it is often known colloquially in North America as the prong buck, pronghorn antelope or simply antelope,Caton, J. D. (1876). The American Antelope, or Prong Buck The American Naturalist 10 (4): 193–205. as it closely resembles the true antelopes of the Old World and fills a similar ecological niche due to convergent evolution.
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Oliver Atkins Farwell, on similar grounds, argued for the priority of Allosorus over Cheilanthes and accidentally duplicated Kuntze's combination in 1920. These combinations were rendered unnecessary when Pellaea and Cheilanthes were conserved over Allosorus in the Paris Code published in 1956. The development of molecular phylogenetic methods showed that the traditional circumscription of Cheilanthes is polyphyletic. Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify it and the segregate genera that have sometimes been recognized.
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The VASt domain structurally resembles a truncated form of a START domain, but with limited sequence similarity. While VASt is a member of the Bet v1-like superfamily, it is unclear if it evolved from the same ancestral domain as the START domain or is an example of convergent evolution. The domain is highly conserved across all eukaryotes and is typically present in only one copy in VASt domain-containing proteins. Like the START domain, the VASt domain consists of a helix-grip fold structure.
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This syndrome is often referred to as "legionary behaviour", and may be an example of convergent evolution. Most New World army ants belong to the subfamily Ecitoninae, which contains two tribes: Cheliomyrmecini and Ecitonini. The former contains only the genus Cheliomyrmex, whereas the latter contains four genera: Neivamyrmex, Nomamyrmex, Labidus, and Eciton. The largest genus is Neivamyrmex, which contains more than 120 species; the most predominant species is Eciton burchellii; its common name "army ant" is considered to be the archetype of the species.
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The genus Astraeus was first described by the American mycologist and botanist Andrew Price Morgan in 1885. The outward resemblance of Astraeus species with those from genus Geaster (family Geastraceae) has led several authors to place them in that genus. Phylogenetic analyses proved that the genus Astraeus together with the genera Boletinellus, Phlebopus, Pisolithus, Calostoma, Gyroporus, Scleroderma, and Veligaster, form a distinct phylogenetic lineage in the Boletales; these genera collectively form the suborder Sclerodermatineae. The similarity between Geastrum and Astraeus species is an example of convergent evolution.
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This is the most basal living member of its subfamily, and it lacks the stiff tail and swollen bill of its relatives. Overall much resembling a fairly typical diving duck, its plumage and other peculiarities indicate it is not a very close relative of these, but rather the product of convergent evolution in the ancestors of the stiff-tailed ducks. It is a small, dark duck, the male with a black head and mantle and a paler flank and belly, and the female pale brown overall.
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Conversely, unrelated species may share a life-form through convergent evolution. While taxonomic classification is concerned with the production of natural classifications (being natural understood either in philosophical basis for pre-evolutionary thinking, or phylogenetically as non-polyphyletic), plant life form classifications uses other criteria than naturalness, like morphology, physiology and ecology. Life-form and growth-form are essentially synonymous concepts, despite attempts to restrict the meaning of growth-form to types differing in shoot architecture.Du Rietz, G. E. (1931) Life-forms of terrestrial flowering plants.
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However, caution should be used in using the results as evidence for shared evolutionary ancestry because of the possible confounding effects of convergent evolution by which multiple unrelated amino acid sequences converge on a common tertiary structure. Structural alignments can compare two sequences or multiple sequences. Because these alignments rely on information about all the query sequences' three-dimensional conformations, the method can only be used on sequences where these structures are known. These are usually found by X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy.
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In 1942, W.H. Bryan and D. Hill stressed the importance of microstructural observations by proposing that stony corals begin skeletal growth by configuring calcification centers, which are genetically derived. Therefore, diverse patterns of calcification centers are vital to classification. Alloiteau later showed that established morphological classifications were unbalanced and that there were many examples of convergent evolution between fossils and recent taxa. The rise of molecular techniques at the end of the 20th century prompted new evolutionary hypotheses that were different from ones founded on skeletal data.
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Cancrocaeca is known only from fresh water in three karstic caves in Maros Regency, Sulawesi (Indonesia). At the time of its discovery, no troglobitic members of the family Hymenosomatidae were known, although Danièle Guinot had predicted in 1988 that the family was a likely candidate to produce troglobites. Since that time, further troglobitic species have been discovered in the same family; although they resemble Cancrocaeca superficially, this is thought to result from convergent evolution, and it is thought likely that Cancrocaeca arose recently from marine ancestors.
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The Euarchontoglires clade is based on DNA sequence analyses and retrotransposon markers that combine the clades Glires (Rodentia + Lagomorpha) and Euarchonta (Scandentia + Primates + Dermoptera). So far, few if any distinctive anatomical features have been recognized that support Euarchontoglires, nor does any strong evidence from anatomy support alternative hypotheses. Although both Euarchontoglires and diprotodont marsupials are documented to possess a vermiform appendix this feature evolved as a result of convergent evolution. Euarchontoglires is now recognized as one of the four major subclades within the clade Eutheria (i.e.
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Order: Artiodactyla, Family: Antilocapridae Occurrence: Eastside prairies, E H The pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), is a species of artiodactyl mammal native to interior western and central North America. Though not a true antelope, it is often known colloquially in North America as the prong buck, pronghorn antelope or simply antelope,Caton, J. D. (1876). The American Antelope, or Prong Buck The American Naturalist 10 (4): 193-205. as it closely resembles the true antelopes of the Old World and fills a similar ecological niche due to convergent evolution.
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Phytophthora is sometimes referred to as a fungus-like organism, but it is classified under a different clade altogether: SAR supergroup (Harosa) (also under Stramenopila and previously under Chromista). This is a good example of convergent evolution: Phytophthora is morphologically very similar to true fungi yet its evolutionary history is completely distinct. In contrast to fungi, SAR supergroup is more closely related to plants than to animals. Whereas fungal cell walls are made primarily of chitin, Phytophthora cell walls are constructed mostly of cellulose.
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Eidonomy is the study of the external appearance of an organism. It is thus the opposite of anatomy, which refers to internal morphology. While predominant early in the history of biology, eidonomy is little studied in particular anymore as it is rife with the effects of convergent evolution, or evolution of similar features from distant organism varieties. It thus yields less new information about organisms than anatomy, and therefore the external appearance of lifeforms is usually studied as part of general investigations in morphology, e.g.
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Fossils from the aardvark have been dated to 5 million years, and have been located throughout Europe and the Near East. The mysterious Pleistocene Plesiorycteropus from Madagascar was originally thought to be a tubulidentate that was descended from ancestors that entered the island during the Eocene. However, a number of subtle anatomical differences coupled with recent molecular evidence now lead researchers to believe that Plesiorycteropus is a relative of golden moles and tenrecs that achieved an aardvark-like appearance and ecological niche through convergent evolution.
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Chimpanzees have shown their ability to plan ahead in other contexts, for instance in tool use. Advantageous inequity aversion may also directly benefit an individual by enhancing its reputation, which may increase that individual's long-term access to beneficial relationships. Including evidence from canines, Essler, Marshall- Pescini, and Range conclude that it is possible that sensitivity to inequity was already present in an earlier common ancestor with primates. Alternatively, convergent evolution may be at play: under similar conditions the same behavior has emerged multiple times in evolution.
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Pentecopterus also lacks the cercal blades that occur in Megalograptus, where they have been interpreted as functioning as a biological rudder, like the pterygotid telson. This suggests that Pentecopterus was less able to swim than Megalograptus. Further, Pentecopterus has some features unique among the eurypterids, notably the shape of its carapace and the unusual shape of the sixth podomere of appendage VI. Pentecopterus also possesses lateral scales on the telson, something otherwise only seen in pterygotid eurypterids. This feature likely arose through convergent evolution.
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Until recently, phylogenetic reconstruction has been through anatomical (particularly embryological) similarities. This is inexact, as living multicellular organisms such as animals and plants are more than 500 million years removed from their single-cell ancestors. Such a passage of time allows both divergent and convergent evolution time to mimic similarities and accumulate differences between groups of modern and extinct ancestral species. Modern phylogenetics uses sophisticated techniques such as alloenzymes, satellite DNA and other molecular markers to describe traits that are shared between distantly related lineages.
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Males are about a third of the length of females. The specimen with which the species was originally described was 7.0 cm long from the tip of the snout to the vent. Tadpoles of the species had been described in 1917 by Nelson Annandale and C. R. Narayan Rao as having oral suckers that allowed them to live in torrential streams. Suckers are also present in rheophilic fishes of genera such as Glyptothorax, Travancoria, Homaloptera, and Bhavania, adaptations that are the result of convergent evolution.
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Before striking, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism. Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory organs resembling hairs on the inside of the mandibles. The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks. Trap-jaws also are seen in the following genera: Anochetus, Orectognathus, and Strumigenys, plus some members of the Dacetini tribe, which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution.
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Comparative analyses have generated a more complete understanding of the relationship between sexual selection, natural selection, and mating systems in primates. Studies have shown that dimorphism is the product of changes in both male and female traits. Ontogenetic scaling, where relative extension of a common growth trajectory occurs, may give some insight into the relationship between sexual dimorphism and growth patterns. Some evidence from the fossil record suggests that there was convergent evolution of dimorphism, and some extinct hominids probably had greater dimorphism than any living primate.
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A plaster cast of an ant nest. Ant hill and ant tracks, Oxley Wild Rivers National Park, New South Wales An ant colony is the basic unit around which ants organize their lifecycle. Ant colonies are eusocial, and are very much like those found in other social Hymenoptera, though the various groups of these developed sociality independently through convergent evolution. The typical colony consists of one or more egg-laying queens, numerous sterile females (workers, soldiers) and, seasonally, many winged sexual males and females.
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The most distinctive aspects of gobiid morphology are the fused pelvic fins that form a disc-shaped sucker. This sucker is functionally analogous to the dorsal fin sucker possessed by the remoras or the pelvic fin sucker of the lumpsuckers, but is anatomically distinct; these similarities are the product of convergent evolution. The species in this family can often be seen using the sucker to adhere to rocks and corals, and in aquariums they will stick to glass walls of the tank, as well.
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The regulation of gene expression typically comes from some structural changes to the stem-loop structure of the tRNA. The editing that tRNA undergoes may have developed as a response to rare codons, and tRNA counteracts frameshifts by utilizing the modified bases. Other similar modifications to nucleotides impact the ability of tRNA to initiate translation, thus impeding gene expression. This modification is particularly widespread and found amongst a variety of organisms, indicating that perhaps convergent evolution took place in the development of this nucleoside.
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Like most external features of arthropods, the mouthparts of hexapoda are highly derived. Insect mouthparts show a multitude of different functional mechanisms across the wide diversity of species considered insects. Certainly it is common for significant homology to be conserved, with matching structures formed from matching primordia, and having the same evolutionary origin. On the other hand, even structures that physically are almost identical, and share almost identical functionality as well, may not be homologous; their analogous functions and appearance might be the product of convergent evolution.
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Males lack these hairs, as they do not carry pollen. Squash bees have also evolved a matinal daily activity cycle, flying before sunrise. Some Xenoglossa species have become morphologically specialized to fly while it is still dark, with greatly enlarged ocelli to allow them to fly in near- darkness. The two genera are sometimes thought to be sister taxa, but enough differences occur between them to suggest the similarities may be due to convergent evolution, based on their adaptation to use the same host plants.
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The discovery of basal tyrannosauroids, such as Guanlong, which lacked an arctometatarsus, also helped to disprove this theory. And, eventually, the "skull capsule" in troodontids and ornithomimosaurs was found to be an example of convergent evolution, causing the clade Bullatosauria to be abandoned. Holtz was also a key figure in the discovery that tyrannosauroids were not carnosaurs, as had been previously believed by most palaeontologists, but rather large coelurosaurs. One of the first scientists to theorise this, Holtz contributed greatly to the debunking of a monophyletic Carnosauria.
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The prestin protein shows several parallel amino acid replacements in bats, whales, and dolphins that have independently evolved ultrasonic hearing and echolocation, and these represent rare cases of convergent evolution at the sequence level. Prestin (mol. wt. 80 kDa) is a member of a distinct family of anion transporters, SLC26. Members of this family are structurally well conserved and can mediate the electroneutral exchange of chloride and carbonate across the plasma membrane of mammalian cells, two anions found to be essential for outer hair cell motility.
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Some Endiandra present a convergent evolution due to ecological or physical drivers toward a similar solution, including analogous structures with species adapted to different environments, for example with plants adapted to Laurel forest habitat. These Endiandra resemble other genera in the family Lauraceae, and their leaves are lauroid type with berries eaten and dispersed mostly by birds. Others are even adapted to very wet media. Some species are endangered and others have a very specialized ecological niche and consequently occupy small or specific areas.
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Phytosaurs and aetosaurs also share a knob-like attachment point midway down the fibula, so it is unclear whether the case in ornithosuchids is a unique case of convergent evolution, or alternatively the retention of a trait independently lost by several archosaur lineages. Unlike most other early archosaurs, the pedal unguals (the distalmost bones of the feet that form claws) are laterally compressed. They are sharp and recurved. The unguals are very deep, being taller than they are long, especially on the inner digits.
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It has been reasoned that these similarities are caused by functional requirements, or convergent evolution, rather than a genuine relationship. About 50% of the antibodies in camelids are of the ordinary mammalian heavy/light-chain type. It is not known whether any type of animal has only heavy-chain antibodies and completely lacks the common type with two heavy and two light chains. Heavy- chain camelid antibodies have been found to be just as specific as a regular antibody and in some cases they are more robust.
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Acleistorhinus (ah-kles-toe-RYE-nuss) is an extinct genus of parareptile known from the Early Permian (middle Kungurian stage) of Oklahoma It is notable for being the earliest known anapsid reptile yet discovered. The morphology of the lower temporal fenestra of the skull of Acleistorhinus bears a superficial resemblance to that seen in early synapsids, a result of convergent evolution. Only a single species, A. pteroticus, is known, and it is classified in the Family Acleistorhinidae, along with Colobomycter (also from the Early Permian of Oklahoma).
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In general, these trees are most dominant in the uplands (>1000m a.s.l.) and have many ecological similarities to the Dipterocarpaceae, the dominant lowland tree group. These trees are also obviously intolerant of seasonal droughts, not being found on the Lesser Sunda islands, despite their ability to cross numerous water barriers to reach Papua. The North American tanoak or tanbark oak (Notholithocarpus densiflorus) was previously included in this genus but recent evidence indicates the similarities in flower and fruit morphology are due to convergent evolution.
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Some species of cricket which are parasitzed by O. ochracea have evolved methods to avoid infestation. For example, some members of the prey cricket Teleogryllus oceanicus have a mutation called flat wing, in which the sound-producing structures of the male forewings are erased.Pascoal S., Cezard T., Eik-Nes A. Gharbi K., Majewska J., Payne E., Ritchie M. G., Bailey, N. W. Rapid Convergent Evolution in Wild Crickets. Current Biology, The flat wing was first observed in 2003 on the Hawaiian island of Kauai, and was also found on neighbouring Oahu two years later.
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Mantella are an example of convergent evolution—the independent evolution of a similar trait with species of a different lineage. In this, they are similar to the family Dendrobatidae from Latin America in size, appearance and also some aspects of their behaviour. However, they are in no means related to the famous neotropical family. During the early description of the first specimens from 1866–1872, Alfred Grandidier described both the brown mantella (Mantella betsileo) and Malagasy mantella (Mantella madagascariensis) and placed them within the genus Dendrobates, based upon their close resemblance to them.
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The Pteroclidae was formerly included in the Galliformes due to the similarities the family shares with the true grouse. However, it was later discovered that these similarities are superficial and a result of convergent evolution. Sandgrouse were later placed near the Columbiformes largely due to their reported ability to drink by the "sucking" or "pumping" action of peristalsis of the esophagus, an unusual characteristic. More recently, it has been reported that they cannot suck up water in this way, and they are now treated separately in the order Pterocliformes.
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C. escheri teeth has some intermediate traits between Isurus and Carcharodon. Due to this, it has been speculated in the past to be the transitional species between the great white (Carcharodon carcharias) and the ancient makos (Cosmopolitodus hastalis). However, a study by Ehret et al. (2012) pointed out that C. escheri is restricted only to the northern Atlantic and Europe, while both Cosmopolitodus hastalis and Carcharodon carcharias were cosmopolitan, and that it went extinct much earlier before the appearance of Carcharodon carcharias suggesting that the intermediate features were simply a result of convergent evolution.
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Most of the dorsal (back) vertebrae were tall and amphicoelous, and possessed a pair of ventral keels adjacent to the midline, separated by a shallow groove. These ventral keels are similar to those of the unusual aquatic archosauriform Vancleavea, although not as pronounced. Considering that Nundasuchus is not closely related to Vancleavea, its ventral keels were probably an example of convergent evolution, and they can be considered a unique trait compared to other archosaurs. The rib facets were short, positioned high on the vertebrae at the base of the neural arches.
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They depend on their sense of hearing to locate much of their prey, and the cochleas of a number of golden mole species have been found to be long and highly coiled, which may indicate a greater ecological dependence on low frequency auditory cues than we see in Talpid moles. Some species also have hypertrophied middle ear ossicles, in particular the malleus, which apparently is adapted towards the detection of seismic vibrations. In this respect there is some apparent convergent evolution to burrowing reptiles in the family Amphisbaenidae.
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Coatis have nonretractable claws. Coatis also are, in common with raccoons and other procyonids (and others in the order Carnivora and rare cases amongst other mammals), able to rotate their ankles beyond 180°; they are therefore able to descend trees head first. Other animals living in forests have acquired some or all of these properties through convergent evolution, including members of the mongoose, civet, weasel, cat, and bear families. The coati snout is long and somewhat pig-like (see Suidae) – part of the reason for its nickname 'the hog-nosed raccoon'.
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The common swift (Apus apus) is a medium-sized bird, superficially similar to the barn swallow or house martin but somewhat larger, though not stemming from those passerine species, being in the order Apodiformes. The resemblances between the groups are due to convergent evolution, reflecting similar contextual development. The swifts' nearest relatives are the New World hummingbirds and the Southeast Asian treeswifts. Its scientific name Apus is Latin for a swift, thought by the ancients to be a type of swallow with no feet (from Ancient Greek α, a, "without", and πούς, pous, "foot").
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In China, ostriches are known to have become extinct only around or even after the end of the last ice age; images of ostriches have been found there on prehistoric pottery and petroglyphs.Doar, B.G. (2007) "Genitalia, Totems and Painted Pottery: New Ceramic Discoveries in Gansu and Surrounding Areas". China Heritage Quarterly Ostriches have co-existed with another lineage of flightless didactyl birds, the eogruids. Though Olson 1985 classified these birds as stem-ostriches, they are otherwise universally considered to be related to cranes, any similarities being the result of convergent evolution.
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Pseudospongosorites suberitoides was originally thought to represent a species in the genus Suberites, due to its superficial resemblance and similar ecology. Suberites contains nearly all other sponges known as the 'hermit crab sponges,' most notably Suberites domuncula. However the Suberites hermit crab sponges are only found in deep water greater than 20m, while Pseudospongosorites suberitoides is usually found in shallow water near shore. In 1993 the species was named as a species in the genus Spongosorites, under the family Halichondriidae and order Halichondrida, with its similarities to Suberites attributed to convergent evolution.
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Spondylus are filter feeders. The adults live cemented to hard substrates, a characteristic they share, by convergent evolution, with true oysters and jewel boxes. Like the latter, they are protected by spines and a layer of epibionts and, like the former, they can produce pearls. The type of substrate they use depends on the species: many only attach to coral, and the largest diversity of species is found in tropical coral reefs; others, (particularly S. spinosus) however, easily adapt to man-made structures, and have become important invasive species.
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Genetic analysis determined that the similarities between the families are an example of convergent evolution. Nelumbonaceae are highly modified eudicots belonging to the order Proteales, their closest living relatives being the plane trees (Platanaceae) and Proteaceae.Stevens, P.F. (2001 onwards), "Proteales: Nelumbonaceae", Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, retrieved 2014-02-25 The APG IV system of 2016 places the family in the order Proteales, in the clade eudicots. The Cronquist system, of 1981, also recognized this family, but placed it in order Nymphaeales in subclass Magnoliidae in class Magnoliopsida (=dicotyledons), based on gross morphological similarities.
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Intramembrane proteases (IMPs), also known as intramembrane-cleaving proteases (I-CLiPs), are enzymes that have the property of cleaving transmembrane domains of integral membrane proteins. All known intramembrane proteases are themselves integral membrane proteins with multiple transmembrane domains, and they have their active sites buried within the lipid bilayer of cellular membranes. Intramembrane proteases are not evolutionarily related to classical soluble proteases, having evolved their catalytic sites by convergent evolution. Although only recently discovered, intramembrane proteases are the focus of intense interest because of their major biological functions and their implication in many human diseases.
