These fungi persisted due to some sort of protein-coding and biomolecule information that protect against the radiation level.
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The biomolecule sequencer, called a minION, will be part of the cargo that SpaceX will launch to the ISS on Monday.
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"Trehalose is viewed as a cocoon that traps the biomolecule inside a glassy matrix, like amber-encasing insects," explains a 23 paper in Protein Science.
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"Trehalose is viewed as a cocoon that traps the biomolecule inside a glassy matrix, like amber-encasing insects," explains a 2009 paper in Protein Science.
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But for tiny objects like atoms in a biomolecule like a protein, scientists must resort to different methods, and crystallography has proved its usefulness time and time again over the last century.
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As described in a paper published Thursday in Science, a group of researchers led by Pennsylvania State University biochemist Donald Bryant has uncovered a key enzyme used by cyanobacteria to produce the biomolecule chlorophyll f.
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So far the team has used their method on just one kind of biomolecule: photosystem II. They chose it because it is highly efficient at photosynthesis: using sunlight to turn water into oxygen while providing energy for plants or bacteria.
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This spatial toponome code is hierarchically organized with lead biomolecule(s), anti-colocated (absent) biomolecule(s) and wildcard molecules which are variably associated with the lead biomolecule(s). It has been shown that inhibition of lead molecule(s) in a surface membrane leads to disassembly of the corresponding biomolecular network and loss of function.
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Affinity chromatography is a method of separating a biomolecule from a mixture, based on a highly specific macromolecular binding interaction between the biomolecule and another substance. The specific type of binding interaction depends on the biomolecule of interest; antigen and antibody, enzyme and substrate, receptor and ligand, or protein and nucleic acid binding interactions are frequently exploited for isolation of various biomolecules. Affinity chromatography is useful for its high selectivity and resolution of separation, compared to other chromatographic methods.
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The Biomolecule Stretching Database contains information about the mechanostability of proteins based on their resistance to stretching.
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Since the speed of the biomolecule and a bound ligand depend on their hydrodynamic friction the method can be used to measure the size of the biomolecule and/or of the ligand. This can also be directly applied to detect conformational changes of the biomolecule and/or the ligand. It competes with technologies including surface plasmon resonance. Recently, electrical stimulus has also been utilized to influence the binding between a protein and its ligand which could be incorporated into smart surfaces for controlled molecular release.
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Bioconjugation is a chemical strategy to form a stable covalent link between two molecules, at least one of which is a biomolecule.
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Hershey and Chase, along with others who had done related experiments, confirmed that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information. Before that, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty had shown that DNA led to the transformation of one strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae to another. The results of these experiments provided evidence that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information.
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Thiamine triphosphate (ThTP) is a biomolecule found in most organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants and animals. Chemically, it is the triphosphate derivative of the vitamin thiamine.
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Smart materials that mimic the biological components of a sensor can also be classified as biosensors using only the active or catalytic site or analogous configurations of a biomolecule.
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Gary Glish (born August 23, 1954) is an American analytical chemist at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He is a leading researcher in the fields of mass spectrometry, ion chemistry, and biomolecule analysis.
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The mechanism of hydroxyapatite chromatography is complicated and has been described as "mixed-mode". It involves ionic interactions between positively charged groups on a biomolecule (often a protein) and the phosphate groups in hydroxyapatite, and metal chelation between hydroxyapatite calcium ions and negatively charged phosphate and/or carboxyl groups on the biomolecule. It may be difficult to predict the effectiveness of hydroxyapatite chromatography based on physical and chemical properties of the desired protein to be purified. For elution, a buffer with increasing phosphate and/or neutral salt concentration is typically used.
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Biomolecule-linear polymer hybrids are formed via “grafting-from” polymerization, which is an in situ approach that differs from the standard “grafting to” polymerization. Whereas “grafting to” polymerization involves the straightforward attachment of polymers to the biomolecule of choice, the “grafting from” method takes place on proteins that are pre-modified with initiators. Some examples of “grafting to” polymerization include atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT). These methods are similar in that they both lead to narrow molecular weight distributions and can make block copolymer.
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Click chemistry is a method for attaching a probe or substrate of interest to a specific biomolecule, a process called bioconjugation. The possibility of attaching fluorophores and other reporter molecules has made click chemistry a very powerful tool for identifying, locating, and characterizing both old and new biomolecules. One of the earliest and most important methods in bioconjugation was to express a reporter on the same open reading frame as a biomolecule of interest. Notably, GFP was first (and still is) expressed in this way at the N- or C- terminus of many proteins.
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An electro-switchable biosurface is a biosensor that can be used in conjunction with alternating or fixed electrical potentials in order to affect change in the structure and position (movement) of charged biomolecules such as DNA, RNA or oligopeptides bound to the biosurface. This is especially pronounced when the biomolecule has rigidity in its structure such as double stranded DNA. In turn, the changes caused by electrical potentials can be used to affect the biological function of the biomolecule by revealing or changing the access to molecular targets.
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Marking certain genes in a developing embryo allows for the determination of the exact time and place in which the gene is activated, offering information in the role of the particular gene in development. Similar to the process of in situ hybridization, immunofluorescence (IF) also allows for the determination of particular cell element's roles in development. In contrast to in situ hybridization however, immunofluorescence uses a fluorophore attached to an antibody with biomolecule target, such as proteins, rather than DNA and RNA sequences. The allows for the visualization of biomolecule elements of the cell.
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The modern usage of 'micelle' refers strictly to lipids, but its original usage clearly extended to other types of biomolecule, and this legacy is reflected to this day in the description of milk as being composed of 'casein micelles'.
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Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals, specialty chemicals, petroleum refining, microfabrication, fermentation, and biomolecule production.
