Apted contributed to the seated interviews, with leading questions designed to elicit maximally contrastive answers.
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We're not out in the city, that contrastive and conspicuous silence seems to say; we're in the more rarefied realm of the dance.
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His strategy for designing experiments largely comes from something called the "contrastive approach:" the idea that we can understand consciousness by setting up scenarios where it is absent, and then comparing the two states.
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Roelstraete positions this realism as a difficult move in the midst of poststructuralism and abstract expressionism, once again reading the work in contrastive comparison to white canonical masters like Kline, de Kooning, Motherwell, and Pollock.
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One classic study in Chicago of "contrastive analysis"—essentially of black students trained to translate their native "we was" into the standard "we were"—found a 59% reduction in the usage of the "we was" style.
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If the four heptapod speech sounds are all contrastive (perhaps the trill and the lawnmower are a single phoneme), we would expect heptapod words to be much longer or more complex than what we hear in Arrival.
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Since 1966, when Kaplan's original work on contrastive rhetoric appeared, and 1996, when Ulla Connor's book on contrastive rhetoric reinvigorated interest in the area, new trends have appeared in research approaches and methods.Connor, Ulla., Nagelhout, E., & Rozycki, W. (Eds.) (2008). "Introduction" Contrastive Rhetoric: Reaching to Intercultural Rhetoric, John Benjamins.
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In the early 2000s, some postmodern and critical pedagogy writers in the second language writing field, began referring to contrastive rhetoric as if it had been frozen in space. Over the years, the term contrastive rhetoric had started to gain a negative connotation, even negatively affecting writing in a second language. Understood by many as Kaplan's original work, contrastive rhetoric was increasingly characterized as static, and linked to contrastive analysis, a movement associated with structural linguistics and behavioralism. Many of the contributions made to contrastive rhetoric from the late 1960s to the early 1990s have been ignored.
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In a 2002 article, ConnorConnor, Ulla. (2002). New directions in contrastive rhetoric. TESOL Quarterly 36: 493-510. attempted to address these criticisms and to offer new directions for a viable contrastive rhetoric.
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De Gruyter. Contrastive linguistic studies can also be applied to the differential description of one or more varieties within a language, such as styles (contrastive rhetoric), dialects, registers or terminologies of technical genres.
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Semivowels in medial positions are not contrastive with their absences.
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There is also a contrastive high tone, indicated here by an acute accent.
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A contrastive study of the semantic prosody and colligation in two news corpora.
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Sakayan, Dora. Western Armenian for the English-speaking World. A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Yerevan State University Press, 2012. .Sakayan, Dora. Eastern Armenian for the English-speaking World. A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Yerevan State University Press, 2007. .
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Kanikkaran has 5 vowels, /a, e, i, o, u/. It demonstrates contrastive vowel length.
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Halbi has 6 vowels: /a, e, ɘ, i, o, u/. All vowels show contrastive vowel nasalization.
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A Contrastive Approach. Yerevan State University Press, 2007, pp. 434-459. Also see Dora Sakayan, Western Armenian for the English-speaking world. A Contrastive Approach. Yerevan State University Press, 2012, pp. 302-332. to novels, and from gambitsSakayan, Dora. Western Armenian for the English-speaking World.
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Yidiny has the typical Australian vowel system of /a, i, u/. Yidiny also displays contrastive vowel length.
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In phonology, two sounds of a language are said to be in contrastive distribution if replacing one with the other in the same phonological environment results in a change in meaning. If a sound is in contrastive distribution, it is considered a phoneme in that language. For example, in English, the sounds and can both occur word-initially, as in the words pat and bat (minimal pairs), which are distinct morphemes. Therefore, and are in contrastive distribution and so are phonemes of English.
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Word stress is non-contrastive and predictable — it falls on the last vowel in a word (including schwa).
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Fante, like all other varieties of Akan, has two contrastive tones, high tone (H) and low tone (L).
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The most notable feature of the Arapesh phoneme inventory is the use of labialization as a contrastive device.
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Translation Theory and Contrastive Text Linguistics, University of Exeter Press. (see translation), and to find lexical equivalents in the process of compiling bilingual dictionaries, as illustrated by Heltai (1988)Heltai, P. (1988) "Contrastive analysis of terminological systems and bilingual technical dictionaries", International Journal of Lexicography Vol. 1(1) pp. 32-40.
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Typical features of poetic diction are the use of synonyms or contrastive opposites, and the repetition of key words.
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Leabra overview in Emergent The symmetric, midpoint version of GeneRec is equivalent to the contrastive Hebbian learning algorithm (CHL).
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Stress is contrastive in Meriam and can occur on the first or second syllable. Examples include tábo 'snake', tabó 'neck'.
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Western Armenian for the English-speaking World. A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Yerevan State University Press, 2012. Sakayan, Dora.
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During the 1960s, there was a widespread enthusiasm with this technique, manifested in the contrastive descriptions of several European languages, many of which were sponsored by the Center for Applied Linguistics in Washington, DC. It was expected that once the areas of potential difficulty had been mapped out through contrastive analysis, it would be possible to design language courses more efficiently. Contrastive analysis, along with behaviourism and structuralism exerted a profound effect on SLA curriculum design and language teacher education, and provided the theoretical pillars of the audio-lingual method.
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One famous example of the importance of this is the Duhem–Quine thesis, which demonstrates that it is impossible to test a hypothesis in isolation, because an empirical test of the hypothesis requires one or more background assumptions. One way to solve this issue is to employ contrastive explanations. Several philosophers of science such as Lipton argue that contrastive explanations are able to detect genuine causes. An example of a contrastive explanation is a cohort study that includes a control group, where one can determine the cause from observing two otherwise identical samples.
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"Contrastive Rhetoric." Theorizing Composition: A Critical Sourcebook of Theory and Scholarship in Contemporary Composition Studies, ed. by Mary Lynch Kennedy. Greenwood.
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It is reported to be contrastive only in Gimi in which it is phonologically the voiced equivalent of the glottal stop .
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In the years 1916-1917 he took the chair in the Department of Sanskrit Philology at the Jagiellonian University. From 1917 full professor and Head of the Department of Contrastive Linguistics at the University of Lwów. He gave lectures on the history and language of Sanskrit drama, contrastive grammar of Indo-European languages and Old-Indian philology.
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Note that two sounds that are in contrastive distribution in one language can be in complementary distribution or free variation in another. These sounds occur in English, as in the word team and steam , but their occurrence is purely dependent upon phonological context. Therefore, in English, and are not in contrastive distribution but in complementary distribution.
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The Villa Alta Zapotec dialects have three tones: high /1/, mid /2/, and low /3/. The differences in these tones can be identified with the use of contrastive sets. The idea of contrastive sets is similar to the use of minimal pairs to identify phonemes. For example, de3za1n ya1 "a lot of bamboo" versus de3za1n ya2 "many steam baths".
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2854-2859), De Gruyter. (see bilingual lexicography). Contrastive descriptions can occur at every level of linguistic structure: speech sounds (phonology), written symbols (orthography), word-formation (morphology), word meaning (lexicology), collocation (phraseology), sentence structure (syntax) and complete discourse (textology). Various techniques used in corpus linguistics have been shown to be relevant in intralingual and interlingual contrastive studies, e.g.
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Several of the Chimbu–Wahgi languages have uncommon lateral consonants: see Nii, Wahgi, and Kuman for examples. Chimbu–Wahgi languages have contrastive tone.
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Within the theory of contrastive analysis, the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities, the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.Lennon, P. (2008). Contrastive analysis, error analysis, interlanguage. In S. Gramley & V. Gramley (Eds.), Bielefeld Introduction to Applied Linguistics (pp. 51-60).
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The Persian language has between six and eight vowel phonemes and twenty-six consonant phonemes. It features contrastive stress and syllable-final consonant clusters.
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Zaniza Zapotec words contrast low, mid, and high tones on stressed syllables. Unstressed syllables, apart from a few pronominal enclitics, do not bear contrastive tone.
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'Focus (abbreviated ') is a grammatical category that determines which part of the sentence contributes new, non-derivable, or contrastive information. Focus is related to information structure. Contrastive focus specifically refers to the coding of information that is contrary to the presuppositions of the interlocutor. The topic–comment model distinguishes between the topic (theme) and what is being said about that topic (the comment, rheme, or focus).
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Phonemes that are contrastive in certain environments may not be contrastive in all environments. In the environments where they do not contrast, the contrast is said to be neutralized. In these positions it may become less clear which phoneme a given phone represents. Absolute neutralization is a phenomenon in which a segment of the underlying representation is not realized in any of its phonetic representations (surface forms).
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A passive voice construction is a grammatical voice construction that is found in many languages.Siewierska, Anna. 1984. The passive: A contrastive linguistic analysis. London: Croom Helm.
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A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Yerevan State University Press, 2012. pp. 302-332. to proverbs. This furthered her interest in the theoretical aspects of translation.
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The change of accepting the linguistic depth of a language by negating negative social barriers has been affected by three major developments—the acknowledgment of more genres with specific textual requirements, increased awareness of the social contexts of writing, and the need for an alternative conceptual framework that takes a more critical perspective of contrastive rhetoric—have motivated scholars of contrastive rhetoric to adjust and supplement research approaches in their work.
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There are three lexically contrastive contour tones in Konyak – rising (marked in writing by an acute accent – á), falling (marked by a grave accent – à) and level (unmarked).
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Contrastive linguistics is a practice-oriented linguistic approach that seeks to describe the differences and similarities between a pair of languages (hence it is occasionally called "differential linguistics").
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New York: Oxford University Press. Admiration motivates self-improvement through learning from role-models.Smith, R. H. (2000). Assimilative and contrastive emotional reactions to upward and downward social comparisons.
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Reid, pp. 20-21 Most Atwot are bilingual in Dinka and Atwot.Reid, p. 22 A distinctive feature of the language is its having of three contrastive vowel lengths.
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Modern Western Armenian for the English-speaking World. A Contrastive Approach. Montreal: Arod Books, 2000. draws on more recent achievements of linguistics in the instruction of Western Armenian.
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In addressing the critiques, she aimed to draw attention to the broad scope of contrastive rhetoric and determined that a new term would better encompass the essence of contrastive rhetoric in its current state. To distinguish between the often- quoted "static" model and the new advances that have been made, Connor suggests it may be useful to begin using the term intercultural rhetoric instead of contrastive rhetoric to refer to the current models of cross- cultural research. According to Connor, the term intercultural rhetoric better describes the broadening trends of expression across languages and cultures. It preserves the traditional approaches that use textual analysis, genre analysis, and corpus analysis, yet also introduces ethnographic approaches that examine language in interactions.
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The phoneme inventory of the Marathi language is similar to that of many other Indo-Aryan languages. An IPA chart of all contrastive sounds in Marathi is provided below.
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Matsuda's main interest is in second language writing. In 1997 he wrote a seminal article on the contrastive rhetoric in context published in the Journal of Second Language Writing'.
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The World Atlas of Language Structures claims that Maxakalí has no contrastive fricative or nasal consonants, citing "Gudschinski et al. 1970". It is important to note that WALS did not consider [h] to be a true fricative in this judgement. The phonological status of the nasal consonants is ambiguous; Silva (2020) argues that in modern Maxakalí they are becoming contrastive through phonologization, even though until recently nasal consonants occurred only as allophones of voiced obstruents.
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Contrastive analysis is the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities. Historically it has been used to establish language genealogies.
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Wadiyari possesses eight distinct oral monophthongs coupled with five nasal monophthongs, in addition to five oral diphthongs and two contrastive nasal diphthongs. Oral vowels are also assimilated before nasal consonants.
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A process called consonant gradation then lengthened all consonants when they stood at the end of a stressed syllable, if the next syllable was open. The subsequent loss of final consonants and vowels in the later Sami languages made this process contrastive, resulting in as many as four contrastive lengths (lengthened geminate, unlengthened geminate, lengthened single, unlengthened single). The modern Sami languages have reduced this to three, by merging the unlengthened geminates with the lengthened single consonants.
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In its strongest formulation, the contrastive analysis hypothesis claimed that all the errors made in learning the L2 could be attributed to 'interference' by the L1. However, this claim could not be sustained by empirical evidence that was accumulated in the mid- and late 1970s. It was soon pointed out that many errors predicted by Contrastive Analysis were inexplicably not observed in learners' language. Even more confusingly, some uniform errors were made by learners irrespective of their L1.
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Tone is contrastive: (falling tone) 'rope' vs. (level tone) 'property'; (falling tone) 'fire' vs. (level tone) 'rate', (falling tone) 'to snatch' vs. (level tone) 'bad habit', and 'darkness' (low rising tone) vs.
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Shifting is often motivated by the relative weight of the constituents involved. The weight of a constituent is determined by a number of factors: e.g., number of words, contrastive focus, and semantic content.
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Initial assimilation of consonants is usually progressive, and may create new phonemes that are not phonemically contrastive in initial position but do contrast in medial position. A few varieties exhibit regressive assimilation too.
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CVV words may be mid/low or high. (In all of these patterns, here and following, initial C is optional.) Words of the following shapes may have a contrastive high tone on the final syllable: CVCV, CVCVV. Words of the following shapes may have either a rising or a falling tone on the first long syllable: CVVCV, CVVCVV, CVCVVCVV, CVVCVCV (rare), CVVCVCVV (rare). The following word shapes do not have contrastive tone: CVCVCV, CVCVVCV, CVCVCVV, and words of 4 or more syllables.
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Contrastive distribution in linguistics, as opposed to complementary distribution or free variation, is the relationship between two different elements in which both elements are found in the same environment with a change in meaning.
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The explanation is that Spanish has lexically contrastive stress, as evidenced by the minimal pairs like ("mole") and ("[he/she/it] met"), while in French, stress does not convey lexical information and there is no equivalent of stress minimal pairs as in Spanish. An important case of stress "deafness" relates to Persian. The language has generally been described as having contrastive word stress or accent as evidenced by numerous stem and stem-clitic minimal pairs such as /mɒhi/ [mɒ.hí] ("fish") and /mɒh-i/ [mɒ́.
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It thus became clear that contrastive analysis could not predict all learning difficulties, but was certainly useful in the retrospective explanation of errors. In response to the above criticisms, a moderate version of the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) has developed which paradoxically contradicts Lado's original claim. The new CAH hypothesizes that the more different the L2 is with one's L1, the easier it is for one to learn the target language. The prediction is based on the premise that similarities in languages create confusion for learners.
