This would restore Diaz back to 80% tensile strength—however if he chose to use cadaver tissue, some plastic surgeons claim to obtain 90-100% tensile strength.
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The film has an average tensile strength of 9.6 gigapascals.
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Its tensile strength is greater than that of mild steel.
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He sang with tensile strength and acted with a stage veteran's skill.
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Her dark wit gives her stories genuine tensile strength, even when they misfire.
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It's also got incredible tensile strength, which is good for a pair of kicks.
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Each subsequent laceration of the scarred area will cause a further decrease in tensile strength.
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It has a very high tensile strength; in fact, it's as strong as steel, but 90 percent lighter.
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The protein, which gives your skin tensile strength and that plump, youthful quality, is a tricky little thing.
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This is the golden age of actually rationally designing materials, whether it's for tensile strength or for catalytic capabilities.
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The tensile strength of a wound repair will reach a maximum of 80% of the previous pre-injury strength.
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But after a quick search, I found that a titanium alloy has an ultimate tensile strength of 900 MPa.
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First, an extraordinary 1905, delicate yet energetic, pretty and fragile yet with a tensile strength that kept the wine vibrant.
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And Norman Hardie makes graceful chardonnays and pinot noirs that would seem almost fragile if not for their cohesive, tensile strength.
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The main gotcha: you can only stretch a material's chemical bonds so far before it breaks, a concept known as tensile strength.
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Yet part of me must acknowledge that the pared-down quality of this memoir adds universality and is part of its tensile strength.
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These items were certified as having properties—such as a level of tensile strength, meaning stiffness—that they did not in fact possess.
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They are a major subject of interdisciplinary research due to their extraordinary properties, which include thermal and electrical conductivity, and impressive tensile strength.
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For instance, scientists and startups are capitalizing on the extraordinary tensile strength and properties of spider silk by mass-producing synthetic versions of it.
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Tasting the best Austrian rieslings, which can combine a delicious richness with a coiled, tensile strength, would have required spending far more per bottle.
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Test results revealing that aluminum parts failed to meet tensile strength requirements were altered to make it appear as if they had passed certification.
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It just means that getting 5 percent more tensile strength from a material that costs 50 times more wasn't considered a worthwhile trade-off.
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A metal's "tensile strength" is its ability to withstand a load without breaking when being stretched; it is not a measure of the metal's stiffness.
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Salami is, according to British drone manufacturers Windhorse Aerospace, "physically strong with good tensile strength and flexibility," which makes it a good option for landing gear.
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But, in these 1861 sketches, we see Nast's mastery of the living thing, the face seized from life, which gives tensile strength to his more elaborate tableaux.
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It turns out that drinking takes complex motor control, and the combination of tensile strength, flexibility, affordability, and sterility make disposable plastic straws the perfect accessibility tool.
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And so I test the tensile strength of chairs, and I panic when I realize my loved ones aren't as mobile or as able-bodied as I am.
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The firm had faked data on the tensile strength—the ability to withstand loads without breaking—of aluminium sheets, copper products and other items shipped to over 500 companies.
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Abundant throughout Asia, especially China, bamboo has long been a go-to building material for construction players drawn to its tensile strength, light weight, low cost and mass quantities.
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The fibers have been useful in all kinds of construction, "due to their extraordinary tensile strength, poor heat conduction, and relative resistance to chemical attack," the World Health Organization explains.
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Pykrete, despite mostly being ice, has some odd properties—notably a slower melting rate and a vastly increased tensile strength—that give it more practical uses that plain old frozen water.
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It's flexible and has a good amount of give, which should make for a decent running shoe, particularly when coupled with its tensile strength and breathability offered by the porous structure.
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Each component of a Windsor requires a different tensile strength, so he uses three kinds of timber: butternut for the seat, white oak for the spindles and cherry for the legs.
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While I enjoy a lot of science fiction, when it gets into the nitty gritty of the tensile strength of the titanium cables threaded into the wings of the automatovelociraptor, you've lost me.
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Her job, she said, involves solving "a million little math problems all day," and occasionally calling in a structural engineer to ask about, say, the tensile strength of a 100-year-old floor.
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Another subsidiary, Mitsubishi Shindoh, manipulated data on the "hardness and tensile strength" of copper strips used in automobiles, Mitsubishi Materials said, while a third, Mitsubishi Aluminum, also shipped products that did not meet customer standards.
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In June of last year, it said an affiliate, Shinko Wire Stainless Co, falsified data on tests for tensile strength of some stainless steel wire for springs over a period of more than nine years.
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Each bridge has its own story, an artifact of its time, products of various forms of hope, necessity, and civic corruption, each one an essay on the nature of gravity and the tensile strength of wire.
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Take something as simple as entering your office each morning: The average woman struggles to open doors when going in and out of buildings — because most doors are designed for the tensile strength of an average man.
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Trained as an "electrotechnical engineer," according to the degree he received from the University of Milan in 1924, before he began his studies in sculpture, Melotti seems to be testing the limits of his materials' tensile strength.
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It would be hard to call those books cultural touchstones; they were girded in the tensile strength paneling of Franzen's moral instruction, and they did O.K. critically but not great, and certainly they didn't sell too many copies.
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Examining a web up close, you cannot help marveling at the ethereal quality of the silk, a substance of such incredible tensile strength and elasticity that humans have spent more than 50 years trying to synthesize its properties.
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It means that after Diaz suffered his first brow laceration and repair, even if it healed perfectly and was done by the most skilled plastic surgeon, the scar tissue would reach only 80% of the areas previous tensile strength.
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The absence of written and archival material, not to mention solid walls as barriers separating the various phases of the artist's work, feels disorienting, but the sheer tensile strength of Mukherjee's intricately woven universes exerts a stupendous, spellbinding rapture nonetheless.
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The changes, it said, made it look as if the products met manufacturing specifications required by customers — including for vital qualities like tensile strength, a measure of material's ability to withstand a load without breaking when being stretched — when they did not.
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A Ceretto riserva was pale and sheer in texture, beautifully floral, yet had a tensile strength and profound minerality, tasting of steely red fruit, a flavor that lingered in the mouth long after I swallowed, what the Italians call "retrogusto," or aftertaste.
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He also maintained that the solution had to be international and helped broker an alliance with the International Organization for Standardization, which maintains more than 2000,225 standards related to products and services, from the tensile strength of yarn to the chemical composition of toys.
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That makes for cool imagery, but even cooler data—the waves weaken the ice's tensile strength, so if the road managers can monitor the strength and intensity of the waves, they can better maintain the ice highway and even reroute traffic so the convoy can keep moving.
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The hair has been woven into rings and other jewelry, and Professor Beutler said it had even been part of dubious science experiments, including one, in 1849, in which the tensile strength of Washington's hair was studied against hair belonging to African-Americans and Native Americans.
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It exposes and revels in the physical grain of U22's live arrangements; the candid fervor of Bono's voice, the resonant drive of the Edge's guitar riffs and the tensile strength of U2's rhythm section, Adam Clayton on bass and Larry Mullen Jr. on drums.
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The rocket sustainer was made of a fiberglass blend and the parachute cords were certified to a tensile strength of 2000,000 pounds, so the damage they had sustained was a testament to the extreme forces experienced by the rocket during its return to Earth, and offered some clues to the nature of its malfunction.
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It required the ability to gather that 14-foot tall pass in the first place—this alone eliminates 99 percent of the league—and the reach to get it to the rim, as well as hands steady enough to keep it from spinning away or knocking off the back iron and enough airborne equilibrium and tensile strength not to go tilting off balance during the whole operation.
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It has the reflective effect of breathwork—the delicately arranged passages feel like a sharp intake of air and then the move back to abstraction is a more controlled exhalation—putting you in a headspace to mull over the themes that he intended to shape this release: cosmogony (the science of the origin of the universe), creation myths, the structure and tensile strength of ropes (hence the title), and the movement of rivers.
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Politicians try all sorts of things to entice uncertain voters to cast ballots in their favor during an election, including the following: lubricating kisses aimed at the perilously dry heads of unsuspecting toddlers; limited edition T-shirts with just enough tensile strength to silently suffocate one's conservative neighbor in style; and New Jack City-esque turkeys that may or may not have been purchased with the cash from a thousand drug deals.
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The notch tensile strength (NTS) of a material is the value given by performing a standard tensile strength test on a notched specimen of the material. The ratio between the NTS and the tensile strength is called the notch strength ratio (NSR).
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What is the requirement for the sound joint? The answer is that tensile strength of the joints in DFSW are a fraction of the tensile strength of the softer material. Therefore, the final tensile strength of the weldments are usually less than tensile strength of both materials, however, in order to be acceptable in the industry, it is usually more than 70 percent of the tensile strength of the softer material. Fracture behavior of the tensile specimens shows that majority of the joints failed at the interface along with a brittle fracture.
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A588 has a yield strength of at least , and ultimate tensile strength of for all rolled shapes and plate thicknesses up to thick. Plates from have yield strength at least and ultimate tensile strength at least , and plates from thick have yield strength at least and ultimate tensile strength at least .
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Bolts are correctly torqued to maintain the friction. The shear force only becomes relevant when the bolts are not torqued. A bolt with property class 12.9 has a tensile strength of 1200MPa (1MPa = 1N/mm2) or 1.2kN/mm2 and the yield strength is 0.90 times tensile strength, 1080MPa in this case. A bolt with property class 4.6 has a tensile strength of 400MPa (1MPa = 1N/mm2) or 0.4 kN/mm2 and yield strength is 0.60 times tensile strength, 240MPa in this case.
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As a result, deposition efficiency and tensile strength of deposits increase.
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Leeds-Keio artificial ligaments have an ultimate tensile strength near 2000 N and a stiffness around 250 N/mm after tissue ingrowth. LARS artificial ligaments have varying mechanical properties depending on the amount of fibers used. A higher gauged ligament will have a greater tensile strength. During testing, a 60 gauge LARS ligament exhibited an ultimate tensile strength of 2500 N while a 120 gauge ligament exhibited a tensile strength of 5600 N. The ingrown tissue has been shown to improve viscoelastic properties and reduce friction.
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The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much elongating stress the material will endure before failure. This is very important in applications that rely upon a polymer's physical strength or durability. For example, a rubber band with a higher tensile strength will hold a greater weight before snapping. In general, tensile strength increases with polymer chain length and crosslinking of polymer chains.
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Tensile specimen Another important characteristic in DFSW is the final tensile strength. The majority of dissimilar weldments presented similar trend in tensile strength. There are two different materials in DFSW. One is softer than the other.
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The retting process improved the milling extraction process of Guayule upwards of six percent, and improved the tensile strength from 1800-2000 psi upwards of 2800 psi, a tensile strength comparable to that of the rubber trees.
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The tensile strength was shown to increase along with the yield stress.
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Young's modulus on the order of and tensile strength of were obtained.
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They have excellent tensile strength to contain items but not much stacking strength.
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Similarly, tensile strength of particle-reinforced composites can be expressed as, (T.S.)_c = V_m (T.S.)_m + K_s V_p (T.S.)_p where T.S. is the tensile strength, and K_s is a constant (not equal to K_c) that can be found empirically.
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A proper seam will be able to carry the load requirements for the structure. The seam area should be stronger than the original coated fabric when testing for tensile strength. The base fabric's tensile strength is determined by the size (denier) and strength (tenacity) of the yarns and the number of yarns per linear inch or meter. The larger the yarn and the more yarns per inch, the greater the finished product's tensile strength.
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Questions of interest include those to do with fracture toughness, tensile strength, and glass transition temperature.
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Any loss in chain length lowers tensile strength and is a primary cause of premature cracking.
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It has high tensile strength and flexibility, as well as high oxygen and aroma barrier properties. However, these properties are dependent on humidity: water absorbed at higher humidity levels acts as a plasticiser, which reduces the polymer's tensile strength, but increases its elongation and tear strength.
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Plant roots support soil, which stabilizes sloped landscapes and limits soil erosion. Root size properties, including diameter, influence the mechanical reinforcement of a slope. Soil stability depends on root tensile strength. Root tensile strength increases with decreasing root diameter, so fine roots are stronger than coarse roots.
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Short time hot tensile strength is inferior to RA718 at temperatures up to 730°C (1350°F).
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Stuttgart: Hippokrates Verlag, 1993. The maturation phase can last for a year or longer, similarly depending on wound type. As the phase progresses, the tensile strength of the wound increases. Collagen will reach approximately 20% of its tensile strength after 3 weeks, increasing to 80% by 12th week.
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7068 aluminium alloy is one of the strongest commercially available aluminium alloys, with a tensile strength comparable to that of some steels. 7068-T6511 has typical ultimate tensile strength of versus a similar product produced from 7075-T6511 that would have a typical ultimate tensile strength of . Typical yield strength for alloy 7068-T6511 is versus for a similar product produced from 7075-T6511. Strength allowables for this alloy are provided in Metallic Materials Properties Development and Standardization for design.
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The matrix material has more influence on the tensile properties. Tensile strength may be highly improved by a chemical surface treatment of the particles, such as silanization, which allows the formation of strong bonds between glass particles and epoxy matrix. Addition of fibrous materials can also increase the tensile strength.
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T351 temper 2024 plate has an ultimate tensile strength of and yield strength of . It has elongation of 20%.
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Furthermore, the tensile strength relative to dry weight showed a similar decline tendency in both lengthwise and breadthwise stretching.
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The pozzalana mortar used in the construction of the Hagia Sophia does not contain volcanic ash but instead crushed brick dust. The composition of the materials used in pozzalana mortar leads to an increased tensile strength. A mortar composed of mostly lime has a tensile strength of roughly 30 psi whereas pozzalana mortar using crushed brick dust has a tensile strength of 500 psi. The advantage of using pozzalana mortar in the construction of the Hagia Sophia is the increase in strength of the joints.
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The hoop stress is tensile and so wrought iron, a material with better tensile strength than cast iron, is added.
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H116 strain hardened 5086, with properties measured at , has yield strength of , ultimate tensile strength of , and elongation of 12%.
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H321 strain hardened 5059, with properties measured at , has yield strength of , ultimate tensile strength of , and elongation of 10%.
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The processes of thermal and chemical toughening can increase the tensile strength of glass. Glass has a compressive strength of .
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Consisting of mainly protein, silks are about a sixth of the density of steel (1.3 g/cm3). As a result, a strand long enough to circle the Earth would weigh less than . (Spider dragline silk has a tensile strength of roughly 1.3 GPa. The tensile strength listed for steel might be slightly higher—e.g.
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However, nitrogen also has a strong influence on room temperature strength and a tiny addition of nitrogen produces 304L with the same tensile strength as 304. Thus, practically all 304L is produced as dual certified 304/304L, meaning it meets the minimum carbon content of 304L and also meets the minimum tensile strength of 304.
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Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has a low tensile strength (against twisting or stretching) unless reinforced. The tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers (vertical columns or ribs) at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added.
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Nylon 6 fibres are tough, possessing high tensile strength, as well as elasticity and lustre. They are wrinkleproof and highly resistant to abrasion and chemicals such as acids and alkalis. The fibres can absorb up to 2.4% of water, although this lowers tensile strength. The glass transition temperature of Nylon 6 is 47 °C.
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In the Sn-Pb alloys, tensile strength increases with increasing tin content. Indium-tin alloys with high indium content have very low tensile strength. For soldering semiconductor materials, e.g. die attachment of silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide, it is important that the solder contains no impurities that could cause doping in the wrong direction.
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The most common measure of roller chain's strength is tensile strength. Tensile strength represents how much load a chain can withstand under a one-time load before breaking. Just as important as tensile strength is a chain's fatigue strength. The critical factors in a chain's fatigue strength is the quality of steel used to manufacture the chain, the heat treatment of the chain components, the quality of the pitch hole fabrication of the linkplates, and the type of shot plus the intensity of shot peen coverage on the linkplates.
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Generally, it is used in applications up to 400 degrees Celsius. (Grade 5 has a density of approximately 4420 kg/m3, Young's modulus of 110 GPa, and tensile strength of 1000 MPa. By comparison, annealed type 316 stainless steel has a density of 8000 kg/m3, modulus of 193 GPa, and tensile strength of only 570 MPa and tempered 6061 aluminum alloy has a density of 2700 kg/m3, modulus of 69 GPa, and tensile strength of 310 MPa). EFS detects growing cracks in steel, aluminum, titanium alloys, and other metals.
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Lead is exceptionally soft, malleable, and ductile but with little tensile strength. Lead is a poison, that primarily damages brain function.
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If the differential stress is less than four times the tensile strength of the rock, then extensional failure will occur. If the differential stress is more than four times the tensile strength of the rock, then shear failure will occur.Cosgrove. J. W. (1998) The role of structural geology in reservoir characterization. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, v.
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Traditional core-and-veneer walls suffered from moisture migration and thermal expansion and contraction. They had a low tensile strength, hence a poor resistance to twisting or stretching. Tensile strength was increased by increasing the width of the walls or by providing masonry "piers" (vertical columns or ribs), either inside the wall or as additional exterior support.
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Reinforced concrete (RC), also called reinforced cement concrete (RCC), is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets.
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Unhardened 5086 has a yield strength of and ultimate tensile strength of from . At cryogenic temperatures it is slightly stronger: at , yield of and ultimate tensile strength of ; above its strength is reduced. Elongation, the strain before material failure, ranges from 46% at , 35% at , 32% at , 22% at , 30% at , 36% at , and increases above there.
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Moreover, longitudinally oriented fibrils improve tensile strength, whereas the addition of 20° tilted fibrils, exclusive to latewood tracheids, provides stability against compression.
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Ross, M. H. and Pawlina, W. (2011) Histology, 6th ed., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, p. 218. Type I collagen gives bone its tensile strength.
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T3 temper 2024 sheet has an ultimate tensile strength of and yield strength of at least . It has an elongation of 10-15%.
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Glidcop is resistant to degradation by neutron irradiation. Samples irradiated by neutrons at and cooled to room temperature were found to have greater tensile strength and electrical conductivity and less swelling than samples of pure copper under the same treatment. For radiation levels of 0 to 150 dpm (displacements per atom), the tensile strength was nearly constant and swelling not noticeable, while pure copper experienced a linear decrease in tensile strength and 30% swelling between 0 and 50 dpm. While both pure copper and Glidcop experienced linear drops of electrical conductivity, the drop for Gildcop was smaller.
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Concrete is strong under compression, but has weak tensile strength. Rebar significantly increases the tensile strength of the structure. Rebar's surface is often "deformed" with ribs, lugs or indentations to promote a better bond with the concrete and reduce the risk of slippage. The most common type of rebar is carbon steel, typically consisting of hot-rolled round bars with deformation patterns.
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Owing to the high tensile strength and large aspect ratio of carbon nanotubes, VANTAs are a potential tether material for the Space Elevator concept.
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Copper is much heavier than aluminum for conductors of equal current carrying capacity, so the high tensile strength is offset by its increased weight.
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T4 temper 6061 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least or and yield strength of at least . It has elongation of 10-16%.
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Polysulfone can be reinforced with glass fibers. The resulting composite material has twice the tensile strength and three time increase of its Young's modulus.
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It is temperature resistant up to 370 °C (698 °F). Bonded nylon sewing threads are tough, coated with abrasion resistance, rot proofing, and have good tensile strength for lower temperature applications. They are temperature-resistant up to 120 °C (248 °F). Bonded polyester sewing threads are tough, coated with abrasion resistance, rotproofing, and have exceptional tensile strength for lower temperatures but heavier-duty sewing operations.
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Retrieved 2012-05-09. Tensile strength decreases with increased water absorption. Its coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively high at (5–10)×10−5 °C−1.