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Weiss's research lab focuses on light-matter interactions and applications of photonic nanomaterials, including silicon and mesoporous silicon-based optical structures for more sensitive and faster biomolecule detection, and the ultrafast modulation of optical signals using hybrid material ring resonators.
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Carol Klein Hall is an American chemical engineer, the Camille Dreyfus Distinguished University Professor of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at North Carolina State University. Her research involves biomolecule simulation, self-assembly of soft materials, and the design of synthetic peptides.
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The MeCAT labelling allows relative and absolute quantification of all kind of proteins or other biomolecules like peptides. MeCAT comprises a site-specific biomolecule tagging group with at least a strong chelate group which binds metals. The MeCAT labelled proteins can be accurately quantified by ICP-MS down to low attomol amount of analyte which is at least 2–3 orders of magnitude more sensitive than other mass spectrometry based quantification methods. By introducing several MeCAT labels to a biomolecule and further optimization of LC-ICP-MS detection limits in the zeptomol range are within the realm of possibility.
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The biomolecule (for instance double stranded DNA) bound to the biosurface can be used to tether a label free target in a label free interaction model. By applying a variable or alternating potential to the biosurface, the biomolecules can be moved systematically. In turn the movement can be measured in real time using time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy of the fluorescence quenching of an attached fluorescent marker molecule. By analyzing the speed of the biomolecule as it is dragged through the buffer solution by the electric field, the binding of a ligand can be measured in real time.
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A spin probe is a molecule with stable free radical character that carries a functional group. This group can be used to couple the probe to another molecule, e.g. a biomolecule. Electron spin resonance can be employed to quantify the probe's concentration.
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As in diagnostic nuclear medicine, appropriate radionuclides can be chemically bound to a targeting biomolecule which carries the combined radiopharmaceutical to a specific treatment point. It has been said that "α-emitters are indispensable with regard to optimisation of strategies for tumour therapy".
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11-Deoxycortisol, also known as cortodoxone (INN), cortexolone as well as 17α,21-dihydroxyprogesterone or 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, is a glucocorticoid steroid hormone biomolecule. It was first described by Tadeusz Reichstein in 1938 as Substance S, thus has also been referred to as Reichstein's Substance S or Compound S.
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Ag-Sb2S3, also known as black silver, is a nanoporous plasmonic absorber and nanomaterial. The material was first discovered by a team at the National University of Singapore and is composed of silver, antimony, and sulfur. It is an inexpensive nanomaterial with a wide range of applications. Applications include biomolecule detectors and solar energy conversion.
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Carbohydrates are another important biomolecule. These are polymers, called polysaccharides, which are made up of chains of simple sugars connected via glycosidic bonds. These monosaccharides consist of a five to six carbon ring that contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - typically in a 1:2:1 ratio, respectively. Common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and ribose.
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Vitamin B12 and related cofactors are organocobalt compounds. Organocobalt chemistry is the chemistry of organometallic compounds containing a carbon to cobalt chemical bond. Organocobalt compounds are involved in several organic reactions and the important biomolecule vitamin B12 has a cobalt-carbon bond. Many organocobalt compounds exhibit useful catalytic properties, the preeminent example being dicobalt octacarbonyl.
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High aspect ratio nanomaterials enable delivery of functional genetic material without DNA integration in mature plants. Nature Nanotechnology, 14(5), 456–464. doi: 10.1038/s41565-019-0382-5 and other nanoparticlesHussain, H. I., Yi, Z., Rookes, J. E., Kong, L. X., & Cahill, D. M. (2013). Mesoporous silica nanoparticles as a biomolecule delivery vehicle in plants.
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All the reactions associated with synthesis of biomolecule converge into the following pathway, viz., glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain, exist as an amphibolic pathway, meaning that they can function anabolically as well as catabolically. Other important amphibolic pathways are the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway and the Entner–Doudoroff pathway.
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These fluctuations are affected by the mode of lateral diffusion of the probe. Single particle tracking involves following the trajectory of fluorescent molecules or gold particles attached to a biomolecule and applying statistical analysis to extract information about the lateral diffusion of the tracked particle.Almeida, P. and Vaz, W. (1995). "Lateral diffusion in membranes", Ch. 6, pp.
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Recombinant DNA can be engineered for a wide variety of purposes. The techniques utilized allow for specific modification of genes making it possible to modify any biomolecule. It can be engineered for laboratory purposes, where it can be used to analyze genes in a given organism. In the pharmaceutical industry, proteins can be modified using recombination techniques.
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Mesoporous silica nanoparticles as a biomolecule delivery vehicle in plants. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 15(6), 1676. doi: 10.1007/s11051-013-1676-4 All in all, these diffusion based gene transformation methodologies offer a cheaper mode of plant gene transformation with lower impact to plant tissue, lower transformation efficiencies, and little to no risk of DNA incorporation.
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Heme A (or haem A) is a heme, a coordination complex consisting of a macrocyclic ligand called a porphyrin, chelating an iron atom. Heme A is a biomolecule and is produced naturally by many organisms. Heme A, often appears a dichroic green/red when in solution, is a structural relative of heme B, a component of hemoglobin, the red pigment in blood.
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These two characteristics make it an attractive biomolecule to be used for drug delivery as it exhibits thermal stability, chemical stability, and proteolytic resistance. The biological activities of these molecules are partially due to Its unique interlocking arrangement and cyclized peptide backbone which contains a conserved sequence shared among circulins. Circulins have previously been identified in a screen for anti-HIV activity.
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Nuclear DNA is a nucleic acid, a polymeric biomolecule or biopolymer, found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Its structure is a double helix, with two strands wound around each other. This double helix structure was first described by Francis Crick and James D. Watson (1953) using data collected by Rosalind Franklin. Each strand is a long polymer chain of repeating nucleotides.
