403 Sentences With "causally" | Random Sentence Generator

It can't sustain a thought, because it can't think causally.

A tourist is ambling causally; my curiosity is much sharper than that.

It's the first study to causally link broadband access to sleep deprivation.

More from Tonic: Chronic life stress is also causally linked to weight gain.

Winter causally tells them that he's across the street with their new neighbors.

"My mom just causally [sic] has jury duty with Taylor SWIFT!" she wrote.

They were at the same bar and Nola causally sketched him from across the room.

In any case, you can be causally implicated in someone's misfortune without being morally implicated in it.

Whether social intolerance causally degrades support for democracy is something we hope to answer via survey experiments.

But in some situations, it's not entirely obvious when two things are causally separate from each other.

Obviously attitudes about treating various populations changed during the 1970s; NOT saying lines aren't causally linked. 5B.

The "Dada gaze" sees and asserts synchronicities: visual events that seem connected but are not causally related.

"I won't speak entirely causally, but let's say the world has become a more dangerous place," he added.

He is soft-spoken, favors causally cool clothes over designer suits, and seems to run on coffee and cigarettes.

If a robot could reason causally, however, it might be able to avoid problems it hasn't been programmed to understand.

The same holds true for queer history, especially since large chunks have been censored or causally overwritten by society at large.

On Instagram, 32-year-old Greg* told me that he feared how he might come off when talking causally about sex.

And at a New York Comic-Con, two men dressed as characters from "Dragon Ball Z" were causally using their phones.

These political movements "are strongly and causally associated with an individual's or an area's exposure to austerity since 2010," Fetzer writes.

There is no conclusive evidence that the drug effects of marijuana are causally linked to the subsequent abuse of other illicit drugs.

While he did not quite pose for a photograph with a beheaded Donald Trump, he did attempt to causally bring up...assassination.

While particular events cannot be causally linked to climate change, experts agree that global warming is making extreme heat events more common.

Although Stamos clashing with Sandberg over the Russian disinformation threat has previously been causally linked to his departure from Facebook this summer.

I am not merely causally determined by nature or norms but act in light of norms that I can challenge and transform.

" But Stubbs also warned that "clearly we cannot say that our diet causally contributes to the onset of depression from this research.

" Anderson warns that people may believe that the two factors -- the surgeries and fertility -- are causally linked, but "there's no evidence of that here.

But even those who think such deaths can be causally attributed to the large dose of cannabis acknowledge that they are very rare events.

" He said, "It is essential that we restore and recover oysters as a fishery and habitat, as those two things are causally and necessarily linked.

This is because all of human experience depends intimately on interactions within and around us that causally affect our brains and minds at every moment.

The researchers found that although genetic predisposition was a more powerful predictor of nearsightedness, years of education were strongly and causally linked to the condition.

"I'd like to see axioms that are as causally neutral as possible, because they'd be better candidates as axioms that come from quantum gravity," he said.

"These results suggest that fraternity membership causally produces large gains in social capital, which more than outweigh its negative effects on human capital," the researchers write.

It helps us make it as a civilization to view people as sources of meaning and it also helps us to view them as causally determined.

The algorithm in the paper essentially forms a hypothesis about which variables are causally related, and then tests how changes to different variables fit the theory.

One day as he was strolling out of the academy on his way to grab some Acai with some friends visiting from abroad Terere causally turned back.

"And the reason why we're tuned into them evolutionarily [might be] because they are reliable and effective, but that also means they are causally emergent," Hoel said.

While sharing writing duties with him, she recalls that he causally mentioned something to the effect of 'you owe it to me to show me your naked body.

Faculty, staff and students need to be educated about diseases like depression, bipolar disorder and substance use disorder, which are causally related to outcomes like death from suicide.

According to reports collected by the EJF some migrant fisherman said they witnessed murder, with bodies being thrown overboard as causally as unwanted catch, CNN reported in 2014.

"These people became better versions of themselves," he said, adding that the crucial contribution of this research is that the performance improvement is causally linked to the near-miss event itself.

They "suggest that the decimation of sleep throughout most industrialized nations and the marked escalation in anxiety disorders in these same countries is perhaps not coincidental, but causally related," Walker said.

He'd been instructed to keep it low-key, stay seated, and just chat, but, as usual, Panay was prowling before the group of journalists assembled causally on couches, benches, and cushioned chairs.

Disick's evening came after he hosted a pool party at ARIA's Liquid Pool Lounge, where he causally sipped beer from a plastic cup, took selfies with fans and even chatted with Lil Jon.

" Stanley Young, a listed expert at the climate-denying Heartland Institute, has written that there is "empirical evidence and a logical case that air pollution is (most likely) not causally related to acute deaths.

So if there's a connection between losing your appendix, as many people do when their infected organ is surgically removed, and Parkinson's, that's evidence the gut as a whole is causally linked to the disease.

"In Dengvaxia clinical trials conducted over more than a decade and over one million doses of the vaccine administered, no deaths causally related to the vaccine have been reported to us," it said in a statement.

Scientists haven't yet proved that a Zika virus infection in mothers is causally linked to birth defects in infants, but the CDC still sees an association between the two, leading the center to issue the advisory, Petersen said.

At that point, in an event known as "heat death," space-time will have stretched so much that everything in it will become causally disconnected from everything else, such that no signals can ever again travel between them.

But if anyone really thought the whole world wouldn't come to a screeching halt when Beyoncé and husband Jay-Z causally slipped into the Golden Globes ballroom while Kate McKinnon was introducing Ellen DeGeneres, well then you don't know Twitter.

Even though many skin infections and other health problems have yet to be causally linked to the water crisis, many members of the communities reported that "the lack of clean water translates into poor hygiene," which is associated with infections and other illnesses.

Last week, a recently reconstituted panel of science advisers to the E.P.A., the Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, sharply questioned the agency's longstanding position that particulate pollution is causally linked with premature death, and it called for a new assessment of the pollutant.

Alesina and Stantcheva find that misperceptions about immigrants are highest among people with less education, and a recent paper by political scientists Charlotte Cavaille and John Marshall found that the introduction of mandatory schooling laws in Europe causally reduced opposition to immigration.

"What we are looking at here is a breakdown in what a story even means—in that a story is defined as a particular sequence of causally related events, and there is only one true story, one version of what happened," Moriarty said.

However, their wormhole idea seems to extend to the real world as long as two black holes are coupled in the right way: "They have to be causally connected and then the nature of the interaction that we took is the simplest thing you can imagine," Jafferis explained.

Causally, it is one long tragicomic flap of the butterfly effect—a thousand cattle emit gales of methane farts in Kansas while awaiting their date with the inside of a soggy Taco Bell shell, and then thousands of miles away a mammoth iceberg calves off the arctic ice shelf.

What if some much later iteration of GPT-2, far more powerful than this model, could be hybridized with a procedural system, so that it would be able to write causally and distinguish truth from fiction and at the same time draw from its well of deep learning?

She is extremely unlikely to have been "pivotal," of course, or to have played a causally significant role in the election results, but she can identify herself in the final tally of her state's popular vote as either a supporter of a winning or losing candidate (or as an eligible nonvoter).

All along the fertile interstate-highway corridor, our corporations, those new and powerful nation-states, had set up shop parasitically, so as to skim off the drive-past money, and what those outposts had to offer was a blur of sugar, bright color, and crassness that seemed causally related to more serious addictions.

Jane L. Risen: When we use the word superstition, it more often than not, has to do with the control of good or bad luck, whereas magical thinking, is not necessarily about luck, but just about, sort of, how something can cause something else, even when there&aposs no, sort of, scientific evidence that those things would be causally connected.

On the surface, the book has all of the pieces we've come to know and love from a John Green novel: an impossible task (track down a missing billionaire to win a $100k reward), a quirky best friend (Daisy, a Star Wars fanatic who writes Rey-Chewbacca fan fiction because Chewbacca is a person goddammit), a charming love interest (Davis Pickett, the missing billionaire's son, who loves stars and poetry), and unbelievably precocious dialogue (at one point a character causally quotes James Joyce's monolith of a novel Ulysses to another — "O Jamesy let me up out of this").

Causal consistency captures the potential causal relationships between operations, and guarantees that all processes observe causally-related operations in a common order. In other words, all processes in the system agree on the order of the causally-related operations. They may disagree on the order of operations that are causally unrelated. Let us define the following relation. If some process performs a write operation A, and some (the same or another) process that observed A then performs a write operation B, then it is possible that A is the cause of B; we say that A “potentially causes” or “causally precedes” B. Causal Consistency guarantees that if A causally-precedes B, then every process in the system observes A before observing B. Conversely, two write operations C and D are said concurrent, or causally independent, if neither causally precedes the other.

Causally related predications and the choice between parataxis and hypotaxis in Latin.

These three ultimates are uncompounded as each is seen as being causally unconditioned.

For example, it has been argued that all conditional protases are causally related to their apodoses.

Therefore, after 150 billion years, intergalactic transportation and communication beyond the Local Super-cluster becomes causally impossible.

A study on children from Denmark, Sweden and California likewise argued against TCVs being causally associated with autism.

Historical Change in Serial Verb Constructions. Amsterdam: John Benjamins they can also be used to indicate concurrent or causally-related events.

Platonist or transcendent realism holds that properties are abstract objects in the classical sense, of being nonmental, nonspatial, and causally inefficacious.

For example, the belief that one is in the presence of an object arises causally from visual perception. Reference: Audi, "Contemporary Foundationalism".

This, the view that the mind and the brain are distinct substances, and that facts about each are "causally relevant" to the other.

Some have claimed that while the mental and the physical are quite different things, they can nonetheless causally interact with one another, a view going back to Descartes [, especially meditations II & VI]. This view is known as interactionist dualism. The major problem that interactionist dualism faces is that of explicating a satisfactory notion of causation according to which non- spatial events, such as mental events, can causally interact with physical events. According to the current mainstream scientific world-view, the physical realm is causally closed, in that causal relationships only hold among physical events in the physical realm.

The authors have acknowledged that causal relationship could not be assumed but in conclusion they have stated that depression and diabetes are causally related.

Inherent in each actual entity is its respective dimension of time. Potentially, each Whiteheadean occasion of experience is causally consequential on every other occasion of experience that precedes it in time, and has as its causal consequences every other occasion of experience that follows it in time; thus it has been said that Whitehead's occasions of experience are 'all window', in contrast to Leibniz's 'windowless' monads. In time defined relative to it, each occasion of experience is causally influenced by prior occasions of experiences, and causally influences future occasions of experience. An occasion of experience consists of a process of prehending other occasions of experience, reacting to them.

Inherent in each actual entity is its respective dimension of time. Potentially, each occasion of experience is causally consequential on every other occasion of experience that precedes it in time, and has as its causal consequences every other occasion of experience that follows; thus it has been said that Whitehead's occasions of experience are 'all window', in contrast to Leibniz's 'windowless' monads. In time defined relative to it, each occasion of experience is causally influenced by prior occasions of experiences, and causally influences future occasions of experience. An occasion of experience consists of a process of prehending other occasions of experience, reacting to them.

Anselm of Canterbury, René Descartes, and Gottfried Leibniz) considered God to be a logically or metaphysically necessary being, Richard Swinburne argued for factual necessity, and Alvin Plantinga argues that God is a causally necessary being. Because a factually or causally necessary being does not exist by logical necessity, it does not exist in all logically possible worlds.Ronald H. Nash (1983): The Concept of God. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, p.

Analysis of observational studies has shown that radiocontrast use in CT scanning is not causally related to changes in kidney function. Given the increasing doubts about the contribution of radiocontrast to acute kidney injury, the American College of Radiology has proposed the name postcontrast acute kidney injury which does not imply a causal role, with CIN reserved for the rare cases where radiocontrast is likely to be causally related.

If correct, this theory can serve to explain a fundamental part of our experience, which is that we can only causally affect the future but not the past.

A member of the NESS set is a "causally relevant condition". This is elevated into a "cause" where it is a deliberate human intervention, or an abnormal act in the context. So, returning to our hunter example, hunter A's grandmother's birth is a causally relevant condition, but not a "cause". On the other hand, hunter A's gunshot, being a deliberate human intervention in the ordinary state of affairs, is elevated to the status of "cause".

This is the non-identity problem in its purest form: the identity of future generations is causally dependent, in a very sensitive way, on the actions of the present generations.

In accordance to its role in facilitating p53 oligomerization, HERC2 may be causally related to Li-Fraumeni syndrome and Li-Fraumeni-like syndromes, which occur in the absence of sufficient p53 oligomerization.

Mutations that compromise the catalytic activity of ABHD12 have been causally linked to the rare neurodegenerative disease PHARC (polyneuropathy, hearing loss, ataxia, retinitis pigmentosa, cataracts) and a small proportion of retinitis pigmentosa.

Examples of unusual, unconventional associations of density and street type demonstrate that street patterns are coincidentally, not causally, related to housing density. Any given street pattern can be built at a predetermined density.

However M1 does not causally effect P1 (i.e., M1 is a consequent event of P1). If P1 causes P2, and M1 is a result of P1, then M2 is a result of P2.

Postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome has been causally associated with porcine circovirus type 2. The Iotatorquevirus have also been linked with this syndrome but a causative role—if one exists—has yet to be established.

PRAM: A scalable shared memory. Princeton University, Department of Computer Science.Chicago It follows that when a system is sequentially consistent, it is also causally consistent. Additionally, causal consistency implies PRAM consistency, but not vice versa.

In the absence of common initial conditions, one would expect, then, that their physical properties would be different, and more generally, that the universe as a whole would have varying properties in causally disconnected regions.

In Chapter Three of Pure Theory of Law, law is defined as the application of norms to its functions within the delineations of a science of law. Science was generally the domain of the causal understanding of epistemological data and its primary logical and causally oriented technique was to be distinguished from the normative reasoning as was to be found in the Pure Theory of Law. Therefore, the legal sciences were to be normatively based in distinction from the physical sciences which were to be causally based.

The extensive use of serial verb constructions is another factor that contributes to the verbal morphology of Yimas. There are two types of serial verbs in Yimas. The first type of serial verb is constructed by simple compounding, and conveys the meaning that the two events indicated by the verbs occur concurrently or are causally related. The second type of serial verbs are those that are connected by an intermediary morpheme, and convey the meaning that the two verbs may occur sequentially, but are not strongly causally related.

One alternative is epiphenomenalism, the view that the mental is causally dependent on the physical, but does not in turn causally impact it. This raises the question of why our conscious intentions, sensations, and so forth appear to clearly influence our physical actions. In contemporary philosophy, interactionism has been defended by philosophers including Martine Nida-Rümelin, while epiphenomenalism has been defended by philosophers including Frank Jackson (although Jackson later changed his stance to physicalism). Chalmers has also defended versions of both positions as plausible and offered responses to objections.

The causal consistency defined by Hutto and Ahamad, 1990 is a weaker consistency model than sequential consistency by making the distinction between causally related operations and those that are not related. For example, if an event b takes effect from an earlier event a, the causal consistency guarantees that all processes see event b after event a. Tanenbaum et al., 2007 defines that a data store is considered causal consistent under the following condition: Writes that are potentially causally related must be seen by all processes in the same order.

At a > subsequent time, when the necessary conditions obtain, it, although past, > can causally actualize the fruit by dragging it, as it were, out of the > future into the present; i.e., ‘it gives the fruit’.Dhammajoti (2009) pp.

It necessarily follows a trait cannot be causally attributed to environment as genes and environment are inseparable in DST. Yet DST, critical of genetic heritability, advocates developmentalist research of environmental effects, a logical inconsistency.Sesardic, Neven. Making sense of heritability.

Two main responses to this have been to suggest the mind influences the distribution but not the quantity of energy in the brain and to deny that the brain is a causally closed system in which conservation of energy would apply.

The anti-realist "epistemic argument" against Platonism has been made by Paul Benacerraf and Hartry Field. Platonism posits that mathematical objects are abstract entities. By general agreement, abstract entities cannot interact causally with concrete, physical entities ("the truth-values of our mathematical assertions depend on facts involving Platonic entities that reside in a realm outside of space-time"Field, Hartry, 1989, Realism, Mathematics, and Modality, Oxford: Blackwell, p. 68). Whilst our knowledge of concrete, physical objects is based on our ability to perceive them, and therefore to causally interact with them, there is no parallel account of how mathematicians come to have knowledge of abstract objects.

As thoughts of earth are not heavy, any more than thoughts of fire are causally efficient, they provide an immaterial complement for the formless mind.Aristotle. [c. mid 4th century BC] 1907. On the Soul (De anima), edited by R. D. Hicks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1968.

"James's two-stage model effectively separates chance (the in-deterministic free element) from choice (an arguably determinate decision that follows causally from one's character, values, and especially feelings and desires at the moment of decision)."Doyle, Bob. 2011. Free Will: the Scandal in Philosophy. I-Phi Press.

647(2) provides that all the vessels owned by the party responsible for the error which are affected by the error, whether involved directly in the accident or contributing causally to the accident, should be considered for purposes of determining the maximum liability of that party.

The expected time to fixation of this recessive allele due to genetic drift alone ranged from about 1,100 years to about 100,000 years. Melanism in leopards has been hypothesized to be causally associated with a selective advantage for ambush.Majerus, M. E. N. (1998). Melanism: evolution in action.

11--16, 1991. However, a precise determination of concurrency is generally overkill. Causal consistency requires only that causally-dependent events be delivered in order; it does not matter if two concurrent events end up being ordered. Therefore, the size can be decreased arbitrarily by using safe approximation techniques.

BBC television news was accused of a FIFO mentality, as was Sky UK Limited. Corporate implementation of a FIFO policy in one particular firm in the history of corporations was said to be coincidental, if not causally-related, to a toxic tit-for-tat relationship with a union.

Surgeon General Dr. Luther Terry released a landmark report that concluded that lung cancer and chronic bronchitis are causally related to cigarette smoking. The report was the first such analysis that laid out the effects of tobacco and smoking and it spurred initiatives to lower tobacco use among Americans.

Coming from an academic background, Hadfield was influenced in his psychological approach by both Carl Jung and William McDougall.N. Torres, Bion's Sources (2013) p. 46-7 Causally, Hadfield favoured lack of parental protection rather than the repression of sexual love as the source of childhood disturbances.R. Lipgar/M.

Derk Pereboom defends a skeptical position about free will he calls hard incompatibilism. In his view, we cannot have free will if our actions are causally determined by factors beyond our control, or if our actions are indeterministic events—if they happen by chance. Pereboom conceives of free will as the control in action required for moral responsibility in the sense involving deserved blame and praise, punishment and reward. While he acknowledges that libertarian agent causation, the capacity of agents as substances to cause actions without being causally determined by factors beyond their control, is still a possibility, he regards it as unlikely against the backdrop of the most defensible physical theories.

But, given that physiological facts are sufficient to account for action, mental states appear to be superfluous; they are at risk of being causally and explanatorily irrelevant with respect to human action . Many philosophers consider this apparent irrelevance to be a highly counter- intuitive and undesirable position to take. It ultimately leads to epiphenomenalism—the view that mental events or states are causally irrelevant, they are merely after effects that play no role in any causal chains whatsoever. Thomas Huxley famously noted that epiphenomenalism treats mental states like the steam coming off a train: it plays no causal role in the train's moving forward, it is merely an "emergent property" of the actual causation occurring in the engine .

First Jackson argued that qualia are epiphenomenal: not causally efficacious with respect to the physical world. Jackson does not give a positive justification for this claim—rather, he seems to assert it simply because it defends qualia against the classic problem of dualism. Our natural assumption would be that qualia must be causally efficacious in the physical world, but some would ask how we could argue for their existence if they did not affect our brains. If qualia are to be non- physical properties (which they must be in order to constitute an argument against physicalism), some argue that it is almost impossible to imagine how they could have a causal effect on the physical world.

Not surprisingly, such adolescents evoke feelings of anger, fear, and frustration from their peers, which can also lead to increasing rejection. Thus while withdrawal causally meshes with hindered self-esteem,Simmons, R., Rosenberg, F., & Rosenberg, M. (1973). Disturbance in the self-image at adolescence. American Sociological Review 38, 553–568.

