But once the theory exists, it should make testable predictions.
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The good news about this theory is that it's testable.
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"The key thing is that it appears testable," he said.
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Peccei and Quinn overlooked an important, testable consequence of their idea.
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It allows testable and reusable code, that is also highly scalable.
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Its claims are testable and it is eager to have them tested.
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Smaller competitors in the academic space include TurkPrime, Positly, and Testable Minds.
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That said, this possible solution to the Fermi Paradox may actually be testable.
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But without venturing testable hypotheses about the future, it's harder to distinguish rival theories.
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The adaptive-markets theory does not really produce any testable propositions, or market-beating strategies.
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As Ethan Siegel notes at Starts With a Bang, this theory may even be testable.
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Is there another explanation for the performance gap that wasn't testable from the available data?
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Pick a section of the business to deploy AI that can provide easily testable results.
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Astrology is not based on evidence, the conclusions aren't testable, and can't be proven wrong.
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That happens to everyone, unless you're too cowardly to make any testable predictions at all.
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For centuries, we've built and organized scientific and technological knowledge through testable explanations and predictions.
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Of GUTs' predictions, only the proton and neutron decay being sought by Super-Kamiokande seems testable.
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Morbid though the thought is, Dr Azoulay's hypothesis has the scientific virtue of generating testable predictions.
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These claims lack any rigorous evidence, and they rarely congeal into any kind of testable premise.
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Our policymakers must enable scientists and society to seek the readily testable knowledge that can save lives.
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Some would-be replacements for general relativity, like string theory and loop quantum gravity, don't offer testable predictions.
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By experiment's end, the volunteers had provided over 200 testable breathing samples, along with nose and throat swabs.
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The practices include transparency, presenting a viable and testable model, a cap on funds and a control on liquidity.
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They retrieved testable DNA from two different people, which they matched with samples in local and state DNA databases.
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As polls spread highly structured tweet content, algorithmic presentation meanwhile creates a testable structure around the more chaotic tweets.
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They're irresponsible because they're not contributing to broader knowledge and understanding — because they're not specifying a generalizable and therefore testable theory.
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The effectiveness of the content ranking algorithms will be testable using the measurable inputs you provide simply by using the service.
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But such attempts at a grand unified explanation of fundamental physics have been maligned because they do not produce testable predictions.
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"The model proposed here is interesting, for me, primarily as it is testable," Priyamvada Natarajan Yale professor in astronomy and astrophysics, told Gizmodo.
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"That's a testable hypothesis and something that we want to move forward with trying to answer, because it's a critical question," Chambers said.
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UFOs, taboo for professional scientists When it comes to science, the scientific method requires hypotheses to be testable so that inferences can be verified.
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In digital marketing, this means your paid ads, need a K (virality) factor associated with them, a metric testable in all app analytics platforms.
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Making blood vessels smaller than actual human blood vessels allows the scientists to take the blood vessel from goop to testable in just hours.
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But in recent years kindergarten teachers have become increasingly focussed on imparting academic skills—largely in response to pressure to achieve measurable, testable results.
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Only the first part of Crow's account is really visually testable within this exhibition, which doesn't contain many of the large dark late paintings.
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"Having this insight will help us establish some potential causes and what they mean for neuropsychiatric disorders, and create new, testable hypotheses," Dr. Sestan said.
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They ended up choosing 17 models to closely analyze, dating from 1970 through 23 — models old enough to be testable against decades of observational data.
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The real excitement comes from how soon we might know whether Vafa's work has produced a testable prediction of string theory—which would be a first.
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These 212 globally minded, evidence-informed, testable recommendations can be implemented to help prevent trafficking, and assist survivors regardless of their location, age, gender, or experience.
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In 1964 John Bell, a Northern Irish physicist, proposed a testable boundary between Einstein's beloved hidden variables and the quantum mechanics that had no need for them.
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We've found [the amount of time needed] to go from idea on paper to something that works, and is potentially testable in the market, continues to shrink.
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But it is the season's promise, and in the long run its testable hypothesis, that those who stay and pray and fight will see it improbably reborn.
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"It's obviously quite complicated, but gaining these insights can hopefully lead to testable questions and approaches targeting cardiovascular events," said Goldstein, who wasn't involved in the new study.
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Knowing the rational solution to a decision-making problem can help pinpoint where behavior deviates from optimum, and inform testable hypotheses about the sources of the observed biases.
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The challengers argue the courts have never condoned such a sweeping read of the president's immigration powers, and that executive powers have limits that are testable in court.
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The critical difference between the two scenarios is that the Iraq war was a testable hypothesis, while the alternate history in which Sanders won the Democratic primary is not.
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Thankfully, however, Paris has produced a testable hypothesis: Comet 266P/Christensen is coming back to our neighborhood in January 27, and P/2008 Y2 (Gibbs) will return in January 2018.
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Some of these theories can't make testable predictions, Archibald said, and many "have a parameter, a 'knob' you can turn to make them pass any test you like," she said.
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When I'm trying to build an exact testable theory, as I was in Genesis, I'll give the applied mathematicians my input, and, with luck, they'll take hold of a problem.
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By making civic education not only a priority, but also a testable requirement, we can work towards more comprehensive requirements like the peer-to-peer programs being implemented in Massachusetts.
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"We wanted to transform the idea of a multiverse into a testable scientific framework," said Thomas Hertog, the co-author of the paper and Hawking's mentee, according to the Sunday Times.
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Unlike true scientific disciplines such as physics and biology, the laws of economics aren't testable in a laboratory setting, and the inputs to any economic outcome are incredibly and globally complex.
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Clocksmiths like Silverstein and Kleban have since been busy working out the distinct set of triangles that their models would produce—predictions that will become increasingly testable in the coming years.
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"There aren't many examples in biology where a high-level idea, like information in this case, leads to a mathematical formula" that is then testable in experiments on living cells, Kondev said.
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But the letter's main point is that while inflationary models have become the predominant way to explain the universe, they're still testable science, and could be disproven if the right evidence turned up.
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Rather than critical thinking and putting facts into some testable structure to see if reality corresponds to theory, "knowledge" is now judged directly by the proportion of grievance expressed by special interest groups.
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That's the mystery: As the professors explain in the paper, entitled "The Curious Incident of the Falling Win Rate," there's no single, testable explanation for the dramatic decrease in favorable outcomes for plaintiffs.
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This paper creates a "coherent testable scientific framework," said Hertog, which will guide scientists on their quest to find evidence of other universes, something that currently only exists in the realm of science fiction.
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Scientists eager for testable mRNA will just have to enter, through an online automated system, the specific protein they want to direct a cell to make; vials filled with mRNA will then get shipped.
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To get more of a feel for how the software will interact with hardware, she may write an alternative firmware for an existing module so it's directly testable with CV inputs and physical knobs.
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Although other physicists have toyed with similar ideas, Khoury and Berezhiani are nearing the point where they can extract testable predictions that would allow astronomers to explore whether our galaxy is swimming in a superfluid sea.
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But not only does asymptotic safety provide a link between testable low energies and inaccessible high energies—as the above examples demonstrate—the approach is also not necessarily in conflict with other ways of quantizing gravity.
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Well, as scientists, they have an obligation to state their hypotheses as clearly as possible, to make testable predictions whenever possible, and to be rigorous and transparent in gathering evidence to support or falsify those predictions.
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Even so, he convincingly argues that there are geoengineering techniques designed around key climate processes that can be high leverage, reversible, testable, and that have the scale required to actually solve climate challenges in a sustainable way.
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Surely not, you might think; don't proper scientific theories have to satisfy timeless criteria such as explaining all the phenomena the theories they displace are able to, being able to make testable predictions, being repeatable, and so on?
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"Once we know how many untested kits there are around the state and how many of them are testable, we will make a plan and seek the resources to get them tested," Attorney General Josh Stein told The Associated Press.
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"Love is this amalgamation of different feelings and emotions and behaviors, and science likes to reduce things to the most testable units you can find," Jeanette Purvis, a Ph.D. student at the University of Hawaii who's conducting a study on Tinder, told me.
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"We laid out a bunch of questions -- a list of researchable questions -- scientifically testable questions that one would ask in order to get to a better understanding of both the nature of the problem and what to do about it," said Leshner.
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The fear of being eliminated from society is very immediate for communities with congenital, testable disabilities; Down syndrome is a popular example, but it's also possible to test for many forms of dwarfism, as well as a variety of congenital physical and developmental disabilities.
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I'm just deeply grateful that my kit was created in the first place, and that it was kept so well: not just physically well, so as to be still testable after all that time, but also with an intact chain of custody that protected its status as legitimate evidence.
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This plan would mandate the creation of a new national broadband map, using granular and testable data rather than what we have now, where broadband providers report advertised rather than actual speeds to the F.C.C., and where broadband deployment is calculated by census block rather than by household.
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But I've been shifting my thinking based on recent conversations with some of the analysts below pointing to a reasonable, testable, incremental path to managing sun-blocking aerosols as the world tackles the far tougher and costlier effort to decarbonize a growing economy that remains deeply dependent on fossil fuels.
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On the other, because the social skills of many such children are poorly developed, it can be extremely difficult for them to be a child in the traditional sense, to fit in and to learn many of the non-verbal, non-testable skills that social activity teaches you in preparation for being an adult.
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Supercomputers have already been used to research the coronavirus, which has infected over 35,85033 individuals in the U.S. Researchers at the University of Tennessee in collaboration with IBM screened 8,000 compounds to find the ones most likely to render the protein in coronavirus unable to attach to human cells, narrowing the massive list to a more manageable and testable 77.
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My testable hypothesis is that the average complexity of Starbucks orders has increased over time, and will keep increasing, as people try to use the crutch of control over their coffees to counteract the sense of chaos induced by the phones in their pockets; the feeling that our world is careening out of control, which in turn provokes the need to stay always connected, always informed, lest we miss the hour the barbarians actually arrive at the gate.
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A. N. Trahtman. A variety of semigroups without an irreducible basis of identities. Math. Zametky, Moscow, 21(1977), 865-871. The theory of locally testable automata can be based on the theory of varieties of locally testable semigroups.A. N. Trahtman. Identities of locally testable semigroups. Comm. Algebra, 27(1999), no. 11, 5405-5412.
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The principle of maximum entropy is useful explicitly only when applied to testable information. Testable information is a statement about a probability distribution whose truth or falsity is well-defined. For example, the statements :the expectation of the variable x is 2.87 and :p_2 + p_3 > 0.6 (where p_2 and p_3 are probabilities of events) are statements of testable information. Given testable information, the maximum entropy procedure consists of seeking the probability distribution which maximizes information entropy, subject to the constraints of the information.
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This statement is not tautological: it hinges on the testable hypothesis that such fitness-impacting heritable variations actually exist (a hypothesis that has been amply confirmed.) Momme von Sydow suggested further definitions of 'survival of the fittest' that may yield a testable meaning in biology and also in other areas where Darwinian processes have been influential. However, much care would be needed to disentangle tautological from testable aspects. Moreover, an "implicit shifting between a testable and an untestable interpretation can be an illicit tactic to immunize natural selection ... while conveying the impression that one is concerned with testable hypotheses".Cf. von Sydow, M. (2012).
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Oberon Zell-Ravenheart in 1970 in an article in Green Egg Magazine, independently articulated the Gaia Thesis. Many believe that these ideas cannot be considered scientific hypotheses; by definition a scientific hypothesis must make testable predictions. As the above claims are not currently testable, they are outside the bounds of current science. This does not mean that these ideas are not theoretically testable.
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Locally testable codes, on the other hand, accept w if it is part of the code. Many things can go wrong in assuming a PCP proof encodes a locally testable code. For example, the PCP definition says nothing about invalid proofs, only invalid inputs. Despite this difference, locally testable codes and PCPs are similar enough that frequently to construct one, a prover will construct the other along the way.
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Furthermore, such theories need to suggest empirically testable connections between educationally relevant behaviours and brain function.
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Simon & Schuster continued to advertise the book relying heavily on testimonials as well as the testable approach the book offered.
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Native-centric molecular dynamics simulations recapitulate the experimental results and point the way to testable computational models for complex folding mechanisms.
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Karl Popper pioneered the use of the term "conjecture" in scientific philosophy. Conjecture is related to hypothesis, which in science refers to a testable conjecture.
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This classification can be achieved by noticing that, to be testable, for a functionality of the system under test "S", which takes input "I", a computable functional predicate "V" must exists such that V(S,I) is true when S, given input I, produce a valid output, false otherwise. This function "V" is known as the verification function for the system with input I. Many software systems are untestable, or not immediately testable. For example, Google's ReCAPTCHA, without having any metadata about the images is not a testable system. Recaptcha, however, can be immediately tested if for each image shown, there is a tag stored elsewhere.
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The relative conformity of methods ensures that analysts using different methods or simulations can come to similar results, making the results testable in a broader setting.
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The DCM exhibits several surcritical emergent behaviors such as multistability and a Hopf bifurcation between two very different regimes which may represent either sleep or arousal with a various all-or-none behaviors which Dehaene et al. use to determine a testable taxonomy between different states of consciousness.Dehaene S, Changeux JP, Naccache L, Sackur J, Sergent C. Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: a testable taxonomy. Trends Cogn Sci.
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Critics suggest that it is not a testable hypothesis, and nor does it follow logically that dynamic density would cause this new type of solidarity, supposing it actually existed.
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AsmL is a functional language (which are commonly used in academic research).Grieskamp, Wolfgang, et al. "Testable use cases in the abstract state machine language." Quality Software, 2001. Proceedings.
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The philosopher Roger Scruton argues in Sexual Desire (1986) that Popper was mistaken to claim that Freudian theory implies no testable observation and therefore does not have genuine predictive power. Scruton maintains that Freudian theory has both "theoretical terms" and "empirical content." He points to the example of Freud's theory of repression, which in his view has "strong empirical content" and implies testable consequences. Nevertheless, Scruton also concluded that Freudian theory is not genuinely scientific.
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This way the fault coverage can closely approach 100%, provided the design is properly made testable (see next section). Once a design exists, and is verified and testable, it often needs to be processed to be manufacturable as well. Modern integrated circuits have features smaller than the wavelength of the light used to expose the photoresist. Manufacturability software adds interference patterns to the exposure masks to eliminate open-circuits, and enhance the masks' contrast.
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Block sort is a well-defined and testable class of algorithms, with working implementations available as a merge and as a sort. This allows its characteristics to be measured and considered.
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The POE process provides value-neutral prompts to stimulate stakeholders to make testable observations about their experiences of buildings' effect on productivity and wellbeing. These observations are clarified and documented by the evaluator. Stakeholders' testable observations will be specific to building design, use and operating conditions and these may involve "negotiation" of all three dimensions of building evaluation to realize the optimum ways of achieving productivity and wellbeing. Recommendations are based on complete set of stakeholders' observations.
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Sin, science and psychoanalysis. London: Harper Collins. Karl Popper argued that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted; that is, they are not falsifiable.Popper, Karl R. 1990.
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Givnish found a correlation of leaf mottling with closed habitats. Disruptive camouflage would have a clear evolutionary advantage in plants: they would tend to escape from being eaten by herbivores; and the hypothesis is testable.
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On the other hand, SME includes many Lorentz violation parameters, not only for special relativity, but for the Standard model and General relativity as well; thus it has a much larger number of testable parameters.
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Other well-known work includes a picture of the octonions as associative in a certain symmetric monoidal category. Also in the 1990s he pioneered the theory and first models of noncommutative or quantum spacetimes. The 1994 Majid-Ruegg model in particular turned out to be testable by data now being collected by the GLAST-Fermi gamma ray space telescope. Whether his model is confirmed or not, the most important thing, according to Majid, is that unlike much of modern theoretical physics, it is testable.
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The principle of maximum entropy states that the probability distribution which best represents the current state of knowledge is the one with largest entropy, in the context of precisely stated prior data (such as a proposition that expresses testable information). Another way of stating this: Take precisely stated prior data or testable information about a probability distribution function. Consider the set of all trial probability distributions that would encode the prior data. According to this principle, the distribution with maximal information entropy is the best choice.
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In most practical cases, the stated prior data or testable information is given by a set of conserved quantities (average values of some moment functions), associated with the probability distribution in question. This is the way the maximum entropy principle is most often used in statistical thermodynamics. Another possibility is to prescribe some symmetries of the probability distribution. The equivalence between conserved quantities and corresponding symmetry groups implies a similar equivalence for these two ways of specifying the testable information in the maximum entropy method.
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Heidelberg, New York: Springer Science [doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8].von Sydow, M. (2014). ‘Survival of the Fittest’ in Darwinian Metaphysics - Tautology or Testable Theory? (pp. 199-222) In E. Voigts, B. Schaff &M.
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New theories that generate many new predictions can more easily be supported or falsified (see predictive power). Notions that make no testable predictions are usually considered not to be part of science (protoscience or nescience) until testable predictions can be made. Mathematical equations and models, and computer models, are frequently used to describe the past and future behaviour of a process within the boundaries of that model. In some cases the probability of an outcome, rather than a specific outcome, can be predicted, for example in much of quantum physics.
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For ethnobiology to be scientific, testable hypotheses are generated from information offered by indigenous and folk informants. The emic-etic filter has to be respected, and a decoding of traditional knowledge is necessary to bridge the two cultures.
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While some of Freud's ideas may be faulty and others not easily testable, he was a peerless observer of the human condition, and enough of what he proposed, particularly concerning the reality principle, manifests itself in daily life.
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The program is to occur in three stages. The first is to read literature and convert it into formal representations. Second is to integrate the knowledge into computational models. Third is to produce experimentally testable explanations and predictions.
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These autonomous agents computationally model human and animal cognition, and provide testable hypotheses for cognitive scientists and neuroscientists. This work is funded by the United States Navy and has been the subject of numerous papers in scientific journals and conference proceedings.
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Critical thinker and archaeologist Stephen Williams uses the phrase "Fantastic Archaeology" to describe the archeological theories and discoveries which he defines as "fanciful archaeological interpretations". These interpretations usually lack artifacts, data, and testable theories to back up the claims made.
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Contrary to other solutions of the measurement problem, collapse models are experimentally testable. The experiments testing the CSL model can be divided in two classes: interferometric and non-interferometric experiments, which respectively probe direct and indirect effects of the collapse mechanism.
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The difficulty of teasing out the effects of any supposed biophotons amid the other numerous chemical interactions between cells makes it difficult to devise a testable hypothesis. A 2010 review article discusses various published theories on this kind of signaling.
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MIT News Office "Public-health networks." YouTube Retrieved November 07, 2016. In 2013, he moved to the University of Pennsylvania's Annenberg School for Communications and founded the Network Dynamics Group as a center for theoretical research with testable policy applications.
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Exports of a capital- abundant country come from capital-intensive industries, and labour-abundant countries import such goods, exporting labour-intensive goods in return. Competitive pressures within the H–O model produce this prediction fairly straightforwardly. Conveniently, this is an easily testable hypothesis.
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In addition, they produced testable predictions including his then- controversial proposal that the long nectary of Angraecum sesquipedale meant that there must be a moth with an equally long proboscis. This was confirmed in 1903 when Xanthopan morganii praedicta was found in Madagascar.
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"The electromagnetic field theory of consciousness: a testable hypothesis about the characteristics of conscious as opposed to non-conscious fields". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 19 (11-12): 191–223. Some electromagnetic theories are also quantum mind theories of consciousness; examples include quantum brain dynamics (QBD).
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A large body of research supports the predictions of Ribot's law. The theory concerns the relative strength of memories over time, which is not directly testable. Instead, scientists investigate the processes of forgetting (amnesia), and recollection.Knowlton, B. J., Squire, L. R., Clark, R. E. (2001).
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A positive theory seeks to describe phenomena rather than prescribe a correct action. Positive theories must be testable and can be proven true or false. A normative theory is subjective and based on opinions. Because of this, normative theories cannot be proven true or false.
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Glashow is a skeptic of superstring theory due to its lack of experimentally testable predictions. He had campaigned to keep string theorists out of the Harvard physics department, though the campaign failed.Jim Holt (2006-10-02), "Unstrung", The New Yorker. Retrieved on 2012-07-27.