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Like its neighbour Paicî, Cèmuhî is one of the few Austronesian languages which have developed contrastive tone. However, unlike other New Caledonian tonal languages, Cèmuhî has three tonal registers: high, mid, and low tones. Rivierre (1972, 1980).
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4 It has vowel harmony by ATR status: the vowels in a noncompound word must be either all [+ATR] or all [−ATR]. The ATR-harmony requirement extends to the semivowels , .Tucker §1.3, §1.42 Vowel length is contrastive.
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Also, Yucatec has contrastive laryngealization (creaky voice) on long vowels, sometimes realized by means of a full intervocalic glottal stop and written as a long vowel with an apostrophe in the middle, as in the plural suffix -oʼob.
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Grammatical reconstruction in Chibchan and Misumalpan. Studies in Typology and Diachrony, ed. by Croft, Koenning, and Kemmer. 209-243. :“An O – V – S order does occur, and is probably a contrastive-object device akin to English Y-movement.
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Kensiu is not a tonal language even though there are some words that have a contrastive high tone and a normative pitch or mid-tone. The mid-tone is unmarked but the high tone is marked by a maitree.
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However, fricative and sonorant consonant phonemes exhibit regular contrasts in voice, including in nasals (rare in the world's languages). Additionally, length is contrastive for consonants, but not vowels. In Icelandic, the main stress is always on the first syllable.
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Contrastive Linguistics: History, Philosophy and Methodology. London: Continuum. . is attributed to this book, Mashi Wentong was criticized by critics such as Chen ChengzeChen, Chengze. (1922:page11) Guowenfa Caochuang (A Preliminary Grammar of Chinese), reprinted in 1982, Beijing: Commercial Press.
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Mapudungun has partially predictable, non- contrastive stress. The stressed syllable is generally the last one if it is closed (' 'game', ' 'thunder'), and the one before last if the last one is open (' 'house', ' 'head'). There is no phonemic tone.
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Hein van der Voort (2000) categorizes Kwaza as a ‘pro-drop’ language because subject agreement is obligatory, while pronominal reference is optional. Definite argument morphemes can agree with explicit lexical arguments, but overt pronouns have a contrastive effect by emphasizing them.
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With the help of technological advancement, contrastive analysis has adopted a more efficient method in obtaining language data, a corpus-based approach, which generates vast amount of juxtapositions of language differences in various fields of linguistics, for example lexis and syntax.
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Affixation, generally (but not always) taking the form of suffixes, occurs rather frequently in Shanghainese, enough so that this feature contrasts even with other Wu varieties,Chao, Yuen Ren (1967). “Contrastive Aspects of the Wu Dialects.” Language 43: 1, pp. 98.
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Mashi Wentong (, English: Ma's Grammar) is the first grammar of the Chinese language written by a Chinese scholar, Ma Jianzhong, who published it in 1898.Pan, Wenguo & Tham, Wai Mun. (2007:page83). Contrastive Linguistics: History, Philosophy and Methodology. London: Continuum. .
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Volume VI, subtitled "Contrastive Maps, Index to Entry Labels, Questionnaire, and Fieldwork Data," was released in 2013. Joining Hall for that volume was Luanne von Schneidemesser who served as Senior Editor. Late that same year, the digital version was launched.
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The theoretical foundations for what became known as the contrastive analysis hypothesis were formulated in Robert Lado's Linguistics Across Cultures (1957). In this book, Lado claimed that "those elements which are similar to [the learner's] native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult". While it was not a novel suggestion, Lado was the first to provide a comprehensive theoretical treatment and to suggest a systematic set of technical procedures for the contrastive study of languages. That involved describing the languages (using structuralist linguistics), comparing them and predicting learning difficulties.
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While traditional linguistic studies had developed comparative methods (comparative linguistics), chiefly to demonstrate family relations between cognate languages, or to illustrate the historical developments of one or more languages, modern contrastive linguistics intends to show in what ways the two respective languages differ, in order to help in the solution of practical problems. (Sometimes the terms diachronic linguistics and synchronic linguistics are used to refer to these two perspectives.) Contrastive linguistics, since its inception by Robert Lado in the 1950s, has often been linked to aspects of applied linguistics, e.g., to avoid interference errors in foreign-language learning, as advocated by Di Pietro (1971)Di Pietro, R.J. (1971) Language Structures in Contrast, Newbury House. (see also contrastive analysis), to assist interlingual transfer in the process of translating texts from one language into another, as demonstrated by Vinay & Darbelnet (1958)Vinay, J.P. & Darbelnet, J. (1958) Stylistique Comparée du Français et de l'Anglais, Didier-Harrap. and more recently by Hatim (1997)Hatim, B. (1997) Communication across Cultures.
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There are a limited number of pure adjectives. These are further divided into two classes. Class 1 pure adjectives always appear before their noun. Class 2 pure adjectives typically appear after the noun, but can appear before the noun in a contrastive context.
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A word-final segment that is somewhere between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is known as a suffixoidKremer, Marion. 1997. Person reference and gender in translation: a contrastive investigation of English and German. Tübingen: Gunter Narr, p. 69, note 11.
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Language Learning 16(1): 1-20. It was widely expanded from 1996 to today by Finnish-born, US-based applied linguist Ulla Connor,Connor, Ulla. (1996). Contrastive rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second-language writing. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press among others.
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Aspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds. For example, in Eastern Armenian, aspiration is contrastive even word-finally, and aspirated consonants occur in consonant clusters. In Wahgi, consonants are aspirated only when they are in final position.
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On contrastive divergence learning. Artificial Intelligence and Statistics. Restricted Boltzmann machines can also be used in deep learning networks. In particular, deep belief networks can be formed by "stacking" RBMs and optionally fine-tuning the resulting deep network with gradient descent and backpropagation.
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Knowledge here refers to the process of in-depth understanding of phenomenon via a range of information gained through conscious learning and personal experiences. Building block concepts include: (1) individualism-collectivism, (2) power distance. (3) two contrastive "self/face" models, and (4) facework communication styles.
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Some contrastive elements of speech cannot be easily analyzed as distinct segments but rather belong to a syllable or word. These elements are called suprasegmental, and include intonation and stress. In some languages nasality and vowel harmony are considered suprasegmental or prosodic by some phonologists.
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The toilet paper in the privy is labelled "Hamlet" and "Way of Ye World." From critics, he turns to the contrastive of triumphant dunces and lost merit. Orator Henley gets special attention here (lines 195 ff.). Henley had set himself up as a professional lecturer.
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Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field. Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, conversation analysis, contrastive linguistics, sign linguistics, language assessment, literacies, discourse analysis, language pedagogy, second language acquisition, language planning and policy, interlinguistics, stylistics, language teacher education, pragmatics, forensic linguistics and translation.
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London and New York: Routledge. pp. 8 During the 1950s and 1960s, systematic linguistic- oriented studies of translation began to appear. In 1958, the French linguists Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet carried out a contrastive comparison of French and English.Vinay, Jean-Paul and J.Darbelnet. 1958/1995.
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Some variants of Bengali, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma Bengali, have contrastive tone and so differences in pitch can distinguish words. There is also a distinction between and in many northern Bangladeshi dialects. represents the uncommon , but the standard used for both letters in most other dialects.
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Bortolin & McLennan 1995 Among the Algonquian languages, Blackfoot is relatively divergent in phonology and lexicon.Mithun 1999, p. 335 The language has a fairly small phoneme inventory, consisting of 11 basic consonants and three basic vowels that have contrastive length counterparts. Blackfoot is a pitch accent language.
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Other factors such as focus and contrast may also affect the order. When there is contrastive focus the adjective will precede, even if it is one such as a geographical name which normally follows: :Seneca, 4.40.3. :"Is he a good man or a bad one?" :Livy, 10.26.15.
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In some European countries, the post- game penalty shots are unofficially known as "bullets".Jeff Z. Klein, "Hockey Night in Europe: Goodbye, Columbus," New York Times, Oct. 25, 2008V. Lychyk, "English borrowings in recent Soviet Russian," Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics 29 (1994), p. 153.
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This respelling not only can obscure an alternative origin or meaning, but is not always in line with the practice of other forms of revived Cornish.Jon Mills, "Reconstructive Phonology and Contrastive Lexicography: Problems with the Gerlyver Kernewek Kemmyn" in Cornish Studies. Second series: Seven. Exeter: University of Exeter Press.
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Matsés has 21 distinctive segments: 15 consonants and 6 vowels. Along with these vowels and consonants, contrastive stress also is a part of the phoneme inventory. The following charts contain the consonants and vowels of the language, as well as their major allophones that are indicated in parentheses.
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Old Nubian is thought to be ancestral to Nobiin. Nobiin is a tonal language with contrastive vowel and consonant length. The basic word order is subject–object–verb. Nobiin is currently spoken along the banks of the Nile in Upper Egypt and northern Sudan by approximately 610,000 Nubians.
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There are a number of incompatible standards for the Romanization of Russian Cyrillic, with none of them having received much popularity and in reality transliteration is often carried out without any uniform standards.Ivanov, L. Streamlined Romanization of Russian Cyrillic. Contrastive Linguistics. XLII (2017) No. 2. pp. 66-73.
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Ellis's symbol was a turned , rather than a mid dot as shown here, and so aligned with the top dot of a colon . The tone marks align more evenly when typeset this way. before a word indicated prosodic or contrastive stress. After a syllable it indicated lexical stress.
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Attempts to describe Southern Nambikwara have been made since at least the early 20th century, often in the form of vocabulary lists. In his 1978 paper “The Nambiquara Linguistic Family” David Price discusses several vocabulary lists published between 1910 and 1960, including those compiled by Levi-Strauss (1948), Rondon (1948), and Roquette-Pinto (1913). Price insists that early vocabulary lists are largely inadequate, and often contain mistranslations, because many of them were compiled by individuals with no formal linguistics training (1978). Further, Price argues that these early publications do not reflect the “phonological realit(ies)” of the Nambikwara language, because these researchers tended to assume that sounds that were contrastive in their native languages were also contrastive in Nambiquara.
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This assumption was not based in rigorous analysis of learner language but rather was often anecdotal, and researchers' claims were prone to confirmation bias. Robert Lado (1957) held that the claims of contrastive analysis should be viewed as hypothetical unless and until they were based on systematic analyses of learner speech data. Around this time, second-language acquisition research shifted from hypotheses of language learning and the development of language-teaching materials to the systematic analysis of learner speech and writing with the practice of error analysis. Although this was initially done to validate the claims of contrastive analysis, researchers found that many learner behaviours could not be easily explained by transfer from learners' L1 to their L2.
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To mark a contrastive topic, as in the English sentence "Michael I saw, but John (on the other hand) I did not," yan ("other") appears before the contrastive topic ("John" in the example), along with the pronoun -tukel: Te Petule, la jk-il; yan te Mikele, ma chiknaj s-tukel. ("I saw Petul, but Mikel, on the other hand, did not appear.") Focus: Focus in Tzeltal behaves such that noun phrases are more or less focalized depending on their degree of predictability in a given context; noun phrases that are more surprising or unexpected in a given context will be said to be more marked for focus that those which are expected.
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These pitch accents can be contrastive, as with sakihpǫ́ 'It is a mink.' and sakíhpǫ 'It is not air- dried.'. Pitch placement on verbs is motivated by morphology. Most indicative verbs take the high accent, though a few take the low accent. Intensive verbs take the high rising–falling accent.
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The phonology of Baima is very similar to that of the Kham Tibetan dialect. They have both retained a voiced–voiceless contrast and have 4–5 contrastive tones as opposed to Amdo dialect. Affricates: four sets of affricates exist in the Baima language. They are apical, retroflex, laminal and pre-laminal.
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A verb at the beginning of the sentence is often emphatic, perhaps expressing something surprising: :Cicero, , 2.76. :"Panaetius praises Africanus...; why should he not praise him?" Another situation favouring initial verb position is where the verb is in contrastive focus (antithesis), as in the following:D&S;, p, 147. :Cicero, 15.4.
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Richard Smith categorises admiration as an other-focused assimilative emotion, leading people to aspire to be like (assimilate to) those they admire. He contrasts admiration with envy (an other-focused contrastive emotion), proposing that envy leads us to feel frustrated about the competence of others, while admiration is uplifting and motivating.
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In addition to the modal prefixes, there is also a set of prefixes that express a variety of concepts, some of which do not have a clearly distinct meaning, rather their meaning varies depending on context. The list of these includes repetitive, cislocative, dualic, translocative, partitive, coincident, contrastive, and negative.
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Chungli Ao is a tonal language. There are three distinct tonal levels: low, mid and high. There is evidence to prove that low and mid as well as low and high are contrastive. Chungli also has two contour tones, which are high-low and low-mid, though they are quite rare.
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A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Yerevan State University Press, 2007. also accompanied by a CD-Rom featuring Eastern Armenian native speakers. To bring the level of the existing Western Armenian textbook to that of its Eastern Armenian counterpart, in 2012 Sakayan published a second and revised edition (with CD-Rom).
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Accent is considered a feature of the entire syllable rather than of the nucleus only. One accent occurs with each syllable. Note that the functional load of accent is light—only some 40 lexical pairs with contrastive accents have been found, and few grammatical contrasts are marked by accent alone.
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This article is about the sound system of the Navajo language. The phonology of Navajo is intimately connected to its morphology. For example, the entire range of contrastive consonants is found only at the beginning of word stems. In stem-final position and in prefixes, the number of contrasts is drastically reduced.
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The interaction between pitch and phonation type in Mon: phonetic implications for a theory of tonogenesis. Mon-Khmer Studies 16-17:11-24. While difference in pitch in certain environments was found to be significant, there are no minimal pairs that are distinguished solely by pitch. The contrastive mechanism is the vowel phonation.
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If the noun ends in a consonant, /-i/ occurs; otherwise, /-ka/. /-(l)ul/, on the other hand, occurs in the same position as /-i/ or /-ka/ and is also conditioned by the immediately previous sound, but it indicates the accusative case. Therefore, /-(l)ul/ and the set {/-i/, /-ka/} are in contrastive distribution.