Some philosophers hold that emergent properties causally interact with more fundamental levels, an idea known as downward causation. Others maintain that higher-order properties simply supervene over lower levels without direct causal interaction. All the cases so far discussed have been synchronic, i.e. the emergent property exists simultaneously with its basis.

This theory has faced a number of criticisms. In particular, it is not clear how we could know what goes on in other worlds. After all, they are causally disconnected from ours; we can't look into them to see what is going on there.Robert Stalnaker, Inquiry, MIT Press, 1984, p.

As with many recently discovered human polyomaviruses, the clinical significance of HPyV9 is poorly characterized. Attempts to detect polyomaviruses in a variety of tumor types have consistently found that HPyV9 is either absent or present at very low viral loads, indicating that it is unlikely to be causally related to the tumor.

Gogia, R., Chhabra, P., & Kumari, R. (2014). Consistency Models in Distributed Shared Memory Systems. International Journal of Computer Science and Mobile Computing,196-201 The Causal Consistency model is weaker than sequential consistency, which ensures that all processes observe all write operations in common order, whether causally related or not. Lamport, L. (1979).

The debate about dispositions in metaphysics attempts to understand the fundamental nature of properties, including how they relate to laws of nature. The initial question asks if dispositions are real. Realism about dispositions, or dispositionalism, argues that dispositions are causally efficacious properties inherent to objects that are sufficient to produce change. Consider fragility.

To speak of "something" as a "thought" either implies that it is being thought by a thinker or that it could be thought by a thinker. Processes that are not causally related to the phenomenon called thinking are more appropriately called the nonconscious processes of the brain.Searle, John. The Rediscovery of the Mind.

Richard Samuels, in an article titled "Science and Human Nature", proposes a causal essentialist view that "human nature should be identified with a suite of mechanisms, processes, and structures that causally explain many of the more superficial properties and regularities reliably associated with humanity." This view is "causal" because the mechanisms causally explain the superficial properties reliably associated with humanity by referencing the underlying causal structures the properties belong to. For example, it is true that the belief that water is wet is shared by all humans yet it is not in itself a significant aspect of human nature. Instead, the psychological process that lead us to assign the word "wetness" to water is a universal trait shared by all human beings.

Epiphenomenalism is a doctrine about mental-physical causal relations which holds that one or more mental states and their properties are the by-products (or epiphenomena) of the states of a closed physical system, and are not causally reducible to physical states (do not have any influence on physical states). According to this view mental properties are as such real constituents of the world, but they are causally impotent; while physical causes give rise to mental properties like sensations, volition, ideas, etc., such mental phenomena themselves cause nothing further - they are causal dead ends. Huxley explained mental properties as like the steam on a locomotive The position is credited to English biologist Thomas Huxley (Huxley 1874), who analogised mental properties to the whistle on a steam locomotive.

By general agreement, abstract entities cannot interact causally with physical entities ("the truth-values of our mathematical assertions depend on facts involving platonic entities that reside in a realm outside of space-time"Field, Hartry, 1989, Realism, Mathematics, and Modality, Oxford: Blackwell, p. 68) Whilst our knowledge of physical objects is based on our ability to perceive them, and therefore to causally interact with them, there is no parallel account of how mathematicians come to have knowledge of abstract objects."Since abstract objects are outside the nexus of causes and effects, and thus perceptually inaccessible, they cannot be known through their effects on us" — Jerrold Katz, Realistic Rationalism, 2000, p. 15Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Field developed his views into fictionalism.

Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and behaviour, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of events.Van Inwagen, Peter, 1983, An Essay on Free Will, Oxford: Clarendon Press. With numerous historical debates, many philosophical positions on the subject of determinism exist from traditions throughout the world.

Fiji) against the GNP for a randomly selected dissimilar country (e.g. Afghanistan) might give a high R-squared relationship (suggesting high explanatory power on Fiji's consumption from Afghanistan's GNP). This is called spurious regression: two integrated series which are not directly causally related may nonetheless show a significant correlation; this phenomenon is called spurious correlation.

The path integrals are usually thought of as being the sum of all paths through an infinite space–time. However, in local quantum field theory we would restrict everything to lie within a finite causally complete region, for example inside a double light- cone. This gives a more mathematically precise and physically rigorous definition of quantum field theory.

Applying phylogenetic theory in archaeology and paleobiology takes on a fundamental assumption. This is that similar traits that vary through time are “causally connected by inheritance” which O’Brien & Lyman (2000) term the assumption of “heritable continuity”. These evolutionary lineages according to Simpson (1961) serve as a means to define a species.Simpson, G. G.(1961) Principles of animal taxonomy.

It is unclear if depression can be linked causally to cerebellar degeneration; one study reports data consistent with depression primarily being a response to the disability, not a symptom of it, while another reports evidence that depression may have a causal link; prevalence of depression varies differently between SCA types than does the rate of progression of disability.

Destiny, sometimes referred to as fate (from Latin fatum "decree, prediction, destiny, fate"), is a predetermined course of events.Compare determinism, the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and behavior, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual.

Agent/substance-causal accounts of incompatibilist free will rely upon substance dualism in their description of mind. The agent is assumed power to intervene in the physical world. Agent (substance)-causal accounts have been suggested by both George Berkeley and Thomas Reid. It is required that what the agent causes is not causally determined by prior events.

The Court of Appeal held that Mrs Hall could bring her claim. Peter Gibson LJ held that her contract was initially lawful and she did not actively participate in the illegality. Her acquiescence was not causally linked to her sex discrimination. Public policy did not preclude her entitlement to a statutory claim under SDA 1975 ss 65 and 66.

Moreover, antibody binding interferes with the cellular functions of the target antigen, causing its internalization or hampering molecular interactions, eventually blocking downstream signaling. If the target antigen controls cell growth (e.g. if it is the product of an oncogene), then a block of signaling can disrupt the carcinogenic process. Surface antigens causally involved in carcinogenesis are called oncoantigens.

Born researches and publishes in the field of memory formation during sleep. He was one of the first researchers to show that sleep was causally related to memory. He showed that procedural memories are not consolidated by REM sleep, as has been previously assumed. Instead, he showed that procedural memories are improved when REM sleep is pharmacologically suppressed.

This not only indicates how they will discomfort reasonable > forms of materialism. Their mysteriousness will only heighten the > traditional worry that emergence entails illegitimately getting something > from nothing.(Bedau 1997) Strong emergence can be criticized for being causally overdetermined. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively.

A key motivation for Bohm in proposing a new notion of order was the well-known incompatibility of quantum theory with relativity theory. summarised the state of affairs he perceived to exist: > ...in relativity, movement is continuous, causally determinate and well > defined, while in quantum mechanics it is discontinuous, not causally > determinate and not well-defined. Each theory is committed to its own > notions of essentially static and fragmentary modes of existence (relativity > to that of separate events connectible by signals, and quantum mechanics to > a well-defined quantum state). One thus sees that a new kind of theory is > needed which drops these basic commitments and at most recovers some > essential features of the older theories as abstract forms derived from a > deeper reality in which what prevails is unbroken wholeness.

Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing As proponent of consistent estimators and causally identified models using econometrics and structural equation modeling techniques, he has also written critiques of Partial least squares path modeling, which he states should be abandoned. He has also shown that, because of endogeneity issues, much of the research done in management and applied psychology is devoid of causal interpretation.

But each simple idea (e.g., of the color red) directly corresponds to a simple impression resembling it—and this regular correspondence suggests that the two are causally connected. Since the simple impressions come before the simple ideas, and since those without functioning senses (e.g., blindness) end up lacking the corresponding ideas, Hume concludes that simple ideas must be derived from simple impressions.

Addressing this problem requires understanding the relation between freedom and causation, and determining whether the laws of nature are causally deterministic. Some philosophers, known as incompatibilists, view determinism and free will as mutually exclusive. If they believe in determinism, they will therefore believe free will to be an illusion, a position known as Hard Determinism. Proponents range from Baruch Spinoza to Ted Honderich.

Dennis Howitt (1995) disagrees with such research, arguing the weakness of correlational studies. He argues that "one cannot simply take evidence that offenders use and buy pornography as sufficient to implicate pornography causally in their offending. The most reasonable assessment based on the available research literature is that the relationship between pornography, fantasy and offending is unclear."Howitt, Dennis (1995).

Whatever I can conceive clearly and distinctly, God can so create. The central claim of what is often called Cartesian dualism, in honor of Descartes, is that the immaterial mind and the material body, while being ontologically distinct substances, causally interact. This is an idea that continues to feature prominently in many non- European philosophies. Mental events cause physical events, and vice versa.

The first reply is that the mind may influence the distribution of energy, without altering its quantity. The second possibility is to deny that the human body is causally closed, as the conservation of energy applies only to closed systems. However, physicalists object that no evidence exists for the causal non-closure of the human body. Robin Collins respondsCollins, Robin. 2008.

Digman suggests that Alpha may represent a social desirability factor. An alternative explanation is that Alpha is a socialization factor which is causally related to the positive (or negative) expression of these socially desirable traits. Beta, he says, may be interpreted as personal growth versus restriction. An alternative explanation offered by Digman are "communion" and "agency" for alpha and beta respectively.

See the history in Elizabeth Green, Building a better teacher: How teaching works (and how to teach it to everyone) (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014). This idea is the basis of value-added assessments of teacher quality. In his most recent book, The Knowledge Capital of Nations, Hanushek concludes that the quality of education is causally related to economic growth.

GPR56 was the first adhesion GPCR causally linked to a disease. Loss-of-function mutations in GPR56 cause a severe cortical malformation known as bilateral frontoparietal polymicrogyria (BFPP). Investigating the pathological mechanism of disease-associated GPR56 mutations in BFPP has provided mechanistic insights into the functioning of adhesion GPCRs. Researchers demonstrated that disease-associated GPR56 mutations cause BFPP via multiple mechanisms.

During the seventeenth century, René Descartes argued that animals are subject to mechanical laws of nature. He defended the idea of automatic behavior, or the performance of actions without conscious thought. Descartes questioned how the immaterial mind and the material body can interact causally. His interactionist model (1649) held that the body relates to the mind through the pineal gland.

Bord et al. claim that a substantial portion of the United States public has a flawed understanding of global warming, seeing it as linked to general "pollution" and causally connected in some way to atmospheric ozone depletion.Bord et al. 1998 Scientists and media scholars who express frustrations with inadequate science reporting argue that it can lead to at least three basic distortions.

English law contains homicide offences - those acts involving the death of another person. For a crime to be considered homicide, it must take place after the victim's legally recognised birth, and before their legal death. There is also the usually uncontroversial requirement that the victim be under the "Queen's peace". The death must be causally linked to the actions of the defendant.

Suppose a Lorentzian manifold contains a closed timelike curve (CTC). No CTC can be continuously deformed as a CTC (is timelike homotopic) to a point, as that point would not be causally well behaved. Therefore, any Lorentzian manifold containing a CTC is said to be timelike multiply connected. A Lorentzian manifold that does not contain a CTC is said to be timelike simply connected.

Another argument for this has been expressed by John Searle, who is the advocate of a distinctive form of physicalism he calls biological naturalism. His view is that although mental states are ontologically irreducible to physical states, they are causally reducible. He has acknowledged that "to many people" his views and those of property dualists look a lot alike, but he thinks the comparison is misleading.

When ds^2 > 0, the interval is spacelike and the square root of ds^2 acts as an incremental proper length. Spacelike intervals cannot be traversed, since they connect events that are outside each other's light cones. Events can be causally related only if they are within each other's light cones. The components of the metric depend on the choice of local coordinate system.

Another popular proposal for drawing the abstract–concrete distinction contends that an object is abstract if it lacks any causal powers. A causal power has the ability to affect something causally. Thus, the empty set is abstract because it cannot act on other objects. One problem for this view is that it is not clear exactly what it is to have a causal power.

Dhamma is the knowledge that enhances the quality of life. It is the knowledge and understanding of the true nature of things: the knowledge that all things are causally conditioned. After realizing the causes and conditions of things one can generate a desired effect by changing the causes and conditions as necessary. This is the same principle that is used to improve things in science and technology.

University of Pittsburgh Being downwind from agricultural land on which pesticides are used has been linked to the decline in population of threatened frog species in California.ScienceDaily (November 28, 2002), More evidence to link pesticide use with amphibian decline. Sciencedaily.com. Retrieved on September 17, 2007. In Minnesota, pesticide use has been linked causally to congenital deformities in frogs such as eye, mouth, and limb malformations.

Measuring the probability of a series of coincidences is the most common method of distinguishing a coincidence from causally connected events. To establish cause and effect (i.e., causality) is notoriously difficult, as is expressed by the commonly heard statement that "correlation does not imply causation." In statistics, it is generally accepted that observational studies can give hints but can never establish cause and effect.

However, childhood bronchiolitis not caused by RSV infection, of which rhinovirus is often implicated, was associated with the CDHR3 gene variation. This is line with the results from a study on chronic rhinosinusitis, which often is associated rhinovirus infection, where CDHR3 gene variation also was found to be a strong risk factor. Therefore, CDHR3 seems to causally linked to increased propensity for rhinovirus C infection.

Cause-and-effect relationships define categories of objects. Wings are a feature of the category "birds"; this feature is causally interconnected with another feature of the category, the ability to fly. Traditionally, research in cognitive psychology has focused on causal relations when the cause and the effect are both binary values; both the cause and the effect are present or absent.Jenkins, H. M., & Ward, W. C. (1965).

1590), and Sir Philip Sidney refers to astrology at least four times in his romance The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia (c. 1580). Edmund Spenser uses astrology both decoratively and causally in his poetry, revealing "...unmistakably an abiding interest in the art, an interest shared by a large number of his contemporaries." George Chapman's play, Byron's Conspiracy (1608), similarly uses astrology as a causal mechanism in the drama.

Two distinctions play a prominent role in his system. Firstly, the distinction between parts and wholes. For instance, words are parts of sentences, subjective ideas are parts of judgments, objective ideas are parts of propositions in themselves. Secondly, all objects divide into those that exist, which means that they are causally connected and located in time and/or space, and those that do not exist.

In particular, Francis Crick and Christof Koch in 1990Crick, F., & Koch, C. (1990b). Towards a neurobiological theory of consciousness. Seminars in the Neurosciences v.2, 263-275. argued that there is a significant relation between the binding problem and the problem of visual consciousness and, as a result, that synchronous 40 Hz oscillations may be causally implicated in visual awareness as well as in visual binding.

Desmocollin-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the DSC2 gene. Desmocollin-2 is a cadherin-type protein that functions to link adjacent cells together in specialized regions known as desmosomes. Desmocollin-2 is widely expressed, and is the only desmocollin isoform expressed in cardiac muscle, where it localizes to intercalated discs. Mutations in DSC2 have been causally linked to arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy.

Still, the DN model formally permitted causally irrelevant factors. Also, derivability from observations and laws sometimes yielded absurd answers. When logical empiricism fell out of favor in the 1960s, the DN model was widely seen as a flawed or greatly incomplete model of scientific explanation. Nonetheless, it remained an idealized version of scientific explanation, and one that was rather accurate when applied to modern physics.

Moghaddam has proposed that there are two types of behavior: a first that is causally determined and a second that is normatively regulated. The mistake of traditional psychology, and social sciences more broadly, is to try to explain all behavior by applying causal models. He has attempted to demonstrate how causal and normative accounts can combine to create a more complete science of behavior.Moghaddam, F. M. (2002).

The NDUFS3 gene encodes a protein subunit consisting of 263 amino acids. This protein is synthesized in the cytoplasm and then transported to the mitochondria via a signal peptide. Two mutations that occur in its highly conserved C-terminal region, T145I and R199W, are causally linked to Leigh syndrome and optic atrophy. Nonetheless, despite its crucial biological role, the human NDUFS3 remains structurally poorly understood.

This physical isomorphism approach faces indeterminacy problems. Any given structure in the brain is going to be causally related to, and isomorphic in various respects to, many different structures in external reality. But we cannot discriminate the one it is intended to represent, or that it is supposed to be true “of.” These locutions are heavy with just the intentionality that eliminativism denies itself.

According to Baruch Spinoza, as mentioned in his publication Ethics, the two attributes of God, namely thought and extension, are not related causally. Rather, they are two different means of comprehending one and the same reality. Thus, the human body has a corresponding idea, which is the human mind or soul. Whatever happens in the body always occurs in tandem with contents of the mind.

In the science of biology, a mechanism is a system of causally interacting parts and processes that produce one or more effects. Scientists explain phenomena by describing mechanisms that could produce the phenomena. For example, natural selection is a mechanism of biological evolution; other mechanisms of evolution include genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. In ecology, mechanisms such as predation and host-parasite interactions produce change in ecological systems.

The zero article is the absence of an article. In languages having a definite article, the lack of an article specifically indicates that the noun is indefinite. Linguists interested in X-bar theory causally link zero articles to nouns lacking a determiner. In English, the zero article rather than the indefinite is used with plurals and mass nouns, although the word "some" can be used as an indefinite plural article.

Based on research findings, Zak recommends: people hug others more often to get into the habit of feeling trust. He explains "eight hugs a day, you'll be happier, and the world will be a better place". Recently, Anderson et al. found that sociometric status (the amount of respect one has from face-to-face peer group) is significantly and causally related to happiness as measured by subjective well-being.

The causality theory suggests that certain types of substance abuse may causally lead to mental illness. There is strong evidence that using cannabis can produce psychotic and affective experiences. When it comes to persisting effects, there is a clear increase in incidence of psychotic outcomes in people who had used cannabis, even when they had used it only once. More frequent use of cannabis strongly augmented the risk for psychosis.

Most contemporary non-reductive physicalists subscribe to a position called anomalous monism (or something very similar to it). Unlike epiphenomenalism, which renders mental properties causally redundant, anomalous monists believe that mental properties make a causal difference to the world. The position was originally put forward by Donald Davidson in his 1970 paper Mental Events, which stakes an identity claim between mental and physical tokens based on the notion of supervenience.

" Maudlin's probability criticism confused the transactional interpretation with Heisenberg's knowledge interpretation. However, he raised a valid point concerning causally connected possible outcomes, which led Cramer to add hierarchy to the pseudo-time description of transaction formation.Berkovitz, J. (2002). ``On Causal Loops in the Quantum Realm," in T. Placek and J. Butterfield (Ed.), Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Modality, Probability and Bell's Theorems, Kluwer, 233–255.

A classical argument for reductionism relies on a particular conception of causality, according to which each event must have a sufficient physical cause. Physical interactions are therefore sufficient to account for all causal interactions. Under this assumption, psychological or biological facts must be eliminable in favour of physical facts, given that the physical conditions do all the causal work. This makes all the other, non-physical conditions causally superfluous.

The horizon problem (also known as the homogeneity problem) is a cosmological fine-tuning problem within the Big Bang model of the universe. It arises due to the difficulty in explaining the observed homogeneity of causally disconnected regions of space in the absence of a mechanism that sets the same initial conditions everywhere. It was first pointed out by Wolfgang Rindler in 1956. The most commonly accepted solution is cosmic inflation.

An aim of a study Angrist and Evans (1998) was to estimate the effect of family size on the labor market outcomes of the mother. For at least two reasons, the correlations between family size and various outcomes (e.g., earnings) do not inform us about how family size causally affects labor market outcomes. First, both labor market outcomes and family size may be affected by unobserved "third" variables (e.g.

Gottfried Leibniz's theory of pre-established harmony () is a philosophical theory about causation under which every "substance" affects only itself, but all the substances (both bodies and minds) in the world nevertheless seem to causally interact with each other because they have been programmed by God in advance to "harmonize" with each other. Leibniz's term for these substances was "monads", which he described in a popular work (Monadology §7) as "windowless".