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These chain-joins of phosphates with sugars (ribose or deoxyribose) create the "backbone" strands for a single- or double helix biomolecule. In the double helix of DNA, the two strands are oriented chemically in opposite directions, which permits base pairing by providing complementarity between the two bases, and which is essential for replication of or transcription of the encoded information found in DNA.
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His group's research centres on the chemical understanding and exploitation of biomolecular function (Synthetic Biology, Chemical Biology and Chemical Medicine), with an emphasis on carbohydrates and proteins. In particular, the group's interests encompass synthesis and methodology; target biomolecule synthesis; inhibitor/probe/substrate design; biocatalysis; enzyme and biomolecule mechanism; biosynthetic pathway determination; protein engineering; drug delivery; molecular biology; structural biology; cell biology; glycobiology; molecular imaging and in vivo biology. Research in the Davis laboratory has been funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, the Medical Research Council, UCB-Celltech, AstraZeneca, the European Union, GlaxoSmithKline, Cancer Research UK, the Wellcome Trust and the Royal Society. He has supervised numerous postdoctoral researchers and doctoral students to completion including Bhaskar Bhushan, Lukas Lercher, Yuya Lin, Mitul Patel, Régis Saliba, Samantha Shanley Filip Wyszynski, and Keisuke Yamamoto.
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Accessible surface area is often used when calculating the transfer free energy required to move a biomolecule from aqueous solvent to a non-polar solvent such as a lipid environment. The LCPO method is also used when calculating implicit solvent effects in the molecular dynamics software package AMBER. It is recently suggested that (predicted) accessible surface area can be used to improve prediction of protein secondary structure.
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Shown here is a bioorthogonal ligation between biomolecule X and reactive partner Y. To be considered bioorthogonal, these reactive partners cannot perturb other chemical functionality naturally found within the cell. Although effective bioorthogonal reactions such as copper-free click chemistry have been developed, development of new reactions continues to generate orthogonal methods for labeling to allow multiple methods of labeling to be used in the same biosystems.
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To do this, Niles developed an automated deformability cytometer that can measure the dynamic, mechanical responses of red blood cells. Niles is also interested in how plasmodium falciparum controls heme levels and designed a technique to monitor heme. Heme is a biomolecule that interacts with several malarial drugs. To study this, he created a heme-sensing protein, whose fluorescence diminishes upon binding to heme.
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In the light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle), two 3-phosphoglycerate molecules are synthesized, one of which continues through the Calvin cycle to be regenerated to RuBP and the other is reduced to form one molecule of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). This is the first compound formed during the C3 or Calvin cycle. It is a reactive biomolecule that is easily reduced.
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Thus, a biomolecule or complex of biomolecules can often adopt a very large number of functionally distinct states. The number of states scales exponentially with the number of possible modifications, a phenomenon known as "combinatorial explosion". This is of concern for computational biologists who model or simulate such biomolecules, because it raises questions about how such large numbers of states can be represented and simulated.
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Myoglobin (blue) with its ligand heme (orange) bound. Based on In biochemistry and pharmacology, a ligand is a substance that forms a complex with a biomolecule to serve a biological purpose. In protein-ligand binding, the ligand is usually a molecule which produces a signal by binding to a site on a target protein. The binding typically results in a change of conformational isomerism (conformation) of the target protein.
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This domain, known as a sterol regulatory sequence, directly participates in the regulation of sterol biosynthesis. Sterols are a major class of biomolecule and critical for life. Important sterols in humans include cholesterol and steroid hormones. Discovery of sterol regulatory elements and LDL receptor function led to the subsequent development of statin derived cholesterol medications such as atorvastatin (Lipitor)—the top-selling branded pharmaceutical drug in the world in 2008.
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Biomolecular engineering deals with the manipulation of many key biomolecules. These include, but are not limited to, proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids. These molecules are the basic building blocks of life and by controlling, creating, and manipulating their form and function there are many new avenues and advantages available to society. Since every biomolecule is different, there are a number of techniques used to manipulate each one respectively.
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In the early development of the technique, chemical motifs have to fulfill criteria of biocompatibility and selective reactivity in order to qualify as bioorthogonal chemical reporters. Some combinations of proteinogenic amino acid side chains meet the criteria, as do ketones and aldehydes (which can tag proteins and some metabolites). Azides and alkynes are other examples of chemical reporters. A bioorthogonal chemical reporter must be incorporated into a biomolecule.
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Onnamide A is a complex biomolecule with a 39 unique carbon atoms and 11 degrees of unsaturation. Its core contains three rings, two of which comprise a dimeric lactone structure. It contains a long side chain that has a three conjugated trans- olefins that connects to an amide bond, terminating in an arginine residue. The stereochemical assignments of onnamide A have been extensively characterized by experimental and advanced NMR studies.
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Much of Wurtman's work at MIT involved discovering a new function of an existing biomolecule, like a hormone or neurotransmitter, figuring out how that discovery might be useful in medicine, and then trying to use that biomolecule as a drug itself, or using an existing drug to affect its function, a strategy called drug repurposing. His early affiliation with people in nutrition and food science also led him to consider ways that food and nutrient affect health. He was involved in the evaluations of aspartame when it was first being introduced as an artificial sweetener; he initially testified on behalf of its manufacturer that it was safe, but subsequent research led him to call, in 1983, for further testing due to his concerns that consuming large amounts (not small amounts) could be harmful. In 1994 his lab published work showing that melatonin is a hormone, secreted at night-time, needed for the induction & maintenance of normal sleep.