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The Boltzmann machine can be thought of as a noisy Hopfield network. It is one of the first neural networks to demonstrate learning of latent variables (hidden units). Boltzmann machine learning was at first slow to simulate, but the contrastive divergence algorithm speeds up training for Boltzmann machines and Products of Experts.
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Aguaruna has a pitch accent. This means that in every word, one syllable carries an accent and is pronounced with a higher pitch than the rest of the word. This accent is phonemically contrastive, and many minimal pairs exist. For example, /ʃíki/ is 'to urinate (on something)' and /ʃikí/ means 'draw water.
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The contrastive feature of (im)perfectiveness was also stabilized. The perfectivization function of prefixes and the imperfectivization function of suffixes are applied. As a consequence of this, aorist and imperfect start disappearing little by little and are replaced by the perfect (now called preterite, since it became the only past tense in Czech).
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Ph.D. Dissertation: Indiana University Korean,Lee, Kwang Oo (1980) A Contrastive Analysis Between Korean and English Relative Clauses. MA thesis: BYU Japanese,Higgins, Seiko T. (1972) A Comparison of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Subjunction in Japanese and English. MA thesis: BYUSuzuki, Kenji (1973) Junction Grammar as Applied to Japanese Synthesis. MA thesis:BYU and Russian.
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Pseudogapping occurs frequently in comparative and contrastive contexts: ::They have been eating the apples more than they have been eating the oranges. ::I will feed the chickens today if you will feed the chickens tomorrow. Pseudogapping is more restricted in distribution than VP-ellipsis. For instance it can hardly occur backwards, i.e.
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Some remarks on Sena tenses can be found in Funnell (2004),Funnell, Barry J. (2004)."A Contrastive Analysis of Two Varieties of Sena". MA dissertation, University of South Africa; (Introduction) Barnes & Funnell (2005)Barnes, Lawrie; Funnell, Barry (2005) "Exploring the cross- border standardisation of Chisena". Language Matters: Studies in the Languages of Africa. Vol. 36.
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While many languages use them to demarcate phrase boundaries, some languages like Huatla Mazatec have them as contrastive phonemes. Additionally, glottal stops can be realized as laryngealization of the following vowel in this language. Glottal stops, especially between vowels, do usually not form a complete closure. True glottal stops normally occur only when they're geminated.
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Alagwa has five vowels (/a, e, i, u, o/). The five vowels have contrastive long counterparts and there are two diphtongs (/ay, aw/). Alagwa also has 29 consonants, including ejectives (/ts, q, qʷ/), pharyngeal fricatives( /ħ, ʕ/), and labialized velars and uvulars. There are two tone levels in Alagwa: low and high tone e.g.
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Many Ryukyuan languages, like Standard Japanese and most Japanese dialects, have contrastive pitch accent. Ryukyuan languages are generally SOV, dependent-marking, modifier-head, nominative-accusative languages, like the Japanese language. Adjectives are generally bound morphemes, occurring either with noun compounding or using verbalization. Many Ryukyuan languages mark both nominatives and genitives with the same marker.
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Training of the network involves a pre-training stage accomplished in a greedy layer-wise manner, similar to other deep belief networks. Depending on whether the network is to be used for discrimination or generative tasks, it is then "fine tuned" or trained with either back- propagation or the up–down algorithm (contrastive–divergence), respectively.
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Women wear a variety of clothes, depending on the occasion. The ege is a lower garment, comprising a sheet of cotton. Above this may be draped a ri:bi or Gaseng, both cotton sheets used to cover the ege and a blouse. However, while the ri:bi has narrow stripes, the gaseng has broad stripes of contrastive colours.
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Abu Ahmad Muhammad bin Ali bin Muhammad al-Karaji, better known as al-Qassab, was a Muslim warrior-scholar, exegete and specialist in Hadith studies.Hussein Abdul-Raof, Theological Approaches to Qur'anic Exegesis: A Practical Comparative-Contrastive Analysis, pg. 147. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge, 2012.Ahmad Al-Saiid Zaki Hemeidah, Repentance as a Legal Concept, pg. 26.
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'a personal name' (level tone).; Each word can have only one contrastive tone. In the analysis of Kalicharan Bahl, the rare low rising tone is treated as a non-phonemic effect that accompanies medial . Awankari is then regarded as having two tones: a level tone and a falling tone (or rising tone, depending on the dialect).
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The games have been commonly compared to Minesweeper. They were praised for their simplistic art style and contrastive colours. One stated negative was that there was no punishment for making mistakes. Hexcells Infinite was rated 80/100 by New Game Network, who described it as "a unique idea based around the age old concepts of logic".
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In particular, the visible variables correspond to input data, and the hidden variables correspond to feature detectors. The weights can be trained by maximizing the probability of visible variables using Hinton's contrastive divergence (CD) algorithm. In general training RBM by solving the maximization problem tends to result in non-sparse representations. Sparse RBM was proposed to enable sparse representations.
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In Kansas, a different system called BWAKA is used. It too is both based on the Roman alphabet and phonemic, with each letter or digraph representing a contrastive sound. The letters used are: ' a b c d e e' g h i I j k m n o p s sh t u w y z zh.
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Zapotec languages all display contrastive phonation type differences in vowels. Minimally they have simple vowels vs. some kind of laryngealization or creakiness; see Quioquitani Zapotec, for example.Ward, Zurita Sánchez and Marlett (2008) Others have a contrast between simple, laryngealized and "checked" vowels (which sound like they end in a glottal stop); see Isthmus Zapotec, for example.
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The motivation for the marking and not marking a subject or an agent is pragmatic, determined by information and discourse structure, rather than syntactic. There are three pragmatic argument markers (the particular -ni, the contrastive maker -jò and the sympathetic -zw` ) that are noted to mark or replace the core argument markers, based on certain specific pragmatic conditions.
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Fallon, 2002. The synchronic and diachronic phonology of ejectives These weakly ejective articulations are sometimes called intermediates in older American linguistic literature and are notated with different phonetic symbols: = strongly ejective, = weakly ejective. Strong and weak ejectives have not been found to be contrastive in any natural language. In strict, technical terms, ejectives are glottalic egressive consonants.
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She serves on the Scientific Committee of ICAME. She is a member of the Cambridge Grammar reference panel. From 2004 to 2013 she served as president of the Swedish Society for the Study of English (SWESSE). She is the editor of the Nordic Journal of English Studies and co-editor of Contrastive Pragmatics - A Cross-Disciplinary Journal.
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Lado is considered one of the founders of modern contrastive linguistics, which, as a subdiscipline of applied linguistics, served the purpose of improving language teaching materials. His most influential book is Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers, in which he states that "in the comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease or difficulty in foreign language learning." The book outlines methods for comparing two systems of sound, grammar, vocabulary, writing, and culture. Lado and Charles Carpenter Fries were both associated with the strong version of the contrastive hypothesis, the belief that difficulties in learning a language can be predicted on the basis of a systematic comparison of the system of the learner’s first language (its grammar, phonology, and lexicon) with the system of a second language.
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Text that otherwise conforms to the SYO therefore frequently omits the rafe from fey, in harmonization with its unpointed final form, and makes the contrastive distinction from a pey solely with a dagesh in the latter (). The similar avoidance of the rafe and preferential use of the dagesh is a common alternative for the contrastive distinction between beys and veys (), although in Yiddish, because beys is used much more than veys, with veys limited to words of Semitic origin, the dagesh is avoided and rafe used instead. The rafe is an attribute of earlier Yiddish orthographic tradition and the dagesh is an adaptation of what is more generally a Hebrew practice. This also applies to the alternatives for indicating the distinction between yud when used as a consonant or as a vowel.
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The stress placed on words within sentences is called sentence stress or prosodic stress. That is one of the three components of prosody, along with rhythm and intonation. It includes phrasal stress (the default emphasis of certain words within phrases or clauses), and contrastive stress (used to highlight an item, a word or part of a word, that is given particular focus).
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These are /ei/, /ai/, /oi/, /ui/, /əi/, /eu/, /au/ and /ou/. Diphthong /ui/ occurs in all positions, /eu/ occurs initial and medial positions, /ai/, /oi/, /əi/, and /ei/ occur medial and final positions. While /ou/ and /au/ occur only in the medial positions. Furthermore, with regard to consonants, Toto has an inventory of ten obstruents, eight of which are contrastive in voicing.
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Amongst them are ejectives, implosives and contrastive voiceless sonorants. Along with Sindhi and Tukang Besi, Mazahua is a rare case of a language with true implosives that is far from regions where implosives are commonly encountered. It is also one of the few languages with ejective fricatives.Ian Maddieson (with a chapter contributed by Sandra Ferrari Disner); Patterns of sounds; Cambridge University Press, 1984.
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Glottal stops, produced by closing the vocal folds, are notably common in the world's languages. While many languages use them to demarcate phrase boundaries, some languages like Huatla Mazatec have them as contrastive phonemes. Additionally, glottal stops can be realized as laryngealization of the following vowel in this language. Glottal stops, especially between vowels, do usually not form a complete closure.
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A sixth volume, subtitled "Contrastive Maps, Index to Entry Labels, Questionnaire, and Fieldwork Data," edited by Hall with Luanne von Schneidemesser serving as Senior Editor, was published early in 2013. Late that same year, the digital version was launched. DARE chronicles the language of the American people. It is used by teachers, librarians, researchers, physicians, forensic linguists, journalists, historians, and playwrights.
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Like its neighbour Cèmuhî, Paicî is one of the few Austronesian languages which have developed contrastive tone,Rivierre (1974). involving three registers: high, mid, low. Additionally, there are vowels with no inherent tone, whose tone is determined by their environment. Words commonly have the same tone on all vowels, so tone may belong to the word rather than the syllable.
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But quite naturally too, within a given family of languages (say the Indo-European, the Sino-Tibetan, the Austro-Asiatic, or the Niger-Congo (etc.) family), the items marking the same operation may also happen to display striking resemblances, e.g. Eng. TO and Germ. ZU; Fr. DE and It. DI etc. Synchronic contrastive study, whether of different languages or of one language (e.g.
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Palatalization has varying phonological significance in different languages. It is allophonic in English, but phonemic in others. In English, consonants are palatalized when they occur before front vowels or the palatal approximant, and no words are distinguished by palatalization (complementary distribution), but in other languages palatalized consonants appear in the same environments (contrastive distribution) as plain consonants and distinguish words.
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The student who I know helped, not the student who you know. ::b. The student helped _who I know_ , not the student who you know. - Extraposition can be construed as involving pied-piping. Assuming that just the bolded words in these examples bear contrastive focus, the rest of the topicalized or extraposed phrase is pied-piped in each b-sentence.
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In modern colloquial Russian, given names and a small family of terms often take a special "shortened" form that some linguists consider to be a re-emerging vocative case.Lillian A. Parrott, Université Paris 8. Vocatives and other direct address forms: a contrastive study. A. Grønn & I. Marijanovic (eds.) Russian in Contrast, Oslo Studies in Language 2(1), 2010. 211–229.
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A rectangle swept along a straight axis would define a "brick" (see Figure). Four dimensions with contrastive values (i.e., mutually exclusive values) define the current set of geons (see Figure): # Shape of cross section: round vs. straight. For example, as stated above, a rectangle swept along a straight axis would define a "brick" and the cross section would be straight.
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The Central dialect of Rotokas possesses one of the world's smallest phoneme inventories. (Only the Pirahã language has been claimed to have fewer.) The alphabet consists of twelve letters, representing eleven phonemes. Rotokas has a vowel-length distinction (that is, all vowels have a short and long counterpart) but otherwise lacks distinctive suprasegmental features such as contrastive tone or stress.
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This pattern of general head-finality with head-initial noun phrases is also found in other Cushitic languages (e.g. Oromo), but not generally in Ethiopian Semitic languages. Somali uses three focus markers: baa, ayaa and waxa(a), which generally mark new information or contrastive emphasis. Baa and ayaa require the focused element to occur preverbally, while waxa(a) may be used following the verb.
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The Uspanteko (Uspanteco, Uspanteko, Uspantec) is a Mayan language of Guatemala, closely related to Kʼicheʼ. It is spoken in the Uspantán and Playa Grande Ixcán municipios, in the Department El Quiché. It is also one of only three Mayan languages to have developed contrastive tone (the others being Yukatek and one dialect of Tzotzil). It distinguishes between vowels with high tone and vowels with low tone.
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Therefore, when referring to things (that are not people) an explicit pronoun is usually disallowed. Subject pronouns can be made explicit when used for a contrastive function or when the subject is the focus of the sentence. In the following example, the first person explicit pronoun is used to emphasize the subject. :Yo [y no tú u otra persona] creo que eso estuvo mal.
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The Maret Building has 7 floors including a ground floor. Its architectural style is a fusion of Neo Mauresque (Moorish Revival), Neoclassical, and Modern architecture. A series of horizontal wavelike concrete curves spread out across the main facade from the rounded corner of the building. On the 6th floor, there is an arcade that gives contrastive emphasis to the floor below, which is covered with ziliij tiles.
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Sylviane Granger (born 5 July 1951) is a Belgian linguist and emeritus professor of the University of Louvain (UCLouvain). She is the founder of the Centre for English Corpus Linguistics (CECL) and is best known for her pioneering work in the field of Learner Corpus Research. She has mainly published in the areas of corpus linguistics, learner language, contrastive linguistics, translation studies and lexicography.
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Contrastive analyses about the innateness hypothesis have been done by Jacek Fisiak in 1980. According to Fisiak's analysis, Putnam, Hiż and Goodman criticized Chomsky's innate hypothesis by stating that: #The fact that languages have similar properties is common and natural. There is no necessity to appeal to innate concepts for the explanation of this fact. Goodman also expressed that claims about language universals are dubious.
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As described earlier, contrastive lexical reduplication is used in colloquial Finnish speech. Another type of reduplication occurs in Standard Finnish; reduplication as an intensifier. Common examples of this include suurensuuri (big-GEN big-NOM) literally "big of big(ness)", pienenpieni (small-GEN small- NOM) literally "small of small(ness)", hienonhieno (fine-GEN fine-NOM). The last example, literally "fine of fine(ness)," roughly means "very fine".
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Contrastive rhetoric is the study of how a person's first language and his or her culture influence writing in a second language or how a common language is used among different cultures. The term was first coined by the American applied linguist Robert Kaplan in 1966 to denote eclecticism and subsequent growth of collective knowledge in certain languages.Kaplan, Robert. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education.
