They inject a numbing medicine directly into the celiac ganglion.
|
|
This result suggests dysfunction in communication between ganglion cells, said Laprevote.
|
|
Rather, it's located within a peripheral nerve center known as the stellate ganglion.
|
|
"At present, the authors only tested the retinal ganglion cell signaling," Frishman noted.
|
|
And disabling only the frontal ganglion does not normally result in quick death or unconsciousness.
|
|
The researchers examined whether cannabis disturbs the function of cells known as retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
"We are particularly interested in these ganglion cells because they behave as brain cells," said Laprevote.
|
|
Ever thought about the functional implications of on-off response variation in frogs' retinal ganglion cells?
|
|
Melanopsin retinal ganglion cells, a type of light receptor in our eye, responds to blue light.
|
|
Playboy sends me to Chicago, where I get an experimental PTS treatment called a stellate ganglion block.
|
|
Alvin Mckinstry said that he was making $17 an hour before he left Tesla with tendonitis and a ganglion cyst.
|
|
At the consultation, Dr. Lee diagnoses both girls with what's called a ganglion cyst, which are fairly common and not dangerous.
|
|
This happens because retinal ganglion cells in the sheet of tissue called the retina at the back of the eye detect contrasts.
|
|
She added that this is a flaw, since the recorded measurements reflect the function of other retinal cells and photoreceptors, not just ganglion cells.
|
|
"You can get the whole population of responses just by nonselectively firing a ganglion cell with every photoreceptor in its receptive field," Zaidi says.
|
|
To do that, researchers are looking for 240 people who currently suffer from PTSD, two-thirds of whom will undergo the stellate ganglion procedure.
|
|
There has been some research into special light receptors in our eyes called called melanopsin ganglion cells, which are very sensitive to blue light.
|
|
Dr. Lee injects a big syringe into the lumps, which basically sucks all the gooey gel liquid from the ganglion cysts, making the skin fall flat again.
|
|
When activated, the device sends electrical impulses to a bundle of nerves behind the nose called the sphenopalatine ganglion, which plays a key role in transmitting pain signals.
|
|
In the second and third layers, neurons and ganglion cells work together to meet the goal of detecting edges or shadows, and send findings into the brain through the optic nerve.
|
|
Johnston also hopes the knowledge will eventually be used to prevent diseases like macular degeneration, which is the leading cause of blindness, as well as glaucoma, which degenerates the retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
But not all was booming: chorus-line dancers in Times Square, New York's "densest pleasure ganglion," were poorly paid; suffragists (to whom Macy's marketed matching bonnets and hatpins for demonstrations) faced intransigent opposition.
|
|
According to the Journal, doctors familiar with the procedure—called a "stellate ganglion block"—believe the shot "resets the system" after stress signals get trapped in a loop between the body and brain.
|
|
But it might be a ganglion cyst, which has to do with the leakage of synovial fluid, this gel-like fluid that's in our joints, and they sometimes pop up on wrists or ankles.
|
|
Although the reason for the association remains unknown, animal studies suggest that iron deficiency may reduce blood flow to the inner ear, affecting the cochlear ganglion, the group of nerve cells that transmit sound to the brain.
|
|
To understand the impact of marijuana use on retinal ganglion cell function, the researchers measured the electrical and physiological response of these cells in 52 people: 28 regular cannabis users and 24 who did not use the drug.
|
|
The retina is a complex layering of ganglion cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and the horizontal cells that wire the rods and cones together; clusters of cells make "receptive fields" that feed information to neurons up the line, toward the brain.
|
|
Published in JAMA Ophthalmology this week, a 52-person study explores how pot might influence the function of the user's retinal ganglion cells, or the nerve cells just behind the surface of the retina that transmit information back to the brain to create a visual image.
|
|
This theory posits that the pain of MALS isn't caused by a lack of blood to the gut but instead is a result of a loss of blood to and direct injury of the celiac ganglion, the nerve bundle that wraps around the celiac artery in the upper abdomen.
|
|
But human clinical trials are under way to make retinal ganglion cells light-sensitive in people whose photoreceptor cells are damaged; another of the recipients of DARPA funds, Fondation Voir et Entendre in Paris, aims to use the technique to transfer images from special goggles directly into the visual cortex of completely blind people.
|
|
An autonomic ganglion is a cluster of nerve cell bodies (a ganglion) in the autonomic nervous system. The two types are sympathetic ganglion and parasympathetic ganglion.
|
|
The parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion provides parasympathetic supply to the ciliary ganglion. The ciliary ganglion is a parasympathetic ganglion. Incoming parasympathetic nerve fibers form synapses with the dendrites of nerve cells within the ganglion. However, the ciliary ganglion is not simply a relay station connecting preganglionic to postganglionic nerve fibers.
|
|
The submandibular ganglion (or submaxillary ganglion in older texts) is part of the human autonomic nervous system. It is one of four parasympathetic ganglia of the head and neck. (The others are the otic ganglion, pterygopalatine ganglion, and ciliary ganglion).
|
|
Fibers from the Stellate Ganglion (SG) pass up the chain to the Supeior Cervical Sympathetic Ganglion and into / through the Sphenopalatine Ganglion.
|
|
The trigeminal ganglion (or Gasserian ganglion, or semilunar ganglion, or Gasser's ganglion) is a sensory ganglion of the trigeminal nerve (CN V) that occupies a cavity (Meckel's cave) in the dura mater, covering the trigeminal impression near the apex of the petrous part of the temporal bone.
|
|
The pterygopalatine ganglion (aka Meckel's ganglion, nasal ganglion, SPG or sphenopalatine ganglion) is a parasympathetic ganglion found in the pterygopalatine fossa. It is largely innervated by the greater petrosal nerve (a branch of the facial nerve); and its axons project to the lacrimal glands and nasal mucosa. The flow of blood to the nasal mucosa, in particular the venous plexus of the conchae, is regulated by the pterygopalatine ganglion and heats or cools the air in the nose. It is one of four parasympathetic ganglia of the head and neck, the others being the submandibular ganglion, otic ganglion, and ciliary ganglion.
|
|
The ciliary ganglion is a parasympathetic ganglion located just behind the eye in the posterior orbit. Three types of axons enter the ciliary ganglion but only the preganglionic parasympathetic axons synapse there. The entering axons are arranged into three roots of the ciliary ganglion, which join enter the posterior surface of the ganglion.
|
|
The inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve (petrosal ganglion) is a sensory ganglion. It is larger than and below the superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve. It is located within the jugular foramen. The pseudounipolar neurons of the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve provide sensory innervation to areas around the tongue and pharynx.
|
|
Both of these muscles are involuntary since they are controlled by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. The ciliary ganglion is one of four parasympathetic ganglia of the head. The others are the submandibular ganglion, pterygopalatine ganglion, and otic ganglion.
|
|
The superior ganglion of the vagus nerve, (jugular ganglion) is a sensory ganglion of the peripheral nervous system. It is located within the jugular foramen, where the vagus nerve exits the skull. It is smaller than and above the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve.
|
|
The inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve, (nodose ganglion) is a sensory ganglion of the peripheral nervous system. It is located within the jugular foramen where the vagus nerve exits the skull. It is larger than and below the superior ganglion of the vagus nerve.
|
|
The Grüneberg ganglion, an olfactory ganglion in rodents, was first described by Hans Grueneberg in 1973.
|
|
The otic ganglion is a small parasympathetic ganglion located immediately below the foramen ovale in the infratemporal fossa and on the medial surface of the mandibular nerve. It is functionally associated with the glossopharyngeal nerve and innervates the parotid gland for salivation. It is one of four parasympathetic ganglia of the head and neck. The others are the ciliary ganglion, the submandibular ganglion and the pterygopalatine ganglion.
|
|
The inferior mesenteric ganglion is a ganglion located near where the inferior mesenteric artery branches from the abdominal aorta.
|
|
A small, unpigmented eye is connected by the thin optic nerve to the rhinophoral nerve, slightly anterior to the rhinophoral ganglion. An optic ganglion is attached laterally to each cerebral ganglion and connected to the latter by a thin nerve. The optic ganglion is surrounded by an additional layer of connective tissue shared with the cerebral ganglion. Precerebral anterior accessory ganglia, as described for microhedylacean acochlidians and Tantulum elegans, are absent.
|
|
The stomatogastric ganglion of the crab Cancer borealis The stomatogastric ganglion (STG) is a much studied ganglion (collection of neurons) found in arthropods and studied extensively in decapod crustaceans. It is part of the stomatogastric nervous system.
|
|
Two pedal nerves emerge from each pedal ganglion, one in the anterior and another in the posterior part, both innervating the foot. The pleural ganglion is located posterior to the cerebral ganglion and connected to the latter and the pedal ganglion by short connectives forming the pre- pharyngeal nerve ring. The pleural ganglia are connected by very short connectives to the visceral nerve cord, so that the latter is located at the very beginning of the pharynx. There are three distinct ganglia on the short visceral nerve cord: the left parietal ganglion, the fused subintestinal/visceral ganglion and the fused right parietal/supraintestinal ganglion.
|
|
HCN1 channel expression is found in the sinoatrial node, the neocortex, hippocampus, cerebellar cortex, dorsal root ganglion, trigeminal ganglion and brainstem.
|
|
The thin cerebro-buccal connective emerges anteriorly from each buccal ganglion and was not traceable along the entire length. A smaller gastro- oesophageal ganglion lies dorsally to each buccal ganglion and is connected to the latter by a short connective.
|
|
A dorsal root ganglion (or spinal ganglion; also known as a posterior root ganglion) is a cluster of neurons (a ganglion) in a dorsal root of a spinal nerve. The cell bodies of sensory neurons known as first-order neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia. The axons of dorsal root ganglion neurons are known as afferents. In the peripheral nervous system, afferents refer to the axons that relay sensory information into the central nervous system (i.e.
|
|
The ganglion also consists of sympathetic efferent (postganglionic) fibers from the superior cervical ganglion. These fibers, from the superior cervical ganglion, travel through the carotid plexus, and then through the deep petrosal nerve. The deep petrosal nerve (carrying postganglionic sympathetics) joins with the greater petrosal nerve (carrying preganglionic parasympathetics) to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal, which passes through the pterygoid canal before entering the ganglion. The Stellate Ganglion is at the bottom of the Cervical Sympathetic Chain.
|
|
Instead, the cells of the geniculate ganglion relay the signal to the appropriate brainstem nucleus, much like the Dorsal root ganglion neurons relay signal to nuclei in the spinal cord The geniculate ganglion is one of several ganglia of the head and neck. Like the others, it is a bilaterally distributed structure, with each side of the face having a geniculate ganglion.
|
|
In the late 19th century, John Langley discovered that the superior cervical ganglion is topographically organized. When certain areas of the superior cervical ganglion were stimulated, a reflex occurred in specified regions of the head. His findings showed that preganglionic neurons innervate specific postganglionic neurons. In his further studies of the superior cervical ganglion, Langley discovered that the superior cervical ganglion is regenerative.
|
|
Into the pharyngeal arches and Truncus arteriosus (embryology), forming the aorticopulmonary septum and the smooth muscle of great arteries. Anterior of the aorta to become the four pre-aortic ganglia: (celiac ganglion, superior mesenteric ganglion, inferior mesenteric ganglion and aortical renal ganglia).
|
|
The suboesophageal ganglion (acronym: SOG; synonym: subesophageal ganglion) of arthropods and in particular insects is part of the arthropod central nervous system (CNS). As indicated by its name, it is located below the oesophagus, inside the head. As part of the ventral nerve cord, it is connected (via pairs of connections) to the brain (or supraoesophageal ganglion) and to the first thoracic ganglion (or protothoracic ganglion). Its nerves innervate the sensory organs and muscles of the mouthparts and the salivary glands.
|
|
The vestibular ganglion (also called Scarpa's ganglion) is the ganglion of the vestibular nerve. It is located inside the internal auditory meatus. The ganglion contains the cell bodies of bipolar neurons whose peripheral processes form synaptic contact with hair cells of the vestibular sensory end organs. These include hair cells of the cristae ampullares of the semicircular duct and macula in the utricle and saccule.
|
|
Transduction involves chemical messages sent from the photoreceptors to the bipolar cells to the ganglion cells. Several photoreceptors may send their information to one ganglion cell. There are two types of ganglion cells: red/green and yellow/blue. These neurons constantly fire—even when not stimulated.
|
|
The pterygopalatine nerves (or sphenopalatine branches), two in number, descend to the pterygopalatine ganglion. Although it is closely related to the pterygopalatine ganglion, it is still considered a branch of the maxillary nerve and does not synapse in the ganglion. It is found in the pterygopalatine fossa.
|
|
Bipolar cells differentiate later than amacrine and ganglion cells which could be the cause for this switch in wave behavior. The change from cholinergic mediation to glutamatergic mediation occurs when bipolar cells make their first synaptic connections with ganglion cells. Glutamate, the neurotransmitter contained in bipolar cells, generates spontaneous activity in ganglion cells. Waves are still present after bipolar cells make synaptic connection with amacrine and ganglion cells.
|
|
The superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve is a sensory ganglion of the peripheral nervous system. It is located within the jugular foramen where the glossopharyngeal nerve exits the skull. It is smaller than and above the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve. The neurons in the superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve provide sensory innervation to the middle ear and the internal surface of the tympanic membrane.
|
|
Neurons in the suboesophageal ganglion control movement of the head and neck as well. Supraesophageal ganglion(5), Subesophageal ganglion(31) It is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia, each of which is associated with a pair of mouthparts. Therefore the fused parts are called the mandibular, maxillary and labial ganglia.
|
|
Despite the presence of eyes, there appears to be no optic nerve. The pedal ganglia each send one nerve anteriorly and two posteriorly to control the foot. These ganglia are separated by a long, thin commissure and have one statocyst and statolith each, attached dorsally. It has one subintestinal ganglion, one visceral ganglion, one osphradial ganglion, two gastro- esophageal ganglia, one left parietal ganglion, and two buccal ganglia, along with the necessary commissures and connectives.
|
|
Nav1.7 is a sodium ion channel that in humans is encoded by the SCN9A gene. It is usually expressed at high levels in two types of neurons: the nociceptive (pain) neurons at dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and trigeminal ganglion and sympathetic ganglion neurons, which are part of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system.
|
|
The retinohypothalamic tract consists of retinal ganglion cells.. A distinct population of ganglion cells, known as intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), is critically responsible for providing non-image-forming visual signals to the brain. Only about two percent of all retinal ganglion cells are ipRGCs, whose cell bodies are in mainly the ganglion cell layer (and some are displaced in the inner nuclear layer of the retina). The photopigment melanopsin is present on the dendrites of ipRGCs, giving ipRGCs sensitivity to light in the absence of rod or cone input. The dendrites spread outwards from ipRGCs within the inner plexiform layer.
|
|
The short ciliary nerve contains parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibers. The parasympathetics arise from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus and synapse in the ciliary ganglion via the oculomotor nerve, the postganglionic parasympathetics leave the ciliary ganglion in the short ciliary nerve and supply the ciliary body and iris. Sympathetics are provided by the superior cervical ganglion and they reach the ganglion either as branches of the nasociliary nerve or directly from the extension of the plexus on the ophthalmic artery (sympathetic branch to ciliary ganglion). Damage to the short ciliary nerve may result in loss of the pupillary light reflex, or mydriasis.
|
|
Section of retina: light strikes first the ganglion cell layer, last the rods and conesIntrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), also called photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (pRGC), or melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs), are a type of neuron in the retina of the mammalian eye. The presence of ipRGCs were first noted in 1923 when rodless, coneless mice still responded to a light stimulus through pupil constriction, suggesting that rods and cones are not the only light-sensitive neurons in the retina. It wasn't until the 1980s that advancements in research on these cells began. Recent research has shown that these retinal ganglion cells, unlike other retinal ganglion cells, are intrinsically photosensitive due to the presence of melanopsin, a light-sensitive protein.
|
|
The eye pathology is limited to the retinal ganglion cell layer especially the maculopapillary bundle. Degeneration is evident from the retinal ganglion cell bodies to the axonal pathways leading to the lateral geniculate nuclei. Experimental evidence reveals impaired glutamate transport and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells. Also, experiments suggest that normal non LHON affected retinal ganglion cells produce less of the potent superoxide radical than other normal central nervous system neurons.
|
|
Before Galli and Maffei, retinal ganglion cell activity had never been recorded during prenatal development. To study ganglion activity, Galli and Maffei used premature rat retinas, between embryonic day 17 and 21, to record electrical activity. Several isolated, single cells were used for this study. The recordings showed cell activity was catalyzed from ganglion cells.
|
|
Most clinical symptoms resulting from Babylonia japonica ingestion, as in the 1965 food-poisoning outbreak, seem to be mediated by ganglion-blockade of nicotinic ACh receptors at various sites; visual impairments and mydriasis due to ciliary ganglion blockade, dry mouth due to submaxillary and otic ganglion blockade, and constipation and abdominal distention due to intestinal intrinsic nerve blockade.
|
|
Ciliary ganglion with parasympathetic fibers of ciliary nerves. The parasympathetic innervation of the ciliary body is the most clearly understood. Presynaptic parasympathetic signals that originate in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus are carried by cranial nerve III (the oculomotor nerve) and travel through the ciliary ganglion. Postsynaptic fibers from the ciliary ganglion form the short ciliary nerves.
|
|
The large cerebral ganglia are linked by a robust commissure and lie dorsal to the pedal ganglia. Anteroventrally, the robust labiotentacular nerve emerges innervating the labial tentacle. A rhinophoral ganglion is situated anterodorsally to each cerebral ganglion connected by a short, single cerebro- rhinophoral connective. The rhinophoral nerve arises from the rhinophoral ganglion extending to the rhinophore.
|
|
P-type retinal ganglion cells project to the parvocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus. These cells are known as midget retinal ganglion cells, based on the small sizes of their dendritic trees and cell bodies. About 80% of all retinal ganglion cells are midget cells in the parvocellular pathway. They receive inputs from relatively few rods and cones.
|
|
BiK-type retinal ganglion cells project to the koniocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus. K-type retinal ganglion cells have been identified only relatively recently. Koniocellular means "cells as small as dust"; their small size made them hard to find. About 10% of all retinal ganglion cells are bistratified cells, and these cells go through the koniocellular pathway.
|
|
Unlike ON/OFF DS ganglion cells that respond both to the leading and the trailing edge of a stimulus, ON DS ganglion cells are responsive only to a leading edge. The dendrites of ON DS ganglion cells are monostratified and extend into the inner sublamina of the inner plexiform layer. They have three subtypes with different directional preferences.
|
|
Giant retinal ganglion cells are photosensitive ganglion cells with large dendritic trees discovered in the human and macaque retina by Dacey et al. (2005). Giant retinal ganglion cells contain a photo-pigment, melanopsin, allowing them to respond directly to light. They also receive connections from rods and cones, allowing them to encode colour and spatial information. Dacey et al.
|
|
Reactivation of a latent infection may be caused by stress or immunosuppressive drugs such as corticosteroids. The site of latency has been shown to be the trigeminal ganglion and possibly the lumbosacral ganglion.
|
|
Additionally, encoding visual information at the ganglion cell layer requires very sophisticated image processing techniques in order to account for various types of the retinal ganglion cells encoding different features of the image.
|
|
Several Ganglion songs, recorded under the Ganglion moniker, were incorporated into the Extol repertoire. Thus, all three members of Lengsel/Ganglion are current members of Extol. The remaining members of Extol also played in Ganglion at one point or another, so the merge was very logical. In 2006, while Extol was on break, a resurrected Lengsel recorded their second, less positively reviewed full- length album, titled The Kiss, the Hope, and released it on the independent German label Whirlwind Records.
|
|
Bistratified ganglion cell can refer to either of two kinds of retinal ganglion cells whose cell body is located in the ganglion cell layer of the retina, the small-field bistratified ganglion cell, also known as small bistratified cell (SBC), and the large-field bistratified ganglion cell or large bistratified cell (LBC). Bistratified cells receive their input from bipolar cells and amacrine cells. The bistratified cells project their axons through the optic nerve and optic tract to the koniocellular layers in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), synapsing with koniocellular cells. Koniocellular means "cells as small as dust"; their small size made them hard to find.
|
|
A retinal ganglion cell (RGC) is a type of neuron located near the inner surface (the ganglion cell layer) of the retina of the eye. It receives visual information from photoreceptors via two intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and retina amacrine cells. Retina amacrine cells, particularly narrow field cells, are important for creating functional subunits within the ganglion cell layer and making it so that ganglion cells can observe a small dot moving a small distance. Retinal ganglion cells collectively transmit image-forming and non-image forming visual information from the retina in the form of action potential to several regions in the thalamus, hypothalamus, and mesencephalon, or midbrain.
|
|
Herpes zoster virus can attack the ciliary ganglion. Trauma to the orbit can damage the short ciliary nerves. Anything that denervates the ciliary ganglion will produce a tonic pupil due to aberrant nerve regeneration.
|
|
As a part of the retina, bipolar cells exist between photoreceptors (rod cells and cone cells) and ganglion cells. They act, directly or indirectly, to transmit signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells.
|
|
Photosensitive ganglion cells, including but not limited to the giant retinal ganglion cells, contain their own photopigment, melanopsin, which makes them respond directly to light even in the absence of rods and cones. They project to, among other areas, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) via the retinohypothalamic tract for setting and maintaining circadian rhythms. Other retinal ganglion cells projecting to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) include cells making connections with the Edinger-Westphal nucleus (EW), for control of the pupillary light reflex, and giant retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
The ciliary ganglion is a bundle of nerve parasympathetic ganglion located just behind the eye in the posterior orbit. It is 1–2 mm in diameter and in humans contains approximately 2,500 neurons. The ganglion contains postganglionic parasympathetic neurons. These neurons supply the pupillary sphincter muscle, which constricts the pupil, and the ciliary muscle which contracts to make the lens more convex.
|
|
The sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion is one of three roots of the ciliary ganglion. It contains postganglionic sympathetic fibers whose cell bodies are located in the superior cervical ganglion. Their axons ascend with the internal carotid artery as a plexus of nerves, the carotid plexus. Sympathetic fibers supplying the eye separate from the carotid plexus within the cavernous sinus.
|
|
They have a core of connective tissue. The fungiform papillae are innervated by the seventh cranial nerve, more specifically via the submandibular ganglion, chorda tympani, and geniculate ganglion ascending to the solitary nucleus in the brainstem.
|
|
In nematodes, the ring consists of only two to four large associative cells connected to two paired lateral ganglia, two ventral ganglia, and a single unpaired dorsal ganglion. Among arthropods, the usual arrangement is a single ganglion (the cerebral) positioned above the esophagus, a single ganglion or nerve mass (the subesophageal) below it, and commissures connecting the two in a ring. Among the gastropods, the evolutionary torsion event which relocates the anus to near the head of the animal and allowing it to withdraw into its shell has relocated the commissure of the pleural ganglia into a "twist" (the right ganglion has relocated to the left side, and the left ganglion to the right).
|
|
They are thought to be important for the antagonistic center- surround property of the receptive fields of many types of retinal ganglion cells. Other retinal neurons include photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
The brain interprets different colors (and with a lot of information, an image) when the rate of firing of these neurons alters. Red light stimulates the red cone, which in turn stimulates the red/green ganglion cell. Likewise, green light stimulates the green cone, which stimulates the green/red ganglion cell and blue light stimulates the blue cone which stimulates the blue/yellow ganglion cell. The rate of firing of the ganglion cells is increased when it is signaled by one cone and decreased (inhibited) when it is signaled by the other cone.
|
|
The first color in the name of the ganglion cell is the color that excites it and the second is the color that inhibits it. i.e.: A red cone would excite the red/green ganglion cell and the green cone would inhibit the red/green ganglion cell. This is an opponent process. If the rate of firing of a red/green ganglion cell is increased, the brain would know that the light was red, if the rate was decreased, the brain would know that the color of the light was green.
|
|
In the upper part of the superior mesenteric plexus close to the origin of the superior mesenteric artery is a ganglion, the superior mesenteric ganglion. The superior mesenteric ganglion is the synapsing point for one of the pre- and post-synaptic nerves of the sympathetic division of the autonomous nervous system. Specifically, contributions to the Superior Mesenteric Ganglion arise from the lesser splanchnic nerve, which arises from the sympathetic chain of T10-11. This nerve goes on to innervate the jejunum, ileum, ascending colon and the transverse colon.
|
|
Virginia–Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine From closest to farthest from the vitreous body: # Inner limiting membrane – basement membrane elaborated by Müller cells. # Nerve fibre layer – axons of the ganglion cell bodies (note that a thin layer of Müller cell footplates exists between this layer and the inner limiting membrane). # Ganglion cell layer – contains nuclei of ganglion cells, the axons of which become the optic nerve fibres, and some displaced amacrine cells. # Inner plexiform layer – contains the synapse between the bipolar cell axons and the dendrites of the ganglion and amacrine cells.
|
|
The bodies of crustaceans are segmented; there is one ganglion (cluster of nerve cells) per segment. Each ganglion receives sensory and movement information via nerves coming from the muscles, body wall, and appendages such as walking legs, swimmerets and mouthparts. The ganglia show great functional autonomy; information received by the ganglion is processed by the same ganglion, enabling a faster response than if the message had to travel all the way up the animal's body to the brain and then back. Information can be exchanged between ganglia enabling the animal to perform coordinated movements.
|
|
Modifications in the adrenergic activity of the celiac ganglion results in an altered capacity of the ovary of pregnant rats to produce progesterone, suggesting that the celiac ganglion-superior ovarian nerve-ovarian axis provides a direct link between the autonomic nervous system and the physiology of pregnancy. It has also been shown that modifications in the cholinergic input at the celiac ganglion also led, via the superior ovarian nerve, to modifications in ovarian steroidogenesis. Most of the fibers of the superior ovarian nerve come from the postganglionic sympathetic neurons of the celiac ganglion.
|
|
A dorsal root ganglion (DRG) from a chicken embryo (around stage of day 7) after incubation overnight in NGF growth medium stained with anti- neurofilament antibody. Note the axons growing out of the ganglion. A ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. In the somatic nervous system this includes dorsal root ganglia and trigeminal ganglia among a few others.
|
|
The tympanic nerve is the first branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve. It branches at the level of the inferior ganglion. Importantly, the axons which form the tympanic nerve do not synapse in this ganglion or have their cell bodies in it. The neuron cell bodies of the axons which form the tympanic nerve are found in the inferior salivatory nucleus and superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve.
|
|
M-type retinal ganglion cells project to the magnocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus. These cells are known as parasol retinal ganglion cells, based on the large sizes of their dendritic trees and cell bodies. About 10% of all retinal ganglion cells are parasol cells, and these cells are part of the magnocellular pathway. They receive inputs from relatively many rods and cones.
|
|
Micrograph of a ganglioneuroma with the characteristic ganglion cells. H&E; stain. Pathologically, ganglioneuromas are composed of ganglion cells, Schwann cells and fibrous tissue. Ganglioneuromas are solid, firm tumours that typically are white when seen with the naked eye.
|
|
This muscle is commonly misdiagnosed as a ganglion cysta, synovial nodule or cyst.
|
|
A prevertebral plexus is a nerve plexus which branches from a prevertebral ganglion.
|
|
The upper part of each ganglion is joined by the greater splanchnic nerve, while the lower part, which is segmented off and named the aorticorenal ganglion, receives the lesser splanchnic nerve and gives off the greater part of the renal plexus.
|
|
In humans, there is low expression of LOC100287387 in all tissues. Highest expression is in the skin and central nervous system tissue such as the pons, superior cervical ganglion, trigeminal ganglion, and globus pallidus. However, expression was inconsistent among patients.
|
|
This new technique provides detailed images of calcium flow and anatomy of dendrites of both starburst amacrine (SAC) and DS ganglion cells. By comparing the preferred directions of ganglion cells with their synapses on SAC's, Briggman et al. provide evidence for a mechanism primarily based on inhibitory signals from SAC's based on an oversampled serial block-face scanning electron microscopy study of one sampled retina, that retinal ganglion cells may receive asymmetrical inhibitory inputs directly from starburst amacrine cells, and therefore computation of directional selectivity also occurs postsynaptically. Such postsynaptic models are unparsimonious, and so if any given starburst amacrine cells conveys motion information to retinal ganglion cells then any computing of 'local' direction selectivity postsynaptically by retinal ganglion cells is redundant and dysfunctional.
|
|
The pelvic portion of each sympathetic trunk is situated in front of the sacrum, medial to the anterior sacral foramina. It consists of four or five small sacral ganglia, connected together by interganglionic cords, and continuous above with the abdominal portion. Below, the two pelvic sympathetic trunks converge, and end on the front of the coccyx in a small ganglion, the ganglion impar, also known as azygos or ganglion of Walther.
|
|
280x280pxParasol ganglion cells are located in the retina of the eyes, and make up roughly 10% of all retinal ganglion cells. They have large bodies with extensive, overlapping branched dendrites, and thick, heavily myelinated axons. These properties allow parasol cells to conduct signals very quickly, much faster than the midget cells that feed the P pathway. Parasol ganglion cells collect information from large receptive fields, containing both rods and cones.
|
|
Scheme showing sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the pupil and sites of lesion in a Horner's syndrome. Pathways in the Ciliary Ganglion. Green = parasympathetic; Red = sympathetic; Blue = sensoryThe ciliary ganglion contains postganglionic parasympathetic neurons that supply the ciliary muscle and the pupillary sphincter muscle. Because of the much larger size of the ciliary muscle, 95% of the in neurons in the ciliary ganglion innervate it compared to the pupillary sphincter.
|
|
Most people acquire the virus via direct contact, it can enter the body by disrupting the integrity of skin, mucous membranes or enter via infected secretions such as saliva. The virus replicates once it has penetrated the epithelial cell, then it travels to the corresponding nerve ganglion (i.e. trigeminal ganglion) via sensory nerves endings. At the nerve ganglion the virus enters a latent phase and remains dormant until it is reactivated.
|
|
The phrenic plexus accompanies the inferior phrenic artery to the diaphragm, some filaments passing to the suprarenal gland. It arises from the upper part of the celiac ganglion, and is larger on the right than on the left side. It receives one or two branches from the phrenic nerve. At the point of junction of the right phrenic plexus with the phrenic nerve is a small ganglion (ganglion phrenicum).
|
|
The optic nerve was injected with a fluorophore, causing retinal ganglion cells to fluoresce.
|
|
Stellate ganglion block also shows great potential as a means of reducing the number of hot flushes and night awakenings suffered by breast cancer survivors and women experiencing extreme menopause.Lancet, 2008 There has been interest in using Stellate Ganglion blocks to treat PTSD, particularly among combat veterans. A 2017 review of the evidence from the VA Evidence-based Synthesis Program found that while the procedure had been reported as effective in unblinded case series, the evidence from randomized controlled trials remained inconclusive. Nerve fibers from the Stellate Ganglion go up the superior cervical sympathetic chain and into the Pterygopalatine (Sphenopalatine) Ganglion (SPG).
|
|
They run forward through the superior orbital fissure and merge with the long ciliary nerves (branches of the nasociliary nerve) and the short ciliary nerves (from the ciliary ganglion). Sympathetic fibers in the short ciliary nerves pass through the ciliary ganglion without forming synapses. Preganglionic sympathetic fibers originate from neurons in the intermediolateral column of the thoracic spinal cord, at the level of thoracic spinal nerve 1 (T1) and thoracic spinal nerve 2 (T2). They form synapses in the superior cervical ganglion. The ratio of incoming to outgoing fibers (the “convergence”) in this ganglion is approximately 100:1.
|
|
In some animals the bilateral ganglia are fused into a single large ganglion per segment.
|
|
Histologically, ganglioglioma is composed of both neoplastic glial and ganglion cells which are disorganized, variably cellular, and non-infiltrative. Occasionally, it may be challenging to differentiate ganglion cell tumors from an infiltrating glioma with entrapped neurons. The presence of neoplastic ganglion cells forming abnormal clusters, the presence of binucleation and dysmorphic neurons are helpful clues favoring ganglioglioma over glioma. The glial component of ganglioglioma includes fibrillary astrocytes with varying degrees of cellular atypia.
|
|
In the extreme periphery (ends of the retina), a single ganglion cell will receive information from many thousands of photoreceptors. Retinal ganglion cells spontaneously fire action potentials at a base rate while at rest. Excitation of retinal ganglion cells results in an increased firing rate while inhibition results in a depressed rate of firing. A false-color image of a flat-mounted rat retina viewed through a fluorescence microscope at 50x magnification.
|
|
Further along in the visual system, groups of ganglion cells form the receptive fields of cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus. Receptive fields are similar to those of ganglion cells, with an antagonistic center- surround system and cells that are either on- or off center.
|
|
In retinal ganglion and V1 cells, the receptive field consists of the center and surround region.
|
|
In some vertebrates, for example the chicken, the ganglion cell axons are myelinated inside the retina.
|
|
It enters the skull through the foramen ovale, and supplies the trigeminal ganglion and dura mater.
|
|
In the midbrain, β-gal was observed in the subthalamic nucleus, the superior and inferior colliculi and in the red nucleus. β-gal activity was also observed in the neural retina, in the inner nuclear layer and in small ganglion cells of the ganglion cell layer.
|
|
Its sympathetic root is derived from the plexus on the middle meningeal artery. It contains post-ganglionic fibers arising in the superior cervical ganglion. The fibers pass through the ganglion without relay and reach the parotid gland via the auriculotemporal nerve. They are vasomotor in function.
|
|
EUS-guided neurolysis can also be performed on the celiac ganglion and the broad plexus in a similar fashion to the EUS-CPN. The celiac ganglion neurolysis (EUS-CGN) is more effective than EUS-CPN and broad plexus neurolysis (EUS-BPN) is more effective than EUS-CGN.
|
|
The nerve to the medial pterygoid muscle is a slender branch of the mandibular nerve which enters the deep surface of the muscle; it gives off one or two filaments to the otic ganglion. The nerve provides physical support for the otic ganglion, but is neurologically distinct.
|
|
Moderate to severe attacks should be treated first with an oral triptan, a medication that mimics serotonin (an agonist) and causes mild vasoconstriction. If accompanied by nausea and vomiting, parenteral (through a needle in the skin) triptans and antiemetics can be given. Sphenopalatine ganglion block (SPG block, also known nasal ganglion block or pterygopalatine ganglion blocks) can abort and prevent migraines, tension headaches and cluster headaches. It was originally described by American ENT surgeon Greenfield Sluder in 1908.
|
|
A midget cell is one type of retinal ganglion cell (RGC). Midget cells originate in the ganglion cell layer of the retina, and project to the parvocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). The axons of midget cells travel through the optic nerve and optic tract, ultimately synapsing with parvocellular cells in the LGN. These cells are known as midget retinal ganglion cells due to the small sizes of their dendritic trees and cell bodies.
|
|
A parasol cell, sometimes called an M cell or M ganglion cell, is one type of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) located in the ganglion cell layer of the retina. These cells project to magnocellular cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) as part of the magnocellular pathway in the visual system. They have large cell bodies as well as extensive branching dendrite networks and as such have large receptive fields. Relative to other RGCs, they have fast conduction velocities.
|
|
Retinal summation describes the relationship between different types of cells in the retina: cone photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells. With high retinal summation, a large number of photoreceptor cells converge on a smaller number of bipolar cells in transferring their signals to ganglion cells. Zero summation occurs when each cone photoreceptor cell contacts a single ganglion cell via a single bipolar cell. High summation increases sensitivity to light at the expense of visual acuity.
|
|
There are about 0.7 to 1.5 million retinal ganglion cells in the human retina. With about 4.6 million cone cells and 92 million rod cells, or 96.6 million photoreceptors per retina, on average each retinal ganglion cell receives inputs from about 100 rods and cones. However, these numbers vary greatly among individuals and as a function of retinal location. In the fovea (center of the retina), a single ganglion cell will communicate with as few as five photoreceptors.
|
|
The optic disc or optic nerve head is the point of exit for ganglion cell axons leaving the eye. Because there are no rods or cones overlying the optic disc, it corresponds to a small blind spot in each eye. The ganglion cell axons form the optic nerve after they leave the eye. The optic disc represents the beginning of the optic nerve and is the point where the axons of retinal ganglion cells come together.
|
|
Although anatomical evidence for such an exclusive relationship is lacking at the level of single receptor and ganglion cells, the relationship between single buds and their innervating ganglion cells is tractable neuroanatomically. In taste, attempts to identify a spatial representation of taste receptors or taste qualities have revealed only an indistinct functional topography in the brain. Nevertheless, taste ganglion cells must distribute peripheral fibers to particular receptor cell types and disseminate impulses centrally in a structurally organized manner.
|
|
The endosternite is U-shaped with the arms facing forward and embracing the ganglion above the esophagus.
|
|
The neurons in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve are embryonically derived from epibranchial neurogenic placodes.
|
|
Teneurin-3 regulates the structural and functional wiring of retinal ganglion cells in the vertebrate visual system.
|
|
It is connected to the middle cervical ganglion by two or more cords, one of which forms a loop around the subclavian artery and supplies offsets to it. This loop is named the ansa subclavia (Vieussenii). The ganglion sends gray rami communicantes to the seventh and eighth cervical nerves.
|
|
Using a glia-conditioned medium to treat glia-free purified rat retinal ganglion microcultures has been shown to significantly increase the number of autapses per neuron compared to a control. This suggests that glia-derived soluble, proteinase K-sensitive factors induce autapse formation in rat retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
The nervous system is euthyneurous. The cerebral, pleural, and pedal ganglia form the typical molluscan pre-pharyngeal nerve ring. Each cerebral ganglion connects via a broad nerve to its corresponding labial and rhinophore tentacle, though there is no rhinophore ganglion. The animal also lacks optic ganglia and accessory ganglia.
|
|
The eyes are never completely at rest: they make frequent fixational eye movement even when fixated at one point. The reason for this movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. So the eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image clearer.
|
|
Parasol retinal ganglion cells cannot provide finely detailed or colored information, but still provide useful static, depth, and motion information. Parasol ganglion cells have high light/dark contrast detection, and are more sensitive at low spatial frequencies than high spatial frequencies. Due to this contrast information, these cells are good at detecting changes in luminance, and thus provide useful information for performing visual search tasks and detecting edges. Parasol retinal ganglion cells are also important for providing information about the location of objects.
|
|
The Grueneberg ganglion (GG), also written as Grüneberg ganglion is an olfactory subsystem located at the entrance of the nasal cavity of rodents. It was first described by Hans Grüneberg in 1973. It is mainly implicated in the detection of volatile compounds signaling danger as the alarm pheromones emitted by stressed conspecifics, but also by several categories of kairomones emitted by the urine of predatory carnivores. The detection of these compounds by the Grueneberg ganglion induces fear-behaviors in the receiver.
|
|
SASPGB are extremely helpful for treatment of Migraines, Chronic Daily Headaches, Anxiety and TMJ Disorders. Sphenopalatine Ganglion Blocks and SASPGB are also effective in about of cases of essential hypertension. The Sphenopalatine Ganglion Block has been called "The Miracle Block" after publication of Albert Bengamin Gerber's book _Miracles on Park Avenue_ , the story of octogenerian ENT Dr. Milton Reder, whose entire medical practice was based on SPG Blocks. There are multiple new devices utilized for Neuromodulation of the Sphenopalatine Ganglion.
|
|
The direction selective (DS) ganglion cells receive inputs from bipolar cells and starburst amacrine cells. The DS ganglion cells respond to their preferred direction with a large excitatory postsynaptic potential followed by a small inhibitory response. On the other hand, they respond to their null direction with a simultaneous small excitatory postsynaptic potential and a large inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Starburst amacrine cells have been viewed as a strong candidate for direction selectivity in ganglion cells because they can release both GABA and Ach.
|
|
The mesencephalic nucleus is not a true nucleus; it is a sensory ganglion (like the trigeminal ganglion) embedded in the brainstem and the sole exception to the rule that sensory information passes through peripheral sensory ganglia before entering the central nervous system. It has been found in all vertebrates except lampreys and hagfishes. They are the only vertebrates without jaws and have specific cells in their brainstems. These "internal ganglion" cells were discovered in the late 19th century by medical student Sigmund Freud.
|
|
Hyperpolarization causes less calcium influx, thus less neurotransmitter release, and a reduced probability of spiral ganglion cell spiking.
|
|
This includes tenosynovitis, pigmented villonodular synovitis, giant cell tumor of the tendon sheath, ganglion cysts and other sarcomas.
|
|
Specifically, TOP2B is required for lamina-specific targeting of retinal ganglion cell axons and dendrites in the zebrafish.
|
|
Later work by Provencio and colleagues showed that this photoresponse was mediated by the photopigment melanopsin, present in the ganglion cell layer of the retina. The photoreceptors were identified in 2002 by Samer Hattar, David Berson and colleagues, where they were shown to be melanopsin expressing ganglion cells that possessed an intrinsic light response and projected to a number of brain areas involved in non-image-forming vision. In 2005, Panda, Melyan, Qiu, and colleagues demonstrated that the melanopsin photopigment was the phototransduction pigment in ganglion cells. Dennis Dacey and colleagues showed in a species of Old World monkey that giant ganglion cells expressing melanopsin projected to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).
|
|
Parabolic bursting has been studied most extensively in the R15 neuron, which is one of six types of neurons of the Aplysia abdominal ganglion and one of thirty neurons comprising the abdominal ganglion. The Aplysia abdominal ganglion was studied and extensively characterized because its relatively large neurons and proximity of the neurons to the surface of the ganglion made it an ideal and "valuable preparation for cellular electrophysical studies". Early attempts to model parabolic bursting were for specific applications, often related to studies of the R15 neuron. This is especially true of R. E. Plant and Carpenter, whose combined works comprise the bulk of parabolic bursting models prior to Ermentrout and Kopell's canonical model.
|
|
Acetylcholine Norepinephrine In the autonomic nervous system, fibers from the ganglion to the effector organ are called postganglionic fibers.
|
|
Light entering the eye strikes three different photoreceptors in the retina: the familiar rods and cones used in image forming and the more newly discovered photosensitive ganglion cells. The ganglion cells give information about ambient light levels, and react sluggishly compared to the rods and cones. Signals from photosensitive ganglion cells have multiple functions including acute suppression of the hormone melatonin, entrainment of the body's circadian rhythms and regulation of the size of the pupil. The retinal photoceptors convert light stimuli into electric impulses.
|
|
Motor fibers are carried via the facial nerve proper. The greater petrosal nerve, which carries preganglionic parasympathetic fibers, emerges from the anterior aspect of the ganglion. The motor fibers of the facial nerve proper and parasympathetic fibers to the submandibular and pterygopalatine ganglia do not synapse in the geniculate ganglion. The afferent fibers carrying pain, temperature, and touch from the posterior auricular nerve, as well as those carrying special sensory (taste) fibers from the tongue (via the chorda tympani), do not synapse in the geniculate ganglion.
|
|
Peripherin can also play a role in the definitive diagnosis of Hirschsprung disease. Patients suspected of having the disease undergo rectal biopsy to look for the presence or absence of ganglion cells. However, the identification of these cells can be very difficult, especially in newborns where immature ganglion cells are easily confused with endothelial, mesenchyme and inflammatory cells. To aid in identification, a protocol utilizing peripherin and S-100 immunohistochemistry staining was developed to assist in the recognition of ganglion cells in rectal biopsies.
|
|
Retrieved July 1, 2012. His debut album "Ganglion" was released in 2006 under Suspicious Records, a sub-label of Hive Records."Ganglion". Discogs.com. Retrieved June 30, 2012."Ganglion". allmusic.com. Retrieved July 1, 2012. He started cooperation with Artoffact Records and they re-released this album in 2011. His next two albums ("Monocyte", "Monocyte: The Lapis Coil") were also released under mentioned label, both in 2012."Monocyte". allmusic.com. Retrieved July 1, 2012."Monocyte: The Lapis Coil". allmusic.com. Retrieved July 1, 2012."Saltillo". Discogs.com. Retrieved June 30, 2012.
|
|
It has three layers of nerve cells and two of synapses, including the unique ribbon synapse. The optic nerve carries the ganglion cell axons to the brain, and the blood vessels that supply the retina. The ganglion cells lie innermost in the eye while the photoreceptive cells lie beyond. Because of this counter- intuitive arrangement, light must first pass through and around the ganglion cells and through the thickness of the retina, (including its capillary vessels, not shown) before reaching the rods and cones.
|
|
SPG blocks have been shown to reduce anxiety, headaches, migraines, cancer pain and other disorders. Self-administration of SPG blocks (SASPGB) is another method of delivering sphenopalatine blockade and indirect stellate ganglion blockade. Complications associated with a stellate ganglion block include Horner's syndrome, accidental intra-arterial or intravenous injection, difficulty swallowing, vocal cord paralysis, epidural spread of local anaesthetic, and pneumothorax. Blunt needling of the stellate ganglion with an acupuncture needle is used in traditional Chinese medicine to decrease sympathetically mediated symptoms as well.
|
|
The celiac ganglion is part of the sympathetic prevertebral chain possessing a great variety of specific receptors and neurotransmitters such as catecholamines, neuropeptides, and nitric oxide and constitutes a modulation center in the pathway of the afferent and efferent fibers between the central nervous system and the ovary. The main preganglion neurotransmitter of the celiac ganglion is acetylcholine, yet the celiac ganglion-mesenteric complex also contain α and β adrenergic receptors and is innervated by fibers of adrenergic nature that come from other preaortic ganglia.
|
|
A fundus photograph showing the back of the retina. The white circle is the beginning of the optical nerve. The optic nerve is composed of retinal ganglion cell axons and glial cells. Each human optic nerve contains between 770,000 and 1.7 million nerve fibers, which are axons of the retinal ganglion cells of one retina. In the fovea, which has high acuity, these ganglion cells connect to as few as 5 photoreceptor cells; in other areas of retina, they connect to many thousand photoreceptors.
|
|
In Hirschsprung disease, calretinin immunohistochemistry offers additional diagnostic value in specimens with inadequate amount of submucosa and rarely seen ganglion cells. The presence of ganglion cells consistently correlated with calretinin-positive thin nerve fibrils in the lamina propria, muscularis mucosae and superficial submucosa. These calretinin-positive thin neurofibrils are absent in the aganglionic segments of bowel and in the areas without ganglion cells from the junction of normal with diseased rectum. Calretinin is strongly expressed in the submucosal and subserosal nerve trunks in the ganglionic segment.
|
|
The optic nerve, or more precisely, the photosensitive ganglion cells through the retinohypothalamic tract, is responsible for the afferent limb of the pupillary reflex; it senses the incoming light. The oculomotor nerve is responsible for the efferent limb of the pupillary reflex; it drives the iris muscles that constrict the pupil. Pathways in the Ciliary ganglion. #Retina: The pupillary reflex pathway begins with the photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, which convey information via the optic nerve, the most peripheral, distal, portion of which is the optic disc.