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Genetic tests have shown that similar flower head structures or forms within the genus, might not mean close ancestry within the genus. The genetic data show that within the genus, convergent evolution of inflorescence structures may be from ancestral subunits that are not related. So using morphology within the genus becomes problematic for further subgeneric grouping. As stated on the Euphorbia Planetary Biodiversity Inventory project webpage: According to a 2002 publication on studies of DNA sequence data, most of the smaller "satellite genera" around the huge genus Euphorbia nest deep within the latter.
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For example, yellow-spotted "fire salamanders" in the genus Salamandra, formerly all classified as one species S. salamandra, are not monophyletic: the Corsican fire salamander's closest relative has been shown to be the entirely black Alpine salamander. In such cases, similarity has arisen from convergent evolution. Hybrid speciation can lead to unclear species boundaries through a process of reticulate evolution, in which species have two parent species as their most recent common ancestors. In such cases, the hybrid species may have intermediate characters, such as in Heliconius butterflies.
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The disc shape of the smalleye stingray suggests that it may swim in a fashion unlike other stingrays and more akin to other rays with very broad pectoral fin discs (such as butterfly or manta rays), i.e., flapping its pectoral fins up and down rather than undulating the pectoral fin margins; this species would thus represent a case of convergent evolution with those ray families. Off Tofo, most individuals are accompanied by multiple cobia (Rachycentron canadum). A known parasite of this species is the tapeworm Oncomegoides celatus, which infests the spiral valve intestine.
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Convergent evolution — the repeated evolution of similar traits in multiple lineages which all ancestrally lack the trait — is rife in nature, as illustrated by the examples below. The ultimate cause of convergence is usually a similar evolutionary biome, as similar environments will select for similar traits in any species occupying the same ecological niche, even if those species are only distantly related. In the case of cryptic species, it can create species which are only distinguishable by analysing their genetics. Unrelated organisms often develop analogous structures by adapting to similar environments.
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Despite no obvious amino acid sequence similarity from pathogen to host factors, structural studies have revealed that mimicry can still occur at the host level. In some cases, pathogenic mimics can possess a structural architecture that differs markedly from that of the functional homologues. Therefore, proteins of dissimilar sequence may have a common structure which elicits an autoimmune response. It has been hypothesized that these virulent proteins display their mimicry through molecular surfaces that mimic host protein surfaces (protein fold or three-dimensional conformation), which have been obtained by convergent evolution.
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There was not really a concrete definition of an "intermediate filament protein", in the sense that the size or shape-based definition does not cover a monophyletic group. With the inclusion of unusual proteins like the network-forming beaded lamins (type VI), the current classification is moving to a clade containing nuclear lamin and its many descendents, characterized by sequence similarity as well as the exon structure. Functionally-similar proteins out of this clade, like crescentins, alveolins, tetrins, and epiplasmins, are therefore only "IF-like". They likely arose through convergent evolution.
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The beginning of this variant volleyball game is unclear. It is believed that some type of game similar to this already existed prior to European contact. While it is adherent that Volleyball was invented in 1895, and the first world tournaments were held 1949, organized tournaments of Ecuavolley were held in 1958, suggesting it could not have spread throughout the world that quickly, which would mean that the national volley game was developed independently and had a convergent evolution. Ecuavoley tournaments in neighborhoods were held by different organization since 1944.
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14 of 16 species met these requirements. Modelling suggests that this camouflage should reduce the distance at which such a fish can be seen by a factor of 6 compared to a fish with a nominal 2% reflectance. Species with this adaptation are widely dispersed in the phylogenetic tree of bony fishes (Actinopterygii), being found in at least one species in each of the orders Anguilliformes, Stomiiformes, Myctophiformes, Beryciformes, Ophidiiformes, Perciformes, and Lophiiformes. This distribution in turn implies that natural selection has driven the convergent evolution of ultra-blackness camouflage independently many times.
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This is a good example for convergent evolution. Thus, when a small insect, commonly an ant, blunders into the pit, its weight causes the sand to collapse below it, drawing the victim toward the center, where the larva lies in wait under a thin layer of loose sand. As soon as it is alerted by falling sand grains, the larva assists this process by vigorously flicking more sand out from the center of the pit. This undermines the pit walls and causes them to collapse toward the center.
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Red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle Mangrove roots Salt crystals formed on Avicennia marina leaf germinate while still on the parent tree Of the recognized 110 mangrove species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats. Demonstrating convergent evolution, many of these species found similar solutions to the tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangrove. The greatest biodiversity occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia.
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Compared to other hyenas, the spotted hyena shows a greater relative amount of frontal cortex which is involved in the mediation of social behavior. Studies strongly suggest convergent evolution in spotted hyena and primate intelligence. A study done by evolutionary anthropologists demonstrated that spotted hyenas outperform chimpanzees on cooperative problem-solving tests; captive pairs of spotted hyenas were challenged to tug two ropes in unison to earn a food reward, successfully cooperating and learning the maneuvers quickly without prior training. Experienced hyenas even helped inexperienced clan-mates to solve the problem.
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Despite his acknowledgment that some of the smaller Jurassic theropods had many similarities to Archaeopteryx and modern birds, he determined that they were unlikely to be direct bird ancestors and that they were instead closely–related offshoots,Ries (2007) pp. 1–19. and concluded that the similarities were a result of convergent evolution rather than direct ancestry.Alexander & Vogel (2004) p. 197. Based essentially on a process of elimination, Heilmann arrives at the conclusion that birds must be descended from thecodonts, a group of archosaurs that lived during the Permian and Triassic periods.
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Following processing by archaeosortase A, the PGF-CTERM region is gone, and a prenyl-derived lipid anchor is present at the C-terminus instead. Exosortase has not itself been characterized biochemically. However, site- directed mutagenesis work on archaeosortase A, an archaeal homolog of exosortases, strongly supports the notion of a Cys active site and convergent evolution with sortase family transpeptidases.. A recent study on Zoogloea resiniphila, a bacterium found in activated sludge wastewater treatment plants, has shown that PEP-CTERM proteins (and by implication, exosortase as well) are essential to floc formation in some systems .
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Myriopteris yatskievychiana was first described by John Mickel in 2004, as Cheilanthes yatskievychiana, based on material collected by Alberto Búrquez in 1996 from San Javier Municipality, Sonora. It was named in honor of pteridologist George Yatskievych, who noticed the unusual characteristics of the specimen. The development of molecular phylogenetic methods showed that the traditional circumscription of Cheilanthes is polyphyletic. Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify it and the segregate genera that have sometimes been recognized.
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Note that characters that are homoplastic may still contain phylogenetic signal. A well-known example of homoplasy due to convergent evolution would be the character, "presence of wings". Although the wings of birds, bats, and insects serve the same function, each evolved independently, as can be seen by their anatomy. If a bird, bat, and a winged insect were scored for the character, "presence of wings", a homoplasy would be introduced into the dataset, and this could potentially confound the analysis, possibly resulting in a false hypothesis of relationships.
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194–195 It is distinctive in having the genital pore located far to the front, above the oral sucker, a character it shares with only two other Notostrongylus species, but these two differ in having one row of papillae on the lower side of the body, not three as in N. fosteri. N. johnstoni is most similar to N. fosteri; it infects the rakali (Hydromys chrysogaster), which is semiaquatic like the marsh rice rat. The similarity may be caused by convergent evolution resulting from the similar habits of the respective hosts of these species.
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The osmylids are rather nondescript as adults, but among the Neuroptera they were generally assigned to suborder Hemerobiiformia (lacewing relatives). The Sisyridae (spongillaflies) were formerly believed to be closely related, even a sister group. But as it seems they are well distinct, the presumed close relationship being mistaken due to their larvae's superficial similarity caused by convergent evolution. Later, the green lacewings (Chrysopidae) were held to be the osmylids' closest living relatives; together with some prehistoric lineages the Chrysopidae form superfamily Chrysopoidea which was considered sister to the presently monotypic Osmyloidea.
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The skull of an aardvark The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus Orycteropus, the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The similarities are based on convergent evolution. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews, tenrecs and golden moles.
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Larger adults had leg proportions characteristic of slower- moving animals, but not to the extent seen in other large theropods like abelisaurids or carnosaurs. The third metatarsals of tyrannosaurids were pinched between the second and fourth metatarsals, forming a structure known as the arctometatarsus. It is unclear when the arctometatarsus first evolved; it was not present in the earliest tyrannosauroids like Dilong, but was found in the later Appalachiosaurus. This structure also characterized troodontids, ornithomimids and caenagnathids, but its absence in the earliest tyrannosauroids indicates that it was acquired by convergent evolution.
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The closest relatives of the choughs are the typical crows, Corvus, especially the jackdaws in the subgenus Coloeus. "Chough" was originally an alternative onomatopoeic name for the jackdaw, Corvus monedula, based on its call. The similar red-billed species, formerly particularly common in Cornwall, became known initially as "Cornish chough" and then just "chough", the name transferring from one species to the other. 406–8 The Australian white-winged chough, Corcorax melanorhamphos, despite its similar shape and habits, is only distantly related to the true choughs, and is an example of convergent evolution.
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The Hispaniola monkey (Antillothrix bernensis) is an extinct primate found in the Dominican Republic in the east of the island of Hispaniola. The species is thought to have gone extinct around the 16th century. The exact timing and cause of the extinction are unclear, but it is likely related to the settlement of Hispaniola by the Europeans in 1492 after discovery by Christopher Columbus. At first, the Hispaniola monkey was thought to be a close relative of the capuchin monkeys, but later investigation showed that the similarities were due to convergent evolution.
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Despite this similarity, they are very distantly related and the adaptions are the result of convergent evolution in the two groups. The extent of these structures and clinging ability varies, being more developed in anole species that live high in the tree canopy than ones living at lower levels. In one extreme are anoles that easily can run up windows. In the opposite end of the spectrum is the bulky anole of arid coastal Venezuela and adjacent Colombia, which is the only species completely lacking the specialized toe pad structures.
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Plesiotylosaurus, meaning "near Tylosaurus", is an extinct genus of marine lizard belonging to the mosasaur family. It is classified as part of the Mosasaurinae subfamily, alongside genera like Mosasaurus and Prognathodon. The genus contains one species, Plesiotylosaurus crassidens, recovered from deposits of Middle Maastrichtian age in the Moreno Formation in California. Though it is classified as a mosasaurine mosasaur, and not closely related to Tylosaurus, the name is not entirely misplaced as a number of cranial features found in the relatively intact holotype skull suggest some degree of convergent evolution with tylosaurine mosasaurs.
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Other examples are Rickettsia, Buchnera aphidicola, and Borrelia burgdorferi. Small genome size in such species is associated with certain particularities, such as rapid evolution of polypeptide sequences and low GC content in the genome. The convergent evolution of these qualities in unrelated bacteria suggests that an obligate association with a host promotes genome reduction. Given that over 80% of almost all of the fully sequenced bacterial genomes consist of intact ORFs, and that gene length is nearly constant at ~1 kb per gene, it is inferred that small genomes have few metabolic capabilities.
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The grebes are a radically distinct group of birds as regards their anatomy. Accordingly, they were at first believed to be related to the loons, which are also foot-propelled diving birds, and both families were once classified together under the order Colymbiformes. However, as recently as the 1930s, this was determined to be an example of convergent evolution by the strong selective forces encountered by unrelated birds sharing the same lifestyle at different times and in different habitat. Grebes and loons are now separately classified orders of Podicipediformes and Gaviiformes, respectively.
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Cavia is classified in order Rodentia, although there was once a minority belief in the scientific community that evidence from mitochondrial DNA and proteins suggested the Hystricognathi might belong to a different evolutionary offshoot, and therefore a different order. If this had been so, it would have been an example of convergent evolution. However, this uncertainty is largely of historical interest, as abundant molecular genetic evidence now conclusively supports classification of Cavia as rodents. (and references therein) This evidence includes draft genome sequences of Cavia porcellus and several other rodents.
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It deduces elapsed time from a number of minor differences in DNA sequences. Nucleotide sequencing of opsin genes suggests that the genetic divergence between New World primate opsin alleles (2.6%) is considerably smaller than the divergence between Old World primate genes (6.1%). Hence, the New World primate color vision alleles are likely to have arisen after Old World gene duplication. It is also proposed that the polymorphism in the opsin gene might have arisen independently through point mutation on one or more occasions, and that the spectral tuning similarities are due to convergent evolution.
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E. radicans is part of a complex of several orange-flowered, weedy species (including Asclepias spp.) that are unrelated but ecologically similar. Species within this group share pollinators as well as habitat, and are believed to exhibit what is known as convergent evolution, where unrelated species "converge" upon similar physical characteristics as a result of similar evolutionary pressures. Paulette Bierzychudek studied pollinator behavior in the apparent complex consisting of E. radicans, Asclepias curassavica, and Lantana camara, but could not find clear evidence that floral mimicry was affecting pollination rates for any of the three species.
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The occurrence of Phaeophyceae as fossils is rare due to their generally soft-bodied nature, and scientists continue to debate the identification of some finds. Part of the problem with identification lies in the convergent evolution of morphologies between many brown and red algae. Most fossils of soft-tissue algae preserve only a flattened outline, without the microscopic features that permit the major groups of multicellular algae to be reliably distinguished. Among the brown algae, only species of the genus Padina deposit significant quantities of minerals in or around their cell walls.
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Taxonomic classification of amphisbaenians was traditionally based on morphological characters, such as the number of preanal pores, body annuli, and tail annuli. Such characters are vulnerable to convergent evolution; in particular, the loss of the forelimbs and the evolution of specialized shovel-headed and keel-headed morphs appear to have occurred multiple times in the history of the group.Kearney, Maureen, and Bryan L. Stuart. "Repeated evolution of limblessness and digging heads in worm lizards revealed by DNA from old bones." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 271 (2004): 1677–1684.
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For example, the dentition of the Early Cretaceous monotreme Steropodon is similar to those of Peramus and dryolestoids, which suggests that monotremes are related to some pre-tribosphenic therian mammals, but, on the other hand, the status of neither of these two groups is well-established. Some Jurassic mammals, such as Shuotherium and Pseudotribos, have "reversed tribosphenic" molars, in which the talonid is towards the front. This variant is regarded as an example of convergent evolution. From the primitive tribosphenic tooth, molars have diversified into several unique morphologies.
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Farwell's name was rendered unnecessary when Cheilanthes was conserved over Allosorus in the Paris Code published in 1956. The development of molecular phylogenetic methods showed that the traditional circumscription of Cheilanthes is polyphyletic. Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify it and the segregate genera that have sometimes been recognized. On the basis of molecular evidence, Amanda Grusz and Michael D. Windham revived the genus Myriopteris in 2013 for a group of species formerly placed in Cheilanthes.
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Anadara, a bivalve with taxodont dentition from the Pliocene of Cyprus A fossil Jurassic brachiopod with the lophophore support intact Brachiopods are shelled marine organisms that superficially resembled bivalves in that they are of similar size and have a hinged shell in two parts. However, brachiopods evolved from a very different ancestral line, and the resemblance to bivalves only arose because of a similar lifestyle. The differences between the two groups are due to their separate ancestral origins. Different initial structures have been adapted to solve the same problems, a case of convergent evolution.
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Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361(1470):1055-67. Review. In most cases, hydrogenosomes are genomeless, though genomes have persisted in some lineages such as Neocallimastix, Trichomonas vaginalis or Tritrichomonas foetus. However, a hydrogenosomal genome has been detected in the cockroach ciliate Nyctotherus ovalis, and the stramenopile Blastocystis. The similarity between Nyctotherus and Blastocystis, which are only distantly related, is believed to be the result of convergent evolution, and calls into question whether there is a clear-cut distinction between mitochondria, hydrogenosomes, and mitosomes (another kind of degenerate mitochondria).
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Macro image of a worker.The primitive giant northern termite (Mastotermes darwiniensis) exhibits numerous cockroach-like characteristics that are not shared with other termites, such as laying its eggs in rafts and having anal lobes on the wings. It has been proposed that the Isoptera and Cryptocercidae be grouped in the clade "Xylophagodea". Termites are sometimes called "white ants" but the only resemblance to the ants is due to their sociality which is due to convergent evolution with termites being the first social insects to evolve a caste system more than 100 million years ago.
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This represents a sense of self-awareness; knowing what is going on within himself and in the present. The authors suggest that self-recognition in birds and mammals may be a case of convergent evolution, where similar evolutionary pressures result in similar behaviors or traits, although they arrive at them via different routes. A few slight occurrences of behavior towards the magpie's own body happened in the trial with the black mark and the mirror. It is assumed in this study that the black mark may have been slightly visible on the black feathers.
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The remarkable diversity and distribution of AFPs suggest the different types evolved recently in response to sea level glaciation occurring 1-2 million years ago in the Northern hemisphere and 10-30 million years ago in Antarctica. This independent development of similar adaptations is referred to as convergent evolution. There are two reasons why many types of AFPs are able to carry out the same function despite their diversity: # Although ice is uniformly composed of water molecules, it has many different surfaces exposed for binding. Different types of AFPs may interact with different surfaces.
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This thylacinid was much smaller than its more recent relatives. The largest species, the powerful thylacine (Thylacinus potens) which grew to the size of a wolf, was the only species to survive into the late Miocene. In late Pleistocene and early Holocene times, the modern thylacine was widespread (although never numerous) throughout Australia and New Guinea. An example of convergent evolution, the thylacine showed many similarities to the members of the dog family, Canidae, of the Northern Hemisphere: sharp teeth, powerful jaws, raised heels and the same general body form.
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Substitution bias further increases the likelihood of haplotype convergence, as this increases the probability of mutations occurring at the same site. Sequences may also diverge from the same original sequence and then revert, converging in this manner. Convergence through convergent evolution in two unrelated groups is much less common, as derived traits may arise through dramatically different pathways. Erroneously determining two individuals do be identical due to haplotype convergence becomes much less likely when more genetic markers are tested, since that would require a larger amount of extremely rare coincidences.
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Plate from Novitates Zoologicae showing the great variation in eyestalk development in Achias rothschildi thumb Some species have prominent eyestalks also found in the family Diopsidae. In the Diopsidae, eyestalks develop through lateral development of the frontal plate, with the result that the antennae are situated on the stalk near the compound eye. The process of development in signal flies is different in that the fronto-orbital plates expanded laterally to produce eyestalks and consequently the antennae remain in a central position. This is an example of convergent evolution.
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The trait has developed as a result of convergent evolution at least 4 times in different groups of fish; twice in the family Myctophidae (in species of Myctophum and Symbolophorus), and also in the families Stomiidae (genus Idiacanthus), and Bathylagidae (Bathylagus). The work of Weihhs and Moser (1981) showed that the eye's elliptical shape allows a stylophthalmine to dramatically enlarge its field of view through rotation on the stalk, giving a much larger effective pupil size. Three unrelated species with stylophthalmine larvae were once placed in the now discredited genus Stylophthalmus.
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A Comparative Study of Hearing in Owls of the Family Strigidae. Neth J. Zool; 23:131-167. Barn owls and boreal owl (Aegolius funereus) have (via convergent evolution) roughly similar ear structures, with the relative size of the ear structure and facial disc in owls generally indicative of the level of importance of acute hearing to their life history. Owls with relatively smaller ear slits and shallower or vestigial facial discs tend to skew towards more crepuscular or partially diurnal behaviors, whereas owls such as long-eared owls are more or less entirely nocturnal.
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Based on the morphological comparisons, it was thought the two-toed sloths nested phylogenetically within one of the divisions of Caribbean sloths. Though data has been collected on over 33 different species of sloths by analyzing bone structures, many of the relationships between clades on a phylogenetic tree were unclear. Much of the morphological evidence to support the hypothesis of diphyly has been based on the structure of the inner ear. Most morphological studies have concluded that convergent evolution is the mechanism that resulted in today’s two genera of tree sloths.
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Remnants of human evolution can be seen in the continued existence of several sub-human and semi-human species on Helliconia. The humans of Helliconia and those of Earth are therefore unrelated despite their apparent near-identity, products of convergent evolution. By the end of each great autumn, humans have developed levels of civilization comparable at their most advanced to Renaissance Europe, with technology such as telescopes, map-making, and porcelain glass. However, each time the thousand-year great winter returns, human civilization inevitably regresses and has to be rebuilt again the next spring.