Schematic describing Anxiety/Uncertainty Management theory Gudykunst uses two types of theoretical statements to construct his theory; axioms and theorems. Axioms are "propositions that involve variables that are taken to be directly linked causally; axioms should therefore be statements that imply direct causal links among variables" Some axioms do not apply in all situations. Boundary conditions specify when the axioms hold. The axioms can be combined to derive theorems.

The act need not be directed at the victim: the killing of an innocent bystander by mistake could be manslaughter.Simester et al. (2010). p. 407. This act must be causally linked to the death. In the case of an offence against the person, it is usually obvious; however, rather more controversial cases have founded constructive manslaughter on drug possession crimes involving the subsequent injection of the drug into another.

Oxford: Blackwell. if only because our own consciousness seem to be causally active. In order to avoid epiphenomenalism, one who believes that qualia are nonphysical would need to embrace something like interactionist dualism; or perhaps emergentism, the claim that there are as yet unknown causal relations between the mental and physical. This in turn would imply that qualia can be detected by an external agency through their causal powers.

Dharmakīrti also defended the Buddhist theory of momentariness (kṣaṇikatva), which held that dharmas spontaneously perish the moment they arise. Dharmakīrti came up with an argument for the theory which stated that since anything that really exists has a causal power, the fact that its causal power is in effect proves it is always changing. For Dharmakīrti, nothing could be a cause while remaining the same, and any permanent thing would be causally inert.

Given both the large body of epidemiological data on myasthenia gravis patients and follow-up studies done on veterans it was concluded that while it was unlikely that health effects reported today by Gulf War veterans are the result of exposure solely to PB, use of PB was causally associated with illness. However, a later review by the Institute of Medicine concluded that the evidence was not strong enough to establish a causal relationship.

The remaining areas activated by g were shared with subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), the test battery used to calculate g. A study of 182 male veterans from the Phase 3 Vietnam Head Injury Study registry causally identifies several areas implicated in the P-FIT theory.Barbey, A. K., Colom, R., Solomon, J., Krueger, F., & Forbes, C. (2012). An integrative architecture for general intelligence and executive function revealed by lesion mapping.

Inherited mutations in the gene encoding FUS, an RNA/DNA binding protein, are causally linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). FUS has a pivotal role in the DNA damage response involving its direct interaction with histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1). ALS mutant FUS proteins are defective in the DNA damage response and in recombinational DNA repair, and also show reduced interaction with HDAC1. Ataxia-telangiectasia is due to mutation in the Atm gene.

Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences. It holds that nothing happens that has not already been determined. The principal consequence of the deterministic claim is that it poses a challenge to the existence of free will. The problem of free will is the problem of whether rational agents exercise control over their own actions and decisions.

The number, nomenclature, absolute ages, and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of considerable current research. Whether they only occurred during the long-term warming, and whether they are causally related to apparently similar events in older intervals of the geological record (e.g. the Toarcian turnover of the Jurassic) are open issues. Acidification of deep waters, and the later spreading from the North Atlantic can explain spatial variations in carbonate dissolution.

For example, Ulric Neisser developed the perceptual cycle, which involves top-down and bottom-up perceptual processes interacting and informing each other. The processes are causally linked, but of equal importance. Furthermore, David Marr claimed that Gibson had profoundly underestimated the intricacy of visual information processing. While useful information may exist directly in the ambient optic array, Gibson does not elaborate on the mechanisms of the direct pick-up of this information.

Average annual growth rate in real GDP per capita vs. scores on standardized tests of student achievement 1960-2000 adjusted for 1960 GDP per capita. (From Hanushek and Woessmann (2015, Table 1A.1, similar to their Figure 1.1.) Hanushek contends that in both individuals and nations, cognitive skills are causally related to economic outcomes such that variations in growth rates across countries can be largely explained by consideration of the role of cognitive skills.

Physical causal closure is especially important when considering dualist theories of mind. If no physical event has a cause outside the physical realm, it would follow that non-physical mental events would be causally impotent in the physical world. However, as Kim has agreed, it seems intuitively problematic to strip mental events of their causal power. Only epiphenomenalists would agree that mental events do not have causal power, but epiphenomenalism is objectionable to many philosophers.

Biological Naturalism states that consciousness is a higher level function of the human brain's physical capabilities. Another argument for non-reductive physicalism has been expressed by John Searle, who is the advocate of a distinctive form of physicalism he calls biological naturalism. His view is that although mental states are not ontologically reducible to physical states, they are causally reducible (see causality). He believes the mental will ultimately be explained through neuroscience.

2 (April 1981), pp. 173–89. (the modern term is determinism): the view that everything in the universe – including human behavior – is completely causally determined by antecedent circumstances and natural law. (See, for example, La Mettrie's L'Homme machine.) As a consequence, debates about freedom versus "necessity" were a regular feature of Enlightenment religious and philosophical discussions. Reflecting the intellectual climate of the time, there were differences among deists about freedom and determinism.

A correlation between age and height in children is fairly causally transparent, but a correlation between mood and health in people is less so. Does improved mood lead to improved health, or does good health lead to good mood, or both? Or does some other factor underlie both? In other words, a correlation can be taken as evidence for a possible causal relationship, but cannot indicate what the causal relationship, if any, might be.

Thus, the China brain possesses all the elements of a functional description of mind: sensory inputs, behavioral outputs, and internal mental states causally connected to other mental states. If the nation of China can be made to act in this way, then, according to functionalism, this system would have a mind. Block's goal is to show how unintuitive it is to think that such an arrangement could create a mind capable of thoughts and feelings.

The study indicates that memorable personal events, regardless of age or importance, are often embedded in event clusters and that events organized by these clusters, like episodes in a story, are often causally related, temporally proximate, and similar in content. It can also be argued that the clusters are created when people plan, execute, and evaluate meaningful action sequences and thatMemory rehearsal#Elaborative Rehearsal or narration serves to maintain or strengthen associations between clustered events.

However, there are several arguments against causally linking 24-isopropyl cholestane to sponges based on considerations of marine algae and the potential alteration of organic molecules over geologic time. In particular the discovery of 24-isopropyl cholestane in rhizarian protists implies that this biomarker cannot be used on its own to trace sponges. Interpreting the presence of 24-isopropyl cholestane in the context of changingglobal biogeochemical cycles at the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic transition remains an area of active research.

One solution to the problem of time proposed by Lee Smolin is that there exists a "thick present" of events, in which two events in the present can be causally related to each other, but in contrast to the block universe view of time in which all time exists eternally. Marina Cortês and Lee Smolin argue that certain classes of discrete dynamical systems demonstrate time asymmetry and irreversibility, which is consistent with an objective passage of time.

Death becomes victory, martyrdom is an expiating sacrifice, and Satan will be overcome only by such nonresistant suffering. That was the teaching of Daniel 3 (the three men in the furnace) and of the Second and Third Book of the Maccabees (e.g., the story of the mother and her seven sons). In short, the apocalyptic, pre-Christian literature offers this double justification of martyrdom: causally it is inescapable, and teleologically ("what for") it is absolutely meaningful.

Whereas a mediator is a factor in the causal chain (1), a confounder is a spurious factor incorrectly implying causation (2) In statistics, a spurious relationship or spurious correlationBurns, William C., "Spurious Correlations", 1997. is a mathematical relationship in which two or more events or variables are associated but not causally related, due to either coincidence or the presence of a certain third, unseen factor (referred to as a "common response variable", "confounding factor", or "lurking variable").

Epiphenomenalism is a form of property dualism, in which it is asserted that one or more mental states do not have any influence on physical states (both ontologically and causally irreducible). It asserts that while material causes give rise to sensations, volitions, ideas, etc., such mental phenomena themselves cause nothing further: they are causal dead-ends. This can be contrasted to interactionism, on the other hand, in which mental causes can produce material effects, and vice versa.

S. Stich and T. Warfield, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 85-101. Another possible resolution is akin to parallelism—Eugene Mills holds that behavioral events are causally overdetermined, and can be explained by either physical or mental causes alone. An overdetermined event is fully accounted for by multiple causes at once. However, J. J. C. Smart and Paul Churchland have argued that if physical phenomena fully determine behavioral events, then by Occam's razor a non- physical mind is unnecessary.

Since authentic leadership is still in its infancy from a research point of view, it is necessary to further develop the theory behind it. Most articles written on the topic so far have been theoretical, suggesting that the pursuit of more empirical research is an appropriate next step. Moreover, there have not been any properly causally- identified empirical tests of the construct given the difficulty (or more likely impossibility) of manipulating authenticity in a consequential setting.

In the late 1970s and the 1980s, stimulated by results from mathematical logic and by some ideas of Quine, Putnam abandoned his long-standing defence of metaphysical realism—the view that the categories and structures of the external world are both causally and ontologically independent of the conceptualizations of the human mind. He adopted a rather different view, which he called "internal realism"Putnam, H. The Many Faces of Realism. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court, 1987.

Metaphysical libertarians think actions are not always causally determined, allowing for the possibility of free will and thus moral responsibility. All libertarians are also incompatibilists; for think that if causal determinism were true of human action, people would not have free will. Accordingly, some libertarians subscribe to the principle of alternate possibilities, which posits that moral responsibility requires that people could have acted differently. Phenomenological considerations are sometimes invoked by incompatibilists to defend a libertarian position.

Non-causal accounts of incompatibilist free will do not require a free action to be caused by either an agent or a physical event. They either rely upon a world that is not causally closed, or physical indeterminism. Non-causal accounts often claim that each intentional action requires a choice or volition – a willing, trying, or endeavoring on behalf of the agent (such as the cognitive component of lifting one's arm). Such intentional actions are interpreted as free actions.

The CLOCK gene may also be a target for somatic mutations in microsatellite unstable colorectal cancers. Approximately half of putative novel microsatellite instability target genes responsible for colorectal cancer contained CLOCK mutations. Nascent research in the expression of circadian genes in adipose tissue suggests that suppression of the CLOCK gene may causally correlate not only with obesity, but also with type 2 diabetes, with quantitative physical responses to circadian food intake as potential inputs to the clock system.

Because your choice of one or two boxes can't causally affect the Predictor's guess, causal decision theory recommends the two-boxing strategy. However, this results in getting only $1,000, not $1,000,000. Philosophers disagree whether one-boxing or two-boxing is the "rational" strategy. Similar concerns may arise even in seemingly-straightforward problems like the prisoner's dilemma, especially when playing opposite your "twin" whose choice to cooperate or defect correlates strongly, but is not caused by, your own choice.

7, New York: Macmillan, 1972 No skeptic can doubt the reality and certainty of mental representations and mental events that are immediately given through consciousness. Skepticism does not claim that metaphysical questions cannot be answered. Skepticism doubts the possibility of knowledge about the existence or non-existence of the thing-in-itself. Kant, however, was guilty of begging the question in that he presupposed that the thing-in-itself exists and causally interacts with observing subjects.

The Sanger Institute's Cancer Genome Project, first funded in 2005, focuses on DNA sequencing. It has published a census of genes causally implicated in cancer, and a number of whole-genome resequencing screens for genes implicated in cancer. The International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) was founded in 2007 with the goal of integrating available genomic, transcriptomic and epigenetic data from many different research groups. As of December 2011, the ICGC includes 45 committed projects and has data from 2,961 cancer genomes available.

Impassibility (from Latin in-, "not", passibilis, "able to suffer, experience emotion") describes the theological doctrine that God does not experience pain or pleasure from the actions of another being. It has often been seen as a consequence of divine aseity, the idea that God is absolutely independent of any other being, i.e., in no way causally dependent. Being affected (literally made to have a certain emotion, affect) by the state or actions of another would seem to imply causal dependence.

Two other approaches to cultural selection theory are social contagion and evolutionary epistemology. Social contagion theory’s epidemiological approach construes social entities as analogous to parasites that are transmitted virally through a population of biological organisms. Evolutionary epistemology's focus lies in causally connecting evolutionary biology and rationality by generating explanations for why traits for rational behaviour or thought patterns would have been selected for in a species’ evolutionary history. Memetics models cultural change after population genetics, taking cultural units to be analogous to genes.

"Why I Am Not a Property Dualist." Archived from the original on 10 December 2006. Non-reductive physicalism is a form of property dualism in which it is asserted that all mental states are causally reducible to physical states. One argument for this has been made in the form of anomalous monism expressed by Donald Davidson, where it is argued that mental events are identical to physical events, however, relations of mental events cannot be described by strict law-governed causal relationships.

However, this does not mean the mind spends energy and, despite that, it still doesn't exclude the supernatural. Another reply is akin to parallelism—Mills holds that behavioral events are causally overdetermined, and can be explained by either physical or mental causes alone. An overdetermined event is fully accounted for by multiple causes at once. However, J. J. C. Smart and Paul Churchland have pointed out that if physical phenomena fully determine behavioral events, then by Occam's razor an unphysical mind is unnecessary.

This occurs in cases where two subspecies are connected via one or more intermediate populations, each of which is in turn intermediate to its adjacent populations and exhibits more or less the same amount of variability as any other population within the species. Adjacent populations and subspecies are subject to cline intergradation, and in these situations it is usually taken for granted that the clines are causally related (by natural selection) to environmental gradients.Mayr E, Ashlock PD (1991). Principles of Systematic Zoology.

The Carter Center's International Task Force for Disease Eradication declared lymphatic filariasis one of six potentially eradicable diseases. According to medical experts, the worldwide effort to eliminate lymphatic filariasis is on track to potentially succeed by 2020. For similar-looking but causally unrelated podoconiosis, international awareness of the disease will have to increase before elimination is possible. In 2011, podoconiosis was added to the World Health Organization's Neglected Tropical Diseases list, which was an important milestone in raising global awareness of the condition.

They were codified by Francis Bacon, and developed further by John Stuart Mill and consist of controlling several variables, in turn, to establish which variables are causally connected. These principles are widely used intuitively in various kinds of proofs, demonstrations and investigations, in addition to being fundamental to experimental design. In law, corroboration refers to the requirement in some jurisdictions, such as in Scotland, that any evidence adduced be backed up by at least one other source (see Corroboration in Scots law).

Davidson makes an argument for his version of non- reductive physicalism. The argument relies on the following three principles: :#The principle of causal interaction: there exist both mental-to-physical as well as physical-to-mental causal interactions. :#The principle of the nomological character of causality: all events are causally related through strict laws. :#The principle of the anomalism of the mental: there are no psycho-physical laws which relate the mental and the physical as just that, mental and physical.

Faulty DNA repair is implicated causally in tumor development due to malfunctioning proteins' inability to correct genes responsible for apoptosis and cell growth. Yet, the vast majority of studies regarding the effects of ERCC6 knockout or mutations on cancer are based upon statistical correlations of available patient data as opposed to mechanistic analysis of in vivo cancer onset. Hence, confounding based on protein-protein, protein-substrate, and/or substrate-substrate interactions disallows conclusions positing mutations in ERCC6 cause cancer on an individual basis.

Hyperstitions – by their very existence as ideas – function causally to bring about their own reality. Nick Land describes hyperstition as "the experimental (techno-)science of self- fulfilling prophecies". Mark Fisher, a British cultural theorist and student of Land's, argued in 2011 that Land's greatest impact so far had been on music and art, rather than on philosophy. The musician Kode9, the artist Jake Chapman, and others studied with or describe their influence by Land, often highlighting Land's inhuman, "technilist," or "delirious" qualities.

Mr Crocker won his case. The case of POLLARD was heard in February 2009. It is referenced as Neutral Citation No. [2009] EWHC 403 (Admin) CO/853/2008. The brief background is that Barbara Pollard, a former West Yorkshire police officer, successfully sought an order quashing the decision made by a Police Medical Appeal Board which held that her degree of disablement was assessed at nil per cent as her current disability was not causally related to the index incident in 1974.

Information structures are defined by the physical vehicles and structural, biological patterns encoding information. That encoded information is the information message; a source describing what that information is. The neural mechanism or network receives input information structures, completes a designated instructional task (firing of the neuron or network), and outputs a modified information structure to downstream regions. The information message is the purpose and meaning of the information structure and causally exists as a result of that particular information structure.

One of the main objections to dualistic interactionism is lack of explanation of how the material and immaterial are able to interact. Varieties of dualism according to which an immaterial mind causally affects the material body and vice versa have come under strenuous attack from different quarters, especially in the 20th century. Critics of dualism have often asked how something totally immaterial can affect something totally material—this is the basic problem of causal interaction. First, it is not clear where the interaction would take place.

As with many recently discovered human polyomaviruses, the clinical significance of HPyV6 is poorly characterized. Attempts to detect polyomaviruses in a variety of tumor types have consistently found that HPyV6 is either absent or present at very low viral loads, indicating that it is unlikely to be causally related to the tumor. HPyV6, and the closely related HPyV7, have been linked to skin rashes known as pruritic and dyskeratotic dermatoses in immunocompromised patients in case reports, though a causal association has not yet been established.

As a first step towards the generation of these maps, Landreth and Silva developed a way to classify the many millions of experiments in neuroscience into a small number of categories that are critical for the generation of these maps. To generate these maps, Landreth and Silva also developed a set of algorithms that formalize strategies neuroscientists use to determine the strength of evidence in their fields. These algorithms are used to represent the experiments in networks of causally connected phenomena (i.e., research maps).

"Contingency and Correlation - The Insufficiency of Causation" # Routine in perceptions is a relative term; the idea of causation is extracted by conceptual processes from phenomena, it is neither a logical necessity, nor an actual experience. We can merely classify things as like; we cannot reproduce sameness, but we can only measure how relatively like follows relatively like. The wider view of the universe sees all phenomena as correlated, but not causally related. # Whether phenomena are qualitative or quantitative, a classification leads to a contingency table.

People with sensory processing deficits appear to have less sensory gating than typical subjects, and atypical neural integration of sensory input. In people with sensory over responsivity different neural generators activation, causing the automatic association of causally related sensory inputs that occurs at this early sensory-perceptual stage to not function properly. People suffering from sensory over-responsivity might have increased D2 receptor in the striatum, related to aversion to tactile stimuli and reduced habituation. In animal models, prenatal stress significantly increased tactile avoidance.

This is an example of zero-point energy having multiple stable states (see Quantum phase transition, Quantum critical point, Topological degeneracy, Topological order) and where the overall system structure is independent of a reductionist or deterministic view, that "classical" macroscopic order can also causally affect quantum phenomena. Furthermore, the pair production of Beltrami vortices has been compared to the morphology of pair production of virtual particles in the vacuum. Timeline of the metric expansion of space. On the left, the dramatic expansion occurs in the inflationary epoch.

It can be defined as the notion that all intents/actions are causally determined by the culminations of an agent's existing circumstances; simply put, everything that happens is determined by things that have already happened. Determinism differs from fate in that it is never conceived as being a spiritual, religious, nor astrological notion; fate is typically thought of as being "given" or "decreed" while determinism is "caused." Influential philosophers like Robert Kane, Thomas Nagel, Roderick Chisholm, and A.J. Ayer have written about this notion.

It is also required that the agent's causing of that event is not causally determined by prior events. A number of problems have been identified with this view. Firstly, it is difficult to establish the reason for any given choice by the agent, which suggests they may be random or determined by luck (without an underlying basis for the free will decision). Secondly, it has been questioned whether physical events can be caused by an external substance or mind – a common problem associated with interactionalist dualism.

The Leiden Open Variation Database (LOVD) is a free, flexible web-based open source database developed in the Leiden University Medical Center in the Netherlands, designed to collect and display variants in the DNA sequence. The focus of an LOVD is usually the combination between a gene and a genetic (heritable) disease. All sequence variants found in individuals are collected in the database, together with information about whether they could be causally connected to the disease (i.e. a disease-causing variant or mutation) or not (i.e.

Maddy's early work, culminating in Realism in Mathematics, defended Kurt Gödel's position that mathematics is a true description of a mind-independent realm that we can access through our intuition. However, she suggested that some mathematical entities are in fact concrete, unlike, notably, Gödel, who assumed all mathematical objects are abstract. She suggested that sets can be causally efficacious, and in fact share all the causal and spatiotemporal properties of their elements. Thus, when one sees three cups on a table, one also sees the set.