|
|
After recovery from a primary herpes infection, the virus is not cleared from the body, but rather lies dormant in a non- replicating state within the trigeminal ganglion. Herpes Labialis may follow from primary herpes infection/herpetic gingivostomatitis The trigeminal ganglion is damaged, by infection or surgery, in Trigeminal trophic syndrome. Trigeminal trophic syndrome causes paresthesias and anesthesia, which may lead to erosions of the nasal ala. The thermocoagulation or injection of glycerol into the trigeminal ganglion has been used in the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia.
|
|
A ganglionectomy, also called a gangliectomy, is the surgical removal of a ganglion. The removal of a ganglion cyst usually requires a ganglionectomy. Such cysts usually form on the hand, foot or wrist and may cause pain or impair body function. Aspiration of the cyst and steroid injections are typically performed first.
|
|
The neuron cell bodies of the axons which form the deep petrosal nerve are found in the superior cervical ganglion.
|
|
The central processes of the neurons in the superior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve synapse in the spinal trigeminal nucleus.
|
|
Preganglionic vagal fibers (vagal fibers before passing through a ganglion) run through the celiac plexus and reach the ureteric plexus.
|
|
In rodents, the trigeminal ganglion is important as it is the first part of the pathway from the whiskers to the brain. Cell bodies of the whisker primary afferents are found here. These afferents are mechanoreceptor cells that fire in response to whisker deflection. There are around 26,000-43,000 cell bodies in rodent Trigeminal ganglion.
|
|
The superior cervical ganglion (SCG) is part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), more specifically it is part of the sympathetic nervous system, a division of the ANS most commonly associated with the fight or flight response. The ANS is composed of pathways that lead to and from ganglia, groups of nerve cells. A ganglion allows a large amount of divergence in a neuronal pathway and also enables a more localized circuitry for control of the innervated targets. The SCG is the only ganglion in the sympathetic nervous system that innervates the head and neck.
|
|
The central nervous system of Pseudunela cornuta is euthyneurous and composed of the paired cerebral, rhinophoral, optic, pedal, pleural, buccal and gastro-oesophageal ganglia as well as three distinct ganglia on the visceral nerve cord, plus a presumed osphradial ganglion. All ganglia excluding the buccal and gastro-oesophageal ganglia are situated pre- pharyngeally. The central nervous system is epiathroid; the pleural ganglion is located closer to the cerebral ganglion than to the pedal one. All ganglia consist of an outer cortex containing the nuclei and an inner medulla.
|
|
28 to 58% of the dorsal ganglia resolve spontaneously, still some patients choose to undergo cosmetic intervention for resection of the ganglion when non-operative treatment failed. Some examples of this non- operative treatment are immobilization through a splint or aspiration of the ganglion with or without injection of a steroid. In some cases the ganglia are associated with serious loss of wrist function or weakness in the affected finger, which makes a surgical intervention highly indicated. Resection of dorsal ganglion are still widely treated with open surgery.
|
|
Many of these rhombomeres have been mapped to an extent in species other than human. For example, r2 has been shown to give rise to the trigeminal ganglion, while r4 has been shown to give rise to the geniculate ganglion as well as spiral and Scarpa's ganglia. r5 and r6 gives rise to the abducens nerve, and the lower part of r6 and the upper part of r7 gives rise to the petrosal ganglion. Finally, the border of r7 that is not in contact with r6 gives rise to the jugular/nodose ganglia.
|
|
This reaction series passes from the LWS cone cells into horizontal cells, bipolar cells, amacrine cells, and finally ganglion cells before continuing to the brain via the optic nerve. Ganglion cells compile the signal from the LWS cones with all other cone signals that occurred in response to the light that was seen, and pass the overall signal into the optic nerve. The cones themselves do not process colour, it is the brain that decides what colour is being seen by the signal combination it receives from the ganglion cells.
|
|
The greater petrosal nerve arises at the superior salivatory nucleus of the pons and provides parasympathetic innervation to several glands, including the nasal glands, the palatine glands, the lacrimal gland, and the pharyngeal gland. It also provides parasympathetic innervation to the sphenoid sinus, frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, ethmoid sinus, and nasal cavity. This nerve also includes taste fibers for the palate via the lesser palatine nerve and greater palatine nerve. The communicating branch to the otic ganglion arises at the geniculate ganglion and joins the lesser petrosal nerve to reach the otic ganglion.
|
|
It is somewhat crescent-shaped, with its convexity directed forward: Medially, it is in relation with the internal carotid artery and the posterior part of the cavernous sinus. The motor root runs in front of and medial to the sensory root, and passes beneath the ganglion; it leaves the skull through the foramen ovale, and, immediately below this foramen, joins the mandibular nerve. The greater superficial petrosal nerve lies also underneath the ganglion. The ganglion receives, on its medial side, filaments from the carotid plexus of the sympathetic.
|
|
The shells are usually flat without coiling. They usually have strong axial ribs. Ponder described giant neurons in the cerebral ganglion.
|
|
These include 1\. the celiac ganglia (which can include the aorticorenal ganglion), 2\. superior mesenteric ganglia, and 3\. inferior mesenteric ganglia.
|
|
Pelvic splanchnic nerves are the primary source for parasympathetic innervation. Lumbar splanchnic nerves provide sympathetic innervation via the inferior mesenteric ganglion.
|
|
Ganglion was a Canadian electroacoustic rock band formed in 2005 in Calgary. It was the musical alias for the solo recordings of bandleader Ivan Reese. Their music featured diverse instrumentation utilizing classical, modern and extended techniques. Since the beginning of the solo-recording project, Ganglion have recorded hundreds of hours of music and released dozens of albums.
|
|
The structure of Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M2. ACh is always used as the neurotransmitter within the autonomic ganglion. Nicotinic receptors on the postganglionic neuron are responsible for the initial fast depolarization (Fast EPSP) of that neuron. As a consequence of this, nicotinic receptors are often cited as the receptor on the postganglionic neurons at the ganglion.
|
|
SH3D21 is expressed in low levels in most tissue. Microarray analysis has shown SH3D21 expression to be decreased in TP63 knockout mice. SH3D21 has been shown to be expressed highly in the superior cervical ganglion, the dorsal root ganglia and the trigeminal ganglion. Transcription of SH3D21 is known to be upregulated in the presence of testosterone.
|
|
The neurons in the superior ganglion of the vagus nerve are pseudounipolar and provide sensory innervation (general somatic afferent) through either the auricular or meningeal branch. The axons of these neurons synapse in the spinal trigeminal nucleus of the brainstem. Peripherally, the neurons found in the superior ganglion form two branches, the auricular and meningeal branch.
|
|
The haptoral innervations of P. trachuri is asymmetrical. The clamps are innervated from the main haptoral nerve. Among the Gastrocotylidae, P. trachuri is unique by the asymmetrical positions of the prehaptoral ganglia. The clamp-side prehaptoral ganglion is situated close to the anteriormost clamps, while the nonclamp side prehaptoral ganglion is situated near the terminal lappet.
|
|
A sympathectomy is an irreversible procedure during which at least one sympathetic ganglion is removed. One example is the lumbar sympathectomy, which is advised for occlusive arterial disease in which L2 and L3 ganglia along with intervening sympathetic trunk are removed leaving behind the L1 ganglion which is responsible for ejaculation. Another example is endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy.
|
|
The central ganglion of the nervous system lies behind the proboscis sheath or septum. It innervates the proboscis and projects two stout trunks posteriorly which supply the body. Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and this nerve-muscle complex is called a retinaculum. In the male at least there is also a genital ganglion.
|
|
To improve the blood circulation to the upper extremities, an anesthetic block of the stellate ganglion is performed. Due to this blockage, in addition to vasodilatation, in the entire innervation area this leads to reduced sweating (anhidrosis) and Horner's syndrome. The latter is a sign of successful blockade. A temporary blockade of the stellate ganglion is performed for e.g.
|
|
One example of an intrinsic regulator of this process is the transcription factor Ath5. Ath5 expression in retinal progenitor cells biases their differentiation into a retinal ganglion cell fate. An example of an environmental factor is the morphogen sonic hedge hog (Shh). Shh has been shown to repress the differentiation of precursor cells into retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
Karcavich, Rachel E. (2005). Generating neuronal diversity in the Drosophila central nervous system: a view from the ganglion mother cells. Developmental Dynamics: An Official Publication Of The American Association Of Anatomists, 232(3), 609-616. At a certain point, a neuroblast will undergo asymmetric cell division giving rise to a neuroblast and a ganglion mother cell.
|
|
The neurons in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve innervate the taste buds on the epiglottis, the chemoreceptors of the aortic bodies and baroreceptors in the aortic arch. Most importantly, the majority of neurons in the inferior ganglion provide sensory innervation to the heart, respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts and other abdominal organs as the urinary bladder.
|
|
The preganglionic parasympathetic axons synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion, which contains the postganglionic neurons which provide secretomotor innervation to the lacrimal gland, as well as the nasal and palatine glands. The postganglionic sympathetic axons do not synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion, they travel on the branches of the maxillary nerve to provide sympathetic innervation to blood vessels.
|
|
The growing tumor can cause compression of a brachiocephalic vein, subclavian artery, phrenic nerve, recurrent laryngeal nerve, vagus nerve, or, characteristically, compression of a sympathetic ganglion (the stellate ganglion), resulting in a range of symptoms known as Horner's syndrome. Pancoast tumors are named for Henry Pancoast, an American radiologist, who described them in 1924 and 1932.
|
|
Sympathetic Overload is also a probable underlying cause of essential hypertension. This is known because approximately one third of essential hypertension cases are resolved following a Pterygopalatine Ganglion Block or Sphenopalatine Ganglion (SPG) Block to turn off Sympathetic Overload. Self-Administration of SPG Blocks (SASPGB) is probable the safest and most effective method of delivering SPG blocks.
|
|
The first branch of the facial nerve, the greater petrosal nerve, arises here from the geniculate ganglion. The greater petrosal nerve runs through the pterygoid canal and synapses at the pterygopalatine ganglion. Postsynaptic fibers of the greater petrosal nerve innervate the lacrimal gland. In the tympanic segment, the facial nerve runs through the tympanic cavity, medial to the incus.
|
|
The terminal branches of the zygomatic nerve contain sensory axons which provide innervation to the skin overlying the temporal and zygomatic bones. The zygomatic nerve also carries postganglionic parasympathetic axons. These axons have their cell bodies in the pterygopalatine ganglion. They travel from the ganglion to the zygomatic nerve and then to the lacrimal nerve through a communicating branch.
|
|
Recently, McMahon helped identify a novel retrograde neurotransmission system in the retina involving the melanopsin ganglion cells in retinal dopaminergic amacrine neurons.
|
|
Most mature ganglion cells are able to fire action potentials at a high frequency because of their expression of Kv3 potassium channels.
|
|
Numb has been studied most extensively in Drosophila, in particular in the context of their sensory organ precursors and ganglion mother cells.
|
|
Choline m-bromophenyl ether (MBF) is an extremely potent nicotinic agonist. It has powerful ganglion stimulating effects. It also causes muscle contractions.
|
|
Rarely, pseudorosette-like formations, nucleolated cells, and microcystic degeneration have also been reported5 Maturation toward mature ganglion cells is an uncommon feature.
|
|
Bipolar cells exist between photoreceptors and ganglion cells and act to transmit signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells. As a result of the bipolar cell being hyperpolarized, it does not release its transmitter at the bipolar-ganglion synapse and the synapse is not excited. Activation of photopigments by light sends a signal by hyperpolarizing the rod cell, leading to the rod cell not sending its neurotransmitter, which leads to the bipolar cell then releasing its transmitter at the bipolar-ganglion synapse and exciting the synapse. Depolarization of rod cells (causing release of their neurotransmitter) occurs because in the dark, cells have a relatively high concentration of cyclic guanosine 3'-5' monophosphate (cGMP), which opens ion channels (largely sodium channels, though calcium can enter through these channels as well).
|
|
Being a misnomer that has persisted into modern times, (see the entry for aneurysmal bone cyst, which "like pyogenic granuloma and ganglion cyst, a misnomer that has withstood the sands of time and the dint of logic") the ganglion cyst is unrelated to the neural "ganglion" or "ganglion cell"; its etymology traces back to the ancient Greek γάγγλιον, a "knot" or "swelling beneath the skin", which extends to the neural masses by analogy. Generally, Hippocrates is credited with the description of these cysts.See Hippocrates' "On the Articulations" (part 40) at Wikisource The term "Bible cyst" (or "Bible bump") is derived from an urban legend or historical effort to hit the cyst with a Bible. Trying to treat the lesion by hitting it with a book is however discouraged.
|
|
The presence of these channels in the posterior root ganglion gives reason to believe that other sensory neurons may contain them as well.
|
|
Fins are separated, rounded, and completely rayed. Anterior fins beginning below the ventral ganglion. Alimentary diverticula present. Eyes with small, round pigment spot.
|
|
There is a theory that problems with underdeveloped parasol ganglion cells may contribute to causing dyslexia. Motion information contributed by parasol ganglion cells to the vision system helps the brain adjust the eyes in coordinated saccades, and problems in saccadic motion may lead to blurry vision and reading problems. This underdevelopment may be caused by several factors, including nutritional deficiencies and mutations in the KIAA0319 gene on chromosome six. Additionally, autoimmune attacks by antineuronal antibodies may prevent adequate parasol ganglion cell development for normal functioning, a theory which would explain why weakened immune systems are frequently present in dyslexic individuals.
|
|
Provencio and colleagues then found in 2000 that melanopsin is also present in mouse retina, specifically in ganglion cells, and that it mediates non-visual photoreceptive tasks. Melanopsin was found to be encoded by Opn4 with orthologs in a variety of organisms. These retinal ganglion cells were found to be innately photosensitive, since they responded to light even while isolated, and were thus named intrinsically photosensitive Retinal Ganglion Cells (ipRGCs). They constitute a third class of photoreceptor cells in the mammalian retina, besides the already known rods and cones, and were shown to be the principal conduit for light input to circadian photoentrainment.
|
|
The superior salivatory nucleus contains the cell bodies of parasympathetic axons within the intermediate nerve. These fibers reach the geniculate ganglion but do not synapse. Some of these preganglionic parasympathetic fibers persist within the greater petrosal nerve as they exit the geniculate ganglion and subsequently synapse with neurons in the pterygopalatine ganglion. These postganglionic neurons send axons that provide parasympathetic innervation to the lacrimal gland via a communicating branch from zygomatic nerve to lacrimal nerve of CN V. The remaining preganglionic fibers continue as the mixed facial nerve proper as it extends through the facial canal.
|
|
The low frequency drop-off is due to lateral inhibition within the retinal ganglion cells. A typical retinal ganglion cell presents a centre region with either excitation or inhibition and a surround region with the opposite sign. By using coarse gratings, the bright bands fall on the inhibitory as well as the excitatory region of the ganglion cell resulting in lateral inhibition and account for the low-frequency drop-off of the human contrast sensitivity function. One experimental phenomenon is the inhibition of blue in the periphery if blue light is displayed against white, leading to a yellow surrounding.
|
|
Retinal ganglion cells vary significantly in terms of their size, connections, and responses to visual stimulation but they all share the defining property of having a long axon that extends into the brain. These axons form the optic nerve, optic chiasm, and optic tract. A small percentage of retinal ganglion cells contribute little or nothing to vision, but are themselves photosensitive; their axons form the retinohypothalamic tract and contribute to circadian rhythms and pupillary light reflex, the resizing of the pupil. The six types of retinal neurons are bipolar cells, ganglion cells, horizontal cells, retina amacrine cells, and rod and cone photoreceptors.
|
|
A leech's nervous system is formed of a few large nerve cells; their large size makes leeches convenient as model organisms for the study of invertebrate nervous systems. The main nerve centre consists of the cerebral ganglion above the gut and another ganglion beneath it, with connecting nerves forming a ring around the pharynx a little way behind the mouth. A nerve cord runs backwards from this in the ventral coelomic channel, with 21 pairs of ganglia in segments six to 26. In segments 27 to 33, other paired ganglia fuse to form the caudal ganglion.
|
|
In the retina, the photoreceptors synapse directly onto bipolar cells, which in turn synapse onto ganglion cells of the outermost layer, which will then conduct action potentials to the brain. A significant amount of visual processing arises from the patterns of communication between neurons in the retina. About 130 million photo-receptors absorb light, yet roughly 1.2 million axons of ganglion cells transmit information from the retina to the brain. The processing in the retina includes the formation of center-surround receptive fields of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, as well as convergence and divergence from photoreceptor to bipolar cell.
|
|
Sensory fibers from the eyeball (the cornea, iris, and ciliary body) run posteriorly through the short ciliary nerves and pass through the ciliary ganglion without forming synapses. They leave the ciliary ganglion in the sensory root of ciliary ganglion, which joins the nasociliary nerve—a branch of the ophthalmic nerve. From there, the signal travels back through the ophthalmic nerve to the trigeminal nerve and back into specific nuclei in the thalamus where they are relayed to areas in the cerebral cortex. The exact distribution of sensory fibers, like the distribution of sympathetic fibers, is anatomically variable.
|
|
The nucleus basalis is named after Theodor Meynert. Meynert originally called this group of cells the 'ganglion of the ansa peduncularis' (ganglion der Hirnschenkelschlinge), leading Albert von Kölliker in 1896 to recognize Meynert's contribution with the eponym ‘basal ganglion of Meynert’ (Meynert’sches Basalganglion). Later, in a pair of 1942 publications, Harold Brockhaus referred to the cells as the basal nucleus {Basalkern}).. In these reports, he also emphasized the continuity of the nucleus basalis proper with the nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca, referring to the entire collection of large cells as the basal nucleus complex (Basalkernkomplex).
|
|
These narrow field amacrine cells and their overlap in these subunits can allow certain ganglion cells to detect small amounts of movement of a very small spot in a field of vision. One type of narrow field cells that does this is the starburst amacrine cell. Medium field amacrine cells also contribute to vertical communication in the cells of the retina, but much of their overall function is still unknown. Due to the fact that their dendritic arbor size is pretty similar to that of ganglion cells, they could blur the edge of the ganglion cell visual field.
|
|
Gene expression was lower than the 25th percentile in at least one of two samples for cerebellum peduncles, occipital lobe, pons, trigeminal ganglion, subthalamic nucleus, superior cervical ganglion (drastically different expression levels), dorsal root ganglion, fetal liver, uterus corpus, atrioventricular node, appendix, skeletal muscle, cardiac myocytes, tongue, and salivary gland. PB- CD8+ T cells had the highest relative CCDC130 expression and the tongue had the lowest relative expression. For more information about CCDC130 expression, see mouse brain expression data or human brain microarray data from Allen Brain Atlas or differential expression in GEO profiles from NCBI.
|
|
While neurons are typically studied by the extracellular use of metal electrodes, retinal ganglion cells are specifically studied in vitro. This method allows parasol cells' complicated and intertwined structure to be analyzed intracellularly. In 1941, Polyak was the first scientist to use Golgi staining to identify retinal ganglion cells. Here, dendritic morphology was closely analyzed and revealed large dendritic trees.
|
|
The inferior tympanic canaliculus is a small passage of the tympanic branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve and inferior tympanic artery. In the bony ridge dividing the carotid canal from the jugular fossa is the small inferior tympanic canaliculus. The inferior tympanic canaliculus is near the fossula petrosa which houses inferior ganglion of glossopharyngeal nerve/petrous ganglion from which the tympanic nerve arises.
|
|
Paravertebral ganglia are divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral ganglia. Each controls different glands and muscle groups since each muscle and gland receives input from postganglionic neurons that originated from different levels of paravertebral ganglia. The lumbar part of the sympathetic trunk contains four interconnected ganglia. Superiorly, it is continuous with thoracic sympathetic ganglion and inferiorly continuous with sacral sympathetic ganglion.
|
|
Diagram showing a cross-section of the retina. The area near the top, labeled "Ganglionic layer", contains retinal ganglion cells, a small percentage of which contain melanopsin. Light strikes the ganglia first, the rods and cones last. Melanopsin-containing ganglion cells, like rods and cones, exhibit both light and dark adaptation; they adjust their sensitivity according to the recent history of light exposure.
|
|
Ciliary ganglion with parasympathetic fibers of ciliary nerves. The ciliary muscle receives parasympathetic fibers from the short ciliary nerves that arise from the ciliary ganglion. The sympathetic postganglionic fibers are part of cranial nerve V1 (Nasociliary nerve of the trigeminal), while presynaptic parasympathetic fibers to the ciliary ganglia are from the oculomotor nerve. The postganglionic sympathetic innervation arises from the superior cervical ganglia.
|
|
Complications of treatment may include joint stiffness and scar formation. Recurrence of the lesion is more common following excision of a volar ganglion cyst in the wrist. Incomplete excision that fails to include the stalk or pedicle also may lead to recurrence, as will failing to execute a layered closure of the incision.Camasta, Craig A., DPM, Excision of the Ganglion Cyst , podiatryinstitute.
|
|
Recurrence rate is higher in aspirated cysts than in excised ones. Ganglion cysts have been found to recur following surgery in 12% to 41% of patients. A six-year outcome study of the treatment of ganglion cysts on the dorsum (back) of the wrist compared excision, aspiration, and no treatment. Neither excision nor aspiration provided long-term benefit better than no treatment.
|
|
The meningeal branch of the vagus nerve is one of the first branches of the vagus nerve at the level of the superior ganglion. The neuron cell bodies reside within the superior ganglion and innervate the dura mater in the posterior cranial fossa of the base of the skull. The meningeal branch passes back into the skull through the jugular foramen.
|
|
No calretinin expression is seen in the nerve trunks in the rest of the aganglionic segment. It has faint expression in the thick nerve trunks from the areas without ganglion cells. Faint positivity of the thick submucosal and subserosal nerves in the absence of ganglion cells and calretinin positive nerve fibrils, is characteristic of the junction of the aganglionic-to-normal rectum.
|
|
The central rod will send the light signals directly to bipolar cells which in turn will relay the signal to the ganglion cells. Amacrine cells also produce lateral inhibition to bipolar cells and ganglion cells to perform various visual computations including image sharpening. The final visual signals will be sent to the thalamus and cerebral cortex, where additional lateral inhibition occurs.
|
|
The superior laryngeal nerve is a branch of the vagus nerve. It arises from the middle of the inferior ganglion of vagus nerve and in its course receives a branch from the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system. The cricothyroid muscles are innervated by the superior laryngeal nerve. All other intrinsic laryngeal muscles are innervated by the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
|
|
Vas deferens is thin ducts running from epididymis posteriorly. Testisacs is ovoid, approximately 1.5 times the size of ovisacs and located posterior to ganglion in segment XIII. Female reproductive system: Vagina has an upright, long, evenly curved tube entering directly into ventral body wall posterior to ganglion in XII. Common oviduct enters the vagina subterminally at a small vaginal caecum.
|
|
Evidence of retinal ganglion cell loss consistent with retrograde trans-synaptic degeneration has also been demonstrated in-vivo with optical coherence tomography in humans.
|
|
The replacement of the original SCG with either a different one or a T5 ganglion supported Langley's theory of topographic specificity of the SCG.
|
|
Pempidine is a ganglion-blocking drug, first reported in 1958 by two research groups working independently, and introduced as an oral treatment for hypertension.
|
|
The superior ganglion contains neurons which innervate some of the dura mater lining the posterior cranial fossa via the meningeal branch of the vagus nerve.
|
|
Ganglioneuroblastoma is a variant of neuroblastoma that is surrounded by ganglion cells. It can be difficult to diagnose. Nodular ganglioneuroblastoma can be divided by prognosis.
|
|
Alternative splicing results in multiple transcript variants encoding different isoforms. It is uniquely expressed in retinal ganglion cells in the mammalian retina, for reasons unknown.
|
|
Microarray tissue expression patterns from GEO were analyzed and showed that CCDC47 appears to be an ubiquitously expressed at moderate levels in many different human tissues. Although the protein is ubiquitously expressed, the highest levels of expression are seen in neuronal tissues such as the superior cervical ganglion, brain amygdala and ciliary ganglion. Elevated expression is also seen in the thyroid and CD34+ cells.
|
|
Viral vector experiments which augment superoxide dismutase 2 in LHON cybrids or LHON animal models or use of exogenous glutathione in LHON cybrids have been shown to rescue LHON affected retinal ganglion cells from apoptotic death. These experiments may in part explain the death of LHON affected retinal ganglion cells in preference to other central nervous system neurons which also carry LHON affected mitochondria.
|
|
The palatovaginal canal contains the pharyngeal nerve from the pterygopalatine ganglion and the pharyngeal branch of the maxillary artery. The pharyngeal nerve conveys sensory information from the mucosa of the nasopharyngeal posterior wall to the maxillary nerve passing through the pterygopalatine ganglion (without any synapse). The pharyngeal branch of the maxillary artery supplies part of the roof of the nasal fossae, nasopharynx, sphenoid sinuses and Eustachian tube.
|
|
Allatostatin is found in the cells in a small neuronal cluster, the frontal ganglion. It is also present in the axons which leave the frontal ganglion and run across the surface of the gut. Application of low concentrations of Allatostatin inhibit the spontaneous contractions of the gut. All three forms of Allatostatin appear to inhibit gut motility in all the insects which have been tested.
|
|
The autonomic nerve is a small nerve which carries postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons from the zygomaticotemporal nerve; a branch of the maxillary nerve, to the lacrimal nerve; a branch of the ophthalmic nerve. These neurons derive from the superior cervical ganglion and the pterygopalatine ganglion respectively. They will travel to the lacrimal gland via the lacrimal nerve. Parasympathetic will induce lacrimation and vice versa.
|
|
The dilator pupillae dilates the pupil; its action is antagonistic to the sphincter pupillae. Pupil size is therefore under the dual control of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. Postsynaptic sympathetic signals that originate in the superior cervical ganglion are carried by the nasociliary nerve or directly extend from the internal carotid plexus and pass through the ciliary ganglion. The superior tarsal muscle elevates the upper eyelid.
|
|
Each Edinger-Westphal nucleus gives rise to preganglionic parasympathetic fibers which exit with CN III and synapse with postganglionic parasympathetic neurons in the ciliary ganglion. Postganglionic nerve fibers leave the ciliary ganglion to innervate the ciliary sphincter. Each afferent limb has two efferent limbs, one ipsilateral and one contralateral. The ipsilateral efferent limb transmits nerve signals for direct light reflex of the ipsilateral pupil.
|
|
The suprarenal plexus is formed by branches from the celiac plexus, from the celiac ganglion, and from the phrenic and greater splanchnic nerves, a ganglion being formed at the point of junction with the latter nerve. The plexus supplies the suprarenal gland, being distributed chiefly to its medullary portion; its branches are remarkable for their large size in comparison with that of the organ they supply.
|
|
Subclavian loop (ansa subclavia), also known as Vieussens' ansa after French anatomist Raymond Vieussens (1635-1715), is a nerve cord that is a connection between the middle and inferior cervical ganglion which is commonly fused with the first thoracic ganglion and is then called the stellate ganglion. The subclavian ansa forms a loop around the subclavian artery; whence its name. This communicating branch downwards anteromedial to the vertebral artery makes a loop around the subclavian artery from anterior to posterior and then lies medially to the internal thoracic artery respectively. Sometimes there are two communicating branches encompassing the vertebral artery, one from anterior and the other from posterior.
|
|
The actual photopigment is bleached away in bright light and only replaced as a chemical process, so in a transition from bright light to darkness the eye can take up to thirty minutes to reach full sensitivity. When thus excited by light, the photoceptor sends a proportional response synaptically to bipolar cells which in turn signal the retinal ganglion cells. The photoreceptors are also cross-linked by horizontal cells and amacrine cells, which modify the synaptic signal before it reaches the ganglion cells, the neural signals being intermixed and combined. Of the retina's nerve cells, only the retinal ganglion cells and few amacrine cells create action potentials.
|
|
Galli and Maffei speculated that the electrical activity seen in the retinal ganglion cells may be responsible for the formation of retinal synaptic connections and for the projections of retinal ganglion cells to the superior colliculus and LGN. As the idea of retinal waves became established, neurobiologist Carla Shatz used calcium imaging and microelectrode recording to visualize the movement of action potentials in a wave-like formation. For more information on calcium imaging and microelectrode recording, see section below. The calcium imaging showed ganglion cells initiating the formation of retinal waves, along with adjacent amacrine cells, which take part in the movement of the electrical activity.
|
|
Electromagnetic light enters the eye by passing through the cornea, pupil, and the lens (optics). It then bypasses the ganglion cells, amacrine cells, bipolar cells, and horizontal cells in order to reach the photoreceptors rod cells which absorb light. The rods become stimulated by the energy from the light and release an excitatory neural signal to the horizontal cells. This excitatory signal, however, will only be transmitted by the rod cells in the center of the ganglion cell receptive field to ganglion cells because horizontal cells respond by sending an inhibitory signal to the neighboring rods to create a balance that allows mammals to perceive more vivid images.
|
|
The labial glands are minor salivary glands situated between the mucous membrane and the orbicularis oris around the orifice of the mouth. They are circular in form, and about the size of small peas; their ducts open by minute orifices upon the mucous membrane. Like the parotid and buccal glands, the labial glands are innervated by parasympathetic fibres that arise in the inferior salivatory nucleus, travel with the glossopharyngeal nerve and lesser petrosal nerve to the otic ganglion, where they synapse and then continue to the labial glands. Sympathetic innervation is mediated by postganglionary fibres which arise in the superior cervical ganglion and pass through the otic ganglion without synapsing.
|
|
Instead, they synapse at the inferior mesenteric ganglion and innervate the smooth muscle lining the large intestines, kidney, bladder, glands of the hindgut, and pelvic viscera.
|
|
Deck JHN. Cerebral medulloepithelioma with maturation into ependymal cells and ganglion cells. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1969;28:442-54. Flexner-Wintersteiner rosettes may also be observed.
|
|
Facet cyst or Postoperative synovial facet cysts is the cyst of Lumbar intraspinal synovial joint and ganglion. The cause of facet cysts is not well known.
|
|
At the end of the 2011 season, Galvis was sent to the Venezuelan Winter League, and despite a brief ganglion cyst injury, played there until December 1.
|
|
Exiting from the anterior surface of the ciliary ganglion are the short ciliary nerves which contain the sensory, postganglionic sympathetic and postganglionic parasympathetic axons to the eye.
|
|
The submandibular ganglion is small and fusiform in shape. It is situated above the deep portion of the submandibular gland, on the hyoglossus muscle, near the posterior border of the mylohyoid muscle. The ganglion 'hangs' by two nerve filaments from the lower border of the lingual nerve (itself a branch of the mandibular nerve, CN V3). It is suspended from the lingual nerve by two filaments, one anterior and one posterior.
|
|
The main nerve centre of a cestode is a cerebral ganglion in its scolex. Nerves emanate from the ganglion to supply the general body muscular and sensory endings, with two lateral nerve cords running the length of the strobila. The cirrus and vagina are innervated, and sensory endings around the genital pore are more plentiful than in other areas. Sensory function includes both tactoreception (touch) and chemoreception (smell or taste).
|
|
When the sphincter pupillae contract, the iris decreases or constricts the size of the pupil. The dilator pupillae, innervated by sympathetic nerves from the superior cervical ganglion, cause the pupil to dilate when they contract. These muscles are sometimes referred to as intrinsic eye muscles. The sensory pathway (rod or cone, bipolar, ganglion) is linked with its counterpart in the other eye by a partial crossover of each eye's fibers.
|
|
If a person is not in pain, they should simply be reassured that the lump is not cancerous, and wait for the lump to disappear on its own. At least 33% resolve without treatment within six years, and 50% within 10 years. Surgical treatments remain the primary elective option for treatment of ganglion cysts. The progression of ganglion surgery worldwide is to use an arthroscopic or mini- opening method.
|
|
The sensory root comes from the auriculotemporal nerve and is sensory to the parotid gland. The motor fibers supplying the medial pterygoid and the tensor palati and the tensor tympani pass through the ganglion without relay. The ganglion is connected to the chorda tympani nerve and also to the nerve of the pterygoid canal. These pathways provide an alternate pathway of taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.
|
|
Conversely, CGRP is derived from dorsal root ganglion when synthesized in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and may be linked to the transmission of pain. In the trigeminal vascular system, the cell bodies on the trigeminal ganglion are the main source of CGRP. CGRP is thought to play a role in cardiovascular homeostasis and nociception. In the heart, CGRP acts a chronotrope by increasing heart rate.
|
|
Preganglionic parasympathetic fibres exit the geniculate ganglion as the greater petrosal nerve. It enters the middle cranial fossa through the hiatus of the facial canal, along with the petrosal branch of the middle meningeal artery. It enters the pterygoid canal, where it joins the deep petrosal nerve (a sympathetic nerve) to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal, which passes through the pterygoid canal to reach the pterygopalatine ganglion.
|
|
Sodium channel, voltage-gated, type XI, alpha subunit also known as SCN11A or Nav1.9 is a voltage-gated sodium ion channel protein which is encoded by the SCN11A gene on chromosome 3 in humans. Like Nav1.7 and Nav1.8, Nav1.9 plays a role in pain perception. This channel is largely expressed in small-diameter nociceptors of the dorsal root ganglion and trigeminal ganglion neurons, but is also found in intrinsic myenteric neurons.
|
|
Throughout human evolution, the first thoracic and inferior cervical ganglia merged - and this resulting ganglion is called the stellate ganglion (so called because of its radiating pattern similar in appearance to a star). The general rule of interaction of the nerve fibers in the sympathetic nervous system begins at the spinal cord. Here they arise from the thoracolumbar (T1-L2) regions' lateral horn of grey and emerge via the ventral root.
|
|
During his time with Extol, he, his cousin, Tor Magne Glidje, John Robert Mjlånd, and Ole Halvard Sveen, all of the bands Extol, Lengsel, and Mantric, formed a side-project called Ganglion. Ganglion released two EPs, one as a seven-inch. The project became inactive, as did Extol. Espevoll stated that the band ended due to personal issues, for Espevoll, it was to spend time with his family.
|
|
This component of CN IX innervates the baroreceptors of the carotid sinus and chemoreceptors of the carotid body. ;Peripheral and intracranial course. :Sensory fibers arise from the carotid sinus and carotid body at the common carotid artery bifurcation, ascend in the carotid sinus nerve, and join the other components of CN IX at the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion. The cell bodies of these neurons reside in the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion.
|
|
The dorsal root ganglia lie in the intervertebral foramina. The anterior and posterior spinal nerve roots join just beyond (lateral) to the location of the dorsal root ganglion.
|
|
Blockade of the ganglion with local anesthetic, clinically referred to as a ‘sphenopalatine ganglion block’ (SPG) may be performed transcutaneously with a small needle, or topically via the nose with local anesthetic soaked swabs. The topical SPG is used for treatment of persistent migraines and cluster headaches, demonstrating relief within 10-20 minutes. Increasingly the SPG is also used to treat post-dural-puncture headache (PDPH), and may be as effective as an epidural blood patch when used for PDPH. Self-Administration of Sphenopalatine Ganglion Blocks with Cotton-Tipped Catheters with continual capillary feed is the most cost-effective method of treatment and has the benefit of allowing patients to avoid visits to physicians and Emergeny Departments.
|
|
First and foremost, the results allowed him to understand the way the visual system is constructed and connected to the central nervous system. Secondly, he discovered areas of the brain that were responsible for differential analysis of stimuli. First, the retina is connected to the optic tectum by at least three types of ganglion cells, each with an excitatory receptive field and a surrounding inhibitory receptive field, but they differ in the diameter of their central excitatory receptive fields. Diameters in Class II (R2) ganglion cells are approximately four degrees visual angle. Those in Class III (R3) cells are about eight degrees and Class IV (R4) ganglion cells range from twelve to fifteen degrees.
|
|
Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red-green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue-yellow opponency but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet. Visual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via the optic nerve to the optic chiasma: a point where the two optic nerves meet and information from the temporal (contralateral) visual field crosses to the other side of the brain.
|
|
The sucrose- gap technique is used to record membrane activities from myelinated nerves, unmyelinated nerves, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle. Along with microelectrode methods and patch-clamp methods, the sucrose gap is often used by experimenters to study the nervous system and can serve as an effective method to investigate the effects of drugs on membrane activities. Studies on the effects of choline, acetylcholine, and carbachol on the resting potentials of the superior cervical ganglion in rabbits were conducted using the sucrose- gap method. The recording of membrane potentials in the superior cervical ganglion was made simple with the sucrose-gap method as it allows for separated depolarizing of the ganglion and the internal carotid nerve.
|
|
The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a ganglion) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The brain is small and simple in some species, such as nematode worms; in other species, including vertebrates, it is the most complex organ in the body. Some types of worms, such as leeches, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain". There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain, including echinoderms and tunicates.
|
|
In short, optic atrophy is the end result of any disease that damages nerve cells anywhere between the retinal ganglion cells and the lateral geniculate body (anterior visual system).
|
|
Anatomical variants are often encountered in the extensor compartment of the forearm. Clinical expressions of the extensor digitorum brevis manus are often mistaken for a ganglion, cyst or tumour.
|
|
Mitochondria play a central role in maintaining the life cycle of retinal ganglion cells because of their high energy dependence. Mitochondria are made within the central somata of the retinal ganglion cell, transported down axons, and distributed where they are needed. Genetic mutations in mitochondrial DNA, vitamin depletion, alcohol and tobacco abuse, and use of certain drugs can cause derangements in efficient transport of mitochondria, which can cause a primary or secondary optic neuropathy.
|
|
The chorda tympani nerve (from the facial nerve via the submandibular ganglion) is secretomotor and provides parasympathetic supply to the sublingual glands. The path of the nerve is as follows: junction between pons and medulla, through internal acoustic meatus and facial canal to chorda tympani, through middle ear cavity, out petrotympanic fissure to join the lingual nerve, travels with lingual nerve to synapse at the submandibular ganglion, then postganglionic fibers travels to the sublingual gland.
|
|
Preganglionic parasympathetic fibres arise in the superior salivary nucleus of the pontine tegmentum. They join with general somatic sensory and special sensory fibres to form the nervus intermedius. The nervus intermedius exits the cranial cavity at the Internal auditory meatus, and joins with the motor root of the facial nerve at the geniculate ganglion. While preganglionic parasympathetic fibres pass through the geniculate ganglion, they neither synapse, nor have their cell bodies located there.
|
|
The pyramidal eminence is the second bend in the facial nerve, where the nerve runs downward as the mastoid segment. In the temporal part of the facial canal, the nerve gives rise to the nerve to the stapedius muscle and chorda tympani. The chorda tympani supplies taste fibers to the anterior two thirds of the tongue, and also synapses with the submandibular ganglion. Postsynaptic fibers from the submandibular ganglion supply the sublingual and submandibular glands.
|
|
These latter are the giant axons that the work of Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley made famous. Each secondary axon branches at the stellate ganglion and contacts all the tertiary axons; thus, information concerning relevant sensory input is relayed from the sense organs in the cephalic ganglion (the squid’s brain) to the contractile muscular mantle (which is activated directly by the tertiary giant axons). Fig 1. Upper left, side view of a squid.
|
|
The sublingual glands receive their parasympathetic input via the chorda tympani nerve, which is a branch of the facial nerve via the submandibular ganglion. The nerve functions in a secretomotor capacity. The chorda tympani branches from the motor branch of the facial nerve in the middle ear cavity, which then exits the middle ear through the petrotympanic fissure. The chorda tympani nerve then travels with the lingual nerve to synapse at the submandibular ganglion.
|
|
There are several therapeutic wrist arthroscopy indications, in this article the focus will be on the TFCC-lesion, the SL-lesion, the dorsal ganglion resection and the distal radius fracture.
|
|
Foye et al reported that repeated temporary nerve blocks by injection at the ganglion impar could give relief in a number of cases, and occasionally a single injection was sufficient.
|
|
Some few filaments from it are continued into the trunk of the vagus below the ganglion, to be distributed with the recurrent nerve and probably also with the cardiac nerves.
|
|
Thy-1 knock out mice also show impaired cutaneous immune responses and abnormal retinal development: thinning of the inner nuclear, inner plexiform, ganglion cell, and outer segment layers of the retina.
|
|
In the PNS, the ganglion tissue, containing the cell bodies and dendrites, contain relay points for nerve tissue impulses. The nerve tissue, containing myelinated axons bundles, carry action potential nerve impulses.
|
|
Although these features help increase the wasp's nocturnal vision, other factors not widely studied also contribute, such as the lateral branching of neurons in the first optic ganglion within the eye.
|
|
The latter is a dish of tripe, usually consisting of ganglion, caul, lung or heart of an animal wound with intestines on a stick of oak and cooked on hot coals.
|
|
The geniculate ganglion (from Latin genu, for "knee") is a collection of pseudounipolar sensory neurons of the facial nerve located in the facial canal of the head. It receives fibers from the motor, sensory, and parasympathetic components of the facial nerve and sends fibers that will innervate the lacrimal glands, submandibular glands, sublingual glands, tongue, palate, pharynx, external auditory meatus, stapedius, posterior belly of the digastric muscle, stylohyoid muscle, and muscles of facial expression. The geniculate ganglion contains special sensory neuronal cell bodies for taste, from fibers coming up from the tongue through the chorda tympani and from fibers coming up from the roof of the palate through the greater petrosal nerve. Sensory and parasympathetic inputs are carried into the geniculate ganglion via the nervus intermedius.
|
|
This arrangement means the brain, sub-pharyngeal ganglia and the circum-pharyngeal connectives form a nerve ring around the pharynx. The ventral nerve cord (formed by nerve cells and nerve fibres) begins at the sub- pharyngeal ganglia and extends below the alimentary canal to the most posterior body segment. The ventral nerve cord has a swelling, or ganglion, in each segment, i.e. a segmental ganglion, which occurs from the fifth to the last segment of the body.
|
|
Although there is no true brain, the largest ganglion is located in the connective tissue between the two siphons, and sends nerves throughout the body. Beneath this ganglion lies an exocrine gland that empties into the pharynx. The gland is formed from the nerve tube, and is therefore homologous to the spinal cord of vertebrates. Sea squirts lack special sense organs, although the body wall incorporates numerous individual receptors for touch, chemoreception, and the detection of light.
|
|
The first sting is delivered to the prothoracic ganglion (mass of nerve tissue) which causes a 2- to 3-minute paralysis of the front legs. This sting injects significant quantities of γ amino-butyric acid (GABA) and complementary agonists taurine and β alanine. The concoction temporarily blocks the motor action potentials in the prothoracic ganglion by depressing cholinergic transmission through the increased chloride conductance across nerve synapses. Individually, all of these substances induce short-term paralysis of the cockroach.
|
|
Type I right Ganglion mother cells (GMCs) are cells involved in neurogenesis, in non-mammals, that divide only once to give rise to two neurons, or one neuron and one glial cell or two glial cells, and are present only in the central nervous system. They are also responsible for transcription factor expression. While each ganglion mother cell necessarily gives rise to two neurons, a neuroblast can asymmetrically divide multiple times.Doe, C. Q. et al (2008).
|
|
This chemosensatory action assists in the localization of food and in sexual behavior. Amino acids are observed to be an olfactory stimulant to elicit feeding responses. Serotoninergic fibers are also found in the rhinophore nerves which are believed to have a physiological role in olfactory responses to amino acid presence. The glomeruli and the ganglion are segments of the rhinophore which represent different processing stages of sensory information; the processing of odor information takes place in the ganglion.
|
|
These fibers synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion, whereupon the postganglionic, postsynaptic, efferent fibers travel to innervate the lacrimal gland and the mucosal glands of the nose, palate, and pharynx. Preganglionic parasympathetic fibers are also distributed partly via the chorda tympani and lingual nerves to the submandibular ganglion, thence by postganglionic (vasodilator) fibers to the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands. The term "lacrimal nucleus" is sometimes used to refer to a portion of the superior salivatory nucleus.
|
|
It begins at the middle of the trigeminal ganglion as a flattened plexiform band then it passes through the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus. It leaves the skull through the foramen rotundum, where it becomes more cylindrical in form, and firmer in texture. After leaving foramen rotundum it gives two branches to the pterygopalatine ganglion. It then crosses the pterygopalatine fossa, inclines lateralward on the back of the maxilla, and enters the orbit through the inferior orbital fissure.
|
|
Additional activity involved in retinal waves includes the following. In certain species, GABA is seen to play a role in the frequency and duration of the bursts in ganglion cells. Interactions of cells vary in different test subjects and at different maturity levels, especially the complex interactions mediated by amacrine cells. Activity propagated via gap junctions has not been observed in all test subjects; for example, research has shown that ferret retina ganglion cells are not coupled.
|
|
The concentrations and ratio of rods to cones is strongly correlated with whether an animal is diurnal or nocturnal. In humans rods outnumber cones by approximately 20:1, while in nocturnal animals, such as the tawny owl, the ratio is closer to 1000:1. Ganglion Cells reside in the adrenal medulla and retina where they are involved in the sympathetic response. Of the ~1.3 million ganglion cells present in the retina, 1-2% are believed to be photosensitive ganglia.
|
|
This is called bleaching because the purified rhodopsin changes from violet to colorless in the light. At baseline in the dark, the rhodopsin absorbs no light and releases glutamate which inhibits the bipolar cell. This inhibits the release of neurotransmitters from the bipolar cells to the ganglion cell. When there is light present, glutamate secretion ceases thus no longer inhibiting the bipolar cell from releasing neurotransmitters to the ganglion cell and therefore an image can be detected.
|
|
The middle retinal layer contains bipolar cells, collect signals from photoreceptors and transmit them to the retinal ganglion cells of the innermost retinal layer. Retinal ganglion cell axons collectively form the optic nerve, via which they project to the brain. Unlike most sensory receptor cells, photoreceptors actually become hyperpolarized when stimulated; and conversely are depolarized when not stimulated. This means that glutamate is released continuously when the cell is unstimulated, and stimulus causes release to stop.
|
|
According to the Chemoaffinity hypothesis, chemical labels are distributed in a graded fashion across the retina and tectum. This allows each retinal ganglion cell to recognize its proper termination site. Experiments with artificially created compound eyes in Xenopus demonstrate that not only the ganglion cells but also their axons carry these specificities. Axons must be able to communicate with each other to ensure that ones with the same positional tags innervate the same area of the superior colliculus.
|
|
Embryonic development of the nervous system. The neural crest can be seen in light green. The neurons in the superior ganglion of the vagus nerve are embryonically derived from the neural crest.
|
|
Identification of Drosophila type II neuroblast lineages containing transit amplifying ganglion mother cells. . GMCs are the progeny of type I neuroblasts. Neuroblasts asymmetrically divide during embryogenesis to create GMCs.Doe, C. Q. (1992).
|
|
In the retina, succinate accumulates in retinal ganglion cells in response to ischemic conditions. Autocrine succinate signaling promotes retinal neovascularization, triggering the activation of angiogenic factors such as endothelial growth factor (VEGF).
|
|
The Maxillary nerve gives cutaneous branches to the face. It also carries parasympathetic preganglionic fibers (sphenopalatine) and postganglionic fibers (zygomatic, greater and lesser palatine and nasopalatine) to and from the pterygopalatine ganglion.