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Kehoe explores the "independent invention" of works and techniques using the example of boats. Ancient peoples could have used their boat technology to make contact with new civilizations and exchange ideas. Moreover, the use of boats is a testable theory, which can be evaluated by recreating voyages in certain kinds of vessels, unlike hyperdiffusionism. Kehoe concludes with the theory of transoceanic contact and makes clear that she is not asserting a specific theory of how and when cultures diffused and blended, but is instead offering a plausible, and testable, example of how civilizational similarities may have arisen without hyperdiffusionism, namely by independent invention and maritime contact.
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47, No. 1226. pp. 626–628 The American ecologist H. A. Gleason praised the hypothesis for being testable in the field of phytogeography but came to the conclusion that it could not account for migration data.H. A. Gleason. (1924). Age and Area from the Viewpoint of Phytogeography.
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1642360 His research has also yielded testable predictions about the consonance and dissonance of musical sonorities.Parncutt, R., Reisinger, D., Fuchs, A., & Kaiser, F. (2018). Consonance and prevalence of sonorities in Western polyphony: Roughness, harmonicity, familiarity, evenness, diatonicity. Journal of New Music Research, 48(1), 1–20.
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There are no scientifically testable predictions directly included in this film, only suggestions and allusions. The film was produced and directed by Paul Drane for Australian Seven television network. It was hosted by actor John Waters. It set a ratings record, leading to a repeat broadcast two weeks later.
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Sexual desire may not be as directly or reliably testable as sexual arousal, which can be validly and reliably assessed by monitoring genital and other physiological arousal. No test exists that can definitely measure sexual desire.Diamond, L.M. (2004). Emerging perspectives on distinctions between romantic love and sexual desire.
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Central to the MaxEnt thesis is the principle of maximum entropy. It demands as given some partly specified model and some specified data related to the model. It selects a preferred probability distribution to represent the model. The given data state "testable information"Jaynes, E.T. (1968), p. 229.
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Eye, brain, and vision (pp. 191-219). New York: Scientific American Library.—Manousakis attributes the psychophysical and neuronal data from this phenomenon to the hypothesized formulation. Furthermore, the present model is able to produce testable predictions for the distribution of dominance duration when a stimulus has periodically been removed.
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Others—most notably David Gross but also Lubos Motl, Peter Woit, and Lee Smolin—argue that this is not predictive. Max Tegmark,Tegmark (1998) op. cit. Mario Livio, and Martin Rees argue that only some aspects of a physical theory need be observable and/or testable for the theory to be accepted, and that many well-accepted theories are far from completely testable at present. Jürgen Schmidhuber (2000–2002) points out that Ray Solomonoff's theory of universal inductive inference and its extensions already provide a framework for maximizing our confidence in any theory, given a limited sequence of physical observations, and some prior distribution on the set of possible explanations of the universe.
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No testing of testable brain stem functions such as oesophageal and cardiovascular regulation is specified in the UK Code of Practice for the diagnosis of death on neurological grounds. There is published evidenceHall GM et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary function in the 'brain dead' patient. Lancet 1980;2:1259Wetzel RC et al.
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Kenneth Allan (2006) distinguishes sociological theory from social theory, in that the former consists of abstract and testable propositions about society, heavily relying on the scientific method which aims for objectivity and to avoid passing value judgments.Allan, Kenneth. 2006. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. . Retrieved 25 April 2020. p. 10.
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Both workers, and others such as Dobzhansky and Wright, explicitly intended to bring biology up to the philosophical standard of the physical sciences, making it firmly based in mathematical modelling, its predictions confirmed by experiment. Natural selection, once considered hopelessly unverifiable speculation about history, was becoming predictable, measurable, and testable.
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Alternatively, the principle is often invoked for model specification: in this case the observed data itself is assumed to be the testable information. Such models are widely used in natural language processing. An example of such a model is logistic regression, which corresponds to the maximum entropy classifier for independent observations.
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Physicists have no interest in using Occam's razor to say the other two are wrong. Likewise, there is no demand for simplicity principles to arbitrate between wave and matrix formulations of quantum mechanics. Science often does not demand arbitration or selection criteria between models that make the same testable predictions.
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The claim that a hair test cannot be tampered with has been shown to be debatable. One study has shown that THC does not readily deposit inside epithelial cells so it is possible for cosmetic and other forms of adulteration to reduce the amount of testable cannabinoids within a hair sample.
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A fundamental tool in graphical analysis is d-separation, which allows researchers to determine, by inspection, whether the causal structure implies that two sets of variables are independent given a third set. In recursive models without correlated error terms (sometimes called Markovian), these conditional independences represent all of the model's testable implications.
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Price theory is a field of economics that uses the supply and demand framework to explain and predict human behavior. It is associated with the Chicago School of Economics. Price theory studies competitive equilibrium in markets to yield testable hypotheses that can be rejected. Price theory is not the same as microeconomics.
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Karl Popper argued that Adler's individual psychology like psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted; that is, they are not falsifiable.Popper KR, "Science: Conjectures and Refutations", reprinted in Grim P (1990) Philosophy of Science and the Occult, Albany, 104–110. See also Conjectures and Refutations.
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Dine works on the "phenomenology" (i.e. experimentally testable models for low energy) of supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model and of superstring theory. In particular, he does research on supersymmetry breaking. Dine investigated in the 1980s modifications of quantum chromodynamics with dynamical supersymmetry breaking (DSB), partly with Ian Affleck and Nathan Seiberg.
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According to Chris Argyris (2004), there are two dominant mindsets in organizations: the productive mindset and the defensive mindset. The productive mindset seeks out valid knowledge that is testable. The productive reasoning mindset creates informed choices and makes reasoning transparent. The defensive mindset, on the other hand, is self-protective and self-deceptive.
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Longer-term studies are needed to validate whether it improves the rate of insulin-independence. Beta cell transplant may become practical in the near future. Additionally, some researchers have explored the possibility of transplanting genetically engineered non-beta cells to secrete insulin. Clinically testable results are far from realization at this time.
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For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives. Since failing explanations can always be burdened with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable.
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The philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre challenged Freud's theory by maintaining that there is no "mechanism" that represses unwanted thoughts. Since "all consciousness is conscious of itself" we will be aware of the process of repression, even if skilfully dodging an issue. The philosopher Thomas Baldwin stated in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (1995) that Sartre's argument that Freud's theory of repression is internally flawed is based on a misunderstanding of Freud. The philosopher Roger Scruton argued in Sexual Desire (1986) that Freud's theory of repression disproves the claim, made by Karl Popper and Ernest Nagel, that Freudian theory implies no testable observation and therefore does not have genuine predictive power, since the theory has "strong empirical content" and implies testable consequences.
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In sum, the joint hypothesis problem implies that market efficiency per se is not testable. Market efficiency implies that stock prices fully reflect all publicly available information instantaneously; thus no investment strategies can systematically earn abnormal returns. Fama (1991)FAMA, E.F., 1991. Efficient Capital Markets: II. The Journal of Finance, 46(5), pp. 1575.
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It is very difficult to study the brain, especially in humans due to the danger associated with cranial surgeries. Therefore, the use of technology to fill the void of testable subjects is vital. Neurorobots accomplish exactly this, improving the range of tests and experiments that can be performed in the study of neural processes.
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However, as long as there exists an alpha, neither the conclusion of a flawed model nor market inefficiency can be drawn according to the Joint Hypothesis. Fama (1991) also stresses that market efficiency per se is not testable and can only be tested jointly with some model of equilibrium, i.e. an asset-pricing model.
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WCAG 2.0 was published as a W3C Recommendation on 11 December 2008. W3C: W3C Web Standard Defines Accessibility for Next Generation Web (press release, 11 December 2008). It consists of twelve guidelines (untestable) organized under four principles (websites must be perceivable, operable, understandable, and robust). Each guideline has testable success criteria (61 in all).
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As a model biological system, the zebrafish possesses numerous advantages for scientists. Its genome has been fully sequenced, and it has well-understood, easily observable and testable developmental behaviors. Its embryonic development is very rapid, and its embryos are relatively large, robust, and transparent, and able to develop outside their mother. Furthermore, well-characterized mutant strains are readily available.
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Example one shows how narrative text can be interspersed with testable examples in a docstring. In the second example, more features of doctest are shown, together with their explanation. Example three is set up to run all doctests in a file when the file is run, but when imported as a module, the tests will not be run.
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According to legend, the Hoia Forest is a hotspot of paranormal phenomena. Many ghost stories and urban legends contribute to its popularity as a tourist attraction. Skeptics say these are just stories for entertainment and lack any testable evidence. The Hoia Forest has been featured in paranormal documentary TV shows, from Ghost Adventures to Destination Truth.
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Therefore, he denies the claim by proponents of "Intelligent Design Theory" such as Michael Behe that it is scientifically testable as a process distinct from evolution. Instead, Intelligent Design should be understood as fully consistent with the evolution of life by mutation and natural selection operating through natural processes, because these processes are ultimately controlled by God.
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The recognition heuristic is a model that relies on recognition only. This leads to the testable prediction that people who rely on it will ignore strong, contradicting cues (i.e., do not make trade-offs; so-called noncompensatory inferences). In an experiment by Daniel M. Oppenheimer participants were presented with pairs of cities, which included actual cities and fictional cities.
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Great theories generate numerous testable hypotheses. Engelmann's theory was very successful in that regard. His hypotheses were on target whether about aggression, random violence, cultural closure, anti-intellectualism, diminishing freedoms, or scientific viewpoints. In the late 1960s when riots were common place and everyone blamed everyone else, Engelmann sought answers to questions no one else was asking.
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Critics of the Barrow and Tipler SAP claim that it is neither testable nor falsifiable, and thus is not a scientific statement but rather a philosophical one. The same criticism has been leveled against the hypothesis of a multiverse, although some argueAre Parallel Universes Unscientific Nonsense? Insider Tips for Criticizing the Multiverse Tegmark, Max. February 4, 2014.
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As the technique of diffusion MRI has improved, this has become a testable hypothesis. Research indicates more diffuse termination of the fibers of the arcuate than previously thought. While the main caudal source of the fiber tract appears to be posterior superior temporal cortex, the rostral terminations are mostly in premotor cortex, part of Brodmann area 44.
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Witmer's targets included the American Psychological Association, mon-experimentalists, psychology as a discipline, and his colleagues. A second factor was that many of his theories were not empirically testable. Although Witmer was a major advocate for scientific procedures, he often presented his theories as facts, rather than hypotheses. He then often failed to provide methods for testing his theories.
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That is, to the scientist, the question can be solved by experiment. Alder admits, however, that "While the Newtonian insistence on ensuring that any statement is testable by observation ... undoubtedly cuts out the crap, it also seems to cut out almost everything else as well", as it prevents one from taking a position on topics such as politics or religion.
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He claims that this hypothesis is testable so he and others have performed and continue to perform experiments attempting to detect and utilize this effect. His claim of a reactionless drive for possible breakthrough applications to space travel has generated a fair amount of popular interest."Gravity, Inertia, Exotica" Tau Zero Foundation"Interstellar propulsion: the quest for empty space." Entrepreneur.
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If f is a codeword, this will accept f as long as x_i was unchanged, which happens with probability 1-\mu. This violates the requirement that codewords are always accepted, but may be good enough for some needs. Other locally testable codes include Reed-Muller codes (see locally decodable codes for a decoding algorithm), Reed-Solomon codes, and the short code.
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Software testability is the degree to which a software artifact (i.e. a software system, software module, requirements- or design document) supports testing in a given test context. If the testability of the software artifact is high, then finding faults in the system (if it has any) by means of testing is easier. Formally, some systems are testable, and some are not.
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It is the naturalist view. Advocates of either notion urge us to believe things that cannot be put to the test. Whether God created the heavens and the earth in six days or whether there are parallel universes have nothing whatsoever to do with science no matter how gladly true believers would have it so. Central to all science is the testable hypothesis.
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Because of this testable claim they were encouraged to attempt James Randi's million dollar challenge. Penta Water announced that they would accept the challenge. As they further discussed the terms for verification of the experiment, Penta Water declined to continue with the challenge, noting they did not have the appropriate resources at the time to provide someone to oversee the experiment.
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Several test theories have been developed to assess a possible positive outcome in Lorentz violation experiments by adding certain parameters to the standard equations. These include the Robertson-Mansouri- Sexl framework (RMS) and the Standard-Model Extension (SME). RMS has three testable parameters with respect to length contraction and time dilation. From that, any anisotropy of the speed of light can be assessed.
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Being a scientist, above all else, Huxley presented agnosticism as a form of demarcation. A hypothesis with no supporting, objective, testable evidence is not an objective, scientific claim. As such, there would be no way to test said hypotheses, leaving the results inconclusive. His agnosticism was not compatible with forming a belief as to the truth, or falsehood, of the claim at hand.
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Working with Pittendrigh, Daan developed many of the theoretical foundations for understanding the dynamics of circadian oscillators.Pittendrigh CS, and Daan S (1976) A functional analysis of circadian pacemakers in nocturnal rodents IV. Entrainment: Pacemaker as clock. J Comp Physiol A 106:291-331. Many other studies have followed, shifting the focus from behavioural black box models to testable hypotheses about underlying molecular mechanisms.
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These testable hypotheses about warning signals and mimicry helped to create the field of evolutionary ecology.Ruxton GD, Sherratt TN and Speed MP 2004. Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry. Oxford. Bates, Wallace and Müller believed that Batesian and Müllerian mimicry provided evidence for the action of natural selection, a view which is now standard amongst biologists.
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The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic. # Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables. # Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts. # Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.
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Before testing samples, the tamper-evident seal is checked for integrity. If it appears to have been tampered with or damaged, the laboratory rejects the sample and does not test it. Next, the sample must be made testable. Urine and oral fluid can be used "as is" for some tests, but other tests require the drugs to be extracted from urine.
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TLA+ is a formal specification language developed by Leslie Lamport. It is used to design, model, document, and verify programs, especially concurrent systems and distributed systems. TLA+ has been described as exhaustively- testable pseudocode, and its use likened to drawing blueprints for software systems; TLA is an acronym for Temporal Logic of Actions. For design and documentation, TLA+ fulfills the same purpose as informal technical specifications.
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Science is a system of knowledge based on observation, empirical evidence, and the development of theories that yield testable explanations and predictions of natural phenomena. By contrast, creationism is often based on literal interpretations of the narratives of particular religious texts.NAS 2008, p. 12 Creationist beliefs involve purported forces that lie outside of nature, such as supernatural intervention, and often do not allow predictions at all.
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1255, 1258–1264) (ED Ark. 1982), brought in Arkansas, the judge, William Overton, gave a clear, specific definition of science as a basis for ruling that 'creation science' is religion and not science. His judgment defined the essential characteristics of science as being :#guided by natural law; :#explanatory by reference to natural law; :#empirically testable; :#tentative in conclusion, i.e. not necessarily the final word; :#falsifiable.
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Carl Jung sought to invoke synchronicity, the claim that two events have some sort of acausal connection, to explain the lack of statistically significant results on astrology from a single study he conducted. However, synchronicity itself is considered neither testable nor falsifiable. The study was subsequently heavily criticised for its non-random sample and its use of statistics and also its lack of consistency with astrology.
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Grünbaum argues that the psychoanalytic theory of paranoia is in principle falsifiable, since Freud's view that repressed homosexuality is a necessary cause of paranoia entails the testable claim that a decline in social sanctions against homosexuality should result in a decline in paranoia. Grünbaum also discusses the work of the philosopher Clark Glymour. The philosopher Jürgen Habermas. Grünbaum criticizes Habermas's hermeneutic interpretation of psychoanalysis.
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Peter Kreeft and Ronald Tacelli cited 20 arguments for God's existence,Twenty Arguments for the Existence of God, from the Handbook of Christian Apologetics by Peter Kreeft and Fr. Ronald Tacelli, SJ, Intervarsity Press, 1994. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014. asserting that any demand for evidence testable in a laboratory is in effect asking God, the supreme being, to become man's servant.
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Tell me my work is not as testable > as something else, tell me it is not as general as something else, tell me > it is less elegant than something else, tell me that it has already been > published, or just tell me it is wrong. Tell me something relevant to what I > am trying to accomplish — something scientific."Black, Donald. 1995. "The > Epistemology of Pure Sociology.
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The Maximum Entropy thermodynamics has some important opposition, in part because of the relative paucity of published results from the MaxEnt school, especially with regard to new testable predictions far-from- equilibrium.Kleidon, A., Lorenz, R.D. (2005). The theory has also been criticized in the grounds of internal consistency. For instance, Radu Balescu provides a strong criticism of the MaxEnt School and of Jaynes' work.
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He was particularly interested in the challenges of structuring successful agreements capable of preventing opportunistic behavior when stakeholders are heterogeneous, or have made prior relationship-specific investments (research influenced by the work of Nobel Laureate Oliver Williamson).JLEO 10(2). Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization. His research approaches involved developing theoretical models and evaluating testable hypotheses through the use of laboratory experimental methods.
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Min asserts only that two experimenters separated in a space-like way can make choices of measurements independently of each other. In particular it is not postulated that the speed of transfer of all information is subject to a maximum limit, but only of the particular information about choices of measurements. In 2017, Kochen argued that Min could be replaced by Lin – experimentally testable Lorentz covariance.
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Nevertheless, computer technology, sometimes in the form of specialized software or hardware architectures, allow scientists to perform iterative calculations and search for plausible solutions. A computer chip or a robot that can interact with the natural environment in ways akin to the original organism is one embodiment of a useful model. The ultimate measure of success is however the ability to make testable predictions.
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It is possible for DI frameworks to have other types of injection beyond those presented above. Testing frameworks may also use other types. Some modern testing frameworks do not even require that clients actively accept dependency injection thus making legacy code testable. In particular, in the Java language it is possible to use reflection to make private attributes public when testing and thus accept injections by assignment.
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This involves predicting that the evolutionary cause will have caused other effects than the ones already discovered and known. Then these predictions are tested. The authors argue numerous evolutionary theories have been tested in this way and confirmed or falsified. Buller (2005) makes the point that the entire field of evolutionary psychology is never confirmed or falsified; only specific hypotheses, motivated by the general assumptions of evolutionary psychology, are testable.
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IDEF focus on Description Capture enabling reuse. Modeling necessitates taking additional steps beyond description capture to resolve conflicting or inconsistent views. This, in turn, generally requires modelers to select or create a single viewpoint and introduce artificial modeling approximations to fill in gaps where no direct knowledge or experience is available. Unlike models, descriptions are not constrained by idealized, testable conditions that must be satisfied, short of simple accuracy.
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The New York Times of November 10, 1919, reported on Einstein's confirmed prediction of gravitation on space, called the gravitational lens effect. The concept of predictive power, the power of a scientific theory to generate testable predictions, differs from explanatory power and descriptive power (where phenomena that are already known are retrospectively explained or described by a given theory) in that it allows a prospective test of theoretical understanding.
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They developed the concept of homo economicus, whose behavior was fundamentally rational. Neo-classical economists did incorporate psychological explanations: this was true of Francis Edgeworth, Vilfredo Pareto and Irving Fisher. Economic psychology emerged in the 20th century in the works of Gabriel Tarde, George Katona, and Laszlo Garai. Expected utility and discounted utility models began to gain acceptance, generating testable hypotheses about decision-making given uncertainty and intertemporal consumption, respectively.
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Popper, responding to a description of Grünbaum's arguments provided to him by the journalist Daniel Goleman, denied that psychoanalysis can provide testable predictions. His comments were published in Behavioral and Brain Sciences. The journal's editor questioned whether it is worthwhile to attempt to test Freud's claims, comparing it to attempting to test astrology or creationism. The psychologist Malcolm Macmillan argued that Grünbaum's critique of free association is insufficiently convincing.
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According to a theoretical result called Noether's theorem, any such symmetry will also imply a conservation law alongside. Extract of page 111 Extract of page 174 For example, if two observers at different times see the same laws, then a quantity called energy will be conserved. In this light, relativity principles make testable predictions about how nature behaves, and are not just statements about how scientists should write laws.
