My clue for BLACKSHIRT was numbered 18-Down instead of 21-Down.
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Due to the outbreak of war the BUF decided to concentrate all its journalistic resources on Action and Blackshirt ceased publication. The paper also incorporated the short-lived The Fascist Week (1933-34).The Blackshirt. British Online Archives.
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119 It ceased publication in 1940 due to the outbreak of the Second World War and the internment of the BUF's leadership. For most of its existence, Action ran parallel to the official mouthpiece of the BUF, The Blackshirt. After the launch of the less hard-line and more intellectual Action, The Blackshirt became more low-brow and finally ceased publication in 1939.The Blackshirt.
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Alessandro Pirzio Biroli XIV Corps was supported by a cavalry regiment, three Border Guard battalions, a Finance Guard battalion and two military police () battalions. The XVII Corps included the Diamanti Blackshirt group which incorporated six Blackshirt regiments comprising two battalions each, the Albanian-raised Skanderbeg Blackshirt regiment of two battalions, another Blackshirt regiment of two battalions, a cavalry regiment, a Bersaglieri motorcycle battalion, three Border Guard battalions, one Finance Guard battalion, a motorised artillery regiment of three battalions, a military police battalion, and a tank company equipped with Fiat M13/40 light tanks. The Librazhd Sector included a motorised artillery regiment of four battalions, a bicycle-mounted Bersaglieri regiment, a cavalry regiment, the Biscaccianti Blackshirt group which incorporated two Blackshirt regiments with a total of five battalions, the regimental-sized Agostini Blackshirt Forest Militia, and the Briscotto group, a regimental- sized formation consisting of one Alpini battalion and two Finance Guard battalions. The Zara garrison numbered about 9,000 men under the overall command of Generale di Brigata (Brigadier) Emilio Giglioli.
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"Sir Malcolm Campbell Carries the Fastest Flag." Blackshirt. 26 April 1935. Page 1.
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The arrival of the Blackshirt Legions effectively restored the triangular form of the divisions they reinforced.
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The blackshirt derived from Italy's daredevil elite shock troops known as the Arditi, soldiers who were specifically trained for a life of violence and wore unique blackshirt uniforms.Roger Griffin, Matthew Feldman. Fascism: Fascism and culture. London, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2004. p. 207.
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The Blackshirt militia maintained an independent Marine Group with four MVSN battalions (24th, 25th, 50th and 60th).
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This is called "throwing the bones." The defensive players not awarded a Blackshirt wear red practice jerseys, while offensive players wear white practice jerseys. The student section at Memorial Stadium is named the "Boneyard" after the Blackshirts. The Blackshirt logo and the "throwing the bones" motion is often displayed there.
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The Italian 5th Blackshirt Division 1 Febbraio was an Italian CCNN Blackshirt militia unit (similar to SS in Nazi-Germany), formed to participate in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War against Ethiopia in the mid-1930s. The name 1 Febbraio refers to the founding of the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale on 1 February 1923.
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Retrieved 24 January 2019. \- Billy Briggs, "Blackshirt bedroom fascist plots to infiltrate Scottish local councils", Daily Record, 19 January 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2019.
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Stephen Dorril's Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley and British Fascism (2006) mentions Pepler in passing, as a member of the British People's Party in 1945.
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The Italian 7th Blackshirt Division Cirene was an Italian CCNN Blackshirt militia unit formed for the Second Italo-Abyssinian War under the command of Lt. Gen. Guido Scandolara. The division was deployed in Libya during the war against Abyssinia to threaten the Suez Canal should the British close it to Italian traffic. It was never deployed to Abyssinia, but was considered to take part in the campaign.
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Priester was a featured essayist for Nation Europa from the journal's foundation in 1951Dorril, Blackshirt, p. 591 and was a close ally of its founder Arthur Ehrhardt. Working closely with Otto Skorzeny, Priester attempted to utilise the magazine as a rallying point for his dream of European unity and travelled widely promoting this aim, including meetings in London with his rival Mosley.Dorril, Blackshirt, p.
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Raikes has been photographed dressed in full fascist uniform and members are encouraged to dress in Blackshirt style uniforms."New British Union", Glasgow Hope not Hate.
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At least one Fascist was thrown into the sea and nearly 1,000 people gathered outside the Beach Hotel where it was alleged that a Blackshirt was staying.
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The Italian 6th Blackshirt Division "Tevere" (Tiber) was an Italian Blackshirt militia unit formed for the Second Italo-Abyssinian War by volunteers. However, due to age (World War I veterans), physical disabilities (amputated veterans), lack of military training (Italians living abroad) and lack of supporting machine guns and pack artillery limited combat value. Nevertheless, it saw some combat in minor actions on the Somali front, and performed creditably under the command of Gen. Enrico Boscardi.
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"Blackshirt News", The Blackshirt, 14 June 1935. As well as his speaking engagements Battersby was also a regular donor of funds to the BUF coffers.Robert Benewick, Political Violence and Public order, London: Allan Lane, 1969, p. 199 As he became more deeply involved, Battersby was eventually forced to resign from the board of Battersby's Hats in August 1939 (he was known as "the mad hatter" in fascist circles) and he left his wife and children to "serve Hitler".
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The Blackshirt was the official newspaper of Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists (BUF) from 1933 until 1936. After the launch of Action in 1936, The Blackshirt declined in importance. An attempt was made to reorganise it as a regional paper in "Southern" (the Midlands, Wales, the West, and South West and the East), "East London" (Greater London) and "Northern" (the North West, Yorkshire, the North East and Scotland) editions. From June 1939 it became the British Union News.
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The mountain troops (Alpini) of the 5th "Pusteria" Mountain Division were dug in on the slopes of Amba Bokora for the Italian I Corps. The rest of the I Corps was in reserve, the 26th "Assietta" Infantry Division, the 30th "Sabauda" Infantry Division, and the 4th "3rd January" Blackshirt Division. The two Eritrean divisions of the Eritrean Corps held Mekan Pass, the 1st Eritrean Division and the 2nd Eritrean Division. The 1st "23rd March" Blackshirt Division was in reserve for the Eritrean Corps.
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South Africans in Hobok Fort after its capture, 1941 2nd and 5th Brigades crossed the Abyssinian border north of Dukana late afternoon on 31 January 1941, moving in parallel columns to assault the Italian positions in the Mega-Moyale complex.Mega: 9th Italian Brigade Group HQ, 2nd, 54th Colonial Infantry Battalion and 60th Colonial Infantry, 585th Blackshirt Battalion, 9th Pack Artillery Battery. Moyale: 2nd Italian Brigade HQ, 12th Colonial Infantry, 105th Blackshirt Battalion and the 25th Artillery Pack Battery. Klein II, p.
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On October 16, 2007, the defensive players and coaches made a joint decision to remove the Blackshirts. The first player to remove his Blackshirt was senior captain Zackary Bowman, who felt he wasn't playing up to the standards of the Blackshirt tradition. On November 11, 2008, the Blackshirts were given back to the eleven defensive starters by new head coach Bo Pelini, three days after a win against a strong Kansas team. The win also made the Cornhuskers bowl eligible.
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"Blackshirts triumph over Red hooliganism", The Blackshirt, 26 October 1934, p. 10. In February 1935, he spoke at Heaton Moor where he "analysed the international capitalist position" and argued that "Lancashire was being sacrificed to the interests that were exploiting backward peoples to choke the Western world with sweated goods"."Meeting at Heaton Moor", The Blackshirt, 15 February 1935, p. 9. In June 1935 he gave a talk on fascism at a Stockport Sunday school, and he and Mrs Battersby met the children afterwards.
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General , commander of the Acqui Division Since the fall of Greece in April–May 1941, the country had been divided in occupation zones, with the Italians getting the bulk of the mainland and most islands. The Acqui Division had been the Italian garrison of Cephalonia since May 1943, and consisted of 11,500 soldiers and 525 officers. It was composed of two infantry regiments (the 17th and the 317th), the 33rd artillery regiment, the 27th Blackshirt Legion, the 19th Blackshirt Battalion and support units. Furthermore, its 18th Regiment was detached to garrison duties in Corfu.
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79 On 11 February, the 4th "3 January" Blackshirt Division and the Pusteria Alpine Division of the I Corps advanced from May Gabat moving towards and around the west side of Amba Aradam. At the same time, the III Corps moved towards and around the east side of Amba Aradam. Too late Ras Mulugeta realized the Italian plan to encircle his positions. On the afternoon of 12 February, a large Ethiopian force streamed down the western slopes of Amba Aradam and attacked the 3rd "21st April" Blackshirt Division.
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In July, Blackshirt euphemistically reported that Chesterston was "having a well- deserved rest, on the strict orders of his doctor." Mosley eventually paid for Chesterton to be treated by a neurologist in Germany. Following his return to Britain in April 1937, Chesterton was appointed in June "Director of Publicity and Propaganda", and in August the editor of The Blackshirt. This position provided a pulpit for his increasingly "vituperative" anti-Semitic rhetoric, the magazine promoting The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as "the most astounding book ever published".
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On 9 December, the 1st Libyan Division Sibelle was at Maktila and the 2nd Libyan Division Pescatori was at Tummar. The Maletti Group was at Nibiewa and the 4th Blackshirt Division 3 Gennaio and the headquarters of the Libyan Corps were at Sidi Barrani. The 63rd Infantry Division Cirene and the headquarters of XXI Corps were at Sofafi and the 64th Infantry Division Catanzaro was at Buq Buq. The headquarters of the XXIII Corps and the 2nd Blackshirt Division 28 Ottobre were in Sollum and Halfaya Pass respectively and the 62nd Infantry Division Marmarica was at Sidi Omar, south of Sollum.
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At Alam el Dab, just short of Sidi Barrani, about fifty Italian tanks supported by motorised infantry and artillery, tried to outflank and trap the British rear guard, which forced the 3rd Coldstream Guards battalion to retreat. By late on 16 September, the 1st had reached an area south-east of Sidi Barrani, with the 1st Blackshirt Division ("23rd Marzo") and the XXIII Corps artillery, having been used cautiously for infantry support. The was west of the objective, having been hampered by lack of supplies and disorganisation. The 1st Blackshirt Division ("23rd Marzo") took Sidi Barrani and the advance stopped at Maktila, beyond.
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The Blackshirt Student Newspaper, or The Blackshirt, is an online student-run school newspaper. Founded in 2017 by a couple of students, the student-run publication has gone on to complete interviews with Olympic Athlete Whitney Ashley and Max Temkin, a Forbes 30 Under 30 alumn & cofounder of the popular card game Cards Against Humanity. The Academic Decathlon team took 3rd place in state competition in 2011 and was 1st among Division 1 schools. Waukesha South's novice debate team placed seventh at state in 2010 and one of its members, Sam Foat, won Top Negative Speaker.
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After World War I the corps was moved once again to Bologna until it moved to Verona in 1927 and tasked with territorial and defence duties along the valley of the Adige. The corps consisted of the 9th Infantry Division "Pasubio" in Verona and the 11th Infantry Division "Brennero" in Bolzano. In 1935 the corps was moved to Bolzano, but quickly dispatched to reinforce the Italian troops that faced stiffer than expected resistance during the Italian invasion of Abyssinia. The corps commanded the 5th Infantry Division "Cosseria", 1st Blackshirt Division "23 March" and 5th Blackshirt Division "1° Febbraio".
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The ten divisions of the 10ª (Lieutenant- General Mario Berti) comprised the XX Motorised Corps ( Giuseppe di Stefanis), XXI Corps ( Lorenzo Dalmazzo), XXII Corps XXIII Corps ( Annibali Bergonzoli) and the new (Libyan Corps). The army comprised metropolitan infantry divisions, Blackshirt ( or CCNN) infantry divisions and Libyan Colonial divisions. The XXIII Corps with the metropolitan divisions "Cirene" and "Marmarica", the Blackshirt Division "23rd Marzo", the 1st and 2nd Libyan divisions (Lieutenant-General Sebastiano Gallina) and the Maletti Group was to conduct the invasion. Bergonzoli had about first to move the "Cirene" and "Marmarica" divisions, followed by the "23rd Marzo".
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There were also two independent Bersaglieri regiments, a grenadier regiment, two cavalry regiments, Blackshirt and Albanian battalions and other units. According to official Italian documents, on 1 January 1941, Italy had 10,616 officers, 261,850 men, 7,563 vehicles, and 32,871 animals in Albania.