A Butler scholar, Stephen Darwall, wrote: "Probably no figure had a greater impact on nineteenth-century British moral philosophy than Butler."Darwall, "Introduction<" p. 3. Butler's chief target in the Sermons was Thomas Hobbes and the egoistic view of human nature he had defended in Leviathan (1651). Hobbes was a materialist who believed that science reveals a world in which all events are causally determined and in which all human choices flow unavoidably from whatever desire is most powerful in a person at a given time.

Dualism is the view that the mind is irreducible to the physical body. There are multiple dualist accounts of the causal relationship between the mental and the physical, of which interactionism and epiphenomenalism are the most common today. Interactionism posits that the mental and physical causally impact one another, and is associated with the thought of René Descartes (1596–1650). Since Descartes' time, it has been criticized for failing to suggest a plausible mechanism by which a non-physical mind could impact the physical world.

In the philosophy of mind, mentalism is the view that the mind and mental states exist as causally efficacious inner states of persons. The view should be distinguished from substance dualism, which is the view that the mind and the body (or brain) are two distinct kinds of things which nevertheless interact with one another. Although this dualistic view of the mind–body connection entails mentalism, mentalism does not entail dualism. Jerry Fodor and Noam Chomsky have been two of mentalism's most ardent recent defenders.

The entire collection of these separate spacetimes is denoted as the multiverse. With this terminology, different universes are not causally connected to each other. In principle, the other unconnected universes may have different dimensionalities and topologies of spacetime, different forms of matter and energy, and different physical laws and physical constants, although such possibilities are purely speculative. Others consider each of several bubbles created as part of chaotic inflation to be separate universes, though in this model these universes all share a causal origin.

Ultimately, Palmer endorses the no-contact version of the LFI. She defends the distinction between doing and allowing harm, and then defends the idea that humans have different positive obligations towards domestic animals and wild animals. At the centre of Palmer's approach is the fact that humans are causally responsible for the hardship faced by some animals, but not the hardship faced by others. She then deploys this philosophy in a number of imagined cases in which humans have varying relations to particular animals in need.

Within the medical world of the Middle Ages, illness and disability were causally linked to sin. Since religion played a large role within Medieval society, many of the changes and deformities to the human body were attributed to one's sins, dating back to Original Sin. There were mixed reactions and perspectives of people with disabilities, because different groups of Christians viewed disabilities in different ways. Generally, Medieval physicians attributed much of their work to a combination of the ability to treat illness, such as fever and blisters, and religious faith.

Poverty and infectious diseases are causally related. Even before the time of vaccines and antibiotics, before 1796, it can be speculated that, leaders were adequately protected in their castles with decent food and standard accommodation, conversely the vast majority of people were living in modest, unsanitary homes; cohabiting with their animals. During this time people were unknowingly dying of infectious diseases in an event that; they touched their sick animals, had cuts in their skins, drank something that was not boiled or ate food that was contaminated by microbes.

The Caerphilly Prospective study followed 2,375 male subjects over 30 years and examined the association between healthy lifestyles and dementia, among other factors. Analyses of the Caerphilly study data have found that exercise is associated with a lower incidence of dementia and a reduction in cognitive impairment. A subsequent systematic review of longitudinal studies also found higher levels of physical activity to be associated with a reduction in the risk of dementia and cognitive decline; this review further asserted that increased physical activity appears to be causally related with these reduced risks.

Males who have been previously enraged by a female are more likely to produce aggression against a female after being shown pornography depicting violence. The combination of sex and aggression is increasingly being shown within pornographic material, therefore could be a possible trigger for aggressively willing men to physical assault accessible women. The attorney general's commission found that viewing of sexually aggressive pornography is causally connected to sexual violent behavior. Sexual violence portrayed in pornography as pleasurable to the victim may increase approval of sexual coercion, there by relating to sexual violence.

After turning in Nick Fallon for the murder of her father, Nick signs over his share of the alternative fuel project to Melanie, allowing her to get a job at Titan, and meeting Philip Kiriakis, whom she develops a crush on. However, because he was her boss, she causally begins dating Nathan Horton. Melanie, unaware of Nathan's deep feelings for her, engages Phillip, who is dating Stephanie Johnson, causing a rivalry with Stephanie. When Melanie sells the project Nick developed to Tony DiMera, Stephanie is kidnapped causing Melanie to help Phillip save Stephanie.

TCS is causally linked to Chiari malformation and any affirmative diagnosis of TCS must be followed by screening for Chiari's several degrees. TCS may also be related to Ehlers–Danlos syndrome, or Klippel–Feil syndrome, which should also be screened for upon a positive TCS diagnosis. Spinal compression and the resulting relief is a known issue with this disorder. Like with the early- onset form, this disease form is linked to the Arnold–Chiari malformation, in which the brain is pulled or lowers into the top of the spine.

Somewhat similarly to UVB, UVA light (longer wavelengths between 400–315 nm) from the sun or from tanning beds can also be directly absorbed by skin DNA (at about 100 to 1000 fold lower efficiency than UVB is absorbed). Exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVA and UVB) is one of the major contributors to the development of melanoma. Occasional extreme sun exposure (resulting in "sunburn") is causally related to melanoma. Melanoma is most common on the back in men and on legs in women (areas of intermittent sun exposure).

Analytic induction begins by studying a small number of cases of the phenomenon to be explained, searching for similarities that could point to common factors. Once a hypothetical explanation has been developed further cases are examined. If any one of these does not fit the hypothesis, either the hypothesis is reformulated so as to match the features of all the cases so far studied, or the original definition of the type of phenomenon to be explained is redefined, on the grounds that it does not represent a causally homogeneous category.

Without libertarian agent causation, Pereboom thinks the free will required for moral responsibility in the desert-involving sense is not in the offing. However, he also contends that by contrast with the backward-looking, desert-involving sense of moral responsibility, forward-looking senses are compatible with causal determination. For instance, causally determined agents who act badly might justifiably be blamed with the aim of forming faulty character, reconciling impaired relationships, and protecting others from harm they are apt to cause.Pereboom, Derk (2014), 'Free Will, Agency, and Meaning in Life', Oxford: Oxford University Press, Chapter 6.

Before burial, the vicar communicated with Wakley, who issued a warrant for an inquest. Evidence was given by the Army surgeons, by the hospital physician and orderlies and by independent experts. In the event, it was the evidence of Erasmus Wilson, consulting surgeon the St Pancras Infirmary, who made it clear that the flogging and the death were causally connected. The jury concurred and added a strongly worded rider that expressed their 'horror and disgust that the law of the land provided that the revolting punishment of flogging should be permitted upon British soldiers'.

43 and 122. Ioannis Votsis (2004) claims that Russellian ESR is also impervious to the Newman objection: Newman falsely attributed the trivial claim "there exists a relation with a particular abstract structure" to ESR, while ESR makes the non-trivial claim that there is a unique physical relation that is causally linked with a unique observational relation and the two are isomorphic.Votsis, I. (2004), The Epistemological Status of Scientific Theories: An Investigation of the Structural Realist Account, University of London, London School of Economics, PhD Thesis, p. 129.

Contrary to expectations, however, the passage of the Act correlated with an increase, rather than decrease, in the number of defamatory libel (criminal) actions being brought against newspapers. Whether the two were causally linked is not known, however. In return, proprietors were happy to accept the reintroduction of compulsory registration that had been removed in 1869 (now provided for by sections 7 to 15 of the 1881 Act inclusive). These registration clauses, which included an exemption for proprietors who are already registered companies, were not repealed until 2015 and were still enforced.

Consider the following: ::#The prince searches for Cinderella with the glass shoe ::#Cinderella's sisters tried the shoe on but it does not fit ::#The shoe fits Cinderella's foot so the prince finds her The first event is causally related to the third event, while the second event, though descriptive, does not directly impact the outcome. As a result, according to Dibell, the plot can be described numerically as 1→3 while the story can be described as 1→2→3. A story orders events from beginning to end in a time sequence.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle, writing in the fourth century BC in his classic book The Poetics, considered plot or mythos as the most important element of drama, even more important than character. Aristotle wrote that a tragedy, a type of plot, could be divided into three parts: a beginning, a middle, and an end. He also believed that the events of the plot must causally relate to one another as being either necessary or probable. Of the utmost importance is the plot's ability to arouse emotion in the psyche of the audience, he thought.

Brewin has proposed two experiential processes that frame non-cognitive relations between various affective experiences: those that are prewired dispositions (i.e. non-conscious processes), able to "select from the total stimulus array those stimuli that are causally relevant, using such criteria as perceptual salience, spatiotemporal cues, and predictive value in relation to data stored in memory" (Brewin, 1989, p. 381), and those that are automatic (i.e. subconscious processes), characterized as "rapid, relatively inflexible and difficult to modify... (requiring) minimal attention to occur and... (capable of being) activated without intention or awareness" (1989 p. 381).

Richards also suggests that the presence of intentionality does not matter, as, for example, anti-biotic resistant bacteria proliferate due to excess use of antibiotics in hospitals or farms, despite the fact that hospital workers and farmers do not intend to select for greater anti-biotic resistance but their actual intentions still play a causal role. The concept of "select-for" is intentional but this is because it reflects biologists' judgements about the causally relevant aspects of particular traits in a given environment.Richards, Robert J. "Darwin tried and true." (2010): 238-242.

The puzzle of reconciling 'free will' with a deterministic universe is known as the problem of free will or sometimes referred to as the dilemma of determinism. This dilemma leads to a moral dilemma as well: the question of how to assign responsibility for actions if they are caused entirely by past events. Also found in Compatibilists maintain that mental reality is not of itself causally effective. Classical compatibilists have addressed the dilemma of free will by arguing that free will holds as long as we are not externally constrained or coerced.

Nitrazepam has been associated with severe hepatic disorders, similar to other nitrobenzodiazepines. Nitrobenzodiazepines such as nitrazepam, nimetazepam, flunitrazepam, and clonazepam are more toxic to the liver than other benzodiazepines as they are metabolically activated by CYP3A4 which can result in cytotoxicity. This activation can lead to the generation of free radicals and oxidation of thiol, as well as covalent binding with endogenous macromolecules; this results, then, in oxidation of cellular components or inhibition of normal cellular function. Metabolism of a nontoxic drug to reactive metabolites has been causally connected with a variety of adverse reactions.

If our bodily movements were caused by the preceding state of our bodies and our decisions and intentions, they would be overdetermined. Mental causation in this sense is not the same as free will, but is only the claim that mental states are causally relevant. If emergentists respond by abandoning the idea of mental causation, their position becomes a form of epiphenomenalism. In detail: he proposes (using the chart on the right) that M1 causes M2 (these are mental events) and P1 causes P2 (these are physical events). P1 realises M1 and P2 realises M2.

The FDA has classified the HPV vaccine as a pregnancy Category B, meaning there is no apparent harm to the fetus in animal studies. HPV vaccines have not been causally related with adverse pregnancy outcomes or adverse effects on the fetus. However, data on vaccination during pregnancy is very limited and vaccination during the pregnancy term should be delayed until more information is available. If a woman is found to be pregnant during the three-dose series of vaccination, the series should be postponed until pregnancy has been completed.

In general relativity, conformal maps are the simplest and thus most common type of causal transformations. Physically, these describe different universes in which all the same events and interactions are still (causally) possible, but a new additional force is necessary to effect this (that is, replication of all the same trajectories would necessitate departures from geodesic motion because the metric tensor is different). It is often used to try to make models amenable to extension beyond curvature singularities, for example to permit description of the universe even before the Big Bang.

Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, perhaps because it admits causally related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions. Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Allan Paivio's dual coding theory. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and cognitive load theory to explain how people learn from multimedia presentations.

The order parameter will take different values in causally disconnected regions and the domains will be separated by domain walls after further evolution of the universe. Depending on the symmetry of the system and the symmetry of the order parameter, different types of topological defects like monopoles, vortices or textures can arise. It was debated for quite a while if magnetic monopoles might be residuals of defects in the symmetry- broken Higgs field. Up to now, defects like this have not been observed within the event horizon of the visible universe.

Cognitive inertia has been causally implicated in disregard of impending threat to one's health or environment, enduring political values and deficits in task switching. Interest in the phenomenon was largely taken up by economic and industrial psychologists to explain resistance to change in brand loyalty, group brainstorming and business strategies. In the clinical setting cognitive inertia has been used as a diagnostic tool for neurodegenerative diseases, depression and anxiety. Critics have stated that the term oversimplifies resistant thought processes and suggest a more integrative approach that involves motivation, emotion and developmental factors.

Eventually, in the 19th century, three great classical theories of social and historical change were created: the social evolutionism theory, the social cycle theory and the Marxist historical materialism theory. Those theories had one common factor: they all agreed that the history of humanity is pursuing a certain fixed path, most likely that of the social progress. Thus, each past event is not only chronologically, but causally tied to the present and future events. Those theories postulated that by recreating the sequence of those events, sociology could discover the laws of history.

Aristotle used the Greek terms soma (body) and hyle (matter, literally "wood"). The notion that a causally effective incorporeal body is even coherent requires the belief that something can affect what's material, without physically existing at the point of effect. A ball can directly affect another ball by coming in direct contact with it, and is visible because it reflects the light that directly reaches it. An incorporeal field of influence, or immaterial body could not perform these functions because they have no physical construction with which to perform these functions.

If the connection between the agent's inclination and the agent's decision is deterministic, then proponents of the Frankfurt-style cases are charged with begging the question. A deterministic connection begs the question because proponents of Frankfurt-style cases are assuming the very thing that is being debated, that moral responsibility does not require alternate possibilities or the ability to do otherwise. Suppose the agent's inclination is causally sufficient for bringing about the agent's decision. This would mean that the agent was determined to make that decision prior to any kind of decision-making.

The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century in Europe was a period of inclement weather, crop failure, economic hardship, extreme inter-group violence, and high mortality causally linked to the Little Ice Age. Episodes of social instability track the cooling with a time lap of up to 15 years, and many developed into armed conflicts, such as the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). It started as a war of succession to the Bohemian throne. Animosity between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire (Germany today) added fuel to the fire.

The loss of NT5C3 in pyrimidine 5' nucleotidase deficiency, an autosomal recessive condition, leads to the accumulation of high concentrations of pyrimidine nucleotides within erythrocytes. This deficiency is characterized by moderate hemolytic anemia, jaundice, splenomegaly, and marked basophilic stippling, and has been associated with learning difficulties. Two homozygous mutations identified in this gene produced large deletions that could cripple the enzyme’s structure and function, and are thus causally linked to pyrimidine 5' nucleotidase deficiency and hemolytic anemia. Heterozygous mutations in pyrimidine 5' nucleotidase deficiency may contribute to the large variability in thalassemia phenotypes.

Other studies have examined data on violent video games and crime trends more closely and have come to the conclusion that the release of very popular violent video games are causally associated with corresponding declines in violent crime in the short term. A 2011 study by the Center for European Economic Research found that violent video games may be reducing crime. This is possibly because the time spent playing games reduces time spent engaged in more antisocial activities. Other recent studies by Patrick Markey and Scott Cunningham have come to similar conclusions.

The response by the CEO of Chiropractors' Association of Australia, Andrew Macnamara claims that there is no evidence provided to back up the concerns that chiropractic subluxations are an unjustified hypothesis, however there is evidence from a 2007 systematic review published in Pediatrics and a 2009 report by four chiropractors which would back up FSM concerns that subluxations are not causally related to disease and thus have no valid clinical applicability.Mirtz TA et al. "An epidemiological examination of the subluxation construct using Hill's criteria of causation." Chiropractic & Osteopathy 2009, 17:13, 2009.

For Nietzsche the term "will" is psychologically strictly connected with the term "aim" (he often combines the two), maybe even they are identical to him.Cf. The Will to Power, Book II ("Critique of highest values hitherto"), I. Critique of philosophy, 238: on "psychology which ... searched for will (i.e. aim) behind every act." Aim could then be interpreted, according to a common definition, as planning and intellectual foreseeingThe intellect in philosophy was by the way usually presented as working causally and, in principle, learning in course of life to associate the appropriate causes and effects.

He refers to his model as "indivisible" – meaning that the fundamental aspects of Earth are connected logically and causally, and can be deduced from its early formation as a Jupiter-like giant. In 1944 the German chemist and physicist Arnold Eucken considered the thermodynamics of Earth condensing and raining-out within a giant protoplanet at pressures of 100–1000 atm. In the 1950s and early 1960s discussion of planetary formation at such pressures took place, but Cameron's 1963 low-pressure (c. 4–10 atm.) model largely supplanted the idea.

The Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act was one of the major bills resulting from the 1964 report by the Surgeon General, Luther Terry. The report found that lung cancer and chronic bronchitis are causally related to cigarette smoking. Congress previously passed the Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act in 1965; requiring that all cigarette packages sold in the United States carry a health warning. But after a recommendation by the Federal Trade Commission, the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act amended the 1965 law so that the warnings are made in the name of the Surgeon General.

He, like G.E. Schulze, Jacobi, and Fichte before him, was critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Things in themselves, they argued, are neither the cause of what we observe nor are they completely beyond our access. Ever since the first Critique of Pure Reason philosophers have been critical of Kant's theory of the thing in itself. Many have argued, if such a thing exists beyond experience then one cannot posit that it affects us causally, since that would entail stretching the category 'causality' beyond the realm of experience.

Initially, Hunt's main area of research was synoptic meteorology, but in 1913 he co-authored (with Griffith Taylor and E.T. Quayle) a textbook, The Climate and Weather of Australia, the first of its kind in Australia. He developed a number of new meteorological theories, collected in a 1929 book A basis for seasonal forecasting in Australia. In this book he proposed a four-year weather cycle, according to which non-meteorological factors such as vegetation were causally linked to weather patterns. This theory led to new research into the relationship between the weather cycle and droughts.

Claims that supermoons can cause natural disasters, and the claim of Nolle that supermoons cause "geophysical stress", have been refuted by scientists. Despite lack of scientific evidence, there has been media speculation that natural disasters, such as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, are causally linked with the 1–2 week period surrounding a supermoon. A large, 7.5 magnitude earthquake centred 15 km north-east of Culverden, New Zealand at 00:03 NZDT on November 14, 2016, also coincided with a supermoon. Tehran earthquake on May 8, 2020, also coincided with a supermoon.

It is generally made with a specific end in mind, such as to control a spirit, a physical object, or cause something to be done. Other examples given in the traditional literature are restoring eyesight after blindness, causing other living beings to help, causing pregnancy, and causing a sea to retreat. Virtues referred to are to have never hurt a living being, having performed generosity, kindness, religious devotion and other virtues. The truthfulness in these virtues is considered the "ground" (') for the realization of the sacca-kiriyā, but the ground need not be causally related to it.

It's been hypothesized that patients with clinical conditions that are causally related to HPA hyperactivity, including major depression and post-traumatic stress disorders, may benefit from CRH receptor antagonist treatment. CRH antagonists are believed to work by blocking the consequent secretions of ACTH and cortisol that occur following activation of CRH and lowering the stress-induced rise of CRH in CSF. There is increased clinical interest in CRH receptor antagonists that can cross the blood-brain barrier for the treatment of depression and anxiety, along with other conditions related to HPA hyperactivity, including treatment of irritable bowel syndrome, which is exacerbated by stress.

Godzilla film poster In the post–World War II era, however, giant monsters returned to the screen with a vigor that has been causally linked to the development of nuclear weapons. One early example occurred in the American film The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms, which was about a dinosaur that attacked a lighthouse. Subsequently, there were Japanese film depictions, (Godzilla, Gamera), British depictions (Gorgo), and even Danish depictions (Reptilicus), of giant monsters attacking cities. A recent depiction of a giant monster is depicted in J. J. Abrams's Cloverfield, which was released in theaters January 18, 2008.

These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes. Research into modes and mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance is still in its scientific infancy, however, this area of research has attracted much recent activity as it broadens the scope of heritability and evolutionary biology in general. DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference, and the three dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. Heritability may also occur at even larger scales.