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Language 80(1):73-97. therefore underscoring the theoretical significance of hypocorrection as a condition for sound change via phonologisation. The listener misperception hypothesis of sound change has been a worthwhile domain of inquiry over the years, partly due to the fact that it makes testable predictions. According to this area of research, phonological rules arise due to mechanical or physical constraints inherent to speech production and perception.
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There are many issues that current psychologists have with psychoanalysis and therefore with its form of dream interpretation. Psychoanalysis is a theory that is not easily testable. Because the drive behind psychoanalysis is looking at a person's subconscious, there is not an accurate way to measure this scientifically. Freud even admitted in "On Narcissism", published in 1914, that the ideas of psychoanalysis are not the foundation of science.
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Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g. biology, chemistry, physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics) which study people and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g.
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Owen 2001 and Kitamura 2006) can be combined with prior information to perform Bayesian posterior analysis. Jaynes stated Bayes' theorem was a way to calculate a probability, while maximum entropy was a way to assign a prior probability distribution. It is however, possible in concept to solve for a posterior distribution directly from a stated prior distribution using the principle of minimum cross entropy (or the Principle of Maximum Entropy being a special case of using a uniform distribution as the given prior), independently of any Bayesian considerations by treating the problem formally as a constrained optimisation problem, the Entropy functional being the objective function. For the case of given average values as testable information (averaged over the sought after probability distribution), the sought after distribution is formally the Gibbs (or Boltzmann) distribution the parameters of which must be solved for in order to achieve minimum cross entropy and satisfy the given testable information.
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As inference tools, the graphs enable researchers to estimate effect sizes from non-experimental data, derive testable implications of the assumptions encoded, test for external validity, and manage missing data and selection bias. Causal graphs were first used by the geneticist Sewall Wright under the rubric "path diagrams". They were later adopted by social scientists and, to a lesser extent, by economists. These models were initially confined to linear equations with fixed parameters.
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The paradigms are revisited when Henderson talks about standards. Standards are an important topic in education and seeing the Transformative Standards he puts forth shows them in a new light. Received standards stress the importance of “standardized factual knowledge and skills, knowledge and skills that are testable with a large population, and criteria based on a predetermined metric based on counting”. These standards are not based on the students or what they have learned.
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Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions.Popper, Karl (1963), Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, UK. Reprinted in Theodore Schick (ed., 2000), Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, Calif. Thus, it is a mark of good science if a discipline has a growing list of superseded theories, and conversely, a lack of superseded theories can indicate problems in following the use of the scientific method.
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This contrasts with most designs of the era, like the MOS 6502 and Intel 8080, which used a 16-bit address bus. The 1802 has a single bit, programmable and testable output port (Q), and four input pins that are directly tested by branch instructions (EF1-EF4). These pins allow simple input/output (I/O) tasks to be handled directly and easily programmed. Another unique feature of the COSMAC design is its register set.
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Locally the beds are folded and faulted. There were mines in the Radstock and Nailsea areas but these have closed. This was one of the first areas in the world to undergo systematic geological study and mapping by John Strachey and William Smith in the 18th century. They observed the rock layers, or strata, which led Smith to the creation of a testable hypothesis, which he termed the Principle of Faunal Succession.
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CCEVS Logo Common Criteria Evaluation and Validation Scheme (CCEVS) is a United States Government program administered by the National Information Assurance Partnership (NIAP) to evaluate security functionality of an information technology with conformance to the Common Criteria international standard. The new standard uses Protection Profiles and the Common Criteria Standards to certify the product. This change happened in 2009. Their stated goal in making the change was to ensure achievable, repeatable and testable evaluations.
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Each of these atoms are identical and indistinguishable according to all tests known to modern science. Yet about 12600 times a second, one of the atoms in that gram will decay, giving off an alpha particle. The challenge for determinism is to explain why and when decay occurs, since it does not seem to depend on external stimulus. Indeed, no extant theory of physics makes testable predictions of exactly when any given atom will decay.
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Hardwick's ongoing interest in governance led to his research on inter- dependent relationships in inter-institutional systems, and in the area of clinical pathology his research into physician behaviour has led to practical hypotheses of laboratory test ordering patterns with testable interventions. Later studies have focused on economic effects of clinical laboratory testing. His second book, Directing the Clinical Laboratory, is a summation of 27 years' experience in this aspect of his research.
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A theory that is by its own terms dogmatic, absolutist and never subject to revision is not a scientific theory. In summary, he held that a scientific theory to be taught in schools must have the following properties: # It is guided by natural law; # It has to be explained by reference to natural law; # It is testable against the empirical world; # Its conclusions are tentative, i.e., are not necessarily the final word; # It is falsifiable.
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Closely related to empiricism is the idea that, to be useful, a scientific law or theory must be testable with available research methods. If a theory cannot be tested in any conceivable way then many scientists consider the theory to be meaningless. Testability implies falsifiability, which is the idea that some set of observations could prove the theory to be incorrect .Abramson, P.R. (1992) A case for case studies: An immigrant's journal.
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He realized this was a perfect way to pump an X-ray laser. After a few weeks of work, he came up with a testable concept. At this time the DNA was making plans for another of its X-ray effects tests, and Chapline's device could easily be tested in the same "shot". The test shot, Diablo Hawk, was carried out on 13 September 1978 as part of the Operation Cresset series.
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But it must use precise and unambiguous language so that designers and other implementers are left in no doubt as to meanings or intentions. In particular, all requirements must be testable, and the initial draft of the test plan should be developed contemporaneously with the requirements. All stakeholders should sign off on the acceptance test descriptions, or equivalent, as the sole determinant of the satisfaction of the requirements, at the outset of the program.
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Bearded dragons and red-footed tortoise were both studied to understand if these species can perceive the Delboeuf illusion. Bearded dragons showed action that suggests that they perceive the illusion in a way similar to humans. The tortoises however, showed no preference to larger portions (a similar problem found in the study of ring-tailed lemurs) and were thus not testable by the method that had been outlined by the test designers.
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It is possible that in certain cases, there is no correlation between foraging returns and reproductive success at all. Without accounting for this possibility, many studies using the OFT remain incomplete and fail to address and test the main point of the theory. One of the most imperative critiques of OFT is that it may not be truly testable. This issue arises whenever there is a discrepancy between the model's predictions and the actual observations.
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In Dewey's view, the working hypothesis is generated, not directly as a testable statement of, but instead in order to "direct inquiry into channels in which new material, factual and conceptual, is disclosed, material which is more relevant, more weighted and confirmed, more fruitful, than were the initial facts and conceptions which served as the point of departure". Abraham Kaplan later described the working hypothesis as "provisional or loosely formatted" theory or constructs.
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Scientific theories are distinguished from hypotheses, which are individual empirically testable conjectures, and from scientific laws, which are descriptive accounts of the way nature behaves under certain conditions. Theories guide the enterprise of finding facts rather than of reaching goals, and are neutral concerning alternatives among values. A theory can be a body of knowledge, which may or may not be associated with particular explanatory models. To theorize is to develop this body of knowledge.
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Testability, a property applying to an empirical hypothesis, involves two components: #Falsifiability or defeasibility, which means that counterexamples to the hypothesis are logically possible. #The practical feasibility of observing a reproducible series of such counterexamples if they do exist. In short, a hypothesis is testable if there is a possibility of deciding whether it is true or false based on experimentation. This allows to decide whether a theory can be supported or refuted by data.
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In his book Crack Capitalism, John Holloway considers abstract labour as the most radical foundational category of Marx's theory, and therefore he recommends the struggle against abstract labour as the centrepiece of the political struggle against capitalism.John Holloway, Crack capitalism. Pluto Press, 2010. The British computer scientist Paul Cockshott in 2013 attacked the German Marxist academic Michael Heinrich who, Cockshott argued, wrongly reinterpreted the concept of abstract labour so that it is no longer a scientifically testable concept.
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First, the model in an analytic narrative often affords a range of explanations and predictions. Although the main account of a unique case may not be testable, the model may yield other predictions that can be tested, either in this case or in other cases. Second, as with other methods, out-of- sample tests constitute an important route to generalization. The presumption today in social science research is that the authors will provide those tests themselves.
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A unified theory that explicitly includes gravity along with the other fundamental forces may be needed for a better understanding of the concept of negative mass. In December 2018, astrophysicist Jamie Farnes from the University of Oxford proposed a "dark fluid" theory, related, in part, to notions of gravitationally repulsive negative masses, presented earlier by Albert Einstein, that may help better understand, in a testable manner, the considerable amounts of unknown dark matter and dark energy in the cosmos.
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As the continuation of Goryo military, the Joseon military maintained the primacy of the bow as its main stay weapon. Gungdo remained the most prestigious of all martial arts in Korea. Gungdo was the single most important testable event in gwageo, the national service exam used to select Army officers from 1392 to Gabo Reform in 1894 when gwageo system was terminated. "Siege of Dongrae" Japanese army dual wielding swords while attacking the town of Dongrae.
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Its supporters claim that FCC is the only Darwinian theory to explain why there is so much red ochre in the early archaeological record of modern humans and why modern humans are then associated with red ochre wherever they went as they emerged from Africa. It is claimed that, more than any other theoretical model of modern human origins, FCC offers detailed and specific predictions testable in the light of data from a wide variety of disciplines.
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The stereo model is then made from a multitude of complex cell models that have differing disparities covering a testable range of disparities. Any individual stimulus is then distinguishable through finding the complex cell in the population with the strongest response to the stimuli. The stereo model accounts for most non-temporal physiological observations of binocular neurons as well as the correspondence problem. An important aspect of the stereo model is it accounts for disparity attraction and repulsion.
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"Here is the book that presents all this hard evidence and tightly interlocking theory to a wider audience.", writes Forbes. Michael LePage, reviewing the book in New Scientist, writes that the fact that complex cells only evolved once is "very peculiar when you think about it", but it is just one of many large mysteries that Lane addresses, including aging and death, sex, and speciation. LePage finds Lane's arguments "powerful and persuasive", with many testable ideas.
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 146. In Sexual Desire (1986), philosopher Roger Scruton rejects Popper's arguments pointing to the theory of repression as an example of a Freudian theory that does have testable consequences. Scruton nevertheless concluded that psychoanalysis is not genuinely scientific, on the grounds that it involves an unacceptable dependence on metaphor. The philosopher and physicist Mario Bunge argued that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because it violates the ontology and methodology inherent to science.
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Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called the economy of nature. His works influenced Charles Darwin, who adopted Linnaeus' phrase on the economy or polity of nature in The Origin of Species. Linnaeus was the first to frame the balance of nature as a testable hypothesis. Haeckel, who admired Darwin's work, defined ecology in reference to the economy of nature, which has led some to question whether ecology and the economy of nature are synonymous.
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Deutsch has also proposed that MWI will be testable (at least against "naive" Copenhagenism) when reversible computers become conscious via the reversible observation of spin.Paul C.W. Davies, J.R. Brown, The Ghost in the Atom (1986) , pp. 34–38: "The Many-Universes Interpretation", pp 83–105 for David Deutsch's test of MWI and reversible quantum memories Asher Peres was an outspoken critic of MWI. A section of his 1993 textbook had the title Everett's interpretation and other bizarre theories.
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Bell showed, however, that such models can only reproduce the singlet correlations when Alice and Bob make measurements on the same axis or on perpendicular axes. As soon as other angles between their axes are allowed, local hidden- variable theories become unable to reproduce the quantum mechanical correlations. This difference, expressed using inequalities known as "Bell inequalities", is in principle experimentally testable. After the publication of Bell's paper, a variety of experiments to test Bell's inequalities were devised.
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The researchers argued that servant leaders have a particular view of themselves as stewards who are entrusted to develop and empower followers to reach their fullest potential. However, Sendjaya and Sarros research work did not propose a testable framework nor did this work distinguish between this and other leadership styles. Researchers Farling, Stone, and Winston noted the lack of empirical evidence for servant leadership. The researchers presented servant leadership as a hierarchical model in a cyclical process.
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The Center for Inquiry is the transnational non-profit umbrella organization comprising CSI, the Council for Secular Humanism, the Center for Inquiry - On Campus national youth group and the Commission for Scientific Medicine and Mental Health. These organizations share headquarters and some staff, and each have their own list of fellows and their distinct mandates. CSI generally addresses questions of religion only in cases in which testable scientific assertions have been made (such as weeping statues or faith healing).
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Locally decodable codes are error- correcting codes for which single bits of the message can be probabilistically recovered by only looking at a small (say constant) number of positions of a codeword, even after the codeword has been corrupted at some constant fraction of positions. Locally testable codes are error-correcting codes for which it can be checked probabilistically whether a signal is close to a codeword by only looking at a small number of positions of the signal.
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Some vitalist biologists proposed testable hypotheses meant to show inadequacies with mechanistic explanations, but these experiments failed to provide support for vitalism. Biologists now consider vitalism in this sense to have been refuted by empirical evidence, and hence regard it either as a superseded scientific theory, or, since the mid-20th century, as a pseudoscience. Vitalism has a long history in medical philosophies: many traditional healing practices posited that disease results from some imbalance in vital forces.
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Biological data are analysed and processed using modern statistical methods, theoretical neuroscience approaches to simulate neuronal networks and generate hypotheses testable in further experiments. Several research groups at the CIN work hand-in-hand with the humanities, most importantly philosophy, a direction which has resulted in the creation of a professorship in neurophilosophy based on a former junior research group on this topic.Joachim Müller-Jung, „Ein Netzwerk, mit System erforscht”, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 31. Mai 2017.
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Cells have mechanisms that can refold or degrade protein aggregates. However, as cells age, these control mechanisms are weakened and the cell is less able to resolve the aggregates. The hypothesis that protein aggregation is a causative process in aging is testable now since some models of delayed aging are in hand. If the development of protein aggregates was an aging independent process, slowing down aging will show no effect on the rate of proteotoxicity over time.
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Gestalt psychology struggled to precisely define terms like Prägnanz, to make specific behavioral predictions, and to articulate testable models of underlying neural mechanisms. It was criticized as being merely descriptive. These shortcomings led, by the mid-20th century, to growing dissatisfaction with Gestaltism and a subsequent decline in its impact on psychology. Despite this decline, Gestalt psychology has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.
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Chrystia Freeland, "The rise of "lovely" and "lousy" jobs". Reuters, 12 April 2012. The economist Anwar Shaikh from the New School for Social Research has analyzed input-output data, wage data and labour data for the US economy, to create an empirically testable theory of the market valuation of skill differences. The counterargument is, that the valuation of skills depends to a great extent on the balance of class forces between the rich educated class, and the "lower- skilled" working class.
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Feser argues that Hume's fork itself is not a conceptual truth and is not empirically testable. Some living philosophers, such as Amie Thomasson, have argued that many metaphysical questions can be dissolved just by looking at the way we use words; others, such as Ted Sider, have argued that metaphysical questions are substantive, and that we can make progress toward answering them by comparing theories according to a range of theoretical virtues inspired by the sciences, such as simplicity and explanatory power.
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CSM is an effective treatment for focal epilepsy and bilateral or multiple seizure foci. It is an effective treatment option when resective surgery to remove the affected area is not an option, generally seen with bilateral or multiple seizure foci. CSM is routinely utilized for patients with epilepsy in order to pin point the focal point of the seizures. It is used once there is a testable hypothesis regarding brain location for the epileptogenic zone, determined through a less invasive procedure, electroencephalography.
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The testable definition of causality was introduced by Granger. Granger causality principle states that if some series Y(t) contains information in past terms that helps in the prediction of series X(t), then Y(t) is said to cause X(t). Granger causality principle can be expressed in terms of two-channel multivariate autoregressive model (MVAR). Granger in his later work pointed out that the determination of causality is not possible when the system of considered channels is not complete.
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The notebook in which Ronald Ross first described pigmented malaria parasites in stomach tissues of an Anopheles mosquito, 20 and 21 August 1897 The establishment of the scientific method from about the mid-19th century on demanded testable hypotheses and verifiable phenomena for causation and transmission. Anecdotal reports, and the discovery in 1881 that mosquitos were the vector of yellow fever, eventually led to the investigation of mosquitoes in connection with malaria. An early effort at malaria prevention occurred in 1896 in Massachusetts.
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Locally testable codes have a lot in common with probabilistically checkable proofs (PCPs). This should be apparent from the similarities of their construction. In both, we are given q random nonadaptive queries into a large string and if we want to accept, we must with probability 1, and if not, we must accept no more than half the time. The major difference is that PCPs are interested in accepting x if there exists a w so that M^w(x)=1.
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There are a number of theories of carcinogenesis and cancer treatment that fall outside the mainstream of scientific opinion, due to lack of scientific rationale, logic, or evidence base. These theories may be used to justify various alternative cancer treatments. They should be distinguished from those theories of carcinogenesis that have a logical basis within mainstream cancer biology, and from which conventionally testable hypotheses can be made. Several alternative theories of carcinogenesis, however, are based on scientific evidence and are increasingly being acknowledged.
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The question of determining whether a given rational number is a congruent number is called the congruent number problem. This problem has not (as of 2019) been brought to a successful resolution. Tunnell's theorem provides an easily testable criterion for determining whether a number is congruent; but his result relies on the Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture, which is still unproven. Fermat's right triangle theorem, named after Pierre de Fermat, states that no square number can be a congruent number.
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Geoffroy thought of facts as building blocks to science while new ideas would lead to real discovery, occasionally dipping more into philosophical hypotheses instead of testable or demonstrated research. Geoffroy kept his unpopular ideas under wraps when advantageous to his career but found it increasingly difficult to stay passive as he got older and more well known. He may even have welcomed the debate between himself and Cuvier as a chance to liven up the discussions in the Academy and generate new ideas.
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A 2010 review by evolutionary psychologists Confer et al. suggested that domain general theories, such as for "rationality," has several problems: 1. Evolutionary theories using the idea of numerous domain-specific adaptions have produced testable predictions that have been empirically confirmed; the theory of domain-general rational thought has produced no such predictions or confirmations. 2. The rapidity of responses such as jealousy due to infidelity indicates a domain-specific dedicated module rather than a general, deliberate, rational calculation of consequences. 3.
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In contrast, social theory, according to Allan, focuses less on explanation and more on commentary and critique of modern society. As such, social theory is generally closer to continental philosophy insofar as it is less concerned with objectivity and derivation of testable propositions, thus more likely to propose normative judgments. Sociologist Robert K. Merton (1949) argued that sociological theory deals with social mechanisms, which are essential in exemplifying the 'middle ground' between social law and description.Merton, Robert K. 1968 [1949].
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According to noted philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel "An adequate empirical interpretation turns a theoretical system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose constituent terms have been interpreted become capable of test by reference to observable phenomena. Frequently the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative hypotheses of the theory; but their confirmation or disconfirmation by empirical data will then immediately strengthen or weaken also the primitive hypotheses from which they were derived."Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science.
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Advancements were also made in phylogenetic systematics, mapping the transition of traits into a comparative and testable framework through the publication and use of evolutionary trees. In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that "nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution," because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.
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Criminalist Collin Yamauchi testified from May 24-31,1995. He was the first scientist to handle and perform PCR analysis on several key evidence items, including the Rockingham glove and the sock from Simpson's bedroom. He testified that Simpson, Brown and Goldman's blood was on the glove found at Rockingham, Nicole's blood was found on the sock in Simpson's bedroom and Goldman's blood was found in Simpsons Bronco. All but one drop of blood collected by Fung and Mazzola was PCR testable.
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While none of the original works of Acron, a physician, are extant, it is reported that he died c. 430 BC after travel to Athens to combat the plague. Unfortunately DNA sequence-based identification is limited by the inability of some important pathogens to leave a "footprint" retrievable from archaeological remains after several millennia. The lack of a durable signature by RNA viruses means some etiologies, notably the hemorrhagic fever viruses, are not testable hypotheses using currently available scientific techniques.