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An example from inorganic chemistry is titanium methoxide with the empirical formula Ti(OCH3)4, which is tetrameric in the solid state and has the molecular formula Ti4(OCH3)16. An example from organic chemistry is kobophenol A, a substance that is formed by combining four molecules of resveratrol. In biochemistry, it similarly refers to a biomolecule formed of four units, that are the same (homotetramer), i.e. as in Concanavalin A or different (heterotetramer), i.e.
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Jason S. Lewis is a British radiochemist whose work relates to oncologic therapy and diagnosis. His research focus is a molecular imaging-based program focused on radiopharmaceutical development as well as the study of multimodality (PET, CT & MRI) small- and biomolecule-based agents and their clinical translation. He has worked on the development of small molecules as well as radiolabeled peptides and antibodies probing the overexpression of receptors and antigens on tumors.
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The first solvation shell of a sodium ion dissolved in water A solvation shell is the solvent interface of any chemical compound or biomolecule that constitutes the solute. When the solvent is water it is often referred to as a hydration shell or hydration sphere. The number of solvent molecules surrounding each unit of solute is called the hydration number of the solute. A classic example is when water molecules arrange around a metal ion.
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Adhesion of cells on a surface coated with a thermoresponsive polymer. Displayed is a polymer with LCST Thermoresponsive polymers can be functionalized with moieties that bind to specific biomolecules. The polymer-biomolecule conjugate can be precipitated from solution by a small change of temperature.Jing Ping Chen, Allan S. Hoffman, Polymer-Protein Conjugates II. Affinity precipitation separation of human immunogammaglobulin by a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-protein A conjugate, Biomaterials, 1990, Volume 11, pp 631-634.
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The accessible surface area (ASA) or solvent-accessible surface area (SASA) is the surface area of a biomolecule that is accessible to a solvent. Measurement of ASA is usually described in units of square Ångstroms (a standard unit of measurement in molecular biology). ASA was first described by Lee & Richards in 1971 and is sometimes called the Lee-Richards molecular surface. ASA is typically calculated using the 'rolling ball' algorithm developed by Shrake & Rupley in 1973.
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Most of the other microbes present are capable of vegetative budding (yeasts) or binary fission (bacteria) and are capable of propagating themselves without any trouble. The incubation and maturation phase of making Jiuqu is a typical biomolecule manufacturing process using solid state fermentation. Yeasts and bacteria are often used in industrial submerged fermentations because they thrive at high water activity and reduced oxygen levels. Molds, however, prefer the lower water content and increased oxygen found in solid-state fermentations.
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There are many ways to accurately manipulate single molecules. Prominent among these are optical or magnetic tweezers, atomic-force-microscope (AFM) cantilevers and acoustic force spectroscopy. In all of these techniques, a biomolecule, such as protein or DNA, or some other biopolymer has one end bound to a surface and the other to a force sensor. The force sensor is usually a micrometre-sized bead or a cantilever, whose displacement can be measured to determine the force.
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Lipid bilayers are also involved in signal transduction through their role as the home of integral membrane proteins. This is an extremely broad and important class of biomolecule. It is estimated that up to a third of the human proteome are membrane proteins. Some of these proteins are linked to the exterior of the cell membrane. An example of this is the CD59 protein, which identifies cells as “self” and thus inhibits their destruction by the immune system.
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Microbeads serve as the main tool for bio-magnetic separations. A range of patented processes and applications have been developed based on the use of microbeads in academic and industrial research. Microbeads are pre-coupled with a ligand; a biomolecule such as antibody, streptavidin, protein, antigen, DNA/RNA or other molecule. There are three steps involved in the magnetic separation process: # Bind – Microbeads bind to the desired target, relative to the specific affinity of the ligand on the surface of the beads.
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Some of the key experiments transported by CRS-9 to the ISS were the Biomolecule Sequencer, which performed DNA sequencing in orbit; the Phase Change Heat Exchanger, which tested temperature regulation systems for future spacecraft applications; the OsteoOmics experiment, which tested if Earth-based magnetic levitation can properly simulate microgravity conditions; and the Heart Cells experiment from Stanford University, which examined the effects of microgravity on the human heart at the cellular and molecular level using human induced pluripotent stem cell- derived cardiomyocytes.
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Lactose is a disaccharide found in animal milk. It consists of a molecule of D-galactose and a molecule of D-glucose bonded by beta-1-4 glycosidic linkage. A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula (where m may be different from n). However, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise stoichiometric definition (e.g.
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Conductometric sensing involves measuring the change in conductive properties of the sample solution or a medium. The reaction between the biomolecule and analyte changes the ionic species concentration, leading to a change in the solution electrical conductivity or current flow. Two metal electrodes are separated at a certain distance and an AC potential is applied across the electrodes, causing a current flow between the electrodes. During a biorecognition event the ionic composition changes, using an ohmmeter the change in conductance can be measured.
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On the other hand, they each have distinct properties that need to be analyzed on a case-by-case basis. For example, ATRP is sensitive to oxygen whereas RAFT is insensitive to oxygen; in addition, RAFT has a much greater compatibility with monomers than ATRP. Radical polymerization with crosslinkers is the other in situ polymerization method, and this process leads to the formation of biomolecule-crosslinked polymer nanocapsules. This process produces nanogels/nanocapsules via a covalent or non-covalent approach.
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The two-site, non-competitive immunoassay consists of a biomolecule (in green) captured by an immobile antibody and "sandwiched" by a labeled antibody. When exposed to a laser beam, the fluorochrome label (in yellow) is excited and its fluorescent signal is measured. SOLID was designed for automatic in situ detection and identification of substances from liquid and crushed samples under the conditions of outer space. The system uses hundreds of carefully selected antibodies to detect lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.