As with many recently discovered human polyomaviruses, the clinical significance of HPyV7 is poorly characterized. Attempts to detect polyomaviruses in a variety of tumor types have consistently found that HPyV7 is either absent or present at very low viral loads, indicating that it is unlikely to be causally related to the tumor. HPyV7 has been associated in case reports with a skin condition in immunocompromised patients—HPyV7-related epithelial hyperplasia—specifically lung transplant recipients on a regimen of immunosuppressive drugs. The reported skin manifestations consisted of severely pruritic (itchy) velvet- textured plaques initially interpreted clinically as drug side effects.

Crathorn's predecessors had argued that thinking occurs in a universal language of concepts acquired causally via experience, and that all conventional languages are subordinated to this mental language, which is shared by everyone in an a priori fashion. But Crathorn could not accept such a position because of his view that only qualities are natural signs of their extra-mental significates. Crathorn argued that except for natural signs of qualities, mental language is conventional because it is derived from conventional language. Hence, whatever language one speaks in his head is modeled on that language used for external communication.

605: "Putnam argues against 'metaphysical realism' and in favor of his own 'internal (or pragmatic) realism.'" Internal realism was the view that, although the world may be causally independent of the human mind, the structure of the world—its division into kinds, individuals and categories—is a function of the human mind, and hence the world is not ontologically independent. The general idea is influenced by Immanuel Kant's idea of the dependence of our knowledge of the world on the categories of thought. The problem with metaphysical realism, according to Putnam, was that it fails to explain the possibility of reference and truth.

Yoon's work focused on “intrauterine infection/inflammation, prematurity and fetal damage”, which is one of the most important challenges to medicine. Cerebral palsy is a serious motor disorder which frequently appears in preterm newborn babies, and has been traditionally linked to hypoxic obstetric events. However, many studies demonstrated a limited role for birth hypoxia in the etiology of cerebral palsy. From 1996, Yoon and his colleagues provided strong clinical and experimental evidence that intrauterine infection/inflammation, which is causally linked to preterm birth, plays an important role in the pathogenesis of fetal brain damage and cerebral palsy.

Quoted by Shariff, Schooler & Vohs: The hazards of claiming to have solved the hard problem of free will For full text on line see this . It is difficult to reconcile the intuitive evidence that conscious decisions are causally effective with the view that the physical world can be explained entirely by physical law. The conflict between intuitively felt freedom and natural law arises when either causal closure or physical determinism (nomological determinism) is asserted. With causal closure, no physical event has a cause outside the physical domain, and with physical determinism, the future is determined entirely by preceding events (cause and effect).

In the 19th century, scientists used the idea of random motions of molecules in the development of statistical mechanics to explain phenomena in thermodynamics and the properties of gases. According to several standard interpretations of quantum mechanics, microscopic phenomena are objectively random. That is, in an experiment that controls all causally relevant parameters, some aspects of the outcome still vary randomly. For example, if a single unstable atom is placed in a controlled environment, it cannot be predicted how long it will take for the atom to decay—only the probability of decay in a given time.

However, by the 1960s, scientific behaviourism met substantial difficulties and eventually gave way to the cognitive revolution. Participants in that revolution, such as Jerry Fodor, reject epiphenomenalism and insist upon the efficacy of the mind. Fodor even speaks of "epiphobia"—fear that one is becoming an epiphenomenalist. Thomas Henry Huxley defends in an essay titled On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History an epiphenomenalist theory of consciousness according to which consciousness is a causally inert effect of neural activity—"as the steam- whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery".

What follows is a summary of the causal exclusion problem in its simplest form, and it is merely one of several possible formulations. To the extent that we do not have to go outside human physiology in order to trace the causal antecedents of any bodily movement, intentional action can be fully causally explained by the existence of these physiological antecedents alone. No mention of mental states need enter into the explanation. This troubles philosophers because intuitively it seems that mental states are crucial in causing a person to act (for example, their beliefs and desires).

ABC genes are essential for many processes in the cell, and mutations in human genes cause or contribute to several human genetic diseases. Forty eight ABC genes have been reported in humans. Among these, many have been characterized and shown to be causally related to diseases present in humans such as cystic fibrosis, adrenoleukodystrophy, Stargardt disease, drug-resistant tumors, Dubin–Johnson syndrome, Byler’s disease, progressive familiar intrahepatic cholestasis, X-linked sideroblastic anemia, ataxia, and persistent and hyperinsulimenic hypoglycemia. ABC transporters are also involved in multiple drug resistance, and this is how some of them were first identified.

General side effects of the shot may include joint and muscle pain, fatigue, physical weakness and general malaise. The FDA and the CDC said that with millions of vaccinations "by chance alone some serious adverse effects and deaths" will occur in the time period following vaccination, but they have nothing to do with the vaccine. More than twenty women who received the Gardasil vaccine have died, but these deaths have not been causally connected to the shot, as correlation does not imply causation. Where information has been available, the cause of death was explained by other factors.

The theory of cosmic inflation has attempted to address the problem by positing a 10-second period of exponential expansion in the first second of the history of the universe due to a scalar field interaction.An Exposition on Inflationary Cosmology, Gary Scott Watson, Dept. of Physics, Brown University According to the inflationary model, the universe increased in size by a factor of more than 10, from a small and causally connected region in near equilibrium. Inflation then expanded the universe rapidly, isolating nearby regions of spacetime by growing them beyond the limits of causal contact, effectively "locking in" the uniformity at large distances.

Unlabelled expenditure refers to unplanned spending and is estimated through modeling techniques, based on a top-down budgetary procedure. Starting from overall aggregated expenditures, this procedure estimates the proportion causally attributable to substance abuse (Unlabelled Drug-related Expenditure = Overall Expenditure × Attributable Proportion). For example, to estimate the prison drug-related expenditures in a given country, two elements would be necessary: the overall prison expenditures in the country for a given period, and the attributable proportion of inmates due to drug-related issues. The product of the two will give a rough estimate that can be compared across different countries.

Studies demonstrate that the removal of this accumulated ethanol does not immediately restore fermentative activity, and they provide evidence that the decline in metabolic rate is due to physiological changes (including possible ethanol damage) rather than to the presence of ethanol. Several potential causes for the decline in fermentative activity have been investigated. Viability remained at or above 90%, internal pH remained near neutrality, and the specific activities of the glycolytic and alcohologenic enzymes (measured in vitro) remained high throughout batch fermentation. None of these factors appears to be causally related to the fall in fermentative activity during batch fermentation.

MacKinnon, along with feminist activist Andrea Dworkin, tried to change legal approaches to pornography by framing it as a civil rights violation in the form of sex discrimination, and as human trafficking. They defined pornography as: In Toward a Feminist Theory of the State, MacKinnon writes, "Pornography, in the feminist view, is a form of forced sex, a practice of sexual politics, and institution of gender inequality". As documented by extensive empirical studies, she writes, "Pornography contributes causally to attitudes and behaviors of violence and discrimination which define the treatment and status of half the population".

In quantum mechanics, superdeterminism is a loophole in Bell's theorem, that allows one to evade it by postulating that all systems being measured are causally correlated with the choices of which measurements to make on them. It is conceivable that someone could exploit this loophole to construct a local hidden variable theory that reproduces the predictions of quantum mechanics. Superdeterminists do not recognize the existence of genuine chances or possibilities anywhere in the cosmos. Bell's theorem assumes that the measurements performed at each detector can be chosen independently of each other and of the hidden variable being measured.

The notion that mental states are causally efficacious diverges from behaviorists like Gilbert Ryle, who held that there is no break between the cause of mental state and effect of behavior. Rather, Ryle proposed that people act in some way because they are in a disposition to act in that way, that these causal mental states are representational. An objection to this point comes from John Searle in the form of biological naturalism, a non-representational theory of mind that accepts the causal efficacy of mental states. Searle divides intentional states into low-level brain activity and high-level mental activity.

Connectionism is an approach to artificial intelligence that often accepts a lot of the same theoretical framework that LOTH accepts, namely that mental states are computational and causally efficacious and very often that they are representational. However, connectionism stresses the possibility of thinking machines, most often realized as artificial neural networks, an inter-connectional set of nodes, and describes mental states as able to create memory by modifying the strength of these connections over time. Some popular types of neural networks are interpretations of units, and learning algorithm. "Units" can be interpreted as neurons or groups of neurons.

Christiaan Both studied density dependent reproduction during his PhD, where he aimed to understand why birds lay smaller clutches when competition increased. This work was both using long-term data from hole-breeding passerines, and also experimental. It showed that great tit clutch size is causally affected by local density, and that the density dependent response could be explained by an optimal response of individuals to the level of competition for food during the nestling phase. From 1998 Christiaan Both, Niels Dingemanse, Piet Drent and Joost Tinbergen have studied great tits' exploration and showed that this variation in personality traits is heritable.

In his 1973 paper "Causation," David Lewis proposed the following definition of the notion of causal dependence: :An event E causally depends on C if, and only if, (i) if C had occurred, then E would have occurred, and (ii) if C had not occurred, then E would not have occurred. Causation is then defined as a chain of causal dependence. That is, C causes E if and only if there exists a sequence of events C, D1, D2, ... Dk, E such that each event in the sequence depends on the previous. This chain may be called a mechanism.

Neun kritische Modelle.) addressed the fallacy of the broad German post-war tendency to associate and simultaneously causally link Jews with the Holocaust. According to Adorno's critique, an opinion had been readily accepted in Germany according to which the Jewish people were culpable in the crimes against them. Jewish guilt was assumed to varying extents, depending on the varying incarnations of that antisemitic notion, one of which is the idea that Jews were (and are) exploiting German guilt over the Holocaust. Initially, members of the Frankfurt School spoke of "guilt-defensiveness anti-Semitism", an antisemitism motivated by a deflection of guilt.

Bond soon begins to distract Part-Time Job by seductively pleading with him to make her happy one more time. But just as Part-Time Job walks back to Bond under the assumption that she wants him to romantically satisfy her, Bond manages to break free from the ropes, grabs a bottle of Whack Out, and tosses it in front of Part-Time Job, subduing him. Soon, Doctor Boss returns and to her shock, finds Part-Time Job immobilized on the floor. Enraged, Boss pulls a gun out on Bond, only for Bond to causally grab a black stapler and stapling Boss to door.

Interactionism is the view that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, causally interact with physical states. This is a position which is very appealing to common-sense intuitions, notwithstanding the fact that it is very difficult to establish its validity or correctness by way of logical argumentation or empirical proof. It seems to appeal to common- sense because we are surrounded by such everyday occurrences as a child's touching a hot stove (physical event) which causes him to feel pain (mental event) and then yell and scream (physical event) which causes his parents to experience a sensation of fear and protectiveness (mental event) and so on.

Urban environments are typically warmer than their surroundings, as documented over a century ago by Howard.Mills, G. 2009: LUKE HOWARD, TIM OKE AND THE STUDY OF URBAN CLIMATES IAUC newsletter Urban areas are islands or spots on the broader scale compared with more rural surrounding land. The spatial distribution of temperatures occurs in tandem with temporal changes, which are both causally related to anthropogenic sources. The urban environment has two atmosphere layers, besides the planetary boundary layer outside and extending well above the city: (1) The urban boundary layer is due to the spatially integrated heat and moisture exchanges between the city and its overlying air.

Pitcher D, Japee S, Rauth L, Ungerleider LG. The Superior Temporal Sulcus Is Causally Connected to the Amygdala: A Combined TBS-fMRI Study. J Neurosci. 2017;37(5):1156–1161. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0114-16.2016 The patterns of activations found in this study suggests that facial information is processed by projections in the right hemisphere from the posterior superior temporal sulcus, through the anterior superior temporal sulcus, and into the amygdala. Another study showed that the resting-state functional connectivity between the right posterior superior temporal sulcus, the right occipital face area, early visual cortex, and bilateral superior temporal sulcus was positively correlated with each subject’s ability to recognize facial expression.

With this theory of information, Dretske then argued that for a knower, K, to know that s is F = K's belief that s is F is caused (or causally sustained) by the information that s is F.Dretske (1981, p. 86) His theory of knowledge thus replaced conscious appearances with the idea that the visual state of the observer carries information, thereby minimizing appeal to the mysteries of consciousness in explaining knowledge. Dretske's work on belief begins in the last third of Knowledge and the Flow of Information,Dretske (1981, pp. 169–235) but the theory changed again in the book that followed, Explaining Behavior (1988).

Numerous health consequences for cigarette smoking have been thoroughly documented. The top negative health causes that have been causally linked to cigarette smoking include cancers of the upper digestive tract, lung cancer, and chronic diseases including diabetes, coronary heart diseases, pneumonia, and overall poorer immune function. While many of these cancers and diseases can develop when an individual is of an older age, changes in one's physical well being contributing to these diseases may begin during adolescence. In a study examining nearly 10,000 males and females ranging in age from ten to eighteen across the United States, adolescents who smoked cigarettes exhibited impaired pulmonary function.

In information science, irrelevant or meaningless data is considered noise. Noise consists of numerous transient disturbances, with a statistically randomized time distribution. In communication theory, randomness in a signal is called "noise", and is opposed to that component of its variation that is causally attributable to the source, the signal. In terms of the development of random networks, for communication randomness rests on the two simple assumptions of Paul Erdős and Alfréd Rényi, who said that there were a fixed number of nodes and this number remained fixed for the life of the network, and that all nodes were equal and linked randomly to each other.

High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPV) are sexually transmitted viruses causally associated with several cancers including cervical, vaginal, anal, and head and neck cancers that cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Over half of all cervical cancer cases are associated with HPV16, the most common of the cancer-causing high-risk genotypes. During its natural life cycle, HPV16 infects the basal cells of the epithelium and interacts with Langerhans cells within the epithelial layer, which are responsible for initiating immune responses against epithelial invading pathogens. However, HPV does not activate Langerhans cells in vitro, and this may represent a key mechanism by which HPV evades immune detection in vivo.

Genome instability, i.e., the tendency of the genome to acquire mutations and epimutations, underlies human genetic disease, causally contributes to cancer and has also been implicated in aging and age-related, degenerative conditions other than cancer. Little is known about the mechanisms that give rise to spontaneous changes in the genome or epigenome and how this may lead, in somatic cells, to increased cancer risk and loss of organ and tissue function with age. We study genome and epigenome instability as a function of age in various model organisms, including mouse and fruit fly, and its consequences in terms of alterations in tissue-specific patterns of gene regulation.

GPK adopters' marginal practices have varied, for example, not all adopters adhere to strict marginal practices such as the pre-allocation of fixed costs based on planned product/service volumes. Fixed costs, innately do not vary with outputs and usually are not associated with individual outputs' costs. However, in practice, GPK adopters often calculate a standard per-unit-rate for fixed product/service costs and a separate per-unit-rate for proportional product/service costs. The balance of costs not causally assignable to the lowest level product or service can be assigned at yet higher levels within the marginal costing system's multi-level Profit & Loss (P&L;) statement.

However, there is no such inference for a solid real Self apart from the stream of constantly changing sense perceptions and mental activity of the sense spheres. Vasubandhu also argues that because the Self is not causally efficient, it is mere convention (prajñapti) and a “conceptual construction” (parikalpita). This argument is mainly against the Buddhist Pudgalavada school who held a view of a 'person' that was dependent on the five aggregates, yet was also distinct, in order to account for the continuity of personality. Vasubandhu sees this as illogical, for him, the Self is made up of constantly changing sensory organs, sense impressions, ideas and mental processes.

He points out that the defect in the so-called epiphenominalism problem lies in its confusion of the concept "by virtue of" (or necessary for) with the idea of an event's being responsible for another. Also, Honderich's example of the pears and the scale is jerry rigged in such a way that only a single effect is taken into consideration: the alteration on the scale. But the action of placing pears on a scale can have many different effects; it can attract the attention of a customer, for example. In this case, the causally relevant properties would be precisely the color, shape and other irrelevant properties of the fruit.

Retrograde flow of gastric contents to the upper aerodigestive tract causes a variety of symptoms such as cough, asthma and hoarseness. These respiratory manifestations of the reflux disease are commonly called laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) or extraesophegeal reflux disease (EERD). Distal esophageal pH monitoring has been used as an objective test to establish reflux as the cause of the atypical reflux symptoms but, its role in causally associating patients' symptoms to GERD is controversial. In an effort to improve diagnostic accuracy of testing, a catheter with two pH sensors has been used to measure the degree of esophageal acid exposure in both distal and proximal esophagus.

Frank Jackson (1982), for example, once espoused the following view: According to epiphenomenalism, mental states like Pierre's pleasurable experience—or, at any rate, their distinctive qualia—are epiphenomena; they are side-effects or by-products of physical processes in the body. If Pierre takes a second bite, it is not caused by his pleasure from the first; If Pierre says, "That was good, so I will take another bite", his speech act is not caused by the preceding pleasure. The conscious experiences that accompany brain processes are causally impotent. The mind might simply be a byproduct of other properties such as brain size or pathway activation synchronicity, which are adaptive.

They found that rats exhibiting high levels of rearing, were high ethanol consumers, and had lower levels of NT in the posterior PVT compared to rats with moderate levels of rearing. Further, they showed that NTS appeared to be low in prone rats, and alcohol consumption did not change NTS levels compared to non-prone rats implicating NTS in mediating high alcohol drinking behavior. To causally probe this hypothesis, they injected NTS into the posterior PVT and found decreases in ethanol drinking as well as decreases in rearing. Their findings directly support the idea that low levels of NTS in the posterior PVT support excessive alcohol consumption.

These fluctuations served as the seeds for all the current structures in the universe. Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian, which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB. If inflation occurred, exponential expansion would push large regions of space well beyond our observable horizon. A related issue to the classic horizon problem arises because in most standard cosmological inflation models, inflation ceases well before electroweak symmetry breaking occurs, so inflation should not be able to prevent large-scale discontinuities in the electroweak vacuum since distant parts of the observable universe were causally separate when the electroweak epoch ended.

The Buddha defined his teaching as "the middle way" (Pali: Majjhimāpaṭipadā). In the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, this is used to refer to the fact that his teachings steer a middle course between the extremes of asceticism and bodily denial (as practiced by the Jains and other ascetic groups) and sensual hedonism or indulgence. Many sramanas of the Buddha's time placed much emphasis on a denial of the body, using practices such as fasting, to liberate the mind from the body. The Buddha, however, realized that the mind was embodied and causally dependent on the body, and therefore that a malnourished body did not allow the mind to be trained and developed.

It has been discovered that cadherins and other additional factors are correlated to the formation and growth of some cancers and how a tumor continues to grow. The E-cadherins also known as the epithelial cadherins on the surface of one cell can bind with those of the same kind on another to form bridges. It is indicated that the loss of the cell adhesion molecule E cadherin is causally involved in the formation of epithelial types of cancers such as carcinomas. The changes in any type of cadherin expression may not only control tumor cell adhesion but also affect signal transduction leading to the cancer cells growing uncontrollably.

COMMON PURPOSE Where two or more people agree to commit a crime or actively associate in a joint unlawful enterprise, each will be responsible for the specific criminal conduct committed by one of their number which falls within their common design. Liability arises from their "common purpose" to commit the crime. If the participants are charged with having committed a "consequence crime," it is not necessary for the prosecution to prove beyond reasonable doubt that each participant committed conduct which contributed causally to the ultimate unlawful consequence. It is sufficient to establish • a prior agreement by the participants to commit a crime; or • no such prior agreement, but an active association by the participants in its commission.

We can use this to define the notion of a geodesic between two causal set elements, provided they are order comparable, that is, causally connected (physically, this means they are time-like). A geodesic between two elements x \preceq y \in C is a chain consisting only of links such that # x_0 = x and x_n = y # The length of the chain, n, is maximal over all chains from x to y. In general there can be more than one geodesic between two comparable elements. MyrheimJ. Myrheim, CERN preprint TH-2538 (1978) first suggested that the length of such a geodesic should be directly proportional to the proper time along a timelike geodesic joining the two spacetime points.