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In the 1930s, Battersby was increasingly attracted to fascism and became a district leader in Stockport for Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists (BUF). In August 1934 he spoke at Sale on the position of the Lancashire cotton industry, arguing for protection of the industry from "the men who had financed oriental competition" that threatened the livelihoods of Lancashire men."Sale hears the fascist policy", The Blackshirt, 10 August 1934, p. 11. In October 1934, The Blackshirt reported that he put a "well reasoned argument for Fascism in Britain" at a speech in Manchester, despite being heckled by a group of what the paper called "Reds".
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Mino Doro (6 May 1903 – 12 May 2006) was an Italian actor who appeared in more than a hundred films between 1932 and 1970. Doro generally played supporting and character roles. He appeared as a blackshirt in the 1934 Fascist propaganda film The Old Guard.Landy p.
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On 23 December 1940 General Tellera took over the command of the Italian Tenth Army from Lt. Gen Italo Gariboldi. At the time the Tenth Army was trying to stop the British Operation Compass, which had begun 9 December with the Attack on Nibeiwa. At the beginning of the offensive the Tenth Army consisted of four Army Corps with nine divisions and two brigade-sized armored groups, but by 23 December the 1st Libyan Division "Sibille", 2nd Libyan Division "Pescatori", 4th Blackshirt Division "3 Gennaio" and Libyan Group "Maletti" had been destroyed in the Battle of Sidi Barrani, while the 1st Blackshirt Division "23 Marzo", 2nd Blackshirt Division "28 Ottobre", 62nd Infantry Division "Marmarica", 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene", and remnants of the 64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro" were encircled at Bardia leaving Tellera only with the 61st Infantry Division "Sirte" and the Special Armoured Brigade. Tellera, who had already served as staff officer during World War I on the Italian front and been the Chief of Staff under General Balbo and Graziani, set out to build up a defense with whatever reinforcements he received.
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Its members included the British Nietzschean Anthony Ludovici,Stone, p. 45. who was one of the most prolific writers of the movement and helped form its ideology, and the journalist Collin Brooks.Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt (2006), p. 296. Others were Rolf Gardiner and Graham Seton Hutchison,Richard Griffiths, Patriotism Perverted (1998), p. 52.
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When war was declared, the 5th Army (General Italo Gariboldi) was in Tripolitania the western Libyan province and the 10th Army (General Mario Berti) was in Cyrenaica to the east. Once the French in Tunisia no longer posed a threat to Tripolitania, units of the 5th Army were used to reinforce the 10th Army. When Governor-General of Libya Italo Balbo was killed by friendly fire, Marshal Graziani took his place. Graziani expressed doubts about the capabilities of the large non-mechanized force to defeat the British, who though smaller in numbers were motorised. After being reinforced from the 5th Army, the 10th Army controlled the equivalent of four corps with and . The XX Corps had the 60th Infantry Division Sabratha and the XXI Corps had the 1st Blackshirt Division 23 Marzo, the 2nd Blackshirt Division 28 Ottobre and the 63 Infantry Division Cirene. XXII Corps had the 61st Infantry Division Sirte and XXIII Corps had the 4th Blackshirt Division 3 Gennaio and the 64th Infantry Division Catanzaro. The new Group of Libyan Divisions () had the Maletti Group, the 1st Libyan Division Sibelle (Major-General Luigi Sibelle) and the 2nd Libyan Division Pescatori (Major-General Armando Pescatori).
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Marshal Rodolfo Graziani revised E, the plan for the invasion of Egypt by the 10th Army and made Sidi Barrani the objective, six days before the deadline for an invasion imposed by Mussolini. XXII Corps ( Petassi Manella) was in general reserve, XXI Corps ( Lorenzo Dalmazzo) was at Tobruk as the 10th Army reserve with the un-motorized 61st Infantry Division "Sirte", 2nd Blackshirt Division (28 October) and a light tank battalion. The XXIII Corps ( Annibale Bergonzoli) comprised the un-motorized 64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro" and 4th Blackshirt Division (3 January). A northern column with the Italian non-motorised divisions was to advance down the coast road, cross the frontier and attack through the Halfaya Pass, to occupy Sollum and capture Sidi Barrani.
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The invasion force included several hundred native Albanian and Chams in blackshirt battalions attached to the Italian army. Their performance however was distinctly lackluster, as most Albanians, poorly motivated, either deserted or defected. Indeed, the Italian commanders, including Mussolini, would later use the Albanians as scapegoats for the Italian failure.Anamali, Skënder and Prifti, Kristaq.
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Banning was a British school teacher who became involved in the politics of the Right. He joined the Conservative Party and became an organiser with them. He subsequently joined the British Union of Fascists and was based at the party’s headquarters in the King's Road, Chelsea, London. He was a contributor to The Blackshirt, the newspaper of the BUF.
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Harold Elsdale Goad (4 October 1878 – 26 May 1956) was a British writer, journalist and poet. He was an early sympathiser with fascism, publishing the pamphlet What is Fascism?, followed by two books on corporatism. He was one of those in the British Fascists interested in Fascist ideology, with James Strachey Barnes,Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt (2006), p. 199.
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The right wing of the Ethiopian armies rested on Uork Amba (the "mountain of gold"). The Ethiopians established a strong point there. Amba Work blocked the road to Abbi Addi on which the Eritrean Corps and the III Corp planned to converge. One-hundred- and-fifty Alpini and Blackshirt commandos were ordered to capture it under cover of darkness.
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Gianfranco Giachetti (September 27, 1888 – November 29, 1936) was an Italian stage and film actor. He played the role of Father Costanzo in Alessandro Blasetti's historical film 1860.Landy p.63 The same year he appeared in The Old Guard as Doctor Cardini, the father of a young blackshirt who is killed in a street fight.
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The Italian invasion force included five colonial brigades, three Blackshirt battalions and five Bande, half a company of M11/39 medium tanks and a squadron of L3/35 tankettes, several armoured cars, 21 howitzer batteries, pack artillery and air support. Lieutenant-General Carlo de Simone, issued instructions on 25 July, as commander of the main force, the Harrar Division with eleven African infantry battalions in three brigades, the three Blackshirt battalions and the tanks and armoured cars. The French and British were to be prevented from uniting and receiving reinforcements to attack Harrar, by defeating the garrison and occupying British Somaliland. Because the Assa Hills rose to over , parallel to the coast about inland, there were three approaches to Berbera for wheeled and tracked vehicles for the Italians to consider.
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The last ten Matildas drove into the western face of the Sidi Barrani defences, and although they were met by Italian artillery, it was ineffective. At 6 p.m., approximately surrendered. In two hours the first objectives had been captured, only a sector east of the harbour, held by a Blackshirt legion and the remains of the 1st Libyan Division, was still resisting.
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Time Magazine, December 2, 1935. Later, a report was issued that Ethiopian warriors had captured eighteen tanks, thirty-three field guns, 175 machine guns, and 2,605 rifles. In addition, this report indicated that the Ethiopians had wiped out an entire brigade of the 2nd "28 October" Blackshirt Division and that the Italians had lost at least 3,000 men. Rome denied these figures.
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It justifies the political violence of the Blackshirt paramilitaries of the National Fascist Party (PNF — Partito Nazionale Fascista), in the revolutionary realisation of Italian Fascism as the authoritarian and totalitarian rėgime of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini, who ruled Italy as Il Duce ("The Leader"), from 1922 to 1943.Giovanni Gentile (1929). Origini e dottrina del fascismo. Rome, 1929, 69 pp.
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S. Dorrill, Blackshirt, Penguin, 2007, p. 431 Hitler finally dismissed Leopold as Landesleiter in February 1938 on the pretext that he wanted Austrian Nazis to follow legality. Hitler, who had been due to hold talks with Schuschnigg, was especially annoyed that Leopold had launched a bombing campaign in the run-up to the meeting, and so moved for his dismissal.
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On 20 January, Badoglio launched the First Battle of the Tembien. On the left of the Eritrean Corps, the 2nd Eritrean Division advanced in two columns through the area around Ab'aro Pass. On the right of the Eritrean Corps, the 2nd "28th October" Blackshirt Division advanced towards the torrent that was the Beles River. The Italian III Corps held Nebri and Negada.
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He guessed wrong. The Italians attacked and secured the lightly held Ethiopian positions on "The Herringbone" which made defense of the "Priest's Hat" untenable. For political reasons, the 1st "23rd March" Blackshirt Division was given the honor of hoisting the Italian flag atop Amba Aradam. The Ethiopians had managed to create a break in the Italian line around Addi Kolo.
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Its commander stricken, the army of the Bale retreated, leaving the army of the Sidamo was on its own. On 13 November Graziani moved his headquarters to Baidoa. The 29th "Peloritana" Division was still the only full division available to him. By mid-November limited elements of the Libyan Colonial Division and the 6th "Tevere" Blackshirt Division were in Somalia.
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Fascism: Fascism and culture. London, England, UK; New York, New York, US: Routledge, 2004. p. 207. The Arditi were soldiers who were specifically trained for a life of violence and wore unique blackshirt uniforms and fezzes. The Arditi formed a national organization in November 1918, the Associazione fra gli Arditi d'Italia, which by mid-1919 had about twenty thousand young men within it.
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Portmanteau for triad gangsters (黑社會) and police (警察) . See also triads for context. ; Blackshirt: UK, derogatory name referencing the modern police uniforms and the armed squads of Italian Fascists under Benito Mussolini. ; Blues and Twos: UK, from the flashing blue lights and the two frequency siren on a police car ; Blueband: UK, from the blue cap band worn by PCSOs.
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The organisation had been founded as an alternative to the Royal British Legion in 1937. The League held its first meeting in Hyde Park on 4 November 1944 promoted itself as a fascist organisation that endorsed racial purity and "Britain for the British", and inspired a hostile reaction from the crowd.Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley & British Fascism, Penguin Books, 2007, p.
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The January Club was a discussion group founded in 1934 by Oswald Mosley to attract Establishment support for the movement known as the British Union of Fascists. The Club was under the effective control of Robert Forgan, working on behalf of the BUF. The founders as identified by MI5Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt (2006), p.258. were Forgan, Donald Makrill, Francis Yeats-Brown and H. W. Luttman-Johnson.
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The Blackshirt jersey was temporarily suspended again after Nebraska yielded 271 rushing yards to the Minnesota Golden Gophers in 2013, a game which snapped Minnesota's 16-game losing streak to Nebraska and knocked the #24 Huskers out of the AP and USA Today college football rankings. Though Blackshirts have been handed out in the interim, no unit has finished in the top 25 annually in defense since.
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In 1939 the brigade lost the 12th Infantry regiment and was renamed 12th Infantry Division Sassari. This binary division consisted of only two infantry regiments (151st and 152nd) and the 34th Field Artillery Regiment. To increase the weak strength of the division in 1941 the division was joined by the 73rd Blackshirt Assault Legion Boiardo, a battalion sized militia unit of the Italian Fascist Party.
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Beginning on the end of August, Ethiopian irregulars started ambushes aimed at cutting communications and supply lines between Gondar and Culqualber. Ugolini ordered some sorties in retaliation. On 4 September, some askari and blackshirt companies made a nocturnal sortie and attacked the Ethiopian encampment, capturing a large quantity of weapons and ammunition. The British forces retaliated with a heavy bombardment of the Italian positions.
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In 1915, Italy joined the Great War and Auriti enlisted as an infantryman. Afterwards, Auriti became a vehement critic of the Italian Fascist Party – a decision which ultimately prompted his immigration. After publishing a series of satirical anti-Fascist poems in the local paper, Auriti was publicly harassed by party members. He was "forced to drink castor oil in the streets by Blackshirt goon squad."B.
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Waukesha South's Bands, the Waukesha South Blackshirt Bands, include Concert, Wind & Symphonic, Jazz, Marching, and several ensembles.Waukesha South Bands History The band curriculum focuses on music performance and music theory. The bands travel to local, domestic, and international venues. Locations have included Switzerland in 1974; England in 1998; New Orleans, Texas, and Florida in 2009; England, California, and Australia in 2011; and China in 2007.
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Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley & British Fascism, Penguin Books, 2007, p. 196 Despite his role as President, Blakeney's knowledge of fascism as an ideology has been portrayed as somewhat sketchy.Thomas P. Linehan, British Fascism, 1918-39: Parties, Ideology and Culture, Manchester University Press, 2000, p. 63 For Blakeney, the BF were the adult version of the Scout movement, arguing that they shared such values as fraternity, duty and service.