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Michel Ferlus's main discoveries relate to the effects of monosyllabicization on the phonological structure of Southeast Asian languages. Tonogenesis (the development of lexical tones), registrogenesis (the development of lexically contrastive phonation-type registers), the evolution of vowel systems all partake in a general (panchronic) model of evolution.Ferlus, Michel. 1979. “Formation Des Registres Et Mutations Consonantiques Dans Les Langues Mon- khmer.” Mon-Khmer Studies 8: 1–76.
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15th century) by the Bureau of Interpreters 会同馆 (from the series Huáyí Yìyǔ (). By this point, a tone split had happened in the language, leading to six tones but a loss of contrastive voicing among consonants. #Middle Vietnamese, the language of the Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum of the Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes (c. 17th century); the dictionary was published in Rome in 1651.
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In 1966 she became Bachelor of Philosophy at the University of St Andrews for her thesis The dramatic satire of Karl Kraus and Johann Nestroy. A comparative study. In 1981, she went to the University of Zurich, Switzerland, where she got a habilitation with venia legendi for "Englische Linguistik und Sprachdidaktik" for her thesis Verb-descriptivity in German and English. A contrastive study in semantic fields.
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Languages in Contrast is a peer-reviewed academic journal of contrastive linguistics established in 1998 and published biannually by John Benjamins Publishing Company. Focusing on comparative studies of two or multiple languages, it covers all subfields of both theoretical and applied linguistics, such as morphology, phonology, discourse analysis, language education, etc. The current editors-in-chief are Signe Oksefjell Ebeling and Hilde Hasselgård (University of Oslo).
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Fourth International Conference on Armenian Linguistics. Cleveland State University, Cleveland, September 14–19, 1991, Delmar & New York: Caravan Books, 1992, pp. 171-201 as well as the origin of Armenian proverbs (international, borrowed and specifically Armenian proverbs). Contrastive paremiology being an ongoing project, Sakayan's next volume became a language-pair-oriented paremiological study with special focus on German-Armenian connections and discussions on cross-cultural translatability.
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This is especially common with syllabic nasals, for example in many Bantu and Kru languages, but also occurs in Serbo-Croatian. It is also possible for lexically contrastive pitch (or tone) to span entire words or morphemes instead of manifesting on the syllable nucleus (vowels), which is the case in Punjabi. Tones can interact in complex ways through a process known as tone sandhi.
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The English language has borrowed many words from other cultures or languages. For examples, see Lists of English words by country or language of origin and Anglicization. Some English loanwords remain relatively faithful to the original phonology even though a particular phoneme might not exist or have contrastive status in English. For example, the Hawaiian word aā is used by geologists to specify lava that is thick, chunky, and rough.
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In morphology, two morphemes are in contrastive distribution if they occur in the same environment, but have different meanings. For example, in Korean, noun phrases are followed by one of the various markers that indicate syntactic role: /-ka/, /-i/, /-(l)ul/, etc. /-ka/ and /-i/ are in complementary distribution. They are both used to indicate nominative case, and their occurrence is conditioned by the final sound of the preceding noun.
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Lakes Plain languages are all tonal. (The Skou languages and Kainantu-Goroka languages are other Papuan languages possessing contrastive tone.) Clouse and Clouse (1993) reconstruct tone (high level "H" and low level "L") in proto-Lakes Plain. Duvle and Sikaritai have only two tones, high and low, but all other Lakes Plain languages have more than two tones. All West Tariku languages have both rising and falling tones.
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He has been engaged in the study of Chinese-English contrastive grammar and translation for more than three decades. So far he has published nine academic books and a number of theses in this connection. Besides, he has held the post of honorary professor at Sias International University affiliated to Zhengzhou University in Henan Province, China since 2001. Wen has been engaged in literary work for more than half a century.
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Villard (2015) reports that Zacatepec Chatino presents voicing of non-continuant after nasals, vowel harmony, and contrastive nasal vowels. It also lacks labial phonemes and has 4 levels of pitch ranging from low to high. It also presents 15 specific tonal sequences that can define 15 Lexical classes. Its phonology presents a rich tonal system with a large inventory of phonemic tonal sequences as well as intricate sandhi patterns.
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The canonical morpheme in Medumba is a single syllable, either an open CV syllable or a closed CVC syllable (Voorhoeve 1965:319). This morpheme structure constraint has consequences for the consonant inventory. Indeed, a notable property of Medumba is that the number of contrastive consonants differs according to whether one considers consonants in onset position (i.e., consonants that begin a CV or CVC syllable) or consonants in coda position (i.e.
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These words have a high tone and contrastive vowel length in the second syllable, while the first syllable carries low tone. Jemez high tones are similar to those of Mandarin Chinese, except there's a characteristic slight rise at the end. Voiced consonants tend to lower the onset of pitch in high tones. If there are several high tones in a row, the pitch also tends to rise throughout.
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Coptic is a Unicode block used with the Greek and Coptic block to write the Coptic language. Prior to version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, Greek and Coptic was used exclusively to write Coptic text, but Greek and Coptic letter forms are contrastive in many scholarly works, necessitating their disunification. Any specifically Coptic letters in the Greek and Coptic block are not reproduced in the Coptic Unicode block.
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See comments on /p/ for contrastive features. : faglon ‘second most recently born child in a family’ : fatfat ‘thrash around’ Rare in Austronesian languages. Historically related to Tagalog and other Philippine languages. /p/. For example: : afuy ‘fire’ (Tagalog: ‘apoy’) : fana ‘arrow’ (Tagalog: ‘pana’) : fag grammatical linker (other Mangyan languages except Buhid, ‘pag’) /s/ voiceless alveolar fricative can occur in all syllable positions, and in the initial consonant cluster /st/.
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Whereas English consonant classes are divided into voiced and voiceless phonemes, Northeast Caucasian languages are known to contrast phones into voiced, voiceless, ejective, and tense variants, which contributes to their large phonemic inventories. Some languages also include palatalization and labialization as contrastive features. Most languages in this family contrast tense and weak consonants. Tense consonants are characterized by the intensiveness of articulation, which naturally leads to a lengthening of these consonants.
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Mixe phonology is complicated and little documented. There is a palatalized series of all consonant phonemes (as in Russian, Polish, or Gaelic) and possibly a fortis/lenis distinction in the stop series, the recognition of which however is obscured by a tendency of allophonic voicing of consonants in voiced environments. Syllable nuclei are notoriously complex in Mixe, varying in length and phonation. Most descriptions report three contrastive vowel lengths.
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Alveolar stops and are either apical alveolar or laminal denti- alveolar. The voiceless obstruents are aspirated much like their English counterparts: they become aspirated when they begin a syllable, though aspiration is not contrastive. The Persian language does not have syllable- initial consonant clusters (see below), so unlike in English, are aspirated even following , as in ('I exist'). They are also aspirated at the end of syllables, although not as strongly.
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She then continued her career as a professor in English language and linguistics. In 1991, she founded the Centre for English Corpus Linguistics, whose main research focus is learner language and contrastive linguistics. During her first sabbatical leave in 1995, she taught at Lancaster University and completed the volume Learner English on Computer, which came out in 1998. She took a second sabbatical in 2002 during which she taught at Columbia University.
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In syntax, the requirements are similar. In English, the expression of the indicative and the subjunctive moods is contrastive: :(1) If I am a rich man, then I have a lot of money. :(2) If I were a rich man, then I would have a lot of money. The change from non-past first-person singular indicative am to the subjunctive were results in a change in the grammatical mood of the sentence.
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Aghul has contrastive epiglottal consonants. Aghul makes, like many Northeast Caucasian languages, a distinction between tense consonants with concomitant length and weak consonants. The tense consonants are characterized by the intensiveness (tension) of articulation, which naturally leads to a lengthening of the consonant so they are traditionally transcribed with the length diacritic. The gemination of the consonant itself does not create its tension, but morphologically tense consonants often derive from adjoining two single weak consonants.
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The most direct inspiration for GANs was noise-contrastive estimation, which uses the same loss function as GANs and which Goodfellow studied during his PhD in 2010–2014. Other people had similar ideas but did not develop them similarly. An idea involving adversarial networks was published in a 2010 blog post by Olli Niemitalo. This idea was never implemented and did not involve stochasticity in the generator and thus was not a generative model.
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One important phonological process that occurs in Aguaruna is nasalisation. As mentioned above, nasality of vowels has a contrastive distribution with many minimal pairs. When found on a vowel, nasality spreads to the surrounding contiguous vowels and glides, but is blocked by consonants and word boundaries. For example, the word /tu-ĩ-ia/ 'from where?' contains a nasal high front vowel and this property spreads so that the word is pronounced [tũw̃iỹã]̃.
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The sinologist and phonologist Jerry Norman explains the reason for using instead of [t] for Pinyin d. Chinese stops and affricates fall into two contrasting unaspirated and aspirated series. The unaspirated series (b, d, z, etc.) is lenis, and "often gives the impression of being voiced to the untrained ear", while the aspirated series (p, t, c, etc.) is strongly aspirated (1988:139). Standard Chinese phonology uses aspiration for the contrastive distribution of consonantal stops.
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The 3rd line features one (potentially two; the second can be otherwise scanned) rightward movements of an ictus (resulting in a four- position figure, `× × / /`, sometimes referred to as a minor ionic): × × / / × / × × / / And the just pleasure lost, which is so deem'd (121.3) A similar minor ionic is potentially present in line 12's "By their rank thoughts", though not if "their" receives contrastive accent. The meter demands that line 13's "general" function as two syllables.
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These constituents include information bearing contrastive focus, as well as information that is novel. # Non-omitted topics—information that is old but reintroduced—are usually clause-final. In Bardi, topics that persist in discourse are usually omitted in the sentences following their initial introduction. However, if an old topic is overt it may be reintroduced into the sentence—in which case, it will usually be located in the final position of the clause.
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Aijmer was elected as a member of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences in Göteborg (Kungliga Vetenskaps- och Vitterhetssamhället i Göteborg) in 1998. Along with Bengt Altenberg, she received a research fellowship associated with the program ‘English in a contrastive perspective,’ at Lund University from 1993 to 1996. She received research fellowships at the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts in Brussels in the fall of 2001 and 2002.
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In earlier Common Slavic, vowel length was allophonic, an automatic concomitant to vowel quality, with short and all other vowels (including nasal vowels) long. By the end of the Common Slavic period, however, various sound changes (e.g. pre-tonic vowel shortening followed by Dybo's law) produced contrastive vowel length. This vowel length survives (to varying extents) in Czech, Slovak, Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian and Old Polish, but was lost entirely early in the history of Russian, with almost no remnants.
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Partly this is due to the academic contagions of the foreign university like not integrating contrastive rhetoric aspect, low-support for adaptation like providing opportunities to better their English in a non-competitive and meaningful way. Most foreign students encounter difficulties in language use. Such issues make it difficult for the student to make domestic friends and gain familiarity with the local culture. Sometimes, these language barriers can subject international students to ignorance or disrespect from native speakers.
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However, on Earth, these angels entertain and act upon sexual desires and become guilty of idol worship, whereupon they even kill an innocent witness of their actions. For their deeds, they are not allowed to ascend to heaven again.Hussein Abdul-Raof Theological Approaches to Qur'anic Exegesis: A Practical Comparative- Contrastive Analysis Routledge 2012 page 155 Probably the names Harut and Marut are of Zoroastrian origin and derived from two Amesha Spentas called Haurvatat and Ameretat.Patricia Crone.
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Using images is central to visual rhetoric because these visuals or images help in forming the case or arguing the point that the writer formulates. Also, visual rhetoric involves how writers arrange segments of a visual text on the page. In addition to that, visual rhetoric involves the selection of different fonts, contrastive colors, and graphs, among other elements, to shape a visual rhetoric text. One vital component of visual rhetoric is analyzing the visual text.
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The Gbe languages are tonal languages. In general, they have three tone levels, High (H), Mid (M), and Low (L), of which the lower two are not phonemically contrastive. Thus, the basic tonemes of Gbe are 'High' and 'Non- High', where the High toneme may be realised as High or Rising and the Non- High toneme may be realised as Low or Mid. The tones of Gbe nouns are often affected by the consonant of the noun stem.
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In international competition, shootouts (or more formally, game-winning shots (GWS), and, in some European countries, bullets, or bullitsJeff Z. Klein, "Hockey Night in Europe: Goodbye, Columbus", New York Times, October 25, 2008.V. Lychyk, "English borrowings in recent Soviet Russian", Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics 29 (1994), p. 153.), are often used. Each coach selects three skaters from their team to take penalty shots one at a time against the opposing goaltender, with teams alternating shots.
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The term was introduced by Paul Kiparsky (1968), and contrasts with contextual neutralization where some phonemes are not contrastive in certain environments.Kiparsky, P., Linguistic universals and linguistic change. In: E. Bach & R.T. Harms (eds.), Universals in linguistic theory, 1968, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston (pp. 170–202) Some phonologists prefer not to specify a unique phoneme in such cases, since to do so would mean providing redundant or even arbitrary information – instead they use the technique of underspecification.
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Goemai is a tonal language, making use of several distinctive tones. The exact number and pitch of these tones is disputed. It has been suggested that Goemai has three level tones high (), mid (), and low () along with two contour tones: falling () and rising (). Tone can be the only contrastive feature between words in Goemai, as shown in the following minimal pairs: ɓák "here" (adv.) versus ɓàk "disregard" (v.), and ʃé "foot/leg" (n.) versus ʃè "learn/teach" (v.).
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In linguistics, complementary distribution, as distinct from contrastive distribution and free variation, is the relationship between two different elements of the same kind in which one element is found in one set of environments and the other element is found in a non-intersecting (complementary) set of environments. The term often indicates that two superficially-different elements are the same linguistic unit at a deeper level, though more than two elements can be in complementary distribution with one another.
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A letter is a type of grapheme, which is a contrastive unit in a writing system. The contemporary English-language alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, each of which corresponds to one or more sounds. Letters are combined to form words. A letter is classified as either a consonant or a vowel, depending on how its sound is produced (vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y and w— with y and w only sometimes classed as vowels).