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Similarly, the force parallel to this area again decreases (F/cos θ) leading to a total tensile strength of τmy /sinθ cosθ where τmy is the matrix shear strength. Finally, for large values of θ (near π/2) transverse matrix failure is the most likely to occur, since the fibres no longer carry the majority of the load. Still, the tensile strength will be greater than for the purely perpendicular orientation, since the force perpendicular to the fibres will decrease by a factor of 1/sin θ and the area decreases by a factor of 1/sin θ producing a composite tensile strength of σperp /sin2θ where σperp is the tensile strength of the composite with fibres align perpendicular to the applied force. The graph depicts the three fracture modes a composite material may experience depending on the angle of misorientation relative to aligning fibres parallel to the applied stress.
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Un-heat-treated 6063 has maximum tensile strength no more than , and no specified maximum yield strength. The material has elongation (stretch before ultimate failure) of 18%.
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The yarn is woven, knit, glued, braided or is left non-woven, depending on the needs of the project. Carbon, AR glass, and basalt are especially good materials for this process. Carbon has good tensile strength and low heat expansion, but is costly and has bad adhesion to concrete. Basalt is formed by melting basalt rock; it is more cost effective than carbon, and has a good tensile strength.
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The mechanical properties of the native ACL vary throughout the human population. The strength of a child's ACL tends to be greater than that of an adult. PGA Dacron artificial ligaments have an ultimate tensile strength near 3500 N and a mean ultimate elongation of approximately 20%. Kennedy LAD ligaments have a tensile strength at failure of approximately 1500 N and an approximate stiffness of 50 N/mm.
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USAF-96 is a balance of cost, tensile strength, and toughness. By varying the heat treatment to include water or liquid nitrogen quenching, or omitting the normalization heat-treat to permit work hardening, properties can be improved. With an economical air and water quench, the yield at room temperature (tensile strength before deformation) is 194,600 PSI (1341.7 MPa), ultimate strength (breaking point) is 250,100 PSI (1724.3 MPa). Rockwell hardness is 48.7.
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The ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the engineering stress versus strain. The highest point of the stress–strain curve is the ultimate tensile strength and has units of stress. Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood.
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It has exceptionally high tensile strength and ductility, with respectively low density, compared to other natural fibril. Its feature varies from different kinds of spider for different utility.
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Temperatures elevated above degrade the mechanical properties of concrete, including compressive strength, fracture strength, tensile strength, and elastic modulus, with respect to deleterious effect on its structural changes.
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For example, major ampullate silk, a very tough silk with a tensile strength comparable to Kevlar, is used for the primary dragline or scaffolding of the spider's web.
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F connectors attached to coaxial cables are used for TV aerial and satellite dish connections to a TV or set top box. Tensile strength measures the force required to pull an object such as rope, wire, or a structural beam to the point where it breaks. The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress it can take before breaking. Copper’s higher tensile strength (200–250 N/mm2 annealed) compared to aluminium (100 N/mm2 for typical conductor alloys) is another reason why copper is used extensively in the building industry. Copper’s high strength resists stretching, neck-down, creep, nicks and breaks, and thereby also prevents failures and service interruptions.
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The rock will fracture when the pore pressure is greater than both its minimum stress and its tensile strength then reseal when the pressure reduces and the fractures close.
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Absorption is complete by 90 days, and full tensile strength remains for at least 7 days. This eventual disintegration makes it good for use in rapidly healing tissues and in internal structures that cannot be re-accessed for suture removal. Catgut suture has high knot-pull tensile strength and good knot security due to special excellent handling features. It is used for all surgical procedures including general closure, ophthalmic, orthopedics, obstetrics/gynecology and gastrointestinal surgery.
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Aluminum seems obvious because it is "lighter" than steel, but steel is stronger than aluminum, so one could imagine using thinner steel components to save weight without sacrificing (tensile) strength. The problem with this idea is that there would be a significant sacrifice of stiffness, allowing, e.g., wings to flex unacceptably. Because it is stiffness, not tensile strength, that drives this kind of decision for airplanes, we say that they are stiffness-driven.
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The mechanical properties are also influenced by the temperature of the material and the strain rate the nanotube is put under. For temperature, the tensile strength of a GaNNT decreases at higher temperature. At higher temperatures, more molecules possess sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier which results in deformation at lower strains. The strain rate of the material causes there to be a reduced tensile strength when the strain rate is lower.
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In general, most aliphatic polyesters have poor mechanical properties and PEA is no exception. Little research has been done on the mechanical properties of pure PEA but one study found PEA to have a tensile modulus of 312.8 MPa, a tensile strength of 13.2 MPa, and an elongation at break of 362.1%. Alternate values that have been found are a tensile strength of ~10 MPa and a tensile modulus of ~240 MPa.
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In comparison, Dragon silk's tensile strength is higher than the alloy steel(450-2000 MPa's). In a report it is said that the strength of Dragon silk is as high as 1.79 Gpa's which is 37% higher than the widely reported spider silk. Its tensile strength is higher than the "Big Red silk," which had been reported as the strongest fiber ever made. "Bid Red Silk" was developed in the same Laboratories as Dragon Silk.
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Glass typically has a tensile strength of , however theoretically it can have a strength of which is due to glass's strong chemical bonds. Imperfections on glass such as scratches and bubbles decrease the strength of glass. The imperfections (surface flaws) on a piece of glass have a great effect on the strength of glass (even more than other brittle materials). The chemical composition of the glass also impacts the tensile strength of glass.
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As the tensile strength of stone is much lower, the lintel under heavy loads typically breaks and collapses. Many arches survive from antiquity, but few lintels are still in place.
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LCPs are also well-suited for computer fans, where their high tensile strength and rigidity enable tighter design tolerances, higher performance, and less noise, albeit at a significantly higher cost.
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Experiments have shown that siphons can operate in a vacuum, via cohesion and tensile strength between molecules, provided that the liquids are pure and degassed and surfaces are very clean.
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Chrysotile fibres have considerable tensile strength, and may be spun into thread and woven into cloth. They are also resistant to heat and are excellent thermal, electrical and acoustic insulators.
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The long fibers give Masonite a high bending strength, tensile strength, density, and stability. Unlike other composite wood panels, no formaldehyde-based resins are used to bind the fibers in Masonite.
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It has a tensile strength of 221 to 310 MPa, a specific gravity of 8.7, a Brinell hardness of 65 to 74, and a melting point of around 1,000 degrees Celsius.
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A scanning electron microscopy image of carbon nanotube bundles Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus. This strength results from the covalent sp2 bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multiwalled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of . (For illustration, this translates into the ability to endure tension of a weight equivalent to on a cable with cross-section of ).
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Higher-strength ABS shipbuilding steel comes in six grades of two strengths, AH32, DH32, EH32, AH36, DH36, and EH36. The 32 grades have yield strength of 45,500 psi (315 MPa), and ultimate tensile strength of 64,000 - 85,000 psi (440-590 MPa). The 36 grades have yield strength of 51,000 psi (355 MPa), and ultimate tensile strength of 71,000 - 90,000 psi (490-620 MPa). Per Steel Vessel Rules Part 2 Chapter 1 Section 3 Table 2 (pg 36).
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The term was used in both the original 1933 version, as well as the 2005 remake, of King Kong. When Kong is brought to New York City, he is chained with this metal on stage. The impression given by the film from Carl Denham to the audience is that the "chrome steel" has some unique properties of having a higher tensile strength than "normal steel" which is incorrect. Higher tensile strength steels are created by the addition of carbon.
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The amount of the delay depends upon the volume fraction of the strong phase. Thus, the tensile strength of the composite can be expressed in terms of the volume fraction. (T.S.)_c=V_f(T.S.)_f+V_m \sigma_m(\epsilon_m) where T.S. is the tensile strength, \sigma is the stress, \epsilon is the strain, E is the elastic modulus, and V is the volume fraction. The subscripts c, f, and m are indicating composite, fiber, and matrix, respectively.
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A dragline silk's tensile strength is comparable to that of high-grade alloy steel (450−2000 MPa), and about half as strong as aramid filaments, such as Twaron or Kevlar (3000 MPa).
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He also supplied the ironwork for Telford's Conwy Suspension Bridge, completed the same year. The tensile strength of the wrought iron chains, made at Upton Forge, was important to these suspension bridges.
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The 25 kilometer long space tether joining the two satellites is made of a commercially available high tenacity yarn with a thickness of 125 μm that is braided for redundant tensile strength.
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Increase in the ratio of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid to 3-hydroxypentanoic acid results in an increase in melting point, water permeability, glass transition temperature (Tg) and tensile strength. However impact resistance is reduced.
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Its high tensile strength and tensile modulus are established by fiber sizing, coatings, production processes, and PAN's fiber chemistry. Its mechanical properties derived are important in composite structures for military and commercial aircraft.
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The tensile strength is 110-135 N/cm², depending on the type of wood. This ensures for the high load capacity and pleasant vibrations of cantilever chairs made of laminated wood, for example.
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T5 temper 6063 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least in thicknesses up to , and from thick, and yield strength of at least up to and from. It has elongation of 8%.
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As suitable as DMEU was as an anti- wrinkle agent, it decreases dramatically the tensile strength of the fabric. Because DMEU inhibited new hydrogen bond formation, it also hindered cottons ability to shift its cotton fibers to spread out pressure applied to the fabric. This problem regarding the loss of tensile strength is common amongst cotton treatments. Currently, DMEU is used along with other formaldehyde urea derivatives for cotton fabrics of varying tear strength, color, softness, and ease of care.
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The joint's tensile strength is dependent on the filler metal used; in electrical soldering little tensile strength comes from the added solder which is why it is advised that wires be twisted or folded together before soldering to provide some mechanical strength for a joint. A good solder joint produces an electrically-conductive, water- and gas-tight join. Each type of solder offers advantages and disadvantages. Soft solder is so called because of the soft lead that is its primary ingredient.
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The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by- side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This confers tensile strength in cell walls where cellulose microfibrils are meshed into a polysaccharide matrix. The high tensile strength of plant stems and of the tree wood also arises from the arrangement of cellulose fibers intimately distributed into the lignin matrix. The mechanical role of cellulose fibers in the wood matrix responsible for its strong structural resistance, can somewhat be compared to that of the reinforcement bars in concrete, lignin playing here the role of the hardened cement paste acting as the "glue" in between the cellulose fibers.
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The ASTM International recognizes 31 grades of titanium metal and alloys, of which grades one through four are commercially pure (unalloyed). Those four vary in tensile strength as a function of oxygen content, with grade 1 being the most ductile (lowest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.18%), and grade 4 the least ductile (highest tensile strength with an oxygen content of 0.40%). The remaining grades are alloys, each designed for specific properties of ductility, strength, hardness, electrical resistivity, creep resistance, specific corrosion resistance, and combinations thereof. In addition to the ASTM specifications, titanium alloys are also produced to meet aerospace and military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace, military, medical, and industrial applications.
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Ultra low expansion glass has an ultimate tensile strength of , a Poisson’s ratio 0.17, a density of (), a Specific stiffness of (), a shear modulus of (), a bulk modulus of (), and an elastic modulus of ().
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Composite structures may also be produced; the incorporation of silicon carbide monofilaments into Ti-6-Al-4V foams was shown to exhibit an elastic modulus of 195 GPa and tensile strength of 800 MPa.
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Strain at failure vs. spherulite size.Ehrenstein and Theriault p.84 Formation of spherulites affects many properties of the polymer material; in particular, crystallinity, density, tensile strength and Young's modulus of polymers increase during spherulization.
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Dense regular connective tissue has great tensile strength that resists pulling forces especially well in one direction. DRCT has a very poor blood supply, which is why damaged tendons and ligaments are slow to heal.
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A mechanical discontinuity is a plane of physical weakness where the tensile strength perpendicular to the discontinuity or the shear strength along the discontinuity is lower than that of the surrounding soil or rock material.
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There must a balance between tensile strength and ductility of the weldments in order to safely use dissimilar weldments in industrial applications. In other words, proper ductility and toughness are required for some industrial applications since they should possess proper resistivity against impact and shock loading. The majority of the fabricated weldments are not sufficiently strong to be used for such applications. Therefore, it is worthwhile to focus current and future works on improving toughness of the weldments along with keeping tensile strength in a proper value.
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Studies conducted by the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) confirm that kangaroo is one of the strongest leathers of similar substance available. Similarly when split into thinner substances kangaroo retains considerably more of the original tensile strength of the unsplit leather than does calf. When split to 20% of original thickness kangaroo retains between 30 and 60% of the tensile strength of the unsplit hide. Calf split to 20% of original thickness, on the other hand, retains only 1–4% of original strength.
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Monocryl has a low tissue reactivity, maintains high tensile strength, and has a half-life of 7 to 14 days. At 1 week, its in vivo tensile strength is at 50–60% undyed (60–70% dyed), 20–30% undyed (30–40% dyed) at two weeks, and essentially completely hydrolyzed by 91–119 days.Johnson & Johnson Gateway, Features and Benefits of Monocryl When removed from the package, it has a high degree of "memory", or coil. It is slippery, making it easier to pass than a braided suture.
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Tensile strength represents the ability for a geomembrane to resist tensile stress. Geomembranes are most commonly tested for tensile strength using one of three methods; the uniaxial tensile test described in ASTM D639-94, the wide-strip tensile test described in ASTM D4885-88, and the multiaxial tension test described in ASTM D5617-94. The difference in these three methods lies in the boundaries imposed into the test specimens. Uniaxial tests do not provide lateral restraint during testing and thus tests the sample under uniaxial stress conditions.
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It can be attributed to IMCs developed at the interface. Although, it could successfully improve tensile strength, but the specimens showed brittle fracture which is one of the existing challenge in dissimilar joints fabricated by FSW.
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Steel fibre-reinforced shotcrete (SFRS) is shotcrete (spray concrete) with steel fibres added. It has higher tensile strength than unreinforced shotcrete and is quicker to apply than weldmesh reinforcement. It has often been used for tunnels.
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Prestressed concrete is useful in bridge construction because it has higher tensile strength than traditional reinforced concrete, allowing for longer bridge spans. Bridges are frame structures which are used to help people cross gaps between land.
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This is the ability of the paper to withstand a stretching force without break. The higher the tensile strength of the paper is, the less the chances of web breaks due to high tension at press.
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Tensile strength of sutures; loss when implanted in living tissue.Lancet, 2 6577, 499-501 Douglas, D.M. (1962). Operating-theatre design. Lancet, 2 7248, 163-9 Douglas, D.M. (1962) Problems and responsibilities of the university surgical unit.
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Unhardened 5059 has a yield strength of and ultimate tensile strength of from . At cryogenic temperatures it is slightly stronger; above its strength is reduced. Elongation, the strain before material failure, is 24% at room temperature.
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T1 temper 6063 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least in thicknesses up to , and from thick, and yield strength of at least in thickness up to and from thick. It has elongation of 12%.
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It provides mechanical support, elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in manufacturing sugar and storing it as starch. It is present in the margin of leaves and resists tearing effect of the wind.
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For the suspension and the net cables open spiral cables with diameter of 18 mm resp. 24 mm were used, consisting of 37 resp. 61 strands of 2.6 mm diameter. Their tensile strength is 1.57 kN/mm².
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Reinforcing concrete with metal oxide nanoparticle reduces permeability and increase strength. Property of high tensile strength and Young’s modulus of Nanocarbon additions such as Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), creates denser and less porous material.
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To intersect an embankment without a high flyover, a series of tunnels can consist of a section of high tensile strength viaduct (typically built of brick and/or metal) or pair of facing abutments for a bridge.
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Carbon heated in the range of 1500–2000 °C (carbonization) exhibits the highest tensile strength (5,650MPa, or 820,000psi), while carbon fiber heated from 2500 to 3000 °C (graphitizing) exhibits a higher modulus of elasticity (531GPa, or 77,000,000psi).
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T6 temper 6063 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least and yield strength of at least . In thicknesses of or less, it has elongation of 8% or more; in thicker sections, it has elongation of 10%.
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The (I-40-class) submarines (I-40, , I-42, I-43, I-44, I-45) were externally similar to the Type B1, but with a high-tensile strength steel hull and diesel engines of a simpler design.
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Reinforcing concrete with metal oxide nanoparticle reduces permeability and increase strength. Property of high tensile strength and Young’s modulus of Nanocarbon additions such as Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), creates denser and less porous material.
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If HV is first expressed in N/mm2 (MPa), or otherwise by converting from kgf/mm2, then the tensile strength (in MPa) of the material can be approximated as ≈ HV/ ≈ HV/3, where is a constant determined by yield strength, Poisson's ratio, work-hardening exponent and geometrical factors usually ranging between 2 and 4. In other words, if HV is expressed in N/mm2 (i.e. in MPa) then the tensile strength (in MPa) ≈ HV/3. This empirical law depends variably on the work-hardening behavior of the material.
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Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to which withstands loads tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists being pushed together, whereas tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be analyzed independently. Some materials fracture at their compressive strength limit; others deform irreversibly, so a given amount of deformation may be considered as the limit for compressive load.
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Also, during this period, the Japanese Government heavily supported carbon fiber development at home and several Japanese companies such as Toray, Nippon Carbon, Toho Rayon and Mitsubishi started their own development and production. Since the late 1970s, further types of carbon fiber yarn entered the global market, offering higher tensile strength and higher elastic modulus. For example, T400 from Toray with a tensile strength of 4,000 MPa and M40, a modulus of 400 GPa. Intermediate carbon fibers, such as IM 600 from Toho Rayon with up to 6,000 MPa were developed.
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One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as the original component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case of ductile materials. A typical stress–strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. For some materials, such as concrete, tensile strength is negligible compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed zero for many engineering applications. Glass fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel, but bulk glass usually does not.
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PCTFE has high tensile strength and good thermal characteristics. It is nonflammable and the heat resistance is up to 175 °C. It has a low coefficient of thermal expansion. The glass transition temperature (Tg) is around 45 °C.
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Some have as much as 600 pounds of tensile strength per inch of width. Different types and grades of adhesive are also available. Most often, the tape is 12 mm (approx. 1/2 inch) to 24 mm (approx.
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The cords, which form the ply and bead and provide the tensile strength necessary to contain the inflation pressure, can be composed of steel, natural fibers such as cotton or silk, or synthetic fibers such as nylon or kevlar.
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AerMet alloy is an ultra-high strength type of martensitic. alloy steel. The main alloying elements are cobalt and nickel, but chromium, molybdenum and carbon are also added. Its exceptional properties are hardness, tensile strength, fracture toughness and ductility.
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The protein forms the organic matrix. It is synthesized and then the mineral is added. The vast majority of the organic matrix is collagen, which provides tensile strength. The matrix is mineralized by deposition of hydroxyapatite (alternative name, hydroxylapatite).
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Zylon is used by NASA in long- duration, high-altitude data collection. Braided Zylon strands maintain the structure of polyethylene superpressure balloons. Zylon is the material of choice due to its low weight, high tensile strength, and thermal properties.
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The resultant bond has definite interfaces with minimum grain growth. Typically the process requires a longer (2 to 100 ms) heating time at low weld energy. The resultant bond exhibits excellent tensile strength, but poor peel and shear strength.
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DFSW shows various characteristics in terms of hardness distribution, tensile strength, microstructure, formation of intermetallic compounds as well as formation of a composite structure within the stir zone. The majority of the dissimilar joints fabricated by FSW demonstrate similar results.
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FirstLight Prime is the name given to the family of premium optical fibre assemblies, utilising a transition module patented by FibreFab. The design can offer assemblies from 4 to 144 core fibre cables that guarantee superior tensile strength and crush resistance.
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A high security padlock. A quantitative measure of a padlock's tensile strength and resistance to forced and surreptitious entry can be determined with tests developed by organizations such as ASTM, Sold Secure (United Kingdom), CEN (Europe), and TNO (The Netherlands).
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A single quartz fiber can have a tensile strength of . Quartz fibers are chemically stable as they are not affected by halogens (for the most part). Quartz fibers also have a higher thermal resistance than S-glass or E-glass.
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If this is the part which actually failed, then it may corroborate independent evidence of the failure. If not, then another explanation has to be sought, such as a defective part with a lower tensile strength than it should for example.