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Since Italian-held Axum was only 30 miles away, they eventually resumed their advance. At the same time, an Italian Blackshirt paramilitary column of trucks and ten tanks was dispatched from Axum to conduct a counter-attack. The Ethiopians ambushed the column two or three miles outside of Enda Selassie, blocking its path by rolling boulders across the road. They killed the driver of the lead tank, immobilising it.
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Sykes, p. 41 They were married on 4 December 1933, after which they settled into a cottage at Strand-on-the-Green on the western edges of London. Mitford's initial delight in the marriage was soon tempered by money worries, Rodd's fecklessness and her dislike of his family.Hastings, pp. 87–91 In 1934 Mitford began her third novel, Wigs on the Green, a satire on Mosley's fascist "Blackshirt" movement.
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In November, the last organised Italian resistance in Ethiopia ended with the fall of Gondar.Jowett (2001) p.7 However, following the surrender of East Africa, some Italians conducted a guerrilla war which lasted for two more years. This guerrilla was done primarily by military units with Italian officers (like Captain Paolo Aloisi, Captain Leopoldo Rizzo, Blackshirt officer De Varda and Major Lucchetti) but also by civilians like Rosa Dainelli.
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Born in Oxford, Jenks was the son of Edward Jenks, a leading expert on jurisprudence and his second wife.R. More-Collyer, 'Towards "Mother Earth": Jorian Jenks, Organicism, the Right and the British Union of Fascists', Journal of Contemporary History, 2004, 39, p. 356 A farmer, Jenks was educated at the Harper Adams Agricultural College and Balliol College, Oxford,S. Dorril, Blackshirt – Sir Oswald Mosley and British Fascism, London: Penguin, 2007, p.
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On 10 December, the 16th Infantry Brigade was brought forward from 4th Indian Division reserve and with part of the 11th Indian Brigade under command, advanced in lorries to attack Sidi Barrani. While moving across exposed ground, some casualties were incurred but with support from artillery and the 7th RTR, it was in position barring the south and south western exits to Sidi Barrani by The British attacked at supported by the divisional artillery and the town fell by nightfall; the remains of the two Libyan Divisions and the 4th Blackshirt Division 3 Gennaio were trapped between the 16th Infantry Brigade and Selby Force. On 11 December, Selby Force and some tanks attacked and overran the 1st Libyan Division Sibelle and by the evening, the 4th Blackshirt Division 3 Gennaio had also surrendered. On 11 December, the 7th Armoured Brigade was ordered out of reserve to relieve the 4th Armoured Brigade in the Buq Buq area, mop up and capture large numbers of men and guns.
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The XXIII de Marzo Group () was one of the Blackshirt units sent to Spain during the Spanish Civil War to make up the "Corpo Truppe Volontarie" (Corps of Volunteer Troops), or CTV. This unit was attached to the 2nd CCNN Division "Fiamme Nere" during the Battle of Guadalajara in March 1937. Following defeat there, it was sent to Vizcaya in April 1937 with the Flechas Negras Mixed Brigade and 11 Groups of CTV Corps Artillery.
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Peter received a full athletic scholarship to the University of Nebraska where he was a three year starter. He became one of the leaders of Nebraska's feared "Blackshirt" defense. Peter was an all-Big Eight Conference and honorable mention All-American in his senior year, and finished his college career with 124 total tackles, 20 tackles for loss and nine sacks. He was inducted into the Nebraska Football Hall of Fame in 2006.
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A year later Tonypandy saw the publication of Noah Ablett's pamphlet "The Miners' Next Step". Tonypandy was at the centre of further public disorder, when on 11 June 1936 at Dewinton Field, a crowd gathered to confront an open-air address by Tommy Moran, propaganda officer of the British Union of Fascists. The crowd, recorded as 2,000–6,000 strong, turned violent and police had to protect Moran's Blackshirt bodyguard. Seven local people were arrested.
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Although the majority of his officers wanted to react, he called the Undersecretary to the Interiors, Albini, after consulting with four generals and declaring that the MVSN would have "remained faithful to its principles, that is to serve the fatherland through its pair, Duce and King". Since the war against the Allies was continuing, the duty of each Blackshirt was to continue the fight.Bianchi (1963), p. 732 Badoglio had nothing to fear from the Blackshirts.
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592 The two even worked together on their shared aim of exporting the idea to South Africa, where Mosley had already secured an alliance with former cabinet minister Oswald Pirow.Dorril, Blackshirt, pp. 596−7 He was also a close collaborator of René Binet, helping him to develop his journal La Sentinelle. Priester's involvement in domestic politics waned as he came to concentrate his efforts on publishing and the development of the international movement.
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Like most groups in existence at the time however many supporters were loath to join as they feared that active groups were too easily infiltrated by MI5.Dorrill, Blackshirt, p. 530 Before long Webster had left to form his own English Legion and they did not survive the war. The group contested the 1943 Acton by- election with Godfrey officially running as independent, although he finished bottom of the poll with 258 votes.
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In March, the 2nd Italian SS "Vendetta" Battalion and 29th Italian SS Rifle Battalion were sent to fight against the Anglo-American forces at the Anzio beachhead. Dispersed among German battalions, the German commanding officers later gave the Italians companies favourable reports. Members of former Blackshirt Lieutenant-Colonel Degli Oddi's "Vendetta" helped defeat a determined effort by the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division to overrun their positions and captured a number of prisoners.
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Relazione Lucchetti. In the summer of 1942, the most successful units were those led by Colonel Calderari in Somalia, Colonel Di Marco in the Ogaden, Colonel Ruglio amongst the Danakil and "Blackshirt centurion" De Varda in Ethiopia. Their ambushes forced the Allies under William Platt with the British Military Mission to Ethiopia to dispatch troops, with airplanes and tanks, from Kenya and Sudan to the guerrilla-ridden territories of the former Italian East Africa.Cernuschi, Enrico.
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She admired the stance of both Hitler and Mussolini against Soviet Russia, believing that its political ambitions presented the greatest threat to the power of Britain and its Empire. She also considered funding Oswald Mosley and his British Union of Fascists with the £200,000 rejected by the Government. However, just at that crucial moment Mosley's publication The Blackshirt printed what she thought were insulting references to her, and she kept the money.
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Thinking that the planned attack on Abyssinia would be crippled, Balbo asked for reinforcements in Libya. He calculated that such a gesture would make him a national hero and restore him to the centre of the political stage. The 7th Blackshirt Division (Cirene) and 700 aircraft were immediately sent from Italy to Libya. Balbo may have received intelligence concerning the feasibility of advancing into Egypt and Sudan from the famous desert researcher László Almásy.
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Over 100 mounted officers and NYPD's Police Reserve were used to restore order. A phalanx of officers lined the streets for the remainder of the viewing. Polish actress Pola Negri, claiming to be Valentino's fiancée, collapsed in hysterics while standing over the coffin,Brownlow, Kevin. Hollywood, Episode "Swanson & Valentino," 1980; interview with Ben Lyon, who was in charge of Valentino's funeral and Campbell hired four actors to impersonate a Fascist Blackshirt honor guard, purportedly sent by Benito Mussolini.
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For her part Lintorn-Orman would have nothing to do with the BUF as she considered Oswald Mosley to be a near-communistS. Dorril, Blackshirt – Sir Oswald Mosley and British Fascism, London: Penguin, 2007, p. 204 and was particularly appalled by his former membership of the Labour Party,Cole, Lord Haw-Haw, pp. 39–40 although it was to this group that she lost much of her membership when Neil Francis Hawkins became a member in 1932.
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The camps are overrun, Italian General Pietro Maletti is killed, and the Maletti Group, the 1st Libyan Division, the 2nd Libyan Division, and the 4th Blackshirt Division are all but destroyed. The remaining Italian units in Egypt are forced to withdraw towards Libya. :8: Francisco Franco rules out Spanish entry into the war; the immediate result is that Hitler is forced to cancel an attack on Gibraltar. :12: In North Africa, over 39,000 Italians lost or captured in Egypt.
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One of the two CR.42s, piloted by Sub-Lieutenant Ildebrando Malavolta, was engaged over Culqualber by two Gloster Gladiator and shot down by Lieutenant Lancelot Charles Henry Hope (3rd Squadron SAAF) on 24 October. A heavy assault was attempted against the northern defences (manned by the 3rd Company of the CCXL Blackshirt Battalion and by the 2nd Carabinieri Battalion); the Italian lines ceded in some points but these were immediately recaptured by Italian and colonial counter-attacks.
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273 On 14 April, Graziani ordered his entire army to advance towards the Ethiopian defensive lines in a three-pronged attack. He had decided to fight a "colonial war" with primarily colonial troops. The 29th "Peloritana" Division and the 6th "Tevere" Blackshirt Division were held in reserve. The first column, commanded by General Guglielmo Nasi and including the Libyan Division, on the Italian right was to break through the defenses at Janogoto and Dagahamodo threaten the Ethiopian left.
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Lewis and future Ontario CCF leader Ted Jolliffe organized a noisy protest by planting Labour Club members in the dance hall where Joyce was speaking and having groups of two and three of them leave at a time, making much noise on the creaking wooden floors. They were successful in drowning out Joyce, and he did not complete his speech. Afterwards, a street fight erupted between Joyce's Blackshirt supporters and members of the Labour Club, including Lewis.Smith, pp.
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During the 1930s Macnab shared a flat in London with William Joyce and the two built up a lifelong friendship that was to determine his political involvement.Kenny, op cit, p. 130 A witness at Joyce's second marriage,Kenny, op cit, p. 132 Macnab joined the British Union of Fascists and served as an official in the BUF's Propaganda Department, editing the party journal, Fascist Quarterly, and contributing a weekly, bitterly antisemitic column, 'Jolly Judah', to its newspaper, The Blackshirt.
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S. Dorrill, Blackshirt – Sir Oswald Mosley and British Fascism, London: Penguin, 2007, p. 413 A loyal lieutenant to Joyce he complained directly to Oswald Mosley about Joyce's dismissal from the BUF in 1937 and was himself forcibly removed from the group as a result.Dorrill, op cit, p. 413 Indeed, such was the bad feeling between Mosley and Joyce that the BUF leader threatened to physically attack Macnab for his complaints and ultimately had him ejected by his Blackshirts.
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A supporter of Benito Mussolini, he volunteered to serve in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War where he commanded the 1st Blackshirt Division. It was his division that raised the Italian flag over Amba Aradam. When Italy joined World War II, he became commander of the Italian 7th Army, but held no major commands after Italy joined the Allies. Prince Filiberto married Princess Lydia of Arenberg (1 April 1905 in Brussels – 23 July 1977 in Lausanne) on 30 April 1928 in Turin.
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129 He gained a reputation as a workaholic at BUF HQStephen Dorril, Blackshirt – Sir Oswald Mosley and British Fascism, London: Penguin, 2007, p. 246 and he was equally noted for his personal loyalty to Mosley,Dorrill, p. 366 although he also had a strong influence over his leader and was identified by Special Branch as being responsible, along with William Joyce, for convincing Mosley to embrace anti- Semitism.Dorril, p. 306 Mosley would later describe him as "a man of outstanding character and ability".
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In the early 1930s Tremlett was a member of the British Union of Fascists (BUF), serving as Oswald Mosley's deputy director of publications and as the editor of BUF's newspapers Fascist Week and The Blackshirt. After several meetings together, Tremlett convinced A. K. Chesterton to join the party in November 1933. In 1934 he resigned from the BUF with 'The National' and the 'New January Club' splinter group. In 1945 Tremlett was at the foundation meeting of the National Front along with Chesterton.
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However following his 1933 assassination the group came under the leadership of Raúl Ferrero Rebagliati who sought to mobilise mass support and even set up a Blackshirt movement in imitation of the Italian model. A heavy defeat in the 1944 elections shook confidence however and the movement faded.Payne, A History of Fascism, p. 343 Following the collapse of Reblagiati's movement the main outlet for fascism became the Peruvian Fascist Brotherhood, formed by ex-Prime Minister José de la Riva-Agüero y Osma.