|
|
Although photoreceptors are neurons, they do not conduct action potentials with the exception of the photosensitive ganglion cell – which are involved mainly in the regulation of circadian rhythms, melatonin, and pupil dilation.
|
|
A gangliocytic paraganglioma is a rare tumour that is typically found in the duodenum and consists of three components: (1) ganglion cells, (2) epithelioid cells (paraganglioma-like) and, (3) spindle cells (schwannoma-like).
|
|
Inside the ants, most of the cercaria encyst in the walls of the abdomen, but one or two migrate to the head and encyst in the subesophageal ganglion, a part of the brain.
|
|
The nerve endings of dorsal root ganglion neurons have a variety of sensory receptors that are activated by mechanical, thermal, chemical, and noxious stimuli. In these sensory neurons, a group of ion channels thought to be responsible for somatosensory transduction have been identified. Compression of the dorsal root ganglion by a mechanical stimulus lowers the voltage threshold needed to evoke a response and causes action potentials to be fired. This firing may even persist after the removal of the stimulus.
|
|
While the left pleuro-parietal, the parietal-subintestinal/visceral and the right pleuro-parietal/supraintestinal connectives are very short, the subintestinal/visceral-parietal/supraintestinal connective is long. An additional presumed osphradial ganglion is linked to the fused parietal/supraintestinal ganglion. Anteriorly, a nerve emerges and innervates the right body wall; no histologically differentiated osphradium could be detected. The buccal ganglia are positioned posterior to the pharynx and are linked to each other by a short buccal commissure ventral to the oesophagus.
|
|
In the retinal ganglion cells there are two types of response, depending on the receptive field of the cell. The receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells comprise a central, approximately circular area, where light has one effect on the firing of the cell, and an annular surround, where light has the opposite effect. In ON cells, an increment in light intensity in the centre of the receptive field causes the firing rate to increase. In OFF cells, it makes it decrease.
|
|
However, Hubel and Wiesel noticed that rectangular bars of light were more effective stimuli (i.e. more natural stimuli) than circular spots of light, as long as the orientation was adjusted to the correct angle appropriate for each ganglion cell. These so- called simple cells were later called bar detectors or edge detectors. While comparing the receptive fields of neurons in the cat striate cortex with the concentric "on" and "off" receptive fields identified in cat ganglion cells by Kuffler et al.
|
|
The ganglion cell layer (ganglionic layer) is a layer of the retina that consists of retinal ganglion cells and displaced amacrine cells. In the macula lutea, the layer forms several strata. The cells are somewhat flask-shaped; the rounded internal surface of each resting on the stratum opticum, and sending off an axon which is prolonged into it. From the opposite end numerous dendrites extend into the inner plexiform layer, where they branch and form flattened arborizations at different levels.
|
|
There is a recurrence rate of approximately 50% following needle drainage (via aspiration) of ganglion cysts. A historical method of treatment for a ganglion cyst was to strike the lump with a large and heavy book, causing the cyst to rupture and drain into the surrounding tissues. Historically, a Bible was the largest or only book in any given household, and was employed for this treatment. This led to the former nickname of "Bible bumps" or "Gideon's disease" for these cysts.
|
|
The method of connection varies between the different classes of bryozoans, ranging from quite large gaps in the body walls to small pores through which nutrients are passed by funiculi. There is a nerve ring round the pharynx (throat) and a ganglion that serves as a brain to one side of this. Nerves run from the ring and ganglion to the tentacles and to the rest of the body. Bryozoans have no specialized sense organs, but cilia on the tentacles act as sensors.
|
|
ADAMTS4 is capable of cleaving all the large chondroitin sulfate hyaluronan-binding proteoglycans (CSPGs), including aggrecan, brevican, neurocan and versican. Like ADAMTS5, it can be effectively inhibited by tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-3 (TIMP3) and this inhibition can be enhanced in the presence of aggrecan. In addition to TIMP3, it can also be inhibited by calcium pentosan polysulfate. ADAMTS4 is expressed in ovary, spinal cord, adrenal cortex, ciliary ganglion, trigeminal ganglion, brain, retina, pancreas (islets), fetal lung, breast myoepithelial cells, tendon and cartilage.
|
|
Postganglionic sympathetic fibers from superior cervical sympathetic ganglion reach the gland as periarterial nerve plexuses around the external carotid artery and their function is mainly vasoconstriction. Preganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave the brain stem from inferior salivatory nucleus in the glossopharyngeal nerve and then through its tympanic and then the lesser petrosal branch pass into the otic ganglion. There, they synapse with postganglionic fibers which reach the gland by hitch-hiking via the auriculotemporal nerve, a branch of the mandibular nerve.
|
|
Ganglion cells can appear immature and atypical, they can be bi- or multinucleated and showing evidence of Nissl substance (2-6). Rhabdomyoblasts and poorly differentiated small cells display positivity for desmin and myosin while neural areas are variably sensitive to S-100. Ganglion cells are strongly positive for NSE. It is important to point out that the ectodermal component may be sometimes scanty and can be overlooked whereas in specimens after chemotherapy the ganglioneuroma component is increased and even overwhelming.
|
|
Sympathetic motor neurons in the spinal cord are controlled by supranuclear pathways that descend through the brainstem and spinal cord. Interruption of the sympathetic chain at any level (from the brainstem to the ciliary ganglion) will produce pupillary constriction (miosis) and eyelid droop (ptosis) – the classic signs of Horner's syndrome. Sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion innervate blood vessels (vasoconstriction), sweat glands, and 4 eye muscles: the dilator pupillae, the superior tarsal muscle, the inferior tarsal muscle and the orbitalis.
|
|
The opsin found in the intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina is called melanopsin. These cells are involved in various reflexive responses of the brain and body to the presence of (day)light, such as the regulation of circadian rhythms, pupillary reflex and other non-visual responses to light. Melanopsin functionally resembles invertebrate opsins. When light activates the melanopsin signaling system, the melanopsin-containing ganglion cells discharge nerve impulses that are conducted through their axons to specific brain targets.
|
|
Hal Blumenfeld, "Neuroanatomy through Clinical Cases", Sinauer Associates, 2002, p543 Some of the fibres from the internal carotid plexus converge to form the deep petrosal nerve.Richard L. Drake, Wayne Vogel & Adam W M Mitchell, "Gray's Anatomy for Students", Elsevier inc., 2005 The internal carotid plexus communicates with the trigeminal ganglion, the abducent nerve, and the pterygopalatine ganglion (also named sphenopalatine); it distributes filaments to the wall of the internal carotid artery, and also communicates with the tympanic branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve.
|
|
However, pedal 5 neurons, two bisymmetric neurons located within the Tochuina pedal ganglion, exhibited gradual changes in firing over time following 30 minutes of magnetic stimulation provided by a Rubens' coil. Further studies showed that pedal 7 neurons in the pedal ganglion were inhibited when exposed to magnetic fields over the course of 30 minutes. The function of both pedal 5 neurons and pedal 7 neurons is currently unknown. Fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster needs cryptochrome to respond to magnetic fields.
|
|
The sympathetic fibers to the dilator pupillae muscle mainly travel in the nasociliary nerve but there are also sympathetic fibers in the short ciliary nerves that pass through the ciliary ganglion without forming synapses.
|
|
When the brachial plexus roots are involved, it will produce Pancoast syndrome; involvement of sympathetic fibers as they exit the cord at T1 and ascend to the superior cervical ganglion will produce Horner's syndrome.
|
|
Two years later they created the first 3D-printed EEG Headset, known as the Ultracortex, as well as a 4-channel EEG acquisition board, known as the Ganglion Board, that retailed for under $100.
|
|
Epiretinal implants directly stimulate the retinal ganglion cells, thereby bypassing all other retinal layers. Therefore, in principle, epiretinal implants could provide visual perception to individuals even if all other retinal layers have been damaged.
|
|
Intraperitoneal injection of Epo in DBA/2J mice protected / slowed down the degeneration of Retinal ganglion cell (RGC). Overexpression of Epo and Epo mutants in the eye via, viral vectors is toxic to the retina.
|
|
While being idiopathic in some cases, causative factors of the ulnar tunnel syndrome include tumors, ganglion cysts, repetitive use, anatomical variations, and diseases of the neighboring blood vessels (thrombosis or aneurysm of the ulnar artery).
|
|
Its sensory root is derived from two sphenopalatine branches of the maxillary nerve; their fibers, for the most part, pass directly into the palatine nerves; a few, however, enter the ganglion, constituting its sensory root.
|
|
The mucous membrane receives sensory innervation by the posterior ethmoidal nerves (branch of the ophthalmic nerve), and postganglionic parasympathetic fibers of the facial nerve that synapsed at the pterygopalatine ganglion which controls secretion of mucus.
|
|
Sympathetic innervation to the lacrimal gland is of less physiologic importance than the parasympathetic innervation, however there are noradrenergic axons found within the lacrimal gland. Their cell bodies are located in the superior cervical ganglion.
|
|
Among Shapley's findings were his discoveries about the X and Y retinal ganglion cells in the cat retina. He discovered that the Y cell collected excitatory signals from many small spatial mechanisms called "nonlinear subunits"Hochstein, S. and Shapley, R. (1976) Linear and nonlinear spatial subunits in Y cat retinal ganglion cells. J.Physiol., 262, 265-284. and that there was a contrast gain control, a nonlinear feedback within the retina that adjusted the signal-transfer properties of the retina contingent on the space-averaged stimulus contrast.
|
|
From various studies, including Movshon et al. in 1978 and even as early as the 1960s, simple cells have been able to be modeled with a linear model. This would indicate that these simple cells undergo processes that calculate weighted sums of stimulus intensities where the weights are found from the receptive field. This stems from research by Enroth-Cugell & Robson in 1966 which modeled ganglion cells similar to P cells in primates (X cells) and ganglion cells similar to M cells in primates (Y cells).
|
|
Of the two types of photoreceptors in the retina, rods dominate scotopic vision. This is caused by increased sensitivity of the photopigment molecule expressed in rods, as opposed to that in cones. Rods signal light increments to rod bipolar cells, which, unlike most bipolar cell types, do not form direct connections with ganglion cells - the output neuron of the retina. Instead, two types of amacrine cell - AII and A17 - allow lateral information flow from rod bipolar cells to cone bipolar cells, which in turn contact ganglion cells.
|
|
The glomus type I cells of the carotid body are innervated by the sensory neurons found in the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve. The carotid sinus nerve is the branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve which innervates them. Alternatively, the glomus type I cells of the aortic body are innervated by sensory neurons found in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve. Centrally the axons of neurons which innervate glomus type I cells synapse in the caudal portion of the solitary nucleus in the medulla.
|
|
A cross-section of the cochlea showing the organ of Corti. Cross-section through the spiral organ of Corti at greater magnification. Rosenthal's canal or the spiral canal of the cochlea is a section of the bony labyrinth of the inner ear that is approximately 30 mm long and makes 2¾ turns about the modiolus, the central axis of the cochlea that contains the spiral ganglion. Specialized inner ear cell include: hair cells, pillar cells, Boettcher's cells, Claudius' cells, spiral ganglion neurons, and Deiters' cells (phalangeal cells).
|
|
The neuroendocrine system is typical of insects. There is a brain, a subesophageal ganglion, three thoracic ganglia, and six abdominal ganglia. Strong neuron connections connect the neurohemal corpora cardiaca to the brain and frontal ganglion, where the closely related median corpus allatum produces juvenile hormone III in close proximity to the neurohemal dorsal aorta. The digestive system of earwigs is like all other insects, consisting of a fore-, mid-, and hindgut, but earwigs lack gastric caecae which are specialized for digestion in many species of insect.
|
|
Tarlov cysts are most commonly located in the S1 to S4/S5 region of the spinal canal, but can be found along any region of the spine. They usually form on the extradural components of sacrococcygeal nerve roots at the junction of dorsal root ganglion and posterior nerve roots and arise between the endoneurium and perineurium. Occasionally, these cysts are observed in the lumbar and thoracic spine. However, these cysts most commonly arise at the S2 or S3 junction of the dorsal nerve root ganglion.
|
|
The neuroendocrine system is typical of insects. There is a brain, a subesophageal ganglion, three thoracic ganglia, and six abdominal ganglia. Strong neuron connections connect the neurohemal corpora cardiaca to the brain and frontal ganglion, where the closely related median corpus allatum produces juvenile hormone III in close proximity to the neurohemal dorsal arota. The digestive system of earwigs is like all other insects, consisting of a fore-, mid-, and hindgut, but earwigs lack gastric caecae which are specialized for digestion in many species of insect.
|
|
The oculomotor nerve include axons of type GSE, general somatic efferent, which innervate skeletal muscle of the levator palpebrae superioris, superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, and inferior oblique muscles.(innervates all the extrinsic muscles except superior oblique and lateral rectus.) The nerve also includes axons of type GVE, general visceral efferent, which provide preganglionic parasympathetics to the ciliary ganglion. From the ciliary ganglion post ganglionic fibers pass through the short ciliary nerve to the constrictor pupillae of the iris and the cilliary muscles.
|
|
An increase in the concentrations of galanin are also believed to be for neuroprotective reasons and lead to promoted neurogenesis. GalR2 activation is believed to mediate the survival role galanin plays in the dorsal root ganglion.
|
|
The superior ganglion contains neurons which innervate the concha of the auricle, the posteroinferior surface of the external auditory canal and posteroinferior surface of the tympanic membrane all via the auricular branch of the vagus nerve.
|
|
HMGN3 was found to be especially elevated at 2 weeks (for an adult mouse) in the inner nuclear and ganglion cells. This shows there is an uneven distribution of HMGNs in pre-fated and adult cells.
|
|
The ethmoidal air cells receive sensory fibers from the anterior and posterior ethmoidal nerves, and the orbital branches of the pterygopalatine ganglion, which carry the postganglionic parasympathetic nerve fibers for mucous secretion from the facial nerve.
|
|
Signals from these photosensitive ganglion cells have at least two other roles in addition. They exercise control over the size of the pupil, and they lead to acute suppression of melatonin secretion by the pineal gland.
|
|
Its eye is also notable for its high density of retinal ganglion cells compared to other species of fish. Because of the rapid and accurate attack on prey, it is assumed the fish has good eyesight.
|
|
In a linear model, this response profile is well described by a difference of Gaussians and is the basis for edge detection algorithms. Beyond this simple difference, ganglion cells are also differentiated by chromatic sensitivity and the type of spatial summation. Cells showing linear spatial summation are termed X cells (also called parvocellular, P, or midget ganglion cells), and those showing non-linear summation are Y cells (also called magnocellular, M, or parasol retinal ganglion cells), although the correspondence between X and Y cells (in the cat retina) and P and M cells (in the primate retina) is not as simple as it once seemed. In the transfer of visual signals to the brain, the visual pathway, the retina is vertically divided in two, a temporal (nearer to the temple) half and a nasal (nearer to the nose) half.
|
|
Guckenheimer studies dynamical models of a small neural system, the stomatogastric ganglion of crustaceans - attempting to learn more about neuromodulation, the ways in which the rhythmic output of the STG is modified by chemical and electrical inputs.
|
|
In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), a cluster of cell bodies of neurons (homologous to a CNS nucleus) is called a ganglion. The fascicles of nerve fibers in the PNS (homologous to CNS tracts) are called nerves.
|
|
George H. Scithers took over as editor for TSR. In 1995 she wrote about some of her experiences at Amazing Stories in her introduction to Wayne Wightman's short story collection, Ganglion & Other Stories (published by Tachyon Publications).
|
|
Quinone is mainly used as a precursor to hydroquinone, which is used in photography and rubber manufacture as a reducing agent and antioxidant. Benzoquinonium is a Skeletal muscle relaxant, ganglion blocking agent that is made from benzoquinone.
|
|
Despite the input from cones, parasol ganglion cells do not receive information about color. Unlike midget cells, parasol cell receptive fields contain the same color-type of cones in both their center and surround regions. Due to this lack of specificity, parasol cells cannot differentiate between different light wavelengths reflected from a specific object, and thus can only send achromatic information. There is approximately the same density of parasol ganglion cells in the fovea as in the rest of the retina, another property that distinguishes them from midget cells.
|
|
The neurons comprising the dorsal root ganglion are of the pseudo-unipolar type, meaning they have a cell body (soma) with two branches that act as a single axon, often referred to as a distal process and a proximal process. Unlike the majority of neurons found in the central nervous system, an action potential in posterior root ganglion neuron may initiate in the distal process in the periphery, bypass the cell body, and continue to propagate along the proximal process until reaching the synaptic terminal in the posterior horn of spinal cord.
|
|
A cluster of small bumps (1) turns into blisters (2). The blisters fill with thumb The causative agent for shingles is the varicella zoster virus (VZV) – a double-stranded DNA virus related to the herpes simplex virus. Most individuals are infected with this virus as children which causes an episode of chickenpox. The immune system eventually eliminates the virus from most locations, but it remains dormant (or latent) in the ganglia adjacent to the spinal cord (called the dorsal root ganglion) or the trigeminal ganglion in the base of the skull.
|
|
Ganglion cyst of the hand with multiple cystic chambers containing glairy material - the walls are composed of bland fibrous tissue with no specialized lining Ganglion cysts are diagnosed easily, as they are visible and pliable to touch. Radiographs in AP and lateral views should be obtained to exclude any more serious underlying pathology. Ultrasonography (US) may be used to increase diagnostic confidence in clinically suspected lesions or to depict occult cysts, because intratendinous ganglia are readily distinguished from extratendinous ganglia during dynamic ultrasonography, as microscopically, ganglionic cysts are thin- walled cysts containing clear, mucinous fluid.
|
|
The stellate ganglia may be cut in order to decrease the symptoms exhibited by Raynaud's phenomenon and hyperhydrosis (extreme sweating) of the hands. Injection of local anesthetics near the stellate ganglion can sometimes mitigate the symptoms of sympathetically mediated pain such as complex regional pain syndrome type I (reflex sympathetic dystrophy), and PTSD. Injection is often given near the Chassaignac's Tubercle (anterior tubercle of transverse process of C6) due to this being an important landmark lateral to the cricoid cartilage. It is thought that anesthetic is spread along the paravertebral muscles to the stellate ganglion.
|
|
Optogenetic stimulation of the spiral ganglion in deaf mice restored auditory activity. Optogenetic application onto the cochlear region allows for the stimulation or inhibition of the spiral ganglion cells (SGN). In addition, due to the characteristics of the resting potentials of SGN's, different variants of the protein channelrhodopsin-2 have been employed such as Chronos, CatCh and f-Chrimson. Chronos and CatCh variants are particularly useful in that they have less time spent in their deactivated states, which allow for more activity with less bursts of blue light emitted.
|
|
This mechanism is important as it allows the organism to match its output of blood with its input of blood. Because of the stretching between beats, the Frank-Starling mechanism allows the heart to then naturally contract more forcefully, allowing greater flow of blood, which results in the matched heart output to the increased blood received. The Frank-Starling mechanism is a little different in crustaceans, as it involves the cardiac ganglion as described previously. The stretching of the heart induces the ganglion to fire more regularly and powerfully.
|
|
The pterygopalatine ganglion (of Meckel), the largest of the parasympathetic ganglia associated with the branches of the maxillary nerve, is deeply placed in the pterygopalatine fossa, close to the sphenopalatine foramen. It is triangular or heart-shaped, of a reddish-gray color, and is situated just below the maxillary nerve as it crosses the fossa. The pterygopalatine ganglion supplies the lacrimal gland, paranasal sinuses, glands of the mucosa of the nasal cavity and pharynx, the gingiva, and the mucous membrane and glands of the hard palate. It communicates anteriorly with the nasopalatine nerve.
|
|
AAA did not inhibit the production of protease by astrocytes, and so did not prevent ganglion cell apoptosis. However, Neurostatin successfully inhibited activation of astrocytes, in turn decreasing retinal ganglion cell death significantly. Neurostatin is also effective in the inhibition of other glial cells, and may be an area of interest in the treatment of degenerative diseases such as glaucoma. Massive retinal gliosis (MRG) is a phenomenon in which the retina is completely replaced by proliferation of glial cells, causing deterioration of vision and even blindness in some cases.
|
|
The avatar is awoken from a lifepod by Elma and brought back to New Los Angeles. While suffering from amnesia, the avatar joins BLADE, working with Elma and Lin to recover more lifepods and search for the Lifehold. During their missions across Mira, BLADE encounters multiple alien races, learning that those attacking them are part of the Ganglion coalition, an alliance of races led by the Ganglion race, who are intent on destroying humanity. During one mission, the avatar is wounded, revealing that they are in a robot body.
|
|
Research suggests that growth cones from different regions of the brain may respond to mechanical cues differently. It has been demonstrated that neural cells located in the hippocampus aren't sensitive to varying mechanical stiffness as it related to outgrowth, where cells originating from the dorsal root ganglion show maximal outgrowth on surfaces of approximately 1 kPa. Both hippocampal and dorsal root ganglion neural growth cones show increased traction force generation on increased stiffness substrates. Growth cones utilize integrin migratory machinery such as integrins, but are not a class of cell migration.
|
|
It joins the rest of the facial nerve via the canaliculus for chorda tympani. The facial nerve then forms the geniculate ganglion, which contains the cell bodies of the taste fibers of chorda tympani and other taste and sensory pathways. From the geniculate ganglion, the taste fibers continue as the intermediate nerve which goes to the upper anterior quadrant of the fundus of the internal acoustic meatus along with the motor root of the facial nerve. The intermediate nerve reaches the posterior cranial fossa via the internal acoustic meatus before synapsing in the solitary nucleus.
|
|
POU domain, class 4, transcription factor 1 (POU4F1) also known as brain- specific homeobox/POU domain protein 3A (BRN3A), homeobox/POU domain protein RDC-1 or Oct-T1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the POU4F1 gene. BRN3A (POU4F1) is a class IV POU domain-containing transcription factor highly expressed in the developing peripheral sensory nervous system (dorsal root ganglia, trigeminal ganglion, and hindbrain sensory ganglia), certain regions of the central nervous system, retinal neurons called ganglion cells, and in cells of the B- and T-lymphocytic lineages.
|
|
The axons of these neurons branch from the glossopharyngeal nerve at the level of the inferior ganglion and form the tympanic nerve along with the preganglionic parasympathetic axons from the inferior salivatory nucleus. The tympanic nerve then travels through the inferior tympanic canaliculus to the tympanic cavity forming the tympanic plexus. From here the sensory axons provide innervation of the middle ear and internal surface of the tympanic membrane. The parasympathetic axons branch from the tympanic plexus as the lesser petrosal nerve on their way to the otic ganglion.
|
|
It is innervated by the sympathetic system, which acts by releasing noradrenaline, which acts on α1-receptors. page 163 Thus, when presented with a threatening stimuli that activates the fight-or-flight response, this innervation contracts the muscle and dilates the pupil, thus temporarily letting more light reach the retina. The dilator muscle is innervated more specifically by postganglionic sympathetic nerves arising from the superior cervical ganglion as the sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion. From there, they travel via the internal carotid artery through the carotid canal to foramen lacerum.
|
|
Zoomorphology, 134(1), 33-43. DOI: 10.1007/s00435-014-0245-4 Male reproductive system: Atrium is large, bulbous with a glandular cover and located at ganglion in segment XI. Penis sheath is long broad duct bent anteriorly, not reaching ganglion in segment XII. Epididymis are medium-sized, discoid, tightly packed masses of ducting standing upright on either side of the atrium and located between ganglia in segments XI and XII. Ejaculatory bulbs are fusiform, well developed, and not larger than epididymes the dorsocefalic faces of which they circle.
|
|
In the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), the presence of an egg in the genital chamber results in an increase of spermathecal contractions. As a result, sperm is released to fertilize the egg. A neural loop (from the VIIIth ganglion through the N2B nerve to N2B2, N2B3, N2B4, and N2B6b nerves) is then activated to direct the sperm to fertilize the egg via muscular contractions. In the Caribbean fruit fly (Anastrepha suspensa), both the spermathecae and their ducts are innervated by an abdominal ganglion located under the first abdominal sternite.
|
|
While they do show clear center-surround antagonism (known as spatial opponency), they receive no information about color (absence of chromatic opponency). Parasol ganglion cells contribute information about the motion and depth of objects to the visual system.
|
|
The sympathetic trunk forms a plexus of nerves around the artery known as the carotid plexus. The internal carotid nerve arises from the superior cervical ganglion, and forms this plexus, which follows the internal carotid into the skull.
|
|
David M. Berson is Professor of Medical Science at Brown University. He helped lead the way in the discovery of a third class of mammalian photoreceptors by providing the first electrophysiological recordings from intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
The fibers of the retinal ganglion cells of the optic disc become engorged and bulge anteriorly. Persistent and extensive optic nerve head swelling, or optic disc edema, can lead to loss of these fibers and permanent visual impairment.
|
|
Because it is innervated by preganglionic nerve fibers, the adrenal medulla can be considered as a specialized sympathetic ganglion. Unlike other sympathetic ganglia, however, the adrenal medulla lacks distinct synapses and releases its secretions directly into the blood.
|
|
The human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive the light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hormone melatonin and entrainment of the body clock.
|
|
The levator palpebrae superioris receives motor innervation from the superior division of the oculomotor nerve. The smooth muscle that originates from its undersurface, called the superior tarsal muscle is innervated by postganglionic sympathetic axons from the superior cervical ganglion.
|
|
Visual Neuroscience, 29(6), 283–299. doi:10.1017/S0952523812000338. model for the origin of orientation maps is Moiré interference from retinal ganglion cells (RGCs).Paik, S., & Ringach, D. L. (2011). Retinal origin of orientation maps in the visual cortex.
|
|
Proprioception of the head stems from the muscles innervated by the trigeminal nerve, where the GSA fibers pass without synapsing in the trigeminal ganglion (first-order sensory neuron), reaching the mesencephalic tract and the mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve.
|
|
Inhibition by neurons also affects activation in synapses. Together with the bleaching of a rod or cone pigment, merging of signals on ganglion cells are inhibited, reducing convergence. Alpha adaptation, i.e., rapid sensitivity fluctuations, is powered by nerve control.
|
|
He was a professor of medicine and obstetrics. Wrisberg studied the sympathetic nervous system and described the Wrisberg ganglion of the cardiac plexus. He also wrote a text on hernias. The cuneiform cartilages are sometimes called the "Wrisberg cartilages".
|
|
A variety of surgeries have been performed including microvascular decompression (MVD) of the fifth, ninth, and tenth nerves; as well as partial cutting of the nervus intermedius, geniculate ganglion, chorda tympani and/or the ninth and tenth cranial nerves.
|
|
In the autonomic nervous system there are both sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia which contain the cell bodies of postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons respectively. A pseudoganglion looks like a ganglion, but only has nerve fibers and has no nerve cell bodies.
|
|
Kv3.1/Kv3.2 conductance is necessary and kinetically optimized for high- frequency action potential generation. Kv3.1 channels are important for the high-firing frequency of auditory and fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons, retinal ganglion cells; regulation of action potential duration in presynaptic terminals.
|
|
Rosai (2004).Rosai and Ackerman's Surgical Pathology. Philadelphia, Mosby, p.1128. Hyperchromatic and bizarre nuclei in neuroblasts and ganglion cells in undifferentiated or poorly differentiated foci are far too pathognomonic, although anaplastic expressions can be found in differentiating foci alike.
|
|
Sural mononeuropathy is uncommon. If affected, it can be due to a mass lesion such as a ganglion or to trauma, which is the most common cause.Stickler DE, Morley KN, Massey EW. Sural neuropathy: etiologies and predisposing factors. Muscle Nerve.
|
|
20-HETE activates the mouse and human transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1, also known as the capsaicin receptor and the vanilloid receptor 1), and through this receptor, cultured dorsal root ganglion cells taken from mice.
|
|
The optic disc or optic nerve head is the point of exit for ganglion cell axons leaving the eye. Because there are no rods or cones overlying the optic disc, it corresponds to a small blind spot in each eye.
|
|
KIAA0452 expression is most prevalent in the brain, with the highest levels in the trigeminal ganglion and occipital lobe TTC39A is induced by TFAP2C in hormone responsive breast carcinoma cells and TTC39A is expressed in estrogen receptor positive carcinoma cell lines.
|
|
Tor Magne Glidje (born 27 September 1977) is a Norwegian guitarist in Extol, Ganglion and Longing, a.k.a. Lengsel, where he is also the lead singer. He was also a part of Benea Reach. He is now playing in the band Mantric.
|
|
Using some of the material planned for Point/Laugh, and other material cobbled together from previous demos, the first proper Ganglion album In An Incubator was released in February, 2007. At this point, the Point/Laugh project was scrapped in favor of a new, more challenging undertaking. Reese decided to record a series of eight albums, to be released as a "concept box-set" upon their completion. Each album was given a title containing one letter from the word 'Ganglion' corresponding to the order of albums in the series, and the whole series would be titled semi-eponymously: GANGLION8.
|
|
Each ganglion cell or optic nerve fiber bears a receptive field, increasing with intensifying light. In the largest field, the light has to be more intense at the periphery of the field than at the center, showing that some synaptic pathways are more preferred than others. The organization of ganglion cells' receptive fields, composed of inputs from many rods and cones, provides a way of detecting contrast, and is used for detecting objects' edges. Each receptive field is arranged into a central disk, the "center", and a concentric ring, the "surround", each region responding oppositely to light.
|
|
From 1835, he worked at the universities of Zurich, Freiburg and Tübingen, returning to Heidelberg in 1852 as a professor of anatomy and physiology. Following his retirement, he was replaced at Heidelberg by Carl Gegenbaur (1826-1903). Heidelberg University Library (biography) The auricular branch of the vagus nerve was nicknamed "Arnold's nerve" after he described the reflex of coughing when the ear is stimulated.Arnold's nerve cough @ Who Named It Other eponyms that contain his name are "Arnold's ganglion" (otic ganglion) and "Arnold's canal" (a passage of the petrous portion of the temporal bone for the auricular branch of the vagus nerve.
|
|
The nervous system of an insect can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. The head capsule is made up of six fused segments, each with either a pair of ganglia, or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain. The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect's esophagus, called the subesophageal ganglion. The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment.
|
|
The peripherin gene is transcriptionally activated in both small and large sized sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglion at about day E10, and mRNA is present in these cells after postnatal day 2 and throughout adulthood. Post transcriptional mechanisms reduce detectable peripherin to only the small sized cells; however, crushing of the peripheral processes in dorsal root ganglion neurons lead to mRNA and detectable peripherin in the large sized cells. The proinflammatory cytokines, interleukin-6 and leukemia inhibitory factor, can also induce peripherin expression through the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. This specific upregulation is linked to neuronal regeneration.
|
|
Hirschsprung's disease is a congenital disorder of the colon in which nerve cells of the myenteric plexus in its walls, also known as ganglion cells, are absent. Hirschsprung's disease is a form of functional low bowel obstruction due to failure of caudal migration of neuroblasts within developing bowel – this results in an absence of parasympathetic intrinsic ganglion cells in both Auerbach's and Meissner's plexuses. The distal large bowel from the point of neuronal arrest to the anus is continuously aganglionic. It is a rare disorder (1:5000), with prevalence among males being four times that of females.
|
|
The dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons of mammals were known to express a heat-sensitive ion channel that could be activated by capsaicin. The research group of David Julius, therefore, created a cDNA library of genes expressed in dorsal root ganglion neurons, expressed the clones in HEK 293 cells, and looked for cells that respond to capsaicin with calcium influx (which HEK-293 normally not do). After several rounds of screening and dividing the library, a single clone encoding the TRPV1 channel was finally identified in 1997. It was the first TRPV channel to be identified.
|
|
This suggests that more than one prey detecting cell—i.e., an ensemble of cells—will fire in the releasing system of prey-capture. Further comparisons between the receptive fields of tectal neurons and retinal ganglion cells, classes R2 and R3, recorded in free-moving toads, revealed that size-sensitive (T5.1) and prey-selective (T5.2) tectal neurons were able to estimate the absolute size of a moving stimulus while retinal ganglion cells were only able to determine the visual angular size of the stimulus. Other selective neurons observed in the optic tectum include widefield arousal neurons, binocular neurons, and approach- sensitive neurons.
|
|
Dye injected into the cyst rarely enters the joint, however, which has been attributed to the apparent formation of an effective and one-way "check valve", allowing fluid out of the joint, but not back in. In synovials, posttraumatic degeneration of connective tissue and inflammation have been considered as causes. Other possible mechanisms for the development of ganglion cysts include repeated mechanical stress, facet arthrosis, myxoid degeneration of periarticular fibrous tissues and liquefaction with chronic damage, increased production of hyaluronic acid by fibroblasts, and a proliferation of mesenchymal cells. Ganglion cysts also may develop independently from a joint.
|
|
Experiments with rodless, coneless humans allowed another possible role for the receptor to be studied. In 2007, a new role was found for the photoreceptive ganglion cell. Zaidi and colleagues showed that in humans the retinal ganglion cell photoreceptor contributes to conscious sight as well as to non-image-forming functions like circadian rhythms, behaviour and pupillary reactions. Since these cells respond mostly to blue light, it has been suggested that they have a role in mesopic vision and that the old theory of a purely duplex retina with rod (dark) and cone (light) light vision was simplistic.
|
|
The identity of the non-rod, non-cone photoreceptor in humans was found to be a ganglion cell in the inner retina as shown previously in rodless, coneless models in some other mammals. The work was done using patients with rare diseases that wiped out classic rod and cone photoreceptor function but preserved ganglion cell function. Despite having no rods or cones, the patients continued to exhibit circadian photoentrainment, circadian behavioural patterns, melatonin suppression, and pupil reactions, with peak spectral sensitivities to environmental and experimental light that match the melanopsin photopigment. Their brains could also associate vision with light of this frequency.
|
|
The nervous system of an insect can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. The head capsule is made up of six fused segments, each with a pair of ganglia, or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain. The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect's esophagus, called the subesophageal ganglion. The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment.
|
|
The large sensory root emerges from the lateral part of the trigeminal ganglion and exits the cranial cavity through the foramen ovale. Portio minor, the small motor root of the trigeminal nerve, passes under the trigeminal ganglion and through the foramen ovale to unite with the sensory root just outside the skull. The mandibular nerve immediately passes between tensor veli palatini, which is medial, and lateral pterygoid, which is lateral, and gives off a meningeal branch (nervus spinosus) and the nerve to medial pterygoid from its medial side. The nerve then divides into a small anterior and large posterior trunk.
|
|
Internal anatomy of a spider, showing the nervous system in blue Arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, have a nervous system made up of a series of ganglia, connected by a ventral nerve cord made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the belly. Typically, each body segment has one ganglion on each side, though some ganglia are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia. The head segment contains the brain, also known as the supraesophageal ganglion. In the insect nervous system, the brain is anatomically divided into the protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum.
|
|
All the people of NLA are in robot bodies called Mimeosomes, with their true bodies held within the Lifehold. The White Whale's power supply is depleting without the Lifehold, meaning the Mimeosomes will eventually shut down, killing the human population. BLADE fight off multiple attempts to destroy the White Whale and the Lifehold, eventually dissolving the alliance between the Ganglion and their allies. Due to his bitterness against NLA's leaders for abandoning his family on Earth, Lao attempts to betray the White Whale to the Ganglion, but is persuaded otherwise and gives them the information needed to find the Lifehold.
|
|
Many physical changes occur to the tunicate's body during metamorphosis, one of the most significant being the reduction of the cerebral ganglion, which controls movement and is the equivalent of the vertebrate brain. From this comes the common saying that the sea squirt "eats its own brain". However, the adult does possess a cerebral ganglion which may even be larger than in the embryonic stage, so the scientific validity of this joke is questionable. In some classes, the adults remain pelagic (swimming or drifting in the open sea), although their larvae undergo similar metamorphoses to a higher or lower degree.
|
|
A non-rod non-cone photoreceptor in the eyes of mice, which was shown to mediate circadian rhythms, was discovered in 1991 by Foster et al. These neuronal cells, called intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGC), are a small subset (≈1–3%) of the retinal ganglion cells located in the inner retina, that is, in frontSee retina for information on the retinal layer structure. of the rods and cones located in the outer retina. These light sensitive neurons contain a photopigment, melanopsin, which has an absorption peak of the light at a different wavelength (≈480 nm) than rods and cones.
|
|
As had been found in other mammals, the identity of the non-rod non-cone photoreceptor in humans was found to be a ganglion cell in the inner retina. The workers had tracked down patients with rare diseases wiping out classic rod and cone photoreceptor function but preserving ganglion cell function. Despite having no rods or cones the patients continued to exhibit circadian photoentrainment, circadian behavioural patterns, melanopsin suppression, and pupil reactions, with peak spectral sensitivities to environmental and experimental light matching that for the melanopsin photopigment. Their brains could also associate vision with light of this frequency.
|
|
Internal anatomy of a spider, showing the nervous system in blue Arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, have a nervous system made up of a series of ganglia, connected by a ventral nerve cord made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the belly. Typically, each body segment has one ganglion on each side, though some ganglia are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia. The head segment contains the brain, also known as the supraesophageal ganglion. In the insect nervous system, the brain is anatomically divided into the protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum.
|
|
Scheme showing sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation of the pupil and sites of lesion in a Horner's syndrome. The internal carotid plexus (internal carotid plexus) is situated on the lateral side of the internal carotid artery, and in the plexus there occasionally exists a small gangliform swelling, the carotid ganglion, on the under surface of the artery. Postganglionic sympathetic fibres ascend from the superior cervical ganglion, along the walls of the internal carotid artery, to enter the internal carotid plexus. These fibres then distribute to deep structures, which include the Superior Tarsal Muscle and pupillary dilator muscles.
|
|
For example, light in the centre might increase the firing of a particular ganglion cell, whereas light in the surround would decrease the firing of that cell. Stimulation of the center of an on-center cell's receptive field produces depolarization and an increase in the firing of the ganglion cell, stimulation of the surround produces a hyperpolarization and a decrease in the firing of the cell, and stimulation of both the center and surround produces only a mild response (due to mutual inhibition of center and surround). An off-center cell is stimulated by activation of the surround and inhibited by stimulation of the center (see figure). Photoreceptors that are part of the receptive fields of more than one ganglion cell are able to excite or inhibit postsynaptic neurons because they release the neurotransmitter glutamate at their synapses, which can act to depolarize or to hyperpolarize a cell, depending on whether there is a metabotropic or ionotropic receptor on that cell.
|
|
In: "Anaesthesiology. Clinical Pharmacology" Suri YV, Singh D (Eds.) New Delhi: Vani Educational Books; 28-35. Candocuronium demonstrated a short duration and a rapid onset of action, with little or no ganglion blocking activity, and it was only slightly less potent than pancuronium.
|
|
Physicians at New Jersey Medical School specializing in physical medicine and rehabilitation have published that sometimes even just a single local nerve block injection at the ganglion impar can give complete relief of coccydynia (tailbone or coccyx pain), when performed under fluoroscopic guidance.
|
|
About 8 to 10% of retinal ganglion cells are bistratified cells. They receive inputs from intermediate numbers of rods and cones. They have moderate spatial resolution, moderate conduction velocity, and can respond to moderate- contrast stimuli. They may be involved in color vision.
|
|
Achalasia is a motor disorder of the esophagus characterized by decrease in ganglion cell density in the myenteric plexus. The cause of the lesion is unknown. Myenteric plexi destruction has been found to be secondary to Chagas disease (T. cruzi infection sequelae).
|
|
A pseudoganglion is a localized thickening of the main part or trunk of a nerve that has the appearance of a ganglion but has only nerve fibers and no nerve cell bodies. Pseudoganglia are found in the teres minor muscle and radial nerve.
|
|
Schwitzer, et al., 2015 In the visual system, cannabinoids agonist induce a dose dependent modulation of calcium, chloride and potassium channels. This alters vertical transmission between photoreceptor, bipolar and ganglion cells. Altering vertical transmission in turn results in the way vision is perceived.
|
|
This image shows the level of expression of CCDC82 in different tissues throughout the body. CCDC82 is found in nearly all tissues in the human body, however it is present in higher quantities in the skeletal muscles, adrenal cortex, and the trigeminal ganglion.
|
|
Museum specimen Megalopta genalis is a species of the family Halictidae, otherwise known as the sweat bees. The bee is native to Central and South America.Greiner, B., et al. (2004). Neural organisation in the first optic ganglion of the nocturnal bee Megalopta genalis.
|
|
The ganglion cells vary much in size, and the dendrites of the smaller ones as a rule arborize in the inner plexiform layer as soon as they enter it; while those of the larger cells ramify close to the inner nuclear layer.
|
|
A ganglion cyst is a fluid-filled bump associated with a joint or tendon sheath. They most often occur at the back of the wrist followed by the front of the wrist. Onset is often over months. Typically there are no further symptoms.
|
|
Kv3.1 and Kv3.2 channels are prominently expressed in neurons that fire at high frequency. Kv3.2 channels are prominently expressed in brain (fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons of the neocortex, hippocampus, and caudate nucleus; terminal fields of thalamocortical projections), and in retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
OFF DS ganglion cells act as a centripetal motion detector, and they respond only to the trailing edge of a stimulus. They are tuned to upward motion of a stimulus. The dendrites are asymmetrical and arbor in to the direction of their preference.
|
|
However, when stimulation was delivered to the parietal ganglion, the snails decreased the frequency of touching the rod compared to the baseline spontaneous frequency. These increases and decreases in pressing are positive and negative reinforcement responses typical of those seen with vertebrates.
|
|
Because of the torsion of the nerve cords, one parietal ganglion is typically higher in the body than the other. Finally, the nerve cords terminate in a linked pair of visceral ganglia, which supply nerves to the remaining organs of the visceral mass.
|
|
Also in 2017, Fox 8 Cleveland covered Elkins' trip to Chicago, where a procedure called "Stellate ganglion block" was performed on both him and his wife Molly, by Dr. Eugene Lipov. This procedure was done in order to reduce symptoms of PTSD.
|
|
FVR has a two- to five-day incubation period. The virus is shed for one to three weeks postinfection. Latently infected cats (carriers) will shed FHV-1 intermittently for life, with the virus persisting within the trigeminal ganglion. Stress and use of corticosteroids precipitate shedding.
|
|
An example of a Moiré interference pattern. The offset of the two lattices creates a dipole of retinal ganglion cells. This dipole is orientated in various directions that correspond to a specific orientation. A highly debatedSchottdorf M., Eglen S. J., Wolf F. & Keil W. (2014).
|
|
The aorticorenal ganglion is composed of the superior mesenteric, renal, and inferior mesenteric ganglia. This is distinct from the celiac ganglia. However, they are part of the preaortic ganglia. Sympathetic input to the gut comes from the sympathetic chain next to the thoracic vertebrae.
|
|
Dimethylphenylpiperazinium (DMPP) is a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist which is selective for the ganglionic subtype. One of the earliest reports on the pharmacology of DMPP, describing it as a ganglion-stimulating, hypertensive agent, came from Graham Chen and his co-workers at Parke, Davis & Co.
|
|
Similar to the eyes of other mammals, the human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hormone melatonin and entrainment of the body clock.
|
|
There Eric R. Kandel started to investigate the gill withdrawal reflex and postsynaptic potentials (PSP) in identified neurons in the abdominal ganglion of Aplysia.The History of Neuroscience in Autobiography Volume 4Kandel E. R., Tauc L. (1964). Mechanism of prolonged heterosynaptic facilitation. Nature 202, 145–147.
|
|
The poem "Slaves" published in the 1924 collection The Three Sphinxes and Other Poems inspired the title of the 1968 psychothriller Twisted Nerve, and is quoted several times in the film: :A twisted nerve, a ganglion gone awry, :Predestinates the sinner and the saint.
|
|
Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010. A third class of mammalian photoreceptor cell was discovered during the 1990s: the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. These cells do not contribute to sight directly, but are thought to support circadian rhythms and pupillary reflex.
|
|
The inner plexiform layer is an area of the retina that is made up of a dense reticulum of fibrils formed by interlaced dendrites of retinal ganglion cells and cells of the inner nuclear layer. Within this reticulum a few branched spongioblasts are sometimes embedded.
|
|
Therefore, K cells are believed to relay short-wavelength visual information.Szmajda, Brett A.; Grünert, Ulrike; Martin, Paul R. (2008). "Retinal Ganglion Cell Inputs to the Koniocellular Pathway" The Journal of Comparative Neurology 510:266. Corticogeniculate axons appear to be quantitatively dominant within the LGN.
|
|
The center-surround receptive field organization allows ganglion cells to transmit information not merely about whether photoreceptor cells are exposed to light, but also about the differences in firing rates of cells in the center and surround. This allows them to transmit information about contrast. The size of the receptive field governs the spatial frequency of the information: small receptive fields are stimulated by high spatial frequencies, fine detail; large receptive fields are stimulated by low spatial frequencies, coarse detail. Retinal ganglion cell receptive fields convey information about discontinuities in the distribution of light falling on the retina; these often specify the edges of objects.
|
|
In addition, in response to a slow, depolarizing stimulus, most mutant channels will generate a larger than normal sodium current. Each of these alterations in activation and deactivation can contribute to the hyperexcitability of pain-signaling DRG neurons expressing these mutant channels, thus causing extreme sensitivity to pain (hyperalgesia). While the expression of PE Nav1.7 mutations produces hyperexcitability in DRG neurons, studies on cultured rat in sympathetic ganglion neurons indicate that expression of these same PE mutations results in reduction of excitability of these cells. This occurs because Nav1.8 channels, which are selectively expressed in addition to Nav1.7 in DRG neurons, are not present within sympathetic ganglion neurons.
|
|
The long ciliary nerves, two or three in number, are given off from the nasociliary nerve as it crosses the optic nerve. The nasociliary nerve that the long ciliary nerves branch from is itself a branch of the ophthalmic branch (V1) of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). They accompany the short ciliary nerves from the ciliary ganglion, pierce the posterior part of the sclera, and running forward between it and the choroid, are distributed to the iris and cornea. The long ciliary nerves provide sensory innervation to the eyeball, including the cornea. In addition, they contain sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion to the dilator pupillae muscle.
|
|
Langley severed the SCG above the T1 portion, causing a loss of reflexes. When left to their own accord, the fibers reinnervated the SCG and the initial autonomic reflexes were recovered, though there was limited recovery of pineal gland function. When Langley severed the connections between the SCG and the T1–T5 region of the spinal cord and replaced the SCG with a different one, the SCG was still innervated the same portion of the spinal cord as before. When he replaced the SCG with a T5 ganglion, the ganglion tended to be innervated by the posterior portion of the spinal cord (T4–T8).
|
|
Central pathways are activated by weak stimuli applied at some distance from the target effector structure and peripheral pathways are activated when the stimuli is applied at a distance or directly on the target effector structure. A stimulus to the siphon (weak or moderate) is mediated by abdominal ganglion (55%) and by peripheral motor neurons (45%) and is activated simultaneously. By using preparations of Aplysia californica six central motor neurons have been found in the abdominal ganglion that produce movements of the gill. Stimulation of the cells named L7, LDG1, LDG2 and RDG results in large gill contractions and stimulation of L9G1 and L9G2 produces smaller contractions.