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Frame of Nalle-Sisu. The frame is produced from reinforced steel type V6A with tensile strength of 60 kg /mm². The frame was the first in Sisu to be completely constructed by welding. The frame was available with wheelbase options: , and .
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Because of the very small structure of CNTs, the tensile strength of the tube is dependent on its weakest segment in a similar manner to a chain, where the strength of the weakest link becomes the maximum strength of the chain.
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Glass fibers have a much higher tensile strength than regular glass (200-500 times stronger than regular glass). This is due to the reduction of flaws in glass fibers and that glass fibers have less surface area than regular glass.
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They are excellent (105 siemens per metre) electrical conductors, are 15 times stronger than the strongest carbon fiber (T1000), have 30 times the tenacity of Kevlar and are 224 times stronger than individual cotton fibers. The tubes exhibit an ultra low density comparable to that of carbon nanofoams. CCTs have a tensile strength of 7 GPa, and a high specific strength (tensile strength per density), and a breaking length of 6,000 km. This exceeds the specific strength of the strongest carbon nanotube; this strength is sufficient to support a space elevator if retained in a fabricated macroscale structure.
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One unit cell, 3. A lattice of 3×3×3 unit cells Molar volume vs. pressure at room temperature. 3D ball-and-stick model of a diamond lattice The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown, however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and theoretically it could be as high as 90–225 GPa depending on the sample volume/size, the perfection of diamond lattice and on its orientation: Tensile strength is the highest for the [100] crystal direction (normal to the cubic face), smaller for the [110] and the smallest for the [111] axis (along the longest cube diagonal).
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Alpha keratin is found in mammalian hair, skin, nails, horn and quills, while beta keratin can be found in avian and reptilian species in scales, feathers, and beaks. The two different structures of keratin have dissimilar mechanical properties, as seen in their dissimilar applications. The relative alignment of the keratin fibrils has a significant impact on the mechanical properties. In human hair the filaments of alpha keratin are highly aligned, giving a tensile strength of approximately 200MPa. This tensile strength is an order of magnitude higher than human nails (20MPa), because human hair’s keratin filaments are more aligned.
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U.S. Patent No. 7,537,727 B2, Accessed July 16, 2009, column 3, Table 55 ES-1 is a balance of cost, tensile strength, high temperature tensile strength and toughness. By varying the heat treatment to include water or liquid nitrogen quenching, or omitting the normalization heat-treat to permit work hardening, properties can be improved.U.S. Patent No. 7,537,727 B2, Accessed July 16, 2009, column 7, line 5. ES-5, with an economical air and water quench,U.S. Patent No. 7,537,727 B2, Accessed July 16, 2009, column 6, line 65 provides 244,800 PSI of yield, and 291,900 PSI ultimate yield.
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Indentation hardness tests are used in mechanical engineering to determine the hardness of a material to deformation. Several such tests exist, wherein the examined material is indented until an impression is formed; these tests can be performed on a macroscopic or microscopic scale. When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates roughly linearly with tensile strength.,Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels , E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 17, Number 6 / December, 2008 but it is an imperfect correlation often limited to small ranges of strength and hardness for each indentation geometry.
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With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron does not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel. The covered bridge in West Montrose, Ontario, Canada In Canada and the United States, numerous timber covered bridges were built in the late 1700s to the late 1800s, reminiscent of earlier designs in Germany and Switzerland. Some covered bridges were also built in Asia.
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This causes an increase in the internal pressure. If this pressure exceeds the tensile strength of the material, then micro-cracks occur. Visible frost damage develops after an accumulation of micro-cracks as a result of several freeze-thaw cycles.Scherer G.W. (2006).
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Thastyron has a compressive strength of 56 pound-force per square inch (psi) and a tensile strength of 43 psi. Rastra has a low toxicity level. Rastra is highly frost, fungus, and mildew-resistant. The sound insulation is greater than 50 decibel(dB).
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2024-O temper aluminium has no heat treating. It has an ultimate tensile strength of , and maximum yield strength of no more than . The material has elongation (stretch before ultimate failure) of 10-25%, this is the allowable range per applicable AMS specifications.
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These teeth have the strongest known tensile strength of any biological material, outperforming spider silk. The mineral protein of the limpet teeth can withstand a tensile stress of 4.9 GPa, compared to 4 GPa of spider silk and 0.5 GPa of human teeth.
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Kernmantle rope () is rope constructed with its interior core protected by a woven exterior sheath designed to optimize strength, durability, and flexibility. The core fibers provide the tensile strength of the rope, while the sheath protects the core from abrasion during use.
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T651 temper 7075 has an ultimate tensile strength of and yield strength of . It has a failure elongation of 3–9%. These properties can change depending on the form of material used. Thicker plate may exhibit lower strengths and elongation than the numbers listed above.
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The reason why breaking happens is that, as the ice thickness increases, the bending moment exerted on the upper surface of the ice exceeds its tensile strength. In other words, the ice is no longer flexible enough to withstand the overthrust event without breaking.
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Haskelite Manufacturing Corporation made a plywood with a phenol formaldehyde resin called Phemaloid. It was fire- resistant and constructed electrically. It had high resistance to moisture, was of high tensile strength, and had fungi destroying properties. Airplane parts were among the uses for this plywood.
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Stretchy, self-healing paints and other coatings recently took a step closer to common use, thanks to research being conducted at the University of Illinois. Scientists there have used "off-the-shelf" components to create a polymer that melds back together after being cut in half, without the addition of catalysts or other chemicals. The urea-urethane polymers however have glassy transition temperatures below 273 K therefore at room temperature they are gels and their tensile strength is low. To optimize the tensile strength the reversible bonding energy, or the polymer length must be increased to increase the degree of covalent or mechanical interlocking respectively.
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The cracking caused by ASR can have several negative impacts on concrete, including: # Expansion: The swelling nature of ASR gel increases the chance of expansion in concrete elements. # Compressive strength: The effect of ASR on compressive strength can be minor for low expansion levels, to relatively higher degrees at larger expansion. (Swamy R.N. 1986) points out that the compressive strength is not very accurate parameter to study the severity of ASR; however, the test is done because of its simplicity. # Tensile strength / Flexural capacity: Researches show that ASR cracking can significantly reduce the tensile strength of concrete; therefore reducing the flexural capacity of beams.
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ASTM A325 is an ASTM International standard for heavy hex structural bolts, titled Standard Specification for Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength. It defines mechanical properties for bolts that range from in diameter.. The equivalent metric standard is ASTM A325M, which is titled Standard Specification for Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat Treated 830 MPa Minimum Tensile Strength. It defines mechanical properties for sizes M12–36.. This is a standard set by the standards organization ASTM International, a voluntary standards development organizations that sets technical standards for materials, products, systems, and services. In 2016, ASTM officially withdrew specification A325 and replaced it with ASTM F3125.
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Magnetostrictive transducers were pursued after World War II as an alternative to piezoelectric ones. Nickel scroll-wound ring transducers were used for high-power low-frequency operations, with size up to in diameter, probably the largest individual sonar transducers ever. The advantage of metals is their high tensile strength and low input electrical impedance, but they have electrical losses and lower coupling coefficient than PZT, whose tensile strength can be increased by prestressing. Other materials were also tried; nonmetallic ferrites were promising for their low electrical conductivity resulting in low eddy current losses, Metglas offered high coupling coefficient, but they were inferior to PZT overall.
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Modern ships are, almost without exception, built of steel. Generally this is fairly standard steel with yield strength of around , and tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS) over . Shipbuilders today use steels which have good corrosion resistance when exposed to seawater, and which do not get brittle at low temperatures (below freezing) since many ships are at sea during cold storms in wintertime, and some older ship steels which were not tough enough at low temperature caused ships to crack in half and sink during World War II in the Atlantic. The benchmark steel grade is ABS A, specified by the American Bureau of Shipping.
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The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal osmotic pressures of several times atmospheric pressure that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions. Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several µm in thickness.
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The mortar joints used in the structure are wider than one would expect in a typical brick and mortar structure. The fact of the wide mortar joints suggests the designers of the Hagia Sophia knew about the high tensile strength of the mortar and incorporated it accordingly.
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Cutting fabrics is the first stage of the Lay-Up process. Even though the fibres, in general, have high tensile strength, the shear strength is usually quite low, so it is fairly easy to cut. This process can be manual, semi-automatic or completely automatic. Laser cutter.
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Laminated glass has similar properties to ballistic glass, but the two should not be confused. Both are made using a PVB interlayer, but they have drastically different tensile strength. Ballistic glass and laminated glass are both rated to different standards and have a different shatter pattern.
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Plates thicker than 8 in have a yield strength and the same ultimate tensile strength of . The electrical resistance of A36 is 0.142 μΩm at 20 °C. A36 bars and shapes maintain their ultimate strength up to . Afterward, the minimum strength drops off from : at ; at ; at .
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With high surface energy, PLA has easy printability which makes it widely used in 3-D printing. The tensile strength for 3-D printed PLA was previously determined. There is also poly(L-lactide-co-D,L-lactide) (PLDLLA) – used as PLDLLA/TCP scaffolds for bone engineering.
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However, the tensile strength of laponite/PAAS is much stronger than laponite/PEO blend hydrogels. The reason for this difference is based on the clay-polymer interaction strength in each hydrogel blend. In laponite/PAAS, the interaction is much stronger compared to the laponite/PEO blend.
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Some flexible tanks can be used as transport containers on trucks, ships, or aeroplanes, with some suitable for use in airdrops, helicopter swing, or hauling water. Flexible tanks can be made of high-tensile strength polyester fabric, with elastomer or plastomer (PU, PVC, nitrile) coated on both sides.
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Varying the amount of hydrogen and other alloying elements, and their form in the chromium hydride either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases, expedites the movement of dislocations in chromium, and thus controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting chromium hydride.
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Primary cracks (Figure 1) form when the tensile stress at the outer surface of the concrete reaches the tensile strength of concrete. When a primary crack forms, the concrete in the vicinity of the crack is relieved of any tension, resulting in a stress free zone near the crack.
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In conjunction with his work for Napier and Sons, Kirkaldy undertook a long series of tensile load tests between 1858 and 1861. He published his Results of an Experimental Inquiry into the Comparative Tensile Strength and other properties of various kinds of Wrought-Iron and Steel in 1862.
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Threads of metal fasteners are usually created on a thread rolling machine. They may also be cut with a lathe, tap or die. Rolled threads are stronger than cut threads, with increases of 10% to 20% in tensile strength and possibly more in fatigue resistance and wear resistance.
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There are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale (see below). When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength.
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HDPE has high tensile strength. It is used in products and packaging such as milk jugs, detergent bottles, butter tubs, garbage containers, and water pipes. One-third of all toys are manufactured from HDPE. In 2007, the global HDPE consumption reached a volume of more than 30 million tons.
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Prices are quoted at current market rates and are locked in for the season. Premiums and discounts are added to cover variations in micron, yield, tensile strength, etc., which are confirmed by actual test results when available. Another method of selling wool includes sales direct to wool mills.
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Good machinability, thermal conductivity and dimensional stability make 7022 alloy a material of choice for plastic injection molds.Sahamit machinery 7022 7022 alloy can be heat treated to increase tensile strength in expense of workability, with most common grade been T651. Alternative names for 7022 alloy are A7022 and AA7022.
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Looking into limpet teeth of Patella vulgata, Vickers hardness values are between 268 and 646 kg m−1 m−2, while tensile strength values range between 3.0 and 6.5 GPa. As spider silk has a tensile strength only up to 4.5 GPa, limpet teeth outperforms spider silk to be the strongest biological material. These considerably high values exhibited by limpet teeth are due to the following factors: The first factor is the nanometer length scale of goethite nanofibers in limpet teeth; at this length scale, materials become insensitive to flaws that would otherwise decrease failure strength. As a result, goethite nanofibers are able to maintain substantial failure strength despite the presence of defects.
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A thin and short fiber, for example short, hair-shaped glass fiber, is only effective during the first hours after pouring the concrete (its function is to reduce cracking while the concrete is stiffening), but it will not increase the concrete tensile strength. A normal-size fiber for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45 mm length—steel or plastic) will increase the concrete's tensile strength. Fiber reinforcement is most often used to supplement or partially replace primary rebar, and in some cases it can be designed to fully replace rebar. Steel is the strongest commonly available fiber, and comes in different lengths (30 to 80 mm in Europe) and shapes (end-hooks).
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Here a shear stress builds up in the glass-to- metal interface which is limited by the low tensile strength of the copper combined with a low tensile stress. The copper tube is insensitive to high electric current compared to a Dumet-seal because on heating the tensile stress converts into a compression stress which is again limited by the tensile strength of the copper. Also, it is possible to lead an additional solid copper wire through the copper tube. In a later variant, only a short section of the copper tube has a thin wall and the copper tube is hindered to shrink at cooling by a ceramic tube inside the copper tube.
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Spider-Woman possesses superhuman strength, speed, stamina, agility, and reflexes. She also possesses the ability to spin a "psi-web" of psionic energy between two surfaces. This web, once solidified, possesses sufficient tensile strength to support a 10-ton weight. It remains in effect for up to approximately 1 hour.
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Steel containing 8 to 15% of manganese has a high tensile strength of up to 863 MPa. Steel with 12% manganese was discovered in 1882 by Robert Hadfield and is still known as Hadfield steel (mangalloy). It was used for British military steel helmets and later by the U.S. military.
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An airlift system was developed which transfers fish through tubes in and out of the reservoir. The radial gate that controls the intake was split and reversed in design. This design takes advantage of tensile strength instead of compression strength which allows for a more compact and less costly design.
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Aluminium-clad steel offers increased corrosion protection and conductivity at the expense of reduced tensile strength. Aluminium-clad steel is commonly specified for coastal applications. IEC and CSA use a different naming convention. The most commonly used steel is S1A for S1 regular strength steel with a class A coating.
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The tensile strength of spider silk is greater than the same weight of steel and has much greater elasticity. Its microstructure is under investigation for potential applications in industry, including bullet-proof vests and artificial tendons. Researchers have used genetically modified mammals to produce the proteins needed to make this material.
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This Standard covers threaded malleable iron unions, classes 150, 250, and 300.It also contains provisions for using steel for NPS 1/8 unions. This Standard includes requirements for design, pressure-temperature ratings, size, marking, materials, joints and seats, threads, hydrostatic strength, tensile strength, air pressure test, sampling, coatings, and dimensions.
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Manure serves as a binding agent and gives plaster more body. Manure also contains small natural fibers that provide additional tensile strength as well as reduce cracking and water erosion. Different types of manure have different effects. Horse manure has a high microfiber content, but cow manure has more hardening enzymes.
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This is because of the stress intensity factor associated with defects in the material. As the size of the sample gets larger, the size of defects also grows. In general, the tensile strength of a rope is always less than the sum of the tensile strengths of its individual fibers.
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Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively weak in tensile strength, the glass fibers are very strong in tension but tend not to resist compression. By combining the two materials, GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive and tensile forces well.Erhard, Gunter. Designing with Plastics. Trans.
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M5 has a tensile strength of 4 GPa,. Other aramids- (such as Kevlar and Twaron) or UHMWPE-fibres (such as Dyneema and Spectra) range from 2.2 to 3.9 GPa. M5 is the most fire resistant organic fiber yet developed. It is less brittle than carbon fiber and will yield when stretched.
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The fiber length of the cellulose fiber is the most important parameter of the pulpwood and determines what it may be used for. The first separation is into softwood and hardwood, that have long and short fibers respectively. In paper production fiber from softwood give tensile strength and fibers from hardwood give opacity.
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In this technique, the tensile strength of the gel is measured in one direction. The two important measurements to make include the force applied per unit area and the amount of elongation under a known applied force. This test provides information for how a gel will respond when an external force is applied.
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Although its primary function is transport of sugars, phloem may also contain cells that have a mechanical support function. These generally fall into two categories: fibres and sclereids. Both cell types have a secondary cell wall and are therefore dead at maturity. The secondary cell wall increases their rigidity and tensile strength.
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But in 1961, another aluminum alloy was developed: 6101. This alloy has a higher tensile strength and is the best conductor for electrical use. It is the aluminum used in the current aluminum busing of panels and load-centers. But Alloy 6061 continued to be used, both in wiring and in electrical panels.
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Annealed 6061 (6061-O temper) has maximum ultimate tensile strength no more than ,ASTM B209ASTM B221 and maximum yield strength no more than or . The material has elongation (stretch before ultimate failure) of 10–18%. To obtain the annealed condition, the alloy is typically heated at 415 °C for 2-3 hours.
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The wood is relatively soft, and burns easily and quickly when dry. The wood is suitable for paper and pulp production,Jahan, M.S. et al. (2007). Evaluation of cooking processes for Trema orientalis pulping Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research, Vol. 66 (2007) 853 producing paper with good tensile strength and folding endurance.
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Eye, 23(12), 2169-2174. Human sclera is thought to offer the best support, as well as Lyodura, which is biologically compatible with the eyeball and has sufficient tensile strength. Artificial materials, such as nylon or silicone, are not suggested. Sclera from cadaver’s or animal tendons run the risk of being rejected.
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As with most steels, A36 has a density of . Young's modulus for A36 steel is . A36 steel has a Poisson's ratio of 0.26, and a shear modulus of . A36 steel in plates, bars, and shapes with a thickness of less than has a minimum yield strength of and ultimate tensile strength of .
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Also, with the higher carbon range in the hardened and lightly tempered condition, tensile strength of about 1600 N/mm2 may be developed with lowered ductility. A common example of a Martensitic stainless steel is X46Cr13. Martensitic stainless steel can be nondestructively tested using the magnetic particle inspection method, unlike austenitic stainless steel.
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Young's modulus quantifies the elasticity of the polymer. It is defined, for small strains, as the ratio of rate of change of stress to strain. Like tensile strength, this is highly relevant in polymer applications involving the physical properties of polymers, such as rubber bands. The modulus is strongly dependent on temperature.
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Shrinkage cracks occur when concrete members undergo restrained volumetric changes (shrinkage) as a result of either drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects. Restraint is provided either externally (i.e. supports, walls, and other boundary conditions) or internally (differential drying shrinkage, reinforcement). Once tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, a crack will develop.
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The main characteristic of the prestressed steel strand is high strength and relaxation performance is good, the other when the more straight. Common tensile strength levels of 1860 MPa, as well as 1720, 1770, 1960, 2000, 2100 MPa and the like intensity levels. The yield strength of this steel is also higher.
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Monomers can have various chemical substituents, or functional groups, which can affect the chemical properties of organic compounds, such as solubility and chemical reactivity, as well as the physical properties, such as hardness, density, mechanical or tensile strength, abrasion resistance, heat resistance, transparency, color, etc.. In proteins, these differences give the polymer the ability to adopt a biologically active conformation in preference to others (see self-assembly). Household items made of various kinds of plastic. People have been using natural organic polymers for centuries in the form of waxes and shellac, which is classified as a thermoplastic polymer. A plant polymer named cellulose provided the tensile strength for natural fibers and ropes, and by the early 19th century natural rubber was in widespread use.
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Studies have shown that the pull out resistance of hawthorn and oak roots are affected by intra species differences, inter- species variations and root size (diameter) in a similar as way as root tensile strength varies (as measured in the laboratory). In the pull out test the applied force acting on the root acts across a larger root area, which involves multiple branches, longer lengths) than the short (approximately 150mm) length of root used in tensile strength tests. In pull out test the root is likely to fail at weak points such as branching points, nodes or damaged areas. The studies also showed that there is a positive correlation between maximum root pull out resistance and root diameter for hawthorn and oat root.
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Typically, as the elasticity of the biomaterial increases, the ultimate tensile strength will decrease and vice versa. One application where a high-strength material is undesired is in neural probes; if a high-strength material is used in these applications the tissue will always fail before the device does (under applied load) because the Young's Modulus of the dura mater and cerebral tissue is on the order of 500 Pa. When this happens, irreversible damage to the brain can occur, thus it is imperative that the biomaterial has an elastic modulus less than or equal to brain tissue and a low tensile strength if an applied load is expected. For implanted biomaterials that may experience temperature fluctuations, e.g. dental implants, ductility is important.