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A.K. Chesterton and the Problem of British Fascism, 1915-1973 p. 118. Between 1929 and 1931, he worked as a journalist for the Torquay Times, and served as the chairman of the South Devon branch of the National Union of Journalists. In November 1933 Chesterton joined the British Union of Fascists (BUF) while still employed by the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, after being recruited by Rex Tremlett, his former schoolmate at Berkhamsted and then the editor of BUF's newspapers Fascist Week and The Blackshirt.
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Initially little drastic change in government policy occurred, and repressive police actions against communist and d'Annunzian rebels were limited. At the same time, Mussolini consolidated his control over the National Fascist Party by creating a governing executive for the party, the Grand Council of Fascism, whose agenda he controlled. In addition, the squadristi blackshirt militia was transformed into the state-run MVSN, led by regular army officers. Militant squadristi were initially highly dissatisfied with Mussolini's government and demanded a "Fascist revolution".
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In 1920, he announced himself as a People's League parliamentary candidate for East LeytonThe Times, December 17, 1920 and, in 1921, as an Anti-Waste League candidate.The Times, August 1, 1921 He became General Secretary of the Empire Producers' Organization. He was also a member of the Anti-Socialist Union and was for a time part of a tendency within that group that was close to the British Fascists.Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley & British Fascism, Penguin Books, 2007, p.
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213–217 King's Road King's Road or Kings Road (or sometimes the King's Road, especially when it was the King's private road until 1830, or as a colloquialism by middle/upper class London residents), is a major street stretching through Chelsea and Fulham, both in west London. It is associated with 1960s style and with fashion figures such as Mary Quant and Vivienne Westwood. Sir Oswald Mosley's Blackshirt movement had a barracks on the street in the 1930s.Mosley, Sir Oswald.
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Pugh, "Hurrah For the Blackshirts!", p. 82 Following his return to the United Kingdom Boyle once again became involved in rightist politics and was a regular invitee to the January Club, a high society discussion club organised by the British Union of Fascists.Pugh, "Hurrah For the Blackshirts!", p. 146 According to contemporary Labour Party documents Boyle subsequently provided funding to Oswald Mosley's party, which was one of the intentions of the January Club.Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley & British Fascism, Penguin, 2007, p.
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In the London County Council elections in 1937, the BUF stood in three wards in East London (some former New Party seats), its strongest areas, polling up to a quarter of the vote. Mosley made most of the Blackshirt employees redundant, some of whom then defected from the party with William Joyce. As the European situation moved towards war, the BUF began to nominate Parliamentary by-election candidates and launched campaigns on the theme of Mind Britain's Business. Mosley remained popular as late as summer 1939.
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97 According to Nicholas Mosley, Blakeney left the encounter with a black eye and Oswald Mosley would subsequently concede that his stewards had got out in control with the violence they meted out to the IFL that day.Nicholas Mosley, Rules of the Game: Sir Oswald and Lady Cynthia Mosley 1896-1933, Fontana, 1983, , p. 229 Despite this, Blakeney would later take a minor role in the BUF and contributed a number of articles to their Action and Blackshirt journals.Benewick, Political Violence and Public Order, p.
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After Nebraska receiver Niles Paul botched the punt return, Clemson's Jacoby Ford caught a 41 yard touchdown pass to put Clemson up 21–10. Nebraska struck back with Joe Ganz eventually finding receiver Todd Peterson from 17 yards out for a touchdown to bring the Huskers within four points of Clemson at 21-17. Nebraska's Blackshirt defense intercepted Clemson quarterback Cullen Harper on the next drive. The turnover led to an Alex Henery 28-yard field goal to bring Nebraska within one point at 21–20.
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Baker White graduated from Malvern College in 1920.Spies at Work, Chapter 3, "Section D" Retrieved 11 January 2010 In the early 1920s he was a member of the Anti- Socialist Union and was part of a tendency within that group that sought to co-operate with the British Fascists.Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley & British Fascism, Penguin Books, 2007, p. 196 He then worked for the Economic League, a privately funded anti-Communist pressure group and intelligence organization, serving as its Director from 1926 to 1939.
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The old belt-fed Fiat 14 was also seen in small numbers, but was obsolete. The praised high-quality Beretta 38A submachine guns were extremely rare, and given only in small numbers to specialized units, such as the Blackshirt legions, some tank crews or Carabinieri military police. Italian paratroopers in North Africa were equipped exclusively with this weapon, and gave outstanding combat results. There was total absence of any portable anti-tank weapon, thus making hand grenades, machine guns and mortars the last resort against Soviet armour.
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In the 1930s, the Italian occupiers dedicated a graveyard near Hayq for the bodies of dead soldiers from the Blackshirt 3 Gennaio Division. During the mid-1980s, local educational services was augmented by the Swedish Wello Environment Education Project, which ran a secondary school. Hayq was formerly the capital of the Amba Sel woreda or district in Wollo. Construction of a youth center, which includes amenities as a gymnasium, internet service room, assembly hall, a café, and office space, was underway in March 2009.
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The 136th Armoured Division Centauro II was an Armoured Division of the Italian Army during World War II. The division had a number of different titles before settling on 136th Armoured Division Centauro II. It was formed in 1942 and started as the 1 Blackshirt Armoured Division M was re designated 136th Armoured Division M then 136th Legionary Armoured Division Centauro and finally Centauro II. In September 1943 it was in training near Rome and fought the Germans as part of the Corpo d'Armata Motocorazzato before surrendering.
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107 Priester was an enthusiastic supporter of the idea of a united EuropeStephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley & British Fascism, 2007, p. 590 although his co- operation with another leading light of that position, Oswald Mosley, was hamstrung by the stormy nature of their personal relations.Macklin, Very Deeply Dyed in Black, p. 178 A strong opponent of democracy, he would later move to have the Italian Social Movement expelled from the ESM due to their willingness to co-operate with more mainstream right-wing parties in Italy.
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A few months after the notorious Olympia meeting of 7 June that year, following which the Blackshirt stewards were accused of using excessive force in ejecting troublemakers, Risdon was replaced as DoP by a relative newcomer who was a compelling public speaker, William Joyce. Risdon moved to Manchester to spearhead a recruiting campaign in the north west of England, which proved to be very successful: "The BUF opened about a score of propaganda centres in the cotton towns which, under Risdon's direction, enrolled new members by the thousand and were so successful as seriously to worry the Labour Party." By now, he was writing regularly for the organisation's three (albeit not concurrent) periodicals, The Blackshirt, Fascist Week and Action, as well as occasionally in The Fascist Quarterly. Around this time, the police-style Action Press uniform started to be issued to the most dedicated members, but Risdon positively refused to wear it: in 1936, the wearing of political uniforms was banned under the Public Order Act, partly as a response to the violence of Cable Street, for which the British Union was not directly responsible.
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In September 1940 the Italian invasion of Egypt had begun but stopped after at Sidi Barrani where the Italians dug in. At first the British prepared to resist an Italian advance on Mersa Matruh but when this did not occur a raid by the Western Desert Force, with the possibility of exploiting success, was planned on the Italian positions around Sidi Barrani. The raid, Operation Compass, began on 9 December 1940 with the surprise Attack on Nibeiwa where the Italian brigade-sized Maletti Group, the only Italian armoured formation in Egypt, was annihilated. On 10 December the Western Desert Force engaged the three divisions of the Italian Libyan Divisions Group and the 64th Infantry Division "Catanzaro" at the Battle of Sidi Barrani and defeated them by 11 December. With the 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene", the last Italian division on Egyptian soil, retreating towards Libya, the 7th Armoured Division pressed on and by 15 December had cut the road between Bardia and Tobruk. At Bardia the Italians had concentrated the XXIII Corps (General Annibale Bergonzoli) comprising the 1st Blackshirt Division "23 Marzo", 2nd Blackshirt Division "28 Ottobre", 62nd Infantry Division "Marmarica" and the 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene".
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Command of the 73rd Blackshirt Legion in Mirandola, Province of Modena, 1941. in Mirandola, Province of Modena, 1930. The MVSN original organization consisted of 15 zones controlling 133 legions (one per province) of three cohorts each and one Independent Group controlling 10 legions. In 1929 it was reorganized into four raggruppamenti, but later in October 1936 it was reorganized into 14 zones controlling only 133 legions with two cohorts each, one of men 21 to 36 years old and the other of men up to 55 years old.
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Barker, A. J., The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 61 After some initial confusion where forces on both sides ended up in temporarily isolated positions, the Ethiopians managed to push the advancing Italians back. By the end of the day, the 2nd Eritrean Division fell back to positions around Ab'aro Pass and the 2nd Blackshirt Division on the Italian right was driven back to the Worsege Pass where it and the garrison were surrounded and besieged. For three days the Ethiopians launched wave after wave of attacks against the Italians cut off at Worsege Pass.
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Badoglio moved up the 1st Eritrean Division to join the 2nd Eritrean Division at Ab'aro Pass. Badoglio then ordered the commander of the 2nd Eritrean Division, General Achille Vaccarisi, to advance on the Worsege Pass and relieve the besieged Italians there.Barker, A. J., The Rape of Ethiopia 1936, p. 62 By the afternoon of 22 January, the Blackshirt division and the garrison at Worsege Pass were still cut off, the fury of the Ethiopian attacks was reaching a crescendo, and Badoglio anxiously drew up plans for a general withdrawal.
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In 1980, she released The Duchess of Windsor, a biography. In 2007, letters between the Mitford sisters, including ones to and from Diana, were published in the compilation The Mitfords: Letters Between Six Sisters, edited by Charlotte Mosley. The Sunday Times journalist India Knight was sympathetic towards Diana in her review of the book, describing her as "briefly sinister but also clever, kind, and fatally loyal to her Blackshirt husband, Oswald Mosley." A following collection consisting of her letters, articles, diaries and reviews was released as The Pursuit of Laughter in December 2008.
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Mussolini met Falangist leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera in 1933 but did not have much enthusiasm in the establishment of fascism in Spain at that time. By January 1937, an expeditionary force of 35,000 Italians, the Corpo Truppe Volontarie, were in Spain under the command of General Mario Roatta. The contingent was made up of four divisions: Littorio, Dio lo Vuole ("God Wills it"), Fiamme Nere ("Black Flames") and Penne Nere ("Black Feathers"). The first of these divisions was made up of soldiers; the other three of Blackshirt volunteers.
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In January 1940, Prime Minister Chamberlain dismissed Hore-Belisha from the War Office. He had been in an increasingly untenable position due to his disputes with the Army high command and the King and hostility from the general public, particularly sympathisers of the British Union of Fascists after Oswald Mosley condemned him as a "Jewish warmonger".Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley and British Fascism (2007). p. 475. By 1940, his relations with Lord Gort, commander of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France, had deteriorated such that neither man had confidence in the other.
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But Ras Kassa and Ras Seyoumm were exerting such pressure from the Tembien that Badoglio decided that he would have to deal with them first. If the Ethiopian center was to successfully advance, I Corps and III Corps facing Ras Mulugeta would be cut off from reinforcement and resupply. From 20 January to 24 January, the First Battle of Tembien was fought. This was fiercely fought, with the Ethiopians cutting off the Italian Blackshirt Division for several days and Badoglio drawing up contingency plans for withdrawing the entire army.
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One of the BUF's sternest critics locally was Roy Nicholls, chairman of the Young Socialists. At the town's Literary Institution, Nicholls debated with a Blackshirt and led a motion condemning Fascism which was overwhelmingly carried by the audience. According to Hare, many of the people supporting the Fascists were either new to the town or formed part of the town's Italian community, which had existed since the 1880s. John Robert Peryer, a maths teacher at the Worthing High School for Boys, became one of the leaders of the anti-fascist movement in Worthing.
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The rushed motorisation of the 1st Blackshirt Division "23rd Marzo", which had not been trained as a motorised division, disorganised the relationship between drivers and infantry. The advance reached Sidi Barrani with modest losses but failed to do much damage to the British. On 21 September, there were sixty-eight Fiat M.11/39 tanks left of the seventy-two sent to Libya. The 1st Medium Tank Battalion had nine serviceable and twenty- three unserviceable tanks and the 2nd Medium Tank Battalion had twenty-eight operational and eight non-operational tanks.