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The abundance of genomic data available nowadays has enabled research to elucidate the early evolution and divergence of bird groups, and has produced a much more detailed phylogenetic tree. Genomic research has shown that in order to make a good phylogenetic tree it is not enough to use a single gene. This is due to incomplete lineage sorting of genes. The main problems found in these studies are the low resolution of single-gene based phylogenetic trees and the fact that coding DNA data are scarce and, sometimes, treacherous due to convergent evolution.
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Systematic Biology, 27(4), 401-410. Often this is because convergent evolution of one or more characters included in the analysis has occurred in multiple taxa. Although they were derived independently, these shared traits can be misinterpreted in the analysis as being shared due to common ancestry. In phylogenetic and clustering analyses, LBA is a result of the way clustering algorithms work: terminals or taxa with many autapomorphies (character states unique to a single branch) may by chance exhibit the same states as those on another branch (homoplasy).
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Some characteristics affected by heteroblastic change include internode length and stem structure as well as leaf form, size and arrangement. Heteroblasty is found in many different Families as well as different species within a genus, this random spread of heteroblastic plants across species is believed to be caused by convergent evolution. Heteroblasty should not be confused with seasonal heterophylly, where early and late growth in a growing season are markedly different. The earlier and later stages of development are commonly labeled as juvenile and adult respectively, particularly in relation to leaves.
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Over 300 new species have been discovered at hydrothermal vents, many of them "sister species" to others found in geographically separated vent areas. It has been proposed that before the North American plate overrode the mid-ocean ridge, there was a single biogeographic vent region found in the eastern Pacific. The subsequent barrier to travel began the evolutionary divergence of species in different locations. The examples of convergent evolution seen between distinct hydrothermal vents is seen as major support for the theory of natural selection and of evolution as a whole.
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Vaney, Geneva, Switzerland Questions on the classification of Halteria have arisen again in more recent years. Halteria have been most commonly classified as a member of the oligotrich group of ciliates, because they possess the group’s characteristic prominent oral cilia arranged in an incomplete circle. However, recent deep sequencing and RNA analysis of Halteria indicate that Halteria may be more closely related to oxytrichids than oligotrichs, suggesting the similarity in oral apparatus with oligotrichs is the result of convergent evolution.Lynn, D. H., & Kolisko, M. (2017). Molecules illuminate morphology: phylogenomics confirms convergent evolution among ‘oligotrichous’ ciliates.
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De Candolle originated the idea of "Nature's war", which influenced Charles Darwin and the principle of natural selection. de Candolle recognized that multiple species may develop similar characteristics that did not appear in a common evolutionary ancestor; a phenomenon now known as convergent evolution. During his work with plants, de Candolle noticed that plant leaf movements follow a near-24-hour cycle in constant light, suggesting that an internal biological clock exists. Though many scientists doubted de Candolle's findings, experiments over a century later demonstrated that ″the internal biological clock″ indeed exists.
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They evolved to have similar forms and physiological characteristics by convergent evolution. Examples are tall thin Euphorbias from deserts and arid regions of southern African and Madagascar, similarly shaped cacti from North America and South America, which occupy a similar xeric evolutionary niche, and members of two genera of the family Asclepiadaceae (Hoodia and Stapelia). Shared features are a succulent stem that stores water and conducts photosynthesis, protective spines or thorns, leaves absent or highly reduced, and use of CAM photosynthesis (an opening of stomata and fixing CO2 almost exclusively at night).
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Their vision is very similar to the eyesight found in that of Old-World bats. The presence of the dim-light (RH1) gene in both the tomb bats and Old-World bats suggests convergent evolution of this gene in a similar light-rich environment. The Mauritian tomb bat can detect movement from a distance away, which suggests that the bat's eyesight is superior to that of other insect-eating bats. This advanced eyesight plays a large role in finding a suitable roost for the day and detecting predators.
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Doar, B.G. (2007) "Genitalia, Totems and Painted Pottery: New Ceramic Discoveries in Gansu and Surrounding Areas". China Heritage Quarterly Struthio ostriches once co-existed with another lineage of flightless didactyl birds, the eogruids. Though Olson 1985 classified these birds as stem- ostriches, they are otherwise universally considered to be related to cranes, any similarities being the result of convergent evolution. Competition from ostriches has been suggested to have caused the extinction of the eogruids, though this has never been tested and both groups do co-exist in some sites.
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It is widely assumed pitfall traps evolved by epiascidiation (infolding of the leaf with the adaxial or upper surface becoming the inside of the pitcher), with selection pressure favouring more deeply cupped leaves over evolutionary time. The pitcher trap evolved independently in three eudicot lineages and one monocot lineage, representing a case of convergent evolution. Some pitcher plant families (such as Nepenthaceae) are placed within clades consisting mostly of flypaper traps, indicating that some pitchers may have evolved from the common ancestors of today's flypaper traps by loss of mucilage.
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It is possible, though not at all well-supported, that these were distinct by the end of the Albian 100 million years ago (Ma). Loons belong to a more modern radiation. They were once believed to be related to grebes, which are also foot-propelled diving birds, and both species were once classified together under the order Colymbiformes. However, as long ago as the 1930s, it was determined that the two groups are not that closely related at all and are merely the product of convergent evolution and adapted in a similar way to a similar ecological niche.
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The lower jaw is articulated to the skull, which is between the squamosal and the dentary which isn't seen in other cyandonts. When looking the jaw of Brasilitherium, one could say that it is closely related to Thrinaxodon, but paleontologists have concluded that they are not closely related, but simply have convergent evolution. The skull shows quadrangular upper post canines and asymmetrical lower post canines. Post- canines are constantly getting replaced in this taxon and they are replaced in an alternate sequence, meaning they are not getting replaced next to each other at the same time.
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The relationships of this peculiar species are quite enigmatic. It is traditionally included with the stiff-tailed duck subfamily Oxyurinae, but appears to be only distantly related to the genus Oxyura, and its peculiar apomorphies make it difficult to place. Its relationship with the equally strange pink-eared ducks (Malacorhynchus) is unresolved, but seems to be quite close, and it seems to be part of an ancient Gondwanan radiation of Anatidae. As such, it is fairly closely related to the stiff-tailed ducks proper, but it seems not quite as closely related as formerly believed, with many similarities due to convergent evolution.
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Rostratula benghalensis with chicks The family Rostratulidae encompasses two genera and four species, one of which is extinct. Painted- snipes superficially resemble true snipes, but the two taxa are not closely related. Instead the similarity can be attributed to convergent evolution where both groups have been subjected to similar selective pressures, thus promoting the evolution of analogous features such as a long slender bill and legs, mottled cryptic plumage and characteristic body proportions. While less similar in general morphology, the species that are most closely related to painted-snipes are other members of the suborder Thinocori: jacanas, seedsnipes, and the plains wanderer.
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Much of the morphological evidence collected to support the hypothesis of diphyly has been based on the structure of the inner ear. Recently obtained molecular data from collagen and mitochondrial DNA sequences fall in line with the diphyly (convergent evolution) hypothesis, but have overturned some of the other conclusions obtained from morphology. These investigations consistently place two-toed sloths close to mylodontids and three-toed sloths within Megatherioidea, close to Megalonyx, megatheriids and nothrotheriids. They make the previously recognized family Megalonychidae polyphyletic, with both two-toed sloths and Greater Antilles sloths being moved away from Megalonyx.
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Noting this, palaeontologist Daniel Adams proposed Miracinonyx, a new subgenus under Acinonyx, in 1979 for the North American cheetah-like cats; this was later elevated to genus rank. Adams pointed out that North American and Old World cheetah-like cats may have had a common ancestor, and Acinonyx might have originated in North America instead of Eurasia. However, subsequent research has shown that Miracinonyx is phylogenetically closer to the cougar than the cheetah; the similarities to cheetahs have been attributed to convergent evolution. The three species of the Puma lineage may have had a common ancestor during the Miocene (roughly 8.25 mya).
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Arguments have been made for both the convergent and divergent evolution of α/β-barrel structured enzymes such as KDPG Aldolase, triosephosphate isomerase, and the A-domain of pyruvate kinase. Convergent evolution can lead to geometrically similar active sites while each enzyme has a distinct backbone conformation. Convergence to a common backbone structure, as is the case here however, has not been observed, although it is argues that it might be possible for a symmetrically repetitive structure as the one observed here. The similarity in the folding of the three enzymes and the exceptional symmetry commonly suggests divergent evolution from a common ancestor.
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Some Galliformes are adapted to grassland habitat, and these genera are remarkable for their long, thin necks, long legs, and large, wide wings. Fairly unrelated species like the crested fireback (Lophura ignita), vulturine guineafowl (Acryllium vulturinum), and malleefowl (Leipoa ocellata) are outwardly similar in their body types (see also convergent evolution). Most species that show only limited sexual dimorphism are notable for the great amount of locomotion required to find food throughout the majority of the year. Those species that are highly sedentary but with marked ecological transformations over seasons exhibit marked distinct differences between the sexes in size and/or appearance.
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Also, in Norway, pultost is traditionally made from byproducts of the brunost-making process, and has a very distinctive flavour. Very similar to full cow's milk brunost, but unrelated to it (probably developed by convergent evolution) is "requeijão moreno", from the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil. It's produced in a similar way, by boiling cow's milk until it caramelises and darkens to a brown colour, hence the name "moreno" ("tanned" or "brown"). Requeijão has three varieties: branco ("white"), de raspa ("with scrapes", because of the streaks of caramelised milk scraped from the pan), and moreno.
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The convergent evolution of tannin-rich plant communities has occurred on nutrient-poor acidic soils throughout the world. Tannins were once believed to function as anti-herbivore defenses, but more and more ecologists now recognize them as important controllers of decomposition and nitrogen cycling processes. As concern grows about global warming, there is great interest to better understand the role of polyphenols as regulators of carbon cycling, in particular in northern boreal forests. Leaf litter and other decaying parts of kauri (Agathis australis), a tree species found in New Zealand, decompose much more slowly than those of most other species.
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Album versions of Amoeba to Zebra and The Clockwork Universe were released on in 2010 and 2013 respectively. The band's work in the educational science field has been compared to that of They Might Be Giants, although Dave Cooke has argued that this is simply a case of "convergent evolution". A fifth album - The Invisible Stuff (based on the Being 747 science show of the same name) was released in September 2016. A further album of pop songs, called In the Valley was premiered via a Bandcamp- only download sampler in January 2013, although no full release has been scheduled yet.
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Cats in comparison to dogs and bears have much longer and stronger frontlimbs armed with retractable claws to hold on to prey. Hyenas are dog-like feliforms that have sloping backs due to their front legs being longer than their hindlegs. The raccoon family as well as the red panda are small, bear-like carnivorans with long tails. The other small carnivoran families Nandiniidae, Prionodontidae, Viverridae, Herpestidae, Eupleridae, Mephitidae and Mustelidae have through convergent evolution maintained the small, ancestral appearance of the miacoids, though there is some variation seen such as the robust and stout physicality of badgers and the wolverine (Gulo gulo).
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L. chinensis tree at Parque Municipal Summit in Panama L. chinensis flowers Sliced lychee fruit showing white flesh and black seed Litchi chinensis is an evergreen tree that is frequently less than tall, sometimes reaching . Its evergreen leaves, 5 to 8 in (12.5–20 cm) long, are pinnate, having 4 to 8 alternate, elliptic-oblong to lanceolate, abruptly pointed, leaflets, The bark is grey-black, the branches a brownish-red. Its evergreen leaves are long, with leaflets in two to four pairs. Lychee are similar in foliage to the family Lauraceae, likely due to convergent evolution.
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Biologists often point to the universality of many aspects of cellular life as supportive evidence to the more compelling evidence listed above. These similarities include the energy carrier adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and the fact that all amino acids found in proteins are left-handed. It is, however, possible that these similarities resulted because of the laws of physics and chemistry - rather than through universal common descent - and therefore resulted in convergent evolution. In contrast, there is evidence for homology of the central subunits of Transmembrane ATPases throughout all living organisms, especially how the rotating elements are bound to the membrane.
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The corticioid fungus Terana caerulea, growing on the undersurface of dead branches The corticioid fungi are a group of fungi in the Basidiomycota typically having effused, smooth basidiocarps (fruit bodies) that are formed on the undersides of dead tree trunks or branches. They are sometimes colloquially called crust fungi or patch fungi. Originally such fungi were referred to the genus Corticium ("corticioid" means Corticium-like) and subsequently to the family Corticiaceae, but it is now known that all corticioid species are not necessarily closely related. The fact that they look similar is an example of convergent evolution.
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Simultaneously, the structures of the evolutionarily unrelated papain and subtilisin proteases were found to contain analogous triads. The 'charge-relay' mechanism for the activation of the nucleophile by the other triad members was proposed in the late 1960s. As more protease structures were solved by X-ray crystallography in the 1970s and 80s, homologous (such as TEV protease) and analogous (such as papain) triads were found. The MEROPS classification system in the 1990s and 2000s began classing proteases into structurally related enzyme superfamilies and so acts as a database of the convergent evolution of triads in over 20 superfamilies.
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The patterns of speciation in the family Lauraceae, where Misanteca genus belong, indicate that since the onset of aridification on the continents 15 million years ago, rainforest diversified in species numbers with the majority of species the product of vicariance. One of the products of aridification is the current island like archipelagos of rainforests along the planet. The fragmentation of once more continuous rainforest facilitated isolation of populations and this likely caused the increase in the rate of speciation as found in the Lauraceae. Many botanical species are having similar foliage to the Lauraceae due to convergent evolution.
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Plotopteridae is the name of an extinct family of flightless seabirds from the order Suliformes. Related to the gannets and boobies, they exhibited remarkable convergent evolution with the penguins, particularly with the now extinct giant penguins. That they lived in the North Pacific, the other side of the world from the penguins, has led to them being described at times as the Northern Hemisphere's penguins, though they were not closely related. More recent studies have shown, however, that the shoulder-girdle, forelimb and sternum of plotopterids differ significantly from those of penguins, so comparisons in terms of function may not be entirely accurate.
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Although currently listed as a member of the genus Chaerephon, whose members it resembles morphologically, C. jobimena's closest relatives based on molecular evidence are Tadarida aegyptiaca of Africa and southwest Asia, and Tadarida brasiliensis of the Americas, which form a clade believed to be about 9.8 million years old. C. jobimena and T. aegyptiaca were found to be sister species. The morphological resemblance thus apparently represents parallel or convergent evolution. While sequence data indicates that Chaerephon, Mops and Tadarida are not monophyletic taxa, the grouping of Chaerephon minus C. jobimena plus Mops was found to be monophyletic.
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Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify it and the segregate genera that have sometimes been recognized. On the basis of molecular evidence, Amanda Grusz and Michael D. Windham revived the genus Myriopteris in 2013 for a group of species formerly placed in Cheilanthes. One of these was C. maxoniana, which thus became Myriopteris maxoniana. In 2018, Maarten J. M. Christenhusz transferred the species to Hemionitis as H. maxoniana, as part of a program to consolidate the cheilanthoid ferns into that genus.
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Ripley, Dillon S. (1947) Avian relicts and double invasions in Peninsular India and Ceylon(Sri Lanka). Evolution 2:150–159 Later studies have suggested that Hora's original model species were a demonstration of convergent evolution rather than speciation by isolation. More recent phylogeographic studies have attempted to study the problem using molecular approaches.Karanth, P. K. (2003) Evolution of disjunct distributions among wet-zone species of the Indian subcontinent: Testing various hypotheses using a phylogenetic approach Current Science, 85(9): 1276-1283 There are also differences in taxa which are dependent on time of divergence and geological history.
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Dogs have often been used in studies of cognition, including research on perception, awareness, memory, and learning, notably research on classical and operant conditioning. In the course of this research, behavioral scientists uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in the domestic dog, abilities that are neither possessed by dogs' closest canine relatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes. Rather, these skills resemble some of the social-cognitive skills of human children. This may be an example of convergent evolution, which happens when distantly related species independently evolve similar solutions to the same problems.
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In 2012, Tishkoff participated in a study published in Genome Biology that compared the hemoglobin levels between populations living at high and low altitudes in Ethiopia. The study found that there are statistically significant differences in the hemoglobin levels between the high altitude population, the Amhara people, and the low altitude population, the Aari and Hamar people. The genomic analysis recovered different gene candidates underlying adaptation to high altitude (CBARA1, VAV3, ARNT2, and THRB). This study demonstrates another example of convergent evolution, since the mutations found in the Ethiopian high altitude population are different than the ones found in Tibetan and Andean populations.
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Enantiornithes is the sister group to Euornithes, and together they form a clade called Ornithothoraces (though see above). Most phylogenetic studies have recovered Enantiornithes as a monophyletic group distinct from the modern birds and their closest relatives. The 2002 phylogenetic analysis by Clarke and Norell, though, reduced the number of enantiornithean autapomorphies to just four. Enantiornithean systematics are highly provisional and notoriously difficult to study, due to the fact that enantiornitheans tend to be extremely homoplastic, or very similar to each other in most of their skeletal features due to convergent evolution rather than common ancestry.
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Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify it and the segregate genera that have sometimes been recognized. On the basis of molecular evidence, Amanda Grusz and Michael D. Windham revived the genus Myriopteris in 2013 for a group of species formerly placed in Cheilanthes. One of these was C. aemula, which thus became Myriopteris aemula. In 2018, Maarten J. M. Christenhusz transferred the species to Hemionitis as H. aemula, as part of a program to consolidate the cheilanthoid ferns into that genus.
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Thus, ear asymmetry seems to have evolved on at least three different occasions among owls. Because owls depend on their sense of hearing for hunting, this convergent evolution in owl ears suggests that asymmetry is important for sound localization in the owl. Ear asymmetry allows for sound originating from below the eye level to sound louder in the left ear, while sound originating from above the eye level to sound louder in the right ear. Asymmetrical ear placement also causes IID for high frequencies (between 4 kHz and 8 kHz) to vary systematically with elevation, converting IID into a map of elevation.
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The findings show that magpies respond in the mirror test in a manner similar to apes, dolphins, killer whales, pigs and elephants. This is a remarkable capability that, although not fully concrete in its determination of self-recognition, is at least a prerequisite of self- recognition. This is not only of interest regarding the convergent evolution of social intelligence, it is also valuable for an understanding of the general principles that govern cognitive evolution and their underlying neural mechanisms. The magpies were chosen to study based on their empathy/lifestyle, a possible precursor for their ability of self-awareness.
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Life restoration of Scleromochlus, a likely early avemetatarsalian commonly considered close to pterosaurs. Two researchers, S. Christopher Bennett in 1996, and paleoartist David Peters in 2000, published analyses finding pterosaurs to be protorosaurs or closely related to them. However, Peters gathered novel anatomical data using an unverified technique called "Digital Graphic Segregation" (DGS), which involves digitally tracing over images of pterosaur fossils using photo editing software. Bennett only recovered pterosaurs as close relatives of the protorosaurs after removing characteristics of the hindlimb from his analysis, to test the possibility of locomotion-based convergent evolution between pterosaurs and dinosaurs.
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Although fossil records exist of wolf-like canids from Late Pleistocene Eurasia, no fossil records are known for the Ethiopian wolf. In 1994, a mitochondrial DNA analysis showed a closer relationship to the gray wolf and the coyote than to other African canids, and C. simensis may be an evolutionary relic of a gray wolf-like ancestor's past invasion of northern Africa from Eurasia. :See further: Canis evolution Ethiopian wolf skull: Despite its close relation to the grey wolf, convergent evolution has resulted in a skull similar in shape to that of jackals and the South American maned wolf.Dalton, R. (2001).
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The fossil record indicates that the species also occurred in North America, with remains being found in Beringia and Mexico. The dhole's distinctive morphology has been a source of much confusion in determining the species' systematic position among the Canidae. George Simpson placed the dhole in the subfamily Simocyoninae alongside the African wild dog and the bush dog, on account of all three species' similar dentition. Subsequent authors, including Juliet Clutton-Brock, noted greater morphological similarities to canids of the genera Canis, Dusicyon, and Alopex than to either Speothos or Lycaon, with any resemblance to the latter two being due to convergent evolution.
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There is a large diastema, or gap, between the keratinous beak on the front of the mouth and the main chewing teeth in the side of the mouth, which would allow the two sections to work independently, so Altirhinus could crop with its beak while simultaneously chewing with its teeth. Many herbivorous mammals show a similar adaptation and can crop with their incisors without disturbing their chewing molars. Altirhinus was one of a number of advanced iguanodontians with snouts expanded outwards towards the end. This is quite possibly an example of convergent evolution with hadrosaurids, famous for their wide "duckbill" snouts.