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A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing alpha helices, represented by ribbons. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by X-ray crystallography by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew in 1958, for which they received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry. A biomolecule or biological molecule is a loosely used term for molecules present in organisms that are essential to one or more typically biological processes, such as cell division, morphogenesis, or development.Bunge, M. (1979).
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Unfortunately, the most famous "click reaction," a [3+2] cycloaddition between an azide and an acyclic alkyne, is copper-catalyzed, posing a serious problem for use in vivo due to copper's toxicity. To bypass the necessity for a catalyst, Carolyn R. Bertozzi's lab introduced inherent strain into the alkyne species by using a cyclic alkyne. In particular, cyclooctyne reacts with azido-molecules with distinctive vigor. The most common method of installing bioorthogonal reactivity into a target biomolecule is through metabolic labeling.
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The classic copper-catalyzed azide- alkyne cycloaddition has been an extremely fast and effective click reaction for bioconjugation, but it is not suitable for use in live cells due to the toxicity of Cu(I) ions. Toxicity is due to oxidative damage from reactive oxygen species formed by the copper catalysts. Copper complexes have also been found to induce changes in cellular metabolism and are taken up by cells. There has been some development of ligands to prevent biomolecule damage and facilitate removal in in vitro applications.
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Biosensors used for screening combinatorial DNA libraries In a biosensor, the bioreceptor is designed to interact with the specific analyte of interest to produce an effect measurable by the transducer. High selectivity for the analyte among a matrix of other chemical or biological components is a key requirement of the bioreceptor. While the type of biomolecule used can vary widely, biosensors can be classified according to common types of bioreceptor interactions involving: antibody/antigen, enzymes/ligands, nucleic acids/DNA, cellular structures/cells, or biomimetic materials.
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In order to define a good DPN application, it is important to understand what DPN can do that other techniques can't. Direct-write techniques, like contact printing, can pattern multiple biological materials but it cannot create features with subcellular resolution. Many high-resolution lithography methods can pattern at sub-micrometre resolution, but these require high-cost equipment that were not designed for biomolecule deposition and cell culture. Microcontact printing can print biomolecules at ambient conditions, but it cannot pattern multiple materials with nanoscale registry.
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The total synthesis of the complex biomolecule vitamin B12 was accomplished in two different approaches by the collaborating research groups of Robert Burns Woodward at Harvard and Albert Eschenmoser at ETH in 1972. The accomplishment required the effort of no less than 91 postdoctoral researchers (Harvard: 77, ETH: 14), and 12 Ph.D. students (at ETH) from 19 different nations over a period of almost 12 years. The synthesis project induced and involved a major change of paradigm in the field of natural product synthesis.
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There is an increasing need for chemical strategies that can effectively attach synthetic molecules site specifically to proteins. One strategy is to first install a unique functional group onto a protein, and then a bioorthogonal or click type reaction is used to couple a biomolecule with this unique functional group. The bioorthogonal reactions targeting non-native functional groups are widely used in bioconjugation chemistry. Some important reactions are modification of ketone and aldehydes, Staudinger ligation with azides, copper-catalyzed Huisgen cycloaddition of azides, and strain promoted Huisgen cycloaddition of azides.
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Each class of polymeric biomolecule has a different set of subunit types. For example, a protein is a polymer whose subunits are selected from a set of twenty or more amino acids, carbohydrates are formed from sugars known as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides, lipids are formed from fatty acids and glycerols, and nucleic acids are formed from nucleotides. Biochemistry studies the chemical properties of important biological molecules, like proteins, and in particular the chemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The biochemistry of cell metabolism and the endocrine system has been extensively described.
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In other regions of the U.S., sweet gum populations may not be as susceptible to local populations of this fungus. Environmental stress factors may also be involved, as reports have indicated that herbicide application and chlorosis caused by iron deficiency may increase susceptibility of D. dryina. Tannins (a type of biomolecule found in trees to protect it from fire, insects, and bacteria) have been reported to occur in healthy tissue of a variety of plants including sweet gum. They may prevent pathogen invasion by inhibiting fungal enzyme activity.
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Top-down synthesis of the clusters can be achieved by the "etching" of larger metallic nanoparticles with redox-active, thiol-containing biomolecules.Atomically monodispersed and fluorescent sub-nanometer gold clusters by biomolecule-assisted etching of nanometer-sized gold particles and rods (). In this process, gold atoms on the nanoparticles' surface react with the thiol, dissolving as gold-thiolate complexes until the dissolution reaction stops; this leaves behind a residual species of thiolate-protected gold clusters that is particularly stable. This type of synthesis is also possible using other non thiol-based ligands.
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In 2002, Kurt Wuthrich won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution, demonstrating how the 2D NOE method (NOESY) can be used to constrain the three-dimensional structures of large biological macromolecules.. Professor Anil Kumar was the first to apply the two- dimensional Nuclear Overhauser Effect (2D-NOE now known as NOESY) experiment to a biomolecule, which opened the field for the determination of three- dimensional structures of biomolecules in solution by NMR spectroscopy.
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Anil initially worked on the development of double-resonance NMR techniques for relaxation studies. He performed the first 2D NMR experiment in liquids and the first 2D Fourier imaging experiment (which is now widely used in Magnetic resonance imaging). He also applied two-dimensional NMR techniques to the study of biomolecules. He was the first to apply the two-dimensional Nuclear Overhauser Effect (2D-NOE now known as NOESY) experiment to a biomolecule, which opened the field for the determination of three-dimensional structures of biomolecules in solution by NMR spectroscopy.