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Because of this extracellular matrix is often considered as a 'conductor of the wound healing symphony'. In the Inflammatory phase, neutrophils and macrophages recruit and activate fibroblasts which in subsequent granulation phase migrate into the wound, laying down new collagen of the subtypes I and III. In the initial events of wound healing, collagen III predominates in the granulation tissue which later on in remodeling phase gets replaced by collagen I giving additional tensile strength to the healing tissue. It is evident from the known collagen assembly that the tensile strength is basically due to fibrillar arrangement of collagen molecules, which self-assemble into microfibrils in a longitudinal as well as lateral manner producing extra strength and stability to the collagen assembly.
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Here follows a short example of how to work out the shear force of a piece of steel. The factor of 0.6 used to change from tensile to shear force could vary from 0.58–0.62 and will depend on application. Steel called EN8 bright has a tensile strength of 800MPa and mild steel has a tensile strength of 400MPa. To work out the force to shear a 25 mm diameter round steel EN8 bright; : Area of the 25mm round steel in mm2 = (12.52)(π) ≈ 490.8mm2 : 0.8kN/mm2 × 490.8mm2 = 392.64kN ≈ 40tonne-force : 40tonne-force × 0.6 (to change force from tensile to shear) = 24tonne-force When working with a riveted or tensioned bolted joint, the strength comes from friction between the materials bolted together.
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Round bar specimen after tensile stress testing Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-sectional area, and then pulling it with a tensometer at a constant strain (change in gauge length divided by initial gauge length) rate until the sample breaks. When testing some metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength. This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, "Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels", Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 17:6 (December 2008) This practical correlation helps quality assurance in metalworking industries to extend well beyond the laboratory and universal testing machines.
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Whether this makes her truly immortal like a vampire remains unexplored. Beyond her physical attributes, Eva is trained in the use of traditional melee weapons with a preference for samurai cutlery such as katanas and shurikens - all of which are fashioned from a silver-steel compound to allow for tensile strength and effectiveness against werewolves.
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For example, shrink film data might include: tensile strength (MD and CD), elongation, Elastic modulus, surface energy, thickness, Moisture vapor transmission rate, Oxygen transmission rate, heat seal strength, heat sealing conditions, heat shrinking conditions, etc. Average and process capability are often provided. The chemical properties related for use as Food contact materials may be necessary.
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PEEK is a semicrystalline thermoplastic with excellent mechanical and chemical resistance properties that are retained to high temperatures. The processing conditions used to mold PEEK can influence the crystallinity and hence the mechanical properties. Its Young's modulus is 3.6 GPa and its tensile strength is 90 to 100 MPa.Material Properties Data: Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), www.makeitfrom.com.
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PTFE has a higher melting point and is more crystalline than PCTFE, but the latter is stronger and stiffer. Though PCTFE has excellent chemical resistance, it is still less than that of PTFE. . PCTFE has lower viscosity, higher tensile strength and creep resistance than PTFE. PCTFE is injection-moldable and extrudable, whereas PTFE is not.
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Kangaroo leather is lighter and stronger than the hide of a cow or goat. It has 10 times the tensile strength of cowhide and is 50% stronger than goatskin. Studies of the morphology of kangaroo leather help explain its particular properties. The collagen fibre bundles in cattle hide are arranged in a complex weaving pattern.
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Twaron is an aramid, which is produced in The Netherlands by Teijin, is chemically and physically similar to DuPont’s Kevlar. Twaron HM (High modulus) has similar stretch properties to Kevlar 49, greater tensile strength and better UV resistance. Twaron SM is similar to Kevlar 29. Like Kevlar, the fiber is a bright gold color.
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Additional advantages of Vectran fiber has a 0.02% creep at 30% of max load after 10 000 hours, high chemical and abrasion resistance and high tensile strength. The UV endurance is inferior to PET and PEN, but the degradation levels off after roughly 400 hours of exposure, while the Aramids and Spectra continue to degrade.
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Compomers have poorer mechanical properties than dental composites, with a lower compressive, flexural and tensile strength. Therefore, compomers are not an ideal material for load bearing restorations. In terms of wear resistance, compomers wear less quickly than glass ionomer and resin modified glass ionomer cements, but do not perform as well as dental composites.
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Over a depth range known as the brittle ice zone, bubbles of air are trapped in the ice under great pressure. When a core is brought to the surface, the bubbles can exert a stress that exceeds the tensile strength of the ice, resulting in cracks and spall.Souney et al. (2014), pp. 20–21.
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Ultimate tensile strength is determined by the separating force and the total surface area of the adhesion, and failure generally occurs in one of the surfaces rather than at the interface. Since the fracture theory only deals with the separation force, the diffusion and penetration of polymers is not accounted for in this mechanism.
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Silk is an expensive material, and has been used for representative carpets. Its tensile strength has been used in silk warps, but silk also appears in the carpet pile. Silk pile can be used to highlight special elements of the design. High-quality carpets from Kashan, Qum, Nain, and Isfahan have all-silk piles.
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The third stage is the necking region. Beyond tensile strength, a neck forms where the local cross-sectional area becomes significantly smaller than the average. The necking deformation is heterogeneous and will reinforce itself as the stress concentrates more at small section. Such positive feedback leads to quick development of necking and leads to fracture.
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It is less adhesive than PVC, but this can be remedied by adding linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), which also increases the film's tensile strength. In the US and Japan, plastic wrap is sometimes produced using polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC), though some brands, such as Saran wrap, have switched to other formulations due to environmental concerns.
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In Alker, lime is added to extend working time to 20 minutes. Cast Earth uses another retardant for an even greater working time. This ingredient is proprietary and a carefully guarded secret. When the material is dry, it is similar to adobe in various ways, outperforming it in tensile strength, hardness, and erosion resistance.
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Beads are bands of high tensile-strength steel wire encased in a rubber compound. Bead wire is coated with special alloys of bronze or brass. Coatings protect the steel from corrosion. Copper in the alloy and sulfur in the rubber cross-link to produce copper sulfide, which improves bonding of the bead to the rubber.
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With both surfaces of the glass already in compression, it takes a certain amount of bending before one of the surfaces can even go into tension. More bending is required to reach the tensile strength. The other surface simply experiences more and more compressive stress. But since the compressive strength is so much larger, no compressive failure is experienced.
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At a certain point, however, the sample will break into two pieces. This happens because the microscopic cracks that resulted from yielding will spread to large scales. The stress at the point of complete breakage is called a material's ultimate tensile strength. The result is a stress-strain curve of the material's behavior under static loading.
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Razor wire has a central strand of high tensile strength wire, and a steel tape punched into a shape with barbs. The steel tape is then cold- crimped tightly to the wire everywhere except for the barbs. Flat barbed tape is very similar, but has no central reinforcement wire. The process of combining the two is called roll forming.
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Raffia fibres have proved to be supple and strong, making them well-suited as a binding material in the horticulture trade. Since it is easily split it may readily be prepared in standard widths. Its readiness to absorb dyes makes it ideal for use in fancy items. The fibres have a high tensile strength of 500 N/mm2.
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The top filler materials used are ground calcium carbonate (GCC), precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC), kaolin, talc, and carbon black. Filler materials can affect the tensile strength, toughness, heat resistance, color, clarity etc. A good example of this is the addition of talc to polypropylene. Most of the filler materials used in plastics are mineral or glass based filler materials.
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In metallic bonding, bonding electrons are delocalized over a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are static. The free movement or delocalization of bonding electrons leads to classical metallic properties such as luster (surface light reflectivity), electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, and high tensile strength.
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Reinforcement placed in horizontal layers throughout the height of the wall provides the tensile strength to hold the soil together. The reinforcement materials of MSE can vary. Originally, long steel strips 50 to 120 mm (2 to 5 in) wide were used as reinforcement. These strips are sometimes ripped, although not always, to provide added friction.
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Gel- spinning arrived much later and was intended for different applications. In gel spinning a precisely heated gel of UHMWPE is extruded through a spinneret. The extrudate is drawn through the air and then cooled in a water bath. The end-result is a fiber with a high degree of molecular orientation, and therefore exceptional tensile strength.
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Woven fiberglass coated with PTFE (Teflon or silicone) is also a widely used base material. Glass fibers are drawn into continuous filaments, which are then bundled into yarns. The yarns are woven to form a substrate. The fiberglass carries a high ultimate tensile strength, behaves elastically, and does not suffer from significant stress relaxation or creep.
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Polymer concretes are mixtures of aggregate and any of various polymers and may be reinforced. The cement is costlier than lime-based cements, but polymer concretes nevertheless have advantages; they have significant tensile strength even without reinforcement, and they are largely impervious to water. Polymer concretes are frequently used for repair and construction of other applications, such as drains.
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The proteinaceous composition accounts for the slime's high tensile strength and stretchiness. The lipid and nonylphenol constituents may serve one of two purposes. They may line the ejection channel, stopping the slime from sticking to the organism when it is secreted; or they may slow the drying process long enough for the slime to reach its target.
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The liner must have high tensile strength, flexibility, and elongation without failure. It is also important that the liner resist abrasion, puncture, and chemical degradation by leachate. Lastly, the liner must withstand temperature variation and be black (to resist UV light), easily installed, and economical. There are several types of liners used in leachate control and collection.
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Some engineer's vises marketed as "Homeowner Grade" are not made of steel or cast iron, but of pot metal or a very low grade of iron, typically with a tensile strength of under 10 ksi. Most homeowner's bench vises have an exposed screw. Aluminum soft jaw shown holding five parts at a time in a CNC milling machine.
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Un-heat-treated 7075 (7075-0 temper) has a maximum tensile strength of no more than , and maximum yield strength of no more than . The material has an elongation (stretch before ultimate failure) of 9–10%. As is the case for all 7075 aluminum alloys, 7075-0 is highly corrosion-resistant combined with generally acceptable strength profile.
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T6 temper 7075 has an ultimate tensile strength of and yield strength of at least . It has a failure elongation of 5–11%. The T6 temper is usually achieved by homogenizing the cast 7075 at 450 °C for several hours, quenching, and then ageing at 120 °C for 24 hours. This yields the peak strength of the 7075 alloy.
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T7 temper has an ultimate tensile strength of and a yield strength of . It has a failure elongation of 13%. T7 temper is achieved by overaging (meaning aging past the peak hardness) the material. This is often accomplished by aging at 100–120 °C for several hours and then at 160–180 °C for 24 hours or more.
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It has significant advantages over both iron and vanadium individually. Ferrovanadium is used as an additive to improve the qualities of ferrous alloys. One such use is to improve corrosion resistance to alkaline reagents as well as sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. It is also used to improve the tensile strength to weight ratio of the material.
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Superplasticizers are concrete admixtures designed to increase the concrete fluidity and workability of concrete or to decrease its water-to-cement (w/c) ratio. By reducing the water content in concrete, it decreases its porosity, improving so the mechanical properties (compressive and tensile strength) and the durability of concrete (lower water, gas and solutes transport properties).
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Rhenium is the most recently discovered refractory metal. It is found in low concentrations with many other metals, in the ores of other refractory metals, platinum or copper ores. It is useful as an alloy to other refractory metals, where it adds ductility and tensile strength. Rhenium alloys are being used in electronic components, gyroscopes and nuclear reactors.
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A coil right-handed laid three-strand rope A rope is a group of yarns, plies, fibers or strands that are twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, string, and twine.
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Maximum firing temperatures, firing schedules and types of glaze to use for paper clay, are the same as that used for the specific clay used in the paper clay. Some recommend slightly higher firing temperatures. Because dry paper clay is more porous and has greater tensile strength than dry clay, Article hosted by grahamhay.com.au single glaze firing is possible.
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It can be moulded smoothly and has appealing cosmetic results. However, the material is brittle and has low tensile strength, and is only suitable to be used for small cranial defects. Its use is also associated with a high infection rate. Hydroxyapatite is often used with a titanium mesh to prevent fractures and for better osteointegration.
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Both precipitates are observed in peak-aged specimens. The precipitates contributing to age hardening are fine and their amount increases as Gd content increases, and this result in increased peak hardness, tensile strength and 0.2% proof stress but decreased elongation. On the other hand, higher Y content increases the elongation of the alloys but results in decreased strength.
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David Kirkaldy (1820–1897) was a Scottish engineer who pioneered the testing of materials as a service to engineers during the Victorian period. He established a test house in Southwark, London and built a large hydraulic tensile test machine, or tensometer for examining the mechanical properties of components, such as their tensile strength and tensile modulus or stiffness.
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Eye bolts made by bending a rod or wire into a loop are only suitable for light duty applications, as heavy loads can cause the eye to open. For high loads, eye bolts with forged or welded loops should be chosen, as they can withstand loads up to the tensile strength of the material of which they are made.
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This is due to the material not being under constant strain throughout, resulting in some locations in the material having higher stresses than other locations. The slower strain rate allows the GaNNT more time to induce adequate local deformations, and therefore plastic deformation occurs earlier. This means that a slower strain rate results in a lower tensile strength.
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953 is based on a specially developed maraging steel stainless steel alloy that can achieve a tensile strength in excess of 2000 MPa (853 is around 1400 MPa), giving a good strength-to-weight ratio. Because of the high strength of the steel, extremely thin tube walls (down to 0.3 mm) can be used, thus reducing the weight.
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But there was no uniformity in clay plaster recipes. Straw or grass was added sometimes with the addition of manure providing fiber for tensile strength as well as protein adhesive. Proteins in the manure act as binders. The hydrogen bonds of proteins must stay dry to remain strong, so the mud plaster must be kept dry.
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Female monarchs tended to have thicker wings, which is thought to convey greater tensile strength. This would make female wings less likely to be damaged during migration. Also, females had lower wing loading than males (wing loading is a value derived from the ratio of wing size to body mass), which would mean females require less energy to fly.
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The exceptions are bolted and welded connections, the strength of which depends not only on the yield point but also on the ultimate tensile strength of the material. Studies indicate that the effects of cold work on formed steel members depend largely upon the spread between the tensile and the yield strength of the virgin material.
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The pull out resistance of a root is the measured resistance of root structure to be pulled out of the ground and is likely to be only a little less than the measured tensile strength of the root which is the roots resistance to breaking as measured in the laboratory. In the cases where there is no pull out data available the tensile strength data maybe used as a rough guide to the maximum pull out resistance available. The tensile root strength of a range of diameters over a range of species has been tested in the laboratory and has been found to be approximately 5 – 60MN/m2. In order for the root to actually enhance slope stability the root must have sufficient embedment and adhesion with the soil.
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When a fibre has some angle of misorientation θ, several fracture modes are possible. For small values of θ the stress required to initiate fracture is increased by a factor of (cos θ)−2 due to the increased cross- sectional area (A cos θ) of the fibre and reduced force (F/cos θ) experienced by the fibre, leading to a composite tensile strength of σparallel /cos2 θ where σparallel is the tensile strength of the composite with fibres aligned parallel with the applied force. Intermediate angles of misorientation θ lead to matrix shear failure. Again the cross sectional area is modified but since shear stress is now the driving force for failure the area of the matrix parallel to the fibres is of interest, increasing by a factor of 1/sin θ.
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By crossbreeding mice with the abnormal Type I collagen and those with the knockout myostatin, the offspring had "a 15% increase in torsional ultimate strength, a 29% increase in tensile strength, and a 24% increase in energy to failure" of their femurs as compared to the other mice with osteogenesis imperfecta, showing the positive effects of decreased myostatin on bone strength and formation.
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FSW can be efficient method to be used in order to join dissimilar materials and the outcome in terms of tensile strength, shear strength, and hardness distribution are promising. However, most of the joints fractured at interface. Moreover, even those that have been ruptured in the base metals showed brittle behavior i.e. low elongation which can be attributed to formation of IMCs.
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Tensile Test tells the engineer the yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation was sufficient to pass the requirements. Multiple pieces were taken and performed by Anamet Inc. Charpy V-Notch Impact Test shows the toughness of the steel by taking different samples of the rod and done by Anamet Inc. Chemical Analysis was the Final Test also done by Anamet Inc.
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Fly ash particles have proved their potential as good reinforcement with aluminum alloys and show the improvement of physical and mechanical properties. In particular, the compression strength, tensile strength, and hardness increase when the percentage of fly ash content is increased, whereas the density decreases. The presence of fly ash cenospheres in a pure Al matrix decreases its coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).
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Another study discovered mice with a naturally occurring large deletion of the Col3a1 gene. These mice died suddenly due to thoracic aortic dissections. The third type of mutant mice were transgenic mice with a Gly182Ser mutation. These mice developed severe skin wounds, demonstrated vascular fragility in the form of reduced tensile strength and died prematurely at the age of 13-14 weeks.
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Structures consisting of both materials utilize the benefits of structural steel and reinforced concrete. This is already common practice in reinforced concrete in that the steel reinforcement is used to provide steel's tensile strength capacity to a structural concrete member. A commonly seen example would be parking garages. Some parking garages are constructed using structural steel columns and reinforced concrete slabs.
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Each spider and each type of silk has a set of mechanical properties optimised for their biological function. Most silks, in particular dragline silk, have exceptional mechanical properties. They exhibit a unique combination of high tensile strength and extensibility (ductility). This enables a silk fibre to absorb a large amount of energy before breaking (toughness, the area under a stress-strain curve).
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Molecular structure of Kevlar: bold represents a monomer unit, dashed lines indicate hydrogen bonds. When Kevlar is spun, the resulting fiber has a tensile strength of about 3,620 MPa, and a relative density of 1.44. The polymer owes its high strength to the many inter-chain bonds. These inter-molecular hydrogen bonds form between the carbonyl groups and NH centers.
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This reduces the tensile strength of the keratin so greatly that the hair can be wiped away. Nair's slogans include: "The Less That You Wear the less you have to fix your hair, the More You Need Nair!"; "Like Never Before"; and "We wear short shorts, Nair for short shorts". The initial ad for the "short shorts" commercial won a Clio.
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Baker was also the author of many papers on engineering subjects. In 1872 Baker wrote a series of articles titled, "The Strength of Brickwork." In these articles Baker argued that the tensile strength of cement should not be neglected in calculating the strength of brickwork. He wrote that if the cement was neglected then several structures of his time should have collapsed.
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The hull, fin and hydroplanes are designed for minimum underwater resistance and all equipment inside the pressure hull is mounted on shock absorbing cradles for enhanced stealth. Special steel was used in its construction which has high tensile strength, capable of withstanding high yield stress and hydro-static force. Each submarine has 60 km of cabling and 11 km of piping.
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Etching is called static if the W wire is kept stationary. Once the tip is etched, lower part falls due to the lower tensile strength than the weight of lower part of wire. The irregular shape is produced by the shifting of the meniscus. However, slow etching rates can produce regular tips when the current flows slowly through electrochemical cell.
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S1 steel has slightly lower tensile strength than the regular strength steel used in the United States. Per the Canadian CSA standards the S2A strength grade is classified as High Strength steel. The equivalent material per the ASTM standards is the GA2 strength grade and called Regular Strength steel. The CSA S3A strength grade is classified as Extra High Strength steel.
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Unlike many other types of glues, an epoxy adhesive can fill gaps and even be molded into a structural part. Some makers claim in advertising that one can drill and tap their cured products, and that they quickly cure "hard as steel" (as measured by Shore rating), though they are much weaker than steel in tensile strength and shear strength.
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Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but much lower tensile strength. Therefore, it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and shrinks as it matures.
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This caused numerous fires, outlet burn-outs, and nearly 100 deaths as published by the NFPA. Because of this, aluminum wiring received a very bad reputation. In 1972 aluminum was changed from an inferior product and into a modified alloy. Modern aluminum wire is an AA800 series alloy, which has a higher tensile strength, so it undergoes less expansion and contraction.