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Falsificationism's demarcation falsifiable grants a theory the status scientific—simply, empirically testable—not the status meaningful, a status that Popper did not aim to arbiter.Karl Popper, ch 4, subch "Science: Conjectures and refutations", in Andrew Bailey, ed, First Philosophy: Fundamental Problems and Readings in Philosophy, 2nd edn (Peterborough Ontario: Broadview Press, 2011), pp 338–42. Popper found no scientific theory either verifiable or, as in Carnap's "liberalization of empiricism", confirmable,Godfrey-Smith, Theory and Reality (U Chicago P, 2003), p 57–59.
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The B2FH paper was ostensibly a review article summarising recent advances in the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis. However, it went beyond simply reviewing Hoyle's work, by incorporating observational measurements of elemental abundances published by the Burbidges, and Fowler's laboratory experiments on nuclear reactions. The result was a synthesis of theory and observation, which provided convincing evidence for Hoyle's hypothesis. The theory predicted that the abundances of the elements would evolve over cosmological time, an idea which is testable by astronomical spectroscopy.
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The subject is concerned with "the allocation and deployment of economic resources, both spatially and across time, in an uncertain environment".Robert C. Merton It therefore centers on decision making under uncertainty in the context of the financial markets, and the resultant economic and financial models and principles, and is concerned with deriving testable or policy implications from acceptable assumptions. It is built on the foundations of microeconomics and decision theory. Financial econometrics is the branch of financial economics that uses econometric techniques to parameterise these relationships.
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As did the essentialists, the functionalists proceeded from reports to investigative studies. Their fundamental assumptions, however, are quite different; notably, they apply what is called "methodological naturalism". When explaining religion they reject divine or supernatural explanations for the status or origins of religions because they are not scientifically testable. In fact, theorists such as Marett (an Anglican) excluded scientific results altogether, defining religion as the domain of the unpredictable and unexplainable; that is, comparative religion is the rational (and scientific) study of the irrational.
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A paper describing several attempts at disproving Cantor's diagonal argument, looking at the flaws in their arguments and reasoning. In addition, cranky scientific theories often do not in fact qualify as theories as this term is commonly understood within science. For example, crank theories in physics typically fail to result in testable predictions, which makes them unfalsifiable and hence unscientific. Or the crank may present their ideas in such a confused, not even wrong manner that it is impossible to determine what they are actually claiming.
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Raman Sundrum did his undergraduate studies at University of Sydney in Australia and received his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1990. He was one of two Alumni Centennial Professors in the Department of Physics and Astronomy of the Johns Hopkins University. He was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2003 "for his discoveries in supergravity and in theories of extra dimensions, and for applications to testable models of fundamental physics". In 2010, he left the Johns Hopkins and moved to the University of Maryland.
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Test-driven development does not perform sufficient testing in situations where full functional tests are required to determine success or failure, due to extensive use of unit tests. Examples of these are user interfaces, programs that work with databases, and some that depend on specific network configurations. TDD encourages developers to put the minimum amount of code into such modules and to maximize the logic that is in testable library code, using fakes and mocks to represent the outside world. Management support is essential.
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As FTS is a sub-field of GDSE, the same agile software development methodologies that are found to work well in GDSE work well with FTS. In particular, Carmel et al. (2009) argue that agile software development methodologies assist the FTS principles because they: # support daily handoffs. The continuous integration and automated integration of source code allows each site to work in their own code bases during their work day, while the integration maintains updated, testable code to be used by the next site.
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I may appear to be > your favorite political enemy, a conservative if you are radical, a radical > if you are conservative." Black also discusses the aims of the approach. While it is unconventional sociology, it is conventional science, striving to provide simple, general, testable, valid, and original explanations of reality. And it is by these criteria alone, Black maintains, that it should be judged: > "If you wish to criticize my work, tell me you can predict and explain legal > and related behavior better than I can.
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Social critics believe biopsychiatry fails to satisfy the scientific method because they believe there is no testable biological evidence of mental disorders. Thus, these critics view biological psychiatry as a pseudoscience attempting to portray psychiatry as a biological science. R.D. Laing argued that attributing mental disorders to biophysical factors was often flawed due to the diagnostic procedure. The "complaint" is often made by a family member, not the patient, the "history" provided by someone other than patient, and the "examination" consists of observing strange, incomprehensible behavior.
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Louviere (marketing and transport) and colleagues in environmental and health economics came to disavow the American terminology, claiming that it was misleading and disguised a fundamental difference discrete choice experiments have from traditional conjoint methods: discrete choice experiments have a testable theory of human decision-making underpinning them (random utility theory), whilst conjoint methods are simply a way of decomposing the value of a good using statistical designs from numerical ratings that have no psychological theory to explain what the rating scale numbers mean.
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" At their conclusion she proclaimed that evolution is "an unproven, often disproven" theory. "ID has theological implications. ID is not strictly Christian, but it is theistic," asserted Martin. The scientific community rejects teaching intelligent design as science; a leading example being the United States National Academy of Sciences, which issued a policy statement saying "Creationism, intelligent design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science because they are not testable by the methods of science.
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Feynman diagram of a glueball (G) decaying to two pions (). Such decays help the study of and search for glueballs. Because Standard Model glueballs are so ephemeral (decaying almost immediately into more stable decay products) and are only generated in high energy physics, glueballs only arise synthetically in the natural conditions found on Earth that humans can easily observe. They are scientifically notable mostly because they are a testable prediction of the Standard Model, and not because of phenomenological impact on macroscopic processes, or their engineering applications.
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Rapaport played a prominent role in the development of psychoanalytic ego psychology and his work likely represented its apex (Wallerstein, 2002). In Rapaport's influential monograph The Structure of Psychoanalytic Theory (1960), he organized ego psychology into an integrated, systematic, and hierarchical theory capable of generating empirically testable hypotheses. According to Rapaport, psychoanalytic theory—as expressed through the principles of ego psychology—was a biologically based general psychology that could explain the entire range of human psychological functioning (e.g., memory, perception, motivation) and behavior (Rapaport, 1960).
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From the perspective of this rule, CMM theory is very general; however it is also very vague. The theory has difficulty focusing on exactly what is important in each interaction thereby not allowing those who study the theory to understand what is considered critical in a communicative interaction. # Theories that produce several hypotheses are preferred to those that produce few, at least from a social scientific (or "postpostive") perspective. From this perspective, CMM theory fails as it neglects to have even a single hypothesis that is testable.
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Affect logic or affect-logic is a notion, introduced in 1988 by Luc Ciompi, relating to Soteria psychiatric treatment, which sheds light on the interaction between thinking and feeling. It holds that affect and cognition, or feeling and thinking, are continually interacting with the other activity in the cortical network. Ciompi developed this theoretical account for the purpose of understanding the psychological disorder known as schizophrenia. Ciompi's notion of affect-logic was criticized in some subsequent reviews for being not testable and, as a result, atheoretical.
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Science has proven itself incredibly successful in explaining and finding out about the world. If we wish to know why a certain disease strikes one person and not another, we turn to medicine instead of a witch doctor. If we wish to know how to build a bridge that can span a river, we turn to physics instead of psychics. Paranormal or “unexplained” topics are testable by science: either a psychic's prediction comes true or it doesn't; either ghosts exist in the real world or they don't.
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David Rapaport played a prominent role in the development of ego psychology and his work likely represented its apex. In Rapaport's influential monograph The Structure of Psychoanalytic Theory (1960), he organized ego psychology into an integrated, systematic, and hierarchical theory capable of generating empirically testable hypotheses. According to Rapaport, psychoanalytic theory—as expressed through the principles of ego psychology—was a biologically based general psychology that could explain the entire range of human behavior. For Rapaport, this endeavor was fully consistent with Freud's attempts to do the same (e.g.
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In computer software testing, a test assertion is an expression which encapsulates some testable logic specified about a target under test. The expression is formally presented as an assertion, along with some form of identifier, to help testers and engineers ensure that tests of the target relate properly and clearly to the corresponding specified statements about the target. Usually the logic for each test assertion is limited to one single aspect specified. A test assertion may include prerequisites which must be true for the test assertion to be valid.
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Cortical stimulation mapping is an invasive procedure that has to be completed during a craniotomy. Once the dura mater is peeled back, an electrode is placed on the brain to test motor, sensory, language, or visual function at a specific brain site. The electrode delivers an electric current lasting from 2 to 10 seconds on the surface of the brain, causing a reversible lesion in a particular brain location. This lesion can prevent or produce a testable response, such as the movement of a limb or the ability to identify an object.
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The source of this issue may be in terminology: the term theory is used differently here than in physics, chemistry, and other sciences. Specific instantiations of Optimality Theory may make falsifiable predictions, in the same way specific proposals within other linguistic frameworks can. What predictions are made, and whether they are testable, depends on the specifics of individual proposals (most commonly, this is a matter of the definitions of the constraints used in an analysis). Thus, Optimality Theory as a framework is best described as a scientific paradigm.
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More specifically, in this model the three families transform differently under an extended gauge group. The perfect cancellation of the anomalies within each family is ruined, but the anomalies of the extended gauge group cancel when all three families are present. The cancellation will persist for 6, 9, ... families, so having only the three families observed in nature is the least possible matter content. Such a construction necessarily requires the addition of further gauge bosons and chiral fermions, which then provide testable predictions of the model in the form of elementary particles.
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In September 1981, Nature published an editorial about A New Science of Life entitled "A book for burning?" Written by the journal's senior editor, John Maddox, the editorial commented: Maddox argued that Sheldrake's hypothesis was not testable or "falsifiable in Popper's sense," referring to the work of philosopher Karl Popper. He said Sheldrake's proposals for testing his hypothesis were "time-consuming, inconclusive in the sense that it will always be possible to account for another morphogenetic field and impractical." In the editorial, Maddox ultimately rejected the suggestion that the book should be burned.
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Astronomer William Keel explains: > The cosmological principle is usually stated formally as 'Viewed on a > sufficiently large scale, the properties of the universe are the same for > all observers.' This amounts to the strongly philosophical statement that > the part of the universe which we can see is a fair sample, and that the > same physical laws apply throughout. In essence, this in a sense says that > the universe is knowable and is playing fair with scientists. The cosmological principle depends on a definition of "observer," and contains an implicit qualification and two testable consequences.
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To avoid the side-effects, it was decided to test the virus on an isolated population with the same DNA as Takisians - the humans of Earth. Tisianne protested this decision. He then tried to stop his partners from testing the virus on Earth, without success, since he had personally been responsible for achieving enough success in getting the virus to its present testable stage. When the virus was released, he worked among the "jokers", physically deformed and mutated victims of the virus, guilt-stricken over his responsibility for their suffering.
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A hereditary property is a property that is preserved under deletion of vertices. A few important hereditary properties are H-freeness (for some graph H), k-colorability, and planarity. All hereditary properties are testable, and there is a proof of this fact using a version of the graph removal lemma for infinite families of induced subgraphs. In fact, a rough converse of this is also true -- the properties that have oblivious testers with one-sided error are almost hereditary (Alon & Shapira 2008), in a sense which will not be made precise here.
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Archaeologists must also ponder about the questions linked to the environment of the brain scanner and interpreting the data against the backdrop of present problems confronting archaeology. "The aim of this endeavour should be at establishing testable, empirical and conceptual links between brain structure, cognitive function and archaeologically observable behaviour" . Although this comparative analysis offers immense potential there is caveat. Neuro-images may provide and help us unravel several aspects of the complicated human mental life through mapping of brain acidity but it may prompt a very "neurocentric" view of human intelligence.
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Smolin suggests both that there appear to be serious deficiencies in string theory and that string theory has an unhealthy near-monopoly on fundamental physics in the United States, and that a diversity of approaches is needed. He argues that more attention should instead be paid to background independent theories of quantum gravity. In the book, Smolin controversially claims that string theory makes no new testable predictions;The Trouble with Physics, p. xiv that it has no coherent mathematical formulation; and that it has not been mathematically proved finite.
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To the atomists the concept of emptiness had absolute character: it was the distinction between existence and nonexistence. Debate about the characteristics of the vacuum were largely confined to the realm of philosophy, it was not until much later on with the beginning of the renaissance, that Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and the first testable scientific ideas began to emerge. It was thought that a totally empty volume of space could be created by simply removing all gases. This was the first generally accepted concept of the vacuum.
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Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants. Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism.
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In Karl Popper's philosophy of science, belief in a supernatural God is outside the natural domain of scientific investigation because all scientific hypotheses must be falsifiable in the natural world. The non-overlapping magisteria view proposed by Stephen Jay Gould also holds that the existence (or otherwise) of God is irrelevant to and beyond the domain of science. Scientists follow the scientific method, within which theories must be verifiable by physical experiment. The majority of prominent conceptions of God explicitly or effectively posit a being whose existence is not testable either by proof or disproof.
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After the EPR paper, several scientists such as de Broglie studied local hidden variables theories. In the 1960s John Bell derived an inequality that indicated a testable difference between the predictions of quantum mechanics and local hidden variables theories. To date, all experiments testing Bell-type inequalities in situations analogous to the EPR thought experiment have results consistent with the predictions of quantum mechanics, suggesting that local hidden variables theories can be ruled out. Whether or not this is interpreted as evidence for nonlocality depends on one's interpretation of quantum mechanics.
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The assumption of "unit treatment additivity" is that τ(y) = τ, that is, the "treatment effect" does not depend on y. Since we cannot observe both y and τ(y) for a given individual, this is not testable at the individual level. However, unit treatment additivity imples that the cumulative distribution functions F1 and F2 for the two groups satisfy F2(y) = F1(y − τ), as long as the assignment of individuals to groups 1 and 2 is independent of all other factors influencing y (i.e. there are no confounders).
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The Bohr-Einstein debates provide a vibrant critique of the Copenhagen interpretation from an epistemological point of view. In arguing for his views, he produced a series of objections, of which the most famous has become known as the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox. John Bell showed that this EPR paradox led to experimentally testable differences between quantum mechanics and theories that rely on local hidden variables. Experiments confirmed the accuracy of quantum mechanics, thereby showing that quantum mechanics cannot be improved upon by addition of local hidden variables.
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As such, principles and parameters do not need to be learned by exposure to language. Rather, exposure to language merely triggers the parameters to adopt the correct setting. The problem is simplified considerably if children are innately equipped with mental apparatus that reduces and in a sense directs the search space amongst possible grammars. The P&P; approach is an attempt to provide a precise and testable characterization of this innate endowment which consists of universal "Principles" and language-specific, binary "Parameters" that can be set in various ways.
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Peres argued that the various many-worlds interpretations merely shift the arbitrariness or vagueness of the collapse postulate to the question of when "worlds" can be regarded as separate, and that no objective criterion for that separation can actually be formulated. Some consider MWI unfalsifiable and hence unscientific because the multiple parallel universes are non-communicating, in the sense that no information can be passed between them. Others claim MWI is directly testable. Victor J. Stenger remarked that Murray Gell-Mann's published work explicitly rejects the existence of simultaneous parallel universes.
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A closely related quantity, the relative entropy, is usually defined as the Kullback–Leibler divergence of p from q (although it is sometimes, confusingly, defined as the negative of this). The inference principle of minimizing this, due to Kullback, is known as the Principle of Minimum Discrimination Information. We have some testable information I about a quantity x which takes values in some interval of the real numbers (all integrals below are over this interval). We assume this information has the form of m constraints on the expectations of the functions fk, i.e.
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28, and The foundational premises underlying scientific creationism disqualify it as a science because the answers to all inquiry therein are preordained to conform to Bible doctrine, and because that inquiry is constructed upon theories which are not empirically testable in nature. Scientists also deem creation science's attacks against biological evolution to be without scientific merit. The views of the scientific community were accepted in two significant court decisions in the 1980s, which found the field of creation science to be a religious mode of inquiry, not a scientific one.
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DEB is based on the first principles dictated by the kinetics and thermodynamic of energy and material fluxes but is data demanding and rich in free parameters. In many ways DEB shares similar approaches to MTE. However, DEB, unlike MTE, is rich in parameters, and most of them are species specific, which hinders the generation of general prediction . While some of these alternative models make several testable predictions, others are less comprehensive and none of these other proposed models make as many predictions with a minimal set of assumptions as metabolic scaling theory .
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The efficient-market hypothesis (EMH) is a hypothesis in financial economics that states that asset prices reflect all available information. A direct implication is that it is impossible to "beat the market" consistently on a risk-adjusted basis since market prices should only react to new information. Because the EMH is formulated in terms of risk adjustment, it only makes testable predictions when coupled with a particular model of risk. As a result, research in financial economics since at least the 1990s has focused on market anomalies, that is, deviations from specific models of risk.
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A central concept in science and the scientific method is that conclusions must be empirically based on the evidence of the senses. Both natural and social sciences use working hypotheses that are testable by observation and experiment. The term semi-empirical is sometimes used to describe theoretical methods that make use of basic axioms, established scientific laws, and previous experimental results in order to engage in reasoned model building and theoretical inquiry. Philosophical empiricists hold no knowledge to be properly inferred or deduced unless it is derived from one's sense-based experience.
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Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving particular problems with existing theories; they then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward making testable predictions. Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists who are involved in basic research, design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas that have not been explored well by theorists.
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Koshkin imagined the T-34 tank after BT tanks tested during the Spanish Civil War proved to be under-armored and prone to catching fire. Koshkin claimed that he named the tank “T-34” because he began to imagine designs for the tank in 1934. After the Soviet Army rejected his prototype, Koshkin began privately assembling a testable prototype that he would work on in the evening, after long days designing BT tank improvements. He died from pneumonia he contracted during T-34 winter tests on September 26, 1940.
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Stevens's main assertion was that using magnitude estimations/productions respondents were able to make judgements on a ratio scale (i.e., if x and y are values on a given ratio scale, then there exists a constant k such that x = ky). In the context of axiomatic psychophysics, formulated a testable property capturing the implicit underlying assumption this assertion entailed. Specifically, for two proportions p and q, and three stimuli, x, y, z, if y is judged p times x, z is judged q times y, then t = pq times x should be equal to z.
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It differs from the standard theory in its inclusion of the constructive processes in development, the consideration of reciprocal dynamics of causation, and the relinquishment of a predominantly genetic explanation. A range of novel predictions and testable empirical projects result from the EES.K. Laland, T. Uller, M. Feldman, K. Sterelny, G. B. Müller, A. Moczek, E. Jablonka, J. Odling-Smee, G. A. Wray, H. E. Hoekstra, D. J. Futuyma, R. E. Lenski, T. F. Mackay, D. Schluter, J. E. Strassmann: Does evolutionary theory need a rethink? In: Nature. Vol.
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I. Lakatos, Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes (1970) p. 93 With the aim of presenting scientific revolutions as rational progress, Lakatos provided an alternative framework of scientific inquiry in his paper Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes. His model of the research programme preserves cumulative progress in science where Kuhn's model of successive irreconcilable paradigms in normal science does not. Lakatos' basic unit of analysis is not a singular theory or paradigm, but rather the entire research programme that contains the relevant series of testable theories.
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He is critical of string theory on the grounds that it lacks testable predictions and is promoted with public money despite its failures so far, and has authored both scientific papers and popular polemics on this topic. His writings claim that excessive media attention and funding of this one particular mainstream endeavour, which he considers speculative, risks undermining public faith in the freedom of scientific research. His moderated weblog on string theory and other topics is titled "Not Even Wrong", a derogatory term for scientifically useless arguments coined by Wolfgang Pauli.
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To use an example from Milton Friedman, if a theory that says that the behavior of the leaves of a tree is explained by their rationality passes the empirical test, it is seen as successful. Without specifying the individual's goal or preferences it may not be possible to empirically test, or falsify, the rationality assumption. However, the predictions made by a specific version of the theory are testable. In recent years, the most prevalent version of rational choice theory, expected utility theory, has been challenged by the experimental results of behavioral economics.
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Introductory university economics courses began to present economic theory as a unified whole in what is referred to as the neoclassical synthesis. "Positive economics" became the term created to describe certain trends and "laws" of economics that could be objectively observed and described in a value-free way, separate from "normative economic" evaluations and judgments. The Paul Samuelson's (1915–2009) Foundations of Economic Analysis published in 1947 was an attempt to show that mathematical methods could represent a core of testable economic theory. Samuelson started with two assumptions.