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TectoRNAs are modular RNA units able to self-assemble into larger nanostructures in a programmable fashion. They are generated by rational design through an approach called RNA architectonics, which make use of RNA structural modules identified in natural (or sometimes artificial) RNA molecules to form pre-defined 3D structures spontaneously. The abilities of RNA which is capable of catalysis and non-canonical base pairing make it an attractive biomolecule for design. By applying the knowledge of computational modeling and biochemical characterization, RNA can be shaped into defined geometries and conduct various functions.
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Metal-coded tags (MeCAT) method is based on chemical labeling, but rather than using stable isotopes, different lanthanide ions in macrocyclic complexes are used. The quantitative information comes from inductively coupled plasma MS measurements of the labeled peptides. MeCAT can be used in combination with elemental mass spectrometry ICP-MS allowing first-time absolute quantification of the metal bound by MeCAT reagent to a protein or biomolecule. Thus it is possible to determine the absolute amount of protein down to attomol range using external calibration by metal standard solution.
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In chemical synthesis, "click" chemistry is a class of biocompatible small molecule reactions commonly used in bioconjugation, allowing the joining of substrates of choice with specific biomolecules. Click chemistry is not a single specific reaction, but describes a way of generating products that follow examples in nature, which also generates substances by joining small modular units. In many applications, click reactions join a biomolecule and a reporter molecule. Click chemistry is not limited to biological conditions: the concept of a "click" reaction has been used in pharmacological and various biomimetic applications.
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Nucleic acid aptamers are nucleic acid species (next-gen antibody mimics) having selectivity at par of antibodies for a given target generated via in-vitro selection or equivalently, SELEX (systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment) ranging from small entities such as heavy metal ions to large entities like cells. On the molecular level, aptamers bind to its cognate target through various non-covalent interactions viz., electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic interactions, and induced fitting. Aptamers are useful in biotechnological and therapeutic applications as they offer molecular recognition properties that rival that of the commonly used biomolecule, antibodies.
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Cryogenic Optical Localization in Three Dimensions (COLD) allows to determine the four biotin binding sites in the protein streptavidin. Cryogenic Optical Localization in 3D (COLD) is a method that allows localizing multiple fluorescent sites within a single small- to medium-sized biomolecule with Angstrom-scale resolution. The localization precision in this approach is enhanced because the slower photochemistry at low temperatures leads to a higher number of photons that can be emitted from each fluorophore before photobleaching. As a result, cryogenic stochastic localization microscopy achieves the sub-molecular resolution required to resolve the 3D positions of several fluorophores attached to a small protein.
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This secondary antibody's binding sites are specific for the primary antibody that's already bound to the antigen, and therefore the secondary antibody binds to the primary antibody. This method allows for more fluorophore-tagged antibodies to attach to their target, thus increasing the fluorescent signal during microscopy. Immunofluorescence is a technique used for light microscopy with a fluorescence microscope and is used primarily on microbiological samples. This technique uses the specificity of antibodies to their antigen to target fluorescent dyes to specific biomolecule targets within a cell, and therefore allows visualization of the distribution of the target molecule through the sample.
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In biochemistry, the native state of a protein or nucleic acid is its properly folded and/or assembled form, which is operative and functional. The native state of a biomolecule may possess all four levels of biomolecular structure, with the secondary through quaternary structure being formed from weak interactions along the covalently-bonded backbone. This is in contrast to the denatured state, in which these weak interactions are disrupted, leading to the loss of these forms of structure and retaining only the biomolecule's primary structure. An alternate usage in metallurgy refers to metals which are found chemically uncombined in nature.
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He has also done research on conventionally defined Peptides, which is of significance for developing antibiotic peptides as well as anti-fibrillizing structures (anti amyloids) that may help in finding treatment protocols for diseases like HIV and Diabetes mellitus type 2. The work has also led to the formation of nanostructures to be used as biomolecule vehicles for site delivery. Virander Singh Chauhan is known to have guided over 50 research students and is credited with over 200 research papers, published in peer reviewed national and international journals. PubMed, an international knowledge repository, has listed 203 research articles by Chauhan.
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After foreign DNA fragments, which have also been cut with the same restriction endonuclease, have been inserted into host cell, the restriction endonuclease gene is expressed by applying heat, or by introducing a biomolecule, such as arabinose. Upon expression, the enzyme will cleave the plasmid at its corresponding recognition site creating sticky ends on the plasmid. Ligases then joins the sticky ends to the corresponding sticky ends of the foreign DNA fragments creating a recombinant DNA plasmid. Advances in genetic engineering have made the modification of genes in microbes quite efficient allowing constructs to be made in about a weeks worth of time.
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The mixture of treated cells is cultured on media that contain the antibiotic so that only transformed cells are able to grow. Another method of selection is the use of certain auxotrophic markers that can compensate for an inability to metabolise certain amino acids, nucleotides, or sugars. This method requires the use of suitably mutated strains that are deficient in the synthesis or utility of a particular biomolecule, and the transformed cells are cultured in a medium that allows only cells containing the plasmid to grow. In a cloning experiment, a gene may be inserted into a plasmid used for transformation.
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The idea of photostimulation as a method of controlling biomolecule function was developed in the 1970s. Two researchers, Walther Stoeckenius and Dieter Oesterhelt discovered an ion pump known as bacteriorhodopsin which functions in the presence of light in 1971. In 1978, J.F. Hoffman invented the term “caging”. Unfortunately, this term caused some confusion among scientists due to the fact that the term is often used to describe a molecule which is trapped within another molecule. It could also be confused with the “caged effect” in the recombination of radicals. Therefore, some authors decided to use the term “light-activated” instead of “caging”.