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Cretoxyrhina is similar to the modern great white shark in size, shape, and ecology. Cretoxyrhina bore a resemblance to the modern great white shark in size, shape and ecology, but the two sharks are not closely related, and their similarities are a result of convergent evolution. Cretoxyrhina has been traditionally grouped within the Cretoxyrhinidae, a family of lamnoid sharks that traditionally included other genera resulting in a paraphyletic or polyphyletic family. Siverson (1999) remarked that Cretoxyrhinidae was used as a 'wastebasket taxon' for Cretaceous and Paleogene sharks and declared that Cretoxyrhina was the only valid member of the family.
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The chestnut and golden sparrows have been seen as highly primitive among the genus Passer, only distantly related to the house sparrow and the related "Palaearctic black-bibbed sparrows". In recognition of this they are sometimes placed in a separate genus or subgenus Auripasser. The courtship display of the Dead Sea sparrow was thought to have evolved separately in a similar environment from that of these species, in an example of convergent evolution. However, mitochondrial DNA phylogenies indicate that the chestnut and golden sparrows are either derived from or are the closest relatives of the Palaearctic black- bibbed sparrows.
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The thylacine was relatively shy and nocturnal, with the general appearance of a medium-to-large-size dog, except for its stiff tail and abdominal pouch similar to a kangaroo's, and dark transverse stripes that radiated from the top of its back, reminiscent of a tiger. The thylacine was a formidable apex predator,Paddle (2000) though exactly how large its prey animals were is disputed. Because of convergent evolution it displayed a form and adaptations similar to the tiger and wolf of the Northern Hemisphere, despite being unrelated. Its closest living relative is either the Tasmanian devil or the numbat.
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Their scientific name means "cloven-breast", from Ancient Greek schízeïn (σχίζειν) "to cleave" and thórax (θώραξ) "breast- plate" (see also thorax). The western species are typically referred to as marinkas from their Russian name marinka (маринка), while the eastern species are usually called snowtrout. Although they do resemble trouts in habitus this is merely due to convergent evolution and they are by no means closely related apart from both being Teleostei: Cyprinids are in the teleost superorder Ostariophysi, while trouts are in the superorder Protacanthopterygii. Their ancestors must thus have diverged as early as the Triassic, more than 200 million years ago.
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Crumpton holds a BSc in ecology from the University of Leeds, and an MSc in palaeobiology from the University of Bristol, for which he was awarded the Geologists Association's Curry Prize. He gained his PhD from the University of Cambridge with research undertaken at the Department of Zoology. He has held post-doctoral research posts at the Zoological Society of London and University College London and undertaken field work in Indonesia and North America. His research has centered on ecomorphology and functional anatomy, convergent evolution, mammalian evolution during the Mesozoic era, and recent mammal biodiversity in the Caribbean and Indonesia.
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For further reading on Fe oxidation pathways see reference. The phylogenetic distance between the Zetaproteobacteria and the Fe-oxidizing freshwater Betaproteobacteria suggests that Fe oxidation and the produced biominerals are the result of convergent evolution. Comparative genomics has been able to identify several genes that are shared between the two clades, however, suggesting that the trait of Fe oxidation could have been horizontally transferred, possibly virally-mediated. Fe mats associated with the Zetaproteobacteria, in addition to oxidizing Fe have been found to have the genetic potential for denitrification, arsenic detoxification, Calvin- Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle, and reductive tricarboxylic acid (rTCA) cycles.
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Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify it and the segregate genera that have sometimes been recognized. On the basis of molecular evidence, Amanda Grusz and Michael D. Windham revived the genus Myriopteris in 2013 for a group of species formerly placed in Cheilanthes. One of these was C. lanosa, which thus became Myriopteris lanosa. In 2018, Maarten J. M. Christenhusz transferred the species to Hemionitis as H. lanosa, as part of a program to consolidate the cheilanthoid ferns into that genus.
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It was found that the NCL contained lower absolute quantities of these neuronal receptors. However, the experiment also revealed that the relative densities of these receptors in both organisms were surprisingly similar. With this, there is the possible implication that the capability for such sophisticated mental processes in these structures is reliant on the receptor architecture of the neurons which comprise them. So despite the nidopallium and prefrontal cortex having evolved separately (an educated assumption), both have achieved similar functions of higher order thought processes via convergent evolution, as a result of influences at the molecular level.
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However, Heilmann noted that birds had clavicles (collar bones) fused to form a bone called the furcula ("wishbone"), and while clavicles were known in more primitive reptiles, they had not yet been recognized in dinosaurs. Since he was a firm believer in Dollo's law, which states that evolution is not reversible, Heilmann could not accept that clavicles were lost in dinosaurs and re-evolved in birds. He was therefore forced to rule out dinosaurs as bird ancestors and ascribe all of their similarities to convergent evolution. Heilmann stated that bird ancestors would instead be found among the more primitive "thecodont" grade of reptiles.
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Toothcombs can also be found in colugos and treeshrews, both close relatives of primates; however, the structures are different and these are considered to examples of convergent evolution. Likewise, small- or medium-sized African antelopes, such as the impala (Aepyceros melampus), have a similar structure sometimes referred to as the "lateral dental grooming apparatus". Living and extinct hyraxes (hyracoids) also exhibit a toothcomb, although the number of tines in the comb vary throughout the fossil record. Dating to the Eocene epoch over 50 mya, Chriacus and Thryptacodon—two types of arctocyonids (primitive placental mammals)—also possessed an independently evolved toothcomb.
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Despite their low diversity, hyenas are unique and vital components of most African ecosystems. Although phylogenetically closer to felines and viverrids, as part of suborder Feliformia, hyenas are behaviourally and morphologically similar to canines in several elements of convergent evolution; both hyenas and canines are non-arboreal, cursorial hunters that catch prey with their teeth rather than claws. Both eat food quickly and may store it, and their calloused feet with large, blunt, nonretractable claws are adapted for running and making sharp turns. However, hyenas' grooming, scent marking, defecation habits, mating and parental behaviour are consistent with the behaviour of other feliforms.
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Sunbird drinking nectar from typical bird- pollinated flower As nectar is a primary food source for sunbirds, they are important pollinators in African ecosystems. Sunbird-pollinated flowers are typically long, tubular, and red-to-orange in colour, showing convergent evolution with many hummingbird-pollinated flowers in the Americas. A key difference is that sunbirds cannot hover, so sunbird-pollinated flowers and inflorescences are typically sturdier than hummingbird-pollinated flowers, with an appropriate landing spot from which the bird can feed. Sunbirds are critical pollinators for many iconic African plants, including proteas, aloes, Erica, Erythrina coral trees, and bird-of-paradise flowers.
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S. cavefishes), Bythitidae (brotulas), Poeciliidae (live-bearers), Synbranchidae (swamp eels), Cottidae (true sculpins), Butidae (butid gobies), Eleotridae (sleeper gobies), Milyeringidae (blind cave gobies), Gobiidae (gobies) and Channidae (snakeheads). Many of these families are only very distantly related and do not form a monophyletic group, showing that adaptations to a life in caves has happened numerous times among fish. As such, their similar adaptions are examples of convergent evolution and the descriptive term "cavefish" is an example of folk taxonomy rather than scientific taxonomy. Strictly speaking some Cyprinodontidae (pupfish) are also known from sinkhole caves, famously including the Devils Hole pupfish, but these lack the adaptations (e.g.
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The study of early dinosaurs such as Herrerasaurus and Eoraptor therefore has important implications for the concept of dinosaurs as a monophyletic group (a group descended from a common ancestor). The monophyly of dinosaurs was explicitly proposed in the 1970s by Galton and Robert T. Bakker, who compiled a list of cranial and postcranial synapomorphies (common anatomical traits derived from the common ancestor). Later authors proposed additional synapomorphies. An extensive study of Herrerasaurus by Sereno in 1992 suggested that of these proposed synapomorphies, only one cranial and seven postcranial features were actually derived from a common ancestor, and that the others were attributable to convergent evolution.
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Additionally, synchrotron radiation X-ray tomographic microscopy reveals that these tooth- like tubercle structures likely consist of a dentine based core and an enameloid cap common to many extant fish groups, however, they lack internal vascularization. The presence of enameloid cap suggests that Romundina is either closely related to crown Gnathostomata or that this feature arose through convergent evolution and was later lost. Romundina's dental tubercles lack any apparent organization which is a more primitive feature found in Cyclostomes suggesting that organized tooth rows evolved just prior to the evolution of the first Gnathostomes. The supragnathal plates, which these tooth-like tubercles sit on are oval-shaped, flat, and relatively symmetrical.
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Thylacosmilus is an extinct genus of saber-toothed metatherian mammals that inhabited South America from the Late Miocene to Pliocene epochs. Though Thylacosmilus looks similar to the "saber-toothed cats", it was not a felid, like the well-known North American Smilodon, but a sparassodont, a group closely related to marsupials, and only superficially resembled other saber- toothed mammals due to convergent evolution. A 2005 study found that the bite forces of Thylacosmilus and Smilodon were low, which indicates the killing- techniques of saber-toothed animals differed from those of extant species. Remains of Thylacosmilus have been found primarily in Catamarca, Entre Ríos, and La Pampa Provinces in northern Argentina.
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Technological convergence, also known as digital convergence, is the tendency for technologies that were originally unrelated to become more closely integrated and even unified as they develop and advance. For example, telephones, television, and computers began as separate and mostly unrelated technologies, but have converged in many ways into interrelated parts of a telecommunication and media industry, sharing common elements of digital electronics and software. The concept is roughly analogous to convergent evolution in biological systems, such that (for example) the ancestors of whales became progressively more like fish in outward form and function, despite not being fish and not coming from a fish lineage.
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The South American foxes (Lycalopex), commonly called raposa in Portuguese, or zorro in Spanish, are a genus from South America of the subfamily Caninae. Despite their name, they are not true foxes, but are a unique canid genus related to wolves and jackals; some of them somewhat resemble foxes due to convergent evolution. The South American gray fox, Lycalopex griseus, is the most common species, and is known for its large ears and a highly marketable, russet-fringed pelt. The second-oldest known fossils belonging to the genus were discovered in Chile, and date from 2.0 to 2.5 million years ago, in the mid- to late Pliocene.
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The stapes was thought to be just a structural support between the palate and the stapedial plate of the braincase. In the Acanthostega, it is likely that due to the otic capsule of the brain case being mesial to the stapedial plate, sound was picked up from the palate or the otic notch to allow for rudimentary hearing. It was able to perceive vibrations by opening its mouth by way of the palate. Other factors that caused aquatic tetrapods to spend more time on land caused the development of terrestrial hearing with the development of a tympanum within an otic notch and developed by convergent evolution at least three times.
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Another theory suggests that influences may have originated from the opposite direction: Archbishop Thomas Croke, one of the founders of the GAA, was the Bishop of Auckland and lived in New Zealand between 1870 and 1875. As a result of the New Zealand gold rushes of the 1860s, there were many Australian-born settlers in New Zealand, and Victorian rules was popular there at the time. Croke therefore had an opportunity to witness the Australian game being played. Such claims are regarded by some historians as purely circumstantial evidence for a relationship between the two codes, and any resemblances are the result of something akin to parallel or convergent evolution.
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In total there are 190 species in 55 genera, roughly half of them native to Australia, many of the remainder occupying New Guinea. With their closest relatives, the Maluridae (Australian fairy-wrens), Pardalotidae (pardalotes), and Acanthizidae (thornbills, Australian warblers, scrubwrens, etc.), they comprise the superfamily Meliphagoidea and originated early in the evolutionary history of the oscine passerine radiation. Although honeyeaters look and behave very much like other nectar-feeding passerines around the world (such as the sunbirds and flowerpeckers), they are unrelated, and the similarities are the consequence of convergent evolution. The extent of the evolutionary partnership between honeyeaters and Australasian flowering plants is unknown, but probably substantial.
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A recent analysis of DNA sequences supported the splitting of Sterna into several smaller genera. One study of part of the cytochrome b gene sequence found a close relationship between terns and a group of waders in the suborder Thinocori. These results are in disagreement with other molecular and morphological studies, and have been interpreted as showing either a large degree of molecular convergent evolution between the terns and these waders, or the retention of an ancient genotype. The word "stearn" was used for these birds in Old English as early as the eighth century, and appears in the poem The Seafarer, written in the ninth century or earlier.
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This swim style allows the birds to swim faster and probably more efficient than if they used a regular paddling motion. The feet of grebes are quite special, resembling feathers, and the use of a lift-based propulsive mechanism suggests convergent evolution. Many foot propelled birds, including cormorants, may use a combination of lift and drag during different phases of their propulsive stroke, where the often found triangular shape of bird feet may allow the birds to use a similar force generating mechanism as delta wings. This allows for generating larger forces, but likely also more efficient swimming than a purely drag-based paddling.
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The ultra- blackness is achieved with a thin but continuous layer of particles in the dermis, melanosomes. These particles both absorb most of the light, and are sized and shaped so as to scatter rather than reflect most of the rest. Modelling suggests that this camouflage should reduce the distance at which such a fish can be seen by a factor of 6 compared to a fish with a nominal 2% reflectance. Species with this adaptation are widely dispersed in various orders of the phylogenetic tree of bony fishes (Actinopterygii), implying that natural selection has driven the convergent evolution of ultra-blackness camouflage independently many times.
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In the genus Cephalodiscus, asexually produced individuals stay attached to the contractile stalk of the parent individual until completing their development. In the genus Rhabdopleura, zooids are permanently connected to the rest of the colony via a common stolon system. They have a diverticulum of the foregut called a stomochord, previously thought to be related to the chordate notochord, but this is most likely the result of convergent evolution rather than a homology. A hollow neural tube exists among some species (at least in early life), probably a primitive trait that they share with the common ancestor of chordata and the rest of the deuterostomes.
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Before humans arrived about 2,000 years ago, there were many large and unusual animals living there, descended from species that were originally present when Madagascar became an island, or from species that later crossed the sea to Madagascar. Ecological niches were often filled by animals with quite different histories from those on the African mainland, often leading to convergent evolution. A large proportion of these endemic Malagasy animals have died out since the arrival of humans, most particularly the megafauna. Despite this, and massive deforestation, Madagascar is still home to an incredible array of wildlife, the vast majority of which is unique in the world.
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Weksler, 2006, figs. 34–39 The relationship between Oryzomys and the Holochilus group was supported by five synapomorphies (shared derived characters)—absence or reduction of both the hypothenar and interdigital pads; reduction of ungual tufts of hairs surrounding the claws; having the back margin of the zygomatic plate of the skull at the same level as the front of the first upper molar; and the anterocone (front cusp) of the first upper molar divided by an anteromedian fossette. The first three are adaptations to the semiaquatic lifestyle that Oryzomys and the members of the Holochilus group share, and may thus be examples of convergent evolution.
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The family Mussidae has long been recognised on morphological grounds but recent molecular analysis has shown that it, and several other related families, are polyphyletic, the similarities between the species having occurred through convergent evolution. Additionally, some traditional genera such as Favia and Scolymia have been found to be polyphyletic, with the Atlantic faviids and scolymids being more closely related to each other than they are to their Pacific relatives. A revised classification, proposed in 2012, places the Pacific species in a new family, Lobophylliidae and retains the taxon Mussidae for the Atlantic species. The family Faviidae is reduced to a subfamily of Mussidae, Faviinae.
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It has been argued that it could be a case of convergent evolution that would result in an artefactual clustering. However, several studies disagree. Furthermore, it has been found that the GC-content of ribosomal RNA (the traditional phylogenetic marker for prokaryotes) little reflects the GC-content of the genome. One example of this atypical decorrelation of ribosomal GC-content with phylogeny is that members of the Holosporales have a much higher ribosomal GC-content than members of the Pelagibacterales and Rickettsiales, even though they are more closely related to species with high genomic GC-contents than to members of the latter two orders.
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They have been placed in the Gruiformes but this is not entirely certain. It was also proposed to ally them with the Galloanserae (Weber & Hesse, 1995). Studies of morphology and DNA sequences place them variously close to and far off from the kagu of New Caledonia, as well as the trumpeters; however, on first discovery of fossils, they were mistaken for ratites, specifically small moa. Its morphological closeness to the kagu may be the result of convergent evolution, although New Zealand's proximity to New Caledonia and shared biological affinities (the two islands are part of the same microcontinent) has led some researchers to suggest they share a common ancestor from Gondwana.
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One such form is interspecific social dominance mimicry, a type of social parasitism where a subordinate species (usually determined by size) evolves over time to mimic its dominant ecological competitor, thereby competing with its previously socially dominant opponent. One such example is found in the tyrant flycatcher family, in which different birds of similar appearance exist from six different genera. Smaller-bodied species from four genera have been found to mimic the appearance of the larger species of the other two genera, suggesting that an avian mimicry complex has contributed to convergent evolution, providing a competitive advantage in the same ecological niche.automimic, the pattern on its flank resembling an eye.
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Despite adult dvinosaur specimens having skeletal features correlated with internal gills, some larval specimens of another dvinosaur, Isodectes preserved soft tissue external gills. Thus, the gill development of dvinosaurs (and presumably other temnospondyls, such as Uranocentrodon) mirrored that of Lepidosiren. Despite this feature likely being an example of convergent evolution (as other lungfish exclusively possessed internal gills), it still remains a useful gauge for how temnospondyl gills developed. The study's writers concluded that the gills of temnospondyls (including Uranocentrodon and other rhinesuchids which may have possessed gills) were probably internal (like those of a fish) as an adult, but external (like those of a salamander) as a larva.
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These consequently must be placed in the family Sylviidae together with the wrentit and the parrotbills which also turned out to be close relatives. Thus, the wrentit is the only American species of the "true" or sylviid warblers. Peculiarly, the Dartford warbler and close relatives like Marmora's warbler bear an uncanny resemblance to the wrentit; their ecology is quite similar indeed as all are birds of Mediterranean scrub. However, biogeography and the molecular data build a strong case for this similarity being a case of convergent evolution between birds that are close relatives but by far not as close as their appearance would suggest.
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A 2013 phylogenetic analysis by Fernando Novas and his colleagues disagreed with this classification scheme, and instead argued that the megaraptorans evolved deep within Tyrannosauroidea, a superfamily of basal coelurosaurs including the famous Tyrannosaurus. Subsequent refinements to Novas's data and methodologies have supported a third position for the group, at the base of Coelurosauria among other controversial theropods such as Gualicho, but not within the Tyrannosauroidea. Regardless of their position, it is clear that megaraptorans experienced a large amount of convergent evolution with either Neovenator-like allosauroids or basal coelurosaurs. Megaraptorans were most diverse in the early Late Cretaceous period of South America, particularly Patagonia.
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As an adaptation for navigating its complex reef environment, the epaulette shark moves by seemingly walking, bending its body from side-to-side and pushing off of the substrate with its paddle-shaped pectoral and pelvic fins. Its gait is similar to that of salamanders, an example of convergent evolution. The shark is capable of swimming, but often prefers to walk along the sandy or coral bottom even when the water is deep enough to allow it to swim freely. The cartilaginous supports of the epaulette shark's paired fins are reduced and separated when compared to other sharks, allowing them to be rotated for use as limbs.
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It is an evergreen shrub which grows as a vine if provided with support. As such it grows to , climbing by means of small rootlets on the stems, similar to ivy (an example of convergent evolution, as the two species are not related). Like ivy, it also has a sterile non-flowering juvenile climbing or creeping phase, which on reaching high enough into the crowns of trees to get more light, develops into an adult, flowering phase without climbing rootlets. The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, elliptic to elliptic-ovate, 2–6 cm long and 1–3 cm broad, with finely serrated margins.
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Recurrent evolution is a broad term, but is usually used to describe recurring regimes of selection within or across lineages. While most commonly used to describe recurring patterns of selection, it can also be used to describe recurring patterns of mutation, for example transitions are more common than transversions. It encompasses both convergent evolution and parallel evolution and can be used to describe the observation of similar repeating changes through directional selection as well as the observation of highly conserved phenotypes or genotypes across lineages through continuous purifying selection over large periods of evolutionary time. The changes can be observed at the phenotype level or the genotype level.
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Some studies have suggested that birds—separated from mammals by over 300 million years of independent evolution—have developed brains capable of primate-like consciousness through a process of convergent evolution. Although avian brains are structurally very different from the brains of cognitively advanced mammals, each has the neural circuitry associated with higher-level consciousness, according to a 2006 analysis of the neuroanatomy of consciousness in birds and mammals. The study acknowledges that similar neural circuitry does not by itself prove consciousness, but notes its consistency with suggestive evidence from experiments on birds' working and episodic memories, sense of object permanence, and theory of mind .