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A single instance of Occam's razor favoring a wrong theory falsifies the razor as a general principle. Michael Lee and others provide cases in which a parsimonious approach does not guarantee a correct conclusion and, if based on incorrect working hypotheses or interpretations of incomplete data, may even strongly support a false conclusion. If multiple models of natural law make exactly the same testable predictions, they are equivalent and there is no need for parsimony to choose a preferred one. For example, Newtonian, Hamiltonian and Lagrangian classical mechanics are equivalent.
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It would not be possible for automobiles to meet modern safety and fuel economy requirements without electronic controls. Performance: Performance is a measurable and testable value of a vehicle's ability to perform in various conditions. Performance can be considered in a wide variety of tasks, but it's generally associated with how quickly a car can accelerate (e.g. standing start 1/4 mile elapsed time, 0–60 mph, etc.), its top speed, how short and quickly a car can come to a complete stop from a set speed (e.g.
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Karl Popper argues that a preference for simple theories need not appeal to practical or aesthetic considerations. Our preference for simplicity may be justified by its falsifiability criterion: we prefer simpler theories to more complex ones "because their empirical content is greater; and because they are better testable". The idea here is that a simple theory applies to more cases than a more complex one, and is thus more easily falsifiable. This is again comparing a simple theory to a more complex theory where both explain the data equally well.
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Most computational models need to specify all the vague descriptive notions used in the earlier models and force researchers to clarify their theories. Those revised models test the viability of the original theories by comparing the empirical results with data generated from the model. Computational models are also able to generate new testable hypotheses and allow researchers to manipulate conditions which might not be possible in normal experiments. For example, researchers can investigate and simulate the lexical access systems under various states of damage without using aphasic subjects.
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Traits that were complementary to the technological environment generated higher level of income, and therefore higher reproductive success, and the gradual proliferation of these traits in the population contributed to the growth process and ultimately to the take- off from an epoch of stagnation to the modern era of sustained growth. The testable predictions of this evolutionary theory and its underlying mechanisms have been confirmed empirically and quantitatively. Unified growth theory contributes to Macrohistory. It sheds light on the divergence in income per capita across the globe during the past two centuries.
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This hypothesis leads to a larger number of testable predictions. First, it has been deducted that market average earnings yield will be in equilibrium with the market average interest rate on corporate bonds after corporate taxes, which is a reformulation of the 'Fed model'. The second prediction has been that companies with a high valuation ratio, or low earnings yield, will have little or no debt, whereas companies with low valuation ratios will be more leveraged. When companies have a dynamic debt-equity target, this explains why some companies use dividends and others do not.
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Kitcher's three criteria for good science are:pg 46-48 :1. Independent testability of auxiliary hypotheses :: "An auxiliary hypothesis ought to be testable independently of the particular problem it is introduced to solve, independently of the theory it is designed to save" (e.g. the evidence for the existence of Neptune is independent of the anomalies in Uranus's orbit). :2. Unification :: "A science should be unified .... Good theories consist of just one problem-solving strategy, or a small family of problem-solving strategies, that can be applied to a wide range of problems". :3.
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Shimony is best known for his work in developing the CHSH inequality, an empirically testable form of the Bell inequality, also known as Bell's theorem. Since 1992, he proposed a geometric measure of quantum entanglement and, along with Gregg Jaeger and Michael Horne, discovered two novel complementarity relations involving interferometric visibility in multiparticle quantum interferometry. He is also known for his inquiry into the question of the "peaceful coexistence" of quantum mechanics and special relativity. He wrote several books and numerous research articles on the foundations of quantum mechanics and related topics.
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In a book review in The British Journal of Psychiatry of a 2009 book about the theory, Carl Fredrik Johansson wrote: > "In terms of the plausibility of the theory, it is appealing in its > symmetry, offering some compelling examples of how the disorders complement > each other in their symptomatology. Testable hypotheses are offered but most > remain untested. More significantly, far too little is known about the > relationship between genes and the aetiology of these disorders, and the > understanding of the struggle for expression between parental genes is at a > very early stage." Stearns et al.
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Fredette et al. outlines five steps for the development of a physical/biological monitoring program for ISC projects:Fredette, T.J., Nelson, D.A., Clausner, J.E., and Anders, F.J. 1990. “Guidelines for Physical and Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Dredged Material Disposal Sites,” Technical Report D-90-12, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss. # Designating site-specific monitoring objectives # Identifying elements of the monitoring plan # Predicting responses and developing testable hypotheses # Designating sampling design and methods # Designating management options Thus it is important a monitoring program be put into place at the onset of construction.
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The study of binocular rivalry as a quantum formalism is here based on Neumann’s quantum theory of measurement and conscious observation. According to his theory, conscious events coincide with quantum wave "collapses." This occurs when the event is observed, because it solidifies the result, and affects the neural correlates of the brain state, which is in agreement with calculating the probability distributions of dominance duration of the opposing states in binocular rivalry. The increase in dominance duration in binocular rivalry upon stimuli disruption yields testable predictions for the distribution of perceptual alteration in time.
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Instrumentalism became popular among physicists around the turn of the 20th century, after which logical positivism defined the field for several decades. Logical positivism accepts only testable statements as meaningful, rejects metaphysical interpretations, and embraces verificationism (a set of theories of knowledge that combines logicism, empiricism, and linguistics to ground philosophy on a basis consistent with examples from the empirical sciences). Seeking to overhaul all of philosophy and convert it to a new scientific philosophy,Michael Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. xiv .
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One must always add auxiliary hypotheses in order to make testable predictions. For example, to test Newton's Law of Gravitation in the solar system, one needs information about the masses and positions of the Sun and all the planets. Famously, the failure to predict the orbit of Uranus in the 19th century led not to the rejection of Newton's Law but rather to the rejection of the hypothesis that the solar system comprises only seven planets. The investigations that followed led to the discovery of an eighth planet, Neptune.
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Temperament is determined through specific behavioral profiles, usually focusing on those that are both easily measurable and testable early in childhood. Commonly tested factors include traits related to energetic capacities (named as "Activity", "Endurance", "Extraversion"), traits related to emotionality (such as irritability, frequency of smiling), and approach or avoidance of unfamiliar events. There is generally a low correlation between descriptions by teachers and behavioral observations by scientists of features used in determining temperament. Temperament is hypothesized to be associated with biological factors, but these have proven to be complex and diverse.
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In particle physics, the term model building refers to a construction of new quantum field theories beyond the Standard Model that have certain features making them attractive theoretically or for possible observations in the near future. If the model building physicist uses the tools of string theory, he or she is called "superstring model builder". A model builder typically chooses new quantum fields and their new interactions, attempting to make their combination realistic, testable and physically interesting. In particular, an interesting new model should address questions left unanswered in the Standard Model which has, including three massive neutrinos, 28 free parameters.
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In an article published in journal of the Norwegian Psychological Association, Binder and Holgersen (2008) raised the question of whether the semantics in the concept of the patient's "plan" may attribute too much rationality and linearity to the unconscious. Further, as CMT draws on research and theory from different traditions within psychology, they pointed to the challenge in integrating research and theory into a cohesive and easily testable whole. Finally, it has been argued that CMT builds on inherently western values, and that there may be a need for more careful consideration of cultural factors when developing plan formulations.
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A RPZD is considered suitable for significant hazard applications,In the UK they are considered suitable for Category 4 'Significant hazard' e.g. antifreeze, but not Category 5 'Serious health risk', e.g. human waste that is, where the consequence of backflow into the water supply would cause significant harm, although not for the highest risks, such as human waste. They are considered suitable because they prevent both back pressure and back-siphonage, because of a redundant design (even with two check valves broken the device still provides protection), and because they are testable to verify correct operation.
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Cross-cultural surveys find that the most typical dream theme is that of being chased or attacked. Other common negative themes include falling, drowning, being lost, being trapped, being naked or otherwise inappropriately dressed in public, being accidentally injured/ill/dying, being in a human-made or natural disaster, poor performance (such as difficulty taking a test), and having trouble with transportation. Some themes are positive, such as sex, flying, or finding money, but these are less common than dreaming about threats. Revonsuo outlines six “empirically testable” propositions (Revonsuo, 2000) to illustrate his "threat simulation" theory.
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A systems engineering perspective on requirements analysis.Systems Engineering Fundamentals Defense Acquisition University Press, 2001 In systems engineering and software engineering, requirements analysis focuses on the tasks that determine the needs or conditions to meet the new or altered product or project, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, analyzing, documenting, validating and managing software or system requirements. Requirements analysis is critical to the success or failure of a systems or software project. The requirements should be documented, actionable, measurable, testable, traceable, related to identified business needs or opportunities, and defined to a level of detail sufficient for system design.
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Neuroscientists benefit from neurorobotics because it provides a blank slate to test various possible methods of brain function in a controlled and testable environment. Furthermore, while the robots are more simplified versions of the systems they emulate, they are more specific, allowing more direct testing of the issue at hand. They also have the benefit of being accessible at all times, while it is much more difficult to monitor even large portions of a brain while the animal is active, let alone individual neurons. With subject of neuroscience growing as it has, numerous neural treatments have emerged, from pharmaceuticals to neural rehabilitation.
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In contrast, locally decodable codes use a small number of bits of the codeword to probabilistically recover the original information. The fraction of errors determines how likely it is that the decoder correctly recovers the original bit; however, not all locally decodable codes are locally testable. Clearly, any valid codeword should be accepted as a codeword, but strings that are not codewords could be only one bit off, which would require many (certainly more than a constant number) probes. To account for this, testing failure is only defined if the string is off by at least a set fraction of its bits.
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When Ossorio entered academia, the prevailing idea was that psychology was a strictly empirical venture whose task it was to state empirically verifiable theories and then test them with experimental or other empirical procedures. Following an insight of Carnap that "meaning precedes truth," he pointed out that a conceptual framework is required before one can state empirically testable propositions. Such frameworks are pre-empirical; they are descriptive frameworks for the identification of a subject matter and are not themselves open to verification because they are concepts or distinctions—not propositions. Ossorio used various examples to make this point.
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Some scholars have lamented the so-called "paradigm wars", particularly between (neo)realism and (neo)liberalism. Jack S. Levy argues that while the realism-liberalism debate "has imposed some order on a chaotic field," the distinction ignores diversity within each of the two camps and inhibits attempts at synthesis. Levy suggests instead focusing on making testable predictions and leaving "the question of whether a particular approach fits into a liberal or realist framework to the intellectual historians." Bear F. Braumoeller likewise proposes that the "temporary theoretical convenience" of separating realism and liberalism "was transformed into ossified ontology" that inhibited attempts at theoretical synthesis.
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After years of development, he finally published his evidence and theory in On the Origin of Species in 1859. The "theory of evolution" is actually a network of theories that created the research program of biology. Darwin, for example, proposed five separate theories in his original formulation, which included mechanistic explanations for: # populations changing over generations # gradual change # speciation # natural selection # common descent Since Darwin, evolution has become a well-supported body of interconnected statements that explains numerous empirical observations in the natural world. Evolutionary theories continue to generate testable predictions and explanations about living and fossilized organisms.
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The second is that only the difference between the winning and the losing prize matters to the two contestants, not the absolute size of their winnings.Charles R. Knoeber and Walter N. Thurman, 'Testing the Theory of Tournaments: An Empirical Analysis of Broiler Production' (1994) 12(2) Journal of Labor Economics 155, 157. These two testable predictions of tournament theory have been supported by empirical research over the years, especially in the fields of labour economicsAndrew Schotter and Keither Weigelt, 'Asymmetric Tournaments, Equal Opportunity Laws, and Affirmative Action: Some Experimental Results' (1992) 107(2) The Quarterly Journal of Economics 511.
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In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed.
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It has been described as food faddism and quackery, with critics arguing that it is based upon an "exaggerated belief in the effects of nutrition upon health and disease." A short summary is in the journal's preface. Orthomolecular practitioners will often use dubious diagnostic methods to define what substances are "correct"; one example is hair analysis, which produces spurious results when used in this fashion. Proponents of orthomolecular medicine contend that, unlike some other forms of alternative medicine such as homeopathy, their ideas are at least biologically based, do not involve magical thinking, and are capable of generating testable hypotheses.
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Note that locally decodable codes are not a subset of locally testable codes, though there is some overlap between the two. Codewords are generated from the original message using an algorithm that introduces a certain amount of redundancy into the codeword; thus, the codeword is always longer than the original message. This redundancy is distributed across the codeword and allows the original message to be recovered with good probability even in the presence of errors. The more redundant the codeword, the more resilient it is against errors, and the fewer queries required to recover a bit of the original message.
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Grafton Elliot Smith: Map of Hyperdiffusionism from Egypt, 1929 Hyperdiffusionism is a pseudoarchaeological hypothesis suggesting that certain historical technologies or ideas originated with a single people or civilization before their adoption by other cultures. Thus, all great civilizations that share similar cultural practices, such as construction of pyramids, derived them from a single common progenitor. According to its proponents, examples of hyperdiffusion can be found in religious practices, cultural technologies, megalithic monuments, and lost ancient civilizations. The idea of hyperdiffusionism differs in several ways from trans-cultural diffusion, one being that hyperdiffusionism is usually not testable due to its pseudo-scientific nature.
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Sometimes, a scientist already has an idea of what is going on, a hypothesis, and he or she performs an expression profiling experiment with the idea of potentially disproving this hypothesis. In other words, the scientist is making a specific prediction about levels of expression that could turn out to be false. More commonly, expression profiling takes place before enough is known about how genes interact with experimental conditions for a testable hypothesis to exist. With no hypothesis, there is nothing to disprove, but expression profiling can help to identify a candidate hypothesis for future experiments.
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"TI does not generate new predictions / is not testable / has not been tested." TI is an exact interpretation of QM and so its predictions must be the same as QM. Like the many-worlds interpretation (MWI), TI is a "pure" interpretation in that it does not add anything ad hoc but provides a physical referent for a part of the formalism that has lacked one (the advanced states implicitly appearing in the Born rule). Thus the demand often placed on TI for new predictions or testability is a mistaken one that misconstrues the project of interpretation as one of theory modification.
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A Japanese scholar, Takeji Furukawa opposed that idea and asserted that B persons were active while A persons were passive. The popular belief originates with publications by Masahiko Nomi in the 1970s. Although some medical hypotheses have been proposed in support of blood type personality theory, the scientific community generally dismisses blood type personality theories as a superstition or pseudoscience because of lack of evidence or testable criteria.Dating by blood type in Japan Although research into the causal link between blood type and personality is limited, the majority of modern studies does not demonstrate any statistically significant association between the two.
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In certain cases, the less-accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful (due to its sheer simplicity) as an approximation under specific conditions. A case in point is Newton's laws of motion, which can serve as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light. Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions. They describe the causes of a particular natural phenomenon and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry (for example, electricity, chemistry, and astronomy).
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Hydroxyproline, one of the constituent amino acids in bone, was once thought to be a reliable indicator as it was not known to occur except in bone, but it has since been detected in groundwater. For burnt bone, testability depends on the conditions under which the bone was burnt. The proteins in burnt bone are usually destroyed, which means that after acid treatment, nothing testable will be left of the bone. Degradation of the protein fraction can also occur in hot, arid conditions, without actual burning; then the degraded components can be washed away by groundwater.
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These primarily include structural geology (usually at the outcrop scale), tectonics (usually at the regional scale), geodesy from active volcanoes (GPS, InSAR, levelling, strainmeters, tiltmeters), geophysics (seismicity, gravity, seismic lines), remote sensing (optical and thermal), and modelling (analytical, numerical and analogue models). More volcanological-oriented methodologies are also involved, including stratigraphy, petrology, geochemistry and geochronology. Data, however, are of little use if they cannot be interpreted and understood within the framework of a reasonable model or theory of volcano behaviour. Quantitative and testable models must, in the end, be related to some physical theories and thus to physics.
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Eysenck argues that psychoanalysis is unscientific and that its theories are based on no legitimate base of observation or experiment and have the status only of speculation. Eysenck argues that the veracity of psychoanalysis is testable through traditional empirical means, and that in all areas where such tests have been carried out it has failed. Eysenck calls Freud, "a genius, not of science, but of propaganda, not of rigorous proof, but of persuasion, not of the design of experiments, but of literary art." According to Eysenck, Freud set back the study of psychology and psychiatry by around fifty years.
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Theorems in mathematics and theories in science are fundamentally different in their epistemology. A scientific theory cannot be proved; its key attribute is that it is falsifiable, that is, it makes predictions about the natural world that are testable by experiments. Any disagreement between prediction and experiment demonstrates the incorrectness of the scientific theory, or at least limits its accuracy or domain of validity. Mathematical theorems, on the other hand, are purely abstract formal statements: the proof of a theorem cannot involve experiments or other empirical evidence in the same way such evidence is used to support scientific theories.
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Therefore, they argue that this is an inaccurate representation of indeterminate perception as it would mean the two states are superimposed onto each other; in actuality it is another activation of neural correlates of consciousness that is corresponding to the indeterminate position state and should be treated as such. A general criticism for using quantum mechanics to explain brain functions like binocular rivalry is the disconnect from the ‘machinery’ available. Where and how quantum mechanical phenomena would interact within the brain to create consciousness or other functions is not yet precisely defined and as a result not yet testable.
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Brenda Dervin (Dervin, 1983, 1992, 1996) has investigated individual sensemaking, developing theories about the "cognitive gap" that individuals experience when attempting to make sense of observed data. Because much of this applied psychological research is grounded within the context of systems engineering and human factors, it aims to answer the need for concepts and performance to be measurable and for theories to be testable. Accordingly, sensemaking and situational awareness are viewed as working concepts that enable researchers to investigate and improve the interaction between people and information technology. This perspective emphasizes that humans play a significant role in adapting and responding to unexpected or unknown situations, as well as recognized situations.
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More to the point, every decent evolutionary explanation has testable predictions about the design of the trait. For example, the hypothesis that pregnancy sickness is a byproduct of prenatal hormones predicts different patterns of food aversions than the hypothesis that it is an adaptation that evolved to protect the fetus from pathogens and plant toxins in food at the point in embryogenesis when the fetus is most vulnerable – during the first trimester. Evolutionary hypotheses – whether generated to discover a new trait or to explain one that is already known – carry predictions about the nature of that trait. The alternative – having no hypothesis about adaptive function – carries no predictions whatsoever.
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Most scientists dismiss "faith healing" practitioners.See also: Some opponents of the pseudoscience assert that faith healing makes no scientific claims and thus should be treated as a matter of faith that is not testable by science. Critics reply that claims of medical cures should be tested scientifically because, although faith in the supernatural is not in itself usually considered to be the purview of science, Re-published in claims of reproducible effects are nevertheless subject to scientific investigation. Scientists and doctors generally find that faith healing lacks biological plausibility or epistemic warrant, which is one of the criteria used to judge whether clinical research is ethical and financially justified.
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This allows for a field stop to be placed at this location, so that the light from outside the field of view does not reach the secondary mirror. This is a major advantage for solar telescopes, where a field stop (Gregorian stop) can reduce the amount of heat reaching the secondary mirror and subsequent optical components. The Solar Optical Telescope on the Hinode satellite is one example of this design. For amateur telescope makers the Gregorian can be less difficult to fabricate than a Cassegrain because the concave secondary is Foucault testable like the primary, which is not the case with the Cassegrain's convex secondary.
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They demonstrated the ways in which power and money help filter the news and aid governments and private interests. Political writer George Orwell noted "[a]ll the papers that matter live off their advertisements and the advertisers exercise an indirect censorship over the news." This observation fundamental to two of the filters that structure the propaganda model: advertising (of corporations) as the primary source of income for the mass media and the dependence upon information provided by government, business and "experts" approved and paid for by these primary sources. Herman and Chomsky see the ideas cast as testable hypotheses that can be corroborated through empirical evidence and not merely as assertions.