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The Arditi were soldiers who were specifically trained for a life of violence and wore unique blackshirt uniforms and fezzes. The Arditi formed a national organization in November 1918, the Associazione fra gli Arditi d'Italia, which by mid-1919 had about twenty thousand young men within it. Mussolini appealed to the Arditi and the Fascists' squadristi, developed after the war, were based upon the Arditi. World War I inflated Italy's economy with great debts, unemployment (aggravated by thousands of demobilised soldiers), social discontent featuring strikes, organised crime and anarchist, socialist and communist insurrections.
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In view of the planned invasion of Malta (Operazione C3), the MVSN constituted a special landing group, the Battalions Group "M" of Black Landing Shirts, structured as follows: : HQ and command company : XLII landing battalion "M" "Vicenza" : XLIII landing battalion "M" "Belluno" : L landing battalion "M" "Treviso" : LX landing battalion "M" "Pola" : 2 infantry support guns company with 47/32 guns : 1 company 81mm mortar : 1 company of guastatori (sappers) With the cancellation of Operation C.3, the Black Landing Shirts were reorganized as two Battalion Groups, as follows: : I landing Blackshirt Battalion group "M" :: XLIII landing battalion "M" :: LX landing battalion "M" :: V support weapons battalion (of Royal Italian Army) : The I Battaglioni Group participated in the occupation of Corsica, and remained a garrison until 8 September 1943, when it participated in the fighting against the Germans. : II landing Blackshirt Battalion group "M" :: XLII landing battalion "M" :: L landing battalion "M" :: V support weapons battalion (of Royal Italian Army) : The II Battalion Group participated in the occupation of Corsica, and then moved to France where it remained garrison in the area of Toulon until 8 September 1943, when it broke up with the other units of the 4th Army.
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At an election meeting on 16 October 1933, Budd revealed he was now a member of the British Union of Fascists (BUF). He was duly re-elected and the national press reported that Worthing was the first town in the country to elect a fascist councillor. Street confrontations took place culminating on 9 October 1934 when anti-fascist protesters met outside a blackshirt rally at the Pavilion Theatre in what became known as the Battle of South Street. Between 1933 and 1939 the Worthing Corporation purchased of downland to the north of Worthing, which forms the Worthing Downland Estate.
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Douhet devotes many pages to critically examining six "basic theories" put forth by Bastico and how they relate to the future of an Independent Air Force's role in future wars.Douhet, Giulio; The Command of the Air, book three (Recapitulation), pp. 263-269; Office of Air Force History, Washington, D.C. Bastico was promoted to major general on 29 May 1932 and in 1935, he commanded the 1st Blackshirt Division (23 Marzo) during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. In 1935, Bastico was the commander of the III Corps in Ethiopia and on 10 February 1936 he was promoted to lieutenant general (generale di corpo d'armata).
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After the war the III Army Corps returned to its garrison in Milan. After the drawdown of forces in the early 1920s the corps consisted of the 6th Infantry Division Legnano in Milan, the 7th Infantry Division Leonessa in Brescia and the 8th Infantry Division Po in Piacenza. In spring of 1936 the corps was sent to Eritrea to reinforce the Italian troops that faced stiffer than expected resistance during the Italian invasion of Abyssinia. The corps commanded the 27th Infantry Division Sila, 2nd Blackshirt Division 28 Ottobre and a brigade sized formation with light tanks.
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"There probably wasn't a day when we didn't make switches," said George Kelly, Nebraska's defensive line coach from 1960 to 1968. Long-time sports information director Don Bryant credits much of Blackshirt mystique to Kelly, who was often heard yelling and exhorting the Blackshirts during practices and scrimmages. Eventually, the rest of the coaches began calling the top defensive unit by the same name, and by the time Kelly retired and was succeeded by Monte Kiffin, the "Blackshirts" had become a widely recognized name for Nebraska's defensive starters. The choice of black to bring about the name "Blackshirts" was not intentional.
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Born on 8 September 1931, Guinness was the second son of the author and brewer Bryan Guinness and Diana Mitford; his elder brother was Jonathan. Bryan succeeded as the 2nd Baron Moyne in November 1944. Desmond's mother divorced the then Bryan Guinness after five years and married the head of the British fascist Blackshirt movement, Oswald Mosley, in Berlin in 1936. Due to Mitford's interest in fascism, her father-in-law had arranged for surveillance, including by one of Guinness's governesses, from 1935 onwards, and MI5 even noted a plan for her to visit Hitler with her sons.
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Joyce was supported in this role by Norah Elam as Sussex Women's Organiser, with her partner Dudley Elam taking on the role of Sub-Branch Officer for Worthing. Under this regime, West Sussex was to become a hub of fascist activity, ranging from hosting Blackshirt summer camps to organising meetings and rallies, lunches, etc. Norah Elam shared many speaking platforms with Joyce and worked on propaganda speeches for him. One particular concern for Joyce was the Government of India Bill (passed in 1935), designed to give a measure of autonomy to India, allowing freedom and the development of limited self-government.
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In December 1940, the 10th Army in Egypt had been reinforced with the 1st and 2nd Libyan divisions and 4th Blackshirt Division, in the fortified camps from Sidi Barrani to the Tummars and Maktila. The Maletti Group was based at Nibeiwa, the 63rd (Cyrene) Division at Rabia and Sofafi, the 62nd (Marmarica) Division was on the escarpment from Sofafi to Halfaya Pass and the 64th (Catanzaro) Division was east of Buq Buq, behind the Nibeiwa–Rabia gap, supported by about of the (General Felip Porro).Playfair, 1954, pp. 265–266 The RAF attacked airfields on 7 December and destroyed on the ground.
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On 10 December, 16 Infantry Brigade was brought forward from the 4th Indian Division reserve and with elements of 11th Indian Brigade under command were sent forward in lorries to attack Sidi Barrani. Moving forward it was in position barring the south and south-western exits to Sidi Barrani by 13.30. At 16.00, supported by the whole of the division's artillery, the attack, again with the support of 7th RTR, went in. The town was captured by nightfallWavell in and the remains of the two Libyan Divisions and the 4th Blackshirt Division were trapped between 16th Infantry Brigade and Selby Force.
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However he was soon readmitted and once again became a leading figure in the Blackshirts, suffering further war wounds in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Returning to Italy he was appointed inspector of university militias and had risen to the rank of Luogotenente Generale in the Blackshirts by the time Italy entered the Second World War. He saw service in the Italian invasion of Albania before in May 1941 succeeding Achille Starace as Blackshirt Chief of Staff. By 1943 he was the national commander of the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale (MVSN), as the Blackshirts were formally known.
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He was duly re-elected and the national press reported that Worthing was the first town in the country to elect a fascist councillor. Street confrontations took place culminating on 9 October 1934 when anti-fascist protesters met outside a Blackshirt rally at the Pavilion Theatre in what became known as the Battle of South Street. Following Italy's invasion of Abyssinia in 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie and his family were forced out of Ethiopia to the United Kingdom. They spent their first six weeks in the UK at the Warnes Hotel, one of the town's top hotels at the time.
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The uncommitted part of the 1st , followed the 1st Libyan Division "Sibelle" and the 2nd Libyan Division "Pescatori" towards Bir Thidan el Khadim. At Alam el Dab near Sidi Barrani, about fifty Italian tanks, motorised infantry and artillery tried an outflanking move, which forced the Coldstream Guards to retreat. The armoured group was engaged by British field artillery and made no further move but by dark the 1st Blackshirt Division 23 had occupied Sidi Barrani. Above the escarpment, the British covering forces fell back parallel to those on the coast road and the threat from the desert flank did not materialise.
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The 10ª advanced about a day to enable the non-motorised units to keep up and at Sidi Barrani, built fortified camps. No bold mechanised strokes or flanking movements had been made by the armoured units, XXIII Corps had guarded the infantry instead and the 10ª suffered fewer than during the advance. The , 1st and the 1st Blackshirt Division "23rd Marzo" had failed to operate according to Italian armoured warfare theory. Lack of preparation, training and organisation had led to blunders in assembling and directing the and over-caution with the other tank battalions of 1st .
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After receiving word from other scouts that the Italian tanks and infantry were easily avoiding the crude minefields laid before the creek, all Allied forces still holding the forward trenches were withdrawn to the prepared battle line. As this manoeuvre was nearing completion, Italian artillery and aircraft initiated a preliminary bombardment of the hills, and parties of second-rate Ethiopian and Blackshirt troops made a series of futile sallies through the early evening.Stewart 2016, p. 78. In the meantime, De Simone deployed his main forces opposite the British positions a move that presaged a traditional set battle.
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The Italians reoccupied Fort Capuzzo and held it with part of the 2nd Blackshirt Division ( Francesco Argentino). On 29 June, the Maletti Group repulsed British tanks with its artillery and then defeated a night attack. During the frontier skirmishes from 11 June to 9 September, the British claimed to have inflicted for a loss of On 16 December, during Operation Compass (9 December 1940 – 9 February 1941) the 4th Armoured Brigade of the Western Desert Force captured Sidi Omar and the Italians withdrew from Sollum, Fort Capuzzo and the other frontier forts; Number Supply Depot was established at the fort for the 7th Armoured Division.
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Based on a reference to one "Noraga", an Abwehr agent, in the interrogation report of Abwehr recruiter Karl Wilhelm Reme, Gerald Posner argues that this could only be Bernardino Nogara who would thereby be able "to sabotage the Allied war effort and at the same time find ways to help finance the Axis powers".Posner, 2015, pp. 130 - 137. However, John Pollard, reviewing Posner's book in The Tablet, points out that the interrogation report of this selfsame Nogara is found in The National Archives, London, where he is identified as Bruno Nogara, a Venice school teacher and Blackshirt fanatic who was arrested by the Allies in April 1945.
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Griffiths, Fellow Travellers on the Right, pp. 102–103 However it was to Mosley that Seton Hutchison lost his support as members of the Nordic League initially sympathetic towards the National Workers Party were won over to the BUF by the efforts of the likes of J.F.C. Fuller and Robert Gordon-Canning.Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley & British Fascism, Penguin Books, 2007, pp. 425–426 Seton Hutchison nonetheless remained a vocal activist and in 1936 ran afoul of Clement Attlee when he publicly claimed that the Labour Party politician was a Jew who was engineering a world war, supporting white slavery and punishing the poor.
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Beckett joined the British Union of Fascists in 1934 and before long had risen through the party to become Director of Publications (serving as an editor of both BUF publications, Action and Blackshirt, for a time). He gained some notoriety for his activism, such as when he was arrested outside Buckingham Palace during the Edward VIII abdication crisisBenewick, Political Violence and Public Order, p. 114 and also for being the only BUF activist to win a court case against its opponents, securing £1,000 in damages in a slander suit against an anti- fascist organisation (although it disbanded before payment was collected).Benewick, Political Violence and Public Order, pp.
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Joseph Anthony Amato, Rethinking Home: A Case for Writing Local History, University of California Press, 2002, p. 127 His power ensured he undertook a reorganisation of the structure of the BUF, setting up training programmes for local election agents whilst also adding a more intellectual party organ Action alongside the existing, and more lowbrow, Blackshirt, in an attempt to attract more middle-class party members.Pugh, p. 223 His overall control of BUF organisation led to clashes with other leading figures, and in particular the party's failure in the March 1937 London County Council elections led to criticism of his methods by William Joyce and John Beckett.
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After service in World War I (when he was again decorated), Teruzzi took leave from the army in 1920, in order to engage in Fascist politics. He was an enthusiastic adherent to Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party, and the party's deputy-secretary in 1921 – the year he also took part in the March on Rome, as a commander of Blackshirt squads from Emilia-Romagna. After the Fascist takeover, Teruzzi was elected to the Italian Chamber of Deputies in 1924 and gained successive terms. An undersecretary in the Ministry of the Interior in 1925–26, Teruzzi was governor of Cyrenaica in 1926–28, before returning to the military.
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Formed by John Webster in 1942, the ENA was led by Edward Godfrey, a former member of the British Union of Fascists who had served under Admiral Sir Barry Domvile in the Royal Navy.S. Dorrill, Blackshirt – Sir Oswald Mosley and British Fascism, London: Penguin, 2007, p. 529 The ENA, which sought to regroup former members of the British Union of Fascists, was originally called the British National Party (BNP).Peter Barberis, John McHugh, Mike Tyldesley, Encyclopedia of British and Irish Political Organizations, 2002, p. 177 The group was funded by the Duke of Bedford, a veteran supporter of right-wing movements, most notably the British People's Party.