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However, this may also be the result of convergent evolution. Other studies question the reliability of the characters allying Diadectomorpha with Synapsida, instead agreeing with Heaton's original placement of the Diadectomorpha outside of Amniota, with the two clades remaining sister taxa. Some also argue that Amniota should be defined by the use of the amniotic egg, and that there is little evidence regarding the potential use of this reproductive strategy by Limnoscelis, making it difficult to determine its placement relative to amniotes. The below cladogram, modified from Laurin and Reisz (1995), showing Limnoscelis and the Diadectomorpha sister to Amniota, agreeing with the original placement from Heaton (1980).
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The relationship of Dibamidae with other Squamata (lizards and snakes) has a long history of phylogenetic studies in which the morphological characteristics are used to determine those relationships. Those analysis found close relationships between Dibamidae and all other lizards with elongated bodies, limb reduction and usually, a fossorial habit like amphisbaenians, snakes or fossorial skinks. In morphology based phylogenies, dibamids are sister taxa to amphisbaenians and the clade that includes amphisbaeninas and dibamids is sister to all snakes. The close relationships of this groups are the result of convergent evolution among this groups since some of the morphological traits have evolved independently in different groups.
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The blind forms of the Mexican tetra have proven popular subjects for scientists studying evolution: A recent study suggests that there are at least two distinct genetic lineages among the blind populations, arguing that these represent a case of convergent evolution. One theory is that because of its dark habitat, the fish embryo saves energy it would normally use to develop eyes to develop other body parts, and this developmental choice would eventually dominate the population. This is called economical adaptation. However, studies have shown that blind cave fish embryos begin to grow eyes during development but then something actively stops this process and flesh grows over the partially grown eyes.
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Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C3 plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin-Benson cycle. Over 90% of plants use carbon fixation, compared to 3% that use carbon fixation; however, the evolution of in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution. Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to metabolism, which spatially separates the fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes.
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Though originally assigned to the genus Lepus, the European rabbit was consigned to its own genus in 1874, on account of its altricial young, burrowing habits, and numerous skeletal characters. The European rabbit is superficially similar to the North American cottontails, as both Oryctolagus and Sylvilagus are born blind and naked, have white flesh, and little sexual dimorphism. However, the two differ in skull characteristics, and cottontails do not habitually construct their own burrows as the European rabbit does. Molecular studies confirm that the resemblance between the two is due to convergent evolution, and that the European rabbit's closest relatives are the hispid hare, the riverine rabbit and the Amami rabbit.
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Some insight into the evolution of mimetic color mimicry in Lepidoptera in particular can be seen through the study of the Optix gene. The Optix gene is responsible for the Heliconius butterflies' signature red wing patterns that help it signal to predators that it is toxic. By sharing this coloration with other poisonous red winged butterflies the predator may have pursued previously the Heliconius butterfly increases its chance of survival through association. By mapping the genome of many related species of Heliconius butterflies "show[s] that the cis-regulatory evolution of a single transcription factor can repeatedly drive the convergent evolution of complex color patterns in distantly related species…".
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Noasaurids were also nimble and lightly built, with feet showing adaptations for running such as a long central foot bone (metatarsal III). Noasaurids varied in size, from the small Velocisaurus which was under 5 feet (1.5 meters) long, to much larger genera such as Elaphrosaurus and Deltadromeus, which were more than 20 feet (6.2 meters) in length. A collection of features which characterize noasaurids in particular has been compiled by Rauhut & Carrano (2016), who included controversial taxa such as Deltadromeus and the elaphrosaurines within Noasauridae. If these groups did not belong to Noasauridae as the study claims, then these similarities are examples of convergent evolution.
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Though more terrestrial (morphologically less well-adapted for climbing into tree canopies or for swimming), tegus fill an ecological niche in South America similar to that filled by monitor lizards in Africa, Asia and Australia, and are an example of convergent evolution. Though similar in appearance to monitors, tegus are not closely related and can be distinguished by their larger heads, shorter necks, heavier bodies and different arrangement of the scales on the body and tail. Monitors have laterally compressed tails, well-suited for aquatic propulsion, while tegus' tails are more cylindrical or even broader than high. In addition, tegus are facultative bipeds, while monitors are obligate quadrupeds.
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The origin of venom in squamates was thus considered relatively recent in evolutionary terms and the result of convergent evolution among the seemingly-polyphyletic venomous snake families. In 2003 a study was published that described venom in snake subfamilies previously thought to lack it. Further study claimed nearly all "non-venomous" snakes produce venom to a certain extent, suggesting a single, and thus far more ancient origin for venom in Serpentes than had been considered until then. As a practical matter, Fry cautioned:Venom Hunt Finds 'Harmless' Snakes A Potential Danger December 16, 2003 > Some non-venomous snakes have been previously thought to have only mild > 'toxic saliva'.
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An astonishing discovery of Beall is the convergent evolution in humans from her studies on other highlanders such as the Amhara in the high-plateau regions of northwest Ethiopia, the Omro people in the southwest Ethiopia, and the Aymara of the American Andes. She found that these groups had adapted to low oxygen environment very differently from the Tibetans. Physiological conditions such as resting ventilation, hypoxic ventilatory response, oxygen saturation, and haemoglobin concentration are significantly different between the Tibetans and the Aymaras. The Amharans exhibit elevated haemoglobin levels, like Andeans and lowlander peoples at high altitudes, while the Andeans have increased haemoglobin level like normal people in the highlands.
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Von Economo neurons are found in two very restricted regions in the brains of hominids (humans and other great apes): the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the fronto-insular cortex (FI) (which each make up the salience network). In 2008, they were also found in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of humans. Von Economo neurons are also found in the brains of a number of cetaceans, African and Asian elephants, and to a lesser extent in macaque monkeys and raccoons. The appearance of von Economo neurons in distantly related clades suggests that they represent convergent evolution—specifically, as an adaptation to accommodate the increasing size of these distantly-related animals' brains.
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The wrist-winged gliders are omnivorous, specialising on sap and nectar, but taking a wide variety of supplemental foods. The gliders appears to have evolved in the open forests of Australia--gliding membranes are an adaptation which aids mobility when the forest canopy is incomplete, and are of little use in rainforests-- but now has representatives in New Guinea and many of the smaller islands nearby. Their similarities to the unrelated flying squirrels are an example of convergent evolution. The striped possums (trioks), on the other hand, are thought to have evolved on New Guinea; the sole Australian species (the Striped possum of Cape York) is considered a recent immigrant.
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For example, Robert Forward's 1980 Dragon's Egg develops a tale of life on a neutron star, and the resulting high-gravity, high-energy environment with an atmosphere of iron vapor and mountains 5-100 millimeters high. Once the star cools down and stable chemistry develops, life evolves extremely quickly, and Forward imagines a civilization of "cheela" that lives a million times faster than humans. In some cases, artists and writers exploring possible alien life conjure similar ideas independent of each other, often attributed to studying the same biological processes and ideas. Such occasions can be called "convergent speculation", similar to the scientific idea of convergent evolution.
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Because of this, eukaryotic CRESS-DNA viruses appear to have emerged multiple times from recombination events that merged DNA from bacterial and archaeal plasmids with complementary DNA (cDNA) copies of positive-sense RNA viruses. CRESS-DNA viruses therefore represent a notable instance of convergent evolution, whereby organisms that are not directly related evolve the same or similar traits. Linear ssDNA viruses, specifically parvoviruses, in Monodnaviria are likely to have evolved from CRESS-DNA viruses via loss of the joining activity used by CRSS-DNA viruses to create circular genomes. In turn, the circular dsDNA viruses in Monodnaviria appear to have evolved from parvoviruses through inactivation of the endonuclease's HUH domain.
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Recent cladistic analyses suggest that the clade Prosauropoda, which was named by Huene in 1920 and was defined by Sereno, in 1998, as all animals more closely related to Plateosaurus engelhardti than to Saltasaurus loricatus, is a junior synonym of Plateosauridae as both contain the same taxa. Most modern classification schemes break the prosauropods into a half-dozen groups that evolved separately from one common lineage. While they have a number of shared characteristics, the evolutionary requirements for giraffe-like browsing high in the trees may have caused convergent evolution, where similar traits evolve separately because they faced the same evolutionary pressure, instead of (homologous) traits derived from a shared ancestor.
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Increasing emphasis in psychology and ethology on the biological aspects of perception and behavior is bridging the gap between genomics and behavioral analysis. In order for scientists to better understand cognitive function across a broad range of species they can systematically compare cognitive abilities between closely and distantly related species Through this process they can determine what kinds of selection pressure has led to different cognitive abilities across a broad range of animals. For example, it has been hypothesized that there is convergent evolution of the higher cognitive functions of corvids and apes, possibly due to both being omnivorous, visual animals that live in social groups.
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Hydatellaceae are a family of small, aquatic flowering plants. The family consists of tiny, relatively simple, plants occurring in Australasia and India. It was formerly considered to be related to the grasses and sedges (order Poales), but has been reassigned to the order Nymphaeales as a result of DNA and morphological analyses showing that it represents one of the earliest groups to split off in flowering-plant phylogeny, rather than having a close relationship to monocots, which it bears a superficial resemblance to due to convergent evolution. The family includes only the genus Trithuria, which has at least 13 species, although species diversity in the family has probably been substantially underestimated.
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Due to morphological similarities, they considered it a very primitive ant and placed it in what was then a myrmicine tribe, the Agroecomyrmecini, together with ants known from Early Eocene Baltic amber (Agroecomyrmex) and late Eocene Florissant shale (Eulithomyrmex). It bears superficial resemblance to some extant genera (Strumigenys, Ishakidris, Pilotrochus, and Phalacromyrmex) but these similarities are considered to be due to convergent evolution. Due to similarities in the habitus, Brown & Kempf (1968) linked Tatuidris to the Dacetini genus Glamyromyrmex (currently a junior synonym of Strumigenys) and Phalacromyrmex. However they concluded: "analysis of these similarities indicates [...] that they are mostly convergent and not based on close phylogenetic relationship".
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No single morphological character divides Myriopteris, as presently circumscribed, from the other cheilanthoids. Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify this group. While small, bead-like ultimate segments are associated with the genus, they only appear in about 40% of its species, and appear in some cheilanthoids outside the genus as well. Cheilanthes sensu stricto bears 32 spores per sporangium in sexual species and 16 in apogamous species; with the exception of a few species of Notholaena, Myriopteris and the other cheilanthoids bear 64 spores per sporangium when sexual and 32 per sporangium when apomictic.
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If feeding ecology could have such profound effects on the shape of the anterior dentition, then convergent evolution might explain the similarities seen between the compressed lower incisors of the lemuriform toothcomb and the exudate feeding adaptations in the genus Callithrix (a type of marmoset). In contrast, the grooming hypothesis emphasized that all lemuriforms use their toothcombs for grooming, and long, thin teeth are poorly suited for the mechanical stress of gouging and exudate feeding. Also the interdental spaces seen in most lemuriforms favor fur combing and would also promote bacterial growth and tooth decay if used for exudate feeding. Supporting this, reduced interdental spacing is found in exudate feeding lemuriforms.
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Dogs have evolved specialized skills for reading human social and communicative behavior. These skills seem more flexible – and possibly more human-like – than those of other animals more closely related to humans phylogenetically, such as chimpanzees, bonobos and other great apes. This raises the possibility that convergent evolution has occurred: both Canis familiaris and Homo sapiens might have evolved some similar (although obviously not identical) social- communicative skills – in both cases adapted for certain kinds of social and communicative interactions with human beings. The pointing gesture is a human- specific signal, is referential in its nature, and is a foundation building- block of human communication.
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This genus already possessed many advanced turtle traits, and thus probably indicates many millions of years of preceding turtle evolution; this is further supported by evidence from fossil tracks from the Early Triassic of the United States (Wyoming and Utah) and from the Middle Triassic of Germany, indicating that proto-turtles already existed as early as the Early Triassic. Proganochelys lacked the ability to pull its head into its shell, had a long neck, and had a long, spiked tail ending in a club. While this body form is similar to that of ankylosaurs, it resulted from convergent evolution. Turtles are divided into two extant suborders: Cryptodira and Pleurodira.
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Dinosaurs for Hire is a satirical comic that is heavy on parody and humor. The primary characters are a tyrannosaurus named Archie who dresses like the Terminator, a triceratops named Lorenzo who wears a Hawaiian shirt, a one-eyed stegosaurus named Reese who wields heavy weapons, and a pterodactyl named Cyrano. In the comics, the Dinosaurs are actually intelligent aliens who resemble smaller versions of Earth dinosaurs presumably due to a convergent evolution (aside from their extraterrestrial nature, their backstory was only hinted at but never confirmed). After their spacecraft malfunctions in Earth's atmosphere and crashes into the ocean, they are stranded on Earth and become mercenaries for hire.
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Coria and Salgado suggested that the convergent evolution of gigantism in theropods could have been linked to common conditions in their environments or ecosystems. Sereno and colleagues found that the presence of carcharodontosaurids in Africa (Carcharodontosaurus), North America (Acrocanthosaurus), and South America (Giganotosaurus), showed the group had a transcontinental distribution by the Early Cretaceous period. Dispersal routes between the northern and southern continents appear to have been severed by ocean barriers in the Late Cretaceous, which led to more distinct, provincial faunas, by preventing exchange. Previously, it was thought that the Cretaceous world was biogeographically separated, with the northern continents being dominated by tyrannosaurids, South America by abelisaurids, and Africa by carcharodontosaurids.
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A lycopsid preserved in situ in the Joggins Formation The Joggins Formation is of particular interest to geologists for its saturation with fossilized plants, one of the best- preserved coal forests known to science. Though often referred to as "trees", the large plants that made up the Joggins Formation's forest were lycopsid, which today only exist as club mosses. In the Carboniferous, lycopsids could grow as tall as 30 m (98.4 ft) with trunks nearly 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter and came to resemble modern trees through convergent evolution. As trees they do not constitute a taxonomic group, Carboniferous lycopsids are as much trees as any extant species despite being only distantly related.
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The ornate hawk-eagle is a member of the booted eagle subfamily, with the signature well-feathered tarsus present on both tropical and temperate species (and shared, presumably through convergent evolution, with a pair of buteonine hawks). It is one of four living members of the Spizaetus species of “hawk- eagle” native to the neotropics. At one time Old World hawk-eagles, native to various southern areas of Asia, were also included in the Spizaetus genus. However, genetic studies have shown the Asian group of species to be paraphyletic, resulting in the Old World members being placed in Nisaetus (Hodgson, 1836) and separated from the New World species.Helbig, A.J, Kocum, A., Seibold, I. & Braun, M.J. (2005).
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Kaga as completed, with all three flight decks visible Kaga, like Akagi, was completed with three superimposed flight decks, the only carriers ever to be designed so. The British carriers converted from "large light cruisers", , , and , each had two flight decks, but there is no evidence that the Japanese copied the British model. It is more likely that it was a case of convergent evolution to improve launch and recovery cycle flexibility by allowing simultaneous launch and recovery of aircraft.Brown, p. 2 Kagas main flight deck was long and wide,Peattie, p. 231 her middle flight deck was only about long and started in front of the bridge, and her lower flight deck was approximately long.
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Placements that required three additional evolutionary steps placed Xingxiulong between Jingshanosaurus and Anchisaurus, or between Yunnanosaurus and Jingshanosaurus. Curiously, Xingxiulong has many characteristics that are normally otherwise seen among the Sauropoda. These include the four-vertebra sacrum (which Mussaurus also convergently acquired); the long pubic plate, or top portion of the pubis, which occupies 40% of the length of the bone (this figure is 25% in most other basal sauropodomorphs, 33% in most sauropods, and 45-50% in the Camarasauromorpha); and the relative robustness of the femoral shaft, first metatarsal, top end of the fifth metatarsal, and scapula. These unique characteristics are probably the product of convergent evolution rather than common ancestry.
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Megalodon's classification into Carcharodon was due to dental similarity with the great white shark, but most authors currently believe that this is due to convergent evolution. In this model, the great white shark is more closely related to the extinct broad-toothed mako (Isurus hastalis) than to megalodon, as evidenced by more similar dentition in those two sharks; megalodon teeth have much finer serrations than great white shark teeth. The great white shark is more closely related to the mako shark (Isurus spp.), with a common ancestor around 4 mya. Proponents of the former model, wherein megalodon and the great white shark are more closely related, argue that the differences between their dentition are minute and obscure.
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Reconstructed hypothetical skull based on Masiakasaurus In 1980, it was thought that the presumed foot claw functioned as a sickle claw. Paul in 1988 saw the noasaurines as the South-American counterparts of the Asian and North-American dromaeosaurids, in a process of convergent evolution. Noting that abelisaurids tend to have very short arms, he wondered whether the forelimbs of Noasaurus were of limited length also, forcing the animal to employ a kicking technique instead of grasping the back of a victim in order to disembowel it with the foot claws, a method he assumed the dromaeosaurids used.This hypothesis was undermined when it was determined that the foot claw was in fact a hand claw.
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Much of the work carried out by palaeontologists studying evolutionary radiations has been using marine invertebrate fossils simply because these tend to be much more numerous and easy to collect in quantity than large land vertebrates such as mammals or dinosaurs. Brachiopods, for example, underwent major bursts of evolutionary radiation in the Early Cambrian, Early Ordovician, to a lesser degree throughout the Silurian and Devonian, and then again during the Carboniferous. During these periods, different species of brachiopods independently assumed a similar morphology, and presumably mode of life, to species that had lived millions of years before. This phenomenon, known as homeomorphy is explained by convergent evolution: when subjected to similar selective pressures, organisms will often evolve similar adaptations.
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While common ancestry with cynodonts (and, thus, mammals) accounts for many similarities between these groups, some scientists believe that other similarities may be better attributed to convergent evolution, such as the loss of the postorbital bar in some forms, a mammalian phalangeal formula, and some form of a secondary palate in most taxa (see below). Therocephalians and cynodonts both survived the Permian-Triassic mass extinction; but, while therocephalians soon became extinct, cynodonts underwent rapid diversification. Therocephalians experienced a decreased rate of cladogenesis, meaning that few new groups appeared after the extinction. Most Triassic therocephalian lineages originated in the Late Permian, and lasted for only a short period of time in the Triassic.
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By the Late Triassic, these plates had grown so much that placodonts of the time, such as Henodus and Placochelys, resembled the sea turtles of the modern day more than their ancestors without bony plates. Other placodonts, like Psephoderma, developed plates as well, but in a different articulated manner that resembled the carapace of horseshoe crabs more than those of sea turtles. All these adaptations can be counted as perfect examples of convergent evolution, as placodonts were not related to any of these animals. Because of their dense bone and heavy armour plating, these creatures would have been too heavy to float in the ocean and would have used a lot of energy to reach the water surface.
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While many groups of burrowing animals (pink fairy armadillos, tuco- tucos, mole rats, mole crickets, and mole crabs) have developed close physical similarities with moles due to convergent evolution, two of these are so similar to true moles, they are commonly called and thought of as "moles" in common English, although they are completely unrelated to true moles or to each other. These are the golden moles of southern Africa and the marsupial moles of Australia. While difficult to distinguish from each other, they are most easily distinguished from true moles by shovel-like patches on their noses, which they use in tandem with their abbreviated forepaws to swim through sandy soils.
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More recent work looking at the morphometrics of the feet in hesperornithiformes and modern sea birds has thrown this interpretation into question, making webbed toes equally as likely as lobed toes for this group. Like many other Mesozoic birds such as Ichthyornis, Hesperornis had teeth as well as a beak. In the hesperornithiform lineage they were of a different arrangement than in any other known bird (or in non-avian theropod dinosaurs), with the teeth sitting in a longitudinal groove rather than in individual sockets, in a notable case of convergent evolution with mosasaurs. The teeth of Hesperornis were present along nearly the entire lower jaw (dentary) and the back of the upper jaw (maxilla).
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This motif is the most abundant among all possible motifs made up of three nodes, as is shown in the gene regulatory networks of fly, nematode, and human. The enriched motifs have been proposed to follow convergent evolution, suggesting they are "optimal designs" for certain regulatory purposes. For example, modeling shows that feed-forward loops are able to coordinate the change in node A (in terms of concentration and activity) and the expression dynamics of node C, creating different input- output behaviors. The galactose utilization system of E. coli contains a feed- forward loop which accelerates the activation of galactose utilization operon galETK, potentially facilitating the metabolic transition to galactose when glucose is depleted.
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P. robustus (SK 48) There is currently no clear consensus on the validity of Paranthropus. The argument rests upon whether the genus is monophyletic—is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants—and the argument against monophyly (that the genus is paraphyletic) says that P. robustus and P. boisei evolved similar gorilla-like heads independently of each other by coincidence (convergent evolution), as chewing adaptations in hominins evolve very rapidly and multiple times at various points in the family tree (homoplasy). In 1999, a chimp-like ulna forearm bone was assigned to P. boisei, the first discovered ulna of the species, which was markedly different from P. robustus ulnae, which could suggest paraphyly.