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This dialect is mainly spoken in the districts of North Bengal. These are the only dialects in Bangladesh that pronounce the letters চ, ছ, জ, and ঝ as affricates , , , and , respectively, and preserve the breathy-voiced stops in all parts of the word, much like Western dialects (including Standard Bengali). The dialects of Rangpur and Pabna do not have contrastive nasalised vowels. ::Dinajpur: æk jôn manusher dui chhaoa chhilô (P) ::Pabna (Women's dialect): kono mansher dui chhaoal chhilô.
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The Mixtepec Mixtec tone system features three distinct tones: high, mid (which is considered to be unmarked), and low. Since mid tones are not marked in the IPA, just the vowel is used with no tonal diacritics. The tone system also features two bi-level contour tones: rising, falling; and two tri-level tones: falling-rising, rising-falling. In the IPA transcriptions there is no difference made between high and rising tones and low and falling tones because these are phonologically non-contrastive.
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As infants learn how to sort incoming speech sounds into categories, ignoring irrelevant differences and reinforcing the contrastive ones, their perception becomes categorical. Infants learn to contrast different vowel phonemes of their native language by approximately 6 months of age. The native consonantal contrasts are acquired by 11 or 12 months of age. Some researchers have proposed that infants may be able to learn the sound categories of their native language through passive listening, using a process called statistical learning.
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Most of the Palaungic languages lost the contrastive voicing of the ancestral Austroasiatic consonants, with the distinction often shifting to the following vowel. In the Wa branch, this is generally realized as breathy voice vowel phonation; in Palaung–Riang, as a two-way register tone system. The Angkuic languages have contour tone — the U language, for example, has four tones, high, low, rising, falling, — but these developed from vowel length and the nature of final consonants, not from the voicing of initial consonants.
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There are two variables to degrees of voicing: intensity (discussed under phonation), and duration (discussed under voice onset time). When a sound is described as "half voiced" or "partially voiced", it is not always clear whether that means that the voicing is weak (low intensity) or if the voicing occurs during only part of the sound (short duration). In the case of English, it is the latter. Juǀʼhoansi and some of the neighboring languages are typologically unusual in having contrastive partially voiced consonants.
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This algorithm is the default algorithm in emergent (successor of PDP++) when making a new project, and is extensively used in various simulations. Hebbian learning is performed using conditional principal components analysis (CPCA) algorithm with correction factor for sparse expected activity levels. Error-driven learning is performed using GeneRec, which is a generalization of the recirculation algorithm, and approximates Almeida–Pineda recurrent backpropagation. The symmetric, midpoint version of GeneRec is used, which is equivalent to the contrastive Hebbian learning algorithm (CHL).
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The tone bearing unit is a syllable, and each syllable is obligatorily assigned a tone. There are two tones with contrastive minimal pairs found in Ersu; high level, and mid level. The assignment of the tones in a particular morpheme or word is unpredictable, though data suggests that the high level tone is much more frequent than the mid level tone. The pitch contour of the Ersu tones is also much less stable/consistent compared to Mandarin Chinese, and often have contextual variation.
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Arbore well exemplifies a number of typical Lowland East Cushitic features such as: a three-term number system (basic unit: singulative: plural) in nouns, within which "polarity" figures, i.e., gender alternations across the various number forms of a lexeme; a morphosyntax thoroughly deployed in distinguishing topic and contrastive focus; great morphophonological complexity in its verbal derivation and inflection. Of historical interest is the language's preservation of at least a dozen verbs of the archaic "Prefix Conjugation", often attributed to Proto-Afroasiatic itself.
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Although most aspirated obstruents in the world's languages are stops and affricates, aspirated fricatives such as , or have been documented in Korean, though these are allophones of other phonemes. Similarly, aspirated fricatives and even aspirated nasals, approximants, and trills occur in a few Tibeto-Burman languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages, in the Hmongic language Hmu, and in the Siouan language Ofo. Some languages, such as Choni Tibetan, have as many as four contrastive aspirated fricatives , and .Guillaume Jacques 2011.
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The next line presents a somewhat unusual metrical problem. It can be scanned regularly: × / × / × / × / × / Resembling strong youth in his middle age, (7.6) The problem arises with the words "strong youth". Both words have tonic stress, but that of "strong" is normally subordinated to that of "youth", allowing them comfortably to fill `× /` positions, not `/ ×`. The scansion above would seem to suggest a contrastive accent placed upon "strong", which may not be appropriate as the more salient contrast is between youth and age.
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The existence of an extensive Sahul Shelf was suggested in 1845 by George Windsor Earl who called it the "Great Australian Bank" and noted that macropods (kangaroos) were found on Australia, New Guinea, and the Aru Islands. Earl also suggested the existence of the Sunda Shelf (which he called the "Great Asiatic Bank") covering the eastern Malay archipelago and Malay peninsula. In the 1970s, biogeographers coined "Sundaland" and "Sahul" as contrastive names for the continental regions extending from the adjacent shelves.
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Before the interlanguage hypothesis rose to prominence, the principal theory of second-language (L2) development was contrastive analysis. This theory assumed that learners' errors were caused by the difference between their L1 and L2. This approach was deficit-focused, in the sense that speech errors were thought to arise randomly and should be corrected. A further assumption followed that a sufficiently thorough analysis of the differences between learners' first and second languages could predict all of the difficulties they would face.
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Eastern Armenian for the English- speaking World. A Contrastive Approach (with CD-ROM). Revised Edition. Yerevan State University Press, 2008. Sakayan's interest in proverbs resulted in a major paremiological study accompanied by a bilingual (Armenian-English), thematically arranged anthology of 2,500 proverbs.Armenian Proverbs: A Paremiological Study with an Anthology of 2,500 Armenian Folk Sayings Selected and Translated into English, Delmar & New York: Caravan Books, First edition: 1994, Second and revised edition: 1995 An extensive introduction addresses the language and structure,Sakayan, Dora.
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Nonstandard African-American varieties of English have been stereotypically associated with a lower level of education and low social status. Since the 1960s, however, linguists have demonstrated that each of these varieties, and namely African-American Vernacular English, is a "legitimate, rule-governed, and fully developed dialect". The techniques used to improve the proficiency of African-American students learning standard written English have sometimes been similar to that of teaching a second language. Contrastive analysis is used for teaching topics in African-American Vernacular English.
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Like most Magadhan languages, vowel length is not contrastive in Bengali; all else equal, there is no meaningful distinction between a "short vowel" and a "long vowel", unlike the situation in most Indo-Aryan languages. However, when morpheme boundaries come into play, vowel length can sometimes distinguish otherwise homophonous words. This is because open monosyllables (i.e. words that are made up of only one syllable, with that syllable ending in the main vowel and not a consonant) can have somewhat longer vowels than other syllable types.
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Just as open syllables have ten vowels, so too do closed syllables: /æ/ /ɪ/ /ɛ~ɜ/ /u̯æ~ʊ/ /u̯ɛ/ /u̯ɪ/ /eɪ/ /oʊ/ /aɪ/ /aʊ/. It is worth noting that in Yangon MSB no vowel quality exists in both closed and open syllables, and that therefore nasalisation and the glottal stop cannot be said to be contrastive features in and of themselves. In fact, with the exception of tone (and its inherent length, intensity, and phonation) no supgrasegmental features can really be said to be phonemic.
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The goal is to learn a function f such that for any new triplet of objects (x, x^+, x^-), it obeys f(x, x^+) > f(x, x^-) (contrastive learning). This setup assumes a weaker form of supervision than in regression, because instead of providing an exact measure of similarity, one only has to provide the relative order of similarity. For this reason, ranking-based similarity learning is easier to apply in real large-scale applications. ; Locality sensitive hashing (LSH)Gionis, Aristides, Piotr Indyk, and Rajeev Motwani.
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Preaspiration is comparatively uncommon across languages of the world, and is claimed by some to not be phonemically contrastive in any language. note that, at least in the case of Icelandic, preaspirated stops have a longer duration of aspiration than normally aspirated (post-aspirated) stops, comparable to clusters of +consonant in languages with such clusters. As a result, they view preaspiration as purely a distributional feature, indistinguishable phonetically and phonologically from clusters with , and prefer to notate preaspirated stops as clusters, e.g. Icelandic kappi "hero" rather than .
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Greek and Coptic is the Unicode block for representing modern (monotonic) Greek. It was originally used for writing Coptic, using the similar Greek letters, in addition to the uniquely Coptic additions. Beginning with version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, a separate Coptic block has been included in Unicode, allowing for mixed Greek/Coptic text that is stylistically contrastive, as is convention in scholarly works. Writing polytonic Greek requires the use of combining characters or the precomposed vowel + tone characters in the Greek Extended character block.
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The film is about Siva (Nakul), who hates ‘Love’ and those who are into such relationships. Whatever may be the situation, he makes sure that they are separated. On the other hand, Pooja (Poorna), a girl in Nagercoil is the opposite of Siva; she for the love as she risks anything to unite the lovers. When Siva's sister Girija falls in love with Poorna's cousin boy, both the contrastive characters meet each other. Naturally as Siva sings ‘Eppadi Ennul Kadhal Vandhadhu’, both of them fall in love.
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As in most other Ethiopian Semitic languages, gemination is contrastive in Amharic. That is, consonant length can distinguish words from one another; for example, alä 'he said', allä 'there is'; yǝmätall 'he hits', yǝmmättall 'he is hit'. Gemination is not indicated in Amharic orthography, but Amharic readers typically do not find this to be a problem. This property of the writing system is analogous to the vowels of Arabic and Hebrew or the tones of many Bantu languages, which are not normally indicated in writing.
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Length confusions seem to have begun in unstressed vowels, but they were soon generalized. In the 3rd century AD, Sacerdos mentions people's tendency to shorten vowels at the end of a word, while some poets (like Commodian) show inconsistencies between long and short vowels in versification. However, the loss of contrastive length caused only the merger of and while the rest of pairs remained distinct in quality: , , , , . Also, the near-close vowels and became more open in most varieties and merged with and respectively.
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Intra-textual methods assess the output of a specific summarization system, and the inter-textual ones focus on contrastive analysis of outputs of several summarization systems. Human judgement often has wide variance on what is considered a "good" summary, which means that making the evaluation process automatic is particularly difficult. Manual evaluation can be used, but this is both time and labor- intensive as it requires humans to read not only the summaries but also the source documents. Other issues are those concerning coherence and coverage.
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Dida uses tone as a grammatical device. Morpho-tonology plays a greater role in verb and pronominal paradigms than it does in nouns, and perhaps because of this, Dida verbs utilize a simpler tone system than nouns do: Noun roots have four lexically contrastive tones, subject pronouns have three, and verb roots have just two word tones. There are three level tones in Abou Dida: , , and , with about twice as common as the other two. Speaker intuition hears six contour tones: rising and falling .
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He received a MA degree from the University of Jaffna in 1982 after producing a thesis on Tamil wordage of Muslims in the Batticaloa region. He received a Ph.D. degree from Annamalai University after producing a research paper titled A Contrastive Study of the Structure of the Noun Phrase in Tamil and Sinhala. Nuhman joined the University of Peradeniya as a senior lecturer in 1991 and in 2001 he was promoted to professor of Tamil. He was visiting professor in linguistics at Tamil University in Thanjavur.
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Bilingual dictionaries have proved to be helpful for learners of a new language, although in general, they hold less extensive coverage of information as compared to monolingual dictionaries. Nonetheless, good bilingual dictionaries capitalize on the fact that they are useful for learners to integrate helpful information about commonly known errors, false friends and contrastive predicaments from the two languages. Studies have shown that learners of English have benefited from the use of bilingual dictionaries on their production and comprehension of unknown words.Chen, Y. (2011).
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It demonstrates the great potential that contrastive linguistics has for the advancement of foreign language teaching by outlining Armenian-English contrasts throughout the course. It also applies the insights of text linguistics and grammar of expectancy by enhancing the production of correct grammatical forms anticipated by the reproduction of certain ready-made routine formulae. The textbook is conceptualized pragmatically, enabling students to carry out speech acts fundamental for communication. Although grammar receives proper attention, other linguistic aspects such as word formation, semantic vocabulary groups, pronunciation, orthography, etc.
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The phonemic inventory is typical of modern Mon-Khmer languages and, along with the other Pearic languages, shows some phonological influences from the late Middle Khmer of the 17th century. Samre also shows influence from Thai in that it has a developing tonal system. Like many other Austroasiatic languages in general, and the Pearic languages in particular, Samre vowels may differ in voice quality, a system known as "register", or "phonation". However, the breathy voice versus clear voice distinction is no longer contrastive and is secondary to a word's tone.
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Contrastive analysis was used extensively in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) in the 1960s and early 1970s, as a method of explaining why some features of a target language were more difficult to acquire than others. According to the behaviourist theories prevailing at the time, language learning was a question of habit formation, and this could be reinforced or impeded by existing habits. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering certain structures in a second language (L2) depended on the difference between the learners' mother language (L1) and the language they were trying to learn.
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Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus. The color varies from charcoal black, to dark orange and white. Pluto's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly more orange and significantly less red than Mars. Notable geographical features include Tombaugh Regio, or the "Heart" (a large bright area on the side opposite Charon), Cthulhu Macula, or the "Whale" (a large dark area on the trailing hemisphere), and the "Brass Knuckles" (a series of equatorial dark areas on the leading hemisphere).
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That may be considered appropriate when the place of articulation needs to be specified, and the distinction between plosive and affricate is not contrastive. There is also the voiced post-palatal plosiveInstead of "post-palatal", it can be called "retracted palatal", "backed palatal", "palato-velar", "pre-velar", "advanced velar", "fronted velar" or "front-velar". For simplicity, this article uses only the term "post-palatal". in some languages, which is articulated slightly more back than the place of articulation of the prototypical palatal consonant but not as back as the prototypical velar consonant.
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Medumba makes use of numerous clause-typing particles that occur at the beginning or end of the sentence: they are used to mark yes/no questions, content questions, relative clauses, as well as embedded clauses. In addition, there are two forms of negation, according to whether negation has scope over VP or CP: VP-scope negation is contrastive (e.g. He bought some books, but he did not sell pens); CP-scope negation denies the truth of a proposition p (e.g. NOT-p = it is not the case that p).
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These studies, the more complete description of this process, and the models emergent from this work, earned Folkman the Wolf Prize in Medicine in 1992. Dynamic angiothermography utilizes thermal imaging but with important differences with the “old” thermography, that impact detection performance. First, the probes are much improved over the previous liquid crystal plates; they include better spatial resolution, contrastive performance, and the image is formed more quickly. The more significant difference lies in identifying the thermal changes due to changes in vascular network to support the growth of the tumor/lesion.