Non-reductive physicalism is the idea that while mental states are physical they are not reducible to physical properties, in that an ontological distinction lies in the differences between the properties of mind and matter. According to non-reductive physicalism all mental states are causally reducible to physical states where mental properties map to physical properties and vice versa. A prominent form of non- reductive physicalism, called anomalous monism, was first proposed by Donald Davidson in his 1970 paper "Mental events", in which he claims that mental events are identical with physical events, and that the mental is anomalous, i.e. under their mental descriptions these mental events are not regulated by strict physical laws.

But every time one gene is selected over another, one design for a developmental program is selected over another as well; by virtue of its structure, this developmental program interacts with some aspects of the environment rather than others, rendering certain environmental features causally relevant to development. So, step by step, as natural selection constructs the species' gene set (chosen from the available mutations), it constructs in tandem the species' developmentally relevant environment (selected from the set of all properties of the world). Thus, both the genes and the developmentally relevant environment are the product of evolution' (p. 84). With both our genes and our environment "biological" in nature, the nature/nurture dichotomy lacks any meaning.

The direct realist theory of speech perception (mostly associated with Carol Fowler) is a part of the more general theory of direct realism, which postulates that perception allows us to have direct awareness of the world because it involves direct recovery of the distal source of the event that is perceived. For speech perception, the theory asserts that the objects of perception are actual vocal tract movements, or gestures, and not abstract phonemes or (as in the Motor Theory) events that are causally antecedent to these movements, i.e. intended gestures. Listeners perceive gestures not by means of a specialized decoder (as in the Motor Theory) but because information in the acoustic signal specifies the gestures that form it.

In the heterarchy and fully distributed architecture, each behavior has a set of pre-conditions to be met before it can be performed, and a set of post- conditions that will be true after the action has been performed. These pre- and post-conditions determine the order in which behaviors must be performed and are used to causally connect action modules. This enables each module to receive input from other modules as well as from the sensors, so modules can recruit each other. For example, if the agent’s goal were to reduce thirst, the behavior "drink" would require the pre-condition of having water available, so the module would activate the module in charge of "find water".

An important early success of his biophysical approach to palaeobotany was the discovery of evidence for a substantial increase in the atmospheric CO₂ concentration and 'super- greenhouse' conditions across the Triassic-Jurassic (Tr-J) boundary, 200 million years ago, based on analyses of fossil stomata and leaf morphology from Greenland. This causally linked a catastrophic extinction event with the break-up of Pangaea. Before his group's work, the Tr-J extinction represented one of the most poorly understood of the so-called 'big-five' mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic (past 540 million years). His paper resulted in major new international research programmes that subsequently identified evidence confirming the carbon cycle perturbation in marine and terrestrial sediments world-wide.

This observation was subsequently extended to other antipsychotic drug classes, such as butyrophenones including haloperidol. The link was strengthened by experiments in the 1970s which suggested that the binding affinity of antipsychotic drugs for D2 dopamine receptors seemed to be inversely proportional to their therapeutic dose. This correlation, suggesting that receptor binding is causally related to therapeutic potency, was reported by two laboratories in 1976. Genetic evidence has suggested that there may be genes, or specific variants of genes, that code for mechanisms involved in dopamine function, which may be more prevalent in people experiencing psychosis or diagnosed with schizophrenia. Dopamine-related genes linked to psychosis in this way include COMT, DRD4, and AKT1.

There were however facts relating to their Aboriginality which pertained to their being in custody and how they died. It found that "...there appeared to be little appreciation of and less dedication to the duty of care owed by custodial authorities and their officers to persons in custody. We found many system defects in relation to care, many failures to exercise proper care and in general a poor standard of care. In some cases the defects and failures were causally related to the deaths, in some cases they were not and in others it was open to debate...in many cases death was contributed to by system failures or absence of due care".

If this is idolatry in our actions, then idolatry in our knowing, he says, is as follows: Schellenberg considers this criticism irrelevant to the argument, which in his opinion, does not impose any demands for demonstrations of God's power, but rather looks for evidence that "need only be such as will be causally sufficient for belief in the absence of resistance... This result might be effected through the much more spiritually appropriate means of religious experience, interpreted in the sensitive manner of a Pascal or a Kierkegaard." Schellenberg then expresses a certain frustration that theistic writers who otherwise extol the value of religious experiences deny non-theists the right to do so.

Fowler's research centers on social networks. He is best known for his studies of the social spread of obesity, smoking, and happiness in the Framingham Heart Study, but he has also studied the network of legislative cosponsorships in the U.S. Congress and the network of U.S. Supreme Court precedents. Studies by Nicholas A. Christakis and Fowler suggested a variety of individuals' attributes like obesity, smoking cessation, and happiness rather than being individualistic, are causally correlated by contagion mechanisms that transmit these behaviors over long distances within social networks. A debate over the statistical models used to establish these three degrees of influence findings ensued, but subsequent studies have found evidence of their central claims about behavioral influence and contagion.

The nucleus accumbens is causally related to the experience of pleasure. Microinjections of μ-opioid agonists, δ-opioid agonists or κ-opioid agonists in the rostrodorsal quadrant of the medial shell enhance "liking", while more caudal injections can inhibit disgust reactions, liking reactions, or both. The regions of the nucleus accumbens that can be ascribed a causal role in the production of pleasure are limited both anatomically and chemically, as besides opioid agonists only endocannabinoids can enhance liking. In the nucleus accumbens as a whole, dopamine, GABA receptor agonist or AMPA antagonists solely modify motivation, while the same is true for opioid and endocannabinoids outside of the hotspot in the medial shell.

The third decision made with the objective achieving a safer racial ratio in the army was the "[r]einforcement of the occupation corps' troops by three white battalions: one Foreign Legion battalion, [and] two Colonial Infantry battalions". This decision was causally linked to the first two decrees and complemented them. If European troops were placed next to Vietnamese ones, then despite the reduction in Vietnamese troops by two battalions, more European troops would be needed. As the Colonial Consultative Defence Council had informed the Minister of Colonies that the overall level of troops in Indochina could not be reduced for external defence reasons, this necessitated the replacement of at least the two disbanded Vietnamese battalions.

Over-imitation is "the tendency of young children to copy all of an adult model's actions, even components that are irrelevant for the task at hand." According to this human and cross-cultural phenomenon, a child has a strong tendency to automatically encode the deliberate action of an adult as causally meaningful even when the child observes evidence that proves that its performance is unnecessary. It is suggested that over-imitation "may be critical to the transmission of human culture." However, another study suggests that children don't just "blindly follow the crowd" since they can also be just as discriminating as adults in choosing whether an unnecessary action should be copied or not.

Any imagined unity of self-hood is a false projection. Vasubandhu also uses this analysis of the stream of consciousness to attack non-Buddhist Hindu views of the Atman. Vasubandhu shows that the Hindu view of the Self as 'controller' is refuted by an analysis of the flux and disorder of mental events and the inability of the supposed Self to control our minds and thoughts in any way we would like. If the Self is truly an eternal un-caused agent, it should be unaffected by mere physical and mental causes, and it also seems difficult to explain how such a force existing independently outside of the mind could causally interact with it.

Directs the Secretary to study current practices on the sharing of costs related to the benefits of increased land values resulting from water resources projects, together with potential methods by which any increase in land values should be shared between the Federal Government and non-Federal interests. Authorizes the Secretary to study shoreline protection and beach erosion control policy and related projects in view of the prospect for long- term increases in the levels of the ocean. Directs the Secretary to determine the extent of shoreline erosion damage in the United States causally related to the regulation of the waters of Lake Superior by the International Joint Commission (United States and Canada).

Spinoza's main contention with Cartesian mind–body dualism was that, if mind and body were truly distinct, then it is not clear how they can coordinate in any manner. Humans presume themselves to have free will, he argues, which is a result of their awareness of appetites that affect their minds, while being unable to understand the reasons why they desire what they desire and act as they do. Spinoza contends that "Deus sive Natura" is a being of infinitely many attributes, of which thought and extension are two. His account of the nature of reality then seems to treat the physical and mental worlds as intertwined, causally related, and deriving from the same Substance.

Furthermore, events which were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers. Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death" to define a person as being dead; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases. It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness. Suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma.

Like other forms of statistical analysis, badly specified econometric models may show a spurious relationship where two variables are correlated but causally unrelated. In a study of the use of econometrics in major economics journals, McCloskey concluded that some economists report p-values (following the Fisherian tradition of tests of significance of point null-hypotheses) and neglect concerns of type II errors; some economists fail to report estimates of the size of effects (apart from statistical significance) and to discuss their economic importance. She also argues that some economists also fail to use economic reasoning for model selection, especially for deciding which variables to include in a regression.Stephen T. Ziliak and Deirdre N. McCloskey (2004).

HK1 may be causally linked to mood and psychotic disorders, including unipolar depression (UPD), bipolar disorder (BPD), and schizophrenia via both its roles in energy metabolism and cell survival. For instance, the accumulation of lactate in the brains of BPD and SCHZ patients potentially results from the decoupling of HK1 from the OMM, and by extension, glycolysis from mitochondrial oxidative, phosphorylation. In the case of SCHZ, decreasing HK1 attachment to the OMM in the parietal cortex resulted in decreased glutamate reuptake capacity and, thus, glutamate spillover from the synapses. The released glutamate activates extrasynaptic glutamate receptors, leading to altered structure and function of glutamate circuits, synaptic plasticity, frontal cortical dysfunction, and ultimately, the cognitive deficits characteristic of SCHZ.

One way to understand the motivation and themes of the neopragmatist is to understand how neopragmatism (and pragmatism in general) distinguishes itself from both idealism and relativism. Neopragmatism is to be distinguished from idealism primarily in the fact that it does not, like idealism, believe that what is actually in the world is affected in any way by what individuals believe concerning it. Neopragmatism holds to the doctrine of a mind-independent reality while simultaneously maintaining that this world is not knowable in the classical Cartesian sense of the word "know". The neopragmatist views mind-independent reality to causally influence people's minds but whatever way that influence may be on the individual mind is up to the individual.

Franco, Eli, Dharmakīrti on compassion and rebirth, Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien, Universität Wien, 1997, p. 105. Dharmakirti also argues that mental events can causally condition physical events, and thus there is no reason to privilege matter as being primary. According to Martin Willson, this kind of argument is the most commonly used in the Tibetan philosophical tradition to establish the truth of rebirth and in its most simple form can be put as follows:Willson, Martin, Rebirth and the Western Buddhist, Wisdom Publications London, 1987, p. 42. > With respect to the knowing (consciousness or mind) of an ordinary being > just born: > it is preceded by earlier knowing; because it is knowing.

It can be decided in some cases, perhaps by exclusion of any accepted diagnosis, that higher-level brain/mental activity is causing symptoms, rather than the symptoms originating in the area of the nervous system from which they may appear to originate. Classic examples are "functional" seizures, sensory numbness, "functional" limb weakness and functional neurological deficit ("functional" in this context is usually contrasted with the old term "organic disease"). Such cases may be contentiously interpreted as being "psychological" rather than "neurological". Some cases may be classified as mental disorders, for example as conversion disorder, if the symptoms appear to be causally linked to emotional states or responses to social stress or social contexts.

Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV) is a virus causally associated with a rare and aggressive human skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma. MCPyV genetic material is often found integrated into the tumor cell genome, usually with mutations in the tumor antigen genes that abrogate the helicase activity of LTag, which is required for normal viral replication. In MCPyV, STag, rather than LTag, is the primary oncoprotein, is found in Merkel cell carcinomas more often than LTag, is required for tumor growth, and has additional pro- transformation effects independent of its PP2A-binding activity. MCPyV STag is believed to induce dysregulation of cap-dependent translation by promoting phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-BP1.

The non-temporal relation of precedence between two events, say "E precedes F", does not change over time (excluding from this discussion the issue of the relativity of temporal order of causally disconnected events in the theory of relativity). On the other hand, the character of being "past, present or future" of the events "E" or "F" does change with time. In the image of McTaggart the passage of time consists in the fact that terms ever further in the future pass into the present...or that the present advances toward terms ever farther in the future. If we assume the first point of view, we speak as if the B series slides along a fixed A series.

Howard Robinson is a philosopher who has concentrated his research within the philosophy of mind. Taking what has been through the latter part of the last century an unfashionable stance, he has consistently argued against those explanations of sensory experience that would reduce them to physical origins. He has never regarded the theory of sense-data as refuted, but has set out to refute in turn the objections which so many have considered to be conclusive. The version of the theory of sense- data he defends takes what is before consciousness in perception to be qualia as mental presentations that are causally linked to external entities, but which are not physical in themselves.

The remaining choices appear to be either separate involvement of multiple distributed causally convergent events or a model that does not tie a phenomenal experience to any specific local physical event but rather to some overall "functional" capacity. Whichever interpretation is taken, as Revonsuo indicates, there is no consensus on what structural level we are dealing with – whether the cellular level, that of cellular groups as "nodes", "complexes" or "assemblies" or that of widely distributed networks. There is probably only general agreement that it is not the level of the whole brain, since there is evidence that signals in certain primary sensory areas, such as the V1 region of the visual cortex (in addition to motor areas and cerebellum), do not contribute directly to phenomenal experience.

Marketing metric audit protocol (MMAP) The marketing metric audit protocol (MMAP) is the Marketing Accountability Standards Board's formal process for connecting marketing activities to the financial performance of the firm. The process includes the conceptual linking of marketing activities to intermediate marketing outcome metrics to cash flow drivers of the business, as well as the validation and causality characteristics of an ideal metric. Cash flow both short-term and over time is the ultimate metric to which all activities of a business enterprise, including marketing, should be causally linked through the validation of intermediate marketing measures. The process of validating the intermediate outcome measures against short-term and/or long-term cash flow drivers is necessary to facilitate forecasting and improvement in return.MASB.

Conscious automatism (C.A.) is a position on the philosophic question that asks whether determinism, as distinguished from “free will”, can be considered the sole operant principle in human decision making. Conscious automatism holds that we human beings, like the other animals we generally consider our inferiors, are conscious but respond as automata to our prior conditioning (within our physiological powers and limitations) in all of our apparently “willed” decisions. According to this view, the “freedom” we exercise in decision making, a uniqueness that convention leads us to believe distinguishes us from the other mammals, is illusory, for our motives are all, without exception, caused, in the manner we concede that all other changes are causally initiated in the world around us.

Spinoza's philosophy contains as a key proposition the notion that mental and physical (thought and extension) phenomena occur in parallel, but without causal interaction between them. He expresses this proposition as follows: His proof of this proposition is that: The reason Spinoza thinks the parallelism follows from this axiom is that since the idea we have of each thing requires knowledge of its cause, this cause must be understood under the same attribute. Further, there is only one substance, so whenever we understand some chain of ideas of things, we understand that the way the ideas are causally related must be the same as the way the things themselves are related, since the ideas and the things are the same modes understood under different attributes.

Spinoza's philosophy contains as a key proposition the notion that mental and physical (thought and extension) phenomena occur in parallel, but without causal interaction between them. He expresses this proposition as follows: His proof of this proposition is that: The reason Spinoza thinks parallelism follows from this axiom is that, since the idea we have of each thing requires knowledge of its cause, such a cause must be understood under the same attribute. Further, there is only one substance, so whenever we understand some chain of ideas concerning things, we understand that the way the ideas are causally related must be the same as the way the things themselves are related, since the ideas and the things are both God's modes, but pertain to different attributes.

Thus it is harder to keep track of things that could in fact be causally related, in order - for example - to know that even distant engine noise can predict a future hazard or to anticipate dinner based on the smell of raw ingredients. The ability successfully to bridge a time gap between events is known to deteriorate with age in humans and other animals. This line of work (funded by the BBSRC) aims to identify the neural substrates of trace conditioning, and to compare these with those of delay-dependent forgetting measured in other procedures. In schizophrenia, her team finds that learning occurs inappropriately, about stimuli that would normally be treated as irrelevant, redundant or in some other way indistinct.

In philosophy, accidentalism denies the causal closure of physical determinism and maintains that events can succeed one another haphazardly or by chance (not in the mathematical but in the popular sense). Opponents of accidentalism maintain that what seems to be a chance occurrence is actually the result of one or more causes that remain unknown due only to a lack of investigation. Charles Sanders Peirce used the term tychism (from τύχη, chance) for theories that make chance an objective factor in the process of the Universe. In ethics the term is used, like indeterminism, to denote the theory that mental change cannot always be ascribed to previously ascertained psychological states, and that volition is not causally related to the motives involved.

In Tibetan Buddhist Dzogchen literature, luminosity (od gsal) is associated with an aspect of the Ground termed "spontaneous presence" (Lhun grub), meaning a presence that is uncreated and not based on anything causally extraneous to itself.Van Schaik; Approaching the Great Perfection: Simultaneous and Gradual Methods of Dzogchen Practice in the Longchen Nyingtig (Studies in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism), 2004, 52 This term is often paired with 'original-purity' (ka dag), which is associated with emptiness (shunyata), and are both seen as inseparable aspects of the Ground. Other terms used to describe this aspect are dynamism or creative power (rtsal) and radiance (dwangs).Van Schaik; Approaching the Great Perfection: Simultaneous and Gradual Methods of Dzogchen Practice in the Longchen Nyingtig (Studies in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism), 2004, 54.

Evidently, street, network type and density are not linked causally; other factors, such as land scarcity and income influence the outcome as, for example, in cities that are landlocked or that have low average incomes. Another concern is often raised by emergency services, which can have difficulty locating streets when a community consists of a large number of similarly named culs-de-sac; also, large fire response vehicles, in particular, can have great difficulty with turning around in a cul-de-sac. However, confusing street naming is not a necessary outcome of street network design and can be improved. The practice of naming orthogonal networks by numbers and letters in the corresponding cardinal directions has been criticized by Camilo Sitte as lacking imagination.

The problem of free will has been identified in ancient Greek philosophical literature. The notion of compatibilist free will has been attributed to both Aristotle (fourth century BCE) and Epictetus (1st century CE); "it was the fact that nothing hindered us from doing or choosing something that made us have control over them". According to Susanne Bobzien, the notion of incompatibilist free will is perhaps first identified in the works of Alexander of Aphrodisias (third century CE); "what makes us have control over things is the fact that we are causally undetermined in our decision and thus can freely decide between doing/choosing or not doing/choosing them". The term "free will" (liberum arbitrium) was introduced by Christian philosophy (4th century CE).

Film scholar David Bordwell outlined the academic definition of "art film" in a 1979 article entitled "The Art Cinema as a Mode of Film Practice", which contrasts art films with the mainstream films of classical Hollywood cinema. Mainstream Hollywood-style films use a clear narrative form to organize the film into a series of "causally related events taking place in space and time", with every scene driving towards a goal. The plot of mainstream films is driven by a well-defined protagonist, fleshed out with clear characters, and strengthened with "question-and-answer logic, problem-solving routines, [and] deadline plot structures". The film is then tied together with fast pacing, a musical soundtrack to cue the appropriate audience emotions, and tight, seamless editing.

In section one, he argues that he has certain knowledge of a number of truisms, such as "My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings", "I am a human being", and "My body existed yesterday". In section two, he argues that there is a distinction between mental facts and physical facts. He says there is no good reason to believe, as many philosophers of his time did, that every physical fact is logically dependent on mental facts, or that every physical fact is causally dependent on mental facts. An example of a physical fact is "The mantelpiece is at present nearer to this body than that bookcase is".

He maintained an early commitment to naturalistic explanations of moral phenomena, and is usually taken to have first clearly expounded the is–ought problem, or the idea that a statement of fact alone can never give rise to a normative conclusion of what ought to be done. Hume also denied that humans have an actual conception of the self, positing that we experience only a bundle of sensations, and that the self is nothing more than this bundle of causally-connected perceptions. Hume's compatibilist theory of free will takes causal determinism as fully compatible with human freedom. His views on philosophy of religion, including his rejection of miracles and the argument from design for God's existence, were especially controversial for their time.