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On 16 September, the 10th Army halted and took up defensive positions around Sidi Barrani, to build fortified camps while the Via Balbia was extended by the Via della Vittoria. Once the road was built and supplies accumulated, an advance on Mersa Matruh, about further east was to begin. Camps were built from Maktila with the 1st Libyan Division, east of Sidi Barrani, south through Tummars (east and west, 2nd Libyan Division), to Nibeiwa (Maletti Group) thence to four camps at Sofafi to the south-west, on the escarpment above the coastal strip. Blackshirt divisions held Sidi Barrani and Sollum; a metropolitan division garrisoned Buq Buq.
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Divisions, & Volunteer Legions, Gordon Williamson, p. 19, Osprey Publishing, 20/03/2012 Members of the "Vendetta" under former Blackshirt Lieutenant-Colonel Delgi Oddi particularly distinguished themselves in defeating a determined effort by the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division to overrun their positions and capturing a number of prisoners.Mussolini's War: Fascist Italy's Military Struggles from Africa and Western Europe to the Mediterranean and Soviet Union 1935-45, Frank Joseph, p. 190, Casemate Publishers, 19/04/2010 On 7 September 1944, it was renamed to Waffen-Grenadier-Brigade der SS (italienische Nr. 1) under Generalkommando Lombardia of Army Group C. By December 1944, the unit comprised 15,000 men.
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On 31 December 1924, Blackshirt leaders met with Mussolini and gave him an ultimatum—crush the opposition or they would do so without him. Fearing a revolt by his own militants, he decided to drop all trappings of democracy. On 3 January 1925, Mussolini made a truculent speech before the Chamber of Deputies in which he took responsibility for squadristi violence (though he did not mention the assassination of Matteotti). This speech usually is taken as the beginning of the Fascist dictatorship because it was followed by several laws restricting or canceling common democratic liberties, voted by the Parliament filled by two thirds of Fascists because of the Acerbo Law.
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XXIII Corps (General Annibale Bergonzoli) was to lead the 10ª attack into Egypt to Sidi Barrani along the coast road with non-motorised and motorised formations. The corps had been given more lorries; the 62nd Infantry Division Marmarica and 63rd Infantry Division Cirene were part-motorised, the 1st Blackshirt Division 23rd Marzo was motorised, as were the Maletti Group and the 1st . The part-motorised infantry divisions would move by shuttling forward and the non-motorized infantry would have to march the to Sidi Barrani. Bergonzoli wanted the 1st as an advanced guard, two motorised infantry divisions in line and one motorised division in reserve.
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On 13 September, the 1st Blackshirt Division 23rd re-took Fort Capuzzo and a bombardment fell on Musaid, just over the Egyptian side of the border, which was then occupied. Artillery-fire and bombing began on Sollum airfield and barracks (which were empty), which raised a dust cloud. When the dust cleared the Italian army could be seen drawn up, ready to advance against the British covering force of the 3rd Coldstream Guards, some field artillery, an extra infantry battalion and a machine-gun company. The Italians advanced along the coast with two divisions leading, behind a screen of motorcyclists, tanks, motorised infantry and artillery.
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The effect of the change was to increase the administrative overhead of the army, with no corresponding increase in effectiveness, as the new technology of tanks, motor vehicles, and wireless communications was slow to arrive and was inferior to that of potential enemies. The dilution of the officer class by the need for extra unit staffs was made worse by the politicisation of the army and the addition of Blackshirt Militia. The reforms also promoted frontal assaults to the exclusion of other theories, dropping the previous emphasis on fast mobile warfare backed by artillery. Prior to the invasion Mussolini let and go home for the harvest.
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On 14 June, after the Italian declaration of war on Britain four days earlier, the 7th Hussars and elements of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment, Gladiators of 33 Squadron Royal Air Force (RAF) and Blenheims of 211 Squadron captured Fort Capuzzo, as the 11th Hussars took Fort Maddalena about further south. The fort was not occupied long, for lack of troops and equipment but demolition parties visited each night to destroy Italian ammunition and vehicles. The Italians reoccupied Fort Capuzzo and held it with part of the 2nd Blackshirt Division (28 October) ( Francesco Argentino). On 29 June, the Maletti Group repulsed British tanks with its artillery and then defeated a night attack.
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Allen stood unsuccessfully in Fermanagh and Tyrone at the 1922 general election, but was elected seven years later on his next attempt, at the 1929 general election as the Unionist Member of Parliament (MP) for Belfast West. He defected from the Unionists in 1931, to join Sir Oswald Mosley's New Party, but did not contest the 1931 general election. He was a close friend of Mosley helping him to pursue his fascist ambitions from behind the scenes, by supporting him financially and by contributing mainly anonymous articles to The Blackshirt, including "The Letters of Lucifer". Allen also wrote BUF, Oswald Mosley and British Fascism (1934) under the pen name of "James Drennan".
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Wilson joined Total Nonstop Action Wrestling in September 2003 as one-half of a heel tag team, Redshirt Security, with Kevin Northcutt. Northcutt and Wilson were corrupt, physically imposing security guards (who wore red t-shirts) loyal to Don Callis and Jeff Jarrett, and regularly butt heads with the diminutive face "Blackshirt Security" (Chris Vaughn and Rick Santel). After Redshirt Security was expanded to three members with the addition of Legend in November 2003, the trio began feuding with the rebels who opposed the administration of Jarrett and Callis, namely Erik Watts, The Sandman, and Raven. This led to a six-man Clockwork Orange House of Fun match on November 19, in which Wilson suffered a broken arm.
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45 Although avowedly a free trade movement the ASU found itself linked with the fascist movements that began to emerge in the 1920s, largely due to their shared opposition to communism. Under the presidency of Brigadier-General R.B.D. Blakeney the British Fascists (BF) forged links with the ASU with a number of ASU members from military backgrounds joining the BF. Leading ASU figures such as George Makgill, John Baker White and even Blumenfeld became associated with the BF.Stephen Dorril, Blackshirt: Sir Oswald Mosley & British Fascism, Penguin Books, 2007, p. 196 Nesta Webster, a leading BF ideologue, was also a member of the ASU and wrote and researched a number of their publications.
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VI Corps included four motorised artillery regiments with a total of sixteen battalions, two machine gun battalions (one motorised, one pack animal) and a motorised anti-aircraft regiment. XI Corps included one motorised artillery regiment comprising four battalions, three machine gun battalions (one motorised, one pack animal and one static), and six Blackshirt legions of battalion size. The Motorised Corps was supported by a motorised artillery regiment consisting of three battalions, and an motorised engineer battalion. In Albania, the elements of the Italian 9th Army () that were involved in the campaign were commanded by Generale d’Armata (General) Alessandro Pirzio Biroli, and consisted of two infantry corps and some sector troops assembled in northern Albania.
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Soleri nevertheless made a number of telling contributions. On 20 November 1924 he intervened to highlight the contradictions in the position of the Giolitti group which had peeled away from the Liberal party to join the "National List", and now found itself backing a starkly illiberal domestic agenda. On 12 December 1924 he intervened to draw attention to the inherently unconstitutional character of the government's "Volunteer Militia for National Security" (known to posterity, more simply, as the "Blackshirt" / "Camicie Nere" paramilitaries). After Mussolini's address to parliament on 3 January 1925 and the ensuing purges, the Giolitti group abandoned their attempt to civilise the fascist government and removed themselves from the leader's "National List".
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By December 1938, Bastico had drawn up plans for concentrating the force around Tarvisio in the event of war with Austria or on a line from Udine to Trieste in the event of war with Yugoslavia. In 1939, six Blackshirt battalions took part in the field manoeuvres of the Army of the Po. In the first half of 1940 the Centauro division was moved to Albania, where it took part in the Italian invasion of Greece later that year. During the Italian invasion of France (10–25 June 1940), the Army of the Po (minus the Centauro) was held in reserve. In February 1941, the headquarters of the Army of the Po (Sixth Army) was transferred to southern Italy.
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Arcand was most strongly influenced by British fascism as he maintained an active correspondence with various British fascists such as Lord Sydenham, Henry Hamilton Beamish and Admiral Sir Barry Domvile. With the aim of forming a fascist leadership for the British empire, Arcand started a correspondence that continued until his death with Sir Oswald Mosley, the leader of the British Union of Fascists (BUF). Many of the articles that appeared in Le Fasciste Canadien were translations of articles from Action and Blackshirt, the two journals of the BUF. In 1934, Arcand established the Parti National Social Chrétien (Christian National Social Party), which advocated anti-communism and the banishment of Canadian Jews to the Hudson Bay area.
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In 1939 the brigade lost the 12th Infantry Regiment and was renamed 12th Infantry Division "Sassari". This binary division consisted of only two infantry regiments (151st and 152nd) and the 34th Field Artillery Regiment. To increase the weak strength of the division it received in 1941 the 73rd Blackshirt Assault Legion "Boiardo", a battalion sized militia unit of the Italian Fascist Party. The division remained in Istria on garrison duty until 6 April 1941 when Axis forces began the invasion of Yugoslavia. The first Yugoslav cities to fall were Prezid and Čabar on 12 April, followed Novi Lazi and Borovec on 14 April. On 19 April the division reached Delnice, the following day Knin.
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The industrialists began to throw their financial support behind Mussolini after he renamed his party and retracted his former support for Lenin and the Russian Revolution. Moreover, toward the end of 1920, fascism began to spread into the countryside, bidding for the support of large landowners, particularly in the area between Bologna and Ferrara, a traditional stronghold of the Left, and scene of frequent violence. Socialist and Catholic organizers of farm hands in that region, Venezia Giulia, Tuscany, and even distant Apulia, were soon attacked by Blackshirt squads of Fascists, armed with castor oil, blackjacks, and more lethal weapons. The era of squadrismo and nightly expeditions to burn Socialist and Catholic labor headquarters had begun.
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After crossing the pre-war border, it advanced into Albania, capturing the villages of Pepel (26 November) and Vodhinë (28 November), and the Galisht heights (12 December). The regiment then fought a ten-day battle (12–22 December) to capture Mount Kuç against determined Italian resistance. Italian casualties were heavy: the 51st Division's 31st Infantry Regiment was destroyed as a fighting force, and the 141st Blackshirt Battalion was taken prisoner. The regiment went on to capture the villages of Kallarat, Vranisht, and Bolenë on 22–28 December. The regiment received the highest Greek award for valour, the Commander's Cross of the Cross of Valour, after recommendation on 16 February 1941 by the commander of the 3rd Infantry Division, Maj.
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Berti was on sick leave and Gariboldi, the 1st Blackshirt Division 23 Marzo and the 10th Army Headquarters were far back at Bardia. (By the time Berti arrived in Libya, so had the British.) Operation Compass (/Battle of the Marmarica) began on the night of The Western Desert Force with the 7th Armoured Division, 4th Indian Division and the 16th Infantry Brigade advanced to their start line. The RAF made attacks on Italian airfields and destroyed or damaged on the ground. Selby Force (Brigadier A. R. Selby) with (the maximum for whom transport could be found), moved up from Matruh, set up a brigade of dummy tanks in the desert and reached a position south-east of Maktila by dawn on 9 December.
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This technique was said to have been originated by Gabriele D'Annunzio or Italo Balbo."Bearded like a medieval condottiere, bluff yet suave, fearless and supple, [Italo Balbo] was not the type to pass unnoticed anywhere. His admirers here chose to forget the Blackshirt club-wielder and reputed inventor of the castor-oil treatment for Fascist foes" Marshal Balbo, The New York Times, July 1, 1940, p. 18. Victims of this treatment did sometimes die, as the dehydrating effects of the oil-induced diarrhea often complicated the recovery from the nightstick beating they also received along with the castor oil; however, even those victims who survived had to bear the humiliation of the laxative effects resulting from excessive consumption of the oil.
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The Protestant Action Society was a political party in Edinburgh active in the 1930s. It was founded by John Cormack in 1933 and had elected nine members to the Edinburgh Council in 1936 with 31 percent of the vote.Page 51, Protestant Political Parties: A Global Survey In June 1935 the party organised protests which involved disturbances in Waverley Market and then what has been called "the Morningside Riot" in Canaan Lane when a crowd of around 20,000 Protestant Action supporters stoned and jeered 10,000 attendees at a Eucharistic Congress. Although often compared to the fascist movements active at the time, the society physically attacked Blackshirt meetings in Edinburgh due to the British Union of Fascists support for a United Ireland.