|
|
Due to certain genetic factors, a minority of humans are incompatible with the Ganglions' biology; these have been dubbed "Throwbacks". There are several cases where a group of people were abducted and taken over by Ganglion parasites, but a Throwback in the group wasn't infected and simply returned, often because it would be too conspicuous to kill them. Captured Ganglion parasites have been injected with the blood of Throwbacks, causing them to die in agony. The Hive is running various experiments to try to either eliminate Throwbacks or develop more humans who are easier to control, such as growing cloned human babies in cows.
|
|
The physiological basis for that is the much higher concentration of color-sensitive cone cells and color-sensitive parvocellular retinal ganglion cells in the fovea – the central region of the retina, together with a larger representation in the visual cortex – in comparison to the higher concentration of color-insensitive rod cells and motion-sensitive magnocellular retinal ganglion cells in the visual periphery, and smaller cortical representation. Since cone cells require considerably brighter light sources to be activated, the result of this distribution is further that peripheral vision is much more sensitive at night relative to foveal vision (sensitivity is highest at around 20 deg eccentricity).
|
|
A 2006 University of Pennsylvania study calculated the approximate bandwidth of human retinas to be about 8960 kilobits per second, whereas guinea pig retinas transfer at about 875 kilobits. In 2007 Zaidi and co-researchers on both sides of the Atlantic studying patients without rods and cones, discovered that the novel photoreceptive ganglion cell in humans also has a role in conscious and unconscious visual perception. The peak spectral sensitivity was 481 nm. This shows that there are two pathways for sight in the retina – one based on classic photoreceptors (rods and cones) and the other, newly discovered, based on photo-receptive ganglion cells which act as rudimentary visual brightness detectors.
|
|
The special sensory component of CN IX provides taste sensation from the posterior one-third of the tongue. ;Peripheral course :Special sensory fibers from the posterior one-third of the tongue travel via the pharyngeal branches of CN IX to the inferior glossopharyngeal ganglion where their cell bodies reside. ;Central course – special sensory component :The central processes of these neurons exit the inferior ganglion and pass through the jugular foramen to enter the brainstem at the level of the rostral medulla between the olive and inferior cerebellar peduncle. Upon entering the medulla, these fibers ascend in the tractus solitarius and synapse in the gustatory part of nucleus solitarius.
|
|
Drake et al. (2010), Gray's Anatomy for Students, 2nd Ed., Churchill Livingstone. The sensory processes, using their primary cell bodies from the inferior ganglion, send projections to the medulla, from which they travel in the tractus solitarius, later terminating at the rostral nucleus solitarius.Bhatnagar C. Subhash.
|
|
The drawings of Cajal suggest that the axons of the optic nerve may branch in the optic chiasm, and thus give off a branch both in the ipsi- and contralateral optic tract. Note, however, that such branching is not neural processing as occurs in a ganglion.
|
|
Internal auditory canal (I.A.C.) porous to tympanic segment. This middle cranial fossae exposure is used to expose I.A.C. and labyrinthine segment of the facial nerve when hearing preservation is goal. The geniculate ganglion and tympanic portion of the nerve can also be decompressed from this approach.
|
|
Kv3.1 and Kv3.2 channels are prominently expressed in neurons that fire at high frequency. Kv3.1 channels are prominently expressed in brain (cerebellum > globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra > reticular thalamic nuclei, cortical and hippocampal interneurons > inferior colliculi, cochlear and vestibular nuclei), and in retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
The pathological findings consist of an abundance of ganglion cells in both dilated and narrow areas of the intestine. It is a familial disturbance of unknown cause. Walter Berdon et al. in 1976 first described the condition in five female infants, two of whom were sisters.
|
|
Ignacio Provencio (born 29 June 1965) is an American neuroscientist and the discoverer of melanopsin, a photopigment found in specialized photosensitive ganglion cells of the mammalian retina. Provencio served as the program committee chair of the Society for Research on Biological Rhythms from 2008 to 2010.
|
|
Recurrences of genital herpes are caused by herpes simplex virus which lies dormant in the sacral ganglia between bouts of active infection. It innervates blood vessels and sweat glands in lower limbs. Near the coccyx, the right and left sympathetic trunks join to form the ganglion impar.
|
|
The GMC forms two ganglion cells which then develop into neurons or glial cells.Colonques, Jordi, Ceron, Julian, Reichert, Heinrich, & Tejedor, Francisco J. (2011). A transient expression of Prospero promotes cell cycle exit of Drosophila postembryonic neurons through the regulation of Dacapo. PLoS ONE, 6(4), e19342-e19342.
|
|
The pyloric sphincter, or valve, is a strong ring of smooth muscle at the end of the pyloric canal which lets food pass from the stomach to the duodenum. It controls the outflow of gastric contents into the duodenum. It receives sympathetic innervation from the celiac ganglion.
|
|
The lingual branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve innervates the taste buds of the posterior 1/3 of the tongue and provides general sensation to this same area. The neuron cell bodies whose axons form the nerve, are found in the inferior ganglion of the glossopharyngeal nerve.
|
|
About half the time they resolve on their own. About 3 per 10,000 people newly develop ganglion of the wrist or hand a year. They most commonly occur in young and middle aged females. Trying to treat the lesion by hitting it with a book is discouraged.
|
|
Kv3.1/Kv3.2 conductance is necessary and kinetically optimized for high-frequency action potential generation. Sometimes in heteromeric complexes with Kv3.1; important for the high- frequency firing of fast spiking GABAergic interneurons and retinal ganglion cells; and GABA release via regulation of action potential duration in presynaptic terminals.
|
|
The greater petrosal nerve (or greater superficial petrosal nerve) is a nerve in the skull that branches from the facial nerve; it forms part of a chain of nerves that innervate the lacrimal gland. The preganglionic parasympathetic axons of this nerve synapse in the pterygopalatine ganglion.
|
|
Expression of Nav1.9 in the afferent neurons of the dorsal root ganglion was found to be elevated as many as four weeks after the onset of the inflammatory pain. These results indicated that this alpha subunit plays some role in the maintenance of chronic inflammatory pain.
|
|
The tensor tympani is supplied by the tensor tympani nerve, a branch of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve. As the tensor tympani is supplied by motor fibers of the trigeminal nerve, it does not receive fibers from the trigeminal ganglion, which has sensory fibers only.
|
|
Nuclei in the ON are known to gradually increase in activation in response to increasing levels of illuminance. This information is then relayed directly to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, which proceeds to relay the command to constrict the pupils to the pupillary sphincter via the ciliary ganglion.
|
|
Horace B. Barlow was one of the first investigators to use the concept of the feature detector to relate the receptive field of a neuron to a specific animal behavior. In 1953, H.B. Barlow's electrophysiological recordings from excised retina of the frog provided the first evidence for the presence of an inhibitory surround in the receptive field of a frog's retinal ganglion cell. In reference to "on-off" ganglion cells—which respond to both the transition from light to dark and the transition from dark to light—and also had very restricted receptive fields of visual angle (about the size of a fly at the distance that the frog could strike), Barlow stated, "It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the 'on- off' units are matched to the stimulus and act as fly detectors". In the same year, Stephen Kuffler published in vivo evidence for an excitatory center, inhibitory surround architecture in the ganglion cells of the mammalian retina which further supported Barlow's suggestion that on-off units can code for behaviorally relevant events.
|
|
The path of the facial nerve can be divided into six segments: # intracranial (cisternal) segment # meatal (canalicular) segment (within the internal auditory canal) # labyrinthine segment (internal auditory canal to geniculate ganglion) # tympanic segment (from geniculate ganglion to pyramidal eminence) # mastoid segment (from pyramidal eminence to stylomastoid foramen) # extratemporal segment (from stylomastoid foramen to post parotid branches) The motor part of the facial nerve arises from the facial nerve nucleus in the pons, while the sensory and parasympathetic parts of the facial nerve arise from the intermediate nerve. From the brain stem, the motor and sensory parts of the facial nerve join together and traverse the posterior cranial fossa before entering the petrous temporal bone via the internal auditory meatus. Upon exiting the internal auditory meatus, the nerve then runs a tortuous course through the facial canal, which is divided into the labyrinthine, tympanic, and mastoid segments. The labyrinthine segment is very short, and ends where the facial nerve forms a bend known as the geniculum of the facial nerve (genu meaning knee), which contains the geniculate ganglion for sensory nerve bodies.
|
|
There is dispute on the taxonomy of functional vision defects. Some research indicates that Streff syndrome may be caused by a dysfunction in the magnocellular pathway of the retinal ganglion cells.Nimesh P. The use of frequency doubling technology to determine magnocellular pathway deficiencies. Journal of Behavioral Optometry, Volume 15.
|
|
Paralytic encodes a protein channel which transfers sodium ions into neurons and is activated in response to changes in the voltage across a membrane to propagate an action potential. The paralytic protein has been found in the thoracic-abdominal ganglion, eye tissues and cortical regions in the brain.
|
|
When the photoperiod decreases, these areas of the brain regress.Nelson Randy J. (2005) An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology (p.189). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. In mammals, daylength is registered in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which is informed by retinal light-sensitive ganglion cells, which are not involved in vision.
|
|
In a second experiment, Epo doubled the number of retinal ganglion cell axons regenerating along a length of nerve grafted onto the retrobulbar optic nerve. This evidence of Epo as a neuroprotective and neuroregenerative agent is extremely promising for Epo as therapy in central nerve injury and repair.
|
|
The inactivation effects of 10 μM application of CgNa on cultured rat dorsal ganglion neurons for 1 to 20 minutes exposure time seem to be fully reversible with repeated washout of the preparation. When using cloned insects' sodium channels, application of the same toxin levels were not reversible.
|
|
Environmental and physiological cues cause latent carriers to shed viral particles. Examples of physiological cues include "stress of migration, breeding season, [and] social interaction." Primary latency sites in carries are the trigeminal ganglion, lymphoid tissue, and blood lymphocytes. The latency sites of APV-1 is similar to other herpesviruses.
|
|
The lesser petrosal nerve (also known as the small superficial petrosal nerve) is the general visceral efferent (GVE) component of the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), carrying parasympathetic preganglionic fibers from the tympanic plexus to the parotid gland. It synapses in the otic ganglion, from where the postganglionic fibers emerge.
|
|
The rod cells are the photoreceptor cells in the retina capable of sensing light. However, they are not what sets the biological clock. The photosensitive retinal ganglion cells contain a pigment called melanopsin. This photopigment is depolarized in the presence of light, unlike the rods which are hyperpolarized.
|
|
David Husvik is a Norwegian drummer who has played in metal bands Extol, Absurd², Twisted Into Form and InSection and Aperture, a jazz and acoustic rock project. David Husvik helped to start Pirates N 'Thieves in 2007. He also performed in a side-project of Extol called Ganglion.
|
|
Charles Abadie (1842-1932) at data.bnf.fr Abadie was involved in developing treatments for glaucoma and trachoma, and discovered a diagnostic sign for exophthalmic goiter, which is known as "Abadie's sign". He also introduced the practice of injecting alcohol into the Gasserian ganglion as a treatment for trigeminal neuralgia.
|
|
The eponymous Hartley-Krause operation is named after Krause and surgeon Frank Hartley (1857-1913). This procedure involves an excision of the Gasserian ganglion and its roots to relieve trigeminal neuralgia. Today the German Neurosurgical Society awards the "Fedor Krause Medal" for outstanding work in the field of neurosurgery.
|
|
The splenic plexus (lienal plexus in older texts) is formed by branches from the celiac plexus, the left celiac ganglion, and from the right vagus nerve. It accompanies the lienal artery to the spleen, giving off, in its course, subsidiary plexuses along the various branches of the artery.
|
|
The receptive field is often identified as the region of the retina where the action of light alters the firing of the neuron. In retinal ganglion cells (see below), this area of the retina would encompass all the photoreceptors, all the rods and cones from one eye that are connected to this particular ganglion cell via bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells. In binocular neurons in the visual cortex, it is necessary to specify the corresponding area in both retinas (one in each eye). Although these can be mapped separately in each retina by shutting one or the other eye, the full influence on the neuron's firing is revealed only when both eyes are open.
|
|
The pedal ganglia are located low and close together in the back of the head region, with the more widely spaced pleural ganglia positioned slightly forward of them and above. Each pedal ganglion gives off a broad pedal nerve cord that runs the length of the animal's body beneath the visceral mass and together control its foot and shell muscle bundles. Each of the pleural ganglia connects to a statocyst that allows the limpet to orient itself. The pleural ganglia also innervate the pericardium (via the pericardial nerve cord) and the visceral ganglion, as well as the anterior and posterior sets of pallial nerves which travel through the mantle and surround the animal's head and sides respectively.
|
|
The suprachiasmatic nucleus is sometimes described as the brain's "master clock", as it maintains the circadian rhythm, and nerve signals from ipRGCs to the SCN entrain the internal circadian rhythm to the rising and setting of the sun. The SCN also receives input from rods and cones through the retinohypothalamic tract, so information from all three photosensitive cell types (rods, cones, and ipRGCs) in the mammalian retina are transmitted to the (SCN) SCN. Melanopsin-containing ganglion cells are thought to influence these targets by releasing the neurotransmitters glutamate and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) from their axon terminals. Melanopsin-containing ganglion cells also receive input from rods and cones that can add to the input to these pathways.
|
|
She noted that pathological destruction of nerve cells in the ciliary ganglion that is found in all cases of Adie pupil. In her own words: : Let’s say that in a given fresh Adie’s pupil, a random 70% of the cells in the ciliary ganglion stop working; and that, in a couple of months, these neurons re-grow and randomly re-innervate both intraocular sphincters (the ciliary muscle and the iris sphincter). Some parasympathetic light-reaction neurons that were originally destined for the iris sphincter will end up innervating the ciliary muscle. But there will not be enough of them to budge that big muscle, so there will be no detectable accommodation with exposure to light.
|
|
The trigeminal cave is formed by the two layers of dura mater (endosteal and meningeal) which are part of an evagination of the cerebellar tentorium near the apex of the petrous part of the temporal bone. It envelops the trigeminal ganglion. It is bounded by the dura overlying four structures: #cerebellar tentorium superolaterally #lateral wall of the cavernous sinus superomedially #clivus medially #posterior petrous face inferolaterally Within the dural confines of the trigeminal cave, there is a continuation of subarachnoid space along the posterior aspect of the cave, representing a continuation of the cerebral basal cisterns.Burr HS, Robinson GB: An anatomical study of the gasserian ganglion with particular reference to the nature and extend of Meckel’s Cave (M,C).
|
|
The branches of the ciliary ganglion are the short ciliary nerves. These are delicate filaments, from six to ten in number, which arise from the forepart of the ganglion in two bundles connected with its superior and inferior angles; the lower bundle is the larger. They run forward with the ciliary arteries in a wavy course, one set above and the other below the optic nerve, and are accompanied by the long ciliary nerves from the nasociliary. They pierce the sclera at the back part of the bulb of the eye, pass forward in delicate grooves on the inner surface of the sclera, and are distributed to the ciliary muscle, iris, and cornea.
|
|
The study showed that DS ganglion cells derive their property from the basis of sequence-discriminating activity of subunits, and that this activity may be the result of inhibitory mechanism in response to the motion of image in the null direction. It also showed that the DS property of retinal ganglion cells is distributed over the entire receptive field, and not limited to specific zones. Direction selectivity is contained for two adjacent points in the receptive field separated by as small as 1/4°, but selectivity decreased with larger separations. They used this to support their hypothesis that discrimination of sequences gives rise to direction selectivity because normal movement would activate adjacent points in a succession.
|
|
In humans the retinal ganglion cell photoreceptor contributes to conscious sight as well as to non-image- forming functions like circadian rhythms, behaviour and pupil reactions. Since these cells respond mostly to blue light, it has been suggested that they have a role in mesopic vision. Zaidi and colleagues' work with rodless coneless human subjects hence also opened the door into image-forming (visual) roles for the ganglion cell photoreceptor. It was discovered that there are parallel pathways for vision – one classic rod and cone-based pathway arising from the outer retina, and the other a rudimentary visual brightness detector pathway arising from the inner retina, which seems to be activated by light before the other.
|
|
Can Retinal Ganglion Cell Dipoles Seed Iso-Orientation Domains in the Visual Cortex? PLoS ONE 9(1), e86139. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0086139.Hore, V. R. A., Troy, J. B., & Eglen, S. J. (2012). Parasol cell mosaics are unlikely to drive the formation of structured orientation maps in primary visual cortex.
|
|
The retina is where a group of light- sensing cells, called photoreceptors are located. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and cones. Rods are sensitive to dim light and cones are better able to transduce bright light. Photoreceptors connect to bipolar cells, which induce action potentials in retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
Optic disc drusen (ODD) are globules of mucoproteins and mucopolysaccharides that progressively calcify in the optic disc.Golnik, K. (2006). Congenital anomalies and acquired abnormalities of the optic nerve, (Version 14.3). UptoDate (On-Line Serial) They are thought to be the remnants of the axonal transport system of degenerated retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
Cell cycle re-entry by p75NTR is not dependent on Cdk4/6 (Morillo et al., 2012) and, therefore, differs from other cell types that re-enter the cell cycle. In retinal ganglion cells, p75NTR is mediated by p38MAPK and then phosphorylates E2F4, before progressing the cell through the cell cycle.
|
|
A Hancock's organ could not be detected. The paired pedal ganglia lie posteroventrally to the cerebral ganglia, and are connected by a commissure which is slightly longer than the cerebral commissure. A statocyst with a single otolith is attached dorsally to each pedal ganglion. The static nerve could not be detected.
|
|
23:147–156 In mouse retina the majority of ganglion cells are born at E17 (embryonic stage/day 17). At this age the retina has reached 25% of its mature sizeGrueber WB, Sagasti A, 2010. Self- Avoidance and Tiling: Mechanisms of Dendrite and Axon Spacing. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect. Biol.
|
|
Due to its distinctive position, the foramen is used as an anatomical landmark during neurosurgery. As a landmark, the foramen spinosum reveals the positions of other cranial foramina, the mandibular nerve and trigeminal ganglion, foramen ovale, and foramen rotundum. It may also be relevant in achieving haemostasis during trauma surgery.
|
|
Effects of the pharmacological agents on retinal ganglion cell activity are observed using either MEA or calcium imaging. Immunotoxins can be used to target starburst amacrine cells. Starburst amacrine cells are retinal interneurons responsible for cholinergic retinal waves. The third method is to use knockout mice with altered spontaneous firing patterns.
|
|
A nutritional association between the bull kelp Nereocystis luetkeana and its epizooic bryozoan Membranipora membranacea. Oikos 31(1):69-72. When not feeding, the lophophore retracts into the polypide through the tentacular sheath. The lophophore is controlled by the zooid's nervous system, which consists of a ganglion at the lophophore base.
|
|
The zygomatic nerve branches from the maxillary nerve at the pterygopalatine ganglion. It travels from the pterygopalatine fossa through the inferior orbital fissure to enter the orbit. In the orbit it travels anteriorly along the lateral wall. Soon after it enters the orbit it divides into the zygomaticotemporal and zygomaticofacial nerves.
|
|
E. O. Gracheva, J. F. Codero- Morales, J. A. González-Carcaía, N. T. Ingolia, C. Manno, C. I. Aranguren, J. S. Weissman, D. Julius (2011). Ganglion-specific splicing of TRPV1 underlies infrared sensation in vampire bats. Nature 476:88-91. Vampire bats are the only mammals that feed exclusively on blood.
|
|
He served as a physician at the 1980 Winter Olympics. Sachs researched the cause of schizophrenia. He also studied the Ramsay Hunt syndrome and its impact on the geniculate ganglion. Additionally, he studied the presence of the acetylcholine in the cerebrospinal fluid, and he "discovered serotonin in cases of brain tumors".
|
|
For example, the peptide sequence [GTFALRGDNGDNGQ], which is located on the alpha-chain of laminin, promotes adhesion of endothelial cells.Beck et al., 1999. Laminin alpha4 is distributed in a variety of tissues including peripheral nerves, dorsal root ganglion, skeletal muscle and capillaries; in the neuromuscular junction, it is required for synaptic specialisation.
|
|
There are often large ganglion cell- like rhabdomyoblasts showing prominent nucleoli within nuclei that show vesicular chromatin distribution. Another population includes strap-like rhabdomyoblasts with darkly staining pink cytoplasm. Nearly all tumors show short to more sweeping fascicles of spindled rhabdomyoblasts. The tumor cells may infiltrate into adjacent skeletal muscle or fat.
|
|
Transduction is the process through which energy from environmental stimuli is converted to neural activity. The retina contains three different cell layers: photoreceptor layer, bipolar cell layer and ganglion cell layer. The photoreceptor layer where transduction occurs is farthest from the lens. It contains photoreceptors with different sensitivities call rods and cones .
|
|
The optic nerve contains axons of nerve cells that emerge from the retina, leave the eye at the optic disc, and go to the visual cortex where input from the eye is processed into vision. There are 1.2 million optic nerve fibers that derive from the retinal ganglion cells of the inner retina.
|
|
The metabolic change is thought to preserve nutrients for the wasp larva. Researchers have simulated this zombie state by injecting procaine into the SEG. They also determined using extracellular bipolar electrodes that neuronal activity was less in stung cockroaches. The venom may disturb the octopaminergic modulation in structures within the roach's ganglion.
|
|
Molecular markers for identified neuroblasts and ganglion mother cells in the Drosophila central nervous system. Development, 116(4), 855-863. GMCs are only present in certain species and only during the embryonic and larval stages of life. Recent research has shown that there is an intermediate stage between a GMC and two neurons.
|
|
A larva embryo will contain about 30 neuroblasts per hemisegment of neurogenic tissue.Karcavich, Rachel, & Doe, Chris Q. (2005). Drosophila neuroblast 7-3 cell lineage: a model system for studying programmed cell death, Notch/Numb signaling, and sequential specification of ganglion mother cell identity. The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 481(3), 240-251.
|
|
Tonic pupils are fairly common – they are seen in roughly 1 out of every 500 people. A person with anisocoria (one pupil bigger than the other) whose pupil does not react to light (does not constrict when exposed to bright light) most likely has Adie syndrome – idiopathic degeneration of the ciliary ganglion.
|
|
The pharyngeal nerve is a small branch of the maxillary nerve, arising from the posterior part of the pterygopalatine ganglion. It passes through the palatovaginal canal with the pharyngeal branch of the maxillary artery, and is distributed to the mucous membrane of the nasal part of the pharynx, behind the auditory tube.
|
|
This plexus gives off the lesser petrosal nerve. This nerve synapses in the otic ganglion and its postganglionic fibers form the inferior, parasympathetic root of the auriculotemporal nerve. The two roots re-unite and shortly after the "united" auriculotemporal branch gives off parotid branches, which serve as secretomotor fibers for the parotid gland.
|
|
The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve. It regulates heart rate, broncho-constriction, digestion, and the innate immune response. The vagus nerve innervates the celiac ganglion, the site of origin of the splenic nerve. Stimulation of the efferent vagus nerve slows heart rate, induces gastrointestinal motility, and inhibits TNF production in spleen.
|
|
Tectal prey feature detectors T5.2 project the axons towards bulbar premotor/motor systems. Their response characteristic results from integration in a neuronal network involving retinal ganglion cells R2, R3, R4, pretectal thalamic neurons TH3, and tectal neurons T5.1, T5.3. Arrows: excitatory connections; lines with terminal dots: inhibitory influences. Connections were checked, e.g.
|
|
The cDNA clone in flies has 1080 base pairs with a single exon. Six alleles of this gene have been reported and are found in dorsal lateral neurons and the ventral lateral neurons in the Drosophila brain and also in some abdominal ganglion neurons.Flybase: A Database of Drosophila Genes & Genomes. 2011 Apr 27.
|
|
In a sympathectomy, a sympathetic ganglion is surgically removed to treat hyperhidrosis, or excessive sweating. In a vagotomy, the vagus nerve is surgically removed to treat peptic ulcer disease through reducing stomach acid. In a rhizotomy, nerve fibers in the spinal cord are removed in the hopes of eliminating chronic muscle pain.
|
|
They contain sets of muscles that are common to all Acanthocephala including a proboscis receptacle, a receptacle- surrounding muscle called a receptacle protrusor, retinacula (connective tissue that stabilizes tendons), a neck retractor, proboscis and receptacle retractors, circular and longitudinal musculature under the metasomal (trunk) tegument, and a single muscular layer beneath the proboscis wall. Two regions of musculature are considerably different in Apororhynchus compared to the other acanthocephalan orders: the proboscis receptacle and receptacle protrusor are both reorganized in Apororhynchus with the muscles subdivided into strands extending from the cerebral ganglion, or nerve bundle, to the proboscis wall. These two muscles suspend the cerebral ganglion but are not involved in the eversion of the proboscis. Additional anatomical features that can be used to distinguish this genus among other acanthocephalans include a cerebral ganglion located under the anterior wall of the proboscis, long and tubular lemnisci (bundles of sensory nerve fibers) that run along a central canal, the lack of any protonephrida (an organ which functions as a kidney), and the presence of eight pear-shaped cement glands used to temporarily close the posterior end of the female after copulation.
|
|
A sensory space can also map into a particular region on an animal's body. For example, it could be a hair in the cochlea or a piece of skin, retina, or tongue or other part of an animal's body. This concept of receptive fields can be extended further up the nervous system; if many sensory receptors all form synapses with a single cell further up, they collectively form the receptive field of that cell. For example, the receptive field of a ganglion cell in the retina of the eye is composed of input from all of the photoreceptors which synapse with it, and a group of ganglion cells in turn forms the receptive field for a cell in the brain.
|
|
Diagram showing the three major elements (red, green, and yellow) of the squid giant neuronal system. The arrows indicate the direction of transmission from the head ganglion towards the mantle. The funnel (light blue) is the site of rapid water expulsion following mantle contraction. The squid giant synapse is the largest chemical junction in nature.
|
|
The heart and the auricle are very much developed, contained in a pericardium, and situated at the base of the branchiae. The cerebral ganglion is broad and flattened ; it sends out numerous nervous filaments which ramify over the whole body. The penis of the male is considerable and situated upon the same side. Kiener (1840).
|
|
Megaesophagus may occur secondary to diseases such as achalasia or Chagas disease. Achalasia is caused by a loss of ganglion cells in the myenteric plexus. There is a marked lack of contraction within the muscles involved in peristalsis with a constant contraction of the lower esophageal sphincter. Dilation of the esophagus results in difficulty swallowing.
|
|
In females, it is present in the ovaries, oviducts myometrium, decidua, and placenta. It has also been implicated in the proper development of the embryo. CB1 is also expressed in the retina. In the retina, they are expressed in the photoreceptors, inner plexiform, outer plexiform, bipolar cells, ganglion cells, and retinal pigment epithelium cells.
|
|
Since it is not stained by chromic salts, it is not truly a part of Chromafin system; viz. the system which includes cells stained by chromic salts, consisting of renal medulla, para ganglia, and para aortic bodies. It is situated near the ganglion impar in pelvis, and also near the termination of median sacral artery.
|
|
Specifically, BDNF promotes survival of dorsal root ganglion neurons. Even when bound to a truncated TrkB, BDNF still shows growth and developmental roles. Without BDNF (homozygous (-/-)), mice do not survive past three weeks. Including development, BDNF has important regulatory roles in the development of the visual cortex, enhancing neurogenesis, and improving learning and memory.
|
|
They leave the glossopharngeal nerve by its tympanic branch and then pass via the tympanic plexus and the lesser petrosal nerve to the otic ganglion. Here, the fibres synapse, and the postganglionic fibers pass by communicating branches to the auriculotemporal nerve, which conveys them to the parotid gland. They produce vasodilator and secretomotor effects.
|
|
This ganglion is responsible for motor and sensory impulses to and from the lophophore, as well as the epithelium and digestive tract. The lophophore retractor is the muscle which controls the movement of the lophophore. Unlike most bryozoans, this species does not have the ovicells or avicularia often seen in other members of this phylum.
|
|
In the mammalian brain, MVR has been shown to be common in CA1 pyramidal cells and Schaffer collateral cells. It has also been proposed and then refuted at the ribbon synapses formed between inner hair cell and spiral ganglion neurons. Recent evidence points to a possibility of MVR at neocortical connections of the somatosensory cortex.
|
|
Viral tracing is primarily used to trace neuronal circuits. Researchers use one of the previously mentioned viruses to study how neurons in the brain are connected to each other with a very fine level of detail. Connectivity largely determines how the brain functions. Viruses have been used to study retinal ganglion circuits, cortical circuits, and spinal circuits, among others.
|
|
The anatomical macula is defined histologically in terms of having two or more layers of ganglion cells. The umbo is the center of the foveola which in turn is located at the center of the fovea. The fovea is located near the center of the macula. It is a small pit that contains the largest concentration of cone cells.
|
|
The internal auditory meatus provides a passage through which the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), the facial nerve (CN VII), and the labyrinthine artery (an internal auditory branch of the anterior inferior cerebellar artery in 85% of people) can pass from inside the skull to structures of the inner ear and face. It also contains the vestibular ganglion.
|
|
Otherr research that suggested Epo is up- regulated according to mRNA expression in astrocytes and hypoxia-induced neurons, while EpoR is not. A correlation between the expression of Epo-R in ganglion cells and binding to sensory receptors in the periphery like Pacini bodies and neuromuscular spindles suggests that Epo-R is related to touch regulation.
|
|
It features more of a sludge/hardcore feel than the attitude rock of Ganglion, and has very little in common with Solace. In 2007, the original members, Vocalist Peter Espevoll and Drummer David Husvik, decided to end the band and the three remaining members, Sveen, Glidje and Mjåland, decided to start a new band called Mantric.
|
|
Peripheral nerve injury in rodents rapidly activates JNK signaling which in turn activates c-Jun. In contrast, nerve injury in the central nervous system does not. c-Jun is sufficient to promote axon regeneration in both the peripheral and central nervous systems as overexpression in both dorsal root ganglion neurons and cortical neurons leads to increased regeneration.
|
|
In gliogenesis, Notch appears to have an instructive role that can directly promote the differentiation of many glial cell subtypes. For example, activation of Notch signaling in the retina favors the generation of Muller glia cells at the expense of neurons, whereas reduced Notch signaling induces production of ganglion cells, causing a reduction in the number of Muller glia.
|
|
Neuronal differentiation, ranging from neuroblasts to ganglion cells, is seen in some medulloepitheliomas.Imaging studies such as Computerized Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) can aid diagnosis. Medulloepithelioma appears isodense or hypodense with variable heterogeneity and calcification on non-contrast CT scan, and enhances with contrast. This radiographical finding is consistent with a primitive neuroectodermal tumour, especially in children.
|
|
The middle meningeal nerve (meningeal or dural branch) is given off from the maxillary nerve (CN V2) directly after its origin from the trigeminal ganglion, before CN V2 enters the foramen rotundum. It accompanies the middle meningeal artery and vein as the artery and vein enter the cranium through the foramen spinosum and supplies the dura mater.
|
|
Adie syndrome is tonic pupil plus absent deep tendon reflexes. Adie syndrome is a fairly common, benign, idiopathic neuropathy that selectively affects the ciliary ganglion and the spinal cord neurons involved in deep tendon reflex arcs. It usually develops in middle age, although it can occur in children. A variant of Adie syndrome, Ross syndrome, affects sweating as well.
|
|
It is connected to two different neuronal ganglia, one with three bipolar neurons and the other with tens of neurons that also supplies other insect sensory organs located in the leg. Most of the subgenual organ is innervated by this major ganglion, except for the more proximal part. There is also an intermediary organ and a tympanal organ.
|
|
A geniculum is a small genu, or angular knee-like structure. It is often used in anatomical nomenclature to designate a sharp knee-like bend in a small structure or organ. For example, in the facial canal, the genicular ganglion is situated on the geniculum of the facial nerve, the point where the nerve changes its direction.
|
|
The modiolus is a conical shaped central axis in the cochlea. The modiolus consists of spongy bone and the cochlea turns approximately 2.75 times around the central axis in humans.Thieme Atlas of Anatomy The cochlear nerve, as well as spiral ganglion is situated inside it. The cochlear nerve conducts impulses from the receptors located within the cochlea.
|
|
There is one non-invasive device, a Myomonitor, an Ultra Low Frequency TENS (ULF-TENS) that has been utilized safely for more than 50 years by neuromuscular dentists in the diagnosis and treatment of TMJ disorders and orofacial pain conditions. Spenopalatine Ganglion Neuromodulation (possible vagal nerve) is a fortunate secondary effect making it extremely effective for TMD.
|
|
Tiger conch (C. luhuanus) In gastropod eye regeneration, the degenerating nerve is important for the formation of the new eye. New axons leave the eye cup and bundle together to form the optic nerve. The new nerve fibers seem to be attracted to the previous optic nerve, and grow down it until they make contact with the cerebral ganglion.
|
|
ATF-3 is induced upon physiological stress in various tissues. It is also a marker of regeneration following injury of dorsal root ganglion neurons, as injured regenerating neurons activate this transcription factor. Functional validation studies have shown that ATF3 can promote regeneration of peripheral neurons, but is not capable of promoting regeneration of central nervous system neurons.
|
|
Immediately behind the brain is the subesophageal ganglion, which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia. It controls the mouthparts, the salivary glands and certain muscles. Many arthropods have well-developed sensory organs, including compound eyes for vision and antennae for olfaction and pheromone sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain.
|
|
In the parasympathetic nervous system the output connections, the projections from ganglion neurons to tissues that don't belong to the nervous system, also release acetylcholine but act on muscarinic receptors. In the sympathetic nervous system the output connections mainly release noradrenaline, although acetylcholine is released at a few points, such as the sudomotor innervation of the sweat glands.
|
|
Luxaar attacks the group, but Lao fatally stabs him. The two fall into the pool of genetic material causing Luxxar and Lao to merge together. BLADE is reluctantly forced to kill them. Before dying, Lao reveals from Luxaar's memories that humanity's DNA was designed by their Samaarian ancestors to destroy the Ganglion using a genetic failsafe.
|
|
The pattern of microphotodiodes activated by incident light therefore stimulates a pattern of bipolar, horizontal, amacrine, and ganglion cells, leading to a visual perception representative of the original incident image. In principle, subretinal implants do not require any external hardware beyond the implanted microphotodiodes array. However, some subretinal implants require power from external circuitry to enhance the image signal.
|
|
Hemispadella is a genus of chaetognaths in the family Spadellidae. It consists of one species, Hemispadella dauvini Casanova, 1996. The species, as the generic name implies, shares numerous, but not all, of the characteristics of Spadellidae; it shares a number of other characteristics with Heterokrohniidae. The ventral ganglion, poorly described in chaetognaths,Bone, Q. & Pulsford, A. (1984).
|
|
In February 2018, O'Keefe was named as the wildcard athlete for the 2018 American Cup. In her senior international debut, O'Keefe finished third with a score of 54.365, behind fellow American Morgan Hurd and Mai Murakami of Japan. In the spring O'Keefe underwent wrist surgery to fix a ganglion cyst. She spent the remainder of the year recovering.
|
|
Postsynaptic parasympathetic fibers leave the ciliary ganglion in multiple (six to ten) short ciliary nerves. These nerves enter the posterior aspect of the eyeball to supply the sphincter pupillae and ciliaris muscles. The sphincter pupillae constricts the iris. The ciliaris muscle changes the shape of the lens, allowing the eye to focus on nearby objects (accommodation).
|
|
Immediately behind the brain is the subesophageal ganglion, which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia. It controls the mouthparts, the salivary glands and certain muscles. Many arthropods have well-developed sensory organs, including compound eyes for vision and antennae for olfaction and pheromone sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain.
|
|
Plan of retinal neurons. Amacrine cells are interneurons in the retina. They are named from the Greek roots a– ("non"), makr– ("long") and in– ("fiber"), because of their short neuritic processes. Amacrine cells are inhibitory neurons, and they project their dendritic arbors onto the inner plexiform layer (IPL), they interact with retinal ganglion cells and/or bipolar cells.
|
|
The same years saw his many conferences at the Surgical Society printed in several editions, alongside separate studies of skin cancer, the sympathetic nervous system in the abdomen, gas gangrene of the thorax, and gastrostomy techniques.Teodorescu et al., pp. 502–503, 505 In 1916, he and Ionescu together discovered the link between stellate ganglion removal and sympathectomy.
|
|
If the ganglion cyst is not bothersome, it should be left alone. Just removing the fluid from the cyst is not curative because fluid will come back in less than a week. Surgery is often done for large cysts but the results are poor. Recurrences are common, and there is always the possibility of nerve or joint damage.
|
|
The parafovea is the intermediate belt, where the ganglion cell layer is composed of more than five layers of cells, as well as the highest density of cones; the perifovea is the outermost region where the ganglion cell layer contains two to four layers of cells, and is where visual acuity is below the optimum. The perifovea contains an even more diminished density of cones, having 12 per 100 micrometres versus 50 per 100 micrometres in the most central fovea. That, in turn, is surrounded by a larger peripheral area, which delivers highly compressed information of low resolution following the pattern of compression in foveated imaging. Approximately half the nerve fibers in the optic nerve carry information from the fovea, while the remaining half carry information from the rest of the retina.
|
|
Provencio's discovery of melanopsin and its function in photoentrainment supports earlier studies showing that some blind patients can entrain to a daily light cycle. Since retinal ganglion cells that express melanopsin have also been found in humans, these studies suggest that blind humans who still retain functional melanopsin cells are those who are able to entrain to daily light cycles. These studies also show that blind patients who cannot entrain and lack melanopsin cells have a significantly greater risk of suffering from circadian rhythm sleep disorders. While enucleation of blind patients and babies was a common practice for cosmetic or analgesic reasons, doctors now must make a more cautious decision on whether to enucleate blind patients, especially infants, because they may still have functioning photosensitive retinal ganglion cells that express melanopsin.
|
|
Glaucoma is a group neurodegenerative diseases characterized by features including morphological changes in the optic nerve head and therefore in the visual fields of the patients. There are two main types; open-angle and closed-angle glaucoma. The loss of RGCs (retinal ganglion cells) and their axons results in visual field loss. Increasing evidence also supports the existence of compartmentalized degeneration in synapses.
|
|
Acrylic was his primary medium during this period. In 1971, Bellows took his first trip to Europe to study the art of the great masters throughout Italy and France. In 1972, his work was halted due to pain caused by a ganglion cyst that was wound around the tendons of his left wrist. This was crippling for Bellows, who was left-handed.
|
|
Some species only defecate when they molt, leaving the feces behind with the shed cuticle. The brain develops in a bilaterally symmetric pattern. The brain includes multiple lobes, mostly consisting of three bilaterally paired clusters of neurons. The brain is attached to a large ganglion below the esophagus, from which a double ventral nerve cord runs the length of the body.
|
|
After the fusion of the main nerve trunks of the nonclamp side, some prominent nerves arise to innervate the lappet. The innervation is different from that of Gastrocotyle trachuri. This is probably due to the attitude of clamps formation of P. trachuri, that occur in a posteroanterior direction, thus, the “prehaptoral” ganglion moves more anteriorly, close to the anteriormost clamps.
|
|
Neuroprotection is also a concept used in ophthalmology regarding glaucoma. The only neuroprotection currently proven in glaucoma is intraocular pressure reduction. However, there are theories that there are other possible areas of neuroprotection, such as protecting from the toxicity induced by degenerating nerve fibres from glaucoma. Cell culture models show that retinal ganglion cells can be prevented from dying by certain pharmacological treatments.
|
|
It descends through the greater palatine canal with the greater and lesser palatine branches of the pterygopalatine ganglion, and, emerging from the greater palatine foramen, runs forward in a groove on the medial side of the alveolar border of the hard palate to the incisive canal; the terminal branch of the artery passes upward through this canal to anastomose with the sphenopalatine artery.
|
|
The "brain" of adult articulates consists of two ganglia, one above and the other below the oesophagus. Adult inarticulates have only the lower ganglion. From the ganglia and the commissures where they join, nerves run to the lophophore, the mantle lobes and the muscles that operate the valves. The edge of the mantle has probably the greatest concentration of sensors.
|
|
As an undergraduate at Stanford University, working in the developmental biology laboratory of Norman K. Wessells PhD, Strassman developed a new model for growing embryonic avian dorsal root ganglion neurons, suspended in a semi- solid agar matrix, thus allowing 3-dimensional assessment of growing patterns. Using this model, he discovered a non-random pattern of growth of the leading edge of these cells.
|
|
The brothers Alan Chow and Vincent Chow have developed a microchip containing 3500 photodiodes, which detect light and convert it into electrical impulses, which stimulate healthy retinal ganglion cells. The ASR requires no externally worn devices. The original Optobionics Corp. stopped operations, but Chow acquired the Optobionics name, the ASR implants and plans to reorganize a new company under the same name.
|
|
Unlike arachnids with book lungs (scorpions, most spiders and several others), harvestmen and most other purely tracheate arachnids lack extensive arterial branching and well-defined venous sinuses. The circulatory system consists mainly of a dorsal tubular heart with anterior and posterior aortae. The heart is innervated by a cardiac ganglion. Myofibrils are mostly arranged circularly and constrict the heart during systole.
|
|
Degenerative retinoschisis is not known to be a genetically inherited condition. There is always vision loss in the region of the schisis as the sensory retina is separated from the ganglion layer. But as the loss is in the periphery, it goes unnoticed. It is the very rare schisis that encroaches on the macula where retinopexy is then properly used.
|
|
Along with the SVN, Scarpa's ganglion is also cut and removed. In cases of Ménière's disease, a neurectomy may be needed when no other medical treatment is sufficient for over six months. In bilateral Ménière's disease, the procedure is done on the worse-off ear. Some procedures are done on both ears, but the risk of hearing loss then becomes significantly greater.
|
|
Photosensitivity is the amount to which an object reacts upon receiving photons, especially visible light. In medicine, the term is principally used for abnormal reactions of the skin, and two types are distinguished, photoallergy and phototoxicity. The photosensitive ganglion cells in the mammalian eye are a separate class of light-detecting cells from the photoreceptor cells that function in vision.
|
|
The Visual Cycle. hν = Incident photon Visual phototransduction is the sensory transduction of the visual system. It is a process by which light is converted into electrical signals in the rod cells, cone cells and photosensitive ganglion cells of the retina of the eye. This cycle was elucidated by George Wald (1906–1997) for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1967.
|
|
In some neurological disorders, the pupil does not react to light, but it does react to accommodation. This is called “light-near dissociation”. In Adie syndrome, damage involving the ciliary ganglion manifests light-near dissociation and a tonically dilated pupil (usually on the same side). Other causes of light-near dissociation involve damage to the brainstem, where a tonic pupil is not produced.
|
|
The fibers of the chorda tympani travel with the lingual nerve to the submandibular ganglion. Here, the preganglionic fibers of the chorda tympani synapse with postganglionic fibers which go on to innervate the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands. Special sensory (taste) fibers also extend from the chorda tympani to the anterior 2/3 of the tongue via the lingual nerve.
|
|
In 2013, he worked with Dr Barbara Lorber and others on the use of a piezoelectric inkjet nozzle to spray ganglion and glial cells from a rat retina. The cells survived the process of deposition in layers and continued to grow in culture. With further development and testing, techniques like this could have clinical application for the repair of damaged retinas.
|
|
In 2016, he was involved in writing guidelines for Ketamine treatment under the aegis of the Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy Syndrome Association (RSDSA). Prager is one of the few physicians in the US to perform Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation for CRPS. He has been interviewed on ABC News, CBS News, The Doctors, Lifestyle Magazine, LA Times, National Public Radio, and Medscape.
|
|
This study focused on how the eye processes information it receives despite having so many overlapping nerve fibers and networks. The extracellular action potentials are measured giving an idea as to the arrangement of the ganglion cells, which was followed by the measure of the voltage of the signals. In addition, this study utilized visual methods to characterize a neuron's response to stimuli.
|
|
The movement the basilar membrane displaces the inner hair cells in one direction, which encodes a half-wave rectified signal of action potentials in the spiral ganglion cells. The axons of these cells make up the auditory nerve, encoding the rectified stimulus. The auditory nerve responses select certain frequencies, similar to the basilar membrane. For lower frequencies, the fibers exhibit "phase locking".
|
|
The ciliospinal center (in Latin: centrum ciliospinale) is a structure which receives input from the pretectum, and has output to the superior cervical ganglion. It is located in the intermediolateral cell columns (IMLCC) of the spinal cord between C8 and T2. It plays a role in the control of the iris dilator muscle. It is also known as "Budge's center", or "centre".
|
|
The skull has paired palatines and frontoparietals. The facial nerve passes through the anterior acoustic foramen in the auditory capsule; the trigeminal and facial nerve ganglia are fused to form a prootic ganglion. The eight (or seven) presacral holochordal vertebrae are all procoelous except for a biconcave surface on last presacral. The pectoral girdle is firmisternal and some show reduced clavicle and procoracoids.
|
|
Each spinal nerve receives a branch called a gray ramus communicans (plural rami communicantes) from the adjacent paravertebral ganglion of the sympathetic trunk. The gray rami communicantes contain postganglionic nerve fibers of the sympathetic nervous system and are composed of largely unmyelinated neurons. This is in contrast to the white rami communicantes, in which heavily myelinated neurons give the rami their white appearance.
|
|
Later, in 1925, Erwin Schrödinger published a paper inspired by von Kries, titled On the relation of the four color to the three color theory. There he probes a formal relationship between the two color theories. Both theories have solid empirical evidence. The conundrum was resolved by the discovery of color-opponent ganglion cells in the retina and lateral geniculate nucleus.
|
|
A ganglion mother cell (GMC) is the cell derived from the division of a neuroblast in the Drosophila central nervous system. The neuroblast divides to produce two cells, a progenitor cell like the mother neuroblast and a GMC that will divide to produce neurons. The mother neuroblast divides along the apical-basal axis, with Numb localizing basally and ending up in the GMC.
|
|
Both groups released synaptic vesicles from isolated synaptosomes by osmotic shock. The content of acetylcholine in a vesicle was originally estimated to be 1000–2000 molecules. Subsequent work identified the vesicular localization of other neurotransmitters, such as amino acids, catecholamines, serotonin, and ATP. Later, synaptic vesicles could also be isolated from other tissues such as the superior cervical ganglion, or the octopus brain.
|
|
Following their initial finding, Hubel and Wiesel discovered the presence of a variety of visual processing cells, each with unique receptive field properties. At the lowest and simplest level of the hierarchy are the aforementioned centre-surround cells of the retinal ganglion and LGN. Next, within the visual cortex, are simple cells. Simple cells exist within the primary visual cortex (Brodmann Area 17).