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Nearly all scientists dismiss faith healing as pseudoscience. Some opponents of the pseudoscience label assert that faith healing makes no scientific claims and thus should be treated as a matter of faith that is not testable by science. Critics reply that claims of medical cures should be tested scientifically because, although faith in the supernatural is not in itself usually considered to be the purview of science, Re-published in claims of reproducible effects are nevertheless subject to scientific investigation. Scientists and doctors generally find that faith healing lacks biological plausibility or epistemic warrant, which is one of the criteria used to judge whether clinical research is ethical and financially justified.
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A learning object is "a collection of content items, practice items, and assessment items that are combined based on a single learning objective". The term is credited to Wayne Hodgins, and dates from a working group in 1994 bearing the name. The concept encompassed by 'Learning Objects' is known by numerous other terms, including: content objects, chunks, educational objects, information objects, intelligent objects, knowledge bits, knowledge objects, learning components, media objects, reusable curriculum components, nuggets, reusable information objects, reusable learning objects, testable reusable units of cognition, training components, and units of learning. The core idea of the use of learning objects is characterized by the following: discoverability, reusability, and interoperability.
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Each of these has to be carefully > defined and measurable, so that we can avoid fantasy and speculation and > have testable models....What has become increasingly clear to me is that man > has a natural integrative tendency that leads to health, and that disease > emerges whenever there is a block. Blocks can come from a genetic > predisposition that interferes with natural development, from social > learning, or from prior experiences that are unique to the > individual.Hellinga G, van Luyn B, Dalwijk H-J (eds.). Personalities: Master > clinicians confront the treatment of borderline personality disorder – > Robert Cloninger (biography and interview). Northvale NJ and London: Jason > Aronson, 2001, pp. 99-120.
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A locally testable code is a type of error-correcting code for which it can be determined if a string is a word in that code by looking at a small (frequently constant) number of bits of the string. In some situations, it is useful to know if the data is corrupted without decoding all of it so that appropriate action can be taken in response. For example, in communication, if the receiver encounters a corrupted code, it can request the data be re-sent, which could increase the accuracy of said data. Similarly, in data storage, these codes can allow for damaged data to be recovered and rewritten properly.
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This approach is intended to explain how awareness and attention are similar in many respects, yet are sometimes dissociated, how the brain can be aware of both internal and external events, and also provides testable predictions. One goal of developing the AST is to allow people to eventually construct artificial consciousness. AST seeks to explain how an information-processing machine could act the way people do, insisting it has consciousness, describing consciousness in the ways that we do, and attributing similar properties to others. AST is a theory of how a machine insists it is more than a machine, even though it is not.
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They are only allowable if the product is patentable as such, and if the product cannot be defined in a sufficient manner on its own, i.e. with reference to its composition, structure or other testable parameters, and thus without any reference to the process. The protection conferred by product-by-process claims should not be confused with the protection conferred to products by pure process claims, when the products are directly obtained by the claimed process of manufacture. In the U.S., the Patent and Trademark Office practice is to allow product-by-process claims even for products that can be sufficiently described with structure elements.
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Evidence of common descent of living organisms has been discovered by scientists researching in a variety of disciplines over many decades, demonstrating that all life on Earth comes from a single ancestor. This forms an important part of the evidence on which evolutionary theory rests, demonstrates that evolution does occur, and illustrates the processes that created Earth's biodiversity. It supports the modern evolutionary synthesis—the current scientific theory that explains how and why life changes over time. Evolutionary biologists document evidence of common descent, all the way back to the last universal common ancestor, by developing testable predictions, testing hypotheses, and constructing theories that illustrate and describe its causes.
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The deictic ("those") comes first; this is followed by the numerative, if there is one ("five"), since the number of apples, in this case, is the least permanent attribute; next comes the interpersonal epithet which, arising from the speaker's opinion, is closer to the speaker–now matrix than the more objectively testable experiential epithet ("shiny"); then comes the more permanent classifier ("Jonathon", a type of apple), leading to the head itself. This ordering of increasing permanence from left to right is why we are more likely to say "her new black car" than "her black new car": the newness will recede sooner than the blackness.
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Observational equivalence is the property of two or more underlying entities being indistinguishable on the basis of their observable implications. Thus, for example, two scientific theories are observationally equivalent if all of their empirically testable predictions are identical, in which case empirical evidence cannot be used to distinguish which is closer to being correct; indeed, it may be that they are actually two different perspectives on one underlying theory. In econometrics, two parameter values (or two structures, from among a class of statistical models) are considered observationally equivalent if they both result in the same probability distribution of observable data. This term often arises in relation to the identification problem.
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The ensuing difficulties drove a long competitive effort to find an accurate mechanical model of the aether.Whittaker, 1910, chapter ; Darrigol, 2012, chapter 6; Buchwald, 2013, pp. 460–64. Fresnel's own model was not dynamically rigorous; for example, it deduced the reaction to a shear strain by considering the displacement of one particle while all others were fixed, and it assumed that the stiffness determined the wave velocity as in a stretched string, whatever the direction of the wave-normal. But it was enough to enable the wave theory to do what selectionist theory could not: generate testable formulae covering a comprehensive range of optical phenomena, from mechanical assumptions.
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He rejected Freud's ideas of damage caused by frustrated impulses, in favour of the idea that maternal deprivation is a major cause of disturbed development and later psychological problems. Later he realised that infants need a stable, safe person or persons to provide a feeling of security from which they can venture out and explore. Many other workers in the field have since carried out experiments on infants and on animals which seem to confirm and refine this idea. Bowlby's attachment theory is widely considered to be the basis of most current research, and to have put the field formerly known as psychoanalysis on a more scientifically based, experimentally testable, footing.
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Postman argues that commercial television has become derivative of advertising. Moreover, modern television commercials are not "a series of testable, logically ordered assertions" rationalizing consumer decisions, but "is a drama—a mythology, if you will—of handsome people" being driven to "near ecstasy by their good fortune" of possessing advertised goods or services. "The truth or falsity of an advertiser's claim is simply not an issue" because more often than not "no claims are made, except those the viewer projects onto or infers from the drama." Because commercial television is programmed according to ratings, its content is determined by commercial feasibility, not critical acumen.
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The English spelling of the word "skeptic" was chosen over the British spelling "sceptic" to more closely associate with the American organisation, and to avoid negative connotations of "being cynical and negative". In 2007 the committee decided to formally change the name to NZ Skeptics Incorporated (NZSI). The society does not address the topic of religion, not only because there are other organisations better equipped to deal with it, but also because religion is not testable unless the supporter makes a specific claim. The founders felt that people with religious beliefs could also be skeptical of claims of the paranormal and did not want to exclude them.
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From Darwinian Metaphysics towards Understanding the Evolution of Evolutionary Mechanisms: A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Gene-Darwinism and Universal Darwinism. Universitätsverlag Göttingen. Skeptic Society founder and Skeptic magazine publisher Michael Shermer addresses the tautology problem in his 1997 book, Why People Believe Weird Things, in which he points out that although tautologies are sometimes the beginning of science, they are never the end, and that scientific principles like natural selection are testable and falsifiable by virtue of their predictive power. Shermer points out, as an example, that population genetics accurately demonstrate when natural selection will and will not effect change on a population.
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The Daubert standard arose out of the Supreme Court of the United States case Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc..Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 509 U.S. 579 (1993). It requires four things to be shown: # That the theory is testable (has it been tested?) # That the theory has been peer reviewed, (Peer reviewing usually reduces the chances of error in the theory) # The reliability and error rate (100% reliability and zero error are not required, but the rates should be considered by the trial judge) # The extent of general acceptance by the scientific community The Federal Rules of Evidence use the Daubert Test.
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By mid-1998, the game's title had become Deus Ex, derived from the Latin literary device deus ex machina ("god from the machine"), in which a plot is resolved by an unpredictable intervention. Spector felt that the best aspects of Deus Exs development were the "high- level vision" and length of preproduction, flexibility within the project, testable "proto-missions", and the Unreal Engine license. The team's pitfalls included the management structure, unrealistic goals, underestimating risks with artificial intelligence, their handling of proto-missions, and weakened morale from bad press. Deus Ex was released on June 23, 2000, and published by Eidos Interactive for Microsoft Windows.
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Carlo Willmann, Waldorfpädagogik: Theologische und religionspädagogische Befunde, , Chap. 1Olav Hammer, Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age, Brill 2004, pp. 243, 329, 204, 225-8 As Freda Easton explained in her study of Waldorf schools, "Whether one accepts anthroposophy as a science depends upon whether one accepts Steiner's interpretation of a science that extends the consciousness and capacity of human beings to experience their inner spiritual world."Freda Easton, The Waldorf Impulse in Education, Columbia University dissertation 1995 Sven Ove Hansson has disputed anthroposophy's claim to a scientific basis, stating that its ideas are not empirically derived and neither reproducible nor testable.
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Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimental results defy explanation by existing theories, prompting intense focus on applicable modelling, and when new theories generate experimentally testable predictions, which inspire the development of new experiments (and often related equipment). Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and experiment are called phenomenologists, who study complex phenomena observed in experiment and work to relate them to a fundamental theory. Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy; electromagnetism was unified this way. Beyond the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues, such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions.
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Prima scriptura suggests that ways of knowing or understanding God and his will, that do not originate from canonized scripture, are in a second place, perhaps helpful in interpreting that scripture, but testable by the canon and correctable by it, if they seem to contradict the scriptures. Two Christian denominations that uphold the position of prima scriptura are Anglicanism and Methodism. In the Anglican tradition, scripture, tradition, and reason form the "Anglican triad" or "three-legged stool", formulated by the Anglican theologian Richard Hooker. With respect to the Methodist tradition, A Dictionary for United Methodists states: Sola scriptura rejects any original infallible authority, other than the Bible.
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The positivist approach used in physics emphasised a strict determinism (as opposed to high probability) and led to the discovery of universally applicable laws, testable in the course of experiment. It was difficult for biology, beyond a basic microbiological level, to use this approach. Standard philosophy of science seemed to leave out a lot of what characterised living organisms - namely, a historical component in the form of an inherited genotype. Philosophers of biology have also examined the notion of “teleology.” Some have argued that scientists have had no need for a notion of cosmic teleology that can explain and predict evolution, since one was provided by Darwin.
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Scientific models help researchers organize information into a conceptual structure to understand and interpret data, ask good questions, and identify anomalies. Famous scientific models include Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity and the neo-Darwinian theory of evolution. Some have claimed RTB's testable creation model fails to meet the modern qualifications for a scientific theory or model and just looks at known things and claims them as predictions. In a review of an updated edition of Who Was Adam: A Creation Model Approach to the Origin of Humanity (2015) by Ross and Fazale Rana, research psychologist Brian Bolton argues against the scientific status of the RTB model.
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Using these sensors, Heraud says that he has been able to triangulate pulses seen from multiple sites, in order to determine the origin of the pulses. He said that the pulses are seen beginning from 11 to 18 days before an impending earthquake, and have been used to determine the location and timing of future seismic events. However, insofar as a verifiable prediction would require a publicly-stated announcement of the location, time, and size of an impending event before its occurrence, neither Quakefinder nor Heraud have yet verifiably predicted an earthquake, much less issued multiple predictions of the type that might be objectively testable for statistical significance.
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Occam's razor is not an embargo against the positing of any kind of entity, or a recommendation of the simplest theory come what may. Occam's razor is used to adjudicate between theories that have already passed "theoretical scrutiny" tests and are equally well-supported by evidence. Furthermore, it may be used to prioritize empirical testing between two equally plausible but unequally testable hypotheses; thereby minimizing costs and wastes while increasing chances of falsification of the simpler-to- test hypothesis. Another contentious aspect of the razor is that a theory can become more complex in terms of its structure (or syntax), while its ontology (or semantics) becomes simpler, or vice versa.
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The assumption that the instruments are not correlated with the error term in the equation of interest is not testable in exactly identified models. If the model is overidentified, there is information available which may be used to test this assumption. The most common test of these overidentifying restrictions, called the Sargan–Hansen test, is based on the observation that the residuals should be uncorrelated with the set of exogenous variables if the instruments are truly exogenous. The Sargan–Hansen test statistic can be calculated as TR^2 (the number of observations multiplied by the coefficient of determination) from the OLS regression of the residuals onto the set of exogenous variables.
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When talking about chemical reactions produced by light he says "if the absorption [of radiant energy] were the act of the molecule as a whole, the relative motions of its constituent atoms would remain unchanged, and there would be no mechanical cause for their separation [in a photochemical decomposition]." Therefore in a photochemical decomposition, "it is probably the synchronism of the vibrations of one portion of the molecule with the incident waves which enables the amplitude of those vibrations to augment [i.e. resonate] until the chain which binds the parts of the molecule together is snapped asunder." But he was without testable ideas as to the form of this substructure, and did not partake in speculation in print.
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Testable outlines exist for the origin of each of the three motility systems, and avenues for further research are clear; for prokaryotes, these avenues include the study of secretion systems in free-living, nonvirulent prokaryotes. In eukaryotes, the mechanisms of both mitosis and cilial construction, including the key role of the centriole, need to be much better understood. A detailed survey of the various nonmotile appendages found in eukaryotes is also necessary. Finally, the study of the origin of all of these systems would benefit greatly from a resolution of the questions surrounding deep phylogeny, as to what are the most deeply branching organisms in each domain, and what are the interrelationships between the domains.
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As with the rise of newspapers, the proliferation of online content provides an expanded opportunity for researchers interested in content analysis. While the use of online sources presents new research problems and opportunities, the basic research procedure of online content analysis outlined by McMillan (2000) is virtually indistinguishable from content analysis using offline sources: # Formulate a research question with a focus on identifying testable hypotheses that may lead to theoretical advancements. # Define a sampling frame that a sample will be drawn from, and construct a sample (often called a ‘corpus’) of content to be analyzed. # Develop and implement a coding scheme that can be used to categorize content in order to answer the question identified in step 1.
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Time did not exist "prior" to the creation of the universe. Hence, it is unclear whether properties such as space, or time emerged with the singularity and the universe as it is known. Despite the research, there is currently no theoretical model that explains the earliest moments of the universe's existence (during the Planck epoch) due to a lack of a testable theory of quantum gravity. Nevertheless, researchers in string theory, its extensions (see M theory), and of loop quantum cosmology like Barton Zwiebach and Washington Taylor, have proposed solutions to assist in the explanation of the universe's earliest moments Cosmogonists have only tentative theories for the early stages of the universe and its beginning.
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In 1907, Einstein was still eight years away from completing the general theory of relativity. Nonetheless, he was able to make a number of novel, testable predictions that were based on his starting point for developing his new theory: the equivalence principle.More specifically, Einstein's calculations, which are described in chapter 11b of , use the equivalence principle, the equivalence of gravity and inertial forces, and the results of special relativity for the propagation of light and for accelerated observers (the latter by considering, at each moment, the instantaneous inertial frame of reference associated with such an accelerated observer). The gravitational redshift of a light wave as it moves upwards against a gravitational field (caused by the yellow star below).
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He was a leader in critical behavior theory and developed methods for distilling testable predictions for critical exponents. In using field theoretic techniques in the study of condensed matter, Brezin helped further modern theories of magnetism and the quantum Hall effect. Brézin was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences on 18 February 1991 and served as president of the academy in 2005-2006. He also is a foreign associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences (since 2003), a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (since 2002), a foreign member of the Royal Society (since 2006) and a member of the Academia Europaea (since 2003).
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16, 21 Feb.,'09.see also Baggini's additional comments on his talkingphilosophy site and the subsequent discussion A. C. Grayling wrote a highly critical review in the New Humanist. He states that the responses to questions concerning science and religion boil down to three strategies, God of the gaps, inference to the best explanation, and religion and science explain truths in different domains. He considers the first two refutable by undergraduates, and for the third strategy to work, he contends that one has to "cherry-pick which bits of scripture and dogma are to be taken as symbolic and which as literally true" in order to conveniently avoid the possibility of direct and testable confrontation with science.
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42 He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures, such as (in Generation of Animals) finding a fertilised hen's egg of a suitable stage and opening it so as to be able to see the embryo's heart inside. Instead, he practised a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed.
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In political science and in international and comparative law and economics, transitology is the study of the process of change from one political regime to another, mainly from authoritarian regimes to democratic ones. Transitology tries to explain processes of democratization in a variety of contexts, from bureaucratic authoritarianism and other forms of dictatorship in Latin America, southern Europe and northern Africa to postcommunist developments in eastern Europe. The debate has become something of an academic "turf-war" between comparative studies and area studies scholars, while highlighting several problematic features of social science methodology, including generalization, an overemphasis on elite attitudes and behavior, Eurocentrism, the role of history in explaining causality, and the inability to produce testable hypotheses.
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Prima scriptura is the Christian doctrine that canonized scripture is "first" or "above all" other sources of divine revelation. Implicitly, this view acknowledges that, besides canonical scripture, there are other guides for what a believer should believe and how he should live, such as the created order, traditions, charismatic gifts, mystical insight, angelic visitations, conscience, common sense, the views of experts, the spirit of the times or something else. Prima scriptura suggests that ways of knowing or understanding God and his will that do not originate from canonized scripture are perhaps helpful in interpreting that scripture, but testable by the canon and correctable by it, if they seem to contradict the scriptures.
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Between 1860 and 1868, the life and work of Charles Darwin from Orchids to Variation continued with research and experimentation on evolution, carrying out tedious work to provide evidence of the extent of natural variation enabling artificial selection. He was repeatedly held up by his illness, and continued to find relaxation and interest in the study of plants. His studies of insect pollination led to publication of his book Fertilisation of Orchids as his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection, explaining the complex ecological relationships and making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants.
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An emission theory of light was one that regarded the propagation of light as the transport of some kind of matter. While the corpuscular theory was obviously an emission theory, the converse did not follow: in principle, one could be an emissionist without being a corpuscularist. This was convenient because, beyond the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction, emissionists never managed to make testable quantitative predictions from a theory of forces acting on corpuscles of light. But they did make quantitative predictions from the premises that rays were countable objects, which were conserved in their interactions with matter (except absorbent media), and which had particular orientations with respect to their directions of propagation.
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Spector felt that the development process's highlights were the "high-level vision" and length of preproduction, flexibility within the project, testable "proto-missions", and Unreal Engine license. Their pitfalls included the team structure, unrealistic goals, underestimating risks with artificial intelligence, their handling of proto- missions, and weakened morale from bad press. He referred to that period of Ion Storm as "Sturm und Drang" with its degree of hype and as a target of vitriol following Daikatana "suck it down" trash talk marketing and what Spector saw as negative press in 1998 and 1999. He said that his Austin team had "frequent" slumps in morale from taking the company's coverage personally and seeing their private emails posted online.
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Geraldo Rivera asked three jurors what their reasonable doubt was concerning the blood found next to the bloody footprints near the victims. Photos of the crime scene show the blood was there hours before blood from Simpson was taken so it wasn't planted. The blood was collected and shipped directly to the state department lab, not the LAPD lab, so contamination couldn't explain it and the blood was testable so it wasn't compromised and Dr. Cotton said the chances it wasn't Simpsons was 1-in-9.7 billion. Foreman Amanda Cooley responded she had no explanation for that incriminating evidence and it didn't factor into their reasonable doubt decision, implying she ignored it.
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The evidence samples were then cross- contaminated with DNA from Simpson, Nicole Brown and Ron Goldman's reference vial being transferred to all but three evidence items. The remaining three exhibits were planted by police and thus fraudulent. Dr. Lee wrote in Blood Evidence that most of the blood evidence was sent directly to the consulting labs and not the LAPD crime lab, where Scheck alleged the evidence was contaminated. Since all of the samples the consulting labs received were testable despite none of those samples having been "contaminated" in the LAPD crime lab, that conclusively disproves Scheck's claim that 100% of the DNA had been lost due to degradation because those samples should have been inconclusive.
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Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein field equations of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown and, more generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both through observation and theoretically. All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the ΛCDM model of cosmology, which uses the independent frameworks of quantum mechanics and general relativity. There are no easily testable models that would describe the situation prior to approximately 10−15 seconds. Apparently a new unified theory of quantum gravitation is needed to break this barrier.