In order to have a wave which is limited in spatial extension (which is technically called a wave packet), several waves of different frequencies must be superimposed and distributed continuously within a certain interval of frequencies around an average value, such as u_0 . It then happens that at a certain instant, there exists a spatial region (which moves over time) in which the contributions of the various fields of the superposition add up constructively. Nonetheless, according to a precise mathematical theorem, as we move far away from this region, the phases of the various fields, at any specified point, are distributed causally and destructive interference is produced. The region in which the wave has non- zero amplitude is therefore spatially limited.

These mutations lead to reduced DNA binding, transcriptional control and splicing regulation of TBX3 and the loss of function and are associated with the most severe phenotype of UMS. Tbx3 is expressed in heterogenous populations of hypothalamic arcuate nucleus neurons which control energy homeostasis by regulating appetite and energy expenditure and the ablation of TBX3 function in these neurons was shown to cause obesity in mouse models. Importantly, Tbx3 was shown to be a key player in driving the functional heterogeneity of hypothalamic neurons and this function was conserved in mice, drosophila and humans. Genome wide association studies also causally linked TBX3 to rheumatoid arthritis (RA) susceptibility and a recent study identified Tbx3 as a candidate gene for RA in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse models.

The universe () is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other forms of matter and energy. While the spatial size of the entire universe is unknown, it is possible to measure the size of the observable universe, which is currently estimated to be 93 billion light-years in diameter. In various multiverse hypotheses, a universe is one of many causally disconnected constituent parts of a larger multiverse, which itself comprises all of space and time and its contents; as a consequence, ‘the universe’ and ‘the multiverse’ are synonymous in such theories. The earliest cosmological models of the universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at the center.

Her technology had multiple single-fly feeding chambers, each with a sensor that enabled detection of liquid (food) levels in real time. With this innovative technology, Yapici was able to detect temporally precise ingestion, related to hunger state, and further identify 12 cholinergic local interneurons that she called Ingestion Neurons (IN1) that were necessary for this behavior. Since IN1 neurons receive pre-synaptic inputs from pharyngeal neurons, she hypothesized that IN1 neurons detect and monitor ingestion such that after subsequent feeding bouts, the activity of these neurons proportionally decreased, as an indicator of feeding or hunger state. Further using optogenetics, they were able to causally test the implications of this circuit in feeding and found that stimulation increased the level of consumption in flies.

The theory that underlies the simulation heuristic assumes that one's judgments are bias towards information that is easily imagined or simulated mentally. It is because of this that we see biases having to do with the overestimation of how causally plausible an event could be or the enhanced regret experienced when it is easy to mentally undo an unfortunate event, such as an accident. Significant research on simulation heuristic's application in counterfactual reasoning has been performed by Dale T Miller and Bryan Taylor. For example, they found that if an affectively negative experience, such as a fatal car accident was brought about by an extraordinary event, such as someone usually goes by train to work but instead drove; the simulation heuristic will cause an emotional reaction of regret.

The duration of the postdictive windows of integration is supposedly hardwired in our brain, but it could be extended by training subjects to systematic delays between causally bounded events. The postdictive window is believed to be triggered by highly salient sensory events acting as resets, such as abrupt stimuli onset and saccadic eye movements. Postdiction is argued to play a central role in shaping our sense of agency, by compressing the perceived interval between a voluntary action and its external sensory consequence. Postdictive mechanisms are believed to constantly underlie our perception, and can be revealed by some perceptual illusions: for example, in the flash lag illusion and the cutaneous rabbit illusion the location of moving stimuli are mistakenly perceived due to their falling within the same postdictive window of integration.

However, as noted above it is clear that, equally, cardiac output must dictate venous return since over any period of time both must necessarily be equal. Similarly, the concept of mean systemic filling pressure, the hypothetical driving pressure for venous return, is difficult to localise and impossible to measure in the physiological state. Furthermore, the Ohmic formulation used to describe venous return ignores the critical venous parameter, capacitance. It is confusion about these terms that has led some physiologists to suggest that the emphasis on 'venous return' be turned instead to more measurable and direct influences on cardiac output such as end diastolic pressure and volume which can be causally related to cardiac output and through which the influences of volume status, venous capacitance, ventricular compliance and venodilating therapies can be understood.

In evolutionary biology, a key Innovation, also known as an adaptive breakthrough or key adaptation, is a novel phenotypic trait that allows subsequent radiation and success of a taxonomic group. Typically they bring new abilities that allows the taxa to rapidly diversify and invade niches that were not previously available. The phenomenon helps to explain how some taxa are much more diverse and have many more species than their sister taxa. The term was first used in 1949 by Alden H. Miller who defined it as "key adjustments in the morphological and physiological mechanism which are essential to the origin of new major groups", although a broader, contemporary definition holds that "a key innovation is an evolutionary change in individual traits that is causally linked to an increased diversification rate in the resulting clade".

Hume Studies, Volume 35, Number 1&2, 2009, pp. 5–28. Similarly, both Hume and Buddhist philosophy hold that it is perfectly acceptable to speak of personal identity in a mundane and conventional way, while believing that there are ultimately no such things. Hume scholar Alison Gopnik has even argued that Hume could have had contact with Buddhist philosophy during his stay in France (which coincided with his writing of the Treatise of Human Nature) through the well traveled Jesuit missionaries of the Royal College of La Flèche. British philosopher Derek Parfit has argued for a reductionist and deflationary theory of personal identity in his book Reasons and Persons. According to Parfit, apart from a causally connected stream of mental and physical events, there are no “separately existing entities, distinct from our brains and bodies”.

A proponent of this theory can thus ask the direct realist why he or she thinks it is necessary to move to taking the imagining of singularity for real when there is no practical difference in the outcome in action. Therefore, although there are selections from our sensory fields which for the time being we treat as if they were objects, they are only provisional, open to corrections at any time, and, hence, far from being direct representations of pre-existing singularities, they retain an experimental character. Virtual constructs or no, they remain, however, selections that are causally linked to the real and can surprise us at any time—which removes any danger of solipsism in this theory. This approach dovetails with the philosophy known as social constructivism.

The main opposition to the drift hypothesis is the social causation thesis, which says social class position is causally related to the probability of mental illness. John W. Fox, from the University of Northern Colorado, conducted a study in 1990 that looked at previous studies concerning the relationship between social class and mental illness. These studies he looked at supported the drift hypothesis, but when he examined them, he found their conclusions were "based on assumptions and methods that lacked empirical support." Retrieved December 2, 2007, from PsycInfo Database Another statement in Fox's study was, in studies done on social class and mental illness, "identify drift as an individual's downward intergenerational social mobility after the onset of mental illness, rather than as residential drift from higher to lower class status areas".

Skp2 behaves as an oncogene in cell systems and is an established protooncogene causally involved in the pathogenesis of lymphomas. One of the most critical CDK inhibitors involved in cancer pathogenesis is p27Kip1, which is involved primarily in inhibiting cyclin E-CDK2 complexes (and to a lesser extent cyclin D-CDK4 complexes). Levels of p27Kip1 (like all other CKIs) rise and fall in cells as they either exit or re-enter the cell cycle, these levels are not modulated at the transcriptional level, but by the actions of the SCFSkp2 complex in recognizing p27Kip1 and tagging it for destruction in the proteasome system. It has been shown that as cells enter G0 phase, reducing levels of Skp2 explain the increase in p27Kip1, creating an apparent inverse relationship between Skp2 and p27Kip1.

Wright however does not hold the view that good works contribute to one's salvation but rather that the final judgment is something we can look forward to as a future vindication of God's present declaration of our righteousness. In other words, our works are a result of our salvation and the future judgment will show that.. Others tend to place a higher value on the importance of good works than the historic Lutheran and Reformed perspectives do, taking the view that they causally contribute to the salvation of the individual. Advocates of the historic Lutheran and Reformed perspectives often see this as being "salvation by works", and as a bad thing, contradicting fundamental tenets of Christianity. New-perspective scholars often respond that their views are not so different.

Relativity of simultaneity: Event B is simultaneous with A in the green reference frame, but it occurred before in the blue frame, and occurs later in the red frame. Einstein showed in his thought experiments that people travelling at different speeds, while agreeing on cause and effect, measure different time separations between events, and can even observe different chronological orderings between non-causally related events. Though these effects are typically minute in the human experience, the effect becomes much more pronounced for objects moving at speeds approaching the speed of light. Subatomic particles exist for a well known average fraction of a second in a lab relatively at rest, but when travelling close to the speed of light they are measured to travel farther and exist for much longer than when at rest.

These findings also suggest that people with depression experience a time dilation effect, and in effect support the notion of depressive realism, which suggests that people who are depressed have a more accurate perception of reality than others. Msetfi believes that this time dilation might be related to one of the symptoms of severe depression - helplessness, or the feeling that they are not in control of their lives, and this is usually accompanied by a feeling of guilt. Time perception is crucial for agency, the sense that we are in control of our actions. Normally, our actions are followed very closely in time by their consequences; this can give us the sense that the two are causally related, and that we are responsible for the consequences of our actions.

The lab also pursues REST mediated experience- tuning expression of NMDA receptors during development, demonstrating that maternal deprivation disrupts a REST mediated switch to mature NMDA receptor expression Molecular pathways leading to aberrations in Autism and fragile X syndrome: The Zukin lab aims to identify protein expression dysregulation that may result in the phenotypes observed in autism spectrum disorders. The lab has found that the downstream targets of mTORC2, Rho GTPase Rac1 and LIMK exhibit increased expression in a mouse model of autism. Elevated expression of proteins in this pathway are causally related to reduced activity of the actin depolymerizing factor Cofilin, a major determinant of dendritic spine morphology. Another marker of fragile X syndrome that the lab identified is an elevation of GluA2 (GluR2) mRNA as a result of increased CPEB3 protein expression.

In study 2, a series of male and female names was presented to subjects; for each name, subjects were told the university affiliation of the individual (Yale or Stanford). When some names were presented, subjects were simultaneously shown a photograph that purportedly portrayed the named individual. Subsequently, to assess what subjects could remember (as a measure of availability), each name was re-presented, as well as the appropriate photograph if one had been originally presented. The study considered whether the display or non-display of photographs biased subjects' estimates as to the percentage of Yale (vs Stanford) students in the sample of men and women whose names appeared on the original list, and whether these estimated percentages were causally related to the respondents' memory for the college affiliations of the individual students on the list.

For the common case in which a major locus is causally associated with disease, but there exists considerable, unexplained phenotypic variation, this process of discovery typically begins with establishing heritability of the disease phenotype, and the reasonable likelihood that modifier genes contribute to the observed phenotypic variation. The process proceeds with the identification of modifier loci and functional determination of the mechanisms of their interactions with other disease-causing genes, and culminates with the discovery and development of effective therapeutics for disease, informed by mechanistic understanding of the functions of modifier genes. For skilled researchers using modern techniques, each step in this process of curing human genetic disease by studying modifier gene interactions poses great challenges. Characterizing modifier gene interactions may not be the easiest approach to curing disease.

Though the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma system began as a mere categorization of mental events, their philosophers and exegetes such as Dharmatrata and Katyāyāniputra (the compiler of the Mahavibhasa, a central text of the school) eventually refined this system into a robust realism, which also included a type of essentialism. This realism was based on a quality of dharmas, which was called svabhava or 'intrinsic existence'.Kalupahana, David; A History of Buddhist Philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities, page 128 Svabhava is a sort of essence, though it is not a completely independent essence, since all dharmas were said to be causally dependent. The Sarvāstivāda system extended this realism across time, effectively positing a type of eternalism with regards to time; hence, the name of their school means "the view that everything exists".

Pauling in 1948 In November 1949, Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert Wells published "Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease" in the journal Science. It was the first proof of a human disease caused by an abnormal protein, and sickle cell anemia became the first disease understood at the molecular level. Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease have a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that individuals with sickle cell trait have both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was the first demonstration causally linking an abnormal protein to a disease, and also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determines the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence – the dawn of molecular genetics.

Then you rank your lists according to the degree in which the phenomenon occurs in each one. Then you should be able to deduce what factors match the occurrence of the phenomenon in one list and don't occur in the other list, and also what factors change in accordance with the way the data had been ranked. Thus, if an army is successful when commanded by Essex, and not successful when not commanded by Essex: and when it is more or less successful according to the degree of involvement of Essex as its commander, then it is scientifically reasonable to say that being commanded by Essex is causally related to the army's success. From this Bacon suggests that the underlying cause of the phenomenon, what he calls the "form", can be approximated by interpreting the results of one's observations.

The committee's report, issued on March 7, 1962, clearly indicated cigarette smoking as a cause of lung cancer and bronchitis and argued that it probably contributed to cardiovascular disease as well. Cover page of the report on smoking and healthShortly after the release of this report, Terry established the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health, which he chaired, to produce a similar report for the United States. Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the United States, released on January 11, 1964, concluded that lung cancer and chronic bronchitis are causally related to cigarette smoking. The report also noted out that there was suggestive evidence, if not definite proof, for a causative role of smoking in other illnesses such as emphysema, cardiovascular disease, and various types of cancer.

According to Einstein's special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an absolute sense that two distinct events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space. If one reference frame assigns precisely the same time to two events that are at different points in space, a reference frame that is moving relative to the first will generally assign different times to the two events (the only exception being when motion is exactly perpendicular to the line connecting the locations of both events). For example, a car crash in London and another in New York appearing to happen at the same time to an observer on Earth, will appear to have occurred at slightly different times to an observer on an airplane flying between London and New York. Furthermore, if the two events cannot be causally connected (i.e.

Studies have shown that most parents who complain about their young children acting increasingly aggressive and violent on the school playground due to video games do not follow the ESRB and PEGI rating systems. Many parents complain about their children, as young as 8, acting out violence depicted in Call of Duty or Grand Theft Auto, even though their ratings clearly state that the recommended age is 18 and above. Most studies, however, reached the conclusion that violence in video games is not causally linked with aggressive tendencies. This was the conclusion of a 1999 study by the United States government, prompting Surgeon General David Satcher to say, "[...] we clearly associate media violence to aggressive behavior, but the impact was very small compared to other things. Some may not be happy with that, but that’s where the magic is".

"David Papineau, "David Lewis and Schroedinger's Cat", 2004 On a similar note, quoting David Lewis' position that death should not be expected as an experience, philosopher of science Charles Sebens concedes that, in a quantum suicide experiment, "[i]t is tempting to think you should expect survival with certainty." However, he remarks that expectation of survival could follow only if the quantum branching and death were absolutely simultaneous, otherwise normal chances of death apply: "[i]f death is indeed immediate on all branches but one, the thought has some plausibility. But if there is any delay it should be rejected. In such a case, there is a short period of time when there are multiple copies of you, each (effectively) causally isolated from the others and able to assign a credence to being the one who will live.

There has been advocacy for a political coalition from within the Greek political elite, and by the Greek journalist Alexis Papahelas who said that Papandreou should 'get rid of some of the novices he has in his government, make an overture to the opposition and go full-steam ahead.' One columnist at The Guardian suggested in an editorial that the protests speak of a deeper issue in Greek politics: she asks, 'What the advocates of this scenario [coalition government] do not seem to grasp is that the political class is out of touch with the population,' and 'How can we expect to see solutions and progress by the very same people who are inextricably, causally linked to the problem?' However other sources suggest that the movement was a positive reaction triggering a series of innovative socio-political processes.

This allows inflation to continue forever, to produce future-eternal inflation. As a simplified example, suppose that during inflation, the natural decay rate of the inflaton field is slow compared to the effect of quantum fluctuation. When a mini- universe inflates and "self-reproduces" into, say, twenty causally- disconnected mini-universes of equal size to the original mini-universe, perhaps nine of the new mini-universes will have a larger, rather than smaller, average inflaton field value than the original mini-universe, because they inflated from regions of the original mini-universe where quantum fluctuation pushed the inflaton value up more than the slow inflation decay rate brought the inflaton value down. Originally there was one mini-universe with a given inflaton value; now there are nine mini-universes that have a slightly larger inflaton value.

Heritability estimates' prominent critics, such as Steven Rose, Jay Joseph, and Richard Bentall, focus largely on heritability estimates in behavioral sciences and social sciences. Bentall has claimed that such heritability scores are typically calculated counterintuitively to derive numerically high scores, that heritability is misinterpreted as genetic determination, and that this alleged bias distracts from other factors that researches have found more causally important, such as childhood abuse causing later psychosis. Heritability estimates are also inherently limited because they do not convey any information regarding whether genes or environment play a larger role in the development of the trait under study. For this reason, David Moore and David Shenk describe the term "heritability" in the context of behavior genetics as "...one of the most misleading in the history of science" and argue that it has no value except in very rare cases.

Most often the idea that there exist infinitely many causally isolated universes, each as real as our own but different from it in some way, and that alluding to objects in this universe as necessary to explain what makes certain counterfactual statements true but not others, meets with what Lewis calls the "incredulous stare" (Lewis, On the Plurality of Worlds, 2005, pp. 135–137). He defends and elaborates his theory of extreme modal realism, while insisting that there is nothing extreme about it, in On the Plurality of Worlds (1986). Lewis acknowledges that his theory is contrary to common sense, but believes its advantages far outweigh this disadvantage, and that therefore we should not be hesitant to pay this price. According to Lewis, "actual" is merely an indexical label we give a world when we are in it.

49: "But if other possible worlds are causally disconnected from us, how do we know anything about them?" A related objection is that, while people are concerned with what they could have done, they are not concerned with what people in other worlds, no matter how similar to them, do. As Saul Kripke once put it, a presidential candidate could not care less whether someone else, in another world, wins an election, but does care whether he himself could have won it (Kripke 1980, p. 45). Another criticism of the realist approach to possible worlds is that it has an inflated ontology—by extending the property of concreteness to more than the singular actual world it multiplies theoretical entities beyond what should be necessary to its explanatory aims, thereby violating the principle of parsimony, Occam's razor.

From 2005 to 2006, an agent, Jiang Weisuo, from Shaanxi Jinqiao Dairy Company in northwest China reportedly publicly discussed his fears about unauthorised substances being added to competitors' milk. His complaints to regulators and dairy makers in 2005 and 2006 never yielded any result; his story was picked up by China Central Television, who ran a report complete with footage of adulteration in progress, yet the Shaanxi Quality and Technical Supervision Bureau said they failed to find evidence of wrongdoing. The bulletin board of the Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine (AQSIQ) indicated a rare occurrence of kidney stones in children–all causally traced to Sanlu milk formula–was flagged by at least one member of the public in June 2008 and by a urologist in a paediatric hospital on 24 July 2008. Neither received definitive replies.

Death is the permanent cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Death was once defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and of breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted. Events that were causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants and artificial pacemakers. Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to "brain death" or "biological death" to define a person as being dead; brain death being defined as the complete and irreversible loss of brain function (including involuntary activity necessary to sustain life).

The loading pattern of the Arctic Oscillation The Arctic oscillation appears as a ringlike (or "annular") pattern of sea- level pressure anomalies centered at the poles. The presence of continents and large landmasses disrupts the ringlike structure at the Arctic pole, while anomalies surrounding the Antarctic pole are nearly circular. The Arctic oscillation is believed by climatologists to be causally related to (and thus partially predictive of) global weather patterns. NASA climatologist James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the Arctic oscillation affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic, as follows: The Arctic oscillation index is defined using the daily or monthly 1000 hPa geopotential height anomalies from latitudes 20° N to 90° N. The anomalies are projected onto the Arctic oscillation loading pattern, which is defined as the first empirical orthogonal function (EOF) of monthly mean 1000 hPa geopotential height during the 1979-2000 period.