|
|
The cell bodies for the facial nerve are grouped in anatomical areas called nuclei or ganglia. The cell bodies for the afferent nerves are found in the geniculate ganglion for taste sensation. The cell bodies for muscular efferent nerves are found in the facial motor nucleus whereas the cell bodies for the parasympathetic efferent nerves are found in the superior salivatory nucleus.
|
|
The facial nerve also supplies parasympathetic fibers to the submandibular gland and sublingual glands via chorda tympani. Parasympathetic innervation serves to increase the flow of saliva from these glands. It also supplies parasympathetic innervation to the nasal mucosa and the lacrimal gland via the pterygopalatine ganglion. The parasympathetic fibers that travel in the facial nerve originate in the superior salivatory nucleus.
|
|
There are other pathways to the eye for both sympathetic and sensory fibers, and the precise anatomy varies from person to person. Since the result is the same regardless of how the fibers reach the eye, the presence of sympathetic and sensory fibers in the ciliary ganglion (the contributions of the “sensory” and “sympathetic” roots) is of no functional significance.
|
|
Heberlein et al. have conducted studies of alcohol tolerance in fruit flies; they found that a mutation that caused octopamine deficiency also caused lower alcohol tolerance. The emerald cockroach wasp stings the host for its larvae (a cockroach) in the head ganglion (brain). The venom blocks octopamine receptors and the cockroach fails to show normal escape responses, grooming itself excessively.
|
|
These targets include the olivary pretectal nucleus (a center responsible for controlling the pupil of the eye), the LGN, and, through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus (the master pacemaker of circadian rhythms). Melanopsin- containing ganglion cells are thought to influence these targets by releasing from their axon terminals the neurotransmitters glutamate and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP).
|
|
Trimetaphan camsilate (INN) or trimethaphan camsylate (USAN), trade name Arfonad, is a drug that counteracts cholinergic transmission at the ganglion type of nicotinic receptors of the autonomic ganglia and therefore blocks both the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. It acts as a non-depolarizing competitive antagonist at the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, is short-acting, and is given intravenously.
|
|
The mechanism of injury for NAION used to be quite controversial. However, experts in the field have come to a consensus that most cases involve two main risk factors. The first is a predisposition in the form of a type of optic disc shape. The optic disc is where the axons from the retinal ganglion cells collect into the optic nerve.
|
|
Specific modalities and receptive fields of sensory neurons in CNS of the leech. Journal of Neurophysiology, 31: 740–756Pastor, J., Soria, B. and Belmonte, C., (1996). Properties of the nociceptive neurons of the leech segmental ganglion. Journal of Neurophysiology, 75: 2268–2279 Learning and memory using nociceptors in the sea hare, Aplysia has been described.Byrne, J.H., Castellucci, V.F. and Kandel, E.R., (1978).
|
|
So although DSCAMs may retain a conserved function in mediating self-avoidance in vertebrates, the absence of molecular diversity makes it clear that they do not play a role in self-recognition. Dscams act to negate cell-type-specific interactions rather than actively promoting repulsion in vertebrates' neurites Considering that Dscam and Dscaml1 have non-overlapping expression patterns in the mouse retina, with Dscam being expressed in a subset of amacrine cells and most retinal ganglion cells (RGC) and Dscaml1 expressed in the rod circuit, Fuerst et al. (2009) examined retinal ganglion cell populations in Dscam−/− mice and, in addition, assessed retinal anatomy in the rod circuit using a gene-trap-knockout allele of Dscaml1. In the absence of either gene, the cells that would normally express it showed excessive fasciculation of their dendrites and clumping of their cell bodies.
|
|
In photoreceptor cells, there is an abundance of cGMP in dark conditions, keeping cGMP-gated Na channels open and so, activating PDE diminishes the supply of cGMP, reducing the number of open Na channels and thus hyperpolarizing the photoreceptor cell, causing less glutamate to be released. This causes the ON bipolar cell to lose its inhibition and become active (depolarized), while the OFF bipolar cell loses its excitation (becomes hyperpolarized) and becomes silent. Rod bipolar cells do not synapse directly on to ganglion cells. Instead, rod bipolar cells synapse on to a Retina amacrine cell, which in turn excite cone ON bipolar cells (via gap junctions) and inhibit cone OFF bipolar cells (via glycine-mediated inhibitory synapses) thereby overtaking the cone pathway in order to send signals to ganglion cells at scotopic (low) ambient light conditions.
|
|
Nervous system of a bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front The vast majority of existing animals are bilaterians, meaning animals with left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other. All bilateria are thought to have descended from a common wormlike ancestor that appeared in the Ediacaran period, 550–600 million years ago. The fundamental bilaterian body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from mouth to anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a "ganglion") for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the "brain". Area of the human body surface innervated by each spinal nerve Even mammals, including humans, show the segmented bilaterian body plan at the level of the nervous system.
|
|
The cells of the ventral cochlear nucleus extract information that is carried by the auditory nerve in the timing of firing and in the pattern of activation of the population of auditory nerve fibers. The cells of the dorsal cochlear nucleus perform a non-linear spectral analysis and place that spectral analysis into the context of the location of the head, ears and shoulders and that separate expected, self-generated spectral cues from more interesting, unexpected spectral cues using input from the auditory cortex, pontine nuclei, trigeminal ganglion and nucleus, dorsal column nuclei and the second dorsal root ganglion. It is likely that these neurons help mammals to use spectral cues for orienting toward those sounds. The information is used by higher brainstem regions to achieve further computational objectives (such as sound source location or improvement in signal to noise ratio).
|
|
The cranial root fibers arise from the cells of the nucleus ambiguus and emerge as four or five delicate rootlets from the side of the medulla oblongata, below the roots of the vagus. It runs lateralward to the jugular foramen, where it may interchange fibers with the spinal portion or even become united to it for a short distance; here it is also connected by one or two filaments with the jugular ganglion of the vagus. It then passes through the jugular foramen, separates from the spinal portion and is continued over the surface of the ganglion nodosum of the vagus, to the surface of which it is adherent, and is distributed principally to the pharyngeal and superior laryngeal branches of the vagus. Through the pharyngeal branch it probably supplies the Musculus uvulæ and Levator veli palatini.
|
|
Underlying visible persistence is neural persistence of the visual sensory pathway. A prolonged visual representation begins with activation of photoreceptors in the retina. Although activation in both rods and cones has been found to persist beyond the physical offset of a stimulus, the rod system persists longer than cones. Other cells involved in a sustained visible image include M and P retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
Most vision researchers believe that phosphenes result from the normal activity of the visual system after stimulation of one of its parts from some stimulus other than light. For example, Grüsser et al. showed that pressure on the eye results in activation of retinal ganglion cells in a similar way to activation by light. An ancient, discredited theory is that light is generated in the eye.
|
|
Laminin-111 is a major substrate along which nerve axons will grow, both in vivo and in vitro. For example, it lays down a path that developing retinal ganglion cells follow on their way from the retina to the tectum. It is also often used as a substrate in cell culture experiments. The presence of laminin-1 can influence how the growth cone responds to other cues.
|
|
Head position is sensed by the utricle and saccule, whereas head movement is sensed by the semicircular canals. The neural signals generated in the vestibular ganglion are transmitted through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain stem and cerebellum. The semicircular canals are three ring-like extensions of the vestibule. One is oriented in the horizontal plane, whereas the other two are oriented in the vertical plane.
|
|
Nav1.8 is a sodium ion channel subtype that in humans is encoded by the SCN10A gene. Nav1.8-containing channels are tetrodotoxin (TTX)-resistant voltage- gated channels. Nav1.8 is expressed specifically in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG), in unmyelinated, small-diameter sensory neurons called C-fibres, and is involved in nociception. C-fibres can be activated by noxious thermal or mechanical stimuli and thus can carry pain messages.
|
|
Thus lack of Nav1.7 results in inactivation of the sodium channels results in reduced excitability. Thus physiological interaction of Nav1.7 and Nav1.8 can explain the reason that PE presents with pain due to hyperexcitability of nociceptors and with sympathetic dysfunction that is most likely due to hypoexcitability of sympathetic ganglion neurons. Recent studies have associated a defect in SCN9A with congenital insensitivity to pain.
|
|
Two distinct types of mechanosensitive ion channels have been found in the posterior root ganglion neurons. The two channels are broadly classified as either high-threshold (HT) or low threshold (LT). As their names suggest, they have different thresholds as well as different sensitivities to pressure. These are cationic channels whose activity appears to be regulated by the proper functioning of the cytoskeleton and cytoskeleton associated proteins.
|
|
The superior tarsal muscle receives its innervation from the sympathetic nervous system. Postganglionic sympathetic fibers originate in the superior cervical ganglion, and travel via the internal carotid plexus, where small branches communicate with the oculomotor nerve as it passes through the cavernous sinus. The sympathetic fibres continue to the superior division of the oculomotor nerve, where they enter the superior tarsal muscle on its inferior aspect.
|
|
Different types of glial cells including microglia, astroglia and oligodendrocytes. Neurons and glial cells work in conjunction to combat intruding pathogens and injury. Chemokines play a prominent role as a mediator between neuron-glial cell communication since both cell types express chemokine receptors. For example, the chemokine fractalkine has been implicated in communication between microglia and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons in the spinal cord.
|
|
Pineal tumor Pineal region tumors are normally composed of a variety of cells including astrocytes, ganglion cells, blood vessels, and pinealocytes, which are the cells of this organ. Pinealocytes are specialized neurons, which are rich in monoaminergic neurotransmitters, including, serotonin, norepinephrine, and melatonin. Specifically, papillary tumors of this region are made up of ependymal cells which form papilla. The papilla is meant to be surface cells.
|
|
Pain in the external auditory canal (otalgia) can in rare cases be due to vagal neuralgia because of vascular compression of the vagus nerve (often by the posterior inferior cerebellar artery). The affected neurons are found in the superior ganglion and innervate the ear via the auricular branch of the vagus. The condition is treated by microvascular decrompression of the vagus nerve where it exits the brainstem.
|
|
The ascidian central nervous system is formed from a plate that rolls up to form a neural tube. The number of cells within the central nervous system is very small. The neural tube is composed of the sensory vesicle, the neck, the visceral or tail ganglion, and the caudal nerve cord. The anteroposterior regionalization of the neural tube in ascidians is comparable to that in vertebrates.
|
|
This technique was first practiced by Herman Knapp in 1884. Here, 2% xylocaine is introduced into the muscle cone behind the eyeball. The injection is usually given through the inferior fornix of the skin of the outer part of the lower lid when the eye is in primary gaze. The ciliary nerves, ciliary ganglion, oculomotor nerve and abducens nerve are anesthetized in retrobulbar block.
|
|
Brodmann area 7 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined parietal region of cerebral cortex in Guenon primates. It occupies most of the parietal lobe excluding the postcentral gyrus and superior parietal lobule. This layer is distinguished by a lack of large ganglion cells in cortical layer V, slightly larger layer III pyramidal cells, and a multiform layer VI that is sharply bounded by white matter tracts.
|
|
The carotid canal allows the internal carotid artery to pass into the cranium, as well as the carotid plexus traveling on the artery. The carotid plexus contains sympathetics to the head from the superior cervical ganglion They have several motor functions: raise the eyelid (superior tarsal muscle), dilate pupil (pupillary dilator muscle), innervate sweat glands of face and scalp and constricts blood vessels in the head.
|
|
The superior cervical ganglion is a reddish-gray color, and usually shaped like a football with tapering ends. Sometimes the SCG is broad and flattened, and occasionally constricted at intervals. It formed by the coalescence of four ganglia, corresponding to the upper four cervical nerves, C1-C4. The bodies of these preganglionic sympathetic neurons are specifically located in the lateral horn of the spinal cord.
|
|
As a paradox to the symptoms after a bee sting, bee venom is used for treatment of pain, inflammation (e.g. rheumatoid arthritis) and multiple sclerosis. Tertiapin may contribute to this effect by prolonging the depolarization phase by blocking the BK channels. Eventually this will lead to inactivation of the voltage- gated Na+ channels of the dorsal root ganglion neurons, reducing sensory transmission to the central nervous system.
|
|
The optic nerve is a cable connection that transmits images from the retina to the brain. It consists of over one million retinal ganglion cell axons. The optic nerve head, or optic disc is the anterior end of the nerve that is in the eye and hence is visible with an ophthalmoscope. It is located nasally and slightly inferior to the macula of the eye.
|
|
V1 receptors (V1Rs) are found in high density on vascular smooth muscle and cause vasoconstriction by an increase in intracellular calcium via the phosphatidyl–inositol- bisphosphate cascade. Cardiac myocytes also possess V1R. Additionally V1R are located in brain, testis, superior cervical ganglion, liver, blood vessels, and renal medulla. V1R is present on platelets, which upon stimulation induces an increase in intracellular calcium, facilitating thrombosis.
|
|
Herpes labialis, commonly known as cold sores, is a type of infection by the herpes simplex virus that affects primarily the lip. Symptoms typically include a burning pain followed by small blisters or sores. The first attack may also be accompanied by fever, sore throat, and enlarged lymph nodes. The rash usually heals within 10 days, but the virus remains dormant in the trigeminal ganglion.
|
|
During development it is through the choroidal fissure that the retinal vessels enter and leave the eye. While optic neural components (e.g. axons arising from retinal ganglion cells in the sensory retina) do not lie in the groove that is the choroidal fissure, they do extend through the portions of the optic stalk that form the walls of the fissure. These axons will form the optic nerve.
|
|
The dorsal root of spinal nerve (or posterior root of spinal nerve) is one of two "roots" which emerge from the spinal cord. It emerges directly from the spinal cord, and travels to the dorsal root ganglion. Nerve fibres with the ventral root then combine to form a spinal nerve. The dorsal root transmits sensory information, forming the afferent sensory root of a spinal nerve.
|
|
The root emerges from the posterior part of the spinal cord and travels to the dorsal root ganglion. The dorsal root ganglia contain the pseudo-unipolar cell bodies of the nerve fibres which travel from the ganglia through the root into the spinal cord. The lateral division of the dorsal root contains lightly myelinated and unmyelinated fibres of small diameter. These carry pain and temperature sensation.
|
|
This study showed a decrease of manic episodes in the patients. Participation in this study became unrealistic, as patients did not want to participate in treatment of total darkness from 6 p.m. to 8 a.m. More recently, with the discovery of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, it has been hypothesized that similar results could be achieved by blocking blue light, as a potential treatment for bipolar disorder.
|
|
Before the nerve exits the skull via the stylomastoid foramen and after the nerve to the stapedius muscle has branched off, the facial nerve gives off the chorda tympani nerve. This nerve exits the skull through the Petrotympanic fissure and merges with the lingual nerve, after which it synapses with neurons in the submandibular ganglion. These postganglionic neurons provide parasympathetic innervation to the submandibular and sublingual glands.
|
|
Like any denervated muscle, the iris becomes supersensitive to its normal neurotransmitter (in this case, acetylcholine). Very weak solutions of cholinergic substances such as pilocarpine (that have no effect on the normal iris) cause the denervated iris to constrict. Tonic pupils are usually due to Adie syndrome, but other diseases can denervate the ciliary ganglion. Peripheral neuropathies (such as diabetic neuropathy) occasionally produce tonic pupils.
|
|
Section of retina bipolar and horizontal cells (yellow layer), then to the amacrine cells and ganglion cells (purple layer), then to the optic nerve fibres. The signals are processed in these layers. First, the signals start as raw outputs of points in the rod and cone cells. Then the nerve layers identify simple shapes, such as bright points surrounded by dark points, edges, and movement.
|
|
The neuropil layers are the outer plexiform layer and the inner plexiform layer. In the outer neuropil layer, the rods and cones connect to the vertically running bipolar cells, and the horizontally oriented horizontal cells connect to ganglion cells. The central retina predominantly contains cones, while the peripheral retina predominantly contains rods. In total, there are about seven million cones and a hundred million rods.
|
|
In the abdominal ganglion has seven central motor neurons been found that also produce movements of the siphon. LDS1, LDS2, LDS3, RDS, LBS1, LBS2, and LBS3 control contraction and constriction of the siphon. The siphon is additionally innervated by about 30 peripheral motor neurons. Kandel and colleagues used preparations of Aplysia californica where individuals were restrained in small aquariums in a manner that the gill was exposed.
|
|
Recent developments in single cell RNA sequencing facilitated classification of cell types based on shared gene expression patterns. This has led to the discovery of many new cell types in e.g. mouse cortex, hippocampus, dorsal root ganglion and spinal cord. Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctists.
|
|
Caffeine is a competitive antagonist of GlyR. Gephyrin has been shown to be necessary for GlyR clustering at inhibitory synapses. GlyR is known to colocalize with the GABAA receptor on some hippocampal neurons. Nevertheless, some exceptions can occur in the central nervous system where the GlyR α1 subunit and gephyrin, its anchoring protein, are not found in dorsal root ganglion neurons despite the presence of GABAA receptors.
|
|
Specifically, it labels ON/OFF Direction Selective Ganglion Cells (ooDSGCs), a subpopulation of RGCs that stratify in both the ON and OFF sublamina of the Inner Plexiform Layer (IPL) of the retina. It is also found in a subset of amacrine cells in the Inner Nuclear Layer. No role as of yet has been proposed for the peculiar location of this protein in these cell types.
|
|
The greater petrosal nerve carries parasympathetic preganglionic fibers from the facial nerve. The greater petrosal nerve joins with the deep petrosal nerve (postganglionic sympathetic axons from the internal carotid plexus) and continues as the nerve of the pterygoid canal and ultimately synapses with the pterygopalatine ganglion whose parasympathetic postganglionic fibers synapse with the lacrimal gland and the mucosal glands lining the nasal cavity and palate.
|
|
The most studied is neurturin’s role in neurodegenerative disease like Parkinsons disease and Huntingtons, where several rat studies have implicated neurturin’s role in rescuing neurons. However, these results have never been observed in humans. Hirschsprung disease, a autosomal dominant genetic disorder, is characterized by complete absence of neuronal ganglion cells from the intestinal tract. Previous studies indicate a role of NRTN gene mutations in the disease.
|
|
The sense organs and ventral ganglion of Sagitta (Chaetognatha). Acta Zoologica, 65(4), 209–220. is of similar size to the Heterokrohniidae, and the larger number of teeth, and the difference in appearance and function between the anterior and posterior teeth, are similarly characteristic. The relative tail size is similar to that of the Spadellidae, although the overall size is unprecedented among the Spadellidae.
|
|
The neuropathological symptoms of primary erythromelalgia arise from hyperexcitability of C-fibers in the dorsal root ganglion. Specifically, nociceptors (neurons responsible for the sensation and conduction of painful stimuli) appear to be the primarily affected neurons in these fibers. This hyperexcitability results in the severe burning pain experienced by patients. While the neuropathological symptoms are a result of hyperexcitability, microvascular alterations in erythromelalgia are due to hypoexcitability.
|
|
Several sensory nerves connect directly to the cerebral ganglion; there are sensory and motor nerve cells connected to the ventral nerve cord ganglia in each segment. Leeches have between two and ten pigment spot ocelli, arranged in pairs towards the front of the body. There are also sensory papillae arranged in a lateral row in one annulation of each segment. Each papilla contains many sensory cells.
|
|
The oculomotor nerve passes through the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus and enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure. It divides into branches that innervate the levator palpebrae superioris and four of the six extraocular muscles. Parasympathetic fibers initially run in the inferior division of the oculomotor nerve. They exit as one or two short “motor roots” that synapse in the ciliary ganglion.
|
|
Beside circadian / behavioral functions, ipRGCs have a role in initiating the pupillary light reflex. Dennis Dacey with colleagues showed in a species of Old World monkey that giant ganglion cells expressing melanopsin projected to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). Previously only projections to the midbrain (pre-tectal nucleus) and hypothalamus (suprachiasmatic nucleus) had been shown. However a visual role for the receptor was still unsuspected and unproven.
|
|
Upper right, the area inside the black square is enlarged in the diagram below, showing the giant neuronal system with the first (red) second (green) and third giant neuronal elements (brown). The arrows indicate the direction of transmission flow from the head ganglion towards the mantle. The light blue funnel is the site for water flow following rapid water expulsion when the mantle contracts (Modified from ).
|
|
Wand is an American psychedelic rock band from Los Angeles, California, United States, formed in 2013. The band consists of Cory Hanson (vocals, guitar), Sofia Arreguin (synth, vocals), Robert Cody (guitar), Lee Landey (bass) and Evan Burrows (drums). Since their formation, the band has released five albums in five years: Ganglion Reef (2014), Golem (2015), 1000 Days (2015), Plum (2017) and Laughing Matter (2019).
|
|
Effect on VGSC JZTX-XI reduces the peak sodium current amplitude of sodium channels expressed in cardiac myocytes and slows down current inactivation. JZTX-XI shows no effects on both TTX-R and TTX-S sodium currents in dorsal root ganglion neurons Effect on potassium channels JZTX-XI shifts the activation curve of Kv2.1 to a more depolarized voltage and speeds up its deactivation.
|
|
K cells receive input from a heterogeneous group of wide-field cells, including small bistratified cells, sparse cells and possibly also large bistratified cells and broad thorny cells. Those bistratified cells are ganglion cells that send short-wavelength signals to the LGN. Retinogeniculate axons terminating in the middle K layers display center-only blue-ON/yellow-OFF receptive fields.Hendry, Stewart H. C.; Reid, R. Clay (2000).
|
|
The stretch reflex is accomplished through several different structures. In the muscle, there are muscle spindles, whose extrafusal muscle fibers lie parallel to the muscle and sense changes in length and velocity. The afferent sensory neuron is the structure that carries the signal from the muscle to the spinal cord. It carries this action potential to the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal cord.
|
|
In the central nervous system ASIC's are usually found in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. ASIC1 is specifically concentrated in the amygdala, illustrating its role in anxious behavior and ASIC3 has been found in the organ of Corti and spiral ganglion illustrating this specific channel's role in auditory and vision perception. Subunits ASIC1a, ASIC2a and ASIC2b have also been found in the hippocampus.
|
|
However, if finger function is compromised, then surgery may be required. Ganglion cysts are soft globular structures that occur on the back of the hand usually near the junction of the wrist joint. These small swellings are usually painless when small but can affect hand motion when they become large. The cysts contain a jelly like substance and usually do disappear on their own.
|
|
Their rims are stiffened with chitin and may contain minute toothlike denticles. These features, as well as strong musculature, and a small ganglion beneath each sucker to allow individual control, provide a very powerful adhesion to grip prey. Hooks are present on the arms and tentacles in some species, but their function is unclear. The two tentacles are much longer than the arms and are retractile.
|
|
The pretectum receives significant binocular input from photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina. In primates these afferents are bilateral while in rodents they project from the contralateral retina. The majority of these retino-pretectal projections go to the ON and NOT while other pretectal nuclei receive minor retinal input in mammals including the posterior, medial, and anterior pretectal nuclei. The NOT receives input from several regions.
|
|
In Moroccan cuisine, Ahriche is a dish eaten by the tribes of Zayanes and Khénifra. The name is derived from the Berber word for stick; this is in reference to the dish's manner of cooking. It is a dish of tripe usually consisting of ganglion, caul, lung or heart of an animal wound with intestines on a stick of oak and cooked on hot coals.
|
|
In the midline of zebrafish, pioneer neurons grow slower, their growth cones tend to be shorter and wider than followers’ and have up to 50% more filopodia and while followers’ neurons filopodia are mostly forward oriented, pioneers’ are arranged in all directions. Studies in the neuromast show that followers establish topographic organization in it, dependent on the relative position of the cell body in its ganglion, while pioneers connect with posterior neuromasts, independently of their position in the ganglion. In zebrafish, the ablation of either the cell body or the axon of the pioneer FBMN (facial brachiomotor neuron), blocks the migration of the follower FBMNs. The FBMNs undergo several phases of migration: the first one, the early phase, from r5 to r6, is regulated by the ability of the first FBMN to migrate into r5 and maintain connections with follower FBMNs through its trailing axon.
|
|
Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front The brain is small and simple in some species, such as the nematode worm, where the body plan is quite simple: a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a ganglion) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has been studied because of its importance in genetics. In the early 1970s, Sydney Brenner chose it as a model system for studying the way that genes control development, including neuronal development. One advantage of working with this worm is that the nervous system of the hermaphrodite contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm.
|
|
On center and off center retinal ganglion cells respond oppositely to light in the center and surround of their receptive fields. A strong response means high frequency firing, a weak response is firing at a low frequency, and no response means no action potential is fired. A computer emulation of "edge detection" using retinal receptive fields. On-centre and off-centre stimulation is shown in red and green respectively.
|
|
Mice without cones or without both photoreceptive cells (rd/rd cl allele) still entrained to light. Meanwhile, mice with eyes removed could not entrain to light. Foster concluded that rods and cones are unnecessary for entrainment to light, and that the murine eye contains additional photoreceptive cell types. Later studies showed that melanopsin expressing photoreceptive retinal ganglion cells (pGRCs) were accountable for non-rod, non-cone entrainment to light.
|
|
Removing portions of an animal's brain can be performed to induce transneuronal degeneration. Transneuronal degeneration results after a sudden massive loss of input from the olfactory bulb after it was removed. Removal of the left hemisphere in monkeys caused retrograde transneuronal degeneration of the retinal ganglion cells that affected mainly the foveal rim. This also resulted in reduction in the number of neurons in the parvocellular and magnocellular layers.
|
|
The spinocervical pathway is a four-neuron, fast-conducting, tactile/pressure pathway from the spinal cord to sensory cortex. It involves the primary sensory neuron in the dorsal root ganglion, second order cell in the dorsal horn, third order cell in the lateral cervical nucleus near C1 and C2, and a fourth order cell in VPL thalamus. It is well developed in the cat, but vestigial in humans.
|
|
The expression of reelin increases when the liver is damaged, and returns to normal following its repair. In the eyes, reelin is secreted by retinal ganglion cells and is also found in the endothelial layer of the cornea. Just as in the liver, its expression increases after an injury has taken place. The protein is also produced by the odontoblasts, which are cells at the margins of the dental pulp.
|
|
Onset time is relatively rapid and occurs early in life with the average age of onset is 0.6 years of age. However, children have been known to develop MEM up until they reach 5 years old. The neuroectodermal component has the potential to display any neuroblastic tumor including neuroblastoma, ganglioneuroblastoma, and ganglion cells with or without schwannian stroma. The rhabdomyoblastic component is derived from pluripotent migratory neural crest cells .
|
|
The chromatic channels consist of a red–green channel and a yellow–blue channel and are responsible for color and wavelength. The achromatic channel is responsible for luminance, or white–black detection. Hue and saturation are perceived due to varying amounts of activity in these neural channels consisting of axon pathways from retinal ganglion cells. These three channels are tied closely to reaction time in response to colors.
|
|
The viral tracer may be introduced in peripheral organs, such as a muscle or gland. Certain viruses, such as adeno-associated virus can be injected into the blood stream and cross the blood–brain barrier to infect the brain. It may also be introduced into a ganglion or injected directly into the brain using a stereotactic device. These methods offer unique insight into how the brain and its periphery are connected.
|
|
M current is a type of noninactivating potassium current first discovered in bullfrog sympathetic ganglion cells. The M-channel is a voltage-gated K+ channel (Kv7/KCNQ family) that is named after the receptor it is influenced by. The M-channel is important in raising the threshold for firing an action potential. It is unique because it is open at rest and even more likely to be open during depolarization.
|
|
Two years later he joined the faculty at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he remained for the next twenty years. During this time, he helped pioneer the field of comparative and integrative neurobiology. In one series of famous experiments on the cardiac ganglion in lobsters, Bullock demonstrated that neurons can communicate not just via action potential and chemical synapse, but through non-synaptic interactions without such impulses.
|
|
The pelvic splanchnic nerves are featured as a key plot point in "Parasites Lost", a 2001 episode of the American animated TV comedy Futurama; when protagonist Philip J. Fry is infected with parasitic worms, the rest of the crew use micro-droids to enter his body with the intention of tickling the pelvic splanchnic ganglion to trigger a convulsive bowel movement that they believe will expel the worms.
|
|
The lumbar splanchnic nerves are splanchnic nerves that arise from the lumbar part of the sympathetic trunk and travel to an adjacent plexus near the aorta. They originate from L1 and L2. These nerves contain preganglionic sympathetic and general visceral afferent fibers. The site of synapse is found in the inferior mesenteric ganglion and the postsynaptic fibers innervate the smooth muscle and glands of the pelvic viscera and hindgut.
|
|
The lumbar region L1 and L2 consist of neurons that innervate the adrenal gland, ureter, bladder, the lower extremities. The upper two lumbar ganglia (L1 and L2) of the sympathetic chain also give rise to the lumbar splanchnic nerves. Splanchnic nerves are paired visceral nerves carrying preganglionic sympathetic and general visceral afferent fibers. The lumbar splanchnic nerves travel through the lumbar sympathetic ganglion but do not synapse there.
|
|
The strange behavior of tonic pupils was first explained by Irene Loewenfeld in 1979. The ciliary ganglion contain many more nerve fibers directed to the ciliary muscle than nerve fibers directed to the constrictor pupillae – roughly twenty times more. The ciliary muscle is also more massive than the constrictor pupillae, again by a factor of twenty. Based on these observations, Loewenfeld proposed an explanation of the tonic pupil.
|
|
Early in the course of Adie syndrome (when the cells of the ciliary ganglion have been destroyed, but before regeneration has occurred) the pupil will be fixed and dilated. The sphincter pupillae will be paralyzed. There will be no response to accommodation – the ciliary muscle is also paralyzed. With aberrant nerve regeneration, the pupil will remain fixed, but it will constrict with attempted near vision. The constriction will be abnormal (“tonic”).
|
|
The alpha-3 beta-4 nicotinic receptor, also known as the α3β4 receptor and the ganglion-type nicotinic receptor,Pharmacology, (Rang, Dale, Ritter & Moore, , 5th ed., Churchill Livingstone 2003) p. 138. is a type of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, consisting of α3 and β4 subunits. It is located in the autonomic ganglia and adrenal medulla, where activation yields post- and/or presynaptic excitation, mainly by increased Na+ and K+ permeability.
|
|
Block of the stellate ganglion has also been explored in coronary artery bypass surgery, as well as posttraumatic stress disorder. Left stellectomy is a treatment strategy in prolonged QT syndrome because activity of the stellate ganglia drives prolonged QT. However, this therapy is only offered to patients who are already on a beta blocker and experience frequent shocks from an implantable cardioverter- defibrillator (ICD), because stellectomy causes Horner's syndrome.
|
|
Heartbeats originate in nervous tissue; innervated muscle cells cause the heart to contract when stimulated by nerve impulses. The cardiac ganglion, which consists of nine neurons, attaches to the dorsal wall of the heart. The anterior neurons innervate the heart, whereas the other posterior neurons make synaptic contact with those anterior neurons. The posterior neuron acts as the pacemaker but also functions as the cellular oscillator and the central pattern generator.
|
|
The CACNA1A gene codes for the alpha subunit of the P/Q type calcium channel. The R192Q mutation of the CACNA1A gene is a gain of function mutation for P2X3 receptors. P2X3 receptors are present in trigeminal ganglion neurons and are believed to be a main contributor to familial hemiplegic migraine. By using a knockin experiment, this mutation could be expressed in mice so research could be conducted.
|
|
Florence Winger Bagley was one of the early investigators of this phenomenon. The perceptual mechanism of Fechner color is not entirely understood. One possible reason people see colors may be that the color receptors in the human eye respond at different rates to red, green, and blue. Or, more specifically, that the latencies of the center and the surrounding mechanisms differ for the different types of color-specific ganglion cells.
|
|
The preganglionic parasympathetic fibres originate in the inferior salivatory nucleus of the glossopharyngeal nerve. They leave the glossopharyngeal nerve by its tympanic branch and then pass via the tympanic plexus and the lesser petrosal nerve to the otic ganglion. Here, the fibers synapse and the postganglionic fibers pass by communicating branches to the auriculotemporal nerve, which conveys them to the parotid gland. They produce vasodilator and secretomotor effects.
|
|
Bipolar cells effectively transfer information from rods and cones to ganglion cells. The horizontal cells and the amacrine cells complicate matters somewhat. The horizontal cells introduce lateral inhibition to the dendrites and give rise to the center-surround inhibition which is apparent in retinal receptive fields. The amacrine cells also introduce lateral inhibition to the axon terminal, serving various visual functions including efficient signal transduction with high signal-to-noise ratio.
|
|
She has monitored the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell (ipRGC) in newborn mice, identifying that they communicate with one another as part of a network that serves to boost retinal eye sensitivity. She has studied the ipRGC in mice, showing that even before the retina is fully developed a mouse can detect light. Her research also considers the organisation of neural circuitry that dictates directional sensitivity in the retina.
|
|
The depressed area between the crura is termed the interpeduncular fossa, and consists of a layer of gray matter, the posterior perforated substance, which is pierced by small apertures for the transmission of blood vessels; its lower part lies on the ventral aspect of the medial portions of the tegmenta, and contains a nucleus named the interpeduncular ganglion; its upper part assists in forming the floor of the third ventricle.
|
|
Early growth response protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EGR2 gene. EGR2 (also termed Krox20) is a transcription regulatory factor, containing three zinc finger DNA-binding sites, and is highly expressed in a population of migrating neural crest cells. It is later expressed in the neural crest derived cells of the cranial ganglion. The protein encoded by Krox20 contains two cys2his2-type zinc fingers.
|
|
The refractory period also determines the velocity (distance between wave fronts per unit time) and periodicity (average time interval between wave- induced calcium transients or depolarizations recorded in a particular neuron in the ganglion cell layer) The density of refractory cells corresponds to how fast retinal waves propagate, for instance if there is a low number or density of refractory cells, the velocity of propagation will be high.
|
|
The right giant neuron of Aplysia dactylomela, which is found in the abdominal ganglion, is similar to that of vertebrates, meaning it is ideal for the study of electrophysiology, as well as conditioned-response studies. These neurons have been found to be invaluable in neurological research; the reason for this is that long-lasting effects in neuronal behavior can be detected.Corning, W., J. Dyal. 1973. Invertebrate Learning: Volume 2.
|
|
When used with halothane d-tubocurarine can cause a profound fall in blood pressure in some patients as both the drugs are ganglion blockers. However, it is safer to use d-tubocurarine with ether. In 1954, an article was published by Beecher and Todd suggesting that the use of muscle relaxants (drugs similar to curare) increased death due to anesthesia nearly sixfold., reprinted in This was refuted in 1956.
|
|
ON/OFF DS ganglion cells act as local motion detectors. They fire at the onset and offset of a stimulus (a light source). If a stimulus is moving in the direction of the cell's preference, it will fire at the leading and the trailing edge. Their firing pattern is time-dependent and is supported by the Reichardt-Hassenstain model, which detects spatiotemporal correlation between the two adjacent points.
|
|
A sea hare There have been numerous studies of learning and memory using nociceptors in the sea hare, Aplysia. Many of these have focused on mechanosensory neurons innervating the siphon and having their somata (bulbous end) in the abdominal ganglion (LE cells). These LE cells display increasing discharge to increasing pressures, with maximal activation by crushing or tearing stimuli that cause tissue injury. Therefore, they satisfy accepted definitions of nociceptors.
|
|
The axons of ganglion cells form the two optic nerves. Photoreceptor cells are typically arranged in an irregular but approximately hexagonal grid, known as the retinal mosaic. The pineal and parapineal glands are photoreceptive in non-mammalian vertebrates, but not in mammals. Birds have photoactive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-contacting neurons within the paraventricular organ that respond to light in the absence of input from the eyes or neurotransmitters.
|
|
With administration of a ganglion-blocking drug, the ciliary muscle cannot contract (cycloplegia) and the patient loses the ability to focus their eyes. Trimetaphan has a strong effect on the cardiovascular system. The size of blood vessels is primarily controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. Loss of sympathetic system input to the blood vessels causes them to get larger (vasodilation) which has the effect of lowering blood pressure.
|
|
It is controlled by parasympathetic fibers of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (M3) that originate from the Edinger–Westphal nucleus, travel along the oculomotor nerve (CN III), synapse in the ciliary ganglion, and then enter the eye via the short ciliary nerves.. The short ciliary nerves then run forward and pierce the sclera at the back of the eye, traveling between the sclera and the choroid to innervate the iris sphincter muscle.
|
|
The exact mechanism by which sound is transmitted by the neurons of the cochlear nerve is uncertain; the two competing theories are place theory and temporal theory. The vestibular nerve travels from the vestibular system of the inner ear. The vestibular ganglion houses the cell bodies of the bipolar neurons and extends processes to five sensory organs. Three of these are the cristae located in the ampullae of the semicircular canals.
|
|
Schematic diagram of the primate LGN. The parvocellular neurons of the visual system receive their input from midget cells, a type of retinal ganglion cell, whose axons are exiting the optic tract. These synapses occur in one of the four dorsal parvocellular layers of the lateral geniculate nucleus. The information from each eye is kept separate at this point, and continues to be segregated until processing in the visual cortex.
|
|
In contrast to the peripheral response, the axotomy response in central neurons (neurons in the Central Nervous System) almost always leads to cell death.[Barron KD. Neuronal responses to axotomy: consequences and possibilities for rescue from permanent atrophy or cell death. The mode of cell death is often apoptosis.Garcia-Valenzuela E, Gorczyca W, Darzynkiewicz Z, Sharma SC. (1994) Apoptosis in adult retinal ganglion cells after axotomy. J Neurobiol 25: 431-438. DOI: 10.1002/neu.
|
|
This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp Vespa crabro has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly Musca domestica, have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion.
|
|
Cockayne syndrome results from a mutation in genes that interfere with transcription-coupled repair of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, replication, and transcription. Neuronal death is predominantly in the cerebellum, but this disease also causes apoptosis in purkinje cells and causes them to have dystrophic dendrites. Loss of sensory receptors in the cochlea, vestibules, and retina result in ganglion degeneration and transneuronal degeneration. Demyelination also results as oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are killed.
|
|
He composed the first catalogue on the collections of anatomy at the Museum of Pisa. In 1835 Civinini provided the first description of a neuroma that causes a painful foot condition known today as Morton's metatarsalgia. He made the discovery during the dissection of a cadaver, which he described in an article called "Su un nervoso gangliare rigonfiamento alla pianta del piede" (On the neural ganglion swelling on the sole of the foot).
|
|
The term "ganglion" refers to the peripheral nervous system. However, in the brain (part of the central nervous system), the "basal ganglia" is a group of nuclei interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, associated with a variety of functions: motor control, cognition, emotions, and learning. Partly due to this ambiguity, the Terminologia Anatomica recommends using the term basal nuclei instead of basal ganglia; however, this usage has not been generally adopted.
|
|
The density of the photoreceptors is critical in determining the maximum attainable visual acuity. Humans have about 200,000 receptors per mm2, but the house sparrow has 400,000 and the common buzzard 1,000,000. The photoreceptors are not all individually connected to the optic nerve, and the ratio of nerve ganglia to receptors is important in determining resolution. This is very high for birds; the white wagtail has 100,000 ganglion cells to 120,000 photoreceptors.
|
|
Neurokinin has been shown to contribute to both bradycardia and myocardial infarctions through the activation of NK2 receptors. The dual sensory-motor function of neurokinin A containing afferent neurons is a component of the intracardiac nervous system. Varicose processes of tachykinin-containing nerves are abundant in coronary arteries and in the cardiac ganglia. The diverse responses that are triggered by locally released tachykinins produce beneficial effects such as modulation of ganglion transmission.
|
|
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is co-stored and co- transmitted with glutamate in retinal terminals. More than ninety percent of all RHT projecting fibers to the SCN store PACAP. White light induces activation of ganglion cells containing PACAP. This allows for the concentration in SCN to be lower during the day and higher at night because humans are exposed to light more during the day and are having greater optic nerve stimulation.
|
|
Recent research indicates that in attention-based tasks such as object tracking and enumeration, deaf subjects perform no better than hearing subjects. Improvement in visual processing is still observed, even when a deaf subject is not paying attention to the direct stimulus. A study published in 2011 found that congenitally deaf subjects had significantly larger neuroretinal rim areas than hearing subjects, which suggests that deaf subjects may have a greater concentration of retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
The middle cervical ganglion is the smallest of the three cervical ganglia, and is occasionally absent. It is placed opposite the sixth cervical vertebra, usually in front of, or close to, the inferior thyroid artery. It sends gray rami communicantes to the fifth and sixth cervical nerves, and gives off the middle cardiac nerve. It is probably formed by the coalescence of two ganglia corresponding to the fifth and sixth cervical nerves.
|
|
This induces the roof plate to begin to secrete BMP, which will induce the alar plate to develop sensory neurons. Opposing gradients of such morphogens as BMP and SHH form different domains of dividing cells along the dorsal ventral axis. Dorsal root ganglion neurons differentiate from neural crest progenitors. As the dorsal and ventral column cells proliferate, the lumen of the neural tube narrows to form the small central canal of the spinal cord.
|
|
The descending palatine artery branches off of the maxillary artery in the pterygopalatine fossa and descends through the greater palatine canal along with the greater palatine nerve (from the pterygopalatine ganglion). Once emerging from the greater palatine foramen, it changes names to the greater palatine artery and begins to supply the hard palate. As it terminates it travels through the incisive canal to anastomose with the sphenopalatine artery to supply the nasal septum.
|
|
Owing to the position of the oil vacuole in the center of the tractus, the organ may also have implications for buoyancy, trim and locomotion. The nervous system is reasonably simple, consisting of a ganglionated nerve ring surrounding the pharynx. The dorsal ganglion is the largest, but nerves extend from all the ganglia along the length of the body. Chaetognaths have two compound eyes, each consisting of a number of pigment- cup ocelli fused together.
|
|
The group was formed in 1995. They released a self-titled demo in 1997. Shortly after releasing the critically acclaimed debut album Solace in 2000 on 3 labels, the band members took a break from Lengsel. With the same line-up, they formed the band Ganglion, and quickly departed from their black metal roots to a more rock oriented style, alienating many of their old fans and creating a new fan base.
|
|
In 1999, guitarist Tor Magne Glidje joined the band Extol on bass. The following year, Glidje switched over to guitar for Extol at the departure of another member and John Mjåland joined the band on bass. When the guitarist returned, Glidje left Extol, but Mjåland stayed as bassist. In 2004, both of Extol's guitarists left the band and were replaced by Glidje and Ole Sveen, effectively merging both members and music of Ganglion with Extol.
|
|
The suboesophageal ganglion, a portion of the central nervous system in the insect, controls pheromone release. A phermonotropic factor called PBAN (pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide) is synthesized and released into the hemolymph or blood-like fluid found in insects. Because PBAN can be produced independently of the moth's photoperiod, the circadian rhythm of pheromone production must be closely associated with PBAN release. Sex pheromones are only released during scotophase and immediately after pheromone synthesis.
|
|
During embryonic development, pseudounipolar neurons begin as bipolar in shape but become pseudounipolar as they mature. Common examples are the retina bipolar cell, the ganglia of the vestibulocochlear nerve,Bipolar+cell at eMedicine Dictionary the extensive use of bipolar cells to transmit efferent (motor) signals to control muscles, olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory epithelium for smell (axons form the olfactory nerve), and neurons in the spiral ganglion for hearing (CN VIII).
|
|
The most explored targets for scheduled stimulation are the anterior nucleus of the thalamus and the hippocampus. The anterior nucleus of the thalamus has been studied, which has shown a significant seizure reduction with the stimulator on versus off during several months after stimulator implantation. Moreover, the cluster headache (CH) can be treated by using a temporary stimulating electrode at sphenopalatine ganglion (SPG). Pain relief is reported within several minutes of stimulation in this method.
|
|
Sufficiently bright flashes will elicit ERGs containing an a-wave (initial negative deflection) followed by a b-wave (positive deflection). The leading edge of the a-wave is produced by the photoreceptors, while the remainder of the wave is produced by a mixture of cells including photoreceptors, bipolar, amacrine, and Muller cells or Muller glia. The pattern ERG (PERG), evoked by an alternating checkerboard stimulus, primarily reflects activity of retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
Due to the subterranean nature of this mole, there is an anatomical regression of its eyes at several organizational levels. Its eye has a diameter of only , it is buried beneath fur and has a cellular lens. The organization of the retina is quite similar to that of a typical mammal. It has been determined that there are about 2000 ganglion cells and the optic nerve is roughly 50 μm with 3000 axons.
|
|
In insects, head is a preferred term. The insect head consists of five segments, including three (the labial, maxillary and mandibular) necessary for food uptake, which are altogether known as the gnathocephalon and house the suboesophageal ganglion of the brain, as well as the antennal segment, and an ocular segment, as well as a non segmented fused section of the head where the archicerebrum is housed known as the acron. see also arthropod head problem.
|
|
The crew make their way into Fry's bowel, and fight their way to the pelvic splanchnic ganglion, intending to cause a massive bowel movement to expel the worm society. Meanwhile, Leela is enchanted by the now intelligent and muscular Fry. Fry reveals that he loves Leela but only recently was he able to articulate his thoughts. Leela realizes that the worms are responsible for the new, improved Fry, and sets out to stop the Professor.
|
|
Light is absorbed by the retinal pigment epithelium or the choroid (both of which are opaque). The white blood cells in the capillaries in front of the photoreceptors can be perceived as tiny bright moving dots when looking into blue light. This is known as the blue field entoptic phenomenon (or Scheerer's phenomenon). Between the ganglion cell layer and the rods and cones there are two layers of neuropils where synaptic contacts are made.
|
|
Ciliary neurotrophic factor affects embryonic motor neurons, dorsal root ganglion sensory neurons, and ciliary neuron hippocampal neurons. It is structurally related to leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and oncostatin M (OSM). CNTF prevents degeneration of motor neurons in rats and mice which increases survival time and motor function of the mice. These results suggest exogenous CNTF could be used as a therapeutic treatment for human degenerative motor neuron diseases.
|
|
A loose network of nerves called a "nerve net" is located in the epidermis. Although traditionally thought not to have a central nervous system, nerve net concentration and ganglion-like structures could be considered to constitute one in most species. A jellyfish detects stimuli, and transmits impulses both throughout the nerve net and around a circular nerve ring, to other nerve cells. The rhopalial ganglia contain pacemaker neurones which control swimming rate and direction.
|
|
Neuroblasts are the progenitor cells which divide asymmetrically to give rise to another neuroblast and a ganglion mother cell (GMC). The neuroblast repeatedly undergoes this asymmetric cell division while the GMC continues on to produce a pair of neurons. Two proteins play an important role in setting up this asymmetry in the neuroblast, Prospero and Numb. These proteins are both synthesized in the neuroblast and segregate into only the GMC during divisions.
|
|
She moved to the University of California, Berkeley for her postdoctoral research, where she worked alongside Marla Feller as a Human Frontier Science Program Fellow. During her postdoctoral research she demonstrated that the modality encoded into retinal ganglion cells (RCGs) can be altered by certain stimuli. This can include directional sensitive RCGs, which reorient themselves after a short stimulation, and light sensitive RCGs which change their preferred polarity when light intensity changes.