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The closest relatives of the Mazahua language are Otomi, Matlatzinca, and Ocuilteco/Tlahuica languages, which together with Mazahua form the Otomian subgroup of the Oto-Pamean branch of the Oto-Manguean language family. Mazahua is a tonal language and distinguishes high, low, and falling tones on all syllables except the final syllable of a word whose stress is predictable. Mazahua's most distinctive feature is its abnormally-large phoneme inventory, around sixty phonemes, or twice the number in English. There are eight vowel phonemes, seven contrastive nasal vowels, and as many as forty-five consonants.
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Infants begin the process of language acquisition by being able to detect very small differences between speech sounds. They can discriminate all possible speech contrasts (phonemes). Gradually, as they are exposed to their native language, their perception becomes language-specific, i.e. they learn how to ignore the differences within phonemic categories of the language (differences that may well be contrastive in other languages – for example, English distinguishes two voicing categories of plosives, whereas Thai has three categories; infants must learn which differences are distinctive in their native language uses, and which are not).
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Historically, Northeast Caucasian phonemic inventories were thought to be significantly smaller than those of the neighboring Northwest Caucasian family. However, more recent research has revealed that many Northeast Caucasian languages are much more phoneme-rich than previously believed, with some languages containing as many as 70 consonants. In addition to numerous oral obstruents, many Northeast Caucasian languages also possess a number of back consonants, including uvulars, pharyngeals, and glottal stops and fricatives. Northeast Caucasian phonology is also notable for its use of numerous secondary articulations as contrastive features.
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In Shawnee phonology, consonant length is contrastive. Words may not begin with vowels, and between a morpheme ending with a vowel and one starting with a vowel, a [y] is inserted. Shawnee does not allow word-final consonants and long vowels. ;Consonant length :/k/ and /kk/ contrast in the following verbal affixes ye-kkil-a-ki SUB-hide-DIR-3sAO when (I) hide him ye-kkil-a-kki SUB-hide-DIR-3pAO when (I) hide them These affixes (-ki, -kki) are object markers in the transitive animate subordinate mode.
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Though no standard orthography has been agreed upon by the Potawatomi communities, the system most commonly used is the "Pedagogical System" developed by the Wisconsin Native American Languages Program (WNALP). As the name suggests, it was designed to be used in language teaching. The system is based on the Roman alphabet and is phonemic, with each letter or digraph representing a contrastive sound. The letters used are: a b ch d e é (ë) (ê) (ė) g ' h i j k m n o p s sh t w y z zh.
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Libuše Dušková (; née Mehlová, born 27 January 1930) is a Czech linguist specializing in the fields of contrastive analysis of English grammar and functional syntax, member of the Prague Linguistic Circle and key representative of the Prague School of Linguistics. She is Professor Emerita of English Linguistics at Charles University. Her research spans a broad spectrum of topics in English linguistics, namely the verb phrase, the noun phrase, simple and complex sentences, the grammar-text interface, and aspects of the theory of Functional Sentence Perspective viewed through the prism of Jan Firbas' approach.
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Later writers have criticized the approach as being artificial and lacking in relevance to language learners' needs. However, even today minimal pair listening and production drills remain a common tool for the teaching of segmental differences. Some writers have claimed that learners are likely not to hear differences between phones if the difference is not a phonemic one. One of the objectives of contrastive analysis of languages' sound systems was to identify points of likely difficulty for language learners that would arise from differences in phoneme inventories between the native language and the target language.
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Paumarí has a larger consonant inventory than most languages of the Amazon Basin, and is notable for featuring bilabial and coronal implosives, which have been lost from other Arauan languages but are reconstructed clearly for the protolanguage of the family. It is one of very few languages in the New World to contrast implosives with other voiced stop consonants: similar contrasts are known only for a few other Amazonian languages. However, it has a very simple vowel system with only three contrastive vowels, the back one of which can range from to .
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Just as with spoken languages, when features are combined, they create phonemes. As in spoken languages, sign languages have minimal pairs which differ in only one phoneme. For instance, the ASL signs for father and mother differ minimally with respect to location while handshape and movement are identical; location is thus contrastive. Stokoe's terminology and notation system are no longer used by researchers to describe the phonemes of sign languages; William Stokoe's research, while still considered seminal, has been found not to characterize American Sign Language or other sign languages sufficiently.
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Stress is contrastive in Seri. Although it usually falls on the first syllable of a root, there are many words where it does not, mostly nouns, as well as a small class of common verbs whose stress may fall on a prefix rather than on the root. An alternative analysis,Marlett (2008b). recently proposed and with fewer exceptions, assigns stress to the penultimate syllable of the root of a word (since suffixes are never stressed and prefixes receive stress only as a result of phonological fusion with the root).
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Swedish and Norwegian are the only two known languages in which the feature is contrastive; they have both exo- and endo-labial close front vowels and close central vowels, respectively. In many phonetic treatments, both are considered types of rounding, but some phoneticians do not believe that these are subsets of a single phenomenon and posit instead three independent features of rounded (endolabial) and compressed (exolabial) and unrounded. The lip position of unrounded vowels may also be classified separately as spread and neutral (neither rounded nor spread).IPA (1999), p. 13.
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The extremely small number of speakers makes Ormuri an endangered language that is considered to be in a "threatened" state. Ormuri is notable for its unusual sound inventory, which includes a voiceless alveolar trill that does not exist in the surrounding Pashto. Ormuri also has voiceless and voiced alveolo-palatal fricatives (the voiceless being contrastive with the more common voiceless palato-alveolar fricative), which also exist in the Waziristani dialect of Pashto, but could have been adopted from Ormuri due to its close proximity."Dying Languages; Special Focus on Ormuri".
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The company also adjusted Suomi for customers looking to inject self-expression. It manufactured Suomi in a parallel Porcelaine noire series and allowed customers to mix and purchase the luminous white and uncommon black-porcelain pieces in any desired contrastive combination. In a separate modification, the producer catered to those seeking more opulence with gold- and platinum-trimmed Suomi series. Such marketing was not always appreciated on aesthetic grounds with the argument that the decorated versions of various sorts related poorly to Sarpaneva's refined shapes, and that Suomi was extraordinary only in plain white.
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Sakayan has also taken a keen interest in contrastive phraseology in the general sense of the term. Recognizing the importance of ready-made expressions in human communication, she has based her research on self-collected linguistic corpora of phraseological units, such as proverbs and sayings, idiomatic expressions, and routine formulae (gambits). Sakayan has explored the reproduction of routine formulae (gambits) and their role for turn-taking in conversation and for organizing discourseSakayan, Dora; Tessier, Christine (1983). "Deutsche Gesprächsformeln in Mikrodialogen" [German Speech Formulae in Mini-Dialogues]. Zielsprache Deutsch 1983/3: pp. 9-14.
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In stem-initial position, tends to be fully voiced, has a slight tendency to be voiceless near the offset, is often mostly voiceless with phonetic voicing only at the onset, is also only partially voiced with voicing at onset. A more consistent acoustic correlate of the "voicing" is the duration of the consonant: "voiceless" consonants have longer durations than "voiced" consonants. Based on this, argues that the distinction is better captured with the notion of a fortis/lenis contrast. A further characteristic of voicing in Navajo is that it is marginally contrastive (see the voicing assimilation section).
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The main difference was the developing audio-lingual methods allegiance to structural linguistics, focusing on grammar and contrastive analysis to find differences between the student's native language and the target language in order to prepare specific materials to address potential problems. These materials strongly emphasized drill as a way to avoid or eliminate these problems. This first version of the method was originally called the oral method, the aural-oral method or the structural approach. The audio-lingual method truly began to take shape near the end of the 1950s, this time due government pressure resulting from the space race.
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In this way, retroflex articulations can occur in several different locations on the roof of the mouth including alveolar, post-alveolar, and palatal regions. If the underside of the tongue tip makes contact with the roof of the mouth, it is sub-apical though apical post-alveolar sounds are also described as retroflex. Typical examples of sub-apical retroflex stops are commonly found in Dravidian languages, and in some languages indigenous to the southwest United States the contrastive difference between dental and alveolar stops is a slight retroflexion of the alveolar stop. Acoustically, retroflexion tends to affect the higher formants.
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Modern Hebrew pronunciation developed from a mixture of the different Jewish reading traditions, generally tending towards simplification. In line with Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation, emphatic consonants have shifted to their ordinary counterparts, /w/ to /v/, and [ɣ ð θ] are not present. Most Israelis today also merge /ʕ ħ/ with /ʔ χ/, do not have contrastive gemination, and pronounce /r/ as a uvular fricative [ʁ] or a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] rather than an alveolar trill, because of Ashkenazi Hebrew influences. The consonants /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ have become phonemic due to loan words, and /w/ has similarly been re-introduced.
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Nasal vowels are found in over 20% of the languages around the world, such as French, Polish, Portuguese, Breton, Gheg Albanian, Hindi, Nepali, Bengali, Oriya, Hmong, Hokkien, Urdu, Yoruba and Cherokee. Those nasal vowels contrast with their corresponding oral vowels. Nasality is usually seen as a binary feature, although surface variation in different degrees of nasality caused by neighboring nasal consonants has been observed. There are occasional languages, such as in Palantla Chinantec, where vowels seem to exhibit three contrastive degrees of nasality, although Ladefoged and Maddieson believe that the slightly nasalized vowels are better described as an oro-nasal diphthong.
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In 1987, Willy Clijsters, professor French as Foreign Language (FLE) at the Hasselt University and president of DiWeF, the association of Flemish teachers FLE, launched "La Tour Eiffel - Concours de Français". This contest consisted of a written selection test of 100 multiple choice questions in three different categories, followed by a classification interview in front of a mixed jury of teachers and representatives of the business world. The elimination question lists are mainly centred on everyday communication and have been developed in a contrastive approach. This means that the questions are partially written in the source language, Dutch.
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Tiriyó has been partially documented as part of Meira's research with the Leiden University, in conjunction with the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. This documentation began in 1993 under Dr. Spike Gildea's Northern Brazilian Cariban Languages Documentation Project, and continued through 1999. Meira's documentation included specific focus on stress patterns, contrastive demonstratives, and locative postpositions. There have been relatively few ethnographic studies on the Tiriyó, with the exception of the works by missionary Protasio Frikel and English anthropologist Peter Rivière. Between the 1950s and 1970s, Frikel wrote seven works (Frikel 1957, 1958, 1960, 1961a,b, 1964, 1971, 1973) relating to the Tiriyó.
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Focus is a grammatical category or attribute that determines indicating that part of an utterance contributes new, non-derivable, or contrastive information. Some theories (in line with work by Mats Rooth) link focus to the presence of alternatives (see Focus: Alternative Semantics). An alternatives theory of focus would account for the stress pattern in the example from the previous section (When did Jane sell the book? She sold the book YESTERDAY), saying that YESTERDAY receives focus because it could be substituted with alternative time periods (TODAY or LAST WEEK) and still serve to answer the question the first speaker asked.
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In the phonology, written Hurrian only seems to distinguish a single series of phonemic obstruents without any contrastive phonation distinctions (the variation in voicing, though visible in the script, was allophonic); in contrast, written Urartian distinguishes as many as three series: voiced, voiceless and "emphatic" (perhaps glottalized). Urartian is also characterized by the apparent reduction of some word-final vowels to schwa (e.g. Urartian ulə vs Hurrian oli "another", Urartian eurišə vs Hurrian evrišše "lordship", Hurrian 3rd person plural enclitic pronoun -lla vs Urartian -lə). As the last two examples shows, the Hurrian geminates are also absent in Urartian.
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In this way, retroflex articulations can occur in several different locations on the roof of the mouth including alveolar, post- alveolar, and palatal regions. If the underside of the tongue tip makes contact with the roof of the mouth, it is sub-apical though apical post- alveolar sounds are also described as retroflex. Typical examples of sub- apical retroflex stops are commonly found in Dravidian languages, and in some languages indigenous to the southwest United States the contrastive difference between dental and alveolar stops is a slight retroflexion of the alveolar stop. Acoustically, retroflexion tends to affect the higher formants.
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In Awankari and the Hindko of Abbottabad, on the other hand, there is contrastive nasalisation for short vowels as well: 'make one play' contrasts with 'scatter' (in Awankari), 'mixing' contrasts with 'knot'). Peshawari and Kohati presumably follow the pattern of Awankari, but have historically lost nasalisation from the round vowels (like or ) at the end of the word. Additionally, vowels get nasalised allophonically when adjacent to a nasal consonant. In the varieties of Tanawal and Kashmir both long and short vowels can be nasalised in this way, but only if they precede the nasal consonant: 'washing', 'crying'.
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The 8th line exhibits a common metrical variation, an initial reversal; it potentially also features a rightward movement of the fourth ictus (resulting in a four-position figure, `× × / /`, sometimes referred to as a minor ionic): / × × / × / × × / / Wooing his purity with her foul pride. (144.8) However, Shakespeare's frequent implied emphasis of pronouns may render the second half of this line regular. Lines 6 and 8 also feature initial reversals, and line 2 potentially does. Line 11 has a potential mid-line reversal, but if a somewhat playful contrastive accent on "to" is inferred, this would render the line regular.
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The vowel system is not yet fully understood, complicated by differences between the Agole and Toende dialects and the system of diphthongs in Agole, which according to the most-favoured analysis, enables Agole with seven contrastive vowel segments to cover the contrasts represented in Toende with nine pure vowels. There are also lengthened or strengthened vowels 'broken' with a glottal stop bu'ud "beating" distinct from the glottal as a consonant, usually in ku'om "water". Glottal also marks some monosyllabic verbs bu' "beat". In addition some vowels are contrastively nasalised and others nasalised through the influence of nasal consonants.
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Features could be characterized in different ways: Jakobson and colleagues defined them in acoustic terms, Chomsky and Halle used a predominantly articulatory basis, though retaining some acoustic features, while Ladefoged's system is a purely articulatory system apart from the use of the acoustic term 'sibilant'. In the description of some languages, the term chroneme has been used to indicate contrastive length or duration of phonemes. In languages in which tones are phonemic, the tone phonemes may be called tonemes. Though not all scholars working on such languages use these terms, they are by no means obsolete.