He then illustrates his argument by considering the myriad genetic variations that can occur in the earliest stages of sexual reproduction: James argues that genetic anomalies in the brains of these great men are the decisive factor by introducing an original influence into their environment. They might therefore offer original ideas, discoveries, inventions and perspectives which "would not, in the mind of another individual, have engendered just that conclusion ... It flashes out of one brain, and no other, because the instability of that brain is such as to tip and upset itself in just that particular direction." James describes the manifestations of these unique physiological qualities as follows: James then argues that these spontaneous variations of genius, i.e. the great men, which are causally independent of their social environment, subsequently influence that environment which in turn will either preserve or destroy the newly encountered variations in a form of evolutionary selection.

They found that a person's religion greatly influenced what was seen and that this was most apparent when observing the differences between Indian and American experience where Indian patients were far more likely to see a personification of death than Americans. He repeated this experiment again in 1976, this time investigating the effects high fevers, painkillers and diseases which specifically affect the brain, had on a patient's reported experiences at the time of death. Despite the far smaller pool of data (the newer study involved just 877 doctors in the USA alone), Osis concluded to his satisfaction that what he called the "sick brain hypothesis" – that the decrease of brain activity was causally linked to near death experiences – did not stand up to scrutiny. On being asked about the practical applications of his theories, Osis remarked that "One definite finding of the research is the diminishing fear of death".

For instance, Woodward and Guajardo (2002) found a correlation between children's ability to produce points (either during the experience or based on parental report of pointing at home) and their understanding of object-directed pointing (as evidenced by a preference for looking at a new object rather than a new hand path in a habituation paradigm) by 12 months. In addition, Brune and Woodward (2007) found that infants who produce object-directed points tended to have an understanding of pointing and infants who engaged in shared attention tended to have an understanding of eye gaze. Although the findings are correlational, they support the idea that actions may facilitate cognitive understanding. It is unclear whether self- produced pointing gestures causally influence an understanding of pointing as relational; however, there is experimental evidence which suggests that infants supported in a new action skill will subsequently develop an understanding of that action.

There exist external observers which cannot be treated within quantum > mechanics, namely human (and perhaps animal) minds, which perform > measurements on the brain causing wave function collapse. Henry Stapp has argued for the concept as follows: > From the point of view of the mathematics of quantum theory it makes no > sense to treat a measuring device as intrinsically different from the > collection of atomic constituents that make it up. A device is just another > part of the physical universe... Moreover, the conscious thoughts of a human > observer ought to be causally connected most directly and immediately to > what is happening in his brain, not to what is happening out at some > measuring device... Our bodies and brains thus become ... parts of the > quantum mechanically described physical universe. Treating the entire > physical universe in this unified way provides a conceptually simple and > logically coherent theoretical foundation...

The Western Mediterranean oscillation (WeMO or WeMOi) is an index measuring the difference between the standardized atmospheric pressure recorded at Padua (45.40◦N, 11.48◦E) in northern Italy, and San Fernando, Cádiz (36.28◦N, 6.12◦W) in Southwestern Spain. Whereas Padua is an area with a relatively high barometric variability due to the influence of the central European anticyclone, San Fernando is often under the influence of the Azores High. This index has been proposed as a teleconnection by researches in the Climatology Group at the University of Barcelona offering an alternative to the more widely known NAO for studying the variability in rainfall in eastern Spain, in regions such as Catalonia, Valencia, and Murcia. The WeMOi barometric pattern is believed by some climatologists to be causally related to, and thus partially predictive of, rainfall variability on the eastern side of the Iberian Peninsula.

Because of her outbursts, Kawai believes that she is only doing this because she likes the attention. Which maybe true as with anything that happens she is prone to emotional outbursts that get the rest of the classes attention in the matter, shown where Kawai causally pointed out that the cross was missing from the necklace, only for her to have an emotional outburst about it being missing. At the end of chapter 17 it appears that Hana is losing her sanity, smiling evilly with a blank look in her eyes. Later she conspires with the classmates against Kawai to have everyone hate her by setting her up with vicious comments about the other students in her bag, however this seems to quickly falls apart when Shin points out that she says what she feels without hesitation and wouldn't write that, as well as Kawai seeing through Hana's "help".

Krasnikov proposed that if tachyonic matter cannot be found or used, then a solution might be to arrange for masses along the path of the vessel to be set in motion in such a way that the required field was produced. But in this case, the Alcubierre drive vessel can only travel routes that, like a railroad, have first been equipped with the necessary infrastructure. The pilot inside the bubble is causally disconnected with its walls and cannot carry out any action outside the bubble: the bubble cannot be used for the first trip to a distant star because the pilot cannot place infrastructure ahead of the bubble while "in transit". For example, travelling to Vega (which is 25 light-years from Earth) requires arranging everything so that the bubble moving toward Vega with a superluminal velocity would appear; such arrangements will always take more than 25 years.

The question was whether or not the injuries resulting from the accident were "caused by or [had] aris[en] out of the driving of a motor vehicle" as contemplated in section 8(1) of the Act. Words "caused by" referred to the direct cause of the injury, while the words "arising out of" referred to the case where the injury, although not directly caused by the driving, was nevertheless causally connected with the driving, and where the driving was a sine qua non thereof. Some limitation, however, had to be placed on the application of the sine qua non concept: The court held that it ought to be guided by the object and the scope of the Act, and by notions of common sense. It was possible that, where the direct cause of the damage was some act antecedent or ancillary to the driving, such damage might be said nonetheless to have "aris[en] out of" the driving.

Pelosi concluded "I honestly believe, having read it so carefully and tried to find alternative interpretations, that this is fraudulent work." The publications under discussion were criticized, among other things, for the reason that Eysenck's research work was partly financed by the tobacco industry and he therefore may have had an interest to show an association between personality and cancer (instead of an association of smoking and cancer). Statement of Eysenck in 1990: “Note that I have never stated that cigarette smoking is not causally related to cancer and coronary heart disease; to deny such a relationship would be irresponsible and counter to the evidence. I have merely stated that the available evidence is insufficient to prove a causal relationship, and this I believe to be true.” In his statement at the time, Eysenck failed to take into account the highly addictive effect of nicotine, which was only later clearly proven by neurophysiological studies.

A causal loop is a theoretical proposition in which, by means of either retrocausality or time travel, a sequence of events (actions, information, objects, people) is among the causes of another event, which is in turn among the causes of the first-mentioned event. Such causally looped events then exist in spacetime, but their origin cannot be determined. A hypothetical example of a causality loop is given of a billiard ball striking its past self: the billiard ball moves in a path towards a time machine, and the future self of the billiard ball emerges from the time machine before its past self enters it, giving its past self a glancing blow, altering the past ball's path and causing it to enter the time machine at an angle that would cause its future self to strike its past self the very glancing blow that altered its path. In this sequence of events, the change in the ball's path is its own cause, which might appear paradoxical.

In "Mathematical Truth" (1973), he argues that no interpretation of mathematics offers a satisfactory package of epistemology and semantics; it is possible to explain mathematical truth in a way that is consistent with our syntactico-semantical treatment of truth in non-mathematical language, and it is possible to explain our knowledge of mathematics in terms consistent with a causal account of epistemology, but it is in general not possible to accomplish both of these objectives simultaneously (this argument is called Benacerraf's epistemological problem). He argues for this on the grounds that an adequate account of truth in mathematics implies the existence of abstract mathematical objects, but that such objects are epistemologically inaccessible because they are causally inert and beyond the reach of sense perception. On the other hand, an adequate epistemology of mathematics, say one that ties truth-conditions to proof in some way, precludes understanding how and why the truth-conditions have any bearing on truth.

The conclusion of the Joint WHO/CISAT Scientific Committee for the Toxic Oil Syndrome from 2002, that oil was the cause for TOS, is based only on epidemiological evidence, since up to now, experimental studies performed in a variety of laboratory animals have failed to reproduce the symptoms of human TOS. None of the in vivo or in vitro studies performed with toxic-oil-specific components, such as fatty acid anilides, and esters of 3-(N-phenylamino)-1,2-propanediol (abbreviated as PAP), have provided evidence that these markers are causally involved in the pathogenesis of TOS.Toxic Oil Syndrome - 10 Years of Progress Specifically, three possible causative agents of TOS are PAP (3-(N-phenylamino)-1,2-propanediol), the 1,2-dioleoyl ester of PAP (abbreviated OOPAP), and the 3-oleoyl ester of PAP (abbreviated OPAP). These three compounds are formed by means of similar chemical processes, and oil that contains one of the three substances is likely to contain the other two.

Genome-wide complex trait analysis (GCTA) Genome-based restricted maximum likelihood (GREML) is a statistical method for variance component estimation in genetics which quantifies the total narrow-sense (additive) contribution to a trait's heritability of a particular subset of genetic variants (typically limited to SNPs with MAF >1%, hence terms such as "chip heritability"/"SNP heritability"). This is done by directly quantifying the chance genetic similarity of unrelated individuals and comparing it to their measured similarity on a trait; if two unrelated individuals are relatively similar genetically and also have similar trait measurements, then the measured genetics are likely to causally influence that trait, and the correlation can to some degree tell how much. This can be illustrated by plotting the squared pairwise trait differences between individuals against their estimated degree of relatedness.Figure 3 of Yang et al 2010, or Figure 3 of Ritland & Ritland 1996 The GCTA framework can be applied in a variety of settings.

If a more stable vacuum state were able to arise, the effects may vary from complete cessation of existing fundamental forces, elementary particles and structures comprising them, to subtle change in some cosmological parameters, mostly depending on potential difference between true and false vacuum. Some false vacuum decay scenarios are compatible with survival of structures like galaxies and stars or even life while others involve the full destruction of baryonic matter or even immediate gravitational collapse of the universe, although in this last case the possibility to causally connect (i.e nucleate) the true vacuum from inside of the false vacuum area is dubious. In a 2005 paper published in Nature, as part of their investigation into global catastrophic risks, MIT physicist Max Tegmark and Oxford philosopher Nick Bostrom calculate the natural risks of the destruction of the Earth at less than 1 per gigayear from all events, including a transition to a lower vacuum state.

Nor can the morality of an action be founded on the true or false judgments causally linked to it: no immoral action is wrong due to its arising from a mistake of fact, or (contra Wollaston) due to its causing false judgments in others. After summing up this critique, Hume develops a "more particular" case against rationalism, recalling his system's two kinds of reasoning: "the comparing of ideas" and "the inferring of matter of fact". Now as for demonstrative reasoning, the four abstract relations from Book 1 seem perfectly irrelevant to morality, and indeed it is hard to see how any relation could have just the right scope (holding only between someone's psychology and external situation) and the right practical implications as well (somehow it must be certain a priori that no rational being could consider these relations without being motivated accordingly). Consider the immorality of parricide and incest: this cannot consist merely in the abstract relations at play, for the very same relations can be found in perfectly non-moral contexts involving inanimate objects and animals.

The court found that the words "caused by" in section 8(1) of the Motor Vehicle Accidents Act refer to the direct cause of the injury, whereas the words "arising out of" refer to the case where the injury, although not directly caused by the driving, is nevertheless causally connected with the driving and the driving is a sine qua non thereof. An uncontrolled application of the causa sine qua non concept, however, could bring about consequences never contemplated or intended by the Legislature. Combrinck J decided, therefore, that some limitation must be placed on the application of this concept: The Court should be guided by a consideration of the object and the scope of the Act, and by notions of common sense. Where the direct cause of death or bodily injury is some act antecedent or ancillary to the driving, it could not normally be said that the death or injury was "caused by" the driving, but it might be found to have arisen out of the driving.

During this period Schadt developed his theory that single-gene approaches to understanding and treating common human diseases must give way to a network- based approach and that many of the failures in pharmaceutical therapies were caused by an incomplete understanding of biology underlying the therapeutic targets. Demonstrating the ability to infer causal relationships among features in high dimensional data using DNA variation information, Schadt and his colleagues at Merck began reconstructing predictive networks that were shown to be causally associated with disease, leading to the idea of targeting networks, not single genes, to effectively treat common disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, obesity, and most forms of cancer. A Merck spokesman said that the papers Schadt began publishing based on this genetic network data “changed the way people looked at disease.” Schadt used the information about these networks to determine which genes Merck should pursue as targets; by the time he left the company, Schadt estimated that his group was responsible for half the drugs in the company’s development pipeline.

He says "the makeup of a gene pool [i.e., a human population's total reservoir of alternative genes] causally affects the probability of any particular ideology being adopted". A number of articles in a 1989 issue of Behavioral and Brain Sciences criticized the theory. Judith Anderson said his work was based on statistically flawed evidence, John Archer and others said that Rushton failed to understand and misapplied the theory of kin selection, Judith Economos said he was speculative and failed to define the concept of altruistic behavior in a way that it can become manifest and failed to show any plausible mechanism by which members of a species can detect the "altruism gene" in other members of the species, and Steven Gangestad criticized the theory for not being compelling in terms of its attractiveness as an explanatory model, C.R. Hallpike said Rushton's theory failed to take into account that many other traits, ranging from age, sex, social and political group membership, are observably more important in predicting altruistic behavior between non-kin than genetic similarity,Hallpike, C. R. 1989.

Grünbaum argues that Freud, in a 1917 lecture on "Analytic Therapy", advanced a defense of psychoanalysis as a method of clinical investigation that went unnoticed in scholarly literature until Grünbaum drew attention to it in papers published in 1979 and 1980. Grünbaum refers to this defense as the "Tally Argument", and maintains that Freud used it to justify the claim that durable therapeutic success guarantees that the interpretations made in the course of therapy are accurate. He summarizes its two premises as being that "only the psychoanalytic method of interpretation and treatment can yield or mediate to the patient correct insight into the unconscious pathogens of his psychoneurosis" and that the correct insight of a patient into "the etiology of his affliction and into the unconscious dynamics of his character" is "causally necessary for the therapeutic conquest of his neurosis." According to Grünbaum, these premises together entail that there is no spontaneous remission of psychoneuroses, and that, if their cure is ever accomplished, psychoanalysis is "uniquely therapeutic for such disorders" as compared to rival therapies.

Whenever a particular event E1 is causally related to a second particular event E2, there must be, according to Davidson, a law such that (C1 & D1) -> D2, where C1 represents a set of preliminary conditions, D1 is a description of E1 which is sufficient, given C1, for an occurrence of an event of the kind D2, which represents the description of E2. The cause-law principle was intended by Davidson to take in both laws of temporal succession as well as bridge laws. Since Davidson denies that any such laws can involve psychological predicates (including such laws as "(M1 & M2) -> M3" wherein the predicates are all psychological or mixed laws such as ((M1 & M2 -> P1) and ((P1 & P2 -> M1))), it follows that such bridge laws as "P1 -> M1", "M1 -> P1" or "M1 if and only if P1" are to be excluded. However, mental predicates may be allowed in what are called "hedged laws" which are just strict laws qualified by ceteris paribus (all other things being equal) clauses.

Well-founded phenomena (), in the philosophy of Gottfried Leibniz, are ways in which the world falsely appears to us, but which are grounded in the way the world is (as opposed to dreams or hallucinations, which are false appearances that are not thus grounded). For Leibniz, the universe is made up of an infinite number of simple substances or monads, each of which contains a representation of the entire universe (past, present, and future), and which are all causally isolated from one another ("Monads have no windows through which anything could enter or depart."Leibniz, "The Monadology" (1714), §7.) For the most part the monads' perceptions are more or less confused and obscure, but some of them correspond either to the ways in which other monads are related or to the ways that the representation is genuinely ordered; these are the well-founded phenomena. In the world of ordinary experience we might call a rainbow a well-ordered phenomenon; it appears to us to be a coloured arch in the sky, though there is in fact no arch there.

Skepticism relating to scotopic sensitivity syndrome's exact pathology has evolved on several fronts: # Whether it exists as a distinct, predictably identifiable disease with a reasonable pathophysiological mechanism, or whether a range of symptoms from other conditions are being placed under this convenient heading; # Whether it is causally or incidentally related to dyslexia, autism, or other conditions; and # Whether existing methods of scotopic sensitivity syndrome treatment are appropriate and effective. A 2009 report by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not believe that there is conclusive scientific evidence for the use of coloured lenses (one treatment used to relieve symptoms of scotopic sensitivity syndrome) although it acknowledges anecdotal evidence in support of customized colored lenses. When discussing its scientific basis, the AAP mentions that "[t]he method used to select the lens or filter color has been highly variable, the color selection has also shown considerable variability, and the test-retest consistency has been poor" (p. 843). The association of scotopic sensitivity syndrome and dyslexia has been challenged by many authors in the optometric and ophthalmologic communities.

An article by José Natário (2002) argues that crew members could not control, steer or stop the ship in its warp bubble because the ship could not send signals to the front of the bubble (the Horizon problem). Fernando Loup in 2013 argued that the Horizon problem could be overcome in the Natário warp drive, and thus a causally-connected and therefore controllable warp bubble could be established by crew members sending information forward via micro-warp bubbles of the nature argued for by Gauthier, Gravel, and Melanson, drawing on previous work by Pfenning and Ford. A 2009 article by Carlos Barceló, Stefano Finazzi, and Stefano Liberati uses quantum theory to argue that the Alcubierre drive at faster-than-light velocities is impossible mostly because extremely high temperatures caused by Hawking radiation would destroy anything inside the bubble at superluminal velocities and destabilize the bubble itself; the article also argues that these problems are absent if the bubble velocity is subluminal, although the drive still requires exotic matter.

Other non-evidentialist theories include: the Causal Theory, according to which S knows p if and only if S's belief in p is causally connected in an appropriate way with S's believing p; and Robert Nozick's Truth Tracking Theory, according to which S knows p if and only if (i) p is true, (ii) S believes p, (iii) S's attitude toward p tracks the truth value of p in that, when p is not true, S does not believe p and when p is true, S does believe p. Another alternative perspective, promoted by David Hume's 18th-century opponent, Presbyterian philosopher Thomas Reid, and perhaps hinted at by Hume himself, at least in some moods (though this is a very controversial issue in interpreting Hume), has it that some of our "natural" beliefs—beliefs we are led to form by natural features of the human constitution—have what can be called an "innocent-until-proven-guilty" status. Contrary to evidentialism, they can be justified in the absence of any effective evidence that supports them. They are justified just so long as one doesn't have good reason to think them false.

The lord of the speaker's people (min leodfruma, min hlaford) appears in all likelihood also to be her lord in marriage. Given that her lord's kinsmen (þæt monnes magas) are described as taking measures to separate the speaker from him, a probable interpretation of the speaker's initial circumstances is that she has been entered into an exogamous relationship typical within the Anglo-Saxon heroic tradition, and her marital status has left her isolated among her husband's people, who are hostile to her, whether due to her actions or merely due to political strife beyond her control. Somewhat confusing the account, however, the speaker, longing for her lover, has apparently departed (Ic me feran geƿat) either to seek out her lord or merely to seek exile, and the relationship, chronologically or causally, between this act and the hostility of her and/or her husband's people is unclear. She is told by her lord (hlaford min) to take up a particular dwelling place, where she encounters a man of unclear identity, who is or was "suitable" (ful gemæcne) to her, and they declare they will not be separated by anything save death.

In the pursuit of better outcomes for people, problems have been found in current procedures for the treatment of chronic pelvic pain (CPP). These relate primarily with regard to the conceptual dichotomy between an ‘organic’ genesis of pain, where the presence of tissue damage is presumed, and a ‘psychogenic’ origin, where pain occurs despite a lack of damage to tissue. CPP literature in medicine and psychiatry reflects a paradigm where unproblematically observable ‘organic’ processes are causally and sequentially explained, despite evidence in favour of a possible model which accounts for the “complex role played by meaning and consciousness” in the experience of pain. While in the literature of causal mechanisms reference is made to ‘subjective’ aspects of pain, current models do not provide a means through which these aspects may be accessed or understood. Without interpretive or ‘subjective’ approaches to the pain experienced by patients, medical understandings of CPP are fixed within ‘organic’ sequences of the “purely object” body conceptually separated from the patient. Despite the prevalence of this wider understanding of the biological genesis of pain, alternate diagnosis and treatments of CPP in multidisciplinary settings have shown high success rates for people for whom ‘organic’ pathology has been unhelpful.