|
|
The short-tailed cricket is known to eat its own wings.Taber, Stephen Welton (2005) Invertebrates Of Central Texas Wetlands, page 200. There is evidence of certain animals digesting their own nervous tissue when they transition to a new phase of life. The sea squirt (with a tadpole-like shape) contains a ganglion "brain" in its head, which it digests after attaching itself to a rock and becoming stationary, forming an anemone-like organism.
|
|
This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp Vespa crabro has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly Musca domestica, have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion.
|
|
In Ramsay Hunt syndrome, VZV affects the geniculate ganglion giving lesions that follow specific branches of the facial nerve. Symptoms may include painful blisters on the tongue and ear along with one sided facial weakness and hearing loss. If infected during initial stages of pregnancy severe damage to the fetus can take place. Reye’s syndrome can happen after initial infection, causing continuous vomiting and signs of brain dysfunction like extreme drowsiness or combative behavior.
|
|
The lacrimal nerve branches from the ophthalmic nerve immediately before traveling through the superior orbital fissure to enter the orbit. It travels through it lateral to the frontal nerve outside the annulus of Zinn. After entering, it travels anteriorly along the lateral wall with the lacrimal artery, above the upper margin of the lateral rectus. It receives a communicating branch from the zygomatic nerve which carries the postganglionic parasympathetic axons from the pterygopalatine ganglion.
|
|
Though Lao dies, Elma assures the group that the Lifehold can revive him. With the Lifehold power restored, Elma deactivates her Mimeosome and reveals her true form as an alien. A narration by Lin reveals that Elma visited Earth thirty years before the Ganglion arrived, giving humanity their means of escape. In a post-credits scene, a team led by Elma discover that the Lifehold's databases containing humanity's memories were destroyed upon impact with Mira.
|
|
Years later, V. Strang, D.C. illustrated several neurological explanations including the recognition that sympathetic nerves arising in the lateral horns of the upper thoracic levels of the spine form the upper cervical ganglion with postganglionic fibers ascending to supply, among other things, blood vessels of the brain,Strang, V (1984) Essential Principles of Chiropractic Davenport : Palmer College of Chiropractic, but still with no connection to hearing. Others, though, talked about vertebral subluxation.
|
|
Optimal candidates for retinal implants have retinal diseases, such as retinitis pigmentosa or age- related macular degeneration. These diseases cause blindness by affecting the photoreceptor cells in the outer layer of the retina, while leaving the inner and middle retinal layers intact. Minimally, a patient must have an intact ganglion cell layer in order to be a candidate for a retinal implant. This can be assessed non-invasively using optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging.
|
|
Identification of glaucoma-related visual field abnormality with the screening protocol of frequency doubling technology. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 125, 819-829Burnstein, Y., Ellish, N.J., Magbalon, M. & Higginbotham, E.J. (2000). Comparison of frequency doubling perimetry with humphrey visual field analysis in a glaucoma practice. American Journal of Ophthalmology, 129, 328-333 A more recent study's results argue against the hypothesis that spatially nonlinear retinal ganglion cells are the physiological substrate of the frequency-doubling illusion.
|
|
Neuroblasts undergo three known division types. Type 0 neuroblasts divide to give rise to a neuroblast, and a daughter cell which directly differentiates into a single neuron or glia. Type I neuroblasts give rise to a neuroblast and a ganglion mother cell (GMC), which undergoes a terminal division to generate a pair of sibling neurons. This is the most common form of cell division, and is observed in abdominal, optic lobe, and central brain neuroblasts.
|
|
In this case, surgical repair of the lesion is not possible because the proximal nerve tissue is too short for stitching to be possible. For postganglionic lesions, the cell body of the sensory ganglion is detached from the spinal nerve, leading to wallerian degeneration of the sensory fibre. Thus, no action potential detected at the distal end of spinal nerve. However, surgical repair is possible because proximal nerve tissue has enough length for stitching.
|
|
Emanating from the brain several nerves run to the sensory organs (eyes, antennulae, antennae). A pair of circumesophageal ("surrounding the esophagus") connectives connect the brain with the cephalothoracic ganglion. The latter is a compaction of several neuromeres in the lower part of the anterior cephalothorax. These neuromeres correspond morphologically with the body segments of the mandibles and the 1st and 2nd maxillae, the thoracic segments I-VIII and the first pleonal segment.
|
|
The inferior thyroid veins originate in a network of veins and drain into the left and right brachiocephalic veins. Both arteries and veins form a plexus between the two layers of the capsule of the thyroid gland. Lymphatic drainage frequently passes the prelaryngeal lymph nodes (located just above the isthmus), and the pretracheal and paratracheal lymph nodes. The gland receives sympathetic nerve supply from the superior, middle and inferior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk.
|
|
ON/OFF DS ganglion cells can be divided into 4 subtypes differing in their directional preference, ventral, dorsal, nasal, or temporal. The cells of different subtypes also differ in their dendritic structure and synaptic targets in the brain. The neurons that were identified to prefer ventral motion were also found to have dendritic projections in the ventral direction. Also, the neurons that prefer nasal motion had asymmetric dendritic extensions in the nasal direction.
|
|
In a Hydra, cell bodies of epidermal sensory cells are usually found around the mouth at the hypostome's apical tip, neurite's are usually directed down the sides of the hypostome in a radial direction, and ganglion cells are found in the hypostome's basal region (in between tentacles and just below the head). Nerve nets contain intermediate neurons which allow for modulation of neural activity which occurs between the sensation of the stimulus and motor output.
|
|
Auerbach was among the first physicians to diagnose the nervous system using histological staining methods. He published a number of papers on neuropathological problems and muscle-related disorders. He is credited with the discovery of Plexus myentericus Auerbachi, or Auerbach's plexus, a layer of ganglion cells that provide control of movements of the gastro-intestinal tract, also known as the "myenteric plexus". "Friedreich–Auerbach disease" is named after Auerbach and pathologist Nikolaus Friedreich (1825-1882).
|
|
For SHH to be expressed in the developing embryo limbs a morphogen called fibroblast growth factors must be secreted from the apical ectodermal ridge. Sonic hedgehog has also been shown to act as an axonal guidance cue. It has been demonstrated that SHH attracts commissural axons at the ventral midline of the developing spinal cord. Specifically SHH attracts retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons at low concentrations and repels them at higher concentrations.
|
|
The elevated serum aldosterone predisposes to arrhythmias triggered in a coronary artery ligation ischemia/reperfusion injury model. Blockade of the aldosterone receptor with spironolactone removed the ventricular arrhythmia predisposition in Kcne3-/- mice. Kcne3 deletion also impairs auditory function because of the loss of regulation of Kv4.2 channels by KCNE3 in spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) of the auditory system. KCNE3 is thought to regulate SGN firing properties and membrane potential via its modulation of Kv4.2.
|
|
Other nerve include the "genital nerve" a single nerve given off from a delicate collar, the ends of which are united to the under-surface of the central masses, just where they are connected to the pedial ganglions. Another nerve, which was apparently also distributed to the genitalia; this seemed to come from the right branchial ganglion, at its union with the pedial. These two nerves are probably leading from visceral ganglia.
|
|
N Engl J Med. 2011 Aug 11;365(6):493-505. More recently, his research group has shown the importance of the mucosal immune system in controlling HSV reactivation, leading to current momentum to try to develop novel vaccines for treating genital herpes. Previously, the scientific consensus for HSV-2 pathogenesis was that virus reactivation was infrequent and determined by virus-neuronal interactions at the ganglion level and that most reactivations resulted in genital lesions.
|
|
Entrapment of the ulnar nerve at the ulnar canal can result in symptoms of ulnar neuropathy, including numbness or weakness of certain parts of the hand. (See full article on ulnar nerve entrapment.) This is known as ulnar nerve entrapment or Guyon's canal syndrome. There are four subtypes of ulnar neuropathy at the wrist, of which type II is the most common. may be secondary to ganglion cyst formation, or compression against a bicycle handlebar.
|
|
Albino vertebrates exposed to intense light typically lose photoreceptors due to apoptosis. In all albino mammals studied, the centre of the retina is under-developed and there is a deficit of rod cells; the central ganglion cell density is approximately 25% below normal (except for the gray squirrel). In nearly all mammals, the overwhelming majority of photoreceptors are rods rather than cones. Albinism specifically affects the rod cells, but the number and distribution of the cones is unaffected.
|
|
Odontocetes (toothed whales and dolphins) have similar cochlear specializations to those found in bats. Odontocetes also have the highest neural investment of any cochleae reported to date with ratios of greater than 1500 ganglion cells/mm of basilar membrane. Further along the auditory pathway, the movement of the basilar membrane results in the stimulation of primary auditory neurons. Many of these neurons are specifically "tuned" (respond most strongly) to the narrow frequency range of returning echoes of CF calls.
|
|
PDF, 30(11):1484-1501. Among blind people, the cause is the inability to register, and therefore to entrain to, light cues. The many blind people who do entrain to the 24-hour light/dark cycle have eyes with functioning retinas including operative non-visual light-sensitive cells, ipRGCs. These ganglion cells, which contain melanopsin, convey their signals to the "circadian clock" via the retinohypothalamic tract (branching off from the optic nerve), linking the retina to the pineal gland.
|
|
Both old and new world primates have been used as model systems for human vision and have subsequently been beneficial in researching parasol cells. Many retrograde labeling experiments using macaques, for example, have linked parasol and midget retinal ganglion cells with the magnocellular and parvocellular pathways respectively. In addition, similar studies have led to theories underlying color opponency. Research by Dacey (1996) supports this idea where in vitro primate retinal cells were treated with dye fillings.
|
|
The nasal mucosa in the nasal cavity is also supplied by the autonomic nervous system. Postganglionic nerve fibers from the deep petrosal nerve join with preganglionic nerve fibers from the greater petrosal nerve to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal. Sympathetic postganglionic fibers are distributed to the blood vessels of the nose. Postganglionic parasympathetic fibres derived from the pterygopalatine ganglion provide the secretomotor supply to the nasal mucous glands, and are distributed via branches of the maxillary nerves.
|
|
Entrainment of the mammalian circadian clock is established via light induction of PER. Light excites melanopsin-containing photosensitive retinal ganglion cells which signal to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) via the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). Excitation of the RHT signals the release of glutamate which is received by NMDA receptors on SCN, resulting in a calcium influx into the SCN. Calcium induces the activity of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases, resulting in the activation of PKA, PKC, and CK2.
|
|
The adrenal medulla is considered a sympathetic ganglion and, like other sympathetic ganglia, is supplied by cholinergic preganglionic sympathetic fibers: acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter utilized at this synapse. The chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla act as "modified neurons", releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream as hormones instead of as neurotransmitters. The other postganglionic fibers of the peripheral autonomic system belong to the parasympathetic division; all are cholinergic fibers, and use acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter.
|
|
High-threshold channels have a possible role in nociception. These channels are found predominantly in smaller sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglion cells and are activated by higher pressures, two attributes that are characteristic of nociceptors. Also, the threshold of HT channels was lowered in the presence of PGE2 (a compound that sensitizes neurons to mechanical stimuli and mechanical hyperalgesia) which further supports a role for HT channels in the transduction of mechanical stimuli into nociceptive neuronal signals.
|
|
In a 2006 study, Provencio explored the role of the protein RPE65 for photoentrainment. RPE65 is an important protein found in intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) that is necessary for regeneration of visual chromophore in rods and cones. RPE65 knockout mice (Rpe65(-/-)) showed much weaker phase shifts when compared to rodless, coneless mice, which suggested that RPE65 might have other roles. To further define the functions of RPE65, Provencio took Rpe65(-/-) mice and also eliminated rods.
|
|
Sinoconodon differs from all nonmammalian cynodonts in the presence of a promontorium, an enlarged anterior lamina, and the floor of the trigeminal ganglion. Sinoconodon shares several derived characters with other mammals. The most distinguished are the expansion of the brain vault in the parietal region, complete ossification of the medial wall of the orbit, a large dentary condyle, and a concave glenoid fossa in the squamosal. These characters suggest that Sinoconodon and other mammals form a monophyletic group.
|
|
The cord possesses one ganglion per segment, each of which produces lateral nerve fibres that run into the limbs. Many species possess a pair of rhabdomeric pigment-cup eyes, and numerous sensory bristles are on the head and body. Tardigrades all possess a buccopharyngeal apparatus (swallowing device made of muscles and spines that activates an inner jaw and begins digestion and movement along the throat and intestine) which, along with the claws, is used to differentiate species.
|
|
The postganglionic axons of the Superior cervical ganglion innervate the eye and lacrimal gland and cause vasoconstriction of the iris and sclera, pupillary dilation, widening of the palpebral fissure, and the reduced production of tears. These responses are important during Fight-or-flight response of the ANS. Dilation of the pupils allows for an increased clarity in vision, and inhibition of the lacrimal gland stops tear production allowing for unimpaired vision and redirection of energy elsewhere.
|
|
Lethal(3)malignant brain tumor-like protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the L3MBTL gene. This gene encodes the homolog of a protein identified in Drosophila as a suppressor of malignant transformation of neuroblasts and ganglion mother cells in the optic centers of the brain. This gene product is localized to condensed chromosomes in mitotic cells. Overexpression of this gene in a glioma cell line results in improper nuclear segregation and cytokinesis producing multinucleated cells.
|
|
This effect is driven by stimulus (or lack of stimulus) to photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina. The "time of day", the circadian phase, is signalled to the pineal gland, the body’s photometer, by the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Bright light in the evening or in the early morning shifts the phase of the production of melatonin (see phase response curve). An out-of-sync melatonin rhythm can worsen cardiac arrhythmias and increase oxidized lipids in the ischemic heart.
|
|
In 1950 he recorded at least six songs for Life Record Company. This was primarily original material that he had performed at the Orchestra Hall concert, including "Heartbeat Blues", "Sunny Disposition", "Fantasia of the Unconscious", and "Lumbar Ganglion Jump". In 1951 Columbia released an album of Miller playing jazz standards as part of its "Piano Moods" series. He was backed by Earl Backus on guitar, Bill Holyoke on bass, and Remo Belli (of Remo Drum heads) on drums.
|
|
There are no forms of complementary or alternative medicine that are evidence-based for allergic rhinitis. Therapeutic efficacy of alternative treatments such as acupuncture and homeopathy is not supported by available evidence. While some evidence shows that acupuncture is effective for rhinitis, specifically targeting the sphenopalatine ganglion acupoint, these trials are still limited. Overall, the quality of evidence for complementary-alternative medicine is not strong enough to be recommended by the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology.
|
|
For example, total time of sleep is maintained in rats with SCN damage, but the length and timing of sleep episodes becomes erratic. The SCN maintains control across the body by synchronizing "slave oscillators," which exhibit their own near-24-hour rhythms and control circadian phenomena in local tissue. The SCN receives input from specialized photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina via the retinohypothalamic tract. Neurons in the ventrolateral SCN (vlSCN) have the ability for light-induced gene expression.
|
|
Lyme disease is treated with antibiotics. Reactivation of herpes zoster virus, as well as being associated with Bell's palsy, may also be a direct cause of facial nerve palsy. Reactivation of latent virus within the geniculate ganglion is associated with vesicles affecting the ear canal, and termed Ramsay Hunt syndrome type II. In addition to facial paralysis, symptoms may include ear pain and vesicles, sensorineural hearing loss, and vertigo. Management includes Antiviral drugs and oral steroids.
|
|
The first five abdominal segments each have their own ganglion, that contains three roots with outward projections. The first has mixed sensory and motor nerves innervating swimmerets while the second has sensory and motor neurons that innervate the extensor muscles, while the third root contains only motor neuron projections that extend into the flexor muscles. The last segment contains the fusion of two ganglia. The ganglia here also receive sensory input from the sensitive hairs on the tail fan.
|
|
Each ganglion contains the body of one motor giant neuron (MoG), powerful and large bodied motor neurons whose projections innervate the five fast flexor (FF) muscles found in a segment and interact with them through chemical synapses. The ganglia also contain two sets of giant axons known as the lateral giant neurons and the medial giant neurons. These interneurons play important roles in escape swimming. Their large diameter allows for rapid conduction since there is less current leakage.
|
|
Fox D1 is also required for proper formation of optic chiasm. During the formation of optic chiasm, Fox D1 is expressed in VT retina, as well as in the ventral diencephalon for retinal development and chiasm morphogenesis. During visual system development, retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons leave the retina via optic disc until they reach the optic chiasm. Fox g1 and Fox d1 are expressed in adjacent domains in the neural tube at the time, the optical vesicle evaginates.
|
|
Symptoms include sudden permanent blindness, but may occur more slowly over several days, weeks or months, dilated pupils. Pupillary light reflexes are usually reduced but present; the slow phase mediated by melanopsin in retinal ganglion cells is retained. Other symptoms commonly seen are similar to those seen with Cushing's disease and include increased water consumption and urination, weight gain, confusion, restlessness, behavioral changes and lethargy. These symptoms may develop over a few months preceding the onset of SARDS.
|
|
The nature of the pain depends on the location of the compression. Nerve infiltration or compression :Infiltration or compression of a nerve by a primary tumor causes peripheral neuropathy in one to five percent of cancer patients. Dorsal root ganglion inflammation :Small-cell lung cancer and, less often, cancer of the breast, colon or ovary may produce inflammation of the dorsal root ganglia (fig. 5), precipitating burning, tingling pain in the extremities, with occasional "lightning" or lancinating pains.
|
|
Enderlen specialized in numerous surgical procedures, including surgery of the nerves and blood vessels, as well as operations for ulcers and gallstone disorders. He developed innovative techniques in esophageal surgery, and with physiologist Ludolf von Krehl, performed stellate ganglion blocks and denervation operations on the heart. He also conducted experimental research for transplantation of blood vessels, bones and joints, etc. With Emil Gasser (1847–1919), he was the author of Stereoskopbilder zur Lehre von den Hernien (1906).
|
|
Chromaffin cells are derived from the embryonic neural crest and, as such, are simply modified neurons. In particular, they are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons of the autonomic nervous system that have lost their axons and dendrites, receiving innervation from corresponding preganglionic fibers. The cells form clusters around fenestrated capillaries where they release norepinephrine and epinephrine into the blood. As a cluster of neuron cell bodies, the adrenal medulla is considered a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system.
|
|
Figure 1: Image adapted from stimuli of Arnold et al. (2008)'s experiment In the paper written by Arnold et al., (2008), they introduced this method called "Binocular Switch Suppression" where conflicting images of differing contrast (Figure 1) are repeatedly switched between the left and right eye at a predetermined constant rate. This switching aims to diminish or reduce adaptation of the monocular neurons and cells such as the retinal ganglion cells at early stages of visual processing.
|
|
Then Børud left the band, so Glidje switched over to guitar, and John Robert Mjåland joined as bassist. In 2001, another EP, Paralysis, was recorded; it was only released in Sweden. This EP featured a cover of "Shadow of Death" by the American thrash metal group Believer, whom the band considers to be a great influence. After Paralysis, Glidje left the band to focus on his other project, Ganglion, and Börud returned to the line-up.
|
|
The optic nerve is a central tract of many axons of ganglion cells connecting primarily to the lateral geniculate body, a visual relay station in the diencephalon (the rear of the forebrain). It also projects to the superior colliculus, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and the nucleus of the optic tract. It passes through the other layers, creating the optic disc in primates. Additional structures, not directly associated with vision, are found as outgrowths of the retina in some vertebrate groups.
|
|
The entire structure consisting of the two molecules becomes a photopigment. When a particle of light hits the photoreceptors of the eye, the two molecules come apart from each other and a chain of chemical reactions occurs. The chemical reaction begins with the photoreceptor sending a message to a neuron called the bipolar cell through the use of an action potential, or nerve impulse. Finally, a message is sent to the ganglion cell and then finally the brain.
|
|
In most mammals, the axons of retinal ganglion cells are not myelinated where they pass through the retina. However, the parts of axons that are beyond the retina, are myelinated. This myelination pattern is functionally explained by the relatively high opacity of myelin—myelinated axons passing over the retina would absorb some of the light before it reaches the photoreceptor layer, reducing the quality of vision. There are human eye diseases where this does, in fact, happen.
|
|
In Lhermitte–Duclos disease, the cerebellar cortex loses its normal architecture, and forms a hamartoma in the cerebellar hemispheres. The tumors are usually found on the left cerebellar hemisphere, and consist of abnormal hypertrophic ganglion cells that are somewhat similar to Purkinje cells. The amount of white matter in the cerebellum is diminished.Like cowden syndrome, patients with Lhermitte–Duclos disease often have mutations in enzymes involved in the Akt/PKB signaling pathway, which plays a role in cell growth.
|
|
In many ways, vision is the primary human sense. Light is taken in through each eye and focused in a way which sorts it on the retina according to direction of origin. A dense surface of photosensitive cells, including rods, cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells captures information about the intensity, color, and position of incoming light. Some processing of texture and movement occurs within the neurons on the retina before the information is sent to the brain.
|
|
Sound can be elicited via electrical stimulation. A study in which freely moving or partially restrained males were stimulated with sharpened wires and semi- microelectrodes caused the males to create the courtship song and the ordinary song, with most of the expected locomotion. This study found that the supraesophageal ganglion, or brain, controls songtype, and the sequence and coordination of courtship subunits. When induced by a stimulus, this stimulus overrode other behaviors, such as feeding or copulation.
|
|
The salivatory nuclei are the superior salivatory nucleus, and the inferior salivatory nucleus that innervate the salivary glands. They are located in the pontine tegmentum in the brainstem. They both are examples of cranial nerve nuclei. The superior salivatory nucleus innervates the submandibular gland and the sublingual gland and is part of the facial nerve The inferior salivatory nucleus innervates the parotid gland by way of the otic ganglion and forms the parasympathetic component of the glossopharyngeal nerve.
|
|
Photograph of the retina of the human eye, with overlay diagrams showing the positions and sizes of the macula, fovea, and optic disc Perifovea is a region in the retina that circumscribes the parafovea and fovea and is a part of the macula lutea. The perifovea is a belt that covers a 10° radius around the fovea and is 1.5 mm wide. The perifovea ends when the Henle's fiber layer disappears and the ganglion cells are one-layered.
|
|
Free nerve endings, many of which act as nociceptors, innervate the bones, ligaments, and muscles of the TMJ. The fibrocartilage that overlays the TMJ condyle is not innervated and is avascular in healthy TMJs. When bone tissue, ligaments, or muscles become inflamed or injured, sensory signals are relayed along small-diameter primary afferent nerve fibers that form the trigeminal nerve. Signals are directed through the trigeminal nerve and modulated by neuronal cell bodies in the trigeminal ganglion.
|
|
Like other tube-nosed seabirds, it has a long, narrow area of visual sensitivity containing the fovea across the retina of the eye.Güntürkün, Onur, "Structure and functions of the eye" in Sturkie (1998) pp. 1–18. This region is characterised by the presence of ganglion cells that are regularly arrayed and larger than those found in the rest of the retina. This feature helps in the detection of items in a small area projecting below and around the bill.
|
|
The first order neurons (from the trigeminal ganglion) enter the pons and synapse in the principal (chief sensory) nucleus or spinal trigeminal nucleus. Axons of the second order neurons cross the midline and terminate in the ventral posteromedial nucleus of the contralateral thalamus (as opposed to the ventral posterolateral nucleus, as in the dorsal column medial lemniscus (DCML) system). The third order neuron in the thalamus then connects to the sensory cortex of the postcentral gyrus.
|
|
Type II neuroblasts give rise to a neuroblast and a transit amplifying Intermediate Neural Progenitor (INP). INPs divide in a manner similar to type I neuroblasts, producing an INP and a ganglion mother cell. While only 8 type II neuroblasts exist in the central brain, their lineages are both much larger and more complex than type I neuroblasts. The switch from pluripotent neuroblast to differentiated cell fate is facilitated by the proteins Prospero, Numb, and Miranda.
|
|
GN may be caused by compression of somatic sensory branch of cranial nerve VII which goes through the nervus intermedius. In sufferers of GN, signals sent along these nerves are altered and interpreted by the geniculate ganglion (a structure in the brain) as GN pain. GN may also develop following herpes zoster oticus (Ramsay Hunt syndrome), where cold sores occur on the ear drum or ear. This may also be associated with facial paresis (weakness), tinnitus, vertigo and deafness.
|
|
The role of Nav1.9 in inflammatory and neuropathic pain has made it a potential drug target for pain relief. It is thought that a drug that targets Nav1.9 could be used to decrease pain effectively while avoiding the many side effects associated with other high-strength analgesics. Topical menthol blocks both Nav1.8 and Nav1.9 channels in the dorsal root ganglion. Menthol inhibits action potentials by dampening the Na+ channel activity without affecting normal neural activity in the affected area.
|
|
Sweat gland removal or destruction is one surgical option available for axillary hyperhidrosis (excessive underarm perspiration). There are multiple methods for sweat gland removal or destruction, such as sweat gland suction, retrodermal curettage, and axillary liposuction, Vaser, or Laser Sweat Ablation. Sweat gland suction is a technique adapted for liposuction. The other main surgical option is endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy (ETS), which cuts, burns, or clamps the thoracic ganglion on the main sympathetic chain that runs alongside the spine.
|
|
In this same study, no effects were seen within the peripheral or skeletal nerve system, limiting symptoms of toxicity to the brain stem. Curtis and Johnson were the first to hypothesize TETS antagonistic behavior on GABA. An in-vitro study using superior cervical ganglion neurons of rats found TETS to antagonize the depolarization actions of GABA, while having no influence on the cholinomimetic agent carbachol. This evidence suggests that TETS may act as a non-competitive inhibitor for GABA.
|
|
The title track of the mixtape features the full sample of OutKast's seven-minute song "SpottieOttieDopaliscious," from their 1998 album Aquemini Two of the songs on the album, "Booty in the Air" and "You Can Sell Anything," are remixed versions of pre-existing Das Racist songs, from the albums Relax and Sit Down, Man, respectively. The track "A Ganglion of Lightnings" is a re-recorded version of a song by Kool A.D.'s previous band, Boy Crisis.
|
|
Cortical network for representing the teeth and tongue in primates. Anatomical Record Part a-Discoveries in Molecular Cellular and Evolutionary Biology, 288A(2): 182-190. The peripheral taste system likely maintains a specific relationship between taste bud cells selectively responsive to one taste quality and the ganglion cells signaling that particular quality. This explains the response specificity of some individual taste nerve, particularly because sweet, amino acid, and bitter receptors are expressed in distinct populations of taste cells.
|
|
Exposure to VZV in a healthy child initiates the production of host immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin M (IgM), and immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies; IgG antibodies persist for life and confer immunity. Cell-mediated immune responses are also important in limiting the scope and the duration of primary varicella infection. After primary infection, VZV is hypothesized to spread from mucosal and epidermal lesions to local sensory nerves. VZV then remains latent in the dorsal ganglion cells of the sensory nerves.
|
|
An official inquest was held to determine Mirza's cause of death, including an autopsy. The coroner concluded Mirza died as a result of CFS. Considered and eliminated were sleep apnea, drug use, and all other possible causes of death that could have been consistent with the autopsy results. A neuropathologist testified at the inquest that four out of five of Mirza's dorsal root ganglia showed abnormalities and evidence of dorsal root ganglionitis, inflammation of the dorsal root ganglion.
|
|
The lacrimal gland is innervated by the lacrimal nerve, which is the smallest branch of the ophthalmic nerve, itself a branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). After the lacrimal nerve branches from the ophthalmic nerve it receives a communicating branch from the zygomatic nerve. This communicating branch carries postganglionic parasympathetic axons from the pterygopalatine ganglion. The lacrimal nerve passes anteriorly in the orbit and through the lacrimal gland providing parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation to it.
|
|
The theory behind retinal stimulation to restore vision to people suffering from retinitis pigmentosa and vision loss due to aging (conditions in which people have an abnormally low number of ganglion cells) is that the retinal implant and electrical stimulation would act as a substitute for the missing ganglion cells (cells which connect the eye to the brain.) While work to perfect this technology is still being done, there have already been major advances in the use of electronic stimulation of the retina to allow the eye to sense patterns of light. A specialized camera is worn by the subject, such as on the frames of their glasses, which converts the image into a pattern of electrical stimulation. A chip located in the user's eye would then electrically stimulate the retina with this pattern by exciting certain nerve endings which transmit the image to the optic centers of the brain and the image would then appear to the user. If technological advances proceed as planned this technology may be used by thousands of blind people and restore vision to most of them.
|
|
Kappa-bungarotoxin was first reported in 1983 as a component of the venom of Bungarus multicinctus that differed in biological effect from the previously known alpha-bungarotoxin: kappa, but not alpha, was capable of impeding nicotinic signaling in the chick ciliary ganglion. Bungarotoxin toxin was designated "kappa" as an allusion to the Latin word kiliaris ("from the eye"), and to the root of "ciliary". Separately identified toxins designated "toxin F" and "bungarotoxin 3.1" were identified by protein sequencing as identical to kappa-bungarotoxin.
|
|
Retinal projections have also been found in layer II of the olfactory tubercle, suggesting that it constitutes a region of olfactory and visual convergence. These visual sensory fibers arrive from the retinal ganglion cells. Thus, the olfactory tubercle may play a role in the perception of odors when a visual source is identified. As far as olfaction is concerned, in vitro data from some studies suggest that the olfactory tubercle units have the functional capability of other olfactory center neurons in processing odor.
|
|
Repulsive guidance molecules (RGMs) are members of a three gene family (in vertebrates) composed of RGMa, RGMb, and RGMc (also called hemojuvelin). RGMa has been implicated to play an important role in the developing brain and in the scar tissue that forms after a brain injury. For example, RGMa helps guide retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons to the tectum in the midbrain. It has also been demonstrated that after induced spinal cord injury RGMa accumulates in the scar tissue around the lesion.
|
|
The two different types of near response are caused by different underlying disease processes. Adie's pupil is caused by damage to peripheral pathways to the pupil (parasympathetic neurons in the ciliary ganglion that cause pupillary constriction to bright light and with near vision). The pathophysiologic mechanism which produces an Argyll Robertson pupil is unclear, but is believed to be the result of bilateral damage to the pretectal nuclei in the midbrain. Studies have failed to demonstrate a focal localising lesion.
|
|
It has been shown that the p.S77N presenilin-associated rhomboid-like protein mutation is not a frequent cause of early-onset Parkinson's disease. Variation in presenilins-associated rhomboid-like protein (PSARL) sequence and/or expression may be an important new risk factor for type 2 diabetes and other components of the metabolic syndrome. Mutations in PARL may also be involved in Leber hereditary optic neuropathy by disrupting normal function of the mitochondria, thus promoting retinal ganglion cell death and neurodegeneration.
|
|
The retinohypothalamic tract (RHT) is a photic neural input pathway involved in the circadian rhythms of mammals. The origin of the retinohypothalamic tract is the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGC), which contain the photopigment melanopsin. The axons of the ipRGCs belonging to the retinohypothalamic tract project directly, monosynaptically, to the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) via the optic nerve and the optic chiasm.from the retina to the optic chiasm, the ipRGC axons follow the same path as the axons of "regular" RGCs (i.e.
|
|
In this study, PTSD animals demonstrated recall of traumatic memories, anxiety, and an impaired social behavior, while animals subject to both mTBI and PTSD had a pattern of disinhibitory-like behavior. mTBI abrogated both contextual fear and impairments in social behavior seen in PTSD animals. In comparison with other animal studies, examination of neuroendocrine and neuroimmune responses in plasma revealed a trend toward increase in corticosterone in PTSD and combination groups. Stellate ganglion block is an experimental procedure for the treatment of PTSD.
|
|
300px The vestibulo-ocular reflex is driven by signals arising from the vestibular system of the inner ear. The semicircular canals detect head rotation and provide the rotational component, whereas the otoliths detect head translation and drive the translational component. The signal for the horizontal rotational component travels via the vestibular nerve through the vestibular ganglion and end in the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. From these nuclei, fibers cross to the abducens nucleus of the opposite side of the brain.
|
|
The life cycle of a virus typically consists of its entry, replication, and eventual shedding. Upon initial infection, herpes simplex virus (HSV) causes acute lytic infection of epithelial cells, usually at either genital or orolabial mucus membranes. During this initial infection, the virus also infects local nerve cells, such as in the trigeminal ganglion in the case of HSV-1. HSV enters the cell when its membrane fuses with the cellular membrane, releasing tegument proteins and the naked capsid into the cytoplasm.
|
|
The action of tetramethylammonium is most pronounced in autonomic ganglia, and so tetramethylammonium is traditionally classed as a ganglion-stimulant drug.Bowman, W.C. and Rand, M.J. (1980), "Peripheral Autonomic Cholinergic Mechanisms", in Textbook of Pharmacology 2nd Ed., Blackwell Scientific, Oxford 10.21 The ganglionic effects may contribute to the deaths that have followed accidental industrial exposure, although the "chemical burns" induced by this strong base are also severe. There is evidence that poisoning can occur through skin-contact with concentrated solutions of TMAH.
|
|
This pathway initially follows the dorsal spino-cerebellar pathway. It is arranged as follows: proprioceptive receptors of lower limb → peripheral process → dorsal root ganglion → central process → Clarke's column → 2nd order neuron → medulla oblongata (Caudate nucleus) → 3rd order neuron → VPLN of thalamus → 4th order neuron → posterior limb of internal capsule → corona radiata → sensory area of cerebrum. The anterolateral system works somewhat differently. Its primary neurons axons enter the spinal cord and then ascend one to two levels before synapsing in the substantia gelatinosa.
|
|
Similarly to ferroptosis, deficiencies in apoptotic processes can result in many health complications, including neurodegeneration. Within the study of neuronal apoptosis, most research has been conducted on the neurons of the superior cervical ganglion. In order for these neurons to survive and innervate their target tissues, they must have nerve growth factor (NGF). Normally, NGF binds to a tyrosine kinase receptor, TrkA, which activates phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-Akt (PI3K-Akt) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Raf-MEK- ERK) signaling pathways.
|
|
The fine touch (epicritic) is conducted by fibers of the medial lemniscus. The medial lemniscus is formed by the axons of the neurons of the gracilis and cuneatus nuclei of the medulla oblongata which receive information about light touch, vibration and conscient proprioception from the gracilis and cuneatus fasciculus of the spinal cord. This fasciculus receive the axons of the first order neuron which is located in the dorsal root ganglion that receives afferent fibers from receptors in the skin, muscles and joints.
|
|
Their arrangement is somewhat irregular: one ganglion may give rami to two lumbar nerves, or one lumbar nerve may receive rami (branches) from two ganglia. The first and second, and sometimes the third and fourth lumbar nerves are each connected with the lumbar part of the sympathetic trunk by a white ramus communicans. The nerves pass obliquely outward behind the Psoas major, or between its fasciculi, distributing filaments to it and the Quadratus lumborum. As the nerves travel forward, they create nervous plexuses.
|
|
Neurons that are Rb deficient have also been found to re-enter the cell cycle and survive in a 4C DNA state (Lipinski et al., 2001). Duplication of DNA can lead to neuronal diversification in vertebrates, as seen in observations in the developing chick retina. These neurons re-enter the cell cycle as they travel to the ganglion cell layer when they are activated by p75NTR. These neurons are unable to enter mitosis and are stuck in a 4C DNA content state.
|
|
A Southern German team led by the University Eye Hospital in Tübingen, was formed in 1995 by Eberhart Zrenner to develop a subretinal prosthesis. The chip is located behind the retina and utilizes microphotodiode arrays (MPDA) which collect incident light and transform it into electrical current stimulating the retinal ganglion cells. As natural photoreceptors are far more efficient than photodiodes, visible light is not powerful enough to stimulate the MPDA. Therefore, an external power supply is used to enhance the stimulation current.
|
|
The second sting is administered to the subesophageal ganglion (SEG) and is much more precise, hence the need for paralysis and is significantly longer. The wasp actively searches for the SEG during this sting. The second sting inhibits the cockroach's ability to walk spontaneously, or of its own will, but cockroaches can right themselves and swim while under the influence, and when startled, will jump but not run. It also causes excessive grooming and alterations in the metabolism of the cockroach.
|
|
Melanopsin is a type of photopigment belonging to a larger family of light- sensitive retinal proteins called opsins and encoded by the gene Opn4. In the mammalian retina, there are two additional categories of opsins, both involved in the formation of visual images: rhodopsin and photopsin (types I, II, and III) in the rod and cone photoreceptor cells, respectively. In humans, melanopsin is found in intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs). It is also found in the iris of mice and primates.
|
|
Scolopidia ultimately convert mechanical vibration into a nerve impulse, which is sent on to higher ganglion where the information is combined and/or processed into a resultant behavior. Mechanosensory information received by scolopidia is typically transduced faster than visual feedback, due to the physical mechanism of activating a neural impulse. Sensory neurons coupled to scolopidia are also of larger diameter, increasing conduction rate. In some moths, honeybees, and fruit flies, projections from scolopidia in Johnston's organs project directly to regions in the brain.
|
|
Structure of GM1 ganglioside A ganglioside is a molecule composed of a glycosphingolipid (ceramide and oligosaccharide) with one or more sialic acids (e.g. n-acetylneuraminic acid, NANA) linked on the sugar chain. NeuNAc, an acetylated derivative of the carbohydrate sialic acid, makes the head groups of gangliosides anionic at pH 7, which distinguishes them from globosides. The name ganglioside was first applied by the German scientist Ernst Klenk in 1942 to lipids newly isolated from ganglion cells of the brain.
|
|
His "unified theory" explains the prolonged effects of local anesthetic placed on the stellate ganglion resolving complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS). It also predicts the positive effect of SGB on estrogen depletion, hot flashes, PTSD and other conditions. Lipov has made numerous media appearances relating to his innovations in the treatment of chronic pain. Many have focused on state- of-the-art disk treatments, implantable neuro-stimulators for lower back pain and treatment of back and leg pain after surgery.
|
|
Preclinical evidence suggests that, during a migraine, activated primary sensory neurons (meningeal nociceptors) in the trigeminal ganglion release CGRP from their peripherally projecting nerve endings located within the meninges. This CGRP then binds to and activates CGRP receptors located around meningeal vessels, causing vasodilation, mast cell degranulation, and plasma extravasation. Human observations have further implicated the role of CGRP in the pathophysiology of migraine. Activation of primary sensory neurons in the trigeminal vascular system in humans can cause the release of CGRP.
|
|
There is a long tubular heart that extends through much of the body, but usually few, if any, blood vessels. Malpighian tubules excrete nitrogenous waste into the digestive system, which typically consists of a simple tube. Although the ventral nerve cord has a ganglion in each segment, the brain is relatively poorly developed. During mating, male myriapods produce a packet of sperm, or spermatophore, which they must transfer to the female externally; this process is often complex and highly developed.
|
|
Once they synapse in the sympathetic ganglion in the sympathetic trunk, they exit the trunk as gray rami to join the spinal nerve and innervate the appropriate structure. Even though the sympathetic trunk extends below L2, there are no more white rami communicantes below L2 because the intermediolateral cell column ends before this. The fibers of the sympathetic trunk above and below T1-L2 originate from white rami communicantes within T1-L2. Above and below T1-L2 there are only gray rami.
|
|
The optic nerve, also known as cranial nerve II, or simply as CN II, is a paired cranial nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. In humans, the optic nerve is derived from optic stalks during the seventh week of development and is composed of retinal ganglion cell axons and glial cells; it extends from the optic disc to the optic chiasma and continues as the optic tract to the lateral geniculate nucleus, pretectal nuclei, and superior colliculus.
|
|
Other missions also reveal that humanity are descended from the Samaarians, an other-dimensional alien race who once controlled the Ganglion. Within the Lifehold, BLADE discovers a pool of genetic material for recreating Earth's lifeforms and restoring humanity. Elma explains that their human bodies were destroyed with Earth, but their memories and consciousnesses are preserved in the Lifehold's computers for transfer into newly-created bodies. Due to the plan's questionable ethics, this decision was kept secret from the general population.
|
|
The structure of the mammalian eye owes itself completely to the task of focusing light onto the retina. This light causes chemical changes in the photosensitive cells of the retina, the products of which trigger nerve impulses which travel to the brain. In the human eye, light enters the pupil and is focused on the retina by the lens. Light-sensitive nerve cells called rods (for brightness), cones (for color) and non-imaging ipRGC (intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells) react to the light.
|
|
The muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1, also known as the cholinergic receptor, muscarinic 1, is a muscarinic receptor that in humans is encoded by the CHRM1 gene. It is localized to 11q13. This receptor is found mediating slow EPSP at the ganglion in the postganglionic nerve, is common in exocrine glands and in the CNS. It is predominantly found bound to G proteins of class Gq that use upregulation of phospholipase C and, therefore, inositol trisphosphate and intracellular calcium as a signalling pathway.
|
|
Ernst Haeckel viewed the World Riddle as a dual-question of the form, "What is the nature of the physical universe and what is the nature of human thinking?" which he explained, in a lecture in 1892, would have a single answer since humans and the universe were contained within one system, a mono-system: Haeckel had written that human behavior and feeling could be explained, within the laws of the physical universe, as "mechanical work of the ganglion-cells" as stated.
|
|
Epiretinal implants are placed on top of the retinal surface, above the nerve fiber layer, directly stimulating ganglion cells and bypassing all other retinal layers. Array of electrodes is stabilized on the retina using micro tacks which penetrate into the sclera. Typically, external video camera onto eyeglasses acquires images and transmits processed video information to the stimulating electrodes via wireless telemetry. An external transmitter is also required to provide power to the implant via radio-frequency induction coils or infrared lasers.
|
|
Other studies have shown that extracellular excitatory agents such as potassium could be instrumental in wave propagation. Research suggests that synaptic networks of amacrine and ganglion cells are necessary for production of waves. Broadly put, waves are produced and continue over a relatively long developmental period in which new cellular components of the retina and synapses are added. Variation in the mechanisms of retinal waves account for diversity in the connections between cells and maturation of processes in the retina.
|
|
The main features of this tumor is to comprise either ectodermal derivatives (neuroblasts and ganglion cells) or mesenchymal components mostly represented by plump, elongated cells in interlacing bundles often showing rhabdomyoblastic differentiation, including strap-like and racket-shaped cells (2-6). A myofibril-like structure and cross striations can be identified. Liposarcoma-like and chondroid foci can be an additional finding. Fibrosarcoma-like and fibrous histiocytoma-like areas can be observed as well as neurofibromatous and neuroblastic components with rosette formation.
|
|
A scotoma is an area of partial alteration in the field of vision consisting of a partially diminished or entirely degenerated visual acuity that is surrounded by a field of normal – or relatively well-preserved – vision. Every normal mammalian eye has a scotoma in its field of vision, usually termed its blind spot. This is a location with no photoreceptor cells, where the retinal ganglion cell axons that compose the optic nerve exit the retina. This location is called the optic disc.
|
|
There are eight pairs of dorso-ventral muscles (shell muscles). The nervous system is relatively simple, with no true ganglion present. The repeated organs include from three to six pairs of "gills" (actually ctenidia) located in a curved line along each side of the foot (though the number is not always considered definitive of a given species), and as many as six "kidneys" (actually nephridia). The tip or point of their low shells points forward rather than towards the back.
|
|
The somatic motor fibers that innervate the laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles are located in the nucleus ambiguus and emerge from the medulla in the cranial root of the accessory nerve. Fibers cross over to and join the vagus nerve in the jugular foramen. Sensory cell bodies are located in the inferior jugular ganglion, and the fibers terminate in the solitary nucleus. Parasympathetic fibers to segments of the trachea and esophagus in the neck originate in the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve.
|
|
Gurney was awarded the British Pharmacological Society Sandoz prize for her research in pharmacology in 1991, the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain Conference Science Medal in 1992 and a Royal Society Leverhulme Trust Senior Research Fellowship in 2002. One of Gurney's papers, "The channel-blocking action of methonium compounds on rat submandibular ganglion cells" was recognised in "Landmarks in Pharmacology", a collection of the most significant papers published by the British Journal of Pharmacology during its first 50 years.
|
|
Conor Russomanno wearing the Ultracortex Mark III and Ganglion Board Design files for a 3D printed headset for pre-production OpenBCI boards have been released on GitHub. The headset, known as the Ultracortex, holds the electrodes in place, and makes it easy to configure their placement using the 10–20 System. A headset design files are available for download from OpenBCI's Github account, or the headset can be purchased from the OpenBCI online store. The headsets are manufactured and produced by Voodoo Manufacturing.
|
|
Database of extant Ascidiacea. Version of 2 November 2007 They superficially resemble sea squirts but prey on invertebrates such as crustaceans. They also have some unique physical features that distinguish them from the ascidiaceans, including a severely reduced pharynx, the retention of the dorsal nerve cord as adults, the superficial position of their ganglion and the unique histology of the cells of their digestive tracts. The branchial syphon is large and surrounded by six large lobes; the cloacal syphon is small.
|
|
The dissected central ring ganglia of Lymnaea stagnalis. Scale bar is 1 mm. LBuG and RBuG: left and right buccal ganglia LCeG and RCeG: left and right cerebral ganglia LPeG and RPeG: left and right pedal ganglia LPIG and RPIG: left and right pleural ganglia LPaG and RPaG: left and right parietal ganglia VG: visceral ganglion. The nervous system of gastropods consists of a series of paired ganglia connected by major nerve cords, and a number of smaller branching nerves.
|
|
A photoreceptor cell is a specialized type of neuroepithelial cell found in the retina that is capable of visual phototransduction. The great biological importance of photoreceptors is that they convert light (visible electromagnetic radiation) into signals that can stimulate biological processes. To be more specific, photoreceptor proteins in the cell absorb photons, triggering a change in the cell's membrane potential. There are currently three known types of photoreceptor cells in mammalian eyes: rods, cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
The human retina contains about 120 million rod cells, and 6 million cone cells. The number and ratio of rods to cones varies among species, dependent on whether an animal is primarily diurnal or nocturnal. Certain owls, such as the nocturnal tawny owl, have a tremendous number of rods in their retinae. In the human visual system, in addition to the photosensitive rods & cones, there are about 2.4 million to 3 million ganglion cells, with 1 to 2% of them being photosensitive.
|
|
Anatomically, the afferent limb consists of the retina, the optic nerve, and the pretectal nucleus in the midbrain, at level of superior colliculus. Ganglion cells of the retina project fibers through the optic nerve to the ipsilateral pretectal nucleus. The efferent limb is the pupillary motor output from the pretectal nucleus to the ciliary sphincter muscle of the iris. The pretectal nucleus projects crossed and uncrossed fibers to the ipsilateral and contralateral Edinger-Westphal nuclei, which are also located in the midbrain.
|
|
Rogers JC, Qu Y, Tanada TN, Scheuer T, Catterall WA. Molecular Determinants of High Affinity Binding of Alpha- Scorpion Toxin and Sea Anemone Toxin in the S3-S4 Extracellular Loop in Domain IV of the Na Channel Alpha-Subunit. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1996May;271(27):15950–62. The KD of type IIa Na+ channels for ATX II is 76 ± 6 nM. In small and large dorsal root ganglion cells mainly Nav1.1, Nav1.2 and Nav1.6 are sensitive to ATX-II.