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The method involves: the use of narrative to elucidate the principal players, their preferences, the key decision points and possibilities, and the rules of game in a textured and sequenced account; and the evaluation of the model through comparative statics and the testable implications the model generates. The analytic narrative approach is most attractive to scholars who seek to evaluate the strength of parsimonious causal mechanisms in the context of a specific and often unique case. The requirement of explicit formal theorizing (or at least theory that could be formalized) compels scholars to make causal statements and to identify a small number of variables as central to understanding the case. This approach provides two methods for establishing the generalizability of the theory.
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The new method of inquiry led to the development of generalizations about spatial aspects in a wide range of natural and cultural settings. Generalizations may take the form of tested hypotheses, models, or theories, and the research is judged on its scientific validity, turning geography into a nomothetic science. One of the most significant works to provide a legitimate theoretical and philosophical foundation for the reorientation of geography into a spatial science was David Harvey’s book, Explanation in Geography, published in 1969. In this work, Harvey laid out two possible methodologies to explain geographical phenomena: an inductive route where generalizations are made from observation; and a deductive one where, through empirical observation, testable models and hypothesis are formulated and later verified to become scientific laws.
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Shahn Majid (born 1960 in Patna, Bihar, India) is an English pure mathematician and theoretical physicist, trained at Cambridge University and Harvard University and, since 2001, a Professor of Mathematics at the School of Mathematical Sciences, Queen Mary, University of London. Majid is best known for his pioneering work on quantum groups where he introduced one of the two main known classes of these objects and worked on all aspects of their theory. His 1995 textbook Foundations of Quantum Group Theory is a standard text still used by researchers today. He also pioneered a quantum groups approach to noncommutative geometry and the use of such methods as a route to quantum gravity, leading in 1994 to the first model with testable predictions of quantum spacetime.
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A briefly popular theory held that a 12C-rich comet struck the earth and initiated the warming event. A cometary impact coincident with the P/E boundary can also help explain some enigmatic features associated with this event, such as the iridium anomaly at Zumaia, the abrupt appearance of kaolinitic clays with abundant magnetic nanoparticles on the coastal shelf of New Jersey, and especially the nearly simultaneous onset of the carbon isotope excursion and the thermal maximum. Indeed, a key feature and testable prediction of a comet impact is that it should produce virtually instantaneous environmental effects in the atmosphere and surface ocean with later repercussions in the deeper ocean. Even allowing for feedback processes, this would require at least 100 gigatons of extraterrestrial carbon.
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Johan Galtung's Conflict Triangle and Peace Research paper are widely cited as the foundational pieces of theory within peace and conflict studies. However, they are not without criticism. Galtung uses very broad definitions of violence, conflict and peace, and applies the terms of mean both direct and indirect, negative and positive, and violence in which one cannot distinguish actors or victims, which serves to limit the direct application of the model itself. Galtung uses a positivist approach, in that he assumes that every rational tenet of the theory can be verified, serving to reject social processes beyond relationships and actions. This approach enforces a paradigm of clear-cut, currently testable propositions as the ‘whole’ of the system, and thus is often deemed reductionist.
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The power of twin designs arises from the fact that twins may be either monozygotic (identical (MZ): developing from a single fertilized egg and therefore sharing all of their alleles) – or dizygotic (DZ: developing from two fertilized eggs and therefore sharing on average 50% of their polymorphic alleles, the same level of genetic similarity as found in non-twin siblings). These known differences in genetic similarity, together with a testable assumption of equal environments for identical and fraternal twins creates the basis for the twin design for exploring the effects of genetic and environmental variance on a phenotype. The basic logic of the twin study can be understood with very little mathematics beyond an understanding of the concepts of variance and thence derived correlation.
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In two respects Bell's 1964 paper was a step forward compared to the EPR paper: firstly, it considered more hidden variables than merely the element of physical reality in the EPR paper; and Bell's inequality was, in part, experimentally testable, thus raising the possibility of testing the local realism hypothesis. Limitations on such tests to date are noted below. Whereas Bell's paper deals only with deterministic hidden variable theories, Bell's theorem was later generalized to stochastic theories as well, and it was also realised that the theorem is not so much about hidden variables, as about the outcomes of measurements that could have been taken instead of the one actually taken. Existence of these variables is called the assumption of realism, or the assumption of counterfactual definiteness.
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Some authors have challenged the theory on empirical grounds, either finding no evidence for the claim that parties emerge from existing cleavages or arguing that this claim is not empirically testable. Others note that while social cleavages might cause political parties to exist, this obscures the opposite effect: that political parties also cause changes in the underlying social cleavages. A further objection is that, if the explanation for where parties come from is that they emerge from existing social cleavages, then the theory has not identified what causes parties unless it also explains where social cleavages come from; one response to this objection, along the lines of Charles Tilly's bellicist theory of state- building, is that social cleavages are formed by historical conflicts.
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Several commentatorsFor example, Reese & Overto (1970); Lerner (1998); also Lerner & Teti (2005), in the context of modeling human behavior. have stated that the distinguishing characteristic of theories is that they are explanatory as well as descriptive, while models are only descriptive (although still predictive in a more limited sense). Philosopher Stephen Pepper also distinguished between theories and models, and said in 1948 that general models and theories are predicated on a "root" metaphor that constrains how scientists theorize and model a phenomenon and thus arrive at testable hypotheses. Engineering practice makes a distinction between "mathematical models" and "physical models"; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool.
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In preproduction, six people from Looking Glass's Austin studios focused on the setting ahead of the game mechanics, and chose a story centred around prominent conspiracy theories as an expression of the "millennial madness" in The X-Files and Men in Black. Spector felt that the development process's highlights were the "high-level vision" and length of preproduction, flexibility within the project, testable "proto-missions", and Unreal Engine license. Their pitfalls included the team structure, unrealistic goals, underestimating risks with artificial intelligence, their handling of proto-missions, and weakened morale from Daikatana bad press. The game was published by Eidos Interactive and released on June 23, 2000 for Windows 95 and later versions, whereupon it earned over 30 "best of" awards in 2001.
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The dropping point of a lubricating grease is an indication of the heat resistance of the grease and is the temperature at which it passes from a semi-solid to a liquid state under specific test conditions. It is dependent on the type of thickener used and the cohesiveness of the oil and thickener of a grease.Totten, G.E., Handbook of Lubrication and Tribology Volume 1: Application and Maintenance, CRC Press, 2006, The dropping point indicates the upper temperature limit at which a grease retains its structure though is not necessarily the maximum temperature at which a grease can be used. Dropping point is used in combination with other testable properties to determine the suitability of greases for specific applications and for use in quality control.
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To resolve the incompatibility, a theoretical framework revealing a deeper underlying reality, unifying gravity with the other three interactions, must be discovered to harmoniously integrate the realms of general relativity and quantum mechanics into a seamless whole: the TOE is a single theory that, in principle, is capable of describing all phenomena in the universe. In pursuit of this goal, quantum gravity has become one area of active research. One example is string theory, which evolved into a candidate for the TOE, but not without drawbacks (most notably, its lack of currently testable predictions) and controversy. String theory posits that at the beginning of the universe (up to 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang), the four fundamental forces were once a single fundamental force.
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Darwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change. He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from Vestiges, and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism. Therefore, the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication, and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation. Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred, supporting the idea of branching, adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism.
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The book reconstructs theoretical frameworks originally used in building up the concept of a field. It shows that the field of Faraday's electricity and the field of Einstein's relativity are distinct; although both make different assumptions about physical reality, Berkson suggests that the assumptions of either conception of the field still remain as plausible today as when first conceived. These separate field theories share at least one significant and testable difference in comparison with Newtonian physics: whereas Newton's action-at-a-distance occurs instantaneously, the field theories predict a propagation delay. Berkson explains that Faraday's prediction of a physically measurable propagation delay (finite velocity) from his own conception of a physical field permeating space is one important difference separating this idea from that of Newton's (infinite velocity).
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The theorem has also raised concerns about the falsifiability of general equilibrium theory, because it seems to imply that almost any observed pattern of market price and quantity data could be interpreted as being the result of individual utility- maximizing behavior. In other words, Sonnenschein–Mantel–Debreu raises questions about the degree to which general equilibrium theory can produce testable predictions about aggregate market variables. For this reason, Andreu Mas-Colell referred to the theorem as the “Anything Goes Theorem” in his graduate-level microeconomics textbook. Some economists have made attempts to address this problem, with Donald Brown and Rosa Matzkin deriving some polynomial restrictions on market variables by modeling the equilibrium state of a market as a topological manifold.
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Luce & Tukey's presentation was algebraic and is therefore considered more general than Debreu's (1960) topological work, the latter being a special case of the former . In the first article of the inaugural issue of the Journal of Mathematical Psychology, proved that via the theory of conjoint measurement, attributes not capable of concatenation could be quantified. N.R. Campbell and the Ferguson Committee were thus proven wrong. That a given psychological attribute is a continuous quantity is a logically coherent and empirically testable hypothesis. Appearing in the next issue of the same journal were important papers by Dana Scott (1964), who proposed a hierarchy of cancellation conditions for the indirect testing of the solvability and Archimedean axioms, and David Krantz (1964) who connected the Luce & Tukey work to that of Hölder (1901).
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Paul-Louis Simond injecting a plague vaccine in Karachi, 1898 Veterinary medicine was, for the first time, truly separated from human medicine in 1761, when the French veterinarian Claude Bourgelat founded the world's first veterinary school in Lyon, France. Before this, medical doctors treated both humans and other animals. Modern scientific biomedical research (where results are testable and reproducible) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "four humours" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with Edward Jenner's discovery of the smallpox vaccine at the end of the 18th century (inspired by the method of inoculation earlier practiced in Asia), Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900.
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There are some who disagree with Durkheim’s theory that dynamic density is the cause of social transition. Robert K. Merton argues that Durkheim has no empirical evidence supporting a link between dynamic density and a change from mechanical to organic solidarity. He says that Durkheim seeks to ignore the role that social driven ends themselves play into how society interacts. (Merton, 1994) Jack Gibbs also says that Durkheim’s theory of dynamic density leading to the division of labor is not scientifically testable for or evident of causality, arguing that there is no feasible way to measure the frequency of interactions between people, and thus no way to track progress or growth of said frequency; without these measurements, it is impossible to prove any correlation to division of labor.
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" He compared the book to Freud's Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1921) and the classicist Norman O. Brown's Love's Body (1966), and wrote that it was "one of the strongest" books of its kind. He believed that Rancour-Laferriere's arguments were "frequently controversial" but interesting and stimulating. However, he criticized him for failing to present testable claims about human sexuality, maintaining that most of his arguments were "unfalsifiable speculation", and that Rancour-Laferriere's speculations ranged from "very convincing to totally unconvincing." He also suggested that evolutionary biologists would question Rancour-Laferriere's claim that social approval is a form of altruism, and that it was sometimes unclear when his arguments were "limited to the context of evolutionary adaptation and when he intends them to explain the behaviors of modern humans.
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A stepped-wedge trial (or SWT) is a type of randomised controlled trial (or RCT), a scientific experiment which is structured to reduce bias when testing new medical treatments, social interventions, or other testable hypotheses. In a traditional RCT, a part of the participants in the experiment are simultaneously and randomly assigned to a group that receives the treatment (the "treatment group") and another part to a group that does not (the "control group"). In an SWT, typically a logistical constraint prevents the simultaneous treatment of some participants, and instead, all or most participants receive the treatment in waves or "steps". For instance, suppose a researcher wanted to measure whether teaching college students how to make several meals increased their propensity to cook at home instead of eating out.
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The systems engineering process (SEP) provides a path for improving the cost-effectiveness of complex systems as experienced by the system owner over the entire life of the system, from conception to retirement. It involved early and comprehensive identification of goals, a concept of operations that describes user needs and the operating environment, thorough and testable system requirements, detailed design, implementation, rigorous acceptance testing of the implemented system to ensure it meets the stated requirements (system verification), measuring its effectiveness in addressing goals (system validation), on-going operation and maintenance, system upgrades over time, and eventual retirement. The process emphasizes requirements-driven design and testing. All design elements and acceptance tests must be traceable to one or more system requirements and every requirement must be addressed by at least one design element and acceptance test.
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The status of the syndrome, and thus its admissibility in the testimony of experts, has been the subject of dispute, with challenges raised about its acceptance by professionals in the field, whether it follows a scientific methodology that is testable, whether it has been tested and has a known error rate, and the extent to with the theory has been published and peer-reviewed. PAS has not been accepted by experts in psychology, child advocacy or the study of child abuse or legal scholars. PAS has been extensively criticized by members of the legal and mental health community, who state that PAS should not be admissible in child custody hearings based on both science and law. No professional association has recognized PAS as a relevant medical syndrome or mental disorder.
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They were "concerned that Japan's whaling program is not designed to answer scientific questions relevant to the management of whales; that Japan refuses to make the information it collects available for independent review; and that its research program lacks testable hypotheses or other performance indicators consistent with accepted scientific standards". They accused Japan of "using the pretense of scientific research to evade its commitments to the world community". The Australian delegation to the IWC has argued to repeal the provision that allows nations to harvest whales for scientific research, to no effect. Japan, meanwhile, lodged a formal objection to the sanctuary with regard to minke whales, meaning that the terms of the sanctuary do not apply to its harvest of that species within the boundaries of the sanctuary.
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Galor and Moav hypothesize that during the Malthusian epoch, natural selection has amplified the prevalence of traits associated with predispositions towards the child quality in the human population, triggering human capital formation, technological progress, the onset of the demographic transition, and the emergence of sustained economic growth. The testable predictions of this evolutionary theory and its underlying mechanisms have been confirmed empirically and quantitatively. Specifically, the genealogical record of half a million people in Quebec during the period 1608-1800, suggests that moderate fecundity, and hence tendency towards investment in child quality, was beneficial for long-run reproductive success. This finding reflect the adverse effect of higher fecundity on marital age of children, their level of education, and the likelihood that they will survive to a reproductive age.
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The modern formulation of the Malthusian theory was developed by Qumarul Ashraf and Oded Galor. Their theoretical structure suggests that as long as: (i) higher income has a positive effect on reproductive success, and (ii) land is limited factor of production, then technological progress has only a temporary effect in income per capita. While in the short-run technological progress increases income per capita, resource abundance created by technological progress would enable population growth, and would eventually bring the per capita income back to its original long-run level. The testable prediction of the theory is that during the Malthusian epoch technologically advanced economies were characterized by higher population density, but their level of income per capita was not different than the level in societies that are technologically backward.
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Sternberg went ahead with the review and editing process, and Meyer's article appeared in the journal on 4 August 2004. This was already scheduled to be the second last issue that Sternberg would edit. In a statement issued by 10 October 2004 the journal declared that Sternberg had published the paper at his own discretion without following the usual practice of review by an associate editor. The Council and associate editors would have considered the subject of the paper inappropriate for publication as it was significantly outside "the nearly purely systematic content" of the journal, the Council endorses a resolution "which observes that there is no credible scientific evidence supporting ID as a testable hypothesis", and the paper therefore "does not meet the scientific standards of the Proceedings".
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By analogy with biodiversity, which is thought to be essential to the long-term survival of life on earth, it can be argued that cultural diversity may be vital for the long-term survival of humanity; and that the conservation of indigenous cultures may be as important to humankind as the conservation of species and ecosystems is to life in general. The General Conference of UNESCO took this position in 2001, asserting in Article 1 of the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity that "...cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature." This position is rejected by some people, on several grounds. Firstly, like most evolutionary accounts of human nature, the importance of cultural diversity for survival may be an un-testable hypothesis, which can neither be proved nor disproved.
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An additional problem with the literature on the nonspecific effects of vaccines has been the variety and unexpected nature of the hypotheses which have appeared (in particular relating to sex-specific effects), which has meant that it has not always been clear whether some apparent 'effects' were the result of post hoc analyses or whether they were reflections of a priori hypotheses. This was discussed at length at a review of the work of Aaby and his colleagues in Copenhagen in 2005. The review was convened by the Danish National Research Foundation and the Novo Nordisk Foundation who have sponsored much of the work of Aaby and his colleagues. An outcome of the review was the explicit formulation of a series of testable hypotheses, agreed by the Aaby group.
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Hill has criticized narrowing the focus of skepticism to target religious belief specifically, stating that "[c]riticism of religion really doesn't have a place in scientific framework... But when religious claims cross over into testable claims, then they are fair game for the skeptic." Although Hill works to investigate claims of the paranormal, she has stated that "'Does God exist' is not a skeptic question," and that "[s]cientific skepticism and atheism are very different things." Hill has encouraged an increase in dialog between paranormal believers and skepticism groups, encouraging skeptics to "take time to listen to the other side, especially ... the believers, because there is something to learn from them." In April 2013, Hill reviewed a skeptic conference for Aaron Sagers' paranormal entertainment site Paranormal Pop Culture.
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As of 2016, the company says they have 125 stations in California, and their affiliate Jorge Heraud says he has 10 sites in Peru. Using these sensors, Heraud says that he has been able to triangulate pulses seen from multiple sites, in order to determine the origin of the pulses. He said that the pulses are seen beginning from 11 to 18 days before an impending earthquake, and have been used to determine the location and timing of future seismic events. However, insofar as a verifiable prediction would require a publicly-stated announcement of the location, time, and size of an impending event before its occurrence, neither Quakefinder nor Heraud have yet verifiably predicted an earthquake, much less issued multiple predictions of the type that might be objectively testable for statistical significance.
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The Galor and Zeira's model predicts that the effect of rising inequality on GDP per capita is negative in relatively rich countries but positive in poor countries. These testable predictions have been examined and confirmed empirically in recent studies. In particular, Brückner and Lederman test the prediction of the model by in the panel of countries during the period 1970–2010, by considering the impact of the interaction between the level of income inequality and the initial level of GDP per capita. In line with the predictions of the model, they find that at the 25th percentile of initial income in the world sample, a 1 percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient increases income per capita by 2.3%, whereas at the 75th percentile of initial income a 1 percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient decreases income per capita by -5.3%.
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Soon after the NIMH accepted the grant proposal, in late May 1971, Susan Curtiss began her work on Genie's case as a graduate student in linguistics under Victoria Fromkin, and for the remainder of Genie's stay at Children's Hospital Curtiss met with Genie almost every day. Curtiss quickly recognized Genie's powerful nonverbal communication abilities, writing that complete strangers would frequently buy something for her because they sensed she wanted it and that these gifts were always the types of objects she most enjoyed. Curtiss concluded that Genie had learned a significant amount of language but that it was not yet at a usefully testable level, so she decided to dedicate the next few months to getting to know Genie and gaining her friendship. Over the following month, she and Genie very quickly bonded with each other.
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This paper, however, does not cite earlier work of the backpropagation method, such as the 1974 dissertation of Paul Werbos. In the same year, Rumelhart also published Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition with James McClelland, which described their creation of computer simulations of perceptron, giving to computer scientists their first testable models of neural processing, and which is now regarded as a central text in the field of cognitive science. Rumelhart's models of semantic cognition and specific knowledge in a diversity of learned domains using initially non-hierarchical neuron-like processing units continue to interest scientists in the fields of artificial intelligence, anthropology, information science, and decision science. In his honor, in 2000 the Robert J. Glushko and Pamela Samuelson Foundation created the David E. Rumelhart Prize for Contributions to the Theoretical Foundations of Human Cognition.
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The socialist revolution would occur first in the most advanced capitalist nations and once collective ownership had been established then all sources of class conflict would disappear. Instead of Marx's predictions, communist revolutions took place in undeveloped regions in Latin America and Asia instead of industrialized countries like the United States or the United Kingdom. Popper has argued that both the concept of Marx's historical method as well as its application are unfalsifiable and thus it is a pseudoscience that cannot be proven true or false: > The Marxist theory of history, in spite of the serious efforts of some of > its founders and followers, ultimately adopted this soothsaying practice. In > some of its earlier formulations (for example in Marx's analysis of the > character of the 'coming social revolution') their predictions were > testable, and in fact falsified.