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Although it is difficult for us to grasp the total numbers of possible combinations, it is usually not conceptually difficult to understand the (much smaller) set of features or modifications and the effect each of them has on the function of the biomolecule. The rate at which a molecule undergoes a particular reaction will usually depend mainly on a single feature or a small subset of features. It is the presence or absence of those features that dictates the reaction rate. The reaction rate is the same for two molecules that differ only in features which do not affect this reaction.
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S. cerevisiae septins revealed with fluorescent microscopy utilizing fluorescent labeling In molecular biology and biotechnology, a fluorescent tag, also known as a fluorescent label or fluorescent probe, is a molecule that is attached chemically to aid in the detection of a biomolecule such as a protein, antibody, or amino acid. Generally, fluorescent tagging, or labeling, uses a reactive derivative of a fluorescent molecule known as a fluorophore. The fluorophore selectively binds to a specific region or functional group on the target molecule and can be attached chemically or biologically. Various labeling techniques such as enzymatic labeling, protein labeling, and genetic labeling are widely utilized.
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The most widespread application of copper-free click chemistry is in biological imaging in live cells or animals using an azide-tagged biomolecule and a cyclooctyne bearing an imaging agent. Fluorescent keto and oxime variants of DIBO are used in fluoro-switch click reactions in which the fluorescence of the cyclooctyne is quenched by the triazole that forms in the reaction. On the other hand, coumarin-conjugated cyclooctynes such as coumBARAC have been developed such that the alkyne suppresses fluorescence while triazole formation increases the fluorescence quantum yield by ten-fold. coumBARAC fluorescence increases with reaction Spatial and temporal control of substrate labeling has been investigated using photoactivatable cyclooctynes.
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Drug design, often referred to as rational drug design or simply rational design, is the inventive process of finding new medications based on the knowledge of a biological target. The drug is most commonly an organic small molecule that activates or inhibits the function of a biomolecule such as a protein, which in turn results in a therapeutic benefit to the patient. In the most basic sense, drug design involves the design of molecules that are complementary in shape and charge to the biomolecular target with which they interact and therefore will bind to it. Drug design frequently but not necessarily relies on computer modeling techniques.
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Various buffer systems are used in PAGE depending on the nature of the sample and the experimental objective. The buffers used at the anode and cathode may be the same or different. center center An electric field is applied across the gel, causing the negatively charged proteins or nucleic acids to migrate across the gel away from the negative electrode (which is the cathode being that this is an electrolytic rather than galvanic cell) and towards the positive electrode (the anode). Depending on their size, each biomolecule moves differently through the gel matrix: small molecules more easily fit through the pores in the gel, while larger ones have more difficulty.
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OseltamivirOseltamivir total synthesis concerns the total synthesis of the antiinfluenza drug oseltamivir Classics in Total Synthesis III: Further Targets, Strategies, Methods K. C. Nicolaou, Jason S. Chen 2011 marketed by Hoffmann-La Roche under the trade name Tamiflu. Its commercial production starts from the biomolecule shikimic acid harvested from Chinese star anise with a limited worldwide supply. Due to its limited supply, searches for alternative synthetic routes preferably not requiring shikimic acid are underway and to date several such routes have been published. Control of stereochemistry is important: the molecule has three stereocenters and the sought-after isomer is only 1 of 8 stereoisomers.
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As the Hill coefficient is increased, the saturation curve becomes steeper. In biochemistry and pharmacology, the Hill equation refers to two closely related equations that reflect the binding of ligands to macromolecules, as a function of the ligand concentration. A ligand is "a substance that forms a complex with a biomolecule to serve a biological purpose" (ligand definition), and a macromolecule is a very large molecule, such as a protein, with a complex structure of components (macromolecule definition). Protein-ligand binding is an example of this kind of binding, which typically changes the structure of the target protein, thereby changing its function in a cell.
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Tritium (Hydrogen-3) is a very low beta energy emitter that can be used to label proteins, nucleic acids, drugs and almost any organic biomolecule. The maximum theoretical specific activity of tritium is 28.8 Ci/mmol (1.066 PBq/mol). However, there is often more than one tritium atom per molecule: for example, tritiated UTP is sold by most suppliers with carbons 5 and 6 each bonded to a tritium atom. For tritium detection, liquid scintillation counters have been classically employed, in which the energy of a tritium decay is transferred to a scintillant molecule in solution which in turn gives off photons whose intensity and spectrum can be measured by a photomultiplier array.
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Four steps of molybdenum cofactor (Moco) biosynthetic pathway occurring in bacteria and humans: (i) radical-mediated cyclization guanosine 5'-triphosphate (GTP) to (8S)‑3,8‐cyclo‑7,8‑dihydroguanosine-5́‑triphosphate (3,8‑cH2GTP), (ii) formation of cyclic pyranopterin monophosphate (cPMP) from the 3,8‑cH2GTP, (iii) conversion of cPMP into molybdopterin (MPT), (iv) insertion of molybdate into MPT to form Moco (human enzymes in parenthesis). Molybdopterins are a class of cofactors found in most molybdenum-containing and all tungsten-containing enzymes. Synonyms for molybdopterin are: MPT and pyranopterin-dithiolate. The nomenclature for this biomolecule can be confusing: Molybdopterin per se contains no molybdenum; rather, this is the name of the ligand (a pterin) that will bind the active metal.
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Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more, (which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths), is therefore termed ionizing radiation. (Many other kinds of ionizing radiation are made of non-EM particles). Electromagnetic-type ionizing radiation extends from the extreme ultraviolet to all higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths, which means that all X-rays and gamma rays qualify. These are capable of the most severe types of molecular damage, which can happen in biology to any type of biomolecule, including mutation and cancer, and often at great depths below the skin, since the higher end of the X-ray spectrum, and all of the gamma ray spectrum, penetrate matter.