|
|
Based on these findings, it is still undetermined what the exact relationship between the control of the regeneration of previously damaged axons and the additional development of non-damaged axons is. Illustration of what a dorsal root ganglion might look like. Mendell was also involved in a 2011 study, that explored the mechanisms involved in the relationship between neuronal growth factors (NGF) and pain. The NGF-TrkA axis, can facilitate the development of many different types of long-term acute and chronic pain.
|
|
The lateral wall and the floor of the orbit are separated posteriorly by the inferior orbital fissure which transmits the zygomatic branch of the maxillary nerve and the ascending branches from the pterygopalatine ganglion. The infraorbital vessels are found in the inferior orbital fissure, and travel down the infraorbital groove into the infraorbital canal and exit through the infraorbital foramen. Inferior division of ophthalmic vein passes through the inferior orbital fissure. It is formed by the sphenoid bone and maxilla.
|
|
As mentioned above, there are several different ways to divide the many different types of amacrine cells into subtypes. GABAergic, glycinergic, or neither: Amacrine cells can be either GABAergic, glycinergic or neither depending on what inhibitory neurotransmitter they express (GABA, glycine, or neither). GABAergic amacrine cells are usually wide field amacrine cells and are found in the ganglion cell layer (GCL) and the inner nuclear layer (INL). One type of GABAergic amacrine cell that is fairly well studied is the starburst amacrine cell.
|
|
Chloroprocaine is used for regional anaesthesia including spinal anaesthesia, caudal anaesthesia and epidural anesthesia It is also indicated for local anaesthesia including brachial plexus block, cervical nerve block, occipital nerve block. mandibular nerve block or maxillary nerve block for dental anesthesia, ophthalmic anesthesia via infraorbital nerve block, ulnar nerve block, paravertebral block, intercostal nerve block, sciatic nerve block, stellate ganglion block, lumbar sympathetic block and interdigital block. It is also used for obstetric anesthesia including pudendal nerve block and paracervical block.
|
|
By binding to ganglion type nicotinic receptors in the adrenal medulla, nicotine increases flow of adrenaline (epinephrine), a stimulating hormone and neurotransmitter. By binding to the receptors, it causes cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and thus the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream. The release of epinephrine (adrenaline) causes an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, as well as higher blood glucose levels.
|
|
Within the facial canal at the geniculate ganglion the axons branch from the facial nerve forming the greater petrosal nerve. This nerve exits the facial canal through the hiatus for the greater petrosal nerve in the petrous part of the temporal bone. It emerges to the middle cranial fossa and travels anteromedially to enter the foramen lacerum. Within the foramen lacerum it joins to the deep petrosal nerve to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal and then passes through this canal.
|
|
As the basilar membrane moves upward, the cilia move in the direction causing opening of the mechanically gated potassium channel. The influx of potassium ions leads to depolarization. On the contrary, the cilia move the other way as the basilar membrane moves down, closing more mechanically gated potassium channels and leading to hyperpolarization. Depolarization will open the voltage gated calcium channel, releasing neurotransmitter (glutamate) at the nerve ending, acting on the spiral ganglion cell, the primary auditory neurons, making them more likely to spike.
|
|
Both musicians neither slept, ate, nor wore any clothing during most of the recording process, covering their faces and bodies with tribally-inspired painted designs. The following winter, Reese released the first solo work under the Ganglion name: a collection of demos and recording experiments titled with the pun, About To Be Pretty. Following this release, he was contracted to record another theatrical score, for a staging of the play The Bundle by Edward Bond. The score was completed in the fall of 2006.
|
|
He then spent the summer rehearsing, performing, and recording with Sylvan Lake-based act, Slake. This resulted in the Slake/Ganglion Split EP, released in the Fall of 2008, featuring three revised versions of songs from Go!. The next release was the sixth album in the GANGLION8 series, titled Listen, released as a physical CD in March and online in April, 2009. An unfinished form of the album was partially leaked to the internet in November 2008, though this did not negatively impact the album's sales.
|
|
She completed her postdoctoral training at the University of Oregon in Eugene and the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, France. Marder subsequently began her independent research career at Brandeis University in 1978 as a faculty member in the department in Biology. Her work on the 30 neurons that compose the lobster stomatogastric ganglion (STG) produced many notable findings. She found that circuits can be modulated by many neuromodulators, which act on the level of populations of neurons, unlike some neurotransmitters, which can only affect specific target neurons.
|
|
Parasol cells of the magnocellular pathway were found to be achromatic. In other studies, new world monkeys, such as marmosets, have aided in the current understanding of spatial and temporal frequency of the magnocellular layer in the LGN. Using the Nissl staining method, the magnocellular layer, in addition to the parvocellular layer, have darker and more dense cell bodies than the koniocellular layers, for example. Retinal ganglion cells of cats have been studied and compared to those in the visual system of both primates and humans.
|
|
This distribution is maintained largely by motor protein-mediated mitochondrial transport along the axon. While neuronal mitophagy is thought to occur primarily in the cell body, it also occurs locally in the axon at sites distant from the cell body; in both the cell body and the axon, neuronal mitophagy occurs via the PINK1-Parkin pathway. Mitophagy in the nervous system may also occur transcellularly, where damaged mitochondria in retinal ganglion cell axons can be passed to neighboring astrocytes for degradation. This process is known as transmitophagy.
|
|
The discovery of the complex cells in visual cortex began with experiments on a cat. Kuffler first shone small spots of light on a cat's retina. With this, he was able to conclude that ganglion cells have concentric (active at high light levels) receptive fields. These cells also have either an on-center receptive field (excited when the stimulus is presented directly on the center of the receptive field) or off-center receptive field (excited when the stimulus is presented off the center of the receptive field).
|
|
He was the son of anatomist and publisher Robert Friedrich Froriep (1804–1861). Froriep specialized in studies involving the development and biological morphology of the head and vertebra. His name is lent to "Froriep's ganglion", which is a temporary group of nerve cells associated with the hypoglossal nerve of an embryo. In 1911, Froriep claimed to have identified the "famous skull" of poet Friedrich von Schiller from a mass gravesite, of which he published an article titled Die Schädel Friedrich von Schillers und des Dichters Begräbnisstätte.
|
|
While the neuroprotective effects of Epo administration in models of brain injury and disease have been well described, the effects of Epo on Neuroregeneration are currently being investigated. Epo administration during optic nerve transaction was used to assess the neuroprotective properties in vivo as well as demonstrate the neuroregenerative capabilities. The intravitreal injection of Epo increased retinal ganglion cell somata and axon survival after transaction. A small amount of axons penetrated the transaction site and regenerated up to 1 mm into the distal nerve.
|
|
In one 1997 study of white cats, 72% of the animals were found to be totally deaf. The entire organ of Corti in the cochlea was found to have degenerated in the first few weeks after birth; however, even during these weeks no brain stem responses could be evoked by auditory stimuli, suggesting that these animals had never experienced any auditory sensations. It was found that some months after the organ of Corti had degenerated, the spiral ganglion of the cochlea also began to degenerate.
|
|
Often found in the retina, bipolar cells are crucial as they serve as both direct and indirect cell pathways. The specific location of the bipolar cells allow them to facilitate the passage of signals from where they start in the receptors to where they arrive at the amacrine and ganglion cells. Bipolar cells in the retina are also unusual in that they do not fire impulses like the other cells found within the nervous system. Rather, they pass the information by graded signal changes.
|
|
Some individuals develop difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia) and swollen lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy). Primary HSV infections in adults often results in pharyngitis similar to that observed in glandular fever (infectious mononucleosis), but gingivostomatitis is less likely. Recurrent oral infection is more common with HSV-1 infections than with HSV-2. Symptoms typically progress in a series of eight stages: #Latent (weeks to months incident-free): The remission period; After initial infection, the viruses move to sensory nerve ganglia (trigeminal ganglion), where they reside as lifelong, latent viruses.
|
|
Human eye cross-sectional view grayscale Retinal precursor cells are biological cells that differentiate into the various cell types of the retina during development. In the vertebrate, these retinal cells differentiate into seven cell types, including retinal ganglion cells, amacrine cells, bipolar cells, horizontal cells, rod photoreceptors, cone photoreceptors, and Müller glia cells. During embryogenesis, retinal cells originate from the anterior portion of the neural plate termed the eye field. Eye field cells with a retinal fate express several transcription factor markers including Rx1, Pax6, and Lhx2.
|
|
The divided visual field paradigm capitalizes on the lateralization of the visual system. Each cerebral hemisphere only receives information from one half of the visual field—specifically, from the contralateral hemifield. For example, retinal projections from ganglion cells in the left eye that receive information from the left visual field cross to the right hemisphere at the optic chiasm; while information from the right visual field received by the left eye will not cross at the optic chiasm, and will remain on the left hemisphere.Jeffery, G. (2001).
|
|
This snail has been studied in relation to human pathology and the epidemiology of schistosomiasis. S. masoni is known to change its host’s (B. glabrata's) behavior via the upregulation/downregulation of neuropeptides such as schistosomin and NPY, and some studies have reported that FMRFamide is aminergic, and may be implicated in the secretion of molecules to respond to infection with parasites. The ganglionic central nervous system (CNS) of B. glabrata consists of paired cerebral, pedal, pleural, parietal, and buccal ganglia, and one unpaired visceral ganglion.
|
|
Their projections extend through the third root in each ganglion, and Furshpan and Potter found that the synapses they subsequently made with the MoG passed depolarizing currents in a direct and unidirectional manner. These electrical synapses account for the speed of the escape mechanism and display some features of chemical synapses such as LTP and LTD. Variations in escape response characteristic depend on the location where the crayfish body is prodded or attacked and also depend on which of the giant neurons is stimulated.
|
|
The number of C fiber axons in each Remak bundle varies with location. For example, in a rat model, large bundles of greater than 20 axons are found exiting the L5 dorsal root ganglion, while smaller bundles of average 3 axons are found in distal nerve segments. Multiple neurons contribute axons to the Remak bundle with an average ratio of about 2 axons contributed per bundle. The cross sectional area of a Remak bundle is proportional to the number of axons found inside it.
|
|
A similar experiment was performed on the cricket (Acheta domestica), an arthropod like the crayfish. The cercal system in the cricket senses the displacement of particles due to air currents utilizing filiform hairs covering the cerci, the two antenna-like appendages extending from the posterior section of the abdomen. Sensory interneurons in terminal abdominal ganglion carry information about intensity and direction of pressure perturbations. Crickets were presented with signal plus noise stimuli and the spikes from cercal interneurons due to this input were recorded.
|
|
Research is currently ongoing in determining the physiological role of satellite glial cells. Current theories suggest that SGCs have a significant role in controlling the microenvironment of the sympathetic ganglia. This is based on the observation that SGCs almost completely envelop the neuron and can regulate the diffusion of molecules across the cell membrane. It has been previously shown that when fluorescent protein tracers are injected into the cervical ganglion in order to bypass the circulatory system, they are not found on the neuron surface.
|
|
The deep petrosal nerve is a branch of the internal carotid plexus which runs through the carotid canal lateral to the internal carotid artery. It enters the cartilaginous substance which fills the foramen lacerum, and joins with the greater petrosal nerve to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal, also known as the Vidian nerve. The deep petrosal nerve carries postganglionic sympathetic axons to the pterygopalatine ganglion, which pass through without synapsing. These axons innervate blood vessels and mucous glands of the head and neck.
|
|
Taking their place as permanent members in the band were the return of Tor Magne Glidje and Ole Halvard Sveen, both from Ganglion, that merged with Extol when four out of five band members ended up playing in both bands. In 2005, the band released what could be considered their most diverse album; The Blueprint Dives, or "Blueprint" for short. A music video was shot for the song "Pearl". The album was nominated for the Norwegian Grammy, Spellemannprisen, for best Norwegian metal album in 2005.
|
|
Differentiation begins with the retinal ganglion cells and concludes with production of the Muller glia. Although each cell type differentiates from the RPCs in a sequential order, there is considerable overlap in the timing of when individual cell types differentiate. The cues that determine a RPC daughter cell fate are coded by multiple transcription factor families including the bHLH and homeodomain factors. In addition to guiding cell fate determination, cues exist in the retina to determine the dorsal-ventral (D-V) and nasal- temporal (N-T) axes.
|
|
The primary light-sensing cells in the retina are the photoreceptor cells, which are of two types: rods and cones. Rods function mainly in dim light and provide black-and-white vision. Cones function in well-lit conditions and are responsible for the perception of colour, as well as high-acuity vision used for tasks such as reading. A third type of light- sensing cell, the photosensitive ganglion cell, is important for entrainment of circadian rhythms and reflexive responses such as the pupillary light reflex.
|
|
The merging of signals by virtue of the diffuse ganglion cells, as well as horizontal and amacrine cells, allow a cumulative effect. Thus that area of stimulation is inversely proportional to intensity of light, a strong stimulus of 100 rods equivalent to a weak stimulus of 1,000 rods. In sufficiently bright light, convergence is low, but during dark adaptation, convergence of rod signals boost. This is not due to structural changes, but by a possible shutdown of inhibition that stops convergence of messages in bright light.
|
|
Herpes reactivation is often treated with acyclovir, although evidence for its efficacy in controlling peripheral neurological manifestation of disease remain poor. Varicella zoster virus, the cause of chickenpox, can be found dormant throughout the nervous system after an initial infection. Reactivation of the virus cause herpes zoster, commonly known as shingles, is seen in a dematomal or cranial nerve distribution corresponding to the ganglion in which the latent virus resided. After the herpetic rash resolves, an additional period of postherpatic neuralgia may persist for weeks to months.
|
|
The first-order neurons (from the trigeminal ganglion) enter the pons and synapse on second-order neurons in the principal (chief sensory) nucleus. Axons of the second-order neurons then decussate to enter the trigeminal lemniscus in the midbrain and then ascend to the ventral posteromedial nucleus of the contralateral thalamus, forming the ventral trigeminothalamic tract. A subset of these fibers do not decussate and travel to the ipsilateral ventral posteromedial nucleus of the thalamus. These non-decussating fibers give rise to the dorsal trigeminothalamic tract.
|
|
Melanopsin structure These photoreceptor cells project both throughout the retina and into the brain. They contain the photopigment melanopsin in varying quantities along the cell membrane, including on the axons up to the optic disc, the soma, and dendrites of the cell. ipRGCs contain membrane receptors for the neurotransmitters glutamate, glycine, and GABA. Photosensitive ganglion cells respond to light by depolarizing, thus increasing the rate at which they fire nerve impulses, which is opposite to that of other photoreceptor cells, which hyperpolarize in response to light.
|
|
It has been suggested by the authors of the rodless, coneless human model that the receptor could be instrumental in understanding many diseases, including major causes of blindness worldwide such as glaucoma, a disease which affects ganglion cells. In other mammals, photosensitive ganglia have proven to have a genuine role in conscious vision. Tests conducted by Jennifer Ecker et al. found that rats lacking rods and cones were able to learn to swim toward sequences of vertical bars rather than an equally luminescent gray screen.
|
|
This causes the cell to depolarise, and creates an action potential that is transmitted along the spiral ganglion, which sends information through the auditory portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve to the temporal lobe of the brain. The human ear can generally hear sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz (the audio range). Sounds outside this range are considered infrasound (below 20 Hz)Greinwald, John H. Jr MD; Hartnick, Christopher J. MD The Evaluation of Children With Sensorineural Hearing Loss. Archives of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery.
|
|
In both groups, the epidermis is renewed from mesodermal stem cells. The nervous system of acoelomorphs is formed by a set of longitudinal nerve bundles beneath the ciliated epidermis. Close to the anterior end, these bundles are united by a ring commissure, but do not form a true brain, although it is hypothesized that such organization was the precursor of the cephalization of the nerve system in more derived bilaterians. After decapitation, such a "brain" (rather, a cerebroid ganglion) regenerates in a few weeks.
|
|
The excretory system consists of two protonephridia emptying through pores in the final segment. Echinoderes close up head anatomy The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord, with one ganglion in each segment, and an anterior nerve ring surrounding the pharynx. Smaller ganglia are also located in the lateral and dorsal portions of each segment, but do not form distinct cords. Some species have simple ocelli on the head, and all species have tiny bristles on the body to provide a sense of touch.
|
|
In the autonomic nervous system, fibers from the CNS to the ganglion are known as preganglionic fibers. All preganglionic fibers, whether they are in the sympathetic division or in the parasympathetic division, are cholinergic (that is, these fibers use acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter) and they are myelinated. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers tend to be shorter than parasympathetic preganglionic fibers because sympathetic ganglia are often closer to the spinal cord than are the parasympathetic ganglia. Another major difference between the two ANS (autonomic nervous systems) is divergence.
|
|
The inputs from these other areas of the brain probably play a role in sound localization. In order to understand in more detail the specific functions of the cochlear nuclei it is first necessary to understand the way sound information is represented by the fibers of the auditory nerve. Briefly, there are around 30,000 auditory nerve fibres in each of the two auditory nerves. Each fiber is an axon of a spiral ganglion cell that represents a particular frequency of sound, and a particular range of loudness.
|
|
The LGN is a small, ovoid, ventral projection at the termination of the optic tract on each side of the brain. The LGN and the medial geniculate nucleus which deals with auditory information are both thalamic nuclei and so are present in both hemispheres. The LGN receives information directly from the ascending retinal ganglion cells via the optic tract and from the reticular activating system. Neurons of the LGN send their axons through the optic radiation, a direct pathway to the primary visual cortex.
|
|
Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS)-guided neurolysis is a technique that performs neurolysis using a linear-array echoendoscope. The EUS technique is minimally invasive and is believed to be safer than the traditional percutaneous approaches. EUS-guided neurolysis technique can be used to target the celiac plexus, the celiac ganglion, or the broad plexus in the treatment of pancreatic cancer-associated pain. EUS-guided celiac plexus neurolysis (EUS-CPN) is performed with either an oblique-viewing or forward-viewing echoendoscope and is passed through the mouth into the esophagus.
|
|
The stings of honey bees are barbed and therefore embed themselves into the sting site, and the sting apparatus has its own musculature and ganglion which keep delivering venom even after detachment. The gland which produces the alarm pheromone is also associated with the sting apparatus. The embedded stinger continues to emit additional alarm pheromone after it has torn loose; other defensive workers are thereby attracted to the sting site. The worker dies after the sting becomes lodged and is subsequently torn loose from the bee's abdomen.
|
|
The central axons form synaptic connections with cells in the cochlear nucleus of the brainstem. The cell bodies of the cochlear nerve lie within the cochlea and collectively form the spiral ganglion, named for the spiral shape it shares with the cochlea. These central axons exit the cochlea at its base and form a nerve trunk, which, in humans, is approximately one inch long. This travels in parallel with the vestibular nerves through the internal auditory canal, through which it connects to the brainstem.
|
|
The gene is expressed in spindle-shaped cells located along nerve fibers between the auditory ganglion and sensory epithelium. These cells accompany neurites at the habenula perforata, the opening through which neurites extend to innervate hair cells. This and the pattern of expression of this gene in chicken inner ear paralleled the histologic findings of acidophilic deposits, consistent with mucopolysaccharide ground substance, in temporal bones from DFNA9 (autosomal dominant nonsyndromic sensorineural deafness 9) patients. Mutations that cause DFNA9 have been reported in this gene.
|
|
While ganglion cells are normally found near the basal ends of the epithelial cells, sensory cells generally extend in an apical direction from the muscle processes of the basal ends. While Ganglia generally provide intermediary connections between different neurological structures within a nervous system, sensory cells serve in detecting different stimuli which could include light, sound, touch or temperature. There are many subsets of neurons within a nerve net and their placement is highly position specific. Every subset of a neuron has a constant and regional distribution.
|
|
Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) is a mitochondrially inherited (mother to all offspring) degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and their axons that leads to an acute or subacute loss of central vision; this affects predominantly young adult males. Santhera completed a Phase III clinical trial in this indication in Europe with positive results, and submitted an application to market the drug to European regulators in July 2011. It is approved by EMA for this indication and was designated an orphan drug in 2007.
|
|
The brightness and color temperature of light from a light box are quite similar to daylight. The production of the hormone melatonin, a sleep regulator, is inhibited by light and permitted by darkness as registered by photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina. To some degree, the reverse is true for serotonin, which has been linked to mood disorders. Hence, for the purpose of manipulating melatonin levels or timing, light boxes providing very specific types of artificial illumination to the retina of the eye are effective.
|
|
The signal to the mantle is transmitted via a chain consisting of three giant neurons organized in sequence. The first is located in the ventral magnocellular lobe, central to the eyes. It serves as a central integrating manifold that receives all sensory systems and consists of two symmetrical neurons (I). They, in turn, contact secondary neurons (one in each side) in the dorsal magnocellular lobe and (II) and in turn contact the tertiary giant axons in the stellate ganglion (III, one in each side of the mantle).
|
|
Several studies have proved the changes occurring in the microglia of the inner plexiform and of the outer plexiform layers of the retina. Also a new software to automatize the count of microglial cells in the retina has been published. However, depletion of microglia from the retina and optic nerve does not affect the degeneration process of retinal ganglion cells after acute injury of the optic nerve. Thus, it remains to be studied whether microglia play a functional role in the degeneration process in glaucoma.
|
|
Before the three joined Extol, Glidje and Sveen and Mjåland were in a side- project of Extol members Peter Espevoll and David Husvik, called Ganglion. The band merged with Extol after the departure of Christer Espevoll and Ole Børud. In 2007, Husvik and Espevoll put Extol on hiatus, while Glidje, Sveen, and Mjåland formed their project, Mantric. Glidje stated that "There are three Lengsel albums and we intend to make in the near future number four." as recently as 2015 in an interview for Mantric.
|
|
Several high-threshold, slowly inactivating calcium channels in neurons are regulated by G proteins. The activation of α-subunits of G proteins has been shown to cause rapid closing of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, which causes difficulties in the firing of action potentials. This inhibition of voltage-gated Calcium channels by G protein-coupled receptors has been demonstrated in the dorsal root ganglion of a chick among other cell lines. Further studies have indicated roles for both Gα and Gβγ subunits in the inhibition of Ca2+ channels.
|
|
Histology of Medulloepithelioma The World Health Organization has classified the central nervous system primitive neuroectodermal tumors into five subtypes: neuroblastoma, ganglioneuroblastoma, medulloepithelioma, ependymoblastoma, and not otherwise specified PNET. The last one encompasses the PNETs with varying characteristics that hasn't been well defined yet. Neuroblastomas are PNETS that involve the process of cell differentiation into neurons, while ganglioneuroblastomas are PNETs that involve ganglion cells. Medulloepithelioma, on the other hand, are tumors involving the constant cell division on the epithelium tissue where bundle of neuron endings are located.
|
|
Nerves involved in the resizing of the pupil connect to the pretectal nucleus of the high midbrain, bypassing the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex. From the pretectal nucleus neurons send axons to neurons of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus whose visceromotor axons run along both the left and right oculomotor nerves. Visceromotor nerve axons (which constitute a portion of cranial nerve III, along with the somatomotor portion derived from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus) synapse on ciliary ganglion neurons, whose parasympathetic axons innervate the iris sphincter muscle, producing miosis.
|
|
It has been estimated that non-24 occurs in more than half of all people who are totally blind. The disorder can occur at any age, from birth onwards. It generally follows shortly after loss or removal of a person’s eyes, as the photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina are also removed. Without light to the retina, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), located in the hypothalamus, is not cued each day to synchronize the circadian rhythm to the 24-hour social day, resulting in non-24 for many totally blind individuals.
|
|
The optic chiasm is formed by the union of the two optic nerves. The nasal fibers of each optic nerve decussate (cross) across the chiasm to the contralateral side while the temporal fibers course posteriorly to form the optic tract on the ipsilateral side. This arrangement allows the left half of the visual field to end up on the right side of the brain and the right half of the visual field to locate to the left side. The optic nerves consist of the axons from the retinal ganglion of each eye.
|
|
The CNS consists of a bilobed brain (cerebral ganglia, or supra-pharyngeal ganglion), sub-pharyngeal ganglia, circum-pharyngeal connectives and a ventral nerve cord. Earthworms' brains consist of a pair of pear-shaped cerebral ganglia. These are located in the dorsal side of the alimentary canal in the third segment, in a groove between the buccal cavity and pharynx. A pair of circum-pharyngeal connectives from the brain encircle the pharynx and then connect with a pair of sub-pharyngeal ganglia located below the pharynx in the fourth segment.
|
|
480250402 In a different study, replacement or removal of the early-born retinal ganglion cells, which function as pioneer neurons, had a significantly deleterious effect on the ability of later axons to exit the eye. Subsequent axon-axon interactions were also shown to be necessary, as misrouting of retinal axons led to chiasm defasciculaiton, telencephalic and ventral hindbrain projections, or aberrant crossing in the posterior commissure.Pittman, A. J., Law, M. Y., & Chien, C. B. (2008). Pathfinding in a large vertebrate axon tract: isotypic interactions guide retinotectal axons at multiple choice points.
|
|
The nervous system is the system of neurons, or nerve cells, that relay electrical signals through the brain and body. A nerve cell receives signals from other nerve cells through tree-branch-like extensions called dendrites and passes signals on through a long extension called an axon (or nerve fiber). Synapses are places where one cell's axon passes information to another cell's dendrite by sending chemicals called neurotransmitters across a small gap called a synaptic cleft. Synapses occur in various locations, including ganglia (singular: ganglion), which are masses of nerve cell bodies.
|
|
Peripherin is widely expressed in the cell body and axons of neurons in the peripheral nervous system. These include small-sized root ganglion neurons, lower motor neurons, sensory and motor neurons of the cranial nerves, and autonomic neurons in ganglia and the enteric nervous system. It is also expressed in the central nervous system in a small set of brainstem and spinal cord neurons that have projections toward peripheral structures. Some of these structures include the hypothalamic magnocellular nuclei, pontine cholinergic nuclei, some cerebellar nuclei, and scattered neurons in the cerebral cortex.
|
|
The frontal eye consists of a pigment cup, a group of putative photoreceptor cells (termed Row 1), three rows of neurons (Rows 2–4), and glial cells. The frontal eye, which expresses the PAX6 gene, has been proposed as the homolog of vertebrate paired eyes, the pigment cup as the homolog of the RPE (retinal pigment epithelium), the putative photoreceptors as homologs of vertebrate rods and cones, and Row 2 neurons as homologs of the retinal ganglion cells. The pigment cup is oriented concave dorsally. Its cells contain the pigment melanin.
|
|
In 1845 he became a clinical assistant to Peter Krukenberg (1788-1865) at Halle, and several years later, founded a private clinic in Halle (1850). In 1853 he was appointed chief physician at the Syphilisklinik at the Berlin Charité, and in 1857 became an associate professor at the University of Berlin. Bärensprung is credited as being the first physician to demonstrate a definite link between herpes zoster and a lesion of the dorsal root ganglion. Subsequently, he identified nine varieties of the disorder, of which he classified according to the nerve involved.
|
|
We also use "color model" to indicate a model or mechanism of color vision for explaining how color signals are processed from visual cones to ganglion cells. For simplicity, we call these models color mechanism models. The classical color mechanism models are Young–Helmholtz's trichromatic model and Hering's opponent-process model. Though these two theories were initially thought to be at odds, it later came to be understood that the mechanisms responsible for color opponency receive signals from the three types of cones and process them at a more complex level.
|
|
It is in relation, behind, with the longus capitis, the superior cervical ganglion of the sympathetic trunk, and the superior laryngeal nerve; laterally, with the internal jugular vein and vagus nerve, the nerve lying on a plane posterior to the artery; medially, with the pharynx, superior laryngeal nerve, and ascending pharyngeal artery. At the base of the skull the glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, and hypoglossal nerves lie between the artery and the internal jugular vein. Unlike the external carotid artery, the internal carotid normally has no branches in the neck.
|
|
Most of the cercariae encyst in the haemocoel of the ant and mature into metacercariae, but one moves to the sub-esophageal ganglion (a cluster of nerve cells underneath the esophagus). There, the fluke takes control of the ant's actions by manipulating these nerves. As evening approaches and the air cools, the infected ant is drawn away from other members of the colony and upward to the top of a blade of grass. Once there, it clamps its mandibles onto the top of the blade and stays there until dawn.
|
|
Phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten) is originally identified as a tumor suppressor gene. Recent studies found that Pten also suppressed axon regeneration in retinal ganglion cells, corticospinal tract, and DRG neurons. So far 3 Pten isoforms (Pten, PtenJ1, and Pten J2) have been identified and analyzed. Pten J1 is identical in sequence to the conventional Pten isoform except for a difference in TSS and a small shift in the CDS. Pten J2 has a truncated CDS, an alternative transcription start site and a longer 3’ UTR compared to the conventional Pten isoform expressed within neurons.
|
|
Conversely, tissues among the most lowly expressed levels of SLC46A3 include bronchial epithelial cells, caudate nucleus, superior cervical ganglion, smooth muscle, and colorectal adenocarcinoma, all with percentile ranks below 15. Immunohistochemistry supports expression of the gene in the liver and kidney, as well as in skin tissues, while immunoblotting (western blotting) provides evidence for protein abundance in the liver and tonsils, in addition to in papilloma and glioma cells. In Situ Hybridization on Mouse Spinal Column and Cervical Spine. (a)-(c) spinal column of juvenile mouse (P4) and (d) cervical spine of adult mouse (P56).
|
|
Complex cells appeared to match the subunit model, but still lacked the restriction that the receptive fields are linear. This was also tested by measuring the response of a cell when the stimulus contains two bars, which would help show the properties of the receptive field subunit. What they found was that by knowing these properties of the subunits, it was possible to predict spatial frequency selectivity, as was the case for simple cells. Hence, complex cells could be modeled by the subunit model used for Y ganglion cells.
|
|
For instance, if the head is turned clockwise as seen from above, then excitatory impulses are sent from the semicircular canal on the right side via the vestibular nerve through Scarpa's ganglion and end in the right vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. From this nuclei excitatory fibres cross to the left abducens nucleus. There they project and stimulate the lateral rectus of the left eye via the abducens nerve. In addition, by the medial longitudinal fasciculus and oculomotor nuclei, they activate the medial rectus muscles on the right eye.
|
|
It has been shown that galanin plays a role in the control of the early post-natal neural development of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG). Galanin-mutant animals show a 13% decrease in the number of adult DRG cells as well as a 24% decrease in the percentage of cells expressing substance P. This suggests that the cell loss by apoptosis that usually occurs in the developing DRG is regulated by galanin and that the absence of galanin results in an increase in the number of cells that die.
|
|
The lingual nerve supplies general somatic afferent innervation from the mucous membrane of the anterior two-thirds (body) of the tongue, while the posterior one-third (root) is innervated by the glossopharyngeal. It also carries nerve fibers that are not part of the trigeminal nerve, including the chorda tympani nerve of the facial nerve, which provides special sensation (taste) to the anterior 2/3 part of the tongue as well as parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers. The submandibular ganglion is suspended by two nerve filaments from the lingual nerve.
|
|
The Eskinogram has notably been used to model how the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) acts as a master oscillator for the human biological clock. A group of photoreceptors called the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) act as the input for the clock mechanism. These cells then use a pathway dependent on melanopsin to signal to the SCN. The SCN then uses a transcription-translation feedback loop, consisting of a set of clock genes that regulate their own expression, to act as a complete oscillator and signal locomotor outputs accordingly.
|
|
Molgula pugetiensis is a Pacific tailless ascidian within the Roscovita clade of molgulids A notochord is formed early in development, and always consist of a row of exactly 40 cells. The nerve tube enlarges in the main body, and will eventually become the cerebral ganglion of the adult. The tunic develops early in embryonic life, and extends to form a fin along the tail in the larva. The larva also has a statocyst and a pigmented cup above the mouth, which opens into a pharynx lined with small clefts opening into a surrounding atrium.
|
|
The systemic administration of RhEpo has been shown to reduce dorsal root ganglion cell apoptosis. While animals treated with RhEpo weren’t initially protected from mechanical allodynia after spinal nerve crush, a significantly improved recovery rate compared to animals not treated with RhEpo was demonstrated. This RhEpo therapy increased JAK2 phosphorylation, which has been found to be a key signaling step in Epo-induced neuroprotection by an anti-apoptotic mechanism. These findings demonstrate Epo therapy as a feasible treatment of neuropathic pain by reducing the protraction of pain after nerve injury.
|
|
Bipolar cells are also found in the spinal ganglia, when the cells are in an embryonic condition. Sometimes the extensions, also called processes, come off from opposite poles of the cell, and the cell then assumes a spindle shape. In some cases where two fibers are apparently connected with a cell, one of the fibers is really derived from an adjoining nerve cell and is passing to end in a ramification around the ganglion cell, or, again, it may be coiled helically around the nerve process which is issuing from the cell.
|
|
Arvanitaki contributed to the field of neurophysiology with research that explored the giant nerve fibres in genera of gastropods, the sea hare Aplysia and the land snail Helix. She developed the concept of ganglion preparation of large identifiable nerves. Arvanitaki also discovered that regular electrical oscillations could periodically grow in size until a series of action potentials were fired along isolated nerve fibres of the cuttlefish, genus Sepia. A further contribution of Arvanitaki was the demonstration that a neuronal circuit was not required for a single nerve to produce rhythmic and spontaneous activity.
|
|
Primates are the only known placental mammalian trichromats. Their eyes include three different kinds of cones, each containing a different photopigment (opsin). Their peak sensitivities lie in the blue (short- wavelength S cones), green (medium-wavelength M cones) and yellow-green (long- wavelength L cones) regions of the color spectrum.. S cones make up 5–10% of the cones and form a regular mosaic. Special bipolar and ganglion cells pass those signals from S cones and there is evidence that they have a separate signal pathway through the thalamus to the visual cortex as well.
|
|
In the 2002–03 JGP series, Mok placed fourth in Montreal and won bronze in Beijing. She placed sixth on the senior level at the 2003 U.S. Championships and was sent to the 2003 World Junior Championships in Ostrava. She placed second in her qualifying group, fifth in the short program, sixth in the free skate, and fifth overall in the Czech Republic. Mok later missed five months of training due to a stress fracture in her lower back and then four months due to ganglion cysts on her ankles, which required surgery.
|
|
Just outside the spinal cord, thousands of afferent neuronal cell bodies are aggregated in a swelling in the dorsal root known as the dorsal root ganglion. All of the axons in the dorsal root, which contains afferent nerve fibers, are used in the transduction of somatosensory information. Somatosensory receptors include senses such as pain, touch, temperature, itch, and stretch. For example, a specific muscle fiber called an intrafusal muscle fiber is a type of afferent neuron that lies parallel to the extrafusal muscle fibers thus functions as a stretch receptor by detecting muscle length.
|
|
All of these sensations travel along the same general pathways towards the brain. One pathwaydorsal column-medial lemniscus pathwaybegins with sensation from the periphery being sent via afferent nerve fiber of the dorsal root ganglion (first order neuron) through the spinal cord to the dorsal column nuclei (second order neuron) in the brainstem. The second order neuron's projection decussates at the medulla through medial lemniscus to the third order neurons in the thalamus. The third order neuron's axon terminates at the primary somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe.
|
|
Evidence for stochastic resonance in a sensory system was first found in nerve signals from the mechanoreceptors located on the tail fan of the crayfish (Procambarus clarkii). An appendage from the tail fan was mechanically stimulated to trigger the cuticular hairs that the crayfish uses to detect pressure waves in water. The stimulus consisted of sinusoidal motion at 55.2 Hz with random Gaussian noise at varying levels of average intensity. Spikes along the nerve root of the terminal abdominal ganglion were recorded extracellularly for 11 cells and analyzed to determine the SNR.
|
|
Shingles occurs only in people who have been previously infected with VZV; although it can occur at any age, approximately half of the cases in the United States occur in those aged 50 years or older. Repeated attacks of shingles are rare, and it is extremely rare for a person to have more than three recurrences. The disease results from virus particles in a single sensory ganglion switching from their latent lysogenic cycles to their active lytic cycles. In contrast to the herpes simplex virus, the latency of VZV is poorly understood.
|
|
The intermediate nerve, nervus intermedius, nerve of Wrisberg or Glossopalatine nerve, is the part of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) located between the motor component of the facial nerve and the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). It contains the sensory and parasympathetic fibers of the facial nerve. Upon reaching the facial canal, it joins with the motor root of the facial nerve at the geniculate ganglion. Alex Alfieri postulates, that the intermediate nerve should be considered as a separate cranial nerve and not a part of the facial nerve.
|
|
The neurons in the inferior ganglion of the vagus nerve are pseudounipolar and provide sensory innervation (general somatic afferent and general visceral afferent). The axons of the neurons which innervate the taste buds of the epiglottis synapse in the rostral portion of the solitary nucleus (gustatory nucleus). The axons of the neurons which provide general sensory information synapse in the spinal trigeminal nucleus. The axons of the neurons which innervate the aortic bodies, aortic arch, respiratory and gastrointestinal tract, synapse in the caudal part of the solitary nucleus.
|
|
The drug is understood to damage multiple regions of the cochlea, causing the death of outer hair cells, as well as damage to the spiral ganglion neurons and cells of the stria vascularis. Long-term retention of cisplatin in the cochlea may contribute to the drug's cochleotoxic potential. Once inside the cochlea, cisplatin has been proposed to cause cellular toxicity through a number of different mechanisms, including through the production of reactive oxygen species. The decreased incidence of oxaliplatin ototoxicity has been attributed to decreased uptake of the drug by cells of the cochlea.
|
|
Slit2 and Slit1 have been shown to function as potential positive regulators of axon collateral formation during establishment or remodeling of neural circuits. In fact Slit2-N, an N-terminal fragment of Slit2, has been shown to induce Dorsal Root Ganglion (DRG) elongation and branching, whereas full length Slit2 antagonizes this effect. In central trigeminal sensory axons, however, full length Slit2, through interactions with semaphorin receptor plexin-A4 regulates axonal branching. Interactions between Slit and Robo in this process are unclear, but DRG express Robo2 and trigeminal axons express Robo1-2.
|
|
The habenular commissure, is a brain commissure (a band of nerve fibers) situated in front of the pineal gland that connects the habenular nuclei on both sides of the diencephalon. The habenular commissure is part of the habenular trigone (a small depressed triangular area situated in front of the superior colliculus and on the lateral aspect of the posterior part of the tænia thalami). The trigonum habenulæ also contains groups of nerve cells termed the ganglion habenulæ. Fibers enter the trigonum habenulæ from the stalk of the pineal gland, and the habenular commissure.
|
|
The most commonly accepted probable cause of ganglion cysts is the "herniation hypothesis", by which they are thought to occur as "an out-pouching or distention of a weakened portion of a joint capsule or tendon sheath." This description is based on the observations that the cysts occur close to tendons and joints. The microscopic anatomy of the cyst resembles that of tenosynovial tissue, the fluid being similar in composition to synovial fluid. Dye injected into the joint capsule frequently ends up in the cyst, which may become enlarged after activity.
|
|
The VFI reflects retinal ganglion cell loss and function, as a percentage, with central points weighted more. It is expressed as a percentage of visual function; with 100% being a perfect age- adjusted visual field and 0% represents a perimetrically blind field. The pattern deviation probability plot (or total deviation probability plot when MD is worse than -20 dB) is used to identify abnormal points and age corrected sensitivity at each point is calculated using total deviation numerical map. VFI is a reliable index on which glaucomatous visual field severity staging can be based.
|
|
RGCs exit the retinal ganglion cell layer through the optic disc, which requires a 45° turn. This requires complex interactions with optic disc glial cells which will express local gradients of Netrin-1, a morphogen that will interact with the Deleted in Colorectal Cancer (DCC) receptor on growth cones of the RGC axon. This morphogen initially attracts RGC axons, but then, through an internal change in the growth cone of the RGC, Netin-1 becomes repulsive, pushing the axon away from the optic disc. This is mediated through a cAMP dependent mechanism.
|
|
Zaidi and colleagues' work with rodless, coneless human subjects hence has also opened the door into image-forming (visual) roles for the ganglion cell photoreceptor. The discovery that there are parallel pathways for vision was made: one classic rod- and cone-based arising from the outer retina, the other a rudimentary visual brightness detector arising from the inner retina. The latter seems to be activated by light before the former. Classic photoreceptors also feed into the novel photoreceptor system, and colour constancy may be an important role as suggested by Foster.
|
|
Attempts were made to hunt down the receptor in humans, but humans posed special challenges and demanded a new model. Unlike in other animals, researchers could not ethically induce rod and cone loss either genetically or with chemicals so as to directly study the ganglion cells. For many years, only inferences could be drawn about the receptor in humans, though these were at times pertinent. In 2007, Zaidi and colleagues published their work on rodless, coneless humans, showing that these people retain normal responses to nonvisual effects of light.
|
|
He has served two consecutive 2-year terms as Chair of the Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Group of the International Association for the Study of Pain. He is also the Editor and Chair of the Pain and End-of-Life CME program from the California Society of Anesthesiologists. Prager is one of the few physicians in the US to perform Dorsal Root Ganglion Stimulation for CRPS. Prager is a recognized expert who speaks nationally and internationally in the administration of Ketamine for depression, CRPS and other pain problems.
|
|
In Munich, von Economo worked with Emil Kraepelin and Alois Alzheimer and wrote his article "Contribution to the normal anatomy of the ganglion cell." He also worked in the psychiatry of Berlin under Theodor Ziehen and in the neurologic ambulatory under Hermann Oppenheim and, finally, did experimental animal research in Trieste (under Carl Isidor Cori). After these two years, he returned to Vienna and worked as assistant at the Clinic for Psychiatry and Nervous Diseases (headed by Julius Wagner-Jauregg) at Vienna’s General Hospital. Von Economo obtained his habilitation in 1913.
|
|
Samer Hattar (Arabic سامر حتر ) is a chronobiologist and a leader in the field of non-image forming photoreception. He is currently the Chief of the Section on Light and Circadian Rhythms at the National Institute of Mental Health, part of the National Institutes of Health. He was previously an associate professor in the Department of Neuroscience and the Department of Biology at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, MD. He is best known for his investigation into the role of melanopsin and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGC) in the entrainment of circadian rhythms.
|
|
The somatosensory root (superior) originates from branches of the mandibular nerve (cranial nerve V), which pass through the otic ganglion without synapsing. Then they form the somatosensory (superior) root of the auriculotemporal nerve. The two roots re-unite, and shortly after the branching of secretomotor fibers to the parotid gland (parotid branches), the auriculotemporal nerve comprises exclusively somatosensory fibers, which ascend to the superficial temporal region. There, it supplies the auricle, external acoustic meatus, outer side of the tympanic membrane and the skin in the temporal region (superficial temporal branches).
|
|
Contrary to popular belief, the peak absorption frequency for L, M, and S cones do not exactly correspond to red, green, and blue wavelength. Rather, the peak frequency for the L cone is orange, yellowish green in M cones, and blue-violet in S cones. These cones transduce the absorbed light into electrical information to be relayed to neurons in the retina such as retinal bipolar cells and retinal ganglion cells, before reaching the brain. The signals from different cones are added or subtracted from each other to process the color of incoming light.
|
|
Bipolar cells are so-named as they have a central body from which two sets of processes arise. They can synapse with either rods or cones (rod/cone mixed input BCs have been found in teleost fish but not mammals), and they also accept synapses from horizontal cells. The bipolar cells then transmit the signals from the photoreceptors or the horizontal cells, and pass it on to the ganglion cells directly or indirectly (via amacrine cells). Unlike most neurons, bipolar cells communicate via graded potentials, rather than action potentials.
|
|
The series depicts The Hive as an alien species who are covertly invading Earth. They are a parasitic race of small multi-legged spider-like beings that can take control of host bodies, by attaching themselves to the brain. They do this by entering through orifices on the head, commonly the mouth, though they are also shown to enter by squeezing through the nose and ears, with great discomfort to the host. Due to the way they attach themselves to the brain's ganglion regions, the series' protagonists dub the creatures "Ganglions".
|
|
Some time ago, the Ganglions invaded an advanced alien race, dubbed the "Greys"—the typical depiction of a Roswell Grey alien. The Greys were a race not unlike humans, though they possessed technology making them capable of interstellar travel. The Ganglion parasites invaded them in much the same way that they are trying to invade Earth now, and by the time they realized what was happening, it was too late. Thus, the "Grey aliens" seen abducting humans are really just as much a slave race or "shells" for the Ganglions as the infected humans are.
|
|
In vertebrates, the retina contains Müller cells, a type of glia not found elsewhere in the CNS. Upon retinal injury, gliosis of these cells occurs, functioning to repair damage, but often having harmful consequences in the process, worsening some of the diseases or problems that initially trigger it. Reactive gliosis in the retina can have detrimental effects on vision; in particular, the production of proteases by astrocytes causes widespread death of retinal ganglion cells. A 2011 study compared the effects of two glial toxins, AAA and Neurostatin, on retinal gliosis in mice.
|
|
From these radiate all of the nerves which connect the visceral ganglia to the circumpallial nerve ring which loops around the mantle and connects to all of the scallop's tentacles and eyes. This nerve ring is so well developed that in some species, it may be legitimately considered an additional ganglion. The visceral ganglia are also the origin of the branchial nerves which control the scallop's gills. The cerebral ganglia are the next-largest set of ganglia, and lie distinct from each other a significant distance dorsal to the visceral ganglia.
|
|
Glaucoma in a dog Canine glaucoma refers to a group of diseases in dogs that affect the optic nerve and involve a loss of retinal ganglion cells in a characteristic pattern. An intraocular pressure greater than is a significant risk factor for the development of glaucoma. Untreated glaucoma in dogs leads to permanent damage of the optic nerve and resultant visual field loss, which can progress to blindness. The group of multifactorial diseases which cause glaucoma in dogs can be divided roughly into three main categories: congenital, primary or secondary.
|
|
Bilaterally symmetrical animals characteristically have a collection of nervous tissue toward the anterior region of their body. Depending on the size, this may be termed the "cerebral ganglion" or the "brain". In decapods, the brain is divided into three main regions, the protocerebrum, which consists of two optic lobes, and the median protocerebrum. In 2002, James Rose (University of Wyoming) and more recently Brian Key (University of Queensland) published reviews arguing that fish (and presumably crustaceans) cannot feel pain because they lack a neocortex in the brain and therefore do not have consciousness.
|
|
Others have criticised these findings, including the fact that the lactate levels measured were within the normal range measured for shore crabs, and that any increases in lactate in shocked crabs were possibly due to increased anaerobic activity. They also argued that behavioural "activities that go beyond mere reflex responses" is an inadequate criterion for pain. In crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), anxiolytic (stress-reducing) drugs made for humans also reduce anxiety. Injection of formalin into the cheliped of shore crabs (Hemigrapsus sanguineus) evokes specific nociceptive behavior and neurochemical responses in the brain and thoracic ganglion.