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Modern restoration of the two skeletons Skeletal reconstruction by Marsh, 1896 The genus Compsognathus gives its name to the family Compsognathidae, a group composed mostly of small dinosaurs from the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods of China, Europe and South America. For many years it was the only member known; however, in recent decades paleontologists have discovered several related genera. The clade includes Aristosuchus, Huaxiagnathus, Mirischia, Sinosauropteryx, and perhaps Juravenator and Scipionyx. At one time, Mononykus was proposed as a member of the family, but this was rejected by Chen and coauthors in a 1998 paper; they considered the similarities between Mononykus and the compsognathids to be an example of convergent evolution.
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Dolphins (aquatic mammals) and ichthyosaurs (extinct marine reptiles) share a number of unique adaptations for fully aquatic lifestyle and are frequently used as extreme examples of convergent evolution Modern cetaceans have internal, rudimentary hind limbs, such as reduced femurs, fibulas, and tibias, and a pelvic girdle. Indohyus has a thickened ectotympanic internal lip of the ear bone. This feature compares directly to that of modern cetaceans. Another similar feature was the composition of the teeth, which contained mostly calcium phosphate which is needed for eating and drinking by aquatic animals, though, unlike modern day toothed whales, they had a heterodont (more than one tooth morphology) dentition as opposed to a homodont (one tooth morphology present) dentition.
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Comparisons were also made with Parasuchia (phytosaurs), Lacertilia (lizards), and Proterosuchus, but dismissed as incompatible with proposed evolutionary schemes. Further discussion by Merriam (1905) considered a relationship with ichthyosaurs due to their similar ecology, but questioned why their skull and vertebral anatomy would diverge so widely if they had a close common ancestor. He proposed that potential similarities were best explained as convergent evolution. The possibility that thalattosaurs diverged from reptiles close to lizards (such as Paliguana) was described in more detail, with thalattosaurs serving as an short-lived early attempt for near-lizards to return to the sea, an evolutionary process later repeated more successfully when mosasaurs evolved from true lizards.
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Although there are no known humanoid species outside the genus Homo, the theory of convergent evolution speculates that different species may evolve similar traits, and in the case of a humanoid these traits may include intelligence and bipedalism and other humanoid skeletal changes, as a result of similar evolutionary pressures. American psychologist and Dinosaur intelligence theorist Harry Jerison suggested the possibility of sapient dinosaurs. In a 1978 presentation at the American Psychological Association, he speculated that dromiceiomimus could have evolved into a highly intelligent species like human beings. In his book, Wonderful Life, Stephen Jay Gould argues if the tape of life were re- wound and played back, life would have taken a very different course.
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The discovery of von Economo neurons in diverse whale species has led to the suggestion that they are "a possible obligatory neuronal adaptation in very large brains, permitting fast information processing and transfer along highly specific projections and that evolved in relation to emerging social behaviors." The apparent presence of these specialized neurons only in highly intelligent mammals may be an example of convergent evolution. Their restriction among the primates to great apes leads to the hypothesis that they developed no earlier than 15–20 million years ago, prior to the divergence of orangutans from the African great apes. Recently, primitive forms of von Economo neurons have also been discovered in macaque monkey brains and raccoons.
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In some regions, due to low diversity in the Y-STR gene (often used to study surname origin), haplotype convergence may confuse analyses, concluding unrelated individuals to be very closely related. Similarly, a study of New World mitochondrial DNA haplogroups observed that similarities in haplotypes between Native Americans and Asians were a result of the hypervariability of the HVSI region in mitochondrial DNA, rather than common ancestry. As an example of haplotype convergence due to convergent evolution in more distantly related groups, threespine stickleback in blackwater environments similar to that of the ancient bluefin killifish and black bream independently evolved the same haplotype in the SWS2 gene, which promotes better eyesight in those conditions.
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The evolution of higher degrees of intelligence is an example of convergent evolution, and is also seen in non-mammals such as birds. According to Maclean, each of the components, although connected with the others, retained "their peculiar types of intelligence, subjectivity, sense of time and space, memory, mobility and other less specific functions". However, while the categorization into structures is reasonable, the recent studies of the limbic system of tetrapods, both living and extinct, have challenged several aspects of this hypothesis, notably the accuracy of the terms "reptilian" and "old mammalian". The common ancestors of reptiles and mammals had a well-developed limbic system in which the basic subdivisions and connections of the amygdalar nuclei were established.
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Glyptodon (from Greek for "grooved or carved tooth": γλυπτός "sculptured" and ὀδοντ-, ὀδούς "tooth") was a genus of large, heavily armored mammals of the subfamily Glyptodontinae (glyptodonts or glyptodontines) – relatives of armadillos – that lived during the Pleistocene epoch. It was roughly the same size and weight as a Volkswagen Beetle, though flatter in shape. With its rounded, bony shell and squat limbs, it superficially resembled a turtle, and the much earlier dinosaurian ankylosaur – providing an example of the convergent evolution of unrelated lineages into similar forms. In 2016 an analysis of Doedicurus mtDNA found it was, in fact, nested within the modern armadillos as the sister group of a clade consisting of Chlamyphorinae and Tolypeutinae.
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The hydrogenosomes of Stygiella seem to lack an organellar genome and the majority of the Complex I subunits for an electron transfer chain but contain proteins for eubacterium-like pyruvate decarboxylation, such as pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and [FeFe]-hydrogenase, which also exist in other anaerobic excavates of different lineages.. This convergent evolution may be the result of similar lateral gene transfer Compared to some parasitic anaerobic excavates, such as Trichomonas vaginalis, the hydrogenosomes of S. incarcerata retain more import proteins and more functional amino acid mechanism. In addition, it has an oxidative stress response similar to that of other anaerobic protists. Iron-sulfur cluster assemblies are present in the hydrogenosomes, which is consistent with all other mitochondrion-derived organelles.
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The green-blooded skink (Prasinohaema virens), sometimes (ambiguously) known as "green tree skink", is a scincid lizard species native to New Guinea. The species is poorly studiedMolecular, morphological, and physiological evolution in South Pacific scincid lizards. Austin, Christopher Cowell, Ph.D., The University of Texas at Austin, 1995, 213 pages; AAT 9603793 and the species' risk of extinction has not been evaluated by the World Conservation Union, and does not appear in any CITES appendix. The skink has developed setae on its toe pads (or digit pads) for climbing analogous to those of geckos and anoles, but the trait is believed to have evolved independently to these groups, so is an example of convergent evolution.
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The earless water rat is adapted best to a life in water out of all the muroids. It has extremely long hindfeet, the toes of which are webbed completely, strongly reduced forelegs, absent or invisible ears, very small eyes, and a long tail with a row of hairs at the downside. That row starts at each side of the beginning of the tail as a long white row of hairs; these two rows merge at about 50 mm from the beginning of the tail and the row goes on to the end of the tail. In all these characters, it resembles the elegant water shrew (Nectogale elegans), a good example of convergent evolution.
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Silene acaulis, moss campion A cushion plant is a compact, low-growing, mat- forming plant that is found in alpine, subalpine, arctic, or subarctic environments around the world. The term "cushion" is usually applied to woody plants that grow as spreading mats, are limited in height above the ground (a few inches at most), have relatively large and deep tap roots, and have life histories adapted to slow growth in a nutrient-poor environment with delayed reproductivity and reproductive cycle adaptations. The plant form is an example of parallel or convergent evolution with species from many different plant families on different continents converging on the same evolutionary adaptations to endure the harsh environmental conditions.Went, F. W. (1971).
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Genome biology, 16(1), p.1. This implies that Old World cheetahs and American cheetahs had undergone convergent evolution with each other and only pumas have colonized the Americas. Therefore, Puma is not a natural genus meaning that either Miracinonyx is a subgenus of Puma, or scientists would have to reevaluate P. pardoides as Viretailurus pardoides and P. pumoides and P. yagouaroundi as Herpailurus pumoides and H. yagouaroundi respectively in order to make Miracinonyx distinctive. Those who still support Miracinonyx being related to cheetahs question the strength of the molecular data, suggesting evidence of molecular homoplasy.O’Brien, S. J., Koepfli, K. P., Eizirik, E., Johnson, W., Driscoll, C., Antunes, A., ... & Dobrynin, P. (2016).
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Those supporting a convergent evolution state that this common ancestor would have preceded both cephalopods and vertebrates by a significant margin. The common ancestor with the expression for camera-type eye would have existed approximately 270 million years before the evolution of camera-type eye in cephalopods and approximately 110 to 260 million years before the evolution of camera-type eye in vertebrates. Another source of evidence for this is the differences of expression due to independent variants of Pax6 arising in both cephalopods and vertebrates. Cephalopods contain five variants of Pax6 in their genomes which independently arose and are not shared by vertebrates, although they allow for a similar gene expression when compared to the Pax6 of vertebrates.
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The main medical use emerging in this field is for research on eye development and ocular diseases. New research studies on ocular gene expression are being performed using cephalopod eyes due to the evidence of their convergent evolution with the analogous human eye. These studies replace the previous Drosophila studies for gene expression during eye development as the most accurate, although Drosophila studies remain the most common. The conclusion that they are analogous lends credibility to their comparison for medical use in the first place, since the trait in both would have been shaped through natural selection by similar pressures in similar environments; meaning there would be similar expression of ocular disease in both organisms’ eyes.
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220–221) More recently, it has become clear that the Anseriformes (waterfowl) and the Galliformes are the most ancient groups of modern birds, and these being distinct by the end of the Albian 100 million years ago (Ma), while just possible, is not at all well-supported. Loons belong to a more modern radiation. They were once believed to be related to grebes, which are also foot-propelled diving birds, and both groups were once classified together under the order Colymbiformes. However, as recently as the 1930s, it was determined that the two groups are not that closely related at all and are merely the product of convergent evolution and adapted in a similar way to a similar ecological niche.
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The mammals of Australia have a rich fossil history, as well as a variety of extant mammalian species, dominated by the marsupials, but also including monotremes and placentals. The marsupials evolved to fill specific ecological niches, and in many cases they are physically similar to the placental mammals in Eurasia and North America that occupy similar niches, a phenomenon known as convergent evolution. For example, the top mammalian predators in Australia, the Tasmanian tiger and the marsupual lion, bore a striking resemblance to large canids such as the gray wolf and large cats respectively; gliding possums and flying squirrels have similar adaptations enabling their arboreal lifestyle; and the numbat and anteaters are both digging insectivores. Most of Australia's mammals are herbivores or omnivores.
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Ausubel's scientific work concerns host-microbe interactions. In the 1970s and 1980s, his laboratory worked on the molecular basis of symbiotic nitrogen fixation, the process by which legumes, in concert with a bacterial symbiont, convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. Over the last 20 years, Ausubel's lab has worked on the development of so-called multi-host pathogenesis systems that involve the infection of hosts, including the well-studied nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana, with a variety of bacterial and fungal pathogens. His research helped elucidate the innate immune signaling pathways in these two model hosts and determined which aspects of the innate immune response are conserved and whether they were derived by a process of divergent or convergent evolution.
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The camera eyes of vertebrates (left) and cephalopods (right) developed independently and are wired differently; for instance, optic nerve fibres reach the vertebrate retina from the front, creating a blind spot. One of the best-known examples of convergent evolution is the camera eye of cephalopods (such as squid and octopus), vertebrates (including mammals) and cnidaria (such as jellyfish). Their last common ancestor had at most a simple photoreceptive spot, but a range of processes led to the progressive refinement of camera eyes — with one sharp difference: the cephalopod eye is "wired" in the opposite direction, with blood and nerve vessels entering from the back of the retina, rather than the front as in vertebrates. As a result, cephalopods lack a blind spot.
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G. obscuriglobus was the first bacterium shown to possess a mechanism for protein import into the cell, analogous to eukaryotic endocytosis. Active, ATP-dependent, likely receptor- mediated import of extracellular proteins has been observed under laboratory conditions, although it is of unknown functional significance. This may suggest that planctomycete and eukaryote endocytosis mechanism share a common evolutionary origin, that the two processes may be an example of convergent evolution, or that G. obscuriglobus acquired its endocytotic infrastructure through horizontal gene transfer; of the three possibilities, the latter is considered unlikely due to statistical features of the bacterial genes associated with the process. There is disagreement over the possibility that proteins with homology to clathrins are represented in the G. obscuriglobus proteome.
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This excerpt from a 2007 scientific paper about crustaceans of the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench and the Japan Trench describes typical circumstances through which this category is applied in discussing: > ...the removal of many genera from new and existing families into a state of > incertae sedis. Their reduced status was attributed largely to poor or > inadequate descriptions but it was accepted that some of the vagueness in > the analysis was due to insufficient character states. It is also evident > that a proportion of the characters used in the analysis, or their given > states for particular taxa, were inappropriate or invalid. Additional > complexity, and factors that have misled earlier authorities, are intrusion > by extensive homoplasies, apparent character state reversals and convergent > evolution.
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A number of these mammalian predators closely resemble placental predators that evolved separately on other continents, and are cited frequently as examples of convergent evolution. They were first described by Florentino Ameghino, from fossils found in the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia. Sparassodonts were present throughout South America's long period of "splendid isolation" during the Cenozoic; during this time, they shared the niches for large warm-blooded predators with the flightless terror birds. Previously, it was thought that these mammals died out in the face of competition from "more competitive" placental carnivorans during the Pliocene Great American Interchange, but more recent research has showed that sparassodonts died out long before eutherian carnivores arrived in South America (aside from procyonids, which sparassodonts probably did not directly compete with).
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Carneiro (2018) recovered the genus Varalphadon from the Late Cretaceous of North America as a basal member of Sparassodonta. However, this interpretation of Varalphadon as a sparassodont has not been supported by later phylogenetic analyses, and most of the purported synapomorphies between Varalphadon and sparassodonts are not actually present in Varalphadon or have been suggested to be due to convergent evolution. Sparassodonts are currently considered to be endemic to South America, and have not even been found in nearby continents like Antarctica (which otherwise shares many groups of mammals with South America such as litopterns, astrapotheres, microbiotheres, and polydolopids). The early history of the Sparassodonta is poorly known, as most Paleocene and Eocene members of this group are only known from isolated teeth and fragmentary jaws.
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The organisms would have had limited ability to flex to the right and left (in the sagittal plane), but would have been able to roll up. While most possessed bilateral symmetry, the scales on the right and left side of Turrilepas wrightiana are different in shape and form. The Plumulitid machaeridians would have moved across the surface of the sea floor using parapodia, whereas the fully armoured Turrelepids and Lepidocoelids burrowed in a peristaltic fashion reminiscent of their evolutionary cousins, the earthworms. This burrowing role has subjected them to the same evolutionary pressures which affect burrowing bivalves; convergent evolution as a result of their shared function probably contributed to early suggestions that the machaeridians should be classified with the molluscs.
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The features the mandibles' shared could be explained by either the retention of primitive characteristics of early Asian Homo erectus, a migration of Homo with robust jaws from Africa, inclusion in the species Homo heidelbergensis, or they could have been an adapted form of Homo erectus. However, the species identity or taxonomic relationships lack consensus due to limited material. Co-author Yousuke Kaifu cautioned that additional skeletal parts are needed before species evaluation, but paleontologist Mark McMenamin argued that unique dental characteristics of the jaw were sufficient to establish a separate species, which he dubbed Homo tsaichangensis. McMenamin compares Penghu 1 to Gigantopithecus jaw fragments found in Semedo Village in Central Java, insisting on their relationship being a case of convergent evolution.
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The existence of two sexes seems to have been selected independently across different evolutionary lineages (see convergent evolution). The repeated pattern is sexual reproduction in isogamous species with two or more mating types with gametes of identical form and behavior (but different at the molecular level) to anisogamous species with gametes of male and female types to oogamous species in which the female gamete is very much larger than the male and has no ability to move. There is a good argument that this pattern was driven by the physical constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction.. Accordingly, sex is defined across species by the type of gametes produced (i.e.: spermatozoa vs.
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The fossil record shows that monotremes have been present in Australia since the Early Cretaceous 145–99 MYA, and that marsupials and placental mammals date from the Eocene 56–34 MYA, when modern mammals first appeared in the fossil record. Although terrestrial marsupials and placental mammals did coexist in Australia in the Eocene, only the marsupials have survived to the present. Non-volant placental mammals made their reappearance in Australia in the Miocene, when Australia moved closer to Indonesia, and rodents started to appear reliably in the Early Pliocene fossil record. The marsupials evolved to fill specific ecological niches, and in many cases they are physically similar to the placental mammals in Eurasia and North America that occupy similar niches, a phenomenon known as convergent evolution.
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In 2011, M. Mónica Ponce and Brigitte Zimmer designated Amman's illustration as the lectotype of A. bonariense; as there was some question as to whether the drawing represented C. bonariensis in the conventional sense or Cheilanthes buchtienii, they further designated Willdenow's Mexican specimen as an epitype. Meanwhile, the development of molecular phylogenetic methods showed that the traditional circumscription of Cheilanthes is polyphyletic. Convergent evolution in arid environments is thought to be responsible for widespread homoplasy in the morphological characters traditionally used to classify it and the segregate genera that have sometimes been recognized. On the basis of molecular evidence, Amanda Grusz and Michael D. Windham revived the genus Myriopteris in 2013 for a group of species formerly placed in Cheilanthes.
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In a case of convergent evolution, the much heavier harpy eagle, which is outside of the "booted eagle" group, has a similar skeletal morphology to the crowned eagle. Two less well-known, probably distantly related species, the mountain hawk- eagle (Nisaetus nipalensis) and the black-and-chestnut eagle (Spizaetus isidori), have also been found comparable to the crowned eagle. While both are slimmer and smaller, these eagles are also large-bodied, strong-footed offshoots of the evolutionary radiation of forest-dwelling booted eagles, respectively distributed in East Asia and South America. The adult crowned eagle even has somewhat intermediate appearance between these birds, sharing the variable patterning of the mountain hawk-eagle and some of the colouring of the black-and-chestnut.
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Orthocerid taxonomy is based on characters found in the shell, principally in the nature of the siphuncle. It is not without its problems however since features can appear repeatedly by the process of homeomorphy (convergent evolution), making certain taxa appear to have a much longer stratigraphic range than in actuality. A recent study of very well preserved embryonic shells of the family Pseudorthoceratidae from the Mississippian (Lower Carboniferous) Imo Formation of Arkansas (Kröger and Mapes 2004) reveals that the morphologic diversity of the early growth stages of these creatures is more diverse than would be expected. Although this indicates that the Pseudorthoceratidae may be in need of revision, it also shows the value of embryonic shell morphology in understanding orthocerid phylogeny.
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Collecting pollen There is little doubt that the morphological and behavioral similarities between E. tenax and the honey bee are mainly a result of convergent evolution in response to similar food-gathering requirements. Bees are common models for several Dipteran mimics They are similar in their general form, flight, and coloration. There are reports on the genetics of honeybees that show that the factors controlling the coloration are the same as the ones controlling the coloration in E. tenax. In both species branched hairs and spirally grooved bristles act as collectors and retainers of pollen, and leg-scraping that occurs during hovering allows the transfer of pollen to take place, from hind legs to front legs in E. tenax, and in the reverse direction in honey bees.
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Some species retain a pelvic girdle with a pair of vestigial claws on either side of the cloaca. Lizards have evolved elongate bodies without limbs or with greatly reduced limbs about twenty-five times independently via convergent evolution, leading to many lineages of legless lizards. Legless lizards resemble snakes, but several common groups of legless lizards have eyelids and external ears, which snakes lack, although this rule is not universal (see Amphisbaenia, Dibamidae, and Pygopodidae). Living snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica, and on most smaller land masses; exceptions include some large islands, such as Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, the Hawaiian archipelago, and the islands of New Zealand, and many small islands of the Atlantic and central Pacific oceans.
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Bakker and Galton recognised Heterodontosaurus as important to the evolution of ornithischian dinosaurs, as its hand pattern was shared with primitive saurischians, and therefore was primitive or basal to both groups. This was disputed by some scientists who believed the two groups had instead evolved independently from "thecodontian" archosaur ancestors, and that their similarities were due to convergent evolution. Some authors also suggested a relationship, such as descendant/ancestor, between heterodontosaurids and fabrosaurids, both being primitive ornithischians, as well as to primitive ceratopsians, such as Psittacosaurus, though the nature of these relations was debated. By the 1980s, most researchers considered the heterodontosaurids as a distinct family of primitive ornithischian dinosaurs, but with an uncertain position with respect to other groups within the order.