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The Battle of the Espero Convoy () on 28 June 1940, was the first surface engagement between Italian and Allied warships of the Second World War. Three modern Italian destroyers made a run from Taranto for Tobruk in Libya to transport Blackshirt () anti-tank units, in case of an armoured attack from Egypt by the British. By coincidence, the Mediterranean Fleet was at sea to conduct a destroyer anti-submarine sweep around Crete and provide cover for three Allied convoys to Egypt, one from Turkey and two from Malta. British aircraft from Malta spotted the Italian destroyers and the 7th Cruiser Squadron turned to intercept them; a running fight took place south-west of Crete, in which the destroyers were impeded by their cargoes and an adverse sea.
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Adding to them in the following months the Italians urgently started organizing several thousand local Albanians volunteers to participate on the "liberation of Chamuria" creating an army equivalent to a full division of 9 battalions (4 blackshirt battalions – Tirana, Korçë and Vlorë, Shkodër, 2 infantry battalions – Gramos and Dajti, 2 volunteer battalions – Tomori and Barabosi, one battery corps – DrinMuslim Albanians in Greece. The Chams of Epirus, E. Manta, Institute for Balkan Studies, , 2008, pp. 21 & 119). All of them eventually took part in the invasion to Greece at October 28, 1940 (see Greco-Italian War) under the XXV Italian Army Corps which after the incorporation of the Albanian units renamed to "Chamuria Army Corps" under General C. Rossi, although with poor performance.
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The fascists, included on Giovanni Giolitti's "National Union" lists at the May 1921 elections, then won 35 seats. Mussolini withdrew his support from Giolitti and his Italian Liberal Party (PLI) and attempted to work out a temporary truce with the Italian Socialist Party by signing a "Pact of Pacification" in summer 1921. This provoked protest with more radical members of the Fascist movement, the Blackshirt Squadristi and their leaders, the Ras ("Dukes", from an Ethiopian term). In July 1921, Giolitti attempted without success to dissolve the squadristi. The contract with the socialists was nullified during the Third Fascist Congress on November 7–10, 1921, where Mussolini negotiated a nationalist program and renamed his movement "National Fascist Party", which boasted "2,200 fasci and 320,000 members" by late 1921.
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The Grant Wistrom Foundation, created in July 2002, strives to allow pediatric cancer patients opportunities to just be children. At a Foundation event they are able to connect with other children who understand their world as both a child and a patient, fostering friendships built on these common bonds. The plight of young oncology patients was brought to Grant's attention during his senior year at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, when he befriended a young Husker fan with leukemia from his home state of Missouri. To help prepare the child for the loss of his hair during treatment, Grant, and Nebraska teammates Jason Peter and Jared Tomich, included Kendall in their pre-game ritual of shaving their heads and presented him with an honorary blackshirt jersey.
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Cyrenaica (Libya) had been an Italian colony since the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912). With Tunisia, a part of French North Africa to the west and Egypt to the east, the Italians prepared to defend both frontiers through a North Africa Supreme Headquarters, under the command of the Governor-General of Italian Libya, Marshal of the Air Force, Italo Balbo. Supreme Headquarters had the 5th Army (General Italo Gariboldi) and the 10th Army (General Mario Berti) which in mid-1940 had nine metropolitan divisions of about each, three (Blackshirt) and two Libyan divisions with each. Italian army divisions had been reorganised in the late 1930s, from three regiments each to two and reservists were recalled in 1939, along with the usual call-up of conscripts.
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In 1968, Colonel A. J. Barker wrote that from 1 January 1935 to 31 May 1936, the Italian army and Blackshirt units lost killed, died of wounds and thirty-one missing; about troops and workmen were also killed, a total of In a 1978 publication, Alberto Sbacchi wrote that these official Italian casualty figures of about an underestimate. Sbacchi calculated that by May 1936, soldiers had been killed and been wounded; from 1936 to 1940, there an additional killed and and wounded. Total Italian casualties from 1935 to 1940 according to these calculations were about 208,000 killed or wounded. Based on killed in the first six months of 1940, Ministry of Africa figures for 6 May 1936 to 10 June 1940 are killed, which Sbacchi considered to be fairly accurate.
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"Page Masters" (Time Magazine. November. 30, 1942) Modern historians have described Thorkelson as "best known for his diatribes against Jews and the New Deal and for his calls to revise the United States Constitution" and "a raging anti-semite and pro-fascist". Thorkelson inserted into the Congressional Record quotations from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, from World Hoax by Ernest Fredrick Elmhurst, from blackshirt Sir Oswald Mosley's Action, from Los Angeles based Nazi-leaning publication Christian Free Press; and defended himself by saying: When he ran for re-election in 1940, he was defeated in the Republican primary by former United States Congresswoman Jeannette Rankin. Following his defeat, he ran for the United States Senate in 1942, but came third in the primary to Wellington D. Rankin and Charles R. Dawley.
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The reforms also promoted frontal assaults to the exclusion of other theories, dropping the previous emphasis on fast mobile warfare backed by artillery. Cyrenaica the eastern province of Libya had been an Italian colony since the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912). With Tunisia, a part of French North Africa to the west and Egypt to the east, the Italians prepared to defend both frontiers through a North Africa Supreme Headquarters, under the command of the Governor-General of Italian Libya, Marshal of the Air Force Italo Balbo. The Supreme Headquarters in Libya had the 5th Army (General Italo Gariboldi) and the 10th Army (General Mario Berti), which in mid-1940 had nine metropolitan divisions of about each, three Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale (Blackshirt) and two Libyan Colonial divisions with each.
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After World War I (1914–1918), despite the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) being a full-partner Allied Power against the Central Powers, Italian nationalism claimed Italy was cheated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain- en-Laye (1919), thus the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to becoming a "Great Power". Thenceforth, the PNF successfully exploited that "slight" to Italian nationalism in presenting Fascism as best-suited for governing the country by successfully claiming that democracy, socialism and liberalism were failed systems. The PNF assumed Italian government in 1922, consequent to the Fascist Leader Mussolini's oratory and Blackshirt paramilitary political violence. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the Allies compelled the Kingdom of Italy to yield to Yugoslavia the Croatian seaport of Fiume (Rijeka), a mostly Italian city of little nationalist significance, until early 1919.
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At one point he agreed with the proposition put forward by Cripps that gradual reform was inadequate and that a socialist government would have to pass an emergency powers act, allowing it to rule by decree to overcome any opposition by vested interests until it was safe to restore democracy. He admired Oliver Cromwell's strong- armed rule and use of major generals to control England. After looking more closely at Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin, and even his former colleague Oswald Mosley, leader of the new blackshirt fascist movement in Britain, Attlee retreated from his radicalism, and distanced himself from the League, and argued instead that the Labour Party must adhere to constitutional methods and stand forthright for democracy and against totalitarianism of either the left or right. He always supported the crown, and as Prime Minister was close to King George VI.
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Cyrenaica, the eastern province of Libya had been an Italian colony since the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912). With Tunisia, a part of French North Africa to the west and Egypt to the east, the Italians prepared to defend both frontiers with a North Africa Supreme Headquarters, under the command of the Governor-General of Italian Libya, Marshal of the Air Force (), Italo Balbo. Supreme Headquarters had the 5th Army (General Italo Gariboldi) and the 10th Army (General Mario Berti) which in mid-1940 had nine metropolitan divisions of about each, three Blackshirt ( and two Italian Libyan Colonial Divisions with each. In the late 30s, Italian divisions had been cut from three regiments each to two for increased mobility once they were mechanised; reservists were recalled in 1939, along with the usual call- up of conscripts.
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XXIII Corps advanced to Sidi Barrani along the coast road, having received enough lorries to motorise one infantry division and partly to motorise three more for the advance. Bergonzoli planned the advance with the 1st forward, followed by the fully motorised 1st Blackshirt Division ("23rd Marzo") and the 62nd Infantry Division "Marmarica" and 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene", which had been partly motorised and could shuttle elements forward. The un-motorized 1st Libyan Division "Sibelle" and 2nd Libyan Division "Pescatori", were to march on foot for the to the objective and the was to form the rearguard. The 1st was also kept in reserve, except for the LXII Light Tank Battalion with L3/33 tankettes, which was attached to the 62nd Infantry Division "Marmarica" and the LXIII Light Tank Battalion assigned to the 62nd Division Infantry "Cirene".
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Playfair, 1954, pp. 208–211 Sollum and the airfield were taken by the 1st Libyan Division and by evening the 2nd Libyan, 63rd (Cyrene) divisions and the Maletti Group from Musaid and the 62nd (Marmarica) Division from Sidi Omar, pushed past British harassing parties and converged on Halfaya Pass.Playfair, 1954, pp. 210–211 The British withdrew past Buq Buq on 14 September and continued to harass the Italian advance, while falling back to Alam Hamid the next day and Alam el Dab on 16 September. An Italian force of fifty tanks attempted a flanking move, which led the British rearguard to retire east of Sidi Barrani, which was occupied by the 1st Blackshirt Division and Graziani halted the advance. The British resumed observation and the 7th Armoured Division prepared to challenge an attack on Mersa Matruh.
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Vickers Wellesley of No. 47 Squadron RAF based at Agordat, Eritrea, in flight during a bombing sortie to Keren The scene was set for a set-piece battle with Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse's 4th Indian Infantry Division concentrated on the Sanchil side of the gorge and Lewis Heath's 5th Indian Infantry Division, brought forward from Kessala once again, on the Happy Valley side. The Keren defences had been reinforced with the arrival of 6th Colonial Brigade from Metemma and also the 11th Blackshirt Battalion of the Savoia Grenadiers. The defenders now totalled 25,000 facing an attacking force which had grown to more than 13,000. Beresford-Pierce would launch the 11th Indian Brigade, expanded to five battalions under command, against the peaks of the Sanchil mass and 5th Brigade against Mount Sammana on the left of his front.
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Benito Mussolini (centre in suit with fists against body) along with other Fascist leader figures and Blackshirts during the March on Rome On 24 October 1922, the Fascist Party held its annual congress in Naples, where Mussolini ordered Blackshirts to take control of public buildings and trains and to converge on three points around Rome. The march would be led by four prominent Fascist leaders representing its different factions: Italo Balbo, a Blackshirt leader; General Emilio De Bono; Michele Bianchi, an ex syndicalist; and Cesare Maria De Vecchi, a monarchist Fascist. Mussolini himself remained in Milan to await the results of the actions. The Fascists managed to seize control of several post offices and trains in northern Italy while the Italian government, led by a left-wing coalition, was internally divided and unable to respond to the Fascist advances.
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In the Middle Ages, while Jews in England faced state persecution, culminating in the Edict of Expulsion of 1290 (some Jews may have moved to Scotland at this time) there was never a corresponding expulsion from Scotland, suggesting either greater religious tolerance or the simple fact that there wasn't a Jewish presence. In his autobiographical, Two Worlds: An Edinburgh Jewish Childhood, the eminent Scottish-Jewish scholar David Daiches wrote that there are grounds for asserting that Scotland is the only European country with no history of state persecution of Jews. Some elements of the British Union of Fascists formed in 1932 were anti-Jewish and Alexander Raven Thomson, one of its main ideologues, was a Scot. Blackshirt meetings were physically attacked in Edinburgh by communists and "Protestant Action", which believed the group to be an Italian (i.e.
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Cyrenaica, the eastern province of Libya, had been an Italian colony since the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912), although resistance continued until 1932. With Tunisia, a part of French North Africa to the west and Egypt to the east, the Italians had to defend both frontiers and established a North Africa Supreme Headquarters, under the command of the Governor-General of Italian Libya, (Marshal of the Air Force), Italo Balbo. Supreme Headquarters had the 5th Army (5ª ) ( [General] Italo Gariboldi) in the west and the 10ª Armata ( [Lieutenant-General] Mario Berti) in the east, which in mid-1940 had nine metropolitan divisions with an establishment of about each, three (Blackshirt) divisions and two Italian Libyan colonial divisions with an establishment of each. Reservists had been recalled in 1939, along with the usual call-up of new conscripts.