|
|
Color processing begins at a very early level in the visual system (even within the retina) through initial color opponent mechanisms. Both Helmholtz's trichromatic theory and Hering's opponent-process theory are therefore correct, but trichromacy arises at the level of the receptors, and opponent processes arise at the level of retinal ganglion cells and beyond. In Hering's theory opponent mechanisms refer to the opposing color effect of red-green, blue-yellow, and light-dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed.
|
|
CART is an anorectic peptide and is widely expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, particularly concentrated in the hypothalamus. CART is also expressed outside of the nervous system in pituitary endocrine cells, adrenomedullary cells, islet somatostatin cells, and in rat antral gastrin cells. Other structures and pathways associated with CART expression include the mesolimbic pathway (linking the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens) and amygdala. CART is also found in a subset of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the primary afferent neurons in the retina.
|
|
The celiac ganglia or coeliac ganglia are two large irregularly shaped masses of nerve tissue in the upper abdomen. Part of the sympathetic subdivision of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), the two celiac ganglia are the largest ganglia in the ANS, and they innervate most of the digestive tract. They have the appearance of lymph glands and are placed on either side of the midline in front of the crura of the diaphragm, close to the suprarenal glands (also called adrenal glands). The ganglion on the right side is placed behind the inferior vena cava.
|
|
White matter includes all of the nerves, and much of the interior of the brain and spinal cord. Gray matter is found in clusters of neurons in the brain and spinal cord, and in cortical layers that line their surfaces. There is an anatomical convention that a cluster of neurons in the brain or spinal cord is called a nucleus, whereas a cluster of neurons in the periphery is called a ganglion. There are, however, a few exceptions to this rule, notably including the part of the forebrain called the basal ganglia.
|
|
The white ramus communicans (plural: rami communicantes) from Latin ramus (branch) and communicans (communicating) is the preganglionic sympathetic outflow nerve tract from the spinal cord. Each of the thoracic, and the first and second lumbar nerves contribute a white ramus communicans to the adjoining sympathetic ganglion, unlike the gray rami which are located at each spinal level. White rami communicantes contain both myelinated and unmyelinated preganglionic sympathetic fibers, (GVE and GVA). The white ramus appears white because there are more myelinated than unmyelinated fibers unlike the gray rami.
|
|
In many patients, normal tension glaucoma is common in individuals with a generalized reduced perfusion of organs and certain body tissues. A low blood pressure - whether consistently low or with sudden pressure drops - is associated with NTG as are conditions like Flammer syndrome and obstructive sleep apnea.De Groot V.: Eye diseases in patients with sleep apnea syndrome. Bull Soc Belge Ophthalmol 2009; 312:43-51 Flammer syndrome has been attributed to increase the likelihood of ganglion cell damage in normal tension glaucoma patients with disc hemorrhages as a characteristic clinical sign.
|
|
Without treatment, NTG leads to progressive visual field loss and in the last consequence to blindness. The mainstay of conventional glaucoma therapy, reducing IOP by pressure-lowering eye drops or by surgery, is applied in cases of NTG as well. The rationale: the lower the IOP, the less the risk of ganglion cell loss and thus in the long run of visual function. The appearance of disc hemorrhages is always a warning sign that therapeutic approaches are not successful - the small bleedings, usually described as flame-shaped, almost always indicate a progression of the disease.
|
|
Glaucoma is a progressive optic neuropathy where retinal ganglion cells and their axons die causing a corresponding visual field defect. An important risk factor is increased intraocular pressure (pressure within the eye) either through increased production or decreased outflow of aqueous humour. Increased resistance to outflow of aqueous humour may occur due to an abnormal trabecular meshwork or due to obliteration of the meshwork resulting from injury or disease of the iris. However, increased interocular pressure is neither sufficient nor necessary for development of primary open angle glaucoma, although it is a major risk factor.
|
|
Some of the areas of interest include, retinal diseases, corneal diseases, lens and cataract, glaucoma and optic neuropathies, strabismus, amblyopia, and visual processing, and low vision and blindness rehabilitation. In 2013, the NEI launched the Audacious Goals Initiative in Regenerative Medicine for Vision (AGI), originally the NEI Audacious Goals Initiative, to catalyze fundamental research toward “restoring vision through the regeneration of neurons and neural connections in the eye and visual system.” The initiative targets photoreceptors and retinal ganglion cells. Currently, the AGI funds three research consortia, representing 16 projects and $62 million.
|
|
Microelectrode recordings were also thought to show LGN neurons being driven by the wave-like formation of electrical activity across neighboring retinal ganglion cells. From these results, it was suggested that the waves of electrical activity were responsible for driving the pattern of spatiotemporal activity and also playing a role in the formation of the visual system during prenatal development. Rachel Wong is another researcher involved in the study of retinal waves. Wong speculated that electrical activity, within the retina, is involved in the organization of retinal projections during prenatal development.
|
|
There are two types of opsin involved in vision; c-opsins, which are associated with ciliary-type photoreceptor cells, and r-opsins, associated with rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells. The eyes of vertebrates usually contain ciliary cells with c-opsins, and (bilaterian) invertebrates have rhabdomeric cells in the eye with r-opsins. However, some ganglion cells of vertebrates express r-opsins, suggesting that their ancestors used this pigment in vision, and that remnants survive in the eyes. Likewise, c-opsins have been found to be expressed in the brain of some invertebrates.
|
|
It can act on receptors at pre-ganglionic sites in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which are both regulated by nicotinic ligand-gated ionotropic acetylcholine receptors. Postganglionic sympathetic systems are usually regulated by norepinephrine (noradrenaline) (adrenergic receptors), whereas parasympathetic systems are acetylcholine-based, and instead rely on muscarinic receptors (some post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons, such as those stimulating sweat glands, release acetylcholine). The organ system and adverse effects of ganglion blockers are due to the parasympathetic and sympathetic stimuli blockage at preganglionic sites. Side-effects include combined sympatholytic (e.g.
|
|
Later that year, in an article in The Journal of Neuroscience, Cummins et al., demonstrated, using voltage clamp recordings, that these mutations enhanced the function of NaV1.7 sodium channels, which are preferentially expressed within peripheral neurons. One year later, in an article in Brain, Dib-Hajj et al., demonstrated that NaV1.7 mutants channels, from families with inherited erythromelalgia (IEM), make dorsal root ganglion (DRG, peripheral and sensory), neurons hyper excitable, thereby demonstrating the mechanistic link between these mutations and pain, thereby firmly establishing NaV1.7 gain-of- function mutations as the molecular basis for IEM.
|
|
It is required for neural crest cells to migrate past the site of dorsal root ganglia to find the ventral regions of sympathetic gangliogenesis. It is also an essential axon-derived survival factor and a mitogen for Schwann cell precursors. It is found in the dorsal root ganglion and motor neurons at the point in time that Schwann cell precursors begin to populate spinal nerves and therefore influences Schwann cell survival. In embryonic nerves, the transmembrane III isoform likely is the primary variant of NRG1 responsible for survival signals.
|
|
In one species, the body surface is divided into 102 annuli, but the body consists of 33 segments, a number constant across all leech species. Of these segments, the first five are designated as the head and include the anterior brain, several ocelli (eyespots) dorsally and the sucker ventrally. The following 21 mid-body segments each contain a nerve ganglion, and between them contain two reproductive organs, a single female gonopore and nine pairs of testes. The last seven segments contain the posterior brain and are fused to form the animal's tail sucker.
|
|
At the "center" of the retina (the point directly behind the lens) lies the fovea (or fovea centralis), which contains only cone cells; and is the region capable of producing the highest visual acuity or highest resolution. Across the rest of the retina, rods and cones are intermingled. No photoreceptors are found at the blind spot, the area where ganglion cell fibers are collected into the optic nerve and leave the eye. The photoreceptor proteins in the three types of cones differ in their sensitivity to photons of different wavelengths (see graph).
|
|
In essence, this property allows for one population of bipolar cells that gets excited by light and another population that gets inhibited by it, even though all photoreceptors show the same response to light. This complexity becomes both important and necessary for detecting color, contrast, edges, etc. Further complexity arises from the various interconnections among bipolar cells, horizontal cells, and amacrine cells in the retina. The final result is differing populations of ganglion cells in the retina, a sub-population of which is also intrinsically photosensitive, using the photopigment melanopsin.
|
|
Future treatments may involve retinal transplants, artificial retinal implants, gene therapy, stem cells, nutritional supplements, and/or drug therapies. 2012: Scientists at the University of Miami Bascom Palmer Eye Institute presented data showing protection of photoreceptors in an animal model when eyes were injected with mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor (MANF). Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley were able to restore vision to blind mice by exploiting a "photoswitch" that activates retinal ganglion cells in animals with damaged rod and cone cells. 2015: A study by Bakondi et al.
|
|
They then enter the middle cranial fossa above foramen lacerum, travel through the cavernous sinus in the middle cranial fossa and then travel with the ophthalmic artery in the optic canal or on the ophthalmic nerve through the superior orbital fissure. From there, they travel with the nasociliary nerve and then the long ciliary nerve. They then pierce the sclera, travel between sclera and choroid to reach the iris dilator muscle. They will also pass through ciliary ganglion and travel in short ciliary nerves to reach the iris dilator muscle.
|
|
The squid giant synapse (Fig 1) was first recognized by John Zachary Young in 1939. It lies in the stellate ganglion on each side of the midline, at the posterior wall of the squid’s muscular mantle. Activation of this synapse triggers a synchronous contraction of the mantle musculature, causing the forceful ejection of a jet of water from the mantle. This water propulsion allows the squid to move rapidly through the water and even to jump through the surface of the water (breaking the air-water barrier) to escape predators.
|
|
A glial sheath is essential for sending signals at a fast rate, because it allows for a single smooth road rather than having the signal jump from neuron to neuron. The mandibles are controlled by the stimulation of two large sensory neurons that project through the sensory mandibular nerve into the suboesophageal ganglion. To operate the mandible muscles, the ends of the sensory neurons lead to the thick dendritic trunks of the four motor neurons. The mandibles of O. bauri are kept in place with a latch called the clypeus.
|
|
Effect on voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSC) JZTX-I preferentially acts on cardiac sodium channels, but also affects tetrodotoxin-sensitive (TTX-S) voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSC) in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. It modifies the sodium current by inhibiting channel inactivation and speeding up recovery after inactivation. JZTX-I does not affect the activation threshold of sodium channels. Effect on potassium channels JZTX-I has a modest effect on potassium currents by slowing the rate of activation of Kv2.1 and Kv4.1 channels and increasing the tail current deactivation.
|
|
Amacrine cells operate at inner plexiform layer (IPL), the second synaptic retinal layer where bipolar cells and retinal ganglion cells form synapses. There are at least 33 different subtypes of amacrine cells based just on their dendrite morphology and stratification. Like horizontal cells, amacrine cells work laterally, but whereas horizontal cells are connected to the output of rod and cone cells, amacrine cells affect the output from bipolar cells, and are often more specialized. Each type of amacrine cell releases one or several neurotransmitters where it connects with other cells.
|
|
The visual system refers to the part of the central nervous system that allows an organism to see. It interprets information from visible light to build a representation of the world. The ganglion cells of the retina project in an orderly fashion to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and from there to the primary visual cortex(V1); adjacent spots on the retina are represented by adjacent neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex. The term for this pattern of projection is topography.
|
|
From the anterior portion of the medulla oblongata, the glossopharyngeal nerve passes laterally across or below the flocculus, and leaves the skull through the central part of the jugular foramen. From the superior and inferior ganglia in jugular foramen, it has its own sheath of dura mater. The inferior ganglion on the inferior surface of petrous part of temporal is related with a triangular depression into which the aqueduct of cochlea opens. On the inferior side, the glossopharyngeal nerve is lateral and anterior to the vagus nerve and accessory nerve.
|
|
The visceral motor fibers pass through this plexus and merge to become the lesser petrosal nerve. The lesser petrosal nerve re-enters and travels through the temporal bone to emerge in the middle cranial fossa just lateral to the greater petrosal nerve. It then proceeds anteriorly to exit the skull via the foramen ovale along with the mandibular nerve component of CN V (V3). Extra-cranial course and final innervations Upon exiting the skull, the lesser petrosal nerve synapses in the otic ganglion, which is suspended from the mandibular nerve immediately below the foramen ovale.
|
|
The horse has a "visual streak", or an area within the retina, linear in shape, with a high concentration of ganglion cells (up to 6100 cells/mm2 in the visual streak compared to the 150 and 200 cells/mm2 in the peripheral area).Harman AM, Moore S, Hoskins R, Keller P. Horse vision and the explanation of visual behaviour originally explained by the ‘ramp retina’. Equine Vet J 1999; 31(5):384–390. Horses have better acuity when the objects they are looking at fall in this region.
|
|
Lying above the oesophagus is the brain or supraesophageal ganglion, divided into three pairs of ganglia: the protocerebrum, deutocerebrum and tritocerebrum from front to back (collectively no. 5 in the diagram). Nerves from the protocerebrum lead to the large compound eyes; from the deutocerebrum to the antennae; and from the tritocerebrum to the labrum and stomatogastric nervous system. Circum- oesophageal connectives lead from the tritocerebrum around the gut to connect the brain to the ventral ganglionated nerve cord: nerves from the first three pairs of ganglia lead to the mandibles, maxillae and labium, respectively.
|
|
The sympathetic nervous system is involved in stimulating the fight-or-flight response of the body. Activating the sympathetic pathway results in physiological effects including the acceleration of heart beat, increase in force of heart contraction, secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline by the adrenal gland, bronchi relaxation, and the inhibition of peristalsis and gastrointestinal secretions. Neurotransmitters are used to relay neurotransmission in order to bring about these physiological effects. Acetylcholine is a type of neurotransmitter released from the preganglionic nerve which binds to nicotinic receptors in the autonomic ganglion.
|
|
The vagus nerve, historically cited as the pneumogastric nerve, is the tenth cranial nerve or CN X, and interfaces with the parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. The vagus nerves are normally referred to in the singular. It is the longest nerve of the autonomic nervous system in the human body and comprises sensory and motor fibers. The sensory fibers originate from neurons of the nodose ganglion, whereas the motor fibers come from neurons of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus and the nucleus ambiguus.
|
|
The inferior thyroid artery is an artery in the neck. It arises from the thyrocervical trunk and passes upward, in front of the vertebral artery and longus colli muscle. It then turns medially behind the carotid sheath and its contents, and also behind the sympathetic trunk, the middle cervical ganglion resting upon the vessel. Reaching the lower border of the thyroid gland it divides into two branches, which supply the postero-inferior parts of the gland, and anastomose with the superior thyroid artery, and with the corresponding artery of the opposite side.
|
|
It emerges in the pterygopalatine fossa and enters the pterygopalatine ganglion where the preganglionic parasympathetic axons synapse with the postganglionic parasympathetic neurons. The postganglionic neurons then send axons which travel with the zygomatic nerve to enter the inferior orbital fissure. As the zygomatic nerve travels anteriorly in the orbit it send a communicating branch to the lacrimal nerve which carries the postganglionic parasympathetic axons. The lacrimal nerve completes this long pathway by travelling through the lacrimal gland and sending branches to it which provide parasympathetic innervation to increase the secretion of lacrimal fluid.
|
|
On September 26, 2010, the Ganglion band were touring the United States when their tour van overturned on Highway 200 in Montana, killing nearly all members as well as the driver of an oncoming tractor trailer. While Ivan Reese survived the accident with minor injuries, the tragedy shook the Calgary independent music scene and constituted a great loss for the future of Canadian music. In January 2011, Reese gave his only performance following the death of his band, at Soundasaurus 2011. Titled Mary Everest Boole, it was a piece honouring the life and work of the titular mathematician, Mary Everest Boole.
|
|
Shapley, R. and Victor, J.D. (1978) The effect of contrast on the transfer properties of cat retinal ganglion cells, J.Physiol., 285, 275-298. He also worked with the visual system of macaque monkeys, and found: its parallel processing of visual signals;Shapley R Kaplan E Soodak R. (1981) Spatial summation and contrast sensitivity of X and Y cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the macaque Nature 292, 543-545. the nature of retinal computation of color;Reid, R.C. and Shapley, R. (1992) Spatial structure of cone inputs to receptive fields in primate lateral geniculate nucleus, Nature, 356, 716-718.
|
|
The sensory modality that is detected by the afferent fibers is an important factor to consider because it determines the pathway that the dorsal root ganglion neurons will take within the central nervous system. The sensory neurons coming from the body synapse in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, bringing in information about touch sensations (epicritic), or modalities of pain (protopathic). While both types of sensory neurons must first synapse in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, the area of the dorsal horn where they synapse is different. Their pathway to the thalamus is also different.
|
|
As a nervous system, graptolites have a simple layer of fibers between the epidermis and the basal lamina, also have a collar ganglion that gives rise to several nerve branches, similar to the neural tube of chordates. All this information was inferred by the extant Rhabdopleura, however, it is very likely that fossil zooids had the same morphology. An important feature in the tubarium is the fusellum, which looks like lines of growth along the tube observed as semicircular rings in a zig-zag pattern. Most of the dendritic or bushy/fan-shaped organisms are classified as dendroid graptolites (order Dendroidea).
|
|
This receptor is found mediating slow EPSP at the ganglion in the postganglionic nerve, is common in exocrine glands and in the CNS. It is predominantly found bound to G proteins of class Gq, which use upregulation of phospholipase C and, therefore, inositol trisphosphate and intracellular calcium as a signaling pathway. A receptor so bound would not be susceptible to CTX or PTX. However, Gi (causing a downstream decrease in cAMP) and Gs (causing an increase in cAMP) have also been shown to be involved in interactions in certain tissues, and so would be susceptible to PTX and CTX, respectively.
|
|
Many of the documented analgesic effects of cannabinoids are based on the interaction of these compounds with CB1 receptors on spinal cord interneurons in the superficial levels of the dorsal horn, known for its role in nociceptive processing. In particular, the CB1 is heavily expressed in layers 1 and 2 of the spinal cord dorsal horn and in lamina 10 by the central canal. Dorsal root ganglion also express these receptors, which target a variety of peripheral terminals involved in nociception. Signals on this track are also transmitted to the periaqueductal gray (PAG) of the midbrain.
|
|
25 Nansen's chosen area of study was the then relatively unexplored field of neuroanatomy, specifically the central nervous system of lower marine creatures. Before leaving for his sabbatical in February 1886 he published a paper summarising his research to date, in which he stated that "anastomoses or unions between the different ganglion cells" could not be demonstrated with certainty. This unorthodox view was confirmed by the simultaneous researches of the embryologist Wilhelm His and the psychiatrist August Forel. Nansen is considered the first Norwegian defender of the neuron theory, originally proposed by Santiago Ramón y Cajal.
|
|
The Oculocardiac reflex, also known as Aschner phenomenon, Aschner reflex, or Aschner–Dagnini reflex, is a decrease in pulse rate associated with traction applied to extraocular muscles and/or compression of the eyeball. The reflex is mediated by nerve connections between the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal cranial nerve via the ciliary ganglion, and the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system. Nerve fibres from the maxillary and mandibular divisions of the trigeminal nerve have also been documented. These afferents synapse with the visceral motor nucleus of the vagus nerve, located in the reticular formation of the brain stem.
|
|
They revealed that MLA blocked neuromuscular transmission in skeletal muscle, but not smooth muscle, and had some ganglion-blocking action. Such properties are characteristic of an antagonist of acetylcholine exerting its effects at nicotinic, but not muscarinic sites. In the rat phrenic nerve-diaphragm preparation, for example, a 2 x 10−5M concentration of MLA produced a 50% decrease in response, and total inhibition was caused by a 3 x 10−5M concentration of the drug. In this preparation, MLA-treated muscle responded normally to direct electrical stimulation, but the inhibition of contractions was only partially antagonized by physostigmine.
|
|
He found that blind mice lacking classic outer- retinal photoreceptors (rods and cones) still had eye-mediated responses to light. Mice with the melanopsin gene knocked out but with functional rods and cones were also able to entrain. However, when melanopsin was knocked out in blind mice without rods and cones, they exhibited “complete loss of photoentrainment of the circadian oscillator, pupillary light responses, photic suppression of arylalkylamine-N-acetyltransferase transcript, and acute suppression of locomotor activity by light.” Provencio concluded that either melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells or outer-retinal photoreceptors (rods and cones) are sufficient to induce a response to light.
|
|
Megavitamin-B6 syndrome is characterized mainly by degeneration of dorsal root ganglion axons and cell bodies, although it also affects the trigeminal ganglia it is classified as a sensory ganglionopathy due to involvement of these ganglia. In electrodiagnostic testing, it has characteristic non-length- dependent abnormalities of sensory action potentials that occur globally, rather than distally decreasing of sensory nerve action potential amplitudes. Megavitamin-B6 syndrome is predominately a large fiber neuropathy characterized by sensory loss of joint position, vibration and ataxia. Although it has characteristics of small fiber neuropathy in severe cases where there is impairment of pain, temperature, and autonomic functions.
|
|
The nerve is the continuation of the nasociliary nerve after it enters the anterior ethmoidal foramen into the anterior ethmoidal air cells. The nasociliary nerve arises from the Ophthalmic division of the Trigeminal nerve (CN V) within the orbit. The anterior ethmoidal nerve arises only after the nasociliary has given off its four branches - 1) Ramus communicans to ciliary ganglion, 2) Long ciliary nerves, 3) infratrochlear nerve, 4) Posterior ethmoidal nerve. After branching off of the nasociliary nerve, the anterior ethmoidal nerve enters the anterior ethmoidal foramen and send sensory fibers to the middle and anterior ethmoidal air cells.
|
|
There are 3 specific photopigments (each with their own wavelength sensitivity) that respond across the spectrum of visible light. When the appropriate wavelengths (those that the specific photopigment is sensitive to) hit the photoreceptor, the photopigment splits into two, which sends a signal to the bipolar cell layer, which in turn sends a signal to the ganglion cells, the axons of which form the optic nerve and transmit the information to the brain. If a particular cone type is missing or abnormal, due to a genetic anomaly, a color vision deficiency , sometimes called color blindness will occur.
|
|
Erythropoietin and its receptor are also reported in the peripheral nervous system, specifically in the bodies and axons of ganglions in the dorsal root, and at increased levels in Schwann cells after peripheral nerve injury. The distribution of EpoR was different from Epo, specifically in some neuronal cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglion, endothelial cells, and Schwann cells of normal nerves. Most importantly, experiments with immunostaining revealed that the distribution and concentration of EpoR on Schwann cells doesn’t change after peripheral nerve injury. However those studies are of questionable significance since the antibodies were nonspecific to EpoR.
|
|
The nervous system consists of a dorsal cerebral ganglion or brain above the oesophagus and a nerve ring around the oesophagus, which links the brain with the single ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body. Lateral nerves lead off this to innervate the muscles of the body wall. In some species, there are simple light-sensitive ocelli associated with the brain. Two organs, likely functioning as a unit for chemoreception are located near its anterior margin; the non-ciliated cerebral organ, which possesses bipolar sensory cells, and the nuchal organ, located posterior to the brain.
|
|
Segmentation is a crucial patterning process that is involved in the development of both the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. In the central nervous system, segmentation is involved in the patterning of the neuronal population. Added to that, segmentation guides the developing axons and contribute to the development of the peripheral nervous system. In bilateral animals, the fundamental body plan involves the left and right sides as mirror images to each other with a hollow tube of gut cavity from mouth to anus along with a nerve cord with a structure named ganglion for each segment of the body.
|
|
The spatial and color contrast systems of the retina operate in a similar manner. Dendrodendritic homologous gap junctions have been found as a way of communication between dendrites in the retinal α-type Ganglion cells to produce a faster method of communication to modulate the color contrast system. Using bidirectional electrical synapses in the dendrodendrtic synapses they modulate inhibition of different signals thus allowing for a modulation of the color contrast system. This dendritic function is an alternative modulatory system to that of pre-synaptic inhibition which is presumed to also help differentiate different contrast in the visual sense.
|
|
Female wasps of this species were reported to sting a cockroach (specifically a Periplaneta americana, Periplaneta australasiae, or Nauphoeta rhombifolia) twice, delivering venom. Researchers using radioactive labeling demonstrated that the wasp stings precisely into specific ganglia of the roach. It delivers an initial sting to a thoracic ganglion and injects venom to mildly and reversibly paralyze the front legs of its victim. A biochemically-induced transient paralysis takes over the cockroach, where the temporary loss of mobility facilitates the second venomous sting at a precise spot in the victim's head ganglia (brain), in the section that controls the escape reflex.
|
|
When light with an appropriate frequency enters the eye, it activates the melanopsin contained in intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), triggering an action potential. These neuronal electrical signals travel through neuronal axons to specific brain targets, such as the center of pupillary control called the olivary pretectal nucleus (OPN) of the midbrain. Consequently, stimulation of melanopsin in ipRGCs mediates behavioral and physiological responses to light, such as pupil constriction and inhibition of melatonin release from the pineal gland. The ipRGCs in the mammalian retina are one terminus of the retinohypothalamic tract that projects to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus.
|
|
Why this suppression sometimes fails is poorly understood, but shingles is more likely to occur in people whose immune systems are impaired due to aging, immunosuppressive therapy, psychological stress, or other factors. Upon reactivation, the virus replicates in neuronal cell bodies, and virions are shed from the cells and carried down the axons to the area of skin innervated by that ganglion. In the skin, the virus causes local inflammation and blistering. The short- and long-term pain caused by shingles outbreaks originates from inflammation of affected nerves due to the widespread growth of the virus in those areas.
|
|
Shingles has a long recorded history, although historical accounts fail to distinguish the blistering caused by VZV and those caused by smallpox, ergotism, and erysipelas. In the late 18th century William Heberden established a way to differentiate between shingles and smallpox, and in the late 19th century shingles was differentiated from erysipelas. In 1831 Richard Bright hypothesized that the disease arose from the dorsal root ganglion, and an 1861 paper by Felix von Bärensprung confirmed this. The first indications that chickenpox and shingles were caused by the same virus were noticed at the beginning of the 20th century.
|
|
The association of elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) and glaucoma was first described by Englishman Richard Bannister in 1622: "...that the Eye be grown more solid and hard, then naturally it should be...".Richard Bannister: Treatise of One Hundred and Thirteen Diseases of the Eyes and Eyelids. London 1622 Angle-closure glaucoma was treated with cataract extraction by John Collins Warren in Boston as early as 1806. The invention of the ophthalmoscope by Hermann Helmholtz in 1851 enabled ophthalmologists for the first time to identify the pathological hallmark of glaucoma, the excavation of the optic nerve head due to retinal ganglion cell loss.
|
|
Before Moore studied the SCN directly, he investigated the mammalian retinohypothalamic tract (RHT). Through an autoradiograph experiment in 1972, Moore and Nicholas J. Lenn, who was a graduate student at the time, found evidence for a direct retinal projection to the ventral portion of the SCN as arising from a subset of retinal ganglion cells, the RHT. This was confirmed by observing axon terminal degeneration following removal of the eye. After discovering that RHTs were a consistent feature of the mammalian visual system by studying other systems such as that of primates, he and his colleagues proceeded to conduct SCN ablation experiments.
|
|
The vertebrate retina is inverted in the sense that the light sensing cells are in back of the retina, so that light has to pass through layers of neurons and capillaries before it reaches the rods and cones. The ganglion cells, whose axons form the optic nerve, are at the front of the retina; therefore the optic nerve must cross through the retina en route to the brain. In this region there are no photoreceptors, giving rise to the blind spot. In contrast, in the cephalopod retina the photoreceptors are in front, with processing neurons and capillaries behind them.
|
|
Retinal gene therapy Gene therapy holds promise as a potential avenue to cure a wide range of retinal diseases. This involves using a non-infectious virus to shuttle a gene into a part of the retina. Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vectors possess a number of features that render them ideally suited for retinal gene therapy, including a lack of pathogenicity, minimal immunogenicity, and the ability to transduce postmitotic cells in a stable and efficient manner. rAAV vectors are increasingly utilized for their ability to mediate efficient transduction of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), photoreceptor cells and retinal ganglion cells.
|
|
From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body. However, in most polychaetes the two main nerve cords are fused, and in the tube-dwelling genus Owenia the single nerve chord has no ganglia and is located in the epidermis. As in arthropods, each muscle fiber (cell) is controlled by more than one neuron, and the speed and power of the fiber's contractions depends on the combined effects of all its neurons. Vertebrates have a different system, in which one neuron controls a group of muscle fibers.
|
|
Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are born between embryonic day 11 (E11) and post-natals (PN) day zero (PN0) in the mouse and between week 5 and week 18 in utero in human development. In mammals, RGCs are typically added at the beginning in the dorsal-central aspect of the optic cup, which is located in the center of the eye. Then, RC growth will sweep out ventrally and peripherally from there, in a wave-like pattern. This process depends on a host of factors, ranging from signaling factors like FGF3 and FGF8 to proper inhibition of the Notch signaling pathway.
|
|
Early progenitor RGCs will typically extend processes connecting to the inner and outer limiting membranes of the retina with the outer layer adjacent to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and inner adjacent to the future vitreous humor. The cell soma will pull towards the RPE, undergo a terminal cell division and differentiation, and then migrate backwards towards the inner limiting membrane in a process called somal translocation. The kinetics of RGC somal translocation and underlying mechanisms are best understood in the zebrafish. The RGC will then extend an axon in the retinal ganglion cell layer, which is directed by laminin contact.
|
|
The results from these two methods were combined and correlations were created between the electrical activity and visual responses to determine the different functions of the ganglion cells when prompted with a stimulus. Overall the new methods used in this study could help future studies publish detailed information about how optic nerve fibers work. In 1996, Baylor's article “How photons start vision” was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. This paper addressed the process of shutting down the transduction pathway that occurs in the response to light stimuli.
|
|
OPA1 has distinct roles in the fusion of mitochondrial inner membranes during mitochondrial fusion events, and in regulation of cell death. Mitochondria are subcellular structures that generate and transform energy from metabolism into discrete usable units (ATP) for the cell’s functions (See oxidative phosphorylation, electron transport chain). Retinal ganglion cells (neurons), which make up the optic nerve, have a high energy demand and are particularly sensitive to mitochondrial dysfunction. This is especially the case for smaller and less myelinated neurons such as those found in the papillomacular bundle of the retina, which transmit information corresponding to the central visual field.
|
|
With her help, Rex quickly learns the power of the Sigma technology, and more about his family's past. As he spends time around the Sigma technology, latent abilities are made manifest within him. These abilities make him increasingly superhuman, allowing him to directly assist his Sigma Creatures in battle. Lucy and Rex's progress is slowed by those loyal to Julius: Whitey Hooten, a whaler whose Sigma-created creatures are slow and powerful, Velika la Pette, a high-strung aristocrat who relies on aerial units, and Dr. Ganglion, a mad scientist fond of using creatures most would call abominations.
|
|
Between these regions, mesopic vision comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in color perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect. The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colors of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of color receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of complementary colors such as blue and yellow.
|
|
The upper jaw contains a series of strong outer canines with an inner band of smaller teeth, while the lower jaw contains a single row of conical teeth. The species has 20 to 24 gill rakers in total and 24 vertebrae are present. The eye is covered by a moderately well-developed adipose eyelid, and the posterior extremity of the jaw is vertically under or just past the posterior margin of the pupil. The eye of the giant trevally has a horizontal streak in which ganglion and photoreceptor cell densities are markedly greater than the rest of the eye.
|
|
The distal segment of the legs, the tarsus, is equipped with a terminal claw or pair of claws and sometimes with an adhesive pad or sucker that enables the mite to crawl up smooth surfaces. The internal organs (or viscera) include a tubular gut with a posterior anus, paired excretory tubes (Malpighian tubules) that empty out into the anus, paired respiratory tubes (tracheae) that carry atmospheric air directly up against the viscera, paired salivary glands with ducts to the mouthparts, female or male reproductive organs (ovary or testes), and a central nervous ganglion that acts as a simple brain.
|
|
Franciscus Sylvius began differentiating between the various forms of tuberculosis (pulmonary, ganglion). He was the first person to recognize that the skin ulcers caused by scrofula resembled tubercles seen in phthisis,Ancell 1852:549 noting that "phthisis is the scrofula of the lung" in his book Opera Medica, published posthumously in 1679. Around the same time, Thomas Willis concluded that all diseases of the chest must ultimately lead to consumption.Waksman 1964:34 Willis did not know the exact cause of the disease but he blamed it on sugarMacinnis 2002:165 or an acidity of the blood.
|
|
Scorpion stinger In all stinging Hymenoptera the sting is a modified ovipositor. Unlike most other stings, honey bee workers' stings are strongly barbed and lodge in the flesh of mammals upon use, tearing free from the honey bee's body, killing the bee within minutes. The sting has its own ganglion, and it continues to saw into the target's flesh and release venom for several minutes. This trait is of obvious disadvantage to the individual but protects the hive from attacks by large animals; aside from the effects of the venom, the remnant also marks the stung animal with honey bee alarm pheromone.
|
|
It is usually accepted that the primate superior colliculus is unique among mammals, in that it does not contain a complete map of the visual field seen by the contralateral eye. Instead, like the visual cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus, each colliculus represents only the contralateral half of the visual field, up to the midline, and excludes a representation of the ipsilateral half.Lane et al., 1973 This functional characteristic is explained by the absence, in primates, of anatomical connections between the retinal ganglion cells in the temporal half of the retina and the contralateral superior colliculus.
|
|
Their arrangement is somewhat irregular: one ganglion may give rami to two lumbar nerves, or one lumbar nerve may receive rami from two ganglia. The first and second, and sometimes the third and fourth lumbar nerves are each connected with the lumbar part of the sympathetic trunk by a white ramus communicans. The nerves pass obliquely outward behind the psoas major, or between its fasciculi, distributing filaments to it and the quadratus lumborum. The first three and the greater part of the fourth are connected together in this situation by anastomotic loops, and form the lumbar plexus.
|
|
The major input to the cochlear nucleus is from the auditory nerve, a part of cranial nerve VIII (the vestibulocochlear nerve). The auditory nerve fibers form a highly organized system of connections according to their peripheral innervation of the cochlea. Axons from the spiral ganglion cells of the lower frequencies innervate the ventrolateral portions of the ventral cochlear nucleus and lateral-ventral portions of the dorsal cochlear nucleus. The axons from the higher frequency organ of corti hair cells project to the dorsal portion of the ventral cochlear nucleus and the dorsal-medial portions of the dorsal cochlear nucleus.
|
|
Its high abundance in the retina, specifically the photoreceptor inner segment, outer plexiform layer, inner nuclear layer, inner plexiform layer, and ganglion cell layer, attests to its crucial metabolic purpose. It is also expressed in cells derived from hematopoietic stem cells, such as RBCs, leukocytes, and platelets, as well as from erythroid-progenitor cells. Of note, HK1 is the sole hexokinase isoform found in the cells and tissues which rely most heavily on glucose metabolism for their function, including brain, erythrocytes, platelets, leukocytes, and fibroblasts. In rats, it is also the predominant hexokinase in fetal tissues, likely due to their constitutive glucose utilization.
|
|
The retina contains three forms of photosensitive cells, two of them important to vision, rods and cones, in addition to the subset of ganglion cells involved in adjusting circadian rhythms and pupil size but probably not involved in vision. Though structurally and metabolically similar, the functions of rods and cones are quite different. Rod cells are highly sensitive to light, allowing them to respond in dim light and dark conditions; however, they cannot detect color differences. These are the cells that allow humans and other animals to see by moonlight, or with very little available light (as in a dark room).
|
|
Furthermore, color is distinguishable due to the different iodopsins of cone cells; there are three different kinds, in normal human vision, which is why we need three different primary colors to make a color space. A small percentage of the ganglion cells in the retina contain melanopsin and, thus, are themselves photosensitive. The light information from these cells is not involved in vision and it reaches the brain not directly via the optic nerve but via the retinohypothalamic tract, the RHT. By way of this light information, the body clock's inherent approximate 24-hour cycling is adjusted daily to nature's light/dark cycle.
|
|
The frequency-doubling illusion is an apparent doubling of spatial frequency when a sinusoidal grating is modulated rapidly in temporal counterphase.Kelly, D.H. (1981) Nonlinear visual responses to flickering sinusoidal gratings. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 71, 1051-1055Sun, H., Lee, B. B., White, A. J. R., Swanson, W. H., (2002). Examination of mechanisms underlying the frequency-doubling illusion. Journal of Vision, Volume 2, Number 10, Abstract 9, Page 9a Recently, it has been proposed that the illusion arises from a spatially nonlinear ganglion cell class.Maddess, T., Goldberg, I., Dobinson, J., Wine, S., Welsh, A.H. & James, A.C. (1999).
|
|
Retinal wave activity has been found to coincide with the period in which eye- specific retinogeniculate projections are formed. This temporal overlap would be necessary for a causal relationship. TTX injections in fetal cats prevented the formation of eye-specific retinogeniculate projections, which indicates that neuronal activity is necessary for the formation of eye-specific layers. After treatment with epibatidine, the lack of correlated firing in the remaining half of retinal ganglion cells despite the robust firing as well as the lack of eye-specific layer formation can be indicated as proof that the waves play an instructional role.
|
|
The lateral movement of firing from neighboring cell to neighboring cell, starting in one random area of cells and moving throughout both the pre- and postsynaptic layers, is thought to be responsible for the formation of the retinotopic map. To simulate the cascade of electrical activity, Willshaw wrote a computer program to demonstrate the movement of electrical activity between pre- and postsynaptic cell layers. What Willshaw called spontaneous patterned electrical activity is today referred to as retinal waves. From this purely theoretical concept, Italian scientists Lucia Galli and Lamberto Maffei used animal models to observe electrical activity in ganglion cells of the retina.
|
|
Ectomesenchymoma is a rare, fast-growing tumor of the nervous system or soft tissue that occurs mainly in children, although cases have been reported in patients up to age 60. Ectomesenchymomas may form in the head and neck, abdomen, perineum, scrotum, or limbs. Also called malignant ectomesenchymoma. Malignant ectomesenchymoma (MEM) is a rare tumor of soft tissues or the CNS, which is composed of both neuroectodermal elements [represented by ganglion cells and/or well-differentiated or poorly differentiated neuroblastic cells such as ganglioneuroma, ganglioneuroblastoma, neuroblastoma, peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumors – PNET] and one or more mesenchymal neoplastic elements, usually rhabdomyosarcoma .
|
|
In this case, anterior roots are more prone than posterior roots for avulsion, thus the C8 and T1 nerve roots are more prone to injury. Root avulsion injury can be further divided based on the location of the lesion: pre- and postganglionic lesions. In a preganglionic lesion, the sensory fibre remain attached to the cell body of the sensory ganglion, thus there is no wallerian degeneration of the sensory fibre, thus sensory action potential can still be detected at the distal end of the spinal nerve. However, those who get this type of lesion has sensory loss over the affected nerve roots.
|
|
By the time Loewi began his experiments there was much discussion among scientists whether communication between nerves and muscles was chemical or electrical by nature. Experiments by Luigi Galvani in the 18th century had demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the frog sciatic nerve resulted in twitching of the leg muscles, and from this he developed the concept of bioelectricity. This led to the idea that direct electrical contact between nerves and muscles mediated transmission of excitation. However, work by John Newport Langley had suggested that in the autonomic nervous system communication in the ciliary ganglion was chemical.
|
|
These cells receive information through extensive apical dendritic projections from parallel fibers that signal the transmission of an order to release an EOD. These cells also receive information from neurons conveying electrosensory information. Important to anti-Hebbian learning, the synapses between the parallel fibers and the apical dendrites of Medium Ganglion cells show a specific pattern of synaptic plasticity. Should activation of the dendrites by parallel fibers occur in a short time period preceding the initiation of a dendritic broad spike (an action potential which travels through the dendrites), the strength of the connection between the neurons at these synapses will be reduced.
|
|
Pi3 has a higher dissociation constant than Pi2. Pi3 has an 18-fold less affinity for Kv1.3 and 800-fold less affinity for voltage-gated, rapidly inactivating K+ channels in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. The variation in the primary structure of Pi3, the single amino acid Glu7 has been attributed to the difference in affinity observed between Pi3 and Pi2 in binding. The point mutation in the N- terminal sequence results in a salt bridge formation between Glu7 and Lys24 which in turn results in decreased positive electrostatic forces. The net positive charges in Pi2 and Pi3 are 7 and 6 respectively.
|
|
Though the theta model was originally used to model slow cytoplasmic oscillations that modulate fast membrane oscillations in a single cell, Ermentrout and Kopell found that the theta model could be applied just as easily to systems of two electrically coupled cells such that the slow oscillations of one cell modulates the bursts of the other. Such cells serve as the central pattern generator (CPG) of the pyloric system in the lobster stomatograstic ganglion. In such a system, a slow oscillator, called the anterior burster (AB) cell, modulates the bursting cell called the pyloric dilator (PD), resulting in parabolic bursts.
|
|
The pedal ganglia are placed beneath the radula sac and joined together by an anterior and a posterior commissure. The abdominal ganglion lies a little to the right of the median line. The visceral ganglia occupy the angle between the lingual sheath and the oesophagus and the buccal ganglia are widely separated but joined together by a commissure nearly as thick as the ganglia themselves. Reproductive system: The hermaphrodite gland (HG) is elongated and large, and is connected with spermoviduct (SO) by means of the hermaphrodite duct (HD) which takes its course through a portion of the albumen gland (AG).
|
|
A nerve net is a diffuse network of cells that can congregate to form ganglia in some organisms, but does not constitute a brain. In terms of studying nerve nets, Hydra are an ideal class of Cnidaria to research and on which to run tests. Reasons why they are popular model organisms include the following: their nerve nets have a simple pattern to follow, they have a high rate of regeneration, and they are easy to manipulate in experimental procedures. There are two categories of nerve cells that are found in the nerve nets of Hydra: ganglion and sensory.
|
|
Both Nav1.8 and Nav1.9 have been shown to play a role in bone cancer associated pain using a rat model of bone cancer. The dorsal root ganglion of lumbar 4-5 of rats with bone cancer were shown to have up-regulation of Nav1.8 and Nav1.9 mRNA expression as well as an increase in total number of these alpha subunits. These results suggest that tetrodotoxin-resistant voltage gated sodium channels are involved in the development and maintenance of bone cancer pain. The role of Nav1.9 in chronic inflammatory joint pain has been demonstrated in rat models of chronic inflammatory knee pain.
|
|
BoHV-1 is also able to evade adaptive immune cells by inducing apoptosis in CD4+ cells, which assist in activating T cells when antigens are present. This down regulates the number of immune cells that recognize the virus, allowing the virus to evade detection and elimination. The virus has many other evasion strategies against the host's immune system contributing to the virus being able to maintain lifelong infection in the animal. After primary infection of BoHV-1, the latent infection is quite often found in the trigeminal ganglion of the cow, although on occasion infection can enter the central nervous system.
|
|
The OpenBCI 32bit Board uses the ADS1299, an IC developed by Texas Instruments for biopotential measurements. The OpenBCI uses a microcontroller for on-board processing — the 8bit version (now deprecated) uses an Arduino-compatible ATmega328P IC, while the 32bit board uses a PIC microcontroller — and can write the EEG data to an SD card, or transmit it to software on a computer over a bluetooth link. In 2015, OpenBCI announced the Ganglion board with a 2nd Kickstarter campaign. It costs $200 and has 4 input channels for measuring EEG, EMG, and EKG, and is also Bluetooth enabled.
|
|
Circadian rhythm, or sleep/wake cycling, is centered in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) within the hypothalamus, and is marked by melatonin levels 2000–4,000% higher during sleep than in the day. A circuit is known to start with melanopsin cells in the eye which stimulate the SCN through glutamate neurons of the hypothalamic tract. GABAergic neurons from the SCN inhibit the paraventricular nucleus, which signals the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) through sympathetic fibers. The output of the SCG, stimulates NE receptors (β) in the pineal gland which produces N-acetyltransferase, causing production of melatonin from serotonin.
|
|
Some axons of the optic nerve connect to the pretectal nucleus of the upper midbrain instead of the cells of the lateral geniculate nucleus (which project to the primary visual cortex). These intrinsic photosensitive ganglion cells are also referred to as melanopsin-containing cells, and they influence circadian rhythms as well as the pupillary light reflex. #Pretectal nuclei: From the neuronal cell bodies in some of the pretectal nuclei, axons synapse on (connect to) neurons in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. Those neurons are the preganglionic cells with axons that run in the oculomotor nerves to the ciliary ganglia.
|
|
Some animals that are long day breeders include; ring-tailed lemurs, horses, hamsters, groundhogs, and mink. "Short day" breeders cycle when the length of daylight shortens (fall) and are in anestrus in spring and summer. The decreased light during the fall decreases the firing of the retinal nerves, in turn decreasing the excitation of the superior cervical ganglion, which then decreases the inhibition of the pineal gland, finally resulting in an increase in melatonin. This increase in melatonin results in an increase in GnRH and subsequently an increase in the hormones LH and FSH, which stimulate cyclicity.
|
|
Sometimes he would not crack a smile at something he said to make others around him laugh hysterically, while other times he could not appreciate others' jokes. During this time, KS also developed hypersexuality, using erotic words and inappropriate behavior toward the female hospital staff. Before his stroke, Kevin's family reported he did make jokes on occasion, but never in this bizarre manner, and never behaved impolitely to women. MRI tests showed bleeding at the right putamen, extending into the posterior and lateral portions of the right thalamus and defects in the thalamus and right basal ganglion.
|
|
One transcription factor that was found to be selectively expressed in nGnG amacrine cells is Neurod6 Length of dendritic arbors: Based on length, spread of dendritic arbors, amacrine cells can be categorized as narrow field amacrine cells (around 70 micrometers in diameter), medium field amacrine cells (around 170 micrometers in diameter) and wide field amacrine cells (around 350 micrometers in diameter). These different lengths lend to different specific functions that the amacrine cells can accomplish. Narrow field amacrine cells allow vertical communication among different retinal levels. They also aid in creating functional subunits in the receptive field of ganglion cells.
|
|
Optical illusion caused by lateral inhibition: the Hermann grid illusion The concept of neural inhibition (in motor systems) was well known to Descartes and his contemporaries. Sensory inhibition in vision was inferred by Ernst Mach in 1865 as depicted in his mach band. Inhibition in single sensory neurons was discovered and investigated starting in 1949 by Haldan K. Hartline when he used logarithms to express the effect of Ganglion receptive fields. His algorithms also help explain the experiment conducted by David H. Hubel and Torsten Wiesel that expressed a variation of sensory processing, including lateral inhibition, within different species.
|
|
Within the jugular foramen, there are two glossopharyngeal ganglia that contain nerve cell bodies that mediate general, visceral, and special sensation. The visceral motor fibers pass through both ganglia without synapsing and exit the inferior ganglion with CN IX general sensory fibers as the tympanic nerve. Before exiting the jugular foramen, the tympanic nerve enters the petrous portion of the temporal bone and ascends via the inferior tympanic canaliculus to the tympanic cavity. Within the tympanic cavity the tympanic nerve forms a plexus on the surface of the promontory of the middle ear to provide general sensation.
|
|