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Catgut Chrome (B Braun) suture is a variant treated with chromic acid salts. This treatment produces roughly twice the stitch-holding time of plain catgut, but greater tissue inflammation occurs. Full tensile strength is extended to 18-21 days. It is brown rather than straw-colored, and has improved smoothness due to the dry presentation of the thread (plain catgut is wet).
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A diametral compression test involves applying a stress load or force to the point where a material object is split in half (down the diameter of the object). This test indirectly measures the tensile property of a material object, as the molecules of the material are pushed apart in opposite directions, similar to what happens to molecules in a direct tensile strength test.
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This proved impossible due to the tensile strength of the Colt .45 cylinder, so he set out to develop his own casing and bullet. Casull began his career as a wildcat cartridge developer after having contact with Elmer Keith in the 1940s, an Idaho rancher, firearms enthusiast, and author. Keith was instrumental in the development of the first magnum revolver cartridge, the .
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Vegetation can also be used to control water erosion by limiting surface processes such as sheet wash and overland flow. Vegetation can provide a considerable contribution to the stability of slope through enhancing soil cohesion. This cohesion is dependent upon the morphological characteristics of root systems and the tensile strength of single roots. There is considerable evidence of fine roots resisting surface erosion.
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It is designed to promote tissue ingrowth and the progressive transfer of load onto the new ligament. Ligament Advanced Reinforcement System (LARS) artificial ligament. The two end sections are the intraosseous portions and center portion is the intra-articular region. The native ACL of a human has a tensile strength on the order of kilonewtons, and an elongation at failure of approximately 10%.
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The Saya de Malha Bank is the site of an attempt to create an artificial island by Prof. Wolf Hilbertz (1938-2007) and Dr. Thomas J. Goreau. Hilbertz created seacrete or biorock by utilizing electricity to accrete the minerals in sea water onto a metal structure. The artificial coral thus far created has high enough tensile strength to be used as building material.
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The final product is a homogeneous nearly 100%-cellulose mass free from any artificial glues, resins, or binders. The finished vulcanized fibre has useful mechanical and electrical properties. It offers high tear and tensile strength, while in the thinner thicknesses allowing flexibility to conform to curves and bends. In thicker thicknesses, it can be moulded to shape with steam and pressure.
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Lygeum spartum fibres have high tensile strength and flexibility, and is used for making ropes, sandals, baskets, mats and other durable articles. They have also used in the manufacture of high quality paper. It can also be used locally as a fodder for livestock and to stabilise sand dunes and rehabilitate salt soils, due to its tolerance of saline conditions.
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A promising composite material is glass fiber with modified compositions like S-glass, R-glass etc. Other glass fibers developed by Owens Corning are ECRGLAS, Advantex and WindStrand. Carbon fiber has more tensile strength, higher stiffness and lower density than glass fiber. An ideal candidate for these properties is the spar cap, a structural element of a blade which experiences high tensile loading.
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The Lofstrom launch loop or a space elevator hypothetically provide excellent solutions; in the case of the space elevator, existing carbon nanotubes composites, with the possible exception of Colossal carbon tubes, do not yet have sufficient tensile strength. All chemical rocket designs are extremely inefficient and expensive when launching large mass into orbit but could be employed if the result were cost effective.
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These are moldable plastics often used in rapid prototyping and rapid manufacturing (direct digital manufacturing) applications. Polyphenylsulfone is a heat and chemical-resistant suited for automotive, aerospace, and plumbing applications. Polyphenylsulfone has no melting point, reflecting its amorphous nature,PPSF for FORTUS 3D Production Systems and offers tensile strength up to 55 MPa (8000 psi). Its commercial name is Radel.
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Prior to the discovery of carbon nanotubes, single-crystal whiskers had the highest tensile strength of any materials known, and were featured regularly in science fiction as materials for fabrication of space elevators, arcologies, and other large structures. Despite showing great promise for a range of applications, their usage has been hindered by concerns over their effects on health when inhaled.
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Tensile testing on a coir composite. Specimen size is not to standard (Instron). Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area.
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A universal testing machine (Hegewald & Peschke) Tensile testing is most often carried out at a material testing laboratory. The ASTM D638 is among the most common tensile testing protocols. The ASTM D638 measures plastics tensile properties including ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and Poisson’s ratio. The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal testing machine.
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Electroplating changes the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of the workpiece. An example of a chemical change is when nickel plating improves corrosion resistance. An example of a physical change is a change in the outward appearance. An example of a mechanical change is a change in tensile strength or surface hardness which is a required attribute in tooling industry.
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For most purposes, ductility is a more important measure of the quality of wrought iron than tensile strength. In tensile testing, the best irons are able to undergo considerable elongation before failure. Higher tensile wrought iron is brittle. Because of the large number of boiler explosions on steamboats, the U.S. Congress passed legislation in 1830 which approved funds for correcting the problem.
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Testing in the 1960s revealed that the cast-iron had an unusually high tensile strength. This was probably specified by Telford because, unlike in traditional masonry arch bridges, some sections of the arch are not in compression under loading. At each end of the structure there are two high masonry mock-medieval towers, featuring arrow slits and miniature crenellated battlements.
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Heat treatment of titanium is demonstrated to have significant influences on reducing the residual stresses, improving the mechanical properties (i.e. tensile strength or fatigue strength by solution treatment and ageing). Moreover, heat treatment provides an ideal combination of ductility, machinability and structural stability due to the differences in microstructure and cooling rates between α and β phases.Sercombe, Tim, et al.
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PAEK has a continuous operating temperature of and under short-term loads can function up to . When burned it has the least toxic and corrosive fumes. It also has a low heat output when burned, so it qualifies for use in interior aviation applications. It also has good overall chemical resistance.. It has a tensile strength of and a Young's modulus of .
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Bars or rods that are drawn cannot be coiled therefore straight-pull draw benches are used. Chain drives are used to draw workpieces up to . Hydraulic cylinders are used for shorter length workpieces. The reduction in area is usually restricted to between 20 and 50%, because greater reductions would exceed the tensile strength of the material, depending on its ductility.
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LDPE is used primarily for squeeze applications. LDPE is significantly more expensive than HDPE. ;Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE) / Polyester :This resin is commonly used for carbonated beverages, water bottles, and food packaging. PET provides very good alcohol and essential oil barrier properties, generally good chemical resistance (although acetones and ketones will attack PET), and a high degree of impact resistance and tensile strength.
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When the ions were added, tensile strength increased. The optimal amounts for each ion are as follows: Ca2+ (0.003 mol/g), Fe3+ (0.002 mol/g), and Ag+ (0.001 mol/g). The composite films also had better thermal stability. Overall, the study showed that metal ions added to Co-PAAS blend composite films can be used as an alternative to reinforce collagenous composite materials.
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A porous medium is most often characterised by its porosity. Other properties of the medium (e.g. permeability, tensile strength, electrical conductivity, tortuosity) can sometimes be derived from the respective properties of its constituents (solid matrix and fluid) and the media porosity and pores structure, but such a derivation is usually complex. Even the concept of porosity is only straightforward for a poroelastic medium.
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It also forms parts with an excellent surface finish. Drawing is a similar process, which uses the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die. This limits the amount of change which can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple stages are usually needed. Drawing is the main way to produce wire.
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If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to initiate at stress concentrations such as holes, persistent slip bands (PSBs), composite interfaces or grain boundaries in metals. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much less than the strength of the material, typically quoted as the ultimate tensile strength, or the yield strength.
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Tensile strength tests are conducted either by three- point bending of a prismatic beam specimen or by compression along the sides of a standard cylindrical specimen. These destructive tests are not to be equated with nondestructive testing using a rebound hammer or probe systems which are hand-held indicators, for relative strength of the top few millimeters, of comparative concretes in the field.
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LDPE is defined by a density range of 0.910–0.940 g/cm3. LDPE has a high degree of short- and long-chain branching, which means that the chains do not pack into the crystal structure as well. It has, therefore, less strong intermolecular forces as the instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction is less. This results in a lower tensile strength and increased ductility.
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One of the primary limits to flywheel design is the tensile strength of the rotor. Generally speaking, the stronger the disc, the faster it may be spun, and the more energy the system can store. When the tensile strength of a composite flywheel's outer binding cover is exceeded, the binding cover will fracture, and the wheel will shatter as the outer wheel compression is lost around the entire circumference, releasing all of its stored energy at once; this is commonly referred to as "flywheel explosion" since wheel fragments can reach kinetic energy comparable to that of a bullet. Composite materials that are wound and glued in layers tend to disintegrate quickly, first into small-diameter filaments that entangle and slow each other, and then into red-hot powder; a cast metal flywheel throws off large chunks of high-speed shrapnel.
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Tensile strength increases with carbon content, while ductility decreases. AREA and ASTM specified 0.55 to 0.77 percent carbon in rail, 0.67 to 0.80 percent in rail weights from , and 0.69 to 0.82 percent for heavier rails. Manganese increases strength and resistance to abrasion. AREA and ASTM specified 0.6 to 0.9 percent manganese in 70 to 90 pound rail and 0.7 to 1 percent in heavier rails.
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This action unravels the outer layer of the fibres, causing the fibrils of the fibres to partially detach and bloom outward, increasing the surface area to promoting bonding. Refining thus increases tensile strength. For example, tissue paper is relatively unrefined whereas packaging paper is more highly refined. Refined stock from the refiner then goes to a refined stock chest, or blend chest, if used as such.
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The density of microcellular plastics has the greatest influence on the behavior and performance. The material tensile strength linearly decreases with the material density as more gas is dissolved into the part. Melting temperature and viscosity also decrease as well. The foam injection process itself introduces surface defects such as swirl marks, streaking, and blistering, which also influence how the part reacts to external forces.
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Many silicate glasses are strong in compression but weak in tension. By introducing compression stress into the structure, the tensile strength of the material can be increased. This is typically done via two mechanisms: thermal treatment (tempering) or chemical bath (via ion exchange). In tempered glasses, air jets are used to rapidly cool the top and bottom surfaces of a softened (hot) slab of glass.
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Plastic deformation occurs when large numbers of dislocations move and multiply so as to result in macroscopic deformation. In other words, it is the movement of dislocations in the material which allows for deformation. If we want to enhance a material's mechanical properties (i.e. increase the yield and tensile strength), we simply need to introduce a mechanism which prohibits the mobility of these dislocations.
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The eaves are broad and they overhang. The soffit of the eaves of the roof is covered with timber paneling. They are made of readily available timber (economical materials) that could be sourced locally and have enough tensile strength to carry lateral loads. Waterproofing usually includes the use of bituminous asphalt, galvanized iron flashing, copings and a layer of corrugated metal roofing under the tiles.
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Kurlov, pp. 30, 135 It has an ultimate tensile strength of 344 MPa, an ultimate compression strength of about 2.7 GPa and a Poisson's ratio of 0.31. The speed of a longitudinal wave (the speed of sound) through a thin rod of tungsten carbide is 6220 m/s. Tungsten carbide's low electrical resistivity of about 0.2 µΩ·m is comparable with that of some metals (e.g.
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A bond tester provides more control and possibly automation. Applying the glue automatically and curing with UV light is the next step in automation. This methodology can also be used to measure direct tensile strength or/and the bond strength between two different layers. MIL-STD-883 methods 2011.9 destructive bond pull test and 2031.1 flip chip pull off test apply, as well as JEDEC JESD22-B109.
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Tempered hardboard is hardboard that has been coated with a thin film of linseed oil and then baked; this gives it more water resistance, impact resistance, hardness, rigidity and tensile strength. An earlier tempering process involved immersing the board in linseed oil or tung oil until it was 5 to 6 percent saturated, and heating to .Akers, 1966, p. 140 Tempered hardboard is used in construction siding.
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This is in contrast with older belt systems which were typically made of fabric and were fed straight through the weapon without disintegrating. MIL-L-63532C stipulates that the force to strip a NATO approved round from the M27 link should be between and the belt should have a minimal tensile strength of . A single M27 link weighs approximately .Metal link M27 for cal.
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Most adhesives typically have an initial green strength and a final ultimate tensile strength listed for their application. For household adhesives, this data is usually reflected on the packaging. The best example of this is seen in typical epoxies from a local hardware stores. During curing, the epoxy will travel into an initial curing phase, also called "green phase", when it begins to gel.
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Magnetic tweezers (MT) are scientific instruments for the manipulation and characterization of biomolecules or polymers. These apparatus exert forces and torques to individual molecules or groups of molecules. It can be used to measure the tensile strength or the force generated by molecules. Most commonly magnetic tweezers are used to study mechanical properties of biological macromolecules like DNA or proteins in single-molecule experiments.
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These alloys are currently the focus of significant attention in materials science and engineering because they have potentially desirable properties. Furthermore, research indicates that some HEAs have considerably better strength-to-weight ratios, with a higher degree of fracture resistance, tensile strength, as well as corrosion and oxidation resistance than conventional alloys. Although HEAs have been studied since the 1980s, research substantially accelerated in the 2010s.
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The kilopound per square inch (ksi) is a scaled unit derived from psi, equivalent to a thousand psi (1000 lbf/in2). ksi are not widely used for gas pressures. They are mostly used in materials science, where the tensile strength of a material is measured as a large number of psi. The conversion in SI units is 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa, or 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi.
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ACSR cable still depends on the tensile strength of the aluminium; it is only reinforced by the steel. Because of this, its continuous operating temperature is limited to , the temperature at which aluminium begins to anneal and soften over time. Cable which relies entirely on the steel for strength, and so can be used at temperatures up to , is called aluminium-conductor steel-supported (ACSS).
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This operation is usually carried out at night, for thermal reasons. The rail itself is standard UIC section, 60 kg/m (40 lb/ft), with a tensile strength of 800 newtons per square millimetre or megapascals (116,000 psi). For the next step, a gantry crane is used again. This time, however, the crane rides on the two rails that were just laid alongside the temporary track.
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Concrete piles are typically made with steel reinforcing and prestressing tendons to obtain the tensile strength required, to survive handling and driving, and to provide sufficient bending resistance. Long piles can be difficult to handle and transport. Pile joints can be used to join two or more short piles to form one long pile. Pile joints can be used with both precast and prestressed concrete piles.
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Spinnaker, made of nylon because of its light weight and high strength. Nylon is used in spinnakers because of its light weight, high tensile strength, superior abrasion resistance and flexibility. However, it has a low modulus allowing too much stretch to be suitable for upwind sails. Nylon is more susceptible to UV and chemical degradation than polyesters and its physical properties can change due to moisture absorption.
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The resulting fibers offered better thermal and electrical conductivity and mechanical strength. Thermal conductivity reached 1290 watts per meter per kelvin, while tensile strength reached 1080 megapascals. In 2016, kilometer- scale continuous graphene fibers with outstanding mechanical properties and excellent electrical conductivity were produced by high-throughput wet- spinning of graphene oxide liquid crystals followed by graphitization through a full-scale synergetic defect-engineering strategy.
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Most CMU's have two cores, but three- and four- core units are also produced. A core also allows for the insertion of steel reinforcement to span courses in order to increase tensile strength. This is accomplished by grouting the voids of blocks containing rebar with concrete. Thus reinforced, CMU walls are better able to resist lateral forces such as wind load and seismic forces.
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Most ligaments are mostly made of highly aligned collagen fibres which do not permit stretching. Structurally, the nuchal ligament is formed with the association of both elastin proteins as well as type III collagen (45%). The collagen fibrils share a consistent size as well as helical pattern which gives the ligament its tensile strength. The elastin on the other hand is a protein that allows for flexibility.
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Foam metal has been used in experimental animal prosthetics. In this application, a hole is drilled into the bone and the metal foam inserted, letting the bone grow into the metal for a permanent junction. For orthopedic applications, tantalum or titanium foams are common for their tensile strength, corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. The back legs of a Siberian Husky named Triumph received foam metal prostheses.
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The wood is hard and durable, attractive, reddish, and closely grained. It has been used extensively for fence posts,Qualities Required of Species for Agroforestry and Fuelwood for ornamental articles, and for high-load applications such as sheave blocks. The wood's "air dried" density is 1040 kg/m³.Aussie Fantom The tensile strength is around eighty megapascal, the transverse strength is over one hundred MPa.
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5083 aluminium alloy is an aluminium alloy with magnesium and traces of manganese and chromium. It is highly resistant to attack by seawater and industrial chemicals. Alloy 5083 retains exceptional strength after welding. It has the highest strength of the non-heat treatable alloys with a Ultimate Tensile Strength of 317 MPa or 46000 psi and a Tensile Yield Strength of 228 MPa or 33000 psi.
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Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels , E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 17, Number 6 / December, 2008 Hardness testing can therefore be an economical substitute for tensile testing, as well as providing local variations in yield strength due to, e.g., welding or forming operations. However, for critical situations, tension testing is done to eliminate ambiguity.
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Due to its higher dry tensile strength there are less breakages during handing and kiln loading. Article hosted by grahamhay.com.au Replacing some of the clay with fiber, will reduce the thermal mass of clay, in turn reducing further the energy required to fire the work. Changing to paper clay from conventional clay offers considerable energy, financial and time savings when firing ceramics in educational institutions.
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This along with the ionic crosslinking of tightly folded molecules allow nacre to have high strength and toughness. Artificial nacre that mimicked both the structure and the effect of the ionic bonds had a tensile strength similar to natural nacre as well as an ultimate Young's modulus similar to lamellar bone. From a mechanical standpoint, this material would be a viable option for artificial bone.
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Static shear testing shows that earthbag can reach similar strengths to New Zealand's reinforced adobe standards with specific soil strengths and reinforcement Stouter, Patti (May 2017) Estimated Shear Strengths of Contained Earth Walls. Build Simple Inc. www.BuildSimple.org although unreinforced weak soil earthbag can have lower shear strength than unreinforced adobe. To improve friction between bags and wall tensile strength barbed wire is usually placed between courses.
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Thermosetting polyimides are known for thermal stability, good chemical resistance, excellent mechanical properties, and characteristic orange/yellow color. Polyimides compounded with graphite or glass fiber reinforcements have flexural strengths of up to and flexural moduli of . Thermoset polymer matrix polyimides exhibit very low creep and high tensile strength. These properties are maintained during continuous use to temperatures of up to and for short excursions, as high as .
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The ultimate tensile strength of these steels is considered secondary to their yield strength. Where this is required to meet a particular value, it is specified for each order. Notch toughness is a measure of tear resistance, a steel's ability to resist further tearing from a pre-existing notch. It is usually evaluated as the tear-yield ratio, the ratio of tear resistance to yield strength.
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The ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) can become stretched, frayed, or torn through the repetitive stress of the throwing motion. The risk of injury to the throwing athlete's UCL is thought to be extremely high as the amount of stress through this structure approaches its ultimate tensile strength during a hard throw.Fleisig, G.S., “The biomechanics of baseball pitching”, in Biomechanical Engineering. 1994, University of Alabama: Birmingham. p. 163.
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As with any material, the existence of a crystallographic defect affects the material properties. Defects can occur in the form of atomic vacancies. High levels of such defects can lower the tensile strength by up to 85%. An important example is the Stone Wales defect, otherwise known as the 5-7-7-5 defect because it creates a pentagon and heptagon pair by rearrangement of the bonds.
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But Bock and Heuck failed to gain good, economically feasible synthetic rubbers by this process. Polymers of butadiene and isoprene had good elasticity after vulcanization, but were crumbly. Polymers of dimethyl butadiene had good tensile strength, but nearly no elasticity. In the fall of 1928 Bock had the idea to copolymerize dimethyl butadiene with isoprene and butadiene, respectively, to combine the positive mechanical properties.
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When formability, softness, etc. are required in fabrication, steel having 0.12 per cent maximum carbon is often used in soft condition. With increasing carbon, it is possible by hardening and tempering to obtain tensile strength in the range of 600 to 900 N/mm2, combined with reasonable toughness and ductility. In this condition, these steels find many useful general applications where mild corrosion resistance is required.