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In 1936, General Alberto Pariani had been appointed Chief of Staff of the Italian Army and began a reorganisation of divisions to fight wars of rapid decision, according to thinking that speed, mobility and new technology could revolutionise military operations. In 1937, traditional three-regiment divisions () began to change to two-regiment binary divisions (), as part of a ten-year plan to reorganise the standing army into twelve mountain, three motorised and three armoured divisions. The effect of the change was to increase the administrative overhead of the army, with no corresponding increase in effectiveness; new technology such as tanks, motor vehicles and wireless communications were slow to arrive and were inferior to those of potential enemies. The dilution of the officer class to find extra unit staffs was made worse by the politicisation of the army and the addition of Blackshirt Militia.
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The aim of the Italian attack was to break through the Greek lines, recapture Klisura, and advance towards Leskovik and Ioannina. Key to the Italian effort was a hill known as 731, which stood at the center of the planned attack. The attack would be carried out by the VIII Army Corps (59th Cagliari, 38th Puglie, and 24th Pinerolo Divisions) and two elite Blackshirt battalions of the 26th Legion, XXV Army Corps' 2nd Sforzesca Division, the 47th Bari, 51st Siena, and 7th Lupi di Toscana Divisions as a second echelon, and the Centauro and Piemonte Divisions as general reserves. The Greek units opposite them were II Corps (17th, 5th, 1st, 15th, and 11th Divisions) which had been fighting from the beginning of the war, with three regiments as reserve, and able to be reinforced by the 4th Division.
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The Italian 2nd Army and 9th Army committed a total of 22 divisions to the operation, comprising around 300,000 troops. The Italian 2nd Army () was commanded by Generale designato d’Armata (acting General) Vittorio Ambrosio, and consisted of one fast () corps (Celere Corps), one motorised corps (Motorised Corps) and three infantry corps (V Corps, VI Corps, and XI Corps), and was assembled in northeastern Italy, attacking from Istria and the Julian March along the border with Slovenia and Croatia. The 2nd Army was supported by a motorised engineer regiment including three bridging battalions, a chemical battalion, fifteen territorial battalions, and two garrison battalions. V Corps support units included three motorised artillery regiments comprising thirteen battalions, four machine gun battalions (two motorised and two pack animal), three Blackshirt legions of battalion size, a motorised anti-aircraft battalion, a sapper assault battalion and a road construction battalion.
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46, 121 The Libyan divisions lacked the transport necessary to operate with the Maletti Group, which had a medium, two mixed and four light tank battalions, on the escarpment and were redeployed to the coast road. On 9 September, the Maletti Group got lost en route to Sidi Omar and Graziani cancelled a flanking move and concentrated on the coast road, with five divisions and the Maletti Group; the 4th Blackshirt and 64th Catanzaro divisions stayed in reserve at Tobruk. The 5th a mixed air unit with about aircraft, airfield equipment and transport, stood by to support the advance and occupy airfields.Playfair, 1954, pp. 208–210 The Italian invasion of Egypt began as a limited tactical operation towards Mersa Matruh, rather than for the strategic objectives sketched in Rome, due to the chronic lack of transport, fuel and wireless equipment, even with transfers from the 5th Army.
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According to historian Richard Thurlow, Chesterton's "weird mixture of racism, ethnocentrism and conspiracy theory in its racial theory and its paternalism, monarchism (particularly reverence for Edward I who expelled the Jews), cultural pessimism, Social Darwinism and dialectical mode of argument in its political theory are more akin to patterns of thought prevalent in pre-Nazi German Conservatism than to any English equivalent." After the war, Chesterton repudiated fascism and resolutely denied accusations to the effect that he was pursuing a "neo-fascist" agenda. He toned down the antisemitic imagery of his pre-war writings, although the Jews remained at the centre of paranoid conspiracy theories. Described as "far more parasitic and corrupt than any baby could conceive" in Blackshirt (1935), they were still "the principal promoters of the idea of integrating peoples of disparate racial stocks" in his 1965 book The New Unhappy Lords.
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The 20th-century Italian thinkers Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca (independently) argued that democracy was illusory, and served only to mask the reality of elite rule. Indeed, they argued that elite oligarchy is the unbendable law of human nature, due largely to the apathy and division of the masses (as opposed to the drive, initiative and unity of the elites), and that democratic institutions would do no more than shift the exercise of power from oppression to manipulation. As Louis Brandeis once professed, "We may have democracy, or we may have wealth concentrated in the hands of a few, but we can't have both.". British writer Ivo Mosley, grandson of blackshirt Oswald Mosley describes in In the Name of the People: Pseudo-Democracy and the Spoiling of Our World, how and why current forms of electoral governance are destined to fall short of their promise.
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Fiume cheering the arrival of Gabriele d'Annunzio and his blackshirt-wearing nationalist raiders, as D'Annunzio and Fascist Alceste De Ambris developed the quasi-fascist Italian Regency of Carnaro, a city-state in Fiume, from 1919 to 1920 and whose actions by D'Annunzio in Fiume inspired Italian Fascists After the war, British and French leaders refused to follow through on the stipulations of the treaty. Irredentist nationalist element of Italy considered that to be an inexcusable betrayal by both European allies. The colonial gains by Britain and France from the war further angered the Italians who felt excluded, although both powers' gains had been largely in the form of mandates from the League of Nations to prepare for independence, rather than simple colonial expansion. The breakdown of the pact helped give rise to the Italian belief in a so-called "mutilated victory", which played a role in determining Italian interwar expansion.
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In February 1936, during the opening moves of the Second Italian-Abyssinian War, the Blackshirt "21st April" Division, with the "Gavininana" and "Gran Sasso" Divisions clashed with the soldiers of Ras Imru Haile Selassie near Seleh Leha, as part of the Second Battle of Tembien."Local History in Ethiopia" The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 6 December 2007) During the Italian occupation, a leprosarium was built in Seleh Leha; this was abandoned by its Italian staff on 30 March 1941, and later pillaged and destroyed by the locals. The town was later the center of heavy fighting between the 604th Army Corps of the Derg's Third Revolutionary Army and troops of the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front during the Battle of Shire, which ended on 19 February 1989 with a crushing defeat for the Derg.Gebru Tareke, The Ethiopian Revolution: War in the Horn of Africa (New Haven: Yale University, 2009), pp.
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In 1936, General Alberto Pariani had been appointed Chief of Staff of the army and begun a reorganisation of divisions to fight wars of rapid decision, according to thinking that speed, mobility and new technology could revolutionise military operations. In 1937, three-regiment (triangular) divisions began to change to two-regiment binary divisions, as part of a ten-year plan to reorganise the standing army into twelve mountain, three motorised and three armoured divisions. The effect of the change was to increase the administrative overhead of the army, with no corresponding increase in effectiveness as the new technology, tanks motor vehicles and wireless communications were slow to arrive and were inferior to those of potential enemies. The dilution of the officer class by the need for extra unit staffs, was made worse by the politicisation of the army and the addition of Blackshirt Militia.
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Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, was appointed Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa in November 1937, with a headquarters in Addis Ababa, the Ethiopian capital. On 1 June 1940, as the commander in chief of the Comando Forze Armate dell'Africa Orientale Italiana (Italian East African Armed Forces Command) and Generale d'Armata Aerea (General of the Air Force), Aosta had about and Italian-born army, naval and air force personnel, available. By 1 August, mobilisation in Italian East Africa had increased that number to On 10 June, the Regio Esercito (Italian Royal Army) was organised in four commands, with the military forces in Ethiopia led by General Pietro Gazzera. Aosta had the 40th Infantry Division Cacciatori d'Africa and the 65th Infantry Division Granatieri di Savoia from Italy, a battalion of Alpini (elite mountain troops), a Bersaglieri battalion of motorised infantry, several (MSVN Camicie Nere [Blackshirt]) battalions and an assortment of smaller units; about 70 percent of the Italian troops were locally recruited Askari.
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Just prior to LSU's 2007 season national championship, Pelini was hired as the new Head Coach for the University of Nebraska Cornhuskers football team. Pelini stayed on at LSU through the championship game with the permission of Nebraska's Athletic Director, Tom Osborne, and then took several of his defensive staff members with him to Nebraska, including Papuchis. The 2008 season saw a dramatic turnaround in Nebraska's fortunes, particularly on the defensive side of the ball, as Nebraska climbed from the bottom ten defensive teams nationally and a dismal 5-7 record, to a resurgence of the Nebraska Blackshirt tradition as a surprisingly stingy Nebraska defense helped the Cornhuskers to a 9-4 2008 season, a tie for the Big 12 Conference northern division championship, and a post-January 1 bowl victory against Clemson at the 2009 Gator Bowl. Papuchis enters his fifth season on Bo Pelini's Nebraska staff in 2012, and his first year as the Huskers' defensive coordinator.
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Benito Mussolini and Fascist Blackshirt youth in 1935 Nationalists in the years after World War I thought of themselves as combating the liberal and domineering institutions created by cabinets—such as those of Giovanni Giolitti, including traditional schooling. Futurism, a revolutionary cultural movement which would serve as a catalyst for Fascism, argued for "a school for physical courage and patriotism", as expressed by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1919. Marinetti expressed his disdain for "the by now prehistoric and troglodyte Ancient Greek and Latin courses", arguing for their replacement with exercise modelled on those of the Arditi soldiers ("[learning] to advance on hands and knees in front of razing machine gun fire; to wait open-eyed for a crossbeam to move sideways over their heads etc."). It was in those years that the first Fascist youth wings were formed: Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista (Fascist Youth Vanguards) in 1919, and Gruppi Universitari Fascisti (Fascist University Groups) in 1922.
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Mussolini tried to build his popular support especially among war veterans and patriots by enthusiastically supporting Gabriele D'Annunzio, the leader of the annexationist faction in post-war Italy, who demanded the annexation of large territories as part of the peace settlement in the aftermath of the war. For D'Annunzio and other nationalists, the city of Fiume in Dalmatia (present-day Croatia) had "suddenly become the symbol of everything sacred." Fiume was a city with an ethnic Italian majority, while the countryside around it was largely ethnic Croatian. Italy demanded the annexation of Fiume and the region around it as a reward for its contribution to the Allied war effort, but the Allies – and US president Woodrow Wilson in particular – intended to give the region to the newly-formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed Yugoslavia). Fiume cheer the arrival of Gabriele D'Annunzio and his blackshirt-wearing nationalist raiders, as D'Annunzio and Fascist Alceste De Ambris developed the proto-fascist Italian Regency of Carnaro (a city-state centered on Fiume) from 1919 to 1920.
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On 6 August 1941, Nasi sent a mixed force to guard Culqualber Pass. The force included the 1st Carabinieri Mobilized Group, with two companies of Italian veterans (200 men) and one company of Zaptié (160 men) under the command of Colonel Augusto Ugolini and Major Alfredo Serranti; the CCXL Blackshirt Battalion (five companies), with 675 blackshirts under Seniore (Major) Alberto Cassoli and the LXVII Colonial Battalion (four companies), with 620 askaris under Major Carlo Garbieri. The garrison was completed by two artillery batteries, the 43rd (three old 77/28 mm guns and 40 Italian gunners) and the 44th (two 70/15 mm howitzers and 34 Eritrean artillerymen); a platoon of engineers, with 88 men (65 Italians and 23 askaris) and a field hospital, with two medics and a chaplain. The five guns available were obsolete and dated back to World War I, the howitzers being war prizes from the Austro-Hungarian Army. The garrison was also joined by a small number of askaris from Debra Tabor; when that garrison surrendered in July 1941, some ascaris had refused surrender and undertook a march towards Culqualber.
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As the leader of the National Fascist Party (PNF, Partito Nazionale Fascista), Mussolini said that democracy is "beautiful in theory; in practice, it is a fallacy" and spoke of celebrating the burial of the "putrid corpse of liberty". In 1923, to give Deputy Mussolini control of the pluralist parliamentary government of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946), an economist, the Baron Giacomo Acerbo, proposed—and the Italian Parliament approved—the Acerbo Law, changing the electoral system from proportional representation to majority representation. The party who received the most votes (provided they possessed at least 25 percent of cast votes) won two-thirds of the parliament; the remaining third was proportionately shared among the other parties, thus the Fascist manipulation of liberal democratic law that rendered Italy a one- party state. In 1924, the PNF won the election with 65 percent of the votes, yet the United Socialist Party refused to accept such a defeat—especially Deputy Giacomo Matteotti, who on 30 May 1924 in Parliament formally accused the PNF of electoral fraud and reiterated his denunciations of PNF Blackshirt political violence and was publishing The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination, a book substantiating his accusations.
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