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The Galor and Zeira’s model predicts that the effect of rising inequality on GDP per capita is negative in relatively rich countries but positive in poor countries. These testable predictions have been examined and confirmed empirically in recent studies. In particular, Brückner and Lederman test the prediction of the model by in the panel of countries during the period 1970-2010, by considering the impact of the interaction between the level of income inequality and the initial level of GDP per capita. In line with the predictions of the model, they find that at the 25th percentile of initial income in the world sample, a 1 percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient increases income per capita by 2.3%, whereas at the 75th percentile of initial income a 1 percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient decreases income per capita by -5.3%.
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The Galor and Zeira's model predicts that the effect of rising inequality on GDP per capita is negative in relatively rich countries but positive in poor countries. These testable predictions have been examined and confirmed empirically in recent studies. In particular, Brückner and Lederman test the prediction of the model by in the panel of countries during the period 1970-2010, by considering the impact of the interaction between the level of income inequality and the initial level of GDP per capita. In line with the predictions of the model, they find that at the 25th percentile of initial income in the world sample, a 1 percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient increases income per capita by 2.3%, whereas at the 75th percentile of initial income a 1 percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient decreases income per capita by -5.3%.
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Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to laws of nature, but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour. Darwin presented natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible. His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study, and by 1875, most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant. Darwin's scientific method was also disputed, with his proponents favouring the empiricism of John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic, while opponents held to the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, in which investigation could begin with the intuitive idea that species were fixed objects created by design.
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Other components deemed necessary for a more rounded understanding of intelligence include concepts like emotional intelligence. As such, geniocracy's validity cannot really be assessed until better and more objective methods of intelligence assessment are made available. The matter of confronting moral problems that may arise is not addressed in the book Geniocracy; many leaders may be deeply intelligent and charismatic (having both high emotional/social intelligence and IQ) according to current means of measuring such factors, but no current scientific tests are a reliable enough measure for one's ability to make humanitarian choices (although online tests such as those used by retail chains to select job applicants may be relevant). The lack of scientific rigour necessary for inclusion of geniocracy as properly testable political ideology can be noted in number of modern and historical dictatorships as well as oligarchies.
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Precise definitions vary, but features often cited as characteristic of hard science include producing testable predictions, performing controlled experiments, relying on quantifiable data and mathematical models, a high degree of accuracy and objectivity, higher levels of consensus, faster progression of the field, greater explanatory success, cumulativeness, replicability, and generally applying a purer form of the scientific method. A closely related idea (originating in the nineteenth century with Auguste Comte) is that scientific disciplines can be arranged into a hierarchy of hard to soft on the basis of factors such as rigor, "development", and whether they are basic or applied. Philosophers and sociologists of science have questioned the relationship between these characteristics and perceived hardness or softness. The more "developed" hard sciences do not necessarily have a greater degree of consensus or selectivity in accepting new results.
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Instead, these alternative explanations require testable predictions of their own to be forwarded, preferably multiple different predictions. In addition, not all explanations may predict the same evidence, thus Murphy argues that if one explanation predicts a great deal of evidence for modern day observations and alternative explanations struggle to explain this, then it is reasonable to have confidence in the former explanation. In addition, Murphy argues that if the "time machine" argument was applied to other sciences, it would lead to absurd results - Murphy observes that cosmologists have confirmed predictions about the Big Bang by studying available astronomical evidence and current understanding of particle physics, with no need for a time machine to travel back to the beginning of the universe. Similarly, geologists and physicists investigating the hypothesis that it was an asteroid impact that caused the extinction of the dinosaurs did so by looking for modern day evidence.
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Nativism is sometimes perceived as being too vague to be falsifiable, as there is no fixed definition of when an ability is supposed to be judged "innate". (As Jeffrey Elman and colleagues pointed out in Rethinking Innateness, it is unclear exactly how the supposedly innate information might actually be coded for in the genes.) Further, modern nativist theory makes little in the way of specific testable (and falsifiable) predictions, and has been compared by some empiricists to a pseudoscience or nefarious brand of "psychological creationism". As influential psychologist Henry L. Roediger III remarked that "Chomsky was and is a rationalist; he had no uses for experimental analyses or data of any sort that pertained to language, and even experimental psycholinguistics was and is of little interest to him". Some researchers argue that the premises of linguistic nativism were motivated by outdated considerations and need reconsidering.
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Since an election affects many others, it could still be rational to cast a vote with only a small chance of affecting the outcome. This view makes testable predictions: that close elections will see higher turnout, and that a candidate who made a secret promise to pay a given voter if they win would sway that voter's vote less in large and/or important elections than in small and/or unimportant ones. Some argue that the paradox appears to ignore the collateral benefits associated with voting, besides affecting the outcome of the vote. For instance, magnitudes of electoral wins and losses are very closely watched by politicians, their aides, pundits and voters, because they indicate the strength of support for candidates, and tend to be viewed as an inherently more accurate measure of such than mere opinion polls (which have to rely on imperfect sampling).
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In August 2011, Roger Colbeck and Renato Renner published a proof that any extension of quantum mechanical theory, whether using hidden variables or otherwise, cannot provide a more accurate prediction of outcomes, assuming that observers can freely choose the measurement settings. Colbeck and Renner write: "In the present work, we have ... excluded the possibility that any extension of quantum theory (not necessarily in the form of local hidden variables) can help predict the outcomes of any measurement on any quantum state. In this sense, we show the following: under the assumption that measurement settings can be chosen freely, quantum theory really is complete". In January 2013, Giancarlo Ghirardi and Raffaele Romano described a model which, "under a different free choice assumption [...] violates [the statement by Colbeck and Renner] for almost all states of a bipartite two-level system, in a possibly experimentally testable way".
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In a 1991 work, the Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson (one of the two co-founders of the r/K selection theory which Rushton uses) was quoted as having said about him:from Knudson P. (1991), A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society; Rushton on Race, Stoddart Publishing ()pg 190 In a 1995 review of Rushton's Race, Evolution, and Behavior, anthropologist and population geneticist Henry Harpending expressed doubt as to whether all of Rushton's data fit the r/K model he proposed, but nonetheless praised the book for its proposing of a theoretical model that makes testable predictions about differences between human groups. He concludes that "Perhaps there will ultimately be some serious contribution from the traditional smoke-and-mirrors social science treatment of IQ, but for now Rushton's framework is essentially the only game in town."Harpending, Henry. Evolutionary Anthropology , 1995.
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Hawking radiation is thought to be created when virtual particles— antiparticle pairs of all sorts plus photons, which are their own antiparticle—form very close to the event horizon and one member of a pair spirals in while the other escapes, carrying away the energy of the black hole. The fuzzball theory advanced by Mathur and Lunin satisfies the law of reversibility because the quantum nature of all the strings that fall into a fuzzball is preserved as new strings contribute to the fuzzball's makeup; no quantum information is squashed out of existence. Moreover, this aspect of the theory is testable since its central tenet holds that a fuzzball's quantum data do not stay trapped at its center but reaches up to its fuzzy surface and that Hawking radiation carries away this information, which is encoded in the delicate correlations between the outgoing quanta.
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Additionally, each particular stratum could be identified by the fossils it contained, and the same succession of fossil groups from older to younger rocks could be found in many parts of England. Furthermore, he noticed an easterly dip of the beds of rock—low near the surface (about three degrees), then higher after the Triassic rocks. This gave Smith a testable hypothesis, which he termed The Principle of Faunal Succession, and he began his search to determine if the relationships between the strata and their characteristics were consistent throughout the country. During subsequent travels, first as a surveyor (appointed by noted engineer John Rennie) for the canal company until 1799 when he was dismissed, and later, he was continually taking samples and mapping the locations of the various strata, and displaying the vertical extent of the strata, and drawing cross-sections and tables of what he saw.
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Kane’s more recent work has been in the development of testable models based on string theory, in particular those based on G2 compactifications of M-Theory, a predictive approach that might explain the hierarchy between the weak scale and the Planck scale. With colleagues, he has recently re- emphasized the role of neutralino dark matter in the context of cosmic ray data, as well as the importance of connecting dark matter and the LHC - in particular focusing on light gluinos and light neutralinos (the putative superparteners of the gluon and W boson respectively) that arise in supergravity and string theory motivated models. He has argued that these ideas form a consistent framework with a non-thermal cosmological history of the universe. Recently, he and collaborators have generalized results of compactified string theories, and in particular have shown that scalar superpartners should have masses of order tens of TeV.
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This idea of justifying a hypothesis as potentially fruitful (at the level of research method), not merely as plausible (at the level of logical conclusions), is essential for the idea of a working hypothesis, as later elaborated by Peirce's fellow pragmatist John Dewey. Peirce held that, as a matter of research method, an explanatory hypothesis is judged and selectedPeirce, C. S., Carnegie Application (L75, 1902, New Elements of Mathematics v. 4, pp. 37–38. See under "Abduction" at the Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms: for research because it offers to economize and expedite the process of inquiry,Peirce, C. S. (1902), application to the Carnegie Institution, see MS L75.329–330, from Draft D of Memoir 27: by being testable and by further factors in the economy of hypotheses: low cost, intrinsic value (instinctive naturalness and reasoned likelihood), and relations (caution, breadth, and incomplexity) among hypotheses, inquiries, etc.
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As a psychologist in the field of research, Heidbreder was interested in the notion that the mechanism of thinking could possess identical properties similar to a biological instinct. In 1926, she published a psychological review called Thinking as an Instinct, in which she compared and connected to previous works from John Dewey’s Essays in Logical Theory and How We Think, as well as William James’ The Principles of Psychology to her new functionalist school of thought around the topic of thinking. Heidbreder stated that the reason the notion of thinking has been disregarded within the field of psychology was because it was brought upon a philosophical manner rather than a testable subject that could be studied within the realm of empirical research. This led her to thoroughly examine the criteria in which thinking could be classified as scientific and nature-based, in relation to the nature-nurture debate.
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Processability Theory is now a mature theory of grammatical development of learners' interlanguage. It is cognitively founded (hence applicable to any language), formal and explicit (hence empirically testable), and extended, having not only formulated and tested hypotheses about morphology, syntax and discourse-pragmatics, but having also paved the way for further developments at the interface between grammar and the lexicon and other important modules in SLA. Among the most important SLA theories recently discussed in Van Patten (2007), no other can accommodate such a variety of phenomena or seems able to offer the basis for so many new directions. Ten years have gone by since Pienemann’s first book-length publication on PT in 1998; and before that, it took almost two decades to mould into PT the initial intuition by the ZISA team that the staged development of German word order could be explained by psycholinguistic constraints universally applicable to all languages (Pienemann 1981; Clahsen, Meisel & Pienemann 1983).
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SAT has gone head to head with other contemporary theories and established its unique contributions to the explanation of crime, including its clear and testable implications, its integration of individual and environmental levels of explanation, and its attention to crime as a form of moral rule-breaking. To test this theory, Wikström has designed and implemented an ambitious, multilevel longitudinal study investigating key personal dimensions of young people; key social, environmental, spatial and temporal features of their activity fields; and their crime involvement; and how these change across adolescence and into adulthood. The Peterborough Adolescent and Young Adult Development Study (PADS+; see www.pads.ac.uk) is one of the largest and most successful longitudinal studies of crime ever undertaken in the UK, and the only one to empirically test cross-level interactions in the explanation of crime. PADS+ combines existing methodologies with innovative techniques designed to measure social environments and participants’ exposure to those environments, at a level of detail rarely attempted longitudinally across such a large sample.
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"Observers" means any observer at any location in the universe, not simply any human observer at any location on Earth: as Andrew Liddle puts it, "the cosmological principle [means that] the universe looks the same whoever and wherever you are." The qualification is that variation in physical structures can be overlooked, provided this does not imperil the uniformity of conclusions drawn from observation: the Sun is different from the Earth, our galaxy is different from a black hole, some galaxies advance toward rather than recede from us, and the universe has a "foamy" texture of galaxy clusters and voids, but none of these different structures appears to violate the basic laws of physics. The two testable structural consequences of the cosmological principle are homogeneity and isotropy. Homogeneity means that the same observational evidence is available to observers at different locations in the universe ("the part of the universe which we can see is a fair sample").
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The resolution of the I-J paradox involves a process of mutual selection (or "co-selection") of regulatory T cells and helper T cells, meaning that (a) those regulatory T cells are selected that have V regions with complementarity to as many helper T cells as possible, and (b) helper T cells are selected not only on the basis of their V regions having some affinity for MHC class II, but also on the basis of the V regions having some affinity for the selected regulatory T cell V regions. The helper T cells and regulatory T cells that are co-selected are then a mutually stabilizing construct, and for a given mouse genome, more than one such mutually stabilizing set can exist. This resolution of the I-J paradox leads to some testable predictions. However, considering the importance of the (unfound) I-J determinat for the theory, the I-J paradox solution is still subject to strong criticism, e.g.Falsifiability.
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Distinct from altruism, scientists should act for the benefit of a common scientific enterprise, rather than for personal gain. He wrote that this motivation was borne out of institutional control (including fear of institutional sanctions), and from psychological conflict (due to internalisation of the norm). Merton observed a low rate of fraud in science ("virtual absence... which appears exceptional"), which he believed stemmed from the intrinsic need for 'verifiability' and expert scrutiny by peers ("rigorous policing, to a degree perhaps unparalleled in any other field of activity"), as well as its 'public and testable character'. Self-interest (in the form of self-aggrandisement and/or exploitation of "the credulity, ignorance, and dependence of the layman") is the logical opposite of disinterestedness, and may be appropriated by authority "for interested purposes" (Merton notes "totalitarian spokesmen on race or economy or history" as examples, and describes science as enabling such "new mysticisms" that "borrow prestige").
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In late 1972 or early 1973 he presented to the California Board of Education hearings on Creation and the classroom. (California State Board of Education hearing re: including creation as a theory of origins along with evolution.) In 1980, Roth argued that "Creation and various other views can be supported by the scientific data that reveal that the spontaneous origin of the complex integrated biochemical systems of even the simplest organisms is, at best, a most improbable event", which is regarded as a precursor to Michael Behe's irreducible complexity argument, which has been the subject of considerable empirical refutation from the scientific community. Roth later used a version of this argument in his testimony in McLean v. Arkansas (which struck down the Arkansas Balanced Treatment for Creation-Science and Evolution-Science Act), where he testified in support of the scientific merits of creationism, but admitted that "[i]f you want to define 'science' as testable, predictable" then creation science is not really science.
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Novella responded, "It takes work to do solid, critical thinking, to actually employ your intellectual faculties and come to a conclusion that actually reflects reality ... That's what scientists do every day, and that's what skeptics advocate". In an article for The Sydney Morning Herald that examined whether supernatural films are really based on true events, that investigation was used as evidence to the contrary. As Novella is quoted, "They [the Warrens] claim to have scientific evidence which does indeed prove the existence of ghosts, which sounds like a testable claim into which we can sink our investigative teeth. What we found was a very nice couple, some genuinely sincere people, but absolutely no compelling evidence..." While it was made clear that neither DeAngelis nor Novella thought the Warrens would intentionally cause harm to anyone, they did caution that claims like the Warrens' served to reinforce delusions and confuse the public about legitimate scientific methodology.
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It is not the main purpose of the presented theory to formulate testable hypotheses, but to generate new ideas. It is certainly possible to perform theory-guided research on the basis of the theory, as exemplified by a special issue on dialogical self research in the Journal of Constructivist Psychology (2008) and in other publications (further on in the present section). Yet, the primary purpose is the generation of new ideas that lead to continued theory, research, and practice on the basis of links between the central concepts of the theory. Theoretical advances, empirical research, and practical applications are discussed in the International Journal for Dialogical Science and at the biennial International Conferences on the Dialogical Self as they are held in different countries and continents: Nijmegen, Netherlands (2000), Ghent, Belgium (2002), Warsaw, Poland (2004), Braga, Portugal (2006), Cambridge, United Kingdom (2008), Athens, Greece (2010), Athens, Georgia, United States (2012), and The Hague, Netherlands (2014).
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The Institute of Cetacean Research has been reported to have "produced virtually no research of any regard" Neptune's Navy, New Yorker, November 2007 and has only two peer-reviewed papers since 2005.Japan's excuse for killing 333 whales in Antarctica is ridiculous, Vox, March 2016 In an open letter to the Japanese government, published in 2002 in the New York Times and sponsored by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 21 scientists declared that they "believe Japan's whale "research" program fails to meet minimum standards for credible science". They were "concerned that Japan's whaling program is not designed to answer scientific questions relevant to the management of whales; that Japan refuses to make the information it collects available for independent review; and that its research program lacks a testable hypothesis or other performance indicators consistent with accepted scientific standards". They accused Japan of "using the pretense of scientific research to evade its commitments to the world community".An open letter to the government of Japan on "scientific whaling" , New York Times, May 2002.
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Ross believes in progressive creationism, a view which posits that while the earth is billions of years old, life did not appear by natural forces alone but that a supernatural agent formed different lifeforms in incremental (progressive) stages, and day-age creationism which is an effort to reconcile a literal Genesis account of Creation with modern scientific theories on the age of the Universe, the Earth, life, and humans. He rejects the young Earth creationist (YEC) position that the earth is younger than 10,000 years, or that the creation "days" of Genesis 1 represent literal 24-hour periods. Ross instead asserts that these days (translated from the Hebrew word yom) are historic, distinct, and sequential, but not 24 hours in length nor equal in length. Ross and the RTB team agree with the scientific community that the vast majority of YEC arguments are pseudoscience and that any version of intelligent design is inadequate if it doesn't provide a testable hypothesis which can make verifiable and falsifiable predictions, and if not, it should not be taught in the classroom as science.
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Exploratory surveys of the local geology were carried out by William Smith, who became known as the "father of English geology", building on work by John Strachey. Smith worked for the Stracheys who owned Sutton Court, at one of their older mines, the Mearns Pit at High Littleton. As he observed the rock strata at the pit, he realised that they were arranged in a predictable pattern that the various strata could always be found in the same relative positions and each particular stratum could be identified by the fossils it contained and the same succession of fossil groups from older to younger rocks could be found in other parts of England. Smith noticed an easterly dip in the beds of rock—small near the surface (about three degrees) then greater after the Triassic rocks which led to him a testable hypothesis, which he termed the principle of faunal succession, and he began to determine if the relationships between the strata and their characteristics were consistent throughout the country.
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He believed that adaptations showed divine purpose, not a mindless evolutionary arms race. In his response Creation by Law later that year, Alfred Russel Wallace produced a detailed explanation of how the nectary could have evolved through natural selection, and stated that he had carefully measured moths in the British Museum, finding that the proboscis of Macrosila cluentius from South America was 9 inches (235 mm) long, and the proboscis of Macrosila morganii from tropical Africa (since renamed Xanthopan morganii) was 7 inches (190 mm) long. An enquiry raised in 1873 was answered by Darwin's friend Hermann Müller, who stated that his brother Fritz Müller had caught a sphinx moth in Brazil with a proboscis nearly long. Darwin's anticipation was fully met in 1903, when a subspecies of Xanthopan morganii was found in Madagascar with a proboscis about 12 inches (300 mm) long, and was named Xanthopan morganii praedicta to celebrate this verification of a testable prediction made by Darwin on the basis of his theory of natural selection.
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The theory posits the following propositions about social behaviour: # The division of labor in society takes the form of the interaction among heterogeneous specialized positions that we call roles; # Social roles included "appropriate" and "permitted" forms of behavior, guided by social norms, which are commonly known and hence determine expectations; # Roles are occupied by individuals, or "actors"; # When individuals approve of a social role (i.e., they consider the role "legitimate" and "constructive"), they will incur costs to conform to role norms, and will also incur costs to punish those who violate role norms; # Changed conditions can render a social role outdated or illegitimate, in which case social pressures are likely to lead to role change; # The anticipation of rewards and punishments, as well as the satisfaction of behaving in a prosocial way, account for why agents conform to role requirements. In terms of differences among role theory, on one side there is a more functional perspective, which can be contrasted with the more micro-level approach of the symbolic interactionist tradition. This type of role theory dictates how closely related individuals' actions are to the society, as well as how empirically testable a particular role theory perspective may be.
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