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In contrast to traditional methods of drug discovery (known as forward pharmacology), which rely on trial-and-error testing of chemical substances on cultured cells or animals, and matching the apparent effects to treatments, rational drug design (also called reverse pharmacology) begins with a hypothesis that modulation of a specific biological target may have therapeutic value. In order for a biomolecule to be selected as a drug target, two essential pieces of information are required. The first is evidence that modulation of the target will be disease modifying. This knowledge may come from, for example, disease linkage studies that show an association between mutations in the biological target and certain disease states.
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Two of the main functions of carbohydrates are energy storage and providing structure. One of the common sugars known as glucose is carbohydrate, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications. The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula CnH2nOn, where n is at least 3). Glucose (C6H12O6) is one of the most important carbohydrates; others include fructose (C6H12O6), the sugar commonly associated with the sweet taste of fruits,Whiting (1970), pp. 1–31.
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Some forms of chemical biology attempt to answer biological questions by directly probing living systems at the chemical level. In contrast to research using biochemistry, genetics, or molecular biology, where mutagenesis can provide a new version of the organism, cell, or biomolecule of interest, chemical biology probes systems in vitro and in vivo with small molecules that have been designed for a specific purpose or identified on the basis of biochemical or cell-based screening (see chemical genetics). Chemical biology is one of several interdisciplinary sciences that tend to differ from older, reductionist fields and whose goals are to achieve a description of scientific holism. Chemical biology has scientific, historical and philosophical roots in medicinal chemistry, supramolecular chemistry, bioorganic chemistry, pharmacology, genetics, biochemistry, and metabolic engineering.
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The distinguishing feature of a GPGPU design is the ability to transfer information bidirectionally back from the GPU to the CPU; generally the data throughput in both directions is ideally high, resulting in a multiplier effect on the speed of a specific high-use algorithm. GPGPU pipelines may improve efficiency on especially large data sets and/or data containing 2D or 3D imagery. It is used in complex graphics pipelines as well as scientific computing; more so in fields with large data sets like genome mapping, or where two- or three-dimensional analysis is useful especially at present biomolecule analysis, protein study, and other complex organic chemistry. Such pipelines can also vastly improve efficiency in image processing and computer vision, among other fields; as well as parallel processing generally.
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The technology centers on the patented In-situ Encoded Bead- based Arrays (IEBA), originally developed at the National University of Singapore (NUS), of which Ayoxxa was made the exclusive licensee. Unlike other available bead-based microarrays, IEBA achieves greater multiplexing capability by recording the position of randomly distributed beads without the need for physical labels for bead identification, using instead the assignment of unique coordinates to each bead with an in-house software. These batches of different beads, each batch being an assay or capture site for a specific biomolecule, are applied sequentially creating a unique pattern for every well. The coordinates of each individual bead in each sequential batch is recorded in a large map/decoding data table that is provided to the user alongside the carrier (like a USB flashdrive).
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The selective enhancement of the Raman scattering from specific modes under resonance conditions means that resonance Raman spectroscopy is especially useful for large biomolecules with chromophores embedded in their structure. In such chromophores, the resonance scattering from charge-transfer (CT) electronic transitions of the metal complex generally result in enhancement of metal-ligand stretching modes, as well as some of the modes associated with the ligands alone. Hence, in a biomolecule such as hemoglobin, tuning the laser to near the charge-transfer electronic transition of the iron center results in a spectrum reflecting only the stretching and bending modes associated with the tetrapyrrole-iron group. Consequently, in a molecule with thousands of vibrational modes, RR spectroscopy allows us to look at relatively few vibrational modes at a time.
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The structure of vitamin B12 was the first low-molecular weight natural product determined by x-ray analysis rather than by chemical degradation. Thus, while the structure of this novel type of complex biomolecule was established, its chemistry remained essentially unknown; exploration of this chemistry became one of the tasks of the vitamin's chemical synthesis. In the 1960s, synthesis of such an exceptionally complex and unique structure presented the major challenge at the frontier of research in organic natural product synthesis. Figure 2: The two ETH corrin model syntheses Figure 3: The two approaches to cobyric acid synthesis Already in 1960, the research group of the biochemist in Stuttgart had reconstituted vitamin B12 from one of its naturally occurring derivatives, cobyric acid, by stepwise construction of the vitamin's nucleotide loop.
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Red blood cells (RBCs), also referred to as red cells, red blood corpuscles (in humans or other animals not having nucleus in red blood cells), haematids, erythroid cells or erythrocytes (from Greek erythros for "red" and kytos for "hollow vessel", with -cyte translated as "cell" in modern usage), are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen (O2) to the body tissues—via blood flow through the circulatory system. RBCs take up oxygen in the lungs, or in fish the gills, and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries. The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in hemoglobin, an iron-containing biomolecule that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the red color of the cells and the blood. Each human red blood cell contains approximately 270 million of these hemoglobin molecules.
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Depending on the redox conditions it can exist in two inter-convertible forms: a more common oxidized yellow-brown form which is insoluble in water and only slightly soluble in organic solvents, such as pyridine, and a reduced form with bright red color that is more soluble in organic solvents. Scytonemin absorbs very strongly and very broadly across the UV-C-UV-B-UV-A-violet-blue spectral region, with an in vivo maximum absorption at 370 nm and an in vitro maximum absorption at 386 and 252 nm, and with smaller peaks at 212, 278 and 300 nm. It is believed that scytonemin acts as a highly efficient protective biomolecule (sunscreen) that filters out damaging high frequency UV rays while at the same time allowing the transmittance of wavelengths necessary for photosynthesis. Its biosynthesis in cyanobacteria is mostly triggered by exposure to UV-A and UV-B wavelengths.
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