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Zylon (IUPAC name: poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole)) is a trademarked name for a range of thermoset liquid-crystalline polyoxazole. This synthetic polymer material was invented and developed by SRI International in the 1980s and is manufactured by the Toyobo Corporation. In generic usage, the fiber is referred to as PBO. Zylon has 5.8 GPa of tensile strength, which is 1.6 times that of Kevlar.
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Most designs steer with small moving sails on the ends of the spars. center In the 1970s JPL studied many rotating blade and ring sails for a mission to rendezvous with Halley's Comet. The intention was to stiffen the structures using angular momentum, eliminating the need for struts, and saving mass. In all cases, surprisingly large amounts of tensile strength were needed to cope with dynamic loads.
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Carbyne chains have been claimed to be the strongest material known per density. Calculations indicate that carbyne's specific tensile strength (strength divided by density) of 6.0– beats graphene (4.7–), carbon nanotubes (4.3–), and diamond (2.5–). Its specific modulus (Young's Modulus divided by density) of around is also double that of graphene, which is around . Stretching carbyne 10% alters its electronic band gap from 3.2 to 4.4 eV.
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After the Second World War, class 65 steam locomotive were used on almost all trains. They were used because their technical characteristics (tensile strength) was very suitable for the Odenwald line. Passengers trains were mostly composed of three-axle carriages rebuilt from compartmentised carriages. Freight trains were often hauled by class 50 locomotives; in some cases freight traffic was carried between Hanau and Wiebelbach in railbus sets.
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It includes printing multiple copies of planned items to test for several variables, including dimensions, layer adhesion, tensile strength, flexibility, and compressional strength. Known as "coupons", these items will be tested by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and compared to duplicate items printed on Earth. The comparisons of these space and terrestrial manufactured coupons will be used to further refine 3D printing in space.
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There is only one molecular orientation for the normal HDPE films. So, along this direction, HDPE films have a bigger tensile strength, but weak properties in the other direction. Orientation of film Second drew by +45° Second drew by -45° Cross Laminated SDM Strength Film is laminated film by ±45°two second drew films. So in every direction of the films, there are strong properties.
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For insulated cables, the insulation maximum temperature is normally the limiting material property that constrains ampacity. For uninsulated cables (typically used in overhead installation), the tensile strength of the cable (as affected by temperature) is normally the limiting material property. The Neher–McGrath method is the electrical industry standard for calculating cable ampacity, most often employed via lookup in tables of precomputed results for common configurations.
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The tensile strength, yield strength, and Young's modulus are measures of strength and elasticity, and are of particular interest for describing the stress-strain properties of polymeric materials. These properties can be measured through tensile testing. For crystalline or semicrystalline polymers, anisotropy plays a large role in the mechanical properties of the polymer. The crystallinity of the polymer can be measured through differential scanning calorimetry.
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Xuan paper features great tensile strength, smooth surface, pure and clean texture and clean stroke, great resistance to crease, corrosion, moth and mold. The majority of ancient Chinese books and paintings by famous painters that survived until today are well preserved on Xuan paper. Xuan paper won the Golden Award at the Panama International Exposition in 1915. Xuan paper was used to make scrolls.
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Recently the Canning Dam has been subjected to considerable cracking of the upper parts of the dam and upper gallery. Investigations have shown that cracking was due to strong AAR (alkali aggregate reactivity) in the concrete. AAR results in swelling of the concrete, which may cause secondary compressive stresses, localised map cracks, and, ultimately structural cracks. In addition, the concrete tensile strength and elasticity significantly decreases.
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P25 is plays an important role in maintaining integrity of the complex. The heavy fibroin protein consists of layers of antiparallel beta sheets. Its primary structure mainly consists of the recurrent amino acid sequence (Gly-Ser-Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala)n. The high glycine (and, to a lesser extent, alanine) content allows for tight packing of the sheets, which contributes to silk's rigid structure and tensile strength.
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Type II collagen is the basis for articular cartilage and hyaline cartilage, formed by homotrimers of collagen, type II, alpha 1 chains. It makes up 50% of all protein in cartilage and 85–90% of collagen of articular cartilage. Type II collagen does form fibrils. This fibrillar network of collagen allows cartilage to entrap the proteoglycan aggregate as well as provide tensile strength to the tissue.
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A birch bark inscription excavated from Novgorod, circa 1240–1260 Wood pulp made from birch gives relatively long and slender fibres for a hardwood. The thin walls cause the fibre to collapse upon drying, giving a paper with low bulk and low opacity. The birch fibres are, however, easily fibrillated and give about 75% of the tensile strength of softwood. The low opacity makes it suitable for making glassine.
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Paper clay is handmade or commercially available clay to which a small percentage of processed cellulose fiber is added. The fiber increases the tensile strength of the dry clay and enables dry-to-dry and wet-to-dry joins. Commercial paper clays air-dry to a firm, lightweight sculpture, with minimal shrinking during the drying process. Paper clay can be used as an unfired body in craft and doll-making.
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The reaction is carried out in the presence of a base such as sodium hydroxide, analogous to the formation of bisphenol A-diglycidyl ether. Also aliphatic glycidyl epoxy resins usually have a low viscosity compared to aromatic epoxy resins. They are therefore added to other epoxy resins as reactive diluents or as adhesion promoters. Epoxy resins made of (long-chain) polyols are also added to improve tensile strength and impact strength.
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The production of LLDPE is initiated by transition metal catalysts, particularly Ziegler or Philips type of catalyst. The actual polymerization process can be done either in solution phase or in gas phase reactors. Usually, octene is the comonomer in solution phase while butene and hexene are copolymerized with ethylene in a gas phase reactor. LLDPE has higher tensile strength and higher impact and puncture resistance than does LDPE.
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The process was devised about 1844 by John Mercer who treated cotton with solutions of 55–65° Twaddell scale (20–30%) sodium hydroxide followed by washing. Mercer observed that the treated fabrics shrank, had increased tensile strength, and an increased affinity for dyes. In the original process of Mercer, no tension was applied. The product was termed fulled cotton, a nod to the process of fulling in woven wool fabric.
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The Revere Quality House was an experimental joint venture of Lambie's new Lamolithic Industries, Revere Copper Company, Architectural Forum magazine, and Twitchell / Rudolph Architects. Its mission was to promote the construction of quality, affordable houses that featured bold designs. Utilizing reusable steel forms and mobile concrete mixing machines, Lambie successfully built the house entirely of concrete. To achieve the thin ceiling profile, narrow steel beams were incorporated to provide tensile strength.
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Piano strings are among the most demanding of all applications of steel. Placed under high tension, they are subject to repeated blows, they are stretched and slackened during tuning and are still expected to last for decades. Similar challenges arise in plucked instruments, along with the additional demand of being bent when plucked. The tensile strength of one popular brand of piano wire is listed as 26202930 MPa (380425 ksi).Fortepiano.
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Fiber-reinforced PMCs contain about 60 percent reinforcing fiber by volume. The fibers that are commonly found and used within PMCs include fiberglass, graphite and aramid. Fiberglass has a relatively low stiffness at the same time exhibits a competitive tensile strength compared to other fibers. The cost of fiberglass is also dramatically lower than the other fibers which is why fiberglass is one of the most widely used fiber.
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Soil confinement retains infill materials in three dimensions providing high tensile strength on each axis. Under loading Neoloy Geocells generate lateral confinement while soil-to-cell wall friction reduces vertical movement. The high hoop strength of the cell walls, together with the passive earth and passive resistance of adjacent cells, also increases soil strength and stiffness. Aggregate abrasion is minimized by the cell confinement, thereby reducing attrition of the base material.
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It has proven very popular as a root-end filling material and has shown generally high success rates. MTA produces a high pH environment, which is bactericidal, and may stimulate osteoblasts to produce bone to fill in any defects caused by infection. Modified versions of zinc oxide eugenol cement (ZOE) cement, such as IRM or Super EBA, have high compressive strength, high tensile strength, neutral pH, and low solubility.
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Therefore, a delay period is allowed to elapse before the commencement of the curing process to allow the concrete to gain a certain minimum tensile strength. The setting time of the concrete is an important criterion to determine the delay period. Generally, the delay period is equal to the initial setting time which has been found to give satisfactory results. Lesser delay periods result in compressive strength losses.
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A monocrystalline whisker is a filament of material that is structured as a single, defect-free crystal. Some typical whisker materials are graphite, alumina, iron, silicon carbide and silicon. Single-crystal whiskers of these (and some other) materials are known for having very high tensile strength (on the order of 10-20 GPa). Whiskers are used in some composites, but large-scale fabrication of defect-free whiskers is very difficult.
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Most vinyl products contain plasticizers which are used to make the material softer and more flexible, and lower the glass transition temperature. Plasticizers work by increasing the space and act as a lubricant between the PVC polymer chains. Higher levels of plasticizer result in softer PVC compounds and decrease tensile strength. A wide variety of substances can be used as plasticizers including phthalates, adipates, trimellitates, polymeric plasticizers and expoxidized vegetable oils.
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The wheelbase was 2 500 mm and the outer dimensions were small, making the lorry agile. A forward-control cabin enabled a 3 450 mm platform length. In order to reduce weight, the frame was joined together completely by welding, instead of riveting, which had been the case in every previous Sisu model. The steel used had almost 50% better tensile strength than the materials used by then.
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The Ca powder particles became fine Ca nanofilaments that reinforce the composite substantially by interface strengthening. The conductivity of the composite is slightly lower than the rule-of-mixtures prediction due to minor quantities of impurity inclusions. The elevated temperature performance of this composite was also evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry and resistivity measurements. The ultimate tensile strength is as high as 480 MPa, twice as that of ACSR.
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These elements are small enough to fit between normal crystalline lattice locations. In contrast, those elements that replace locations in the crystalline structure are called substitutional elements.Influence of Interstitial and Some Substitutional Alloying Elements An example of the effects of interstitial elements on metal properties can be found in grade 1–4 titanium. Although the grades 1–4 are considered commercially "pure" they have varying tensile strength among other differences.
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Gel spinning, also known as dry-wet spinning, is used to obtain high strength or other special properties in the fibers. The polymer is in a "gel" state, only partially liquid, which keeps the polymer chains somewhat bound together. These bonds produce strong inter-chain forces in the fiber, which increase its tensile strength. The polymer chains within the fibers also have a large degree of orientation, which increases strength.
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The ferritic structure and alloy additions, such as nitrogen provide yield strengths that are twice that of 300 series stainless steels. ZERON 100 plate is included in the ASTM A240 specification. Its minimum room temperature mechanical property requirements are 109,000 psi [751 MPa] (ultimate tensile strength), 80,000 psi [552 Mpa] (0.2% offset yield strength) and 25% minimum elongation. Zeron 100 has a copper addition which provides good resistance to sulfuric acid.
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A low density results from the chains being further apart. Lower melting points and tensile strengths are evident, because the intermolecular bonds are weaker and require less energy to break. The problem of branching occurs during propagation, when a chain curls back on itself and breaks - leaving irregular chains sprouting from the main carbon backbone. Branching makes the polymers less dense and results in low tensile strength and melting points.
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Rebar Rebar is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used in reinforced concrete and masonry structures to strengthen and hold the concrete in tension. The surface of rebar is often patterned to improve the quality of the bond with the concrete. Rebar is necessary to add tensile strength, while concrete is strong in compression. It can support tensile loads and increase overall strength by casting rebar into concrete.
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Choice of conductors is based on considerations such as cost, transmission losses and other desirable characteristics of the metal like tensile strength. Copper, with lower resistivity than aluminum, was once the conductor of choice for most power systems. However, aluminum has a lower cost for the same current carrying capacity and is now often the conductor of choice. Overhead line conductors may be reinforced with steel or aluminium alloys.
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A window built of basalt in a structure in Qanawat The tensile strength of basalt enabled the "development of unusual building techniques", according to historian Warwick Ball. Among these methods was the cutting of long, narrow beams from basalt to roof large areas spanning or longer. Because of the size restrictions of the beams, a distinctive system of traverse, semi-circular arches was devised to support the roof.
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The structural properties of this material are similar to those of Portland cement-based mortars: it has an elastic modulus of 293.9 MPa, and a tensile strength of 3.6 MPa (the minimum required value for Portland-cement based concrete is approximately 3.5 MPa); however it has a fracture energy of 170 N, which is much less than most standard concrete formulations, which can reach up to several kN.
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The formation of each lamella contributes to the consumption of energy and thus to an increase in elongation at break. Polystyrene homo-polymers deform when a force is applied until they break. Styrene-butane co-polymers do not break at this point, but begin to flow, solidify to tensile strength and only break at much higher elongation. With a high proportion of polybutadiene, the effect of the two phases is reversed.
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He preferred it over wire made in the United States because it was of better quality and greater tensile strength. Anchorages on both shores were constructed of limestone base and a freestone finish. Eleven-ton iron anchors were embedded in each block, securing cables with wrought iron chain links of Roebling's patent. The Civil War depleted the work force on the project, hindering speed and efficiency until its end.
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Various writers, including Uriah Cummings, appear to support the anecdotal evidence that Rosendale cement was highly durable, and with tensile strength equal to or greater than Portland, however the decline in the industry was unstoppable. By 1970, A. J. Snyder's last Rosendale, NY mine closed. Six years later, natural cement ceased to be produced altogether in the US. Natural cement was not available in the United States for over thirty years.
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Gelation is influenced by temperature, polymer concentration, and solvent properties. Temperature regulates the structure of the fiber network: low gelation temperature results in formation of nanoscale fiber networks while high gelation temperature leads to the formation of a platelet-like structure. Polymer concentration affects fiber properties: an increase in polymer concentration decreases porosity and increases mechanical properties such as tensile strength. Solvent properties influence morphology of the scaffolds.
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The original A242 alloy has a yield strength of and ultimate tensile strength of for light-medium rolled shapes and plates up to thick. It has yield strength of and ultimate strength of for medium weight rolled shapes and plates from thick. The thickest rolled sections and plates – from thick have yield strength of and ultimate strength of . ASTM A 242 is available in Type 1 and Type 2.
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The material will begin by elongating uniformly until it reaches the yield point, then the material will begin to neck. When necking occurs the material will begin to stretch more in the middle and the radius will decrease. Once this begins the material has entered a stage called plastic deformation. Once the material has reached its ultimate tensile strength it will elongate more easily until it reaches ultimate failure and breaks.
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VANTAs can be processed through volatile solutions or twisted to condense into spun CNT yarns or ropes. Jiang et al demonstrated a spinning and twisting method that forms a CNT yarn from a VANTA that gives rise to both a round cross- section and a tensile strength of around 1 GPa. The tensile strengths of CNT yarns spun from ultra-long CNT arrays of 1 mm height can range from 1.35 to 3.3 GPa.
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Wrought iron which had been faggoted twice was referred to as "Best"; if faggoted again it would become "Best Best", then "Treble best", etc. Faggoting stretches chemical impurities within the metal into long thin inclusions, creating a grain within the metal. "Best" bars would have a tensile strength along the grain of about 23 short tons per square inch (317 MPa). "Treble best" could reach 28 short tons per square inch (386 MPa).
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Various kinds of involuntary muscle activity may be referred to as a "spasm". A spasm may be a muscle contraction caused by abnormal nerve stimulation or by abnormal activity of the muscle itself. A series of spasms, or permanent spasms, is called a "spasmism". A spasm may lead to muscle strains or tears in tendons and ligaments if the force of the spasm exceeds the tensile strength of the underlying connective tissue.
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Cross section of collenchyma cells Collenchyma is Greek word where "Colla" means gum and "enchyma" means infusion. It is a living tissue of primary body like Parenchyma. Cells are thin-walled but possess thickening of cellulose, water and pectin substances (pectocellulose) at the corners where a number of cells join together. This tissue gives tensile strength to the plant and the cells are compactly arranged and have very little inter-cellular spaces.
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Green strength, or handling strength, can be defined as the strength of a material as it is processed to form its final ultimate tensile strength. This strength is usually considerably lower than the final ultimate strength of a material. The term green strength is usually referenced when discussing non- metallic materials such as adhesives and elastomers (such as rubber). Recently, it has also been referenced in metallurgy applications such as powdered metallurgy.
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A regular strength galvanized steel core with Class C coating thickness would be designated GC2. Higher strength grades of steel are designated high-strength (3), extra-high-strength (4), and ultra-high-strength (5). An ultra-high- strength galvanized steel core with class A coating thickness would be designated GA5. The use of higher strength steel cores increases the tensile strength of the conductor allowing for higher tensions which results in lower sag.
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Several new forms of explosives for blasting were also developed. Great improvements were also made in the hoisting apparatus and cages used to extract ore and transport the miners to their work. As the depth of the diggings increased, the hemp ropes used to haul ore to the surface became impractical, as their self-weight became a significant fraction of their tensile strength (breaking weight). After hemp rope, iron chains began to become more common.
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After annealing, it has a tensile strength of about 40 kg/mm2. The most valuable property of melchior is its high resistance to corrosion in air, freshwater and seawater. Increasing content of nickel iron or manganese improves corrosion and cavitation resistance, especially in sea water and atmospheric water vapor. The alloy of 30% Ni, 0.8% Fe, 1% Mn and 68.2% copper is used in maritime shipping, in particular for the manufacture of condenser tubes.
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The lower thermal conductivity of titanium may also be appreciated in rocket construction. The specific strength, overall energy absorbing capability and high melting point all reinforce titanium's superiority to aluminum in aerospace and military applications. When used for aerospace applications, levels of porosity close to 90% are desired. Titanium foams are capable of retaining their high tensile strength at temperatures up to 400 °C; a limit imposed by the metal's low resistance to oxidation.
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Tinsel wire is produced by wrapping several strands of thin metal foil around a flexible nylon or textile core. Because the foil is very thin, the bend radius imposed on the foil is much greater than the thickness of the foil, leading to a low probability of metal fatigue. Meanwhile, the core provides high tensile strength without impairing flexibility. Typically, multiple tinsel wires are jacketed with an insulating layer to form one conductor.
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In a composite steel deck, the dissimilar materials in question are steel and concrete. A composite steel deck combines the tensile strength of steel with the compressive strength of concrete to improve design efficiency and reduce the material necessary to cover a given area. Additionally, composite steel decks supported by composite steel joists can span greater distances between supporting elements and have reduced live load deflection in comparison to previous construction methods.
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Paper dunnage bags are made out of two components, an inner component that consists of a polyethylene inner bag, the outer component is a paper bag. The outer bag is made of the highest quality, light weight kraft paper of high tensile strength. Paper dunnage bags come in different strengths and varieties and can be made in any special size. The inner component provides optimum pressure and the outer component provides optimum strength.
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Cable that is run between floors in non-plenum areas is rated as riser cable. The fire requirements on riser cable are not as strict. Thus, plenum cable can always replace riser cable, but riser cable cannot replace plenum cable in plenum spaces. Both plenum and riser cables commonly include a rope or polymer filament with high tensile strength, which helps support the weight of the cable when it is dangling in an open chute.
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6061-T6 Aluminum Standard Heat Treating Process T6 temper 6061 has been treated to provide the maximum precipitation hardening (and therefore maximum yield strength) for a 6061 aluminum alloy. It has an ultimate tensile strength of at least and yield strength of at least . More typical values are and , respectively.Material Properties Data: 6061-T6 Aluminum In thicknesses of or less, it has elongation of 8% or more; in thicker sections, it has elongation of 10%.
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In metallurgy, titanium gold (Ti-Au or Au-Ti) refers to an alloy consisting of titanium and gold. Such alloys are used in dentistry, ceramics and jewelry. Like many other alloys, titanium gold alloys have a higher yield strength, tensile strength, hardness, and magnetism than either of its constituent metals. In July 2016, researchers have discovered that a titanium-gold alloy, β-Ti3Au (strictly speaking, an intermetallic), is up to 4 times harder than titanium.
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During evisceration in some species, several hundred Cuvierian tubules (part of the respiratory tree) may be expelled. Water from the respiratory tree is forced into these tubules causing a rapid expansion and they elongate by up to 20 times their original length. They have great tensile strength and become sticky when they encounter any object. The adhesive is unique among marine invertebrates and a firm grip is obtained in under ten seconds.