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View from the rear gallery through the main nave and chancel With the various additions, furnishings and fixtures the church appears contorted, buoyant and contrastive. The massive, austere Gothic style chancel tower is in peculiar contrast to the main structure, which with its added southern nave and the adjoining semicircular stairwell tower gives the impression of a buoyant Renaissance castle. Nevertheless, the structure as a whole is harmonious. Ornamental elements which recur in various parts of the building include the window designs, the unplastered stones forming the building ledges and the wraparound storey decorations make for a coherent structure.
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Distribution of volatile ices is thought to be season- dependent and influenced more by solar insolation and topography than by subsurface processes. Maps produced from images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), together with Pluto's light curve and the periodic variations in its infrared spectra, indicate that Pluto's surface is very varied, with large differences in both brightness and color, with albedos between 0.49 and 0.66. Pluto is one of the most contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus. The color varies between charcoal black, dark orange and white.
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The method broadly applies speech act theory and text linguistics, as well as some insights of "grammar of expectancy," to the teaching of DaF. The Rede und Antwort exercises have proven to be an effective means for promoting oral skills in the classroom, which are readily applicable in real life-settings. Inspired by the success of the Rede und Antwort, in the 1990s Sakayan launched and carried out a completely new project: an introductory university textbook for Western Armenian (Western Armenian for the English- speaking World: A Contrastive Approach). The textbook, which first appeared in 2000,Sakayan, Dora.
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In fact, in Sakayan's work, contrastive analysis is predominantly based on Armenian, and other languages are viewed through the prism of this language. The objectives of such an endeavor are to establish language typologies and to identify areas of difficulty in foreign language acquisition. Her work also incorporates the findings of Armenian and Russian data — not always accessible to Western linguists. Sakayan introduces to the Western reader the idiosyncrasies of Eastern Armenian morphology and syntax, with a special focus on the verb system and its rich paradigm of non- finite verb forms, called derbays (դերբայ = participle).
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There is also a non-IPA letter ("t", plus the curl found in the symbols for alveolo-palatal sibilant fricatives ), used especially in sinological circles. It is common for the phonetic symbol to be used to represent voiceless postalveolar affricate or other similar affricates, for example in the Indic languages. This may be considered appropriate when the place of articulation needs to be specified and the distinction between plosive and affricate is not contrastive. There is also the voiceless post-palatal plosiveInstead of "post-palatal", it can be called "retracted palatal", "backed palatal", "palato-velar", "pre-velar", "advanced velar", "fronted velar" or "front-velar".
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The objective of the Austrian dictionary has never been to do classical language planning, but to do a re-codification of the form of the German language used in Austria. New terms were only included to the dictionary, when they had already been in considerable use in newspapers and contemporary literature. Although the dictionary was originally designed to promote Austrianism and language patriotism, throughout the years the dictionary commission followed a moderate policy of contrastive linguistics and tried to avoid language secessionism. Nevertheless in the case of conflicting definitions the Austrian dictionary overrules the Duden and remains the sole source for defining the Austrian standard.
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The questions regarding the possibility to use individual cases to create scientifically valid generalizations arise from the use of the abductive reasoning. This is the question of the sustainability of abductive conclusions (as in Charles Sanders Peirce). The abductive conclusion that biographical cases are socially relevant and bear general patterns of behavior, action, and interpretation in them is common in sociological practice, although some think that it is not yet fully developed. Different approaches to the development of typologies exist, as well as for the contrastive comparison between types in order to allow for theoretical generalizations (see Uta Gerhardt, 1984; Gabriele Rosenthal, 1993; and Susann Kluge, 2000).
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The topic (or theme) of a sentence is what is being talked about, and the comment (or rheme, or sometimes focus) is what is being said about the topic. That the information structure of a clause is divided in this way is generally agreed on, but the boundary between topic/theme depends on grammatical theory. Topic is grammaticized in languages like Japanese and Korean, which have a designated topic-marker morpheme affixed to the topic. Some diagnostics have been proposed for languages that lack grammatical topic-markers, like English; they attempt to distinguish between different kinds of topics (such as "aboutness" topics and "contrastive" topics).
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In the first clause, It's raining implies that the speaker knows the weather situation and so will prepare for it, while the second clause I am not taking an umbrella implies that the speaker will still get wet. Both clauses (or discourse segments) refer to related situations, or themes, yet imply a contradiction. It is this relationship of comparing something similar, yet different, that is believed to be typical of contrastive relations. The same type of relationship is shown in (2), where the first sentence can be interpreted as implying that by giving a party for the new students, the hosts will serve drinks.
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This is, of course, a defeasible inference based on world knowledge, that is then contradicted in the following sentence. The majority of the studies done on contrast and contrastive relations in semantics has concentrated on characterizing exactly which semantic relationships could give rise to contrast. Earliest studies in semantics also concentrated on identifying what distinguished clauses joined by and from clauses joined by but. In discourse theory, and computational discourse, contrast is a major discourse relation, on par with relationship like explanation or narration, and work has concentrated on trying to identify contrast in naturally produced texts, especially in cases where the contrast is not explicitly marked.
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Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson UP, 2007. Print, pg. 32. In the third quatrain, the key rhyming words given by the speaker are: "ornament" and "content", and "spring" and "niggarding"; additional images are presented in this quatrain, such as "fresh", "herald", "bud", "burial", and the oxymoron "tender churl". Other words and themes the speaker uses are explained by Helen Vendler: "The concepts – because Shakespeare's mind works by contrastive taxonomy – tend to be summoned in pairs: increase and decrease, ripening and dying; beauty and immortality versus memory and inheritance; expansion and contraction; inner spirit (eyes) and outward show (bud); self- consumption and dispersal, famine and abundance".
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This approach to Aleut nouns comes from Eskimo linguistics, but these terms can be misleading when applied to Aleut). The absolutive form is the default form, while the relative form communicates a relationship (such as possessive or contrastive) between the noun and another member of the sentence, possibly one that has been omitted. Absolutive and relative are identical in most combinations of person and number. In possessive constructions, Aleut marks both possessor and possessum, with the possessor preceding the possessum: : : : The verbal predicate of a simple sentence of the final clause of a complex sentence carries the temporal and modal marking in relation to the speech act.
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Later exceptions to these patterns, such as poŭpo ('poop deck'), ŭato ('watt'), East Asian proper names beginning with , and jida ('Yiddish'), are marginal. The distinction between e and ej carries a light functional load, in the core vocabulary perhaps only distinctive before alveolar sonorants, such as kejlo ('peg'), kelo ('cellar'); mejlo ('mile'), melo ('badger'); Rejno ('Rhine'), reno ('kidney'). The recent borrowing gejo ('homosexual') could contrast with the ambisexual prefix ge- if used in compounds with a following consonant, and also creating possible confusion between geja paro ('homosexual couple') and gea paro ('heterosexual couple'), which are both pronounceable as . Eŭ is also uncommon, and very seldom contrastive: eŭro ('a euro') vs.
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Dialect awareness teaching is composed of three general components: # Building respect for different languages and language varieties # Understanding basic sociolinguistic concepts # Practice style-shifting from one language variety to another (typically from informal language to formal language) Dialect awareness instruction may use the contrastive analysis method to compare and contrast language features. Dialect awareness instruction has been shown to increase instances of Standard English in academic writing. The dialect awareness approach has been criticized for lack of attention to language and power issues; some researchers advocate for a critical language pedagogy that explicitly deals with issues of linguistic prejudice, use of vernacular language varieties in education, and linguistic identity.
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Students receive instruction in the language arts of their native tongue before being introduced to those of the target language. A key difference between early- and late-exit programs is that late-exit programs generally span five to seven years, whereas students may be released from early-exit programs in as little as one to two years. Again, cultural knowledge is transmitted through classroom activities and materials. It is commonly held by proponents of the late-exit strategy that prolonged instruction in one's native tongue provides the student with a greater understanding of its structure, which through contrastive analysis can be used to gain more information regarding the second language.
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Zhao has published widely in the fields of language for specific purposes, text linguistics, contrastive linguistics, cultural-analytical linguistics, German-Chinese intercultural communication, LSP didactics and methodology for German as a foreign language and language philosophy. She is a co-editor of the 13-volume proceedings of the XIII. International Germanist Congress Shanghai 2015 "German Language and Literature between Tradition and Innovation" and several other conference proceedings. She is also a co-editor of Peter Lang German Linguistics International series . Zhao has been researching Wilhelm von Humboldt’s philosophy of language since 2016 and is currently leading the project of translating Humboldt’s work on language philosophy and linguistics into Chinese.
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The prominence of Greek athletics points towards the prevailing influence Greek culture had on the minds of the Romans. The popularity of the Greek games held in the arenas only attest to the claim. Athletics was in a way a method to preserve and highlight the virility of Greek honor in a physical way, demonstrated through feats of spectacular strengths and finesse, usually naked in order to make a statement about comparing fit Greek bodies to others. This was especially contrastive with Roman morals, which decried public nudity. The Romans’ adoption of Greek games underlined a certain kind of thought reversal on Rome’s part.
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As their name implies, RBMs are a variant of Boltzmann machines, with the restriction that their neurons must form a bipartite graph: a pair of nodes from each of the two groups of units (commonly referred to as the "visible" and "hidden" units respectively) may have a symmetric connection between them; and there are no connections between nodes within a group. By contrast, "unrestricted" Boltzmann machines may have connections between hidden units. This restriction allows for more efficient training algorithms than are available for the general class of Boltzmann machines, in particular the gradient-based contrastive divergence algorithm.Miguel Á. Carreira-Perpiñán and Geoffrey Hinton (2005).
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There are marked dialectal differences between the speech of Bengalis living on the পশ্চিম Poshchim (western) side and পূর্ব Purbo (eastern) side of the Padma River. Bengali dialects include Eastern and Southeastern Bengali dialects: The Eastern dialects serve as the primary colloquial language of the Dhaka district. In contrast to Western dialects where ট and ড are unvoiced and voiced retroflex stops respectively, most Eastern and Southeastern dialects pronounce them as apical alveolar and , especially in less formal speech. These dialects also lack contrastive nasalised vowels or a distinction in র //, ড়/ঢ় , pronouncing them mostly as , although some speakers may realise র // when occurring before a consonant or prosodic break.
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Advanced tongue root, abbreviated ATR or +ATR, also called expanded, involves the expansion of the pharyngeal cavity by moving the base of the tongue forward and often lowering the larynx during the pronunciation of a vowel. The lowering of the larynx sometimes adds a breathy quality to the vowel. Voiced stops such as can often involve non-contrastive tongue root advancement whose results can be seen occasionally in sound changes relating stop voicing and vowel frontness such as voicing stop consonants before front vowels in the Oghuz Turkic languages or in Adjarian's law: the fronting of vowels after voiced stops in certain dialects of Armenian. True uvular consonants appear to be incompatible with advanced tongue root, i.e.
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Kiowa has three tones: high, low, falling. No minimal triple is available, but the distinctions can be illustrated pairwise: à ~ á (agreement prefixes for 1sg and 3pl unaccusatives), _ḕ_ ('when') ~ _ḗ_ ('here'); àl ('also)' ~ âl ('chase' perfective imperative), ch _ḕ_ ('when') ~ ch _ê_ ('horse'); cául ('cattle')~ câul ('some'), gṹ('wise') ~ gû ('hit'). Note that length is not indicated on vowels with falling tone in the current orthography: this is because falling tone is generally only realized over long vowels or a vowel plus resonant (, , , or ). However, there are at least two words with falling tone realized before , both of them minimally contrastive with high tone: bót ('guts') ~ bôt ('because'), chát ('door') ~ chât ('cheque').
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Jayaji Rao Sindhia, Maharaja of Gwalior, studying English, 1846 Language teaching practice often assumes that most of the difficulties that learners face in the study of English are a consequence of the degree to which their native language differs from English (a contrastive analysis approach). A native speaker of Chinese, for example, may face many more difficulties than a native speaker of German, because German is more closely related to English than Chinese. This may be true for anyone of any mother tongue (also called the first language, normally abbreviated L1) setting out to learn any other language (called a target language, second language or L2). See also second language acquisition (SLA) for mixed evidence from linguistic research.
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The voicedness became the main contrastive feature of consonants after the disappearance of palatalization. The original pronunciation of v was probably bilabial (as preserved in some Eastern-Bohemian dialects in syllable-final positions: diwnej 'peculiar', stowka 'a hundred'), but in the 14th century, the articulation was adapted to the unvoiced labiodental f. Prothetic v- has been added to all words beginning with o- (voko instead of oko 'eye') in the Bohemian dialects since this period. In morphology, the future tense of imperfective verbs was fixed. The type budu volati 'I will call' became preferred to other types (chc’u volati 'I want to call', jmám volati 'I have to call', and budu volal 'I will have called').
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In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of breath that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. In English, aspirated consonants are allophones in complementary distribution with their unaspirated counterparts, but in some other languages, notably most Indian and East Asian languages, the difference is contrastive. In dialects with aspiration, to feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of one's mouth, and say spin and then pin . One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with pin that one does not get with spin.
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Bilingual speakers often find themselves in situations where a pair of phonemes are contrasted in one of their languages but not in the other. Babies are born with the ability to differentiate all phonemes, but as they age their ability to perceive phoneme boundaries lessens in ways specifically tailored to the language they hear as their input. In order to perceive a particular phonemic contrast, then, the pair must be contrastive in one's input. Generally, the earlier a language and/or phonemic contrast is learned, or is part of the input, the more sensitive a listener is to the phonemic boundaries of that pair and therefore better able to perceive the difference between the contrasting sounds.
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However, before a stop such as (provided there is no morpheme boundary between them), only one of the nasals is possible in any given position: before , before or , and before , as in limp, lint, link (, , ). The nasals are therefore not contrastive in these environments, and according to some theorists this makes it inappropriate to assign the nasal phones heard here to any one of the phonemes (even though, in this case, the phonetic evidence is unambiguous). Instead they may analyze these phones as belonging to a single archiphoneme, written something like , and state the underlying representations of limp, lint, link to be . This latter type of analysis is often associated with Nikolai Trubetzkoy of the Prague school.