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Kirk O. Winemiller is an American ecologist, known for research on community ecology, life history theory, food webs, aquatic ecosystems, tropical ecology and fish biology. A strong interest has been convergent evolution and patterns, causes and consequences of biological diversity, particularly with respect to fishes. His research also has addressed the influence of hydrology on the ecological dynamics of fluvial ecosystems and applications of this knowledge for managing aquatic biodiversity and freshwater resources in the United States and other regions of the world. He currently is a University Distinguished Professor and Regents Professor at Texas A&M; University and an Elected Fellow of the Ecological Society of America, American Fisheries Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
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Since the germ cell lineage is not established right away by induction, there is a higher chance for mutation to occur before the cells are specified. Mutation rate data is available that indicates a higher rate of germ line mutations in mice and humans, species which undergo induction, than in C. elegans and Drosophila melanogaster, species which undergo inheritance. A lower mutation rate would be selected for, which is one possible reason for the convergent evolution of the germ plasm. However, more mutation rate data will need to be collected across several taxa, particularly data collected both before and after the specification of primordial germ cells before this hypothesis on the evolution of germ plasm can be backed by strong evidence.
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The details (such as lack of the supratendinal bridge) may however be simply plesiomorphies, while the overall resemblance might be the result of convergent evolution--for the autapomorphies of its toes are starkly unlike those found in any ratite. Thus, if it was a ratite, it probably was the most unusual ratite known to date (while the hardly better-known Remiornis may very well have been a rather conventional proto-ostrich). As far as can be told however, ratites did never evolve gripping feet like seen in the fossils, and neither did they fare very successfully in wetland habitat as represented in the Jebel Qatrani Formation. The latter holds true for Galliformes, which are ancient neognaths of the fowl clade (Galloanserae).
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Remarkable examples of convergent evolution are certain species of the Neuropteran family Myrmeleontidae, largely Myrmeleon, the so-called ant lions, and the Dipteran family Vermileonidae, in particular the genera Lampromyia and Vermilio, the so-called worm lions. Both of them are regarded with interest for their habit of constructing conical pit traps in fine sand or dust, at the bottom of which they await prey that has fallen in. Both throw sand to interfere with any attempts on the part of the prey to escape. Myrmecophagy takes more forms than just eating adult ants; the later instars of caterpillars of many butterflies in the family Lycaenidae enter the nests of particular species of ants and eat the ants' eggs and larvae.
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Before molecular methods became available, the presence of holocentric chromosomes was evaluated mostly using cytology and, considering that many species are difficult to study cytologically, it can be surmised that the true presence of holocentrism may be underestimated. In addition, there are several taxa, whose chromosomes are still uncharacterized, but their phylogenetic position suggests that they should have holocentric chromosomes. The presence of holocentric chromosomes has been up till now assessed in about 800 species, including insects, plants, arachnids, and nematodes suggesting that generally holocentric chromosomes originated by convergent evolution from ancestors possessing monocentric chromosomes. Interesting exceptions are represented by insects belonging to Oligoneoptera and Neoptera, whose monocentric chromosomes probably evolved from holocentric ancestor in two different and independent events.
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The "robust" stony coral families of Faviidae, Merulinidae, Mussidae and Pectiniidae, have traditionally been recognised on morphological grounds but recent molecular analysis has shown that these families are polyphyletic, the similarities between the species having occurred through convergent evolution. Additionally, some traditional genera such as Favia and Scolymia have been found to be polyphyletic, with the Atlantic faviids and scolymids being more closely related to each other than they are to their Indo-Pacific relatives. A revised classification, proposed in 2012, places the Pacific species of Mussidae in a new family, Lobophylliidae and retains the taxon Mussidae for the Atlantic species. In the revision, the genera Echinomorpha, Echinophyllia and Oxypora were transferred to Lobophylliidae from Pectiniidae and the genus Moseleya from elsewhere.
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Rather, they are the result of convergent evolution. Consider, for example, the marked resemblance in body size, shape, and coloration between flycatchers of several families, though these species are not closely related: the Asian brown flycatcher (of the Muscicapidae or Old World flycatcher family), Acadian flycatcher (of the Tyrannidae or tyrant flycatcher family) of the New World, and slaty monarch (of the Monarchidae or monarch flycatcher family), endemic to Fiji. All three use flycatching to acquire some or all of their food. But these three families belong to separate branches of the evolutionary tree of songbirds, which diverged in two branching events some 60 and 90 million years ago and continued to evolve independently in different parts of the world.
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Medial prolegs labelled J, anal proleg K. (The true legs are F, G and H.) Lepidoptera: Papilio machaon caterpillar with 4 pairs of prolegs Hymenoptera: Craesus septentrionalis caterpillars with 7 prolegs A proleg is a small, fleshy, stub structure found on the ventral surface of the abdomen of most larval forms of insects of the order Lepidoptera, though they can also be found on other larval insects such as sawflies and a few other types of insects. In all the orders in which they appear, mainly Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, prolegs of any form evolved independently of each other by convergent evolution. Prolegs of lepidopteran larvae have a small circle of gripping hooks, called "crochets". The arrangement of the crochets can be helpful in identification to family level.
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The common name of Scolecophidia, blind snakes, is based on their shared characteristic of reduced eyes that are located under their head scales. These head scales are found in all snakes and are referred to as spectacles, but within this infraorder, they are opaque, resulting in decreased visual capabilities. Reduced eyes of the Scolecophidia have been attributed to evolutionary origins of snakes, which are hypothesized to have arisen from fossorial ancestors, causing a loss of genes related to eyesight that later evolved again in higher snakes to be similar to other vertebrates due to convergent evolution. Other shared characteristics include an absent left oviduct in four of the five families, aside from the Anomalepididae, which have a well developed yet reduced left oviduct.
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A. Dendy, Constable, London. Wood Jones followed with the booklet The Problem of Man's Ancestry (1919) discussing his theory the same year, followed by three other books defending the theory: The Ancestry Of Man (1923), Man's Place Among the Mammals (1929) and Hallmarks of Mankind (1948). until his death, claimed that the human line of development did not diverge from that of apes or monkeys but from much earlier, before the Oligocene 30 million years ago, from a common ancestor with a primitive primate group of which the only other survivor is the Tarsier. Wood Jones in his The Ancestry Of Man (1923) described his Tarsian hypothesis as follows: Wood Jones explained common structural features between Man and the apes (and monkeys) through convergent evolution.
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The placoderm claspers are not homologous with the claspers in cartilaginous fishes. The similarities between the structures has been revealed to be an example of convergent evolution. While the claspers in cartilaginous fishes are specialized parts of their paired pelvic fins that have been modified for copulation due to changes in the hox genes hoxd13, the origin of the mating organs in placoderms most likely relied on different sets of hox genes and were structures that developed further down the body as an extra and independent pair of appendages, but which during development turned into body parts used for reproduction only. Because they were not attached to the pelvic fins, as are the claspers in fish like sharks, they were much more flexible and could probably be rotated forward.
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The evolutionary origin of muscle cells in metazoans is a highly debated topic. In one line of thought scientists have believed that muscle cells evolved once and thus all animals with muscles cells have a single common ancestor. In the other line of thought, scientists believe muscles cells evolved more than once and any morphological or structural similarities are due to convergent evolution and genes that predate the evolution of muscle and even the mesoderm—the germ layer from which many scientists believe true muscle cells derive. Schmid and Seipel argue that the origin of muscle cells is a monophyletic trait that occurred concurrently with the development of the digestive and nervous systems of all animals and that this origin can be traced to a single metazoan ancestor in which muscle cells are present.
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Camouflage is a powerful influence in a large number of mammals, as it helps to conceal individuals from predators or prey. In arctic and subarctic mammals such as the arctic fox (Alopex lagopus), collared lemming (Dicrostonyx groenlandicus), stoat (Mustela erminea), and snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), seasonal color change between brown in summer and white in winter is driven largely by camouflage. Some arboreal mammals, notably primates and marsupials, have shades of violet, green, or blue skin on parts of their bodies, indicating some distinct advantage in their largely arboreal habitat due to convergent evolution. Aposematism, warning off possible predators, is the most likely explanation of the black- and-white pelage of many mammals which are able to defend themselves, such as in the foul-smelling skunk and the powerful and aggressive honey badger.
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The confirmed presence of djebelemurids in Eocene Africa is important because it proves that lemuriforms evolved their toothcomb in Africa and differentiated there. This Afro-Arabian clade of stem lemuriforms are thought to have arrived in Africa too early to have descended from the Holarctic adapiforms. All dental similarities between the Afro-Arabian clade and European anchomomyins may be due to convergent evolution because the traits appear in the early Eocene (Ypresian stage) in the relatively poor fossil record of Africa long before they appear in the fossil-rich deposits of Europe during the mid-Lutetian. This ancient stem lineage of lemuriform primates in Africa possibly descended from an early Asian branch of adapiforms such as a primitive branch of cercamoniines predating Donrussellia (one of the oldest European adapiforms).
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The fruit fly Diptericin gene "Diptericin B" has a unique structure that has been derived independently in both Tephritidae and Drosophila fruit flies. This represents convergent evolution of an antimicrobial peptide towards a common structure in two separate fruit-feeding lineages. More surprisingly, sub-lineages of both Tephritidae and Drosophila that have specialized on non-fruit food sources have subsequently lost Diptericin B. In the mushroom-feeding fruit flies Drosophila guttifera and Drosophila testacea, this loss appears to have happened independently, as the mutations in these species' Diptericin B genes are different. This repeated loss of Diptericin B in fruit flies that have diverged to feed on non-fruit foods suggests Diptericin B is attuned to a fruit-feeding lifestyle, but unimportant and possibly even deleterious in non-fruit ecologies.
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Morphological studies can be confounded by examples of convergent evolution of phenotypes. A major challenge in constructing useful classes is the high likelihood of inter-taxon overlap in the distribution of the phenotype's variation. The inclusion of extinct taxa in morphological analysis is often difficult due to absence of or incomplete fossil records, but has been shown to have a significant effect on the trees produced; in one study only the inclusion of extinct species of apes produced a morphologically derived tree that was consistent with that produced from molecular data. Some phenotypic classifications, particularly those used when analyzing very diverse groups of taxa, are discrete and unambiguous; classifying organisms as possessing or lacking a tail, for example, is straightforward in the majority of cases, as is counting features such as eyes or vertebrae.
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Delimitation of species boundaries within the genus Chlorophytum is reported to be difficult, possibly because of several evolutionary radiations into forest environments that led to morphological aspects that are too similar to reliably distinguish separate species. The evidence given to support this is the widespread distribution of most taxa in the genus and poor seed dispersal, leading to the conclusion of deeper evolutionary divergence among the taxa. C. comosum 'Variegatum' The three described varieties in C. comosum could be an example of this convergent evolution of leaf shape among the forest-dwelling varieties from species of disparate origin, leading to the species C. comosum being polyphyletic, instead of the traditional view of morphological divergence among the varieties within the species with the assumption of a common origin (monophyly). The widespread C. comosum var.
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Anteaters are one of three surviving families of a once diverse group of mammals that occupied South America while it was geographically isolated from an invasion of animals from North America, the other two being the sloths and the armadillos. At one time, anteaters were assumed to be related to aardvarks and pangolins because of their physical similarities to those animals, but these similarities have since been determined to be not a sign of a common ancestor, but of convergent evolution. All have evolved powerful digging forearms, long tongues, and toothless, tube- like snouts to subsist by raiding termite mounds. This similarity is the reason aardvarks are also commonly called "anteaters"; the pangolin has been called the "scaly anteater"; and the word "antbear" is a common term for both the aardvark and the giant anteater.
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The feed-forward loop in the arabinose utilization systems of E.coli delays the activation of arabinose catabolism operon and transporters, potentially avoiding unnecessary metabolic transition due to temporary fluctuations in upstream signaling pathways. Similarly in the Wnt signaling pathway of Xenopus, the feed-forward loop acts as a fold-change detector that responses to the fold change, rather than the absolute change, in the level of β-catenin, potentially increasing the resistance to fluctuations in β-catenin levels. Following the convergent evolution hypothesis, the enrichment of feed-forward loops would be an adaptation for fast response and noise resistance. A recent research found that yeast grown in an environment of constant glucose developed mutations in glucose signaling pathways and growth regulation pathway, suggesting regulatory components responding to environmental changes are dispensable under constant environment.
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In ants, the most structurally similar cuticular projections can be found throughout most of the body of some species in the formicine genus Echinopla, except on the pygidium, and additionally on the gastral apex of an undescribed species of Strumigenys. Given that these aforementioned taxa are not closely related to Kempfidris, their structures are probably not homologous, but perhaps convergent evolution could be considered, especially in the case of the dacetine ant. Other specialized pygidial structures found in ants are the denticles or spines of Cerapachyinae (now Dorylinae) and the large, upward-curving teeth in Pachycondyla crassinoda workers, but their position and form are very different. Most members of the solenopsidine group are smooth, with little sculpturing, but this species presents a moderate amount of sculpturing on the head, mesosoma, petiole and postpetiole.
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All tetrapod forelimbs are homologous, evolving from the same initial structures in lobe-finned fish. However, another distinct process may be identified, convergent evolution, by which the wings of birds, bats, and extinct pterosaurs evolved the same purpose in drastically different ways. These structures have similar form or function but were not present in the last common ancestor of those groups. Bat wings are composed largely of a thin membrane of skin supported on the five fingers, whereas bird wings are composed largely of feathers supported on much reduced fingers, with finger 2 supporting the alula and finger 4 the primary feathers of the wing; there are only distant homologies between birds and bats, with much closer homologies between any pair of bird species, or any pair of bat species.
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The feet are bluish-grey, mottled with varying amounts of red. The birds are slightly smaller than the PIP, with a total length of around 36 cm, females being marginally larger and darker than males on average, and juvenile birds are apparently more sandy-coloured on the upperpart feather fringes and breast. While the weight is not recorded, comparison with related species gives an estimate of 350 grams on average. The colour pattern, unusual for a Columba pigeon, probably represents convergent evolution towards the PIP, and possibly even a case of Müllerian mimicry, the anti-predator attribute being the PIP's habit to aggregate in large flocks which makes it harder for predators to pick out individual birds, and enables the much rarer silvery pigeon to share this advantage.
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In collaboration with Yoko Satta and Naoyuki Takahata, they developed a method for estimating the evolutionary rates of the Mhc genes and demonstrated that the rate was close to the average rate of most non-Mhc genes, and they provided evidence that the Mhc genes are subject to balancing selection. They also provided evidence that the selection leads to the independent, repeated emergence of similar or identical short sequence motifs by convergent evolution. Klein himself has long championed the view that this mechanism and mechanisms similar to it, rather than the generally favored "gene conversion", explained the origin of the motifs. Klein's group demonstrated that during its evolution, the Mhc undergoes repeated rounds of expansion and contraction by gene duplications and deletions –in Klein's terminology, an accordion mode of evolution.
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Stylophthalmus paradoxus, now recognized as the larval form of Idiacanthus fasciola Stylophthalmus (meaning 'stem-eye') was a name used for what was previously believed to be a genus of fish with eyes perched upon periscopic stalks, known in some cases to be almost one third of the length of the animal's actual body.Proujan. C., 1971, Secrets of The Sea, London: Readers Digest Association Limited, Page 62 It is now recognised that all species in this genus are the fish larvaeWhy are the eyes of larval Black Dragonfish on stalks? - Australian MuseumWoRMS - World Register of Marine Species - Stylophthalmus of already named, distantly related fish in the orders Stomiiformes and Myctophiformes which may have developed this same trait as a result of convergent evolution. Thus, Stylophthalmus is an invalid name.
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The zalambdodont molars appear to link it to notoryctid marsupial moles, but detailed study of the teeth of these two groups suggests that they have evolved independently, and Yalkaparidon is anatomically otherwise very different from the marsupial moles. The incisors resemble those of diprotodontians, but no other features convincingly support this relationship, and the convergent evolution of such incisors in South American 'pseudodiprotodont' groups (such as caenolestids and polydolopimorphians) suggests that Yalkaparidon and diprotodontians may have evolved similar incisors independently. Basicranial similarities to bandicoots most likely represent shared plesiomorphic characters, and hence are not indicative of a close relationship. For these reasons, Yalkaparidon is currently placed in its own family, Yalkaparidontidae, and order, Yalkaparidontia; this placement would make this the only order of Australian marsupials known to have gone extinct.
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Arrow pushing mechanism for the reaction catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase LDH in humans uses His(193) as the proton donor, and works in unison with the coenzyme (Arg99 and Asn138), and substrate (Arg106; Arg169; Thr248) binding residues. The His(193) active site, is not only found in the human form of LDH, but is found in many different animals, showing the convergent evolution of LDH. The two different subunits of LDH (LDHA, also known as the M subunit of LDH, and LDHB, also known as the H subunit of LDH) both retain the same active site and the same amino acids participating in the reaction. The noticeable difference between the two subunits that make up LDH's tertiary structure is the replacement of alanine (in the M chain) with a glutamine (in the H chain).
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However, evidence of common ancestry can also be interpreted as convergent evolution, with similar dental adaptations caused by inhabiting a similar environment, though Ouranopithecus seems to have consumed more hard objects than Nakalipithecus. A 2017 study on deciduous fourth premolars—deciduous teeth are less affected by environmental factors as they soon fall out and are replaced by permanent teeth—found that Nakalipithecus and later African apes (including australopithecines) shared more similarities with each other than to Eurasian apes, though drew no clear conclusion on the Nakalipithecus–Ouranopithecus relationship. Nakalipithecus has also been proposed to have been the ancestor to the 8 million year old Chororapithecus, which possibly represents an early member of the gorilla line; if both of these are correct, then Nakalipithecus could potentially represent an early gorilla.
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The next evolutionary development would be incipient matrotrophy, in which yolk supplies are gradually reduced and are supplemented with nutrients from the mother's reproductive tract. In many ways, depending on the ecology and life strategy of the species, viviparity may be more strenuous and more physically and energetically taxing on the mother than oviparity. However, its numerous evolutionary origins imply that in some scenarios there must be worthwhile benefits to viviparous modes of reproduction; selective pressures have led to its convergent evolution more than 150 times among the vertebrates alone. There is no one mode of reproduction that is universally superior in selective terms, but in many circumstances viviparity of various forms offers good protection from parasites and predators and permits flexibility in dealing with problems of reliability and economy in adverse circumstances.
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Evidence of convergent evolution suggests that holocentrism is adaptive, but the specific conditions under which holocentrism provided a selective advantage seem to be diverse for different taxa. Indeed, in phytophagous insects (such as aphids and lepidopterans) holocentrism could be related to the production by plants of compounds able to induce chromosomal breakages (clastogens), whereas in other cases, holocentrism allows facingDNA damage resulting from desiccation and/or other chromosome-breaking factors. Despite these differences, holocentric chromosomes present intrinsic benefits since chromosomal mutations, such as fissions and fusions, are potentially neutral in holocentric chromosomes in respect to monocentric ones. However, the hypothesis of holocentrism as an anticlastogenic adaptation have to be more systematically tested, including both controlled laboratory experiments and field studies across clastogenic gradients and large-scale phylogenetic analyses.
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A nematocyst is a subcellular structure or organelle containing extrusive filaments found in two families of athecate dinoflagellates (a group of unicellular eukaryotes), the Warnowiaceae and Polykrikaceae. It is distinct from the similar subcellular structures found in the cnidocyte cells of cnidarians, a group of multicellular organisms including jellyfish and corals; such structures are also often called nematocysts (alternatively, cnidocysts or cnidae), and cnidocytes are sometimes referred to as nematocytes. It is unclear whether the relationship between dinoflagellate and cnidarian nematocysts is a case of convergent evolution or common descent, although molecular evidence has been interpreted as supporting an endosymbiotic origin for cnidarian nematocysts. In polykrikoids the nematocyst is found associated with another extrusive organelle called the taeniocyst, a complex that has been described as synapomorphic for the genus Polykrikos.
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Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently. Some euphorbias have leafless, rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti, but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related. The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters, distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups (homoplasies) or those left over from ancestors (plesiomorphies) – and derived characters, which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor (apomorphies). Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor.
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Devices such as Chromebooks, Tablet PCs, Ultrabooks and other devices responded by branding themselves as a different type of device such as Chrome OS being exclusively a pure web client or the proposal that the ultrabook succeeded by compensating for its lighter weight and otherwise equal-performance parts with a higher price tag. In 2015, a revival of the concept came about from a likely unrelated source, a technological form of convergent evolution. Via the likely-observed success of the stick PC, the idea of combining a System on a chip with a Single-board computer has led to a continuation of the nettop's original product goals. Mini PCs such as the MINIX Z83-4 or the Azulle Access Plus are exclusively referred to as "Mini PCs", despite being identical or near-identical on paper to the nettop architecture.