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At room temperature, ES-1's yield (tensile strength before deformation) is 224,500 PSI (1547 MPa), ultimate strength (breaking point) is 263,700 PSI (1818 MPa). At 900°C, yield is 193,900 PSI (1337 MPa), and ultimate strength is 246,700 (1701 MPa). Rockwell hardness is 45.6 (455 HV10). For toughness, the Charpy notch impact is 56.2 foot-pounds (76 J) at room temperature, and 42.7 ft-lbs (58 J) at -40F (-40°C).
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Ferrouranium is used as a deoxidizer (more powerful than ferrovanadium), for denitrogenizing steel, for forming carbides, and as an alloying element. In ferrous alloys, uranium increases the elastic limit and the tensile strength. In high speed steels, it has been used to increase toughness and strength in amounts between 0.05–5%. Uranium-alloyed steels can be used at very low temperatures; nickel-uranium alloys are resistant to even very aggressive chemicals, including aqua regia.
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However, while PFA has a similar dissipation factor to PTFE, FEP's dissipation is around six times that of PFA and EFTE (making it a more non-linear conductor of electrostatic fields). Mechanically, FEP is slightly more flexible than PTFE. Perhaps surprisingly, it does not withstand repetitive folding as well as PTFE. It also features a higher coefficient of dynamic friction, is softer and has a slightly lower tensile strength than PTFE and PFA.
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The mine shell is a particular form of HE shell developed for use in small caliber weapons such as 20 mm to 30 mm cannon. Small HE shells of conventional design can contain only a limited amount of explosive. By using a thin-walled steel casing of high tensile strength, a larger explosive charge can be used. Most commonly the explosive charge also was a more expensive but higher-detonation-energy type.
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The result is a candidate for "the most durable building material in human history". In contrast, modern concrete exposed to saltwater deteriorates within decades. Crystal structure of tobermorite: elementary unit cell Compressive strengths for modern Portland cements are typically at the level and have improved almost ten-fold since 1860. There are no comparable mechanical data for ancient mortars, although some information about tensile strength may be inferred from the cracking of Roman concrete domes.
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Kanthal is used in heating elements due to its flexibility, durability and tensile strength. Its uses are widespread, for example in toasters, home and industrial heaters, kilns and diffusion heaters (used in the making of crystalline silicon). Recently, Kanthal has been used for heating coils in electronic cigarettes. Unlike alternative types of metal such as Nichrome, Kanthal is durable enough to withstand the temperatures needed, but flexible and cheap enough to be practical.
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This is because glycine's R group is only a hydrogen and so is not as sterically constrained. The addition of alanine and serine makes the fibres strong and resistant to breaking. This tensile strength is due to the many interceded hydrogen bonds, and when stretched the force is applied to these numerous bonds and they do not break. Silk is resistant to most mineral acids, except for sulfuric acid, which dissolves it.
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In turbostratic carbon fiber the sheets of carbon atoms are haphazardly folded, or crumpled, together. Carbon fibers derived from polyacrylonitrile (PAN) are turbostratic, whereas carbon fibers derived from mesophase pitch are graphitic after heat treatment at temperatures exceeding 2200 °C. Turbostratic carbon fibers tend to have high tensile strength, whereas heat-treated mesophase-pitch-derived carbon fibers have high Young's modulus (i.e., high stiffness or resistance to extension under load) and high thermal conductivity.
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Wrinkles form in cotton fabrics due to the free hydroxyl groups. Cotton is a form of cellulose chains linked to form firm three-dimensional structures that offer both tensile strength and flexibility due to their carbon-carbon and carbon-oxygen bond based backbone. Since cellulose is composed of glucose units, cyclic carbohydrate molecules, cellulose has free hydroxyl groups (-OH) projecting from each monomeric subunit. These hydroxyl groups tend form hydrogen-bonds to neighboring hydroxyl groups.
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Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.5–4.0% carbon, 1–3% silicon, and the remainder iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance than steel, but its compressive strength is comparable to low- and medium-carbon steel. These mechanical properties are controlled by the size and shape of the graphite flakes present in the microstructure and can be characterised according to the guidelines given by the ASTM.
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Strapping used on shipment of chemical weapons slated for destruction Softgoods strapped in a bale or bundle Steel is the oldest and highest tensile strength strapping. It is available in a variety of widths and thicknesses as well as variations in the grade of steel. Steel is used for heavy duty holding where high strength and minimal stretch are desired. Surface finishes for steel strap include: paint, paint and wax, bluing or zinc and wax.
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FRP-reinforced structures therefore can be lighter and last longer. Accordingly, for some applications the whole-life cost will be price-competitive with steel- reinforced concrete. The material properties of FRP or GRP bars differ markedly from steel, so there are differences in the design considerations. FRP or GRP bars have relatively higher tensile strength but lower stiffness, so that deflections are likely to be higher than for equivalent steel- reinforced units.
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Although the tensile strength is similar to Kevlar, Vectran still tends to experience tensile fractures when exposed to significant stress. The wispy, hair-like fibers tend to fray, to easily acquire dirt, and to readily entangle in hook-and-loop fasteners, from which they must sometimes then be cut or (when possible) torn. If used without protective coatings, Vectran has low resistance to UV degradation, and should not be used long-term in outdoor environments.
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Kirkaldy was born in Dundee in 1820, and educated at Edinburgh University. He worked at Napier shipbuilding works from 1843, where he became Chief Draughtsman and Calculator. He left in 1861 and over the next two and a half years studied existing mechanical testing methods and designed his own testing machine. William Fairbairn had pioneered tensile strength measurement as well as assessing creep and fatigue on large structures as well as small.
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This bridge is the northernmost steel bridge of its kind, with special high tensile strength steel to withstand the temperature differences of the North. That steel was produced by Stelco of Hamilton, Ontario, one of Blohm's clients. The Canadian Army Corps of engineers set up the bridge across the Eagle River on the unfinished Dempster Highway in winter 1976-77. In winter 1978-79, Blohm headed north again up the Dempster Highway.
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Drawing differs from rolling in that the pressure of drawing is not transmitted through the turning action of the mill but instead depends on force applied locally near the area of compression. This means the amount of possible drawing force is limited by the tensile strength of the material, a fact that is particularly evident when drawing thin wires. The starting point of cold drawing is hot-rolled stock of a suitable size.
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Although carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than tungsten, carbon sublimes at atmospheric pressure instead of melting, so it has no melting point. Tungsten has the lowest coefficient of thermal expansion of any pure metal. The low thermal expansion and high melting point and tensile strength of tungsten originate from strong covalent bonds formed between tungsten atoms by the 5d electrons. Alloying small quantities of tungsten with steel greatly increases its toughness.
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The first large-scale industrial use of vanadium was in the steel alloy chassis of the Ford Model T, inspired by French race cars. Vanadium steel allowed reduced weight while increasing tensile strength (ca. 1905). For the first decade of the 20th century, most vanadium ore was mined by American Vanadium Company from the Minas Ragra in Peru. Later, the demand for uranium rose, leading to increased mining of that metal's ores.
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Among the types of wire used for bead stringing, tiger tail is the most common. Tiger tail is easier to use than many other kinds of thread, and it does not require the use of a sewing needle. Tiger tail has high ultimate tensile strength and is therefore extremely difficult to tear, but if it is creased or twisted, tiger tail has a tendency to kink and then become brittle in the kinked area.
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Ti-based metallic glass, when made into thin pipes, have a high tensile strength of 2100 MPA, elastic elongation of 2% and high corrosion resistance. Using these properties, a Ti–Zr–Cu–Ni–Sn metallic glass was used to improve the sensitivity of a Coriolis flow meter. This flow meter is about 28-53 times more sensitive than conventional meters, which can be applied in fossil-fuel, chemical, environmental, semiconductor and medical science industry.
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Research is focusing on increasing high-temperature tensile strength, toughness, and creep resistance to compete with Ni-based superalloys. A new class of alumina-forming austenitic stainless steel is actively being developed for use in high-temperature applications by Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Initial research showed similar creep and corrosion resistance at 800 °C to that of other austenitic alloys, including Ni-based superalloys. Development of AFA superalloys with a 35 wt.
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This usually only occurs once the steel has been in use for varying degrees of time. Some physical components of the steelmaking process itself, such as the electric arc furnace, may also wear down and oxidize. This issue is typically dealt with by the use of refractory metals, which are resistant to change. If steel is not properly deoxidized, it will have reduced various properties such as tensile strength, ductility, toughness, weldability, polishability, and machinability.
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Amorphous SiC fibers have an elongation capability above 2% – much larger than in conventional ceramic materials (0.05 to 0.10%). The reason for this property of SiC fibers is that most of them contain additional elements like oxygen, titanium and/or aluminum yielding a tensile strength above 3 GPa. These enhanced elastic properties are required for various three- dimensional fiber arrangements (see example in figure) in textile fabrication, where a small bending radius is essential.
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The adhesive is coated onto a flexible material (the backing) such as paper, foil, fabric, or plastic film (such as biaxially oriented polypropylene or polyvinyl chloride) to provide strength and protect the adhesive from degradation by environmental factors including humidity, temperature, and ultraviolet light. Backing tensile strength, elongation, stiffness, and tear resistance can be matched to the intended use of the tape. The adhesive can be bound to the backing through surface treatments, primers, heating, or UV curing.
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It sustains extensive elastic deformations and has a very low Poisson's ratio. A complete shape recovery of a 3-mm-tall sample after it was compressed down to 0.1 mm is possible. Its ultimate tensile strength (UTS) depends on material density and is about 160 kPa at 8.5 mg/cm3 and 1 kPa at 0.18 mg/cm3; in comparison, the strongest silica aerogels have a UTS of 16 kPa at 100 mg/cm3. The Young's modulus is ca.
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Many hinges, slides, supports and body pieces are composed of Stainless. It has a high tensile strength, allowing it to be applied using hollow tubes, reducing weight and increasing user accessibility. Aluminum is a light and corrosion resistant metal, and to take advantage of these qualities, it is heavily utilized for stamped and cast furniture, especially in the category of molded chairs. Aluminum atoms form an outer layer of Aluminum Oxide, which prevents the internal aluminum from being corroded.
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Due to its high tensile strength and low cost, steel came to be a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. In 1872, the Englishmen Clark and Woods patented an alloy that would today be considered a stainless steel. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys had been recognized in 1821 by French metallurgist Pierre Berthier. He noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery.
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The properties of Zytel will vary with the specific formulation. Formulation Zytel HTN 35% Glass Reinforced Resin, consisting of 35% glass fiber by weight, has a tensile strength of around 30kpsi and a flexural modulus of 1500kpsi under room temperature conditions. Zytel also offers good chemical resistance to common chemicals such as motor oil, transmission fluid, and methanol, and shows little thermal expansion. Other additives or treatments may be used to increase toughness, wear resistance, and temperature tolerance.
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Metallized boPET film, 32 layers of ~14 µm thickness each BoPET (biaxially- oriented polyethylene terephthalate) is a polyester film made from stretched polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and is used for its high tensile strength, chemical and dimensional stability, transparency, reflectivity, gas and aroma barrier properties, and electrical insulation. A variety of companies manufacture boPET and other polyester films under different brand names. In the UK and US, the best-known trade names are Mylar, Melinex, and Hostaphan.
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The Kahn bar is of high grade steel with an elastic limit of 42,000 pounds and tensile strength of 70,000 pounds per square inch. Kahn formed his own company in 1903 called Trussed Concrete Steel Company (aka "Truscon Steel Company") located in Youngstown, Ohio, to manufacture these special steel bars used in reinforced concrete beams. Another new engineered innovation of Kahn was steel forms built with "ribs" instead of "wings". It was a derivative from Kahn's 1903 patent.
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There are a variety of tests that may be performed on various cylinders. Some of the most common types of tests are hydrostatic test, burst test, ultimate tensile strength, Charpy impact test and pressure cycling. During the manufacturing process, vital information is usually stamped or permanently marked on the cylinder. This information usually includes the type of cylinder, the working or service pressure, the serial number, date of manufacture, the manufacture's registered code and sometimes the test pressure.
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It is within walking distance southwest from Taoyuan Senior High School Station of the Taiwan Railway Administration. The Taoyuan Arena, also built in 1993, is an indoor sporting arena located in Taoyuan District. The concept of its roof structure was based on the bicycle structure, the outer ring (to bear pressure) and inner tire (to bear tensile strength) of the bicycle wheels are connected by cable wires. It occupies an area of with a capacity of 15,000 spectators.
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Kevlar maintains its strength and resilience down to cryogenic temperatures (−196 °C); in fact, it is slightly stronger at low temperatures. At higher temperatures the tensile strength is immediately reduced by about 10–20%, and after some hours the strength progressively reduces further. For example: enduring 160 °C (320 °F) for 500 hours, reduces strength by about 10%; and enduring 260 °C (500 °F) for 70 hours, reduces strength by about 50%.KEVLAR Technical Guide. dupont.com.
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The product range includes SORF, SOFF, BLRF, BLFF, WNRF (XS, XXS, STD & Schedule 20, 40, 80), WNFF (XS, XXS, STD & Schedule 20, 40, 80), SWRF (XS & STD), SWFF (XS & STD), Threaded RF, Threaded FF & LJ, with sizes from 1/2" to 16". The bolting material used for flange connection is stud bolts mated with two nut (washer when required). In Petrochemical industries, ASTM A193 B7 STUD & ASTM A193 B16 Stud Bolts are used as these have high tensile strength.
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Fracturing rocks at great depth frequently becomes suppressed by pressure due to the weight of the overlying rock strata and the cementation of the formation. This suppression process is particularly significant in "tensile" (Mode 1) fractures which require the walls of the fracture to move against this pressure. Fracturing occurs when effective stress is overcome by the pressure of fluids within the rock.The minimum principal stress becomes tensile and exceeds the tensile strength of the material.
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An unrolled latex condom Latex has outstanding elastic properties: Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa, and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800% before breaking. In 1990 the ISO set standards for condom production (ISO 4074, Natural latex rubber condoms), and the EU followed suit with its CEN standard (Directive 93/42/EEC concerning medical devices). Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electric current. If the condom passes, it is rolled and packaged.
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It has considerable compressive or crushing strength, but is somewhat deficient in shearing strength, and distinctly weak in tensile or pulling strength. Steel, on the other hand, is easily procurable in simple forms such as long bars, and is extremely strong. But it is difficult and expensive to work up into customized forms. Concrete had been avoided for making beams, slabs and thin walls because its lack of tensile strength doomed it to fail in such circumstances.
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The aluminum alkoxide does not make a tight oxide layer; water is essential to repair the holes in the oxide layer. Methanol and ethanol are also incompatible with some polymers. The alcohol reacts with the polymers causing swelling, and over time the oxygen breaks down the carbon-carbon bonds in the polymer causing a reduction in tensile strength. For the past few decades though, most cars have been designed to tolerate up to 10% ethanol (E10) without problem.
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Gyroid In 2017 researchers simulated a graphene gyroid that has five percent of the density of steel, yet is ten times as strong with an enormous surface area to volume ratio. They compressed heated graphene flakes. They then constructed high resolution 3D-printed models of plastic of various configurations – similar to the gyroids that graphene form naturally, though thousands of times larger. These shapes were then tested for tensile strength and compression, and compared to the computer simulations.
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A representative example is shown in the figure demonstrating that the strain at failure rapidly decreases with the increase in the spherulite size and thus with the decrease in their number in isotactic polypropylene. Similar trends are observed for tensile strength, yield stress and toughness. Increase in the total volume of the spherulites results in their interaction as well as shrinkage of the polymer, which becomes brittle and easily cracks under load along the boundaries between the spherulites.
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Because of this, when wetted, gel-type biopolymers form hydrogels which have decreased tensile strength but significantly higher compressive strength compared to the original soil. Protein-based biopolymers, though less common, have been used as an alternative to polysaccharides for projects requiring greater water resistance. Biopolymers may increasingly replace synthetic polymers for soil stabilization projects. They are more environmentally friendly than many other chemical soil additives, and can achieve the same amount of strengthening at much lower concentrations.
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Noble metals such as gold, platinum, iridium, silver and their alloys were used early on in the field of Orthodontics because of their good corrosion resistance. Some of the other qualities that these alloys had were high ductility, variable stiffness (with heat), high resilience and ease of soldering. Disadvantages of these alloys were: Less elasticity, less tensile strength and greater cost. Composition of both platinum and palladium raised the melting point of the alloy and made it corrosion resistant.
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In 1912, Oenslager was working with David Spence at Diamond Rubber on additives to improve the vulcanization process. Working off of Oenslager's aniline additives, Spence discovered that p-aminodimethylaniline was a far superior accelerator, vastly improving the tensile strength of the rubber. para-aminodimethylaniline was adopted as the accelerator of choice by the Diamond Rubber Company in 1912. During World War I Oenslager inflated the first hydrogen balloon in the US. Oenslager received his Ph.D. from Harvard under Prof.
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Bentley et al. (2009), p. 272. Hoses must wrap neatly when spooling up, to avoid damage; this can be done manually for smaller systems, but for very large drills a level-wind system has to be implemented.Bentley et al. (2009), p. 273. The hose ideally should have the tensile strength to support its weight when spooling into the hole, but for very deep holes a supporting cable may need to be used to support the hose.Bentley et al.
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Robots are essentially decent". Asimov's own stories leave her misanthropy largely unexplained, but Harlan Ellison's screenplay adaptation of I, Robot investigates its origins, and in the end concludes that her attitudes are rather well-founded. An excerpt from Harlan Ellison's screenplay adaptation of I, Robot has this to say about Dr. Calvin; "She is a small woman, but there is a towering strength in her face. Tensile strength, that speaks to endurance, to maintaining in the imperfect world.
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Yield strength testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-section area and then pulling it with a controlled, gradually increasing force until the sample changes shape or breaks. This is called a Tensile Test. Longitudinal and/or transverse strain is recorded using mechanical or optical extensometers. Indentation hardness correlates roughly linearly with tensile strength for most steels, but measurements on one material cannot be used as a scale to measure strengths on another.
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The failure or fracture of a product or component as a result of a single event is known as mechanical overload. It is a common failure mode.The terms are used in forensic engineering and structural engineering when analysing product failure. Failure may occur because either the product is weaker than expected owing to a stress concentration, or the applied load is greater than expected and exceeds the normal tensile strength, shear strength or compressive strength of the product.
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For automotive use, disc brake discs are commonly made of grey iron. The SAE maintains a specification for the manufacture of grey iron for various applications. For normal car and light-truck applications, SAE specification J431 G3000 (superseded to G10) dictates the correct range of hardness, chemical composition, tensile strength, and other properties necessary for the intended use. Some racing cars and airplanes use brakes with carbon fiber discs and carbon fiber pads to reduce weight.
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Strength of materials is defined as the maximum stress that can be endured before fracture occurs. Strength of biomaterials (bioceramics) is an important mechanical property because they are brittle. In brittle materials like bioceramics, cracks easily propagate when the material is subject to tensile loading, unlike compressive loading. A number of methods are available for determining the tensile strength of materials, such as the bending flexural test, the biaxial flexural strength test and the weibull approach.
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Antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead, increasing its hardness and mechanical strength. For most applications involving lead, varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal. In lead–acid batteries, this addition improves plate strength and charging characteristics. For sailboats, lead keels are used as counterweights, ranging from 600 lbs to over 8000 lbs; to improve hardness and tensile strength of the lead keel, antimony is mixed with lead between 2% and 5% by volume.
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Chemical attack can degrade the material, start brittle cracks or cause it to swell. For example, NBR seals can crack when exposed to ozone gas at very low concentrations, unless protected. Swelling by contact with a low viscosity fluid causes an increase in dimensions, and also lowers the tensile strength of the rubber. Other failures can be caused by using the wrong size of ring for a specific recess, which may cause extrusion of the rubber.