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Michael Meade's secret homosexuality is an important aspect of the novel, which was published only one year after the Wolfenden report recommended the decriminalization of private homosexual acts involving consenting adults. His homosexuality is presented without "fanfare or politics" as one variety of love. Murdoch was notable for her sympathetic portrayal of homosexuals, and after The Bell at least one gay character appeared in each of her novels . The novel's structure is characterized by numerous sets of doubles and "contrastive pairs", including the twins Nick and Catherine Fawley, the new and old bells, the two communities at Imber Court and Imber Abbey, and the two confessions by Nick and Toby, both of whom are loved by Michael but betray him.
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DATG is able to detect changes in blood flow that are indicative of breast cancer, may be used for younger patients, is completely non-invasive (no need for radiation or contrast agent, no need for compression of the breast) and is lower cost than alternatives requiring minimal facilities. This technology, performed quickly (5–6 minutes for visit) and very precise, is useful for screening and is also able to detect precancerous lesions. Studies have been conducted that have shown how it is possible, by means of this methodology, to diagnose invasive ductal carcinoma and infiltrating lobular carcinoma with the same accuracy. DATG can be strategic for young patients, or patients with dense breasts where the contrastive performance of mammography is challenged.
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The totality of human speech components such as phoneme which is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. Speechome is different from common biological -omes such as genome, proteome, and expressome in that it is not biological. However, speechome reflects the omics trend in biology and science in general. Academic researchers in speech and hearing science and machine-produced speech from Massachusetts, according to a CNN news story from March 2011, used complex recording devices and microphones to record every aspect of the evolution of their son's speech over the time span of three years; with the use of complex algorithms this enabled them to trace the development and context of individual words and phrases across that time.
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Prosodic stress, or sentence stress, refers to stress patterns that apply at a higher level than the individual word – namely within a prosodic unit. It may involve a certain natural stress pattern characteristic of a given language, but may also involve the placing of emphasis on particular words because of their relative importance (contrastive stress). An example of a natural prosodic stress pattern is that described for French above; stress is placed on the final syllable of a string of words (or if that is a schwa, the next-to-final syllable). A similar pattern has been claimed for English (see above): the traditional distinction between (lexical) primary and secondary stress is replaced partly by a prosodic rule stating that the final stressed syllable in a phrase is given additional stress.
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There is some confusion as to the nature of murmured phonation. The IPA and authors such as Peter Ladefoged equate phonemically contrastive murmur with breathy voice in which the vocal folds are held with lower tension (and further apart) than in modal voice, with a concomitant increase in airflow and slower vibration of the glottis. In that model, murmur is a point in a continuum of glottal aperture between modal voice and breath phonation (voicelessness). Others, such as Laver, Catford, Trask and the authors of the Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS), equate murmur with whispery voice in which the vocal folds or, at least, the anterior part of the vocal folds vibrates, as in modal voice, but the arytenoid cartilages are held apart to allow a large turbulent airflow between them.
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The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on the phonology of Purbo Bengali (Bangladesh) is seen through the lack of nasalised vowels, an alveolar articulation for the Retroflex stops ট , ঠ , ড , and ঢ , resembling the equivalent phonemes in languages such as Thai and Lao and the lack of distinction between র and ড়/ঢ় . Unlike most languages of the region, some Purbo Bengali dialects do not include the breathy voiced stops ঘ , ঝ , ঢ , ধ , and ভ . Some variants of Bengali, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma Bengali, have contrastive tone; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. In dialects such as Hajong of northern Bangladesh, there is a distinction between উ and ঊ , the first corresponding exactly to its standard counterpart but the latter corresponding to the Japanese sound .
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In 1993, Abbott received an Outstanding Faculty & Staff Award at MSU for "contributions to equal opportunities for achievement and providing an environment that encourages excellence". In 2005, she was an invited speaker at the Third International Conference in Contrastive Semantics and Pragmatics held in at the Shanghai International Studies University in China, and was featured as a guest speaker at the International Cognitive Science Conference held at Pomona College that same year. In 2009, she was an invited speaker at the Second Conference on Concept Types and Frames in Language, Cognition, and Science at the Heinrich-Heine-University of Duesseldorf. Abbott has served on the editorial board of academic journals including The Journal of Pragmatics, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, and Intercultural Pragmatics, as well as serving as a referee for articles in Philosophy of Science and in Language.
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Handheld electronic dictionaries, also known as "pocket electronic dictionaries" or PEDs, resemble miniature clamshell laptop computers, complete with full keyboards and LCD screens. Because they are intended to be fully portable, the dictionaries are battery-powered and made with durable casing material. Although produced all over the world, handheld dictionaries are especially popular in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China, and neighbouring countries, where they are the dictionary of choice for many users learning English as a second language.Chen, Yuzhen, 'Dictionary use and EFL learning: a contrastive study of pocket electronic dictionaries and paper dictionaries', in International Journal of Lexicography23 (3), 2010:275-306 Some of the features of hand held dictionaries include stroke order animations, voice output, handwriting recognition for Kanji and Kana, language-learning programs, a calculator, PDA-like organizer functions, encyclopedias, time zone and currency converters, and crossword puzzle solvers.
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At a time when multilingualism is promoted among adults and children, contrastivity, which is one of the major components of the Metaoperational Theory, is an approach making it easier for learners to understand and appropriate the grammatical system of other languages. On a more theoretical level, among other things, a contrastive approach to the investigation of languages enables linguists to evaluate the validity of their theoretical concepts and analyses. In Adamczewski’s words (2002: 55), such an approach opens up « new horizons for an ancient quest » by uncovering the existence of a ‘universal grammar’ based on a number of mental operations common to all natural languages. These operations are marked by grammatical items specific to each individual language, and naturally variation from language to language in the way a particular operation is marked can be quite impressive.
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The nasalisation of vowels and consonants in Mixtec is an interesting phenomenon that has had various analyses. All of the analyses agree that nasalization is contrastive and that it is somewhat restricted. In most varieties, it is clear that nasalization is limited to the right edge of a morpheme (such as a noun or verb root), and spreads leftward until it is blocked by an obstruent (plosive, affricate or fricative in the list of Mixtec consonants). A somewhat more abstract analysis of the Mixtec facts claims that the spreading of nasalization is responsible for the surface "contrast" between two kinds of bilabials ( and , with and without the influence of nasalization, respectively), between two kinds of palatals ( and nasalized —often less accurately (but more easily) transcribed as —with and without nasalization, respectively), and even two kinds of coronals ( and , with and without nasalization, respectively).
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SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and psychological theories. One of the dominant linguistic theories hypothesizes that a device or module of sorts in the brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that cognitive mechanisms, responsible for much of human learning, process language. Other dominant theories and points of research include 2nd language acquisition studies (which examine if L1 findings can be transferred to L2 learning), verbal behaviour (the view that constructed linguistic stimuli can create a desired speech response), morpheme studies, behaviourism, error analysis, stages and order of acquisition, structuralism (approach that looks at how the basic units of language relate to each other according to their common characteristics), 1st language acquisition studies, contrastive analysis (approach where languages were examined in terms of differences and similarities) and inter-language (which describes L2 learners’ language as a rule-governed, dynamic system) (Mitchell, Myles, 2004).
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In addition, while Afrikaans may use words of non-Dutch origin unintelligible to Dutch speakers (such as those derived from Malay, like baie), their Dutch equivalents, or cognates, are also used in Afrikaans, and would therefore be more intelligible to Afrikaans speakers. For example, although baie, from banyakLanguage and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics, Rajend Mesthrie New Africa Books, 1995, page 214 has no cognate in Dutch, heel as in heel goed ("very good") is used in Afrikaans as well as Dutch.'Dit gaan 'heel goed' met die ekonoom Dawie Roodt ná mesaanval', Netwerk24, 25 July 2015 The word amper is unrelated to the Dutch word amper ("scarcely" or "sour"), being derived from the Malay hampir, but the Dutch word bijna, also meaning "almost" or "nearly",A Contrastive Grammar of English and Dutch / Contrastieve grammatica Engels / Nederlands, F. G. A. M. Aarts, H. Chr. Wekker Springer, 2013, page 199 is cognate with byna in Afrikaans.
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The umbrella with raindrops and the upward, downward and leftward arrows were also unified with characters from the ARIB extensions used in Japanese broadcasting, which include several characters now classified as emoji, and was mapped to Unicode in Unicode 5.2. However, the pair of white and black flags used as emoji or in emoji regional and identity flag sequences is a different, "waving" set added in Unicode 7.0 (U+1F3F3 🏳 and U+1F3F4 🏴), not the North Korean pair. As of 2018, several KPS 9566 characters remained which are not mapped to Unicode. These include the WPK symbol, four triangular marks, a leftward-pointing pair of scissors (excluded on the rationale that contrastive use with the rightward scissors in the Dingbats block had not been demonstrated), an upward-pointing manicule in a circle, vertical presentation forms of punctuation marks, variants of closing brackets incorporating full stops, horizontal-barred variants of vulgar fractions encoded separately from their slanted versions, and the leaders' names.
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Spanish-Catalan bilingual infants also did not appear to discriminate between the two vowels at 8 months of age. Researchers suggest that input plays a large role in this discrepancy; perhaps the infants had not yet received enough input to have gained the ability to make the discrimination, or perhaps their dual input, Spanish and Catalan, both spoken with accents affected by the other as their parents were bilingual speakers, had made the contrast more difficult to detect. There was evidence, however, that by 12 months of age the bilingual infants were able to discriminate the sounds that were contrastive only in Catalan. Thus, it appears that bilinguals who have a particular phonemic contrast in one of their languages but not in the other are, in fact, able to gain the ability to make the discrimination between the contrasting phonemes of the language that has the pair, but that age and especially input are major factors in determining ability to make the discrimination.
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Browne's main interests lie in the syntax of Serbo-Croatian and other South Slavic languages (with particular attention to relative clauses, clitic placement rules, and complement clauses) and in the contributions data from these languages can make to theoretical work in general linguistics. He has also published works on the topic of the Balkan language area, Slavic historical grammar, comparative and contrastive grammar, and pedagogical grammar. He served as the co-editor of Annual Workshop on Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics: the Cornell Meeting, 1995 (Michigan Slavic Publications, 1997), and has authored more than 65 articles and 20 reviews, covering topics not just in Serbo-Croatian and South Slavic linguistics but also in Slavic linguistics more generally (including work on Russian and on Czech) and in linguistic theory. As part of a team of scholars, described by Slavic and Balkan languages professor Christina Kramer as "each recognized internationally in his language area", he wrote the widely cited definitive sketch of Serbo-Croatian grammar: "Serbo-Croat" (pp.
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It is the least frequent vowel (>1%), and in fact the least frequent phoneme (>0.5%) in the language. It mostly occurs with /a/ or /ɨ/ in an adjacent syllable. In all but one word (tibanglvn) /a/ and /ɨ/ are the only vowels used. (One exception noted: the name of a river near Tundayaw is Guribvy.) /b/ voiced bilabial plosive syllable initial and final. For example: : bio ‘eagle’ : kalub ‘fall face down’ /p/ voiceless bilabial plosive. environment: syllable initial (but rare word initial) and final variants: [p] voiceless unaspirated bilabial plosive environment: syllable initial : patuy ‘compressed lump of soaked nami’ : paras ‘small mouse species’ : agipan ‘scorpion’ : apalya ‘ampalaya, bitter gourd’ : napsug ‘full, satisfied with food’ [pʰ] voiceless slightly aspirated bilabial plosive environment: word final : tap ‘number’ /p/ is established as a phoneme in contrast with /f/ by the following: there is at least one minimal pair: : tapi ‘count (imperative)’, from root ‘tap’ plus suffix -i : tafi ‘slash, chop mark from a knife’ /p/ is in contrastive distribution with /f/ under the following circumstances: : /f/ is never syllable-final, but /p/ can be.
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For this reason, his treatments of Greek and Hebrew grammar are not isolated works on their topic but contrastive grammars treating the aspects which influenced Latin or which were required for properly understanding Latin texts.. He pointedly states, "I want to describe Greek grammar for the benefit of Latin speakers". It is likely only this limited sense which was intended by Bacon's boast that he could teach an interested pupil a new language within three days. Passages in the Overview and the Greek grammar have been taken as an early exposition of a universal grammar underlying all human languages.. The Greek grammar contains the tersest and most famous exposition: However, Bacon's lack of interest in studying a literal grammar underlying the languages known to him and his numerous works on linguistics and comparative linguistics has prompted Hovdhaugen to question the usual literal translation of Bacon's ' in such passages. She notes the ambiguity in the Latin term, which could refer variously to the structure of language, to its description, and to the science underlying such descriptions: i.e.
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As a researcher, lecturer and author he has been active in the fields of English and general linguistics, contrastive and applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, language policy and planning, language in relation to identity, culture, ethnicity and nationalism, language attitudes, written language and literacy, terminology and bibliography, translation theory, history of linguistics, the status of Serbo-Croatian, political manipulations of language and wartime hate speech, current Serbian slang, etc. He is the author of some twenty books, ten edited volumes, and scores of articles, book chapters and reviews in international journals, congress proceedings and other collective volumes, mostly in English or Serbo-Croatian but some in German, French, Spanish and several other languages. (For a selective list see below). Among his noted contributions are his early research on English prepositions, acknowledged as a thematic and methodological precursor of cognitive linguistics, his notion of graphic relativity as an extension of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity, his role in defining and organising applied linguistics as an academic discipline in Yugoslavia and internationally, the conception of Serbo-Croatian as one polycentric standard language linguistically but several national languages politically, and his recent pioneering work on lexical blends in Serbian.
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The Hornicator started life as an old gramophone record horn, before Truax added a set of strings, a kazoo and a microphone. Here Thomas beats out the rhythm on the horn's metal casing (using a ringed finger to create a 'click' and other fingers to create a contrastive "thud") which is then repeated through the use of a looper pedal that records the beat and loops it over the PA, allowing Thomas to add more layers of other instrumentation (through the strings and other implements attached to the Hornicator). Finally Thomas sings a vocal through a microphone attached to the instrument. Other instruments work as variations on automatic rhythms and looped beats: the Stringaling features a vaguely bongo-like drum at the top of a length of clothes drier tubing to which is attached a variety of musical devices with pull-strings; Mary Poppins features a metal column attached to which are two arms that fly out to the side and spin, creating a train-like rhythm; the Backbeater, made up of several rotating spokes, straps on to Thomas' back and spins to create a low rhythm.
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