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However, this does not necessarily mean that the last common ancestor of type I and II opsins was itself an opsin, a light sensitive receptor: all animal opsins arose (by gene duplication and divergence) late in the history of the large G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) gene family, which itself arose after the divergence of plants, fungi, choanflagellates and sponges from the earliest animals. The retinal chromophore is found solely in the opsin branch of this large gene family, meaning its occurrence elsewhere represents convergent evolution, not homology. Microbial rhodopsins are, by sequence, very different from any of the GPCR families. According to one hypothesis, both type-I and type-II opsins belong to the transporter-opsin-G protein-coupled receptor (TOG) superfamily, a proposed clade that includes G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), Ion-translocating microbial rhodopsin (MR), and seven others.
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Instead, there was a system of larger units that had no relation to Roman organization. In terms of equipment, most of these so- called 'Romanized' troops did not abandon their traditional spear for a sword, which the Hastati and Principles abandoned between the 3rd and 2nd Century BC. Also the Romans used the pila, while Greek troops tended to use local variations of Javelins. Also similarity of equipment in regards to helmets and chain-mail can be explained by Celtic influence experienced by both the Greeks and Romans at a similar time. In this sense, we can only assume that the Hellenistic kingdoms did reform and re-organize their troops in some regards along Roman lines, but these appear to be superficial at best and quite possibly the result of convergent evolution, with both cultures influencing each other.
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The evolutionary history of the passerine families and the relationships among them remained rather mysterious until the late 20th century. In many cases, passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities that, it is now believed, are the result of convergent evolution, not a close genetic relationship. For example, the wrens of the Americas and Eurasia; those of Australia; and those of New Zealand look superficially similar and behave in similar ways, and yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree; they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while remaining Passeriformes. Much research remains to be done, but advances in molecular biology and improved paleobiogeographical data gradually are revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution that reconciles molecular affinities, the constraints of morphology and the specifics of the fossil record.
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In a 2007 study published in Nature Genetics, Tishkoff and colleagues documented three new single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with lactase persistence (G/C-14010, T/G-13915 and C/G-13907) among ethnic groups in East Africa that differ from the allele associated with lactose tolerance that is common in Europe (C/T-13910). The most widespread mutation was found among Nilo-Saharan speaking groups in Tanzania and Kenya, while two independent mutations were found among the Beja people in Sudan and Afroasiatic speaking people in Kenya. The SNPs significantly increase the in-vitro activation of the lactase gene, which is known as LCT. These mutations are an example of convergent evolution due to the shared cultural selective pressures of animal domestication and milk consumption, and they are a clear case of gene-culture coevolution.
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The number of convergent traits shared between Azendohsaurus and sauropodomorph dinosaurs is remarkably high, especially as all the shared features are interpreted as being homoplastic, meaning that they evolved completely independently of each other. Some of the shared adaptations of the skeleton between Azendohsaurus and sauropodomorphs were previously considered to be unique to sauropodomorphs. However, the convergent evolution of these traits in Azendohsaurus as adaptations towards a herbivorous lifestyle show that they may be more broadly distributed amongst Triassic archosauromorphs, and do not necessarily indicate a close relationship to sauropodomorphs in fossil taxa. The pattern of convergences in Azendohsaurus is unusual, as they appear to be have arisen in only the front half of the animal, while the sprawling back legs and short tail of Azendohsaurus are characteristically primitive of earlier archosauromorphs, very unlike the columnar hind limbs and long tail of sauropodomorphs.
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Their features became adapted for living in the marine environment. Major anatomical changes included their hearing set-up that channeled vibrations from the jaw to the earbone (Ambulocetus 49 mya), a streamlined body and the growth of flukes on the tail (Protocetus 43 mya), the migration of the nostrils toward the top of the cranium (blowholes), and the modification of the forelimbs into flippers (Basilosaurus 35 mya), and the shrinking and eventual disappearance of the hind limbs (the first odontocetes and mysticetes 34 mya). Whale morphology shows a number of examples of convergent evolution, the most obvious being the streamlined fish-like body shape. Other examples include the use of echolocation for hunting in low light conditions — which is the same hearing adaptation used by bats — and, in the rorqual whales, jaw adaptations, similar to those found in pelicans, that enable engulfment feeding.
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Humans and orangutans are both unique to a bipedal reactive adaptation when climbing on thin branches, in which they have increased hip and knee extension in relation to the diameter of the branch, which can increase an arboreal feeding range and can be attributed to a convergent evolution of bipedalism evolving in arboreal environments. Hominine fossils found in dry grassland environments led anthropologists to believe hominines lived, slept, walked upright, and died only in those environments because no hominine fossils were found in forested areas. However, fossilization is a rare occurrence—the conditions must be just right in order for an organism that dies to become fossilized for somebody to find later, which is also a rare occurrence. The fact that no hominine fossils were found in forests does not ultimately lead to the conclusion that no hominines ever died there.
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Footbone traits are notoriously prone to selection forces in birds, with convergent evolution known to inhibit or even invalidate cladistic analyses; however, the apparent autapomorphies of the lower arm and hand bones are hard to explain by anything else than an actual relationship. The location of the salt glands inside the eye sockets of Osteodontornis, Pelagornis (and probably others) shows that whatever their relationships were, the pelagornithids adapted to an oceanic habitat independently from penguins and tubenoses, which instead have supraorbital salt glands. Their missing or vestigial hallux – like in ducks but unlike in pelicans which have all four toes fully developed and webbed – was held against a close relationship with pelicans. But as is known today, pelicans are closer to storks (which have a hallux but no webbing) than to pseudotooth birds and evolved their fully webbed toes independently.
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Spinosaur jaws were likened by Romain Vullo and colleagues to those of the pike conger eel, in what they hypothesized was convergent evolution for aquatic feeding. Both kinds of animals have some teeth in the end of the upper and lower jaws that are larger than the others and an area of the upper jaw with smaller teeth, creating a gap into which the enlarged teeth of the lower jaw fit, with the full structure called a terminal rosette. Life restoration of Baryonyx with a fish in its jaws In the past, spinosaurids have often been considered piscivores (fish-eaters) in the main, based on comparisons of their jaws with those of modern crocodilians. In 2007, British paleontologist Emily J. Rayfield and colleagues conducted biomechanical studies on the skull of Baryonyx, which had a long, laterally compressed skull, comparing it to gharial (long, narrow, tubular) and alligator (flat and wide) skulls.
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While convergent evolution and parallel evolution are both forms of recurrent evolution they involve multiple lineages whereas recurrent evolution can also take place in a single lineage. As mentioned before, recurrent evolution within a lineage can be difficult to detect in organisms with longer generation times; however paleontological evidence can be used to show recurrent phenotypic evolution within a lineage. The distinction between recurrent evolution across lineages and recurrent evolution within a lineage can be blurred because lineages do not have a set size and convergent or parallel evolution takes place among lineages that are all part of or within the same greater lineage. When speaking of recurrent evolution within a lineage, the simplest example is that given above, of the on-off switch used by bacteria in phase variation, but it can also involve phenotypic swings back and forth over longer periods of evolutionary history.
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In addition to the exclusively FADH2-dependent monooxygenase found in species such as E. coli and T. thermophilus, a version of the enzyme which can use either reduced FAD or reduced FMN has been described in Acinetobacter baumannii. Although these enzymes catalyze similar reactions and share a similar acyl-CoA dehydrogenase fold, the FMN-dependent enzyme is allosterically regulated by 4-HPA while the FADH2-dependent enzyme is likely regulated by a simpler kinetic mechanism, in which low concentrations of 4-HPA lead the enzyme to bind and sequester FADH2 as part of the normal catalytic cycle, causing the free concentration of FADH2 to drop until the flavin oxidoreductase's reaction is indirectly inhibited as well. Along with other differences in regulation and substrate binding despite a shared fundamental catalytic mechanism, this has led to speculation that these enzymes collectively represent an example of convergent evolution.
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There are two major prerequisites for brain morphometry: First, the brain features of interest must be measurable, and second, statistical methods have to be in place to compare the measurements quantitatively. Shape feature comparisons form the basis of Linnaean taxonomy, and even in cases of convergent evolution or brain disorders, they still provide a wealth of information about the nature of the processes involved. Shape comparisons have long been constrained to simple and mainly volume- or slice-based measures but profited enormously from the digital revolution, as now all sorts of shapes in any number of dimensions can be handled numerically. In addition, though the extraction of morphometric parameters like brain mass or liquor volume may be relatively straightforward in post mortem samples, most studies in living subjects will by necessity have to use an indirect approach: A spatial representation of the brain or its components is obtained by some appropriate neuroimaging technique, and the parameters of interest can then be analyzed on that basis.
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Macedonian, like the other Eastern South Slavic idioms has characteristics that make it part of the Balkan sprachbund, a group of languages that share typological, grammatical and lexical features based on areal convergence, rather than genetic proximity. In that sense, Macedonian has experienced convergent evolution with other languages that belong to this group such as Greek, Aromanian, Albanian and Romani due to cultural and linguistic exchanges that occurred primarily through oral communication. Macedonian and Bulgarian are divergent from the remaining South Slavic languages in that they do not use noun cases (except for the vocative, and apart from some traces of once productive inflections still found scattered throughout these two) and have lost the infinitive. They are also the only Slavic languages with any definite articles (unlike standard Bulgarian, which uses only one article, standard Macedonian as well as some south-eastern Bulgarian dialects have a set of three deictic articles: unspecified, proximal and distal definite article).
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There have been efforts to determine the evolutionary relationships between the known plant species, but phylogenies (or phylogenetic trees) created solely using morphological data, cellular structures, single enzymes, or on only a few sequences (like rRNA) can be prone to error; morphological features are especially vulnerable when two species look physically similar though they are not closely related (as a result of convergent evolution for example) or homology, or when two species closely related look very different because, for example, they are able to change in response to their environment very well. These situations are very common in the plant kingdom. An alternative method for constructing evolutionary relationships is through changes in DNA sequence of many genes between the different species which is often more robust to problems of similar-appearing species. With the amount of genomic sequence produced by this project, many predicted evolutionary relationships could be better tested by sequence alignment to improve their certainty.
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H. lacrima was collected in soil samples at the base of limestone cliffs alongside specimens of Angustopila fabella, and most likely occurs in sympatry with this species on the exposed cliff-faces of Lenglei as has been observed with other hypselostomatids. Many of the recently discovered hypselostomatids of this region have been classified by the authors as being Critically Endangered under IUCN criteria, being restricted (by collection, or nature) to single sites and falling at risk to limestone quarries. Multiple hypotheses of the biogeographical origins of such hypselostomatids have been supported by the authors: firstly, the isolation of populations may be a misconception, and be product of contiguous means of dispersal (cave systems or river drainages) of which only limited components have been studied; secondly, the distributions may be created by rare long-distance dispersal events; or thirdly, that the similarities between allopatric species are the result of convergent evolution. No evidence has thus far been discovered that may reject or prefer one of the three models.
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Thus we could say that if two organisms possess a shared character, they should be more closely related to each other than to a third organism that lacks this character (provided that character was not present in the last common ancestor of all three, in which case it would be a symplesiomorphy). We would predict that bats and monkeys are more closely related to each other than either is to an elephant, because male bats and monkeys possess external testicles, which elephants lack. However, we cannot say that bats and monkeys are more closely related to one another than they are to whales, though the two have external testicles absent in whales, because we believe that the males in the last common ancestral species of the three had external testicles. However, the phenomena of convergent evolution, parallel evolution, and evolutionary reversals (collectively termed homoplasy) add an unpleasant wrinkle to the problem of estimating phylogeny.
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Lindgren (2009) did a comprehensive study on the cranial osteology of Plesiotylosaurus based on the holotype skull, LACM 2759, and another recently described cranial specimen, UCMP 137249. Though obviously closely related to Prognathodon and firmly placed within the Mosasaurinae, the skull of Plesiotylosaurus does have certain characteristics otherwise only found in the Tylosaurinae. These characteristics include having a solid, bony, rostrum at the tip of the snout and mandibles, a wide and virtually unconstricted internarial bar that arises from a transversely rectangular base on the posterior face of the dentigerous portion of the premaxilla, a maxillo- premaxillary suture that forms a relatively long junction between the tooth- bearing bones of the upper jaw, an anterior postorbitofrontal process that forms a broadly overlapping flange beneath the supraorbital wing of the prefrontal and an anterior mandibular channel that is developed into a long and narrow slit. Lindgren considered these shared characteristics to be an obvious example of convergent evolution.
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The southernmost find was recorded at Shuqba Cave, Levant; reports of Neanderthals from the North African Jebel Irhoud and Haua Fteah have been reidentified as H. sapiens. Their easternmost presence is recorded at Denisova Cave, Siberia 85°E; the southeast Chinese Maba Man, a skull, shares several physical attributes with Neanderthals, though these may be the result of convergent evolution rather than Neanderthals extending their range to the Pacific Ocean. The northernmost bound is generally accepted to have been 55°N, with unambiguous sites known between 50–53°N, although this is difficult to assess because glacial advances destroy most human remains, and palaeoanthropologist Trine Kellberg Nielsen has argued that a lack of evidence of Southern Scandinavian occupation is (at least during the Eemian interglacial) due to the former explanation and a lack of research in the area. Middle Palaeolithic artefacts have been found up to 60°N on the Russian plains, but these are more likely attributed to modern humans.
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In science fiction, an AI, even though it has not been programmed with human emotions, often spontaneously experiences those emotions anyway: for example, Agent Smith in The Matrix was influenced by a "disgust" toward humanity. This is fictitious anthropomorphism: in reality, while an artificial intelligence could perhaps be deliberately programmed with human emotions, or could develop something similar to an emotion as a means to an ultimate goal if it is useful to do so, it would not spontaneously develop human emotions for no purpose whatsoever, as portrayed in fiction. Scholars sometimes claim that others' predictions about an AI's behavior are illogical anthropomorphism. An example that might initially be considered anthropomorphism, but is in fact a logical statement about AI behavior, would be the Dario Floreano experiments where certain robots spontaneously evolved a crude capacity for "deception", and tricked other robots into eating "poison" and dying: here a trait, "deception", ordinarily associated with people rather than with machines, spontaneously evolves in a type of convergent evolution.
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This adaptation is restricted to the moderately halophilic bacterial order Halanaerobiales, the extremely halophilic archaeal family Halobacteriaceae, and the extremely halophilic bacterium Salinibacter ruber. The presence of this adaptation in three distinct evolutionary lineages suggests convergent evolution of this strategy, it being unlikely to be an ancient characteristic retained in only scattered groups or passed on through massive lateral gene transfer. The primary reason for this is the entire intracellular machinery (enzymes, structural proteins, etc.) must be adapted to high salt levels, whereas in the compatible solute adaptation, little or no adjustment is required to intracellular macromolecules; in fact, the compatible solutes often act as more general stress protectants, as well as just osmoprotectants. Of particular note are the extreme halophiles or haloarchaea (often known as halobacteria), a group of archaea, which require at least a 2 M salt concentration and are usually found in saturated solutions (about 36% w/v salts).
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The sail may be an analog of the sail of the Permian synapsid Dimetrodon, which lived before the dinosaurs even appeared, produced by convergent evolution. Reconstructed replicas of the holotype vertebrae, National Geographic Museum, Washington, D. C. The structure may also have been more hump-like than sail-like, as noted by Stromer in 1915 ("one might rather think of the existence of a large hump of fat [German: Fettbuckel], to which the [neural spines] gave internal support") and by Jack Bowman Bailey in 1997. In support of his "buffalo-back" hypothesis, Bailey argued that in Spinosaurus, Ouranosaurus, and other dinosaurs with long neural spines, the spines were relatively shorter and thicker than the spines of pelycosaurs (which were known to have sails); instead, the dinosaurs' neural spines were similar to the neural spines of extinct hump-backed mammals such as Megacerops and Bison latifrons. In 2014, Ibrahim and colleagues instead posited that the spines were covered tightly by skin, similar to a crested chameleon, given their compactness, sharp edges, and likely poor blood flow.
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Hundreds of Chendytes bones and egg shells found in Pleistocene deposits on San Miguel Island have been interpreted as evidence that some of these island fossil localities were nesting colonies, one of which Guthrie dated to �12,000 14C years (�13,500–13,000 calendar years B.P.). There is nothing in the North American archaeological record indicating a span of exploitation for any megafaunal genus remotely as long as that of Chendytes. Although originally thought to be a seaduck in the tribe Mergini, analysis of ancient DNA sequences suggests that it is a basal member and a sister to the clade of extant dabbling ducks in the tribe Anatini, revealing an additional example of convergent evolution of characters related to feeding behavior among ducks. Head and beak morphology suggest C. lawi was an invertivore. Based on the large, robust morphology of the cervical vertebrae, skull, and bill, The C. lawi specialized on sessile invertebrates and the species likely possessed “a remarkable ability to wrench off invertebrate animals attached to hard substrate”.
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Accipiter hawks usually ambush birds in dense vegetation, a dangerous hunting method that requires great agility. Many smaller tropical species of Accipiter eat nearly equal portions of insects and reptiles and amphibians as they do of birds while some of the larger species have become more generalized, and may feed extensively on rodents and lagomorphs as well as other various non-avian animals. Most accipitrids will supplement their diet with non-putrid carrion but, of course, none specialized with this as well as the 14-16 species of vultures, which have evolved very large bodies (which leave them equipped to fill their crop with carrion), weaker, less specialized feet relative to other accipitrids, large wingspans to spend extensively periods of time in flight over openings scanning for carcasses and complex social behavior in order to establish a mixed species hierarchy at carrion. The New World vultures have attained several similar characteristics, but only through convergent evolution and are seemingly not directly related to Old World vultures and other accipitrids.
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Garcia's research has established how structural and biophysical principles govern receptor binding and signal activation in many different cytokine systems. Key findings include determination of the first crystal structures of the following cytokine family members in complex with their surface receptors: gp130 family (IL-6),Hexameric Structure and Assembly of the Interleukin-6/IL-6 α-Receptor/gp130 Complex, Science (2003) common gamma (γc) family (IL-2),Structure of the Quaternary Complex of Interleukin-2 with Its α, ß, and γc Receptors, Science (2005) Type I Interferons (IFNα2/IFNω) and Type III Interferons.The IFN-λ-IFN-λR1-IL-10Rβ Complex Reveals Structural Features Underlying Type III IFN Functional Plasticity, Immunity (2017) The Garcia Laboratory has also determined crystal structures of many other major cytokine-receptor complexes including those of IL-1, IL-4, IL-13, IL-15, IL-17, IL-23, LIF and CNTF. These structures have revealed a wide range of binding topologies and architectures, and demonstrate how convergent evolution has provided many solutions for cytokine receptors to transduce signals across the cell membrane.
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In the 1770s the electric organs of the torpedo and electric eel were the subject of Royal Society papers by Hunter, Walsh and Williamson. They appear to have influenced the thinking of Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta - the founders of electrophysiology and electrochemistry. In the 19th century, Charles Darwin discussed the electric organ in his Origin of Species as a likely example of convergent evolution: "But if the electric organs had been inherited from one ancient progenitor thus provided, we might have expected that all electric fishes would have been specially related to each other…I am inclined to believe that in nearly the same way as two men have sometimes independently hit on the very same invention, so natural selection, working for the good of each being and taking advantage of analogous variations, has sometimes modified in very nearly the same manner two parts in two organic beings". Since the 20th Century, electric organs have received extensive study, for example Hans Lissmann's pioneering 1951 paper and his review of their function and evolution in 1958.
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The species was named after the Quechuan word for a primordial god and "storyteller". This new species is characterized by have 22 teeth in the mandible and the maxilla, a snout comparable in relative length to the modern Gavialis gangeticus, and is notable since that its orbits were wider than long and not so upturned as another species of gavialids, including the gryposuchines, which implies that G. pachakamue doesn't had the "telescoped" orbits (protruding eyes) condition fully developed. Since that it species, that inhabited the proto-Amazon fluvial system 13 million years ago, is the oldest record of gavialids in this area and it had a primitive telescoped eyes condition, it shows that the development of such condition was a case of convergent evolution with the species of Gavialis also found in fluvial environments. Indeterminate finds of Gryposuchus were noted from the early Miocene Castillo Formation of Venezuela, middle Miocene Pebas Formation of Peru, middle/late Miocene Tranquitas Formation of Argentina and from the late Miocene formations Urumaco of Venezuela and Solimões in both Brazil and Peru.
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