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Collagen: Collagen is the primary structure of vertebrates and is the most abundant protein in mammals. Because of this, collagen is one of the most easily attainable biopolymers, and used for many research purposes. Because of its mechanical structure, collagen has high tensile strength and is a non toxic, easily absorbable, biodegradable and biocompatible material. Therefore, it has been used for many medical applications such as in treatment for tissue infection, drug delivery systems, and gene therapy.
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Silk fibroin: Silk Fibroin (SF) is another protein rich biopolymer that can be obtained from different silk worm species, such as the mulberry worm Bombyx mori. In contrast to collagen, SF has a lower tensile strength but has strong adhesive properties due to its insoluble and fibrous protein composition. In recent studies, silk fibroin has been found to possess antiagulation properties and platelet adhesion. Silk fibroin has been additionally found to support stem cell proliferation in vitro.
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Typically, architectural grade zinc is 99.995 percent pure zinc with trace amounts of titanium, to reduce coefficient of thermal expansion and improve tensile strength and hardness, and copper to improve workability. Exact alloy composition is subject to manufacturer and is a color determinant in zinc's final patina. Over time, zinc develops its distinctive patina, transforming from a shiny silver to a matte bluish-grey. Pre patinated finishes are available from certain manufacturers to expedite the natural patination process.
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The hair hang is an aerial circus act where performers (usually young women) are suspended by their hair, performing acrobatic poses and/or manipulation. Some believe the act originated in South America; others claim the act hails from China. Performers hang suspended by their hair, which is tied into a hairhang rig; the techniques used to tie the performer's hair, and the acrobatic techniques involved in the act are key. Many people underestimate the tensile strength of hair.
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The three-dimensional disposition of each alkane hydrocarbon chain depends on rotations about the 109.47° tetrahedral bonds of singly bonded carbon atoms. When extruded into fibers through pores in an industry spinneret, the individual polymer chains tend to align because of viscous flow. If subjected to cold drawing afterwards, the fibers align further, increasing their crystallinity, and the material acquires additional tensile strength. In practice, nylon fibers are most often drawn using heated rolls at high speeds.
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It has been shown to prevent the loss of tensile strength in human hair; to have a positive effect on the surface and mechanical properties of skin, and on the brittleness of hair and nails; to abate brittle nail syndrome; to partially prevent femoral bone loss in aged ovariectomized rats; to increase the concentration of collagen in calves; and to have a potentially beneficial effect on the formation of collagen in the bones of osteopenic women.
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Stress-strain curve typical of a low carbon steel. In engineering and materials science, a stress–strain curve for a material gives the relationship between stress and strain. It is obtained by gradually applying load to a test coupon and measuring the deformation, from which the stress and strain can be determined (see tensile testing). These curves reveal many of the properties of a material, such as the Young's modulus, the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength.
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Thus, a point defining true stress- strain curve is displaced upwards and to the left to define the equivalent engineering stress-strain curve. The difference between the true and engineering stresses and strains will increase with plastic deformation. At low strains (such as elastic deformation), the differences between the two is negligible. As for the tensile strength point, it is the maximal point in engineering stress-strain curve but is not a special point in true stress- strain curve.
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The bite strength of Achelousaurus, measured as an ultimate tensile strength, was 30.5 newtons per square millimeter (N/mm²) at the maxillary tooth row and 18 N/mm² at the beak. Wilson and colleagues found that since the Two Medicine centrosaurines were separated stratigraphically, they were therefore possibly not contemporaneous. The indeterminate specimen TMP 2002.76.1 is from the Dinosaur Park Formation and, if it belongs to Achelousaurus, the genus would be the stratigraphically oldest known pachyrhinosaurine taxon.
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To increase the tensile strength, the composite can go through heat pressing. A mycelium composite made out of 75 wt% rice hulls have density of 193 kg/m3, while 75 wt% wheat grains has 359 kg/m3, which shows how different mycelium substance has effect on its property. One the methods to increase the density of the composite would be by deleting a hydrophobin gene. These composites also have the ability of self fusion which increases their strength.
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It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world, and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally. It is susceptible to chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications. S-glass ("S" for "Strength") is used when high tensile strength (modulus) is important, and is thus important in composites for building and aircraft construction. The same substance is known as R-glass ("R" for "reinforcement") in Europe.
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It is performed after the material has been "spun" into filaments; by extruding the polymer melt through pores of a spinneret. During this process, the individual polymer chains tend to somewhat align because of viscous flow. These filaments still have an amorphous structure, so they are drawn to align the fibers further, thus increasing crystallinity, tensile strength, and stiffness. This is done on a draw twister machine.. For nylon, the fiber is stretched to four times its spun length.
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Titanium is superconducting when cooled below its critical temperature of 0.49 K. Commercially pure (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa (63,000 psi), equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are less dense. Titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g., Beta C) achieve tensile strengths of over 1,400 MPa (200,000 psi).
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The Spider's seal, however, was concealed in the base of his platinum cigarette lighter and was invented by Professor Brownlee. The Spider also carried a thin silken line (his "web") which had a tensile strength of several hundred pounds. Brownlee also invented the lethal and almost silent air pistol the Spider used for "quiet" kills. He acted as a sort of on-call weaponsmith for Wentworth, whom he looked upon as being close to a son.
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These changes can cause a significant reduction in the mechanical properties in dentin e.g. hardness, stiffness, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and shrinkage during drying, which makes dentin in and under hybrid layer more prone to cohesive failures under occlusal forces. Lower mineral content of the caries-affected dentin will allow phosphoric acid or acidic monomers to demineralize matrix more deeply than in normal dentin, which results in even more residual water in exposed collagen matrix.
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Older Militärblachen have the TAZ 83 camo pattern on one side, newer ones have a green camo pattern on both sides, not similar to the TAZ 90 pattern. The Swiss Militärblache is square and has a side length of 165 centimeters. It consists of chemically modified Cotton and has reinforced seams, giving it a very high tensile strength. Along the edges are 32 buttonholes and 64 Aluminium buttons installed in double rows, making it possible to connect two sheets.
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While many in vitro and in vivo studies have been tested in animal models, the translation from animal models to humans has not begun. Factors such as the size of surgical cut sites, duration of the procedure, and available resources and cost must all be considered. Synthetic nanomaterials have the potential to advance scaffoldings used in tissue engineering of heart valves. The use of nanotechnology could help expand beneficial properties of fabricated scaffolds such as higher tensile strength.
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Mycologia 70(6): 1181–1190. Further, the funicular cord, known to be highly elastic and with a high tensile strength, is made of thicker hyphae than the rest of the funiculus. Also, the ecto- and endoperidium are made of thick-walled, unbranched hyphae, known as skeletal hyphae. It has been proposed that these skeletal hyphae form a structural network that helps the fruiting body maintain the elasticity vital for proper functioning of the spore dispersal mechanism.
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The polymerized form has excellent tensile strength and is very effective in closing surgical or wound incisions. The closure of the wound or cut is quick (about 30 to 45 seconds) and the product has inherently some valuable bacteriostatic properties. The cosmetic outcome of the closure is comparable or generally better than an equivalent suture substitute with least amount of scarring visible after three to six months. Also important is the degradation properties of polymerized NBCA within the body.
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Some current tether designs use crystalline plastics such as ultra high molecular weight polyethylene, aramid or carbon fiber. A possible future material would be carbon nanotubes, which have an estimated tensile strength between 140 and 177 GPa (20.3-25.6 million psi), and a proven tensile strength in the range 50-60 GPa for some individual nanotubes. (A number of other materials obtain 10 to 20 GPa in some samples on the nano scale, but translating such strengths to the macro scale has been challenging so far, with, as of 2011, CNT-based ropes being an order of magnitude less strong, not yet stronger than more conventional carbon fiber on that scale).Tensile tests of ropes of very long aligned multiwall carbon nanotubes Tensile Loading of Ropes of Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes and their Mechanical Properties For some applications, the tensile force on the tether is projected to be less than NASA, TSS-1R Mission Failure Investigation Board, Final Report, May 31, 1996 (accessed 7 April 2011) Material selection in this case depends on the purpose of the mission and design constraints.
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For the steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness. Heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering can significantly change these properties, however. Cast Iron is defined as an iron–carbon alloy with more than 2.00% but less than 6.67% carbon. Stainless steel is defined as a regular steel alloy with greater than 10% by weight alloying content of Chromium.
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Crossbowman cocking an arbalest The arbalest (also arblast) was a late variation of the crossbow coming into use in Europe during the 12th century. A large weapon, the arbalest had a steel prod ("bow"). Since the arbalest was much larger than earlier crossbows, and because of the greater tensile strength of steel, it had a greater force. However, the greater draw weight was offset by the smaller powerstroke, which limited its potential in fully transferring the energy into the crossbow bolt.
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The pascal (symbol: Pa) is the SI derived unit of pressure used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Young's modulus and ultimate tensile strength. The unit, named after Blaise Pascal, is defined as one newton per square metre. The unit of measurement called standard atmosphere (atm) is defined as . Common multiple units of the pascal are the hectopascal (1 hPa = 100 Pa), which is equal to one millibar, and the kilopascal (1 kPa = 1000 Pa), which is equal to one centibar.
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The materials that make up a particular glass composition have an effect on how quickly the glass corrodes. Glasses containing a high proportion of alkali or alkaline earth elements are more susceptible to corrosion than other glass compositions. The density of glass varies with chemical composition with values ranging from for fused silica to for dense flint glass. Glass is stronger than most metals, with a theoretical tensile strength estimated at to due to its ability to undergo reversible compression without fracture.
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In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a fixed shape, but has considerable tensile strength. The apparent rigidity of primary plant tissues is enabled by cell walls, but is not due to the walls' stiffness. Hydraulic turgor pressure creates this rigidity, along with the wall structure. The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop, or in seaweeds that bend in water currents.
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A very stiff material may resist bending, but unless it is sufficiently tough, it may have to be very large to support a load without breaking. On the other hand, a highly elastic material will bend under a load even if its high toughness prevents fracture. Furthermore, each component’s integrity must correspond to its individual application in any load-bearing structure. Bridge supports need a high yield strength, whereas the bolts that hold them need good shear and tensile strength.
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Sericin has also been used in medicine and cosmetics. Due to its elasticity and tensile strength, along with a natural affinity for keratin, sericin is primarily used in medicine for wound suturing. It also has a natural infection resistance, and is used variably due to excellent biocompatibility, and thus is used commonly as a wound coagulant as well. When used in cosmetics, sericin has been found to improve skin elasticity and several anti-aging factors, including an anti-wrinkle property.
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Vinyl coated polyester is the most frequently used material for flexible fabric structures. It is made up of a polyester scrim, a bonding or adhesive agent, and exterior PVC coatings. The scrim supports the coating (which is initially applied in liquid form) and provides the tensile strength, elongation, tear strength, and dimensional stability of the resulting fabric. Vinyl-coated polyester is manufactured in large panels by heat-sealing an over-lap seam with either a radio-frequency welder or a hot-air sealer.
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Henry Cowan (1977). The Masterbuilders, New York, p. 56, However, due to the absence of reinforcement, its tensile strength was far lower than modern reinforced concrete, and its mode of application also differed:History of Concrete > Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important > details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to > be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the > placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble.
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During the 1920s concrete gained popularity as a material for bridge construction since it was cheaper than stone yet similar in its compressive strength. Designers of the new Anoka–Champlin Bridge used an arch form and encased steel to compensate for concrete's low tensile strength. Since it did not require painting, as steel did, the bridge was considered relatively low maintenance. Construction workers built the Anoka–Champlin Bridge's concrete arches using falsework—scaffolds and wooden forms used to pour concrete.
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The extracellular matrix secreted by chondroblasts is composed of fibers, collagen, hyaluronic acid, proteoglycans, glycoproteins, water, and a host of macromolecules. Within finished cartilage, collagen fibers compose 10-20% of the volume, water 65-80%, and the proteoglycan-hyaluronic acid aggregates the remaining portion. Due to the proliferative nature of Chondroblasts, cells compose a larger portion of the composition than what is normally found within completed cartilage. Collagen Type II fibers are responsible for giving the future cartilage matrix its tensile strength.
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The large and airy greenhouse, prominent raised bodyline highlighted by Inox trim circling the car at shoulder height, and scalloped panels below drew comparisons to the 1960 Chevrolet Corvair. The car's flat "flying" roof was carried on high-tensile strength steel pillars that extended down into the chassis for support. The sloping nose carried inset headlamps, prescient of Robert Opron's later redesign of the DS's nose. The car was first presented to the public on 24 June 1963 at the Montlhéry race circuit.
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Alternatively, the material should be able to blend with other substances which have these functional qualities. Crystallinity. The degree of a material’s crystallinity dictates qualities such as rigidity. High crystallinity can be attributed to hydrogen bonding which in turn increases thermal stability, tensile strength (important for maintaining the scaffold’s shape), water retention (important for hydrating the cells) and young’s modulus. Degradation. Certain materials degrade into compounds which are beneficial to cells, although inversely, this degradation can be irrelevant or detrimental for the cells.
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Its Liberty L-12 engines featured duralumin adjustable-pitch propellers built by the Standard Steel Propeller Company of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, (forerunner of the Hamilton Standard Propeller Company). At least nine tests of tensile strength were made of its propeller blades between 1925 and 1927, one of which reported failure after 34 hours of flying time and 10 hours of testing.Miller, Dr. Roger G. "Four 'Caterpillars' and a funeral documents on the crash of the Huff-Daland XLB-5." Air Power History, Fall 2002.
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2017 Toyota Prius Prime badge Toyota expected the Prius Prime to achieve an EPA rating of , a 26% enhancement over the first generation model. Toyota targeted the fuel economy in hybrid mode to be equal or better than regular fourth generation Prius liftback. To reduce weight, Toyota used aluminum for the hood, and high-tensile strength steel. The Prius Prime features Toyota's first carbon fiber rear hatch, which saves weight, while a dual-wave rear glass design helps cut drag.
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For an avalanche to occur, it is necessary that a snowpack have a weak layer (or instability) below a slab of cohesive snow. In practice the formal mechanical and structural factors related to snowpack instability are not directly observable outside of laboratories, thus the more easily observed properties of the snow layers (e.g. penetration resistance, grain size, grain type, temperature) are used as index measurements of the mechanical properties of the snow (e.g. tensile strength, friction coefficients, shear strength, and ductile strength).
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Another method of preparing the surface prior to coating is known as abrasive blasting or sandblasting and shot blasting. Blast media and blasting abrasives are used to provide surface texturing and preparation, etching, finishing, and degreasing for products made of wood, plastic, or glass. The most important properties to consider are chemical composition and density; particle shape and size; and impact resistance. Silicon carbide grit blast medium is brittle, sharp, and suitable for grinding metals and low- tensile strength, non-metallic materials.
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Polymer degradation is a change in the properties—tensile strength, color, shape, etc.—of a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors such as heat, light or chemicals such as acids, alkalis and some salts. These changes are usually undesirable, such as cracking and chemical disintegration of products or, more rarely, desirable, as in biodegradation, or deliberately lowering the molecular weight of a polymer for recycling. The changes in properties are often termed "aging".
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AGEs on laminin result in reduced binding to type IV collagen in the basement membrane, reduced polymer elongation and reduced binding of heparan sulfate proteoglycan. ;Impaired NO synthesis :Nitric oxide is known as an important stimulator of cell proliferation, maturation and differentiation. Thus, nitric oxide increases fibroblast proliferation and thereby collagen production in wound healing. Also, L-arginine and nitric oxide are required for proper cross linking of collagen fibers, via proline, to minimize scarring and maximize the tensile strength of healed tissue.
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Liquidmetal and Vitreloy are commercial names of a series of amorphous metal alloys developed by a California Institute of Technology (Caltech) research team and marketed by Liquidmetal Technologies. Liquidmetal alloys combine a number of desirable material features, including high tensile strength, excellent corrosion resistance, very high coefficient of restitution and excellent anti-wearing characteristics, while also being able to be heat- formed in processes similar to thermoplastics. Despite the name, they are not liquid at room temperature.liquidmetal.com. Liquidmetal Coatings Material.
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With a smooth stem the ends are threaded to allow connection to the plug and the actuator. The stem must not only withstand a large amount of compression force during valve closure, but also have high tensile strength during valve opening. In addition, the stem must be very straight, or have low run out, in order to ensure good valve closure. This minimum run out also minimizes wear of the packing contained in the bonnet, which provides the seal against leakage.
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This pressure can increase to levels where the metal has reduced ductility, toughness, and tensile strength, up to the point where it cracks open (hydrogen-induced cracking, or HIC). Metal hydride formation: The formation of brittle hydrides with the parent material allows cracks to propagate in a brittle fashion. Phase transformations: Phase transformations occur for some materials when hydrogen is present. Hydrogen enhanced decohesion: Hydrogen enhanced decohesion (HEDE) where the strength of the atomic bonds of the parent material are reduced.
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Nike Lunaracer+ sneakers, with the vectran fibers behind and around the Nike logo Nike adapts Vectran fibers, which are produced by Kuraray, into embroidery threads, before use in the shoe. Vectran fibers are thinner than human hair, and relatively inexpensive. Vectran is lightweight, flexible, and high in tensile strength, the stress at which material deforms (five times stronger than steel), which makes it an ideal component for synthetic fibers. Vectran has also been used by NASA and in bicycle tires, among other things.
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The precursor of this technique, friction stir welding, is used to join multiple pieces of metal without creating the heat affected zone typical of fusion welding. When ideally implemented, this process mixes the material without changing the phase (by melting or otherwise) and creates a microstructure with fine, equiaxed grains. This homogeneous grain structure, separated by high-angle boundaries, allows some aluminium alloys to take on superplastic properties. Friction stir processing also enhances the tensile strength and fatigue strength of the metal.
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Wittson Cycles is a Northern European handmade bicycle manufacturer located in Klaipeda, Lithuania. Wittson works exclusively with titanium and sources the European Grade 9 tubes from Baltic neighbor Sweden and the VSMPO Titan Scandinavia corporation, which also supplies aerospace luminaries Boeing and Airbus. Wittson uses 3/2.5 Ti for their frame production, and 6/4 Ti, which has greater tensile strength but is much harder to weld, for dropouts and bottom bracket shells, along with smaller bits such as brake cable stops.
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The primary forms of mechanical degradation associated with geomembranes result from insufficient tensile strength, tear resistance, impact resistance, puncture resistance, and susceptibility to environmental stress cracking (ESC). The ideal method of assessing the amount of liner degradation would be by examining field samples over their service life. Due to the lengths of time required for field sampling tests, various laboratory-accelerated ageing tests have been developed to measure the important mechanical properties.Rowe, R. Kerry, S Rimal, and S Rimal. 2008.
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Among the early customers was the Midland Railway's Derby Works for which it supplied cylinder blocks and other castings. Although cast iron ornaments were going out of fashion, until the advent of steel there was an increasing demand for engineering and for iron framed construction. He concentrated in improving the strength of the material, which, when tested at Woolwich in 1854 proved to have a tensile strength of between 20 and 23 tons per square inch, against a norm of about seventeen.
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In this case the pressure difference causes a resultant tension in the surrounding tissues which exceeds their tensile strength. Besides tissue rupture, the overpressure may cause ingress of gases into the tissues and further afield through the circulatory system. This pulmonary barotrauma (PBt) of ascent is also known as pulmonary over-inflation syndrome (POIS), lung over-pressure injury (LOP) and burst lung. Consequent injuries may include arterial gas embolism, pneumothorax, mediastinal, interstitial and subcutaneous emphysemas, not usually all at the same time.
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The attractive forces between polymer chains play a large part in determining the polymer’s properties. Because polymer chains are so long, they have many such interchain interactions per molecule, amplifying the effect of these interactions on the polymer properties in comparison to attractions between conventional molecules. Different side groups on the polymer can lend the polymer to ionic bonding or hydrogen bonding between its own chains. These stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher crystalline melting points.
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One of the advantages about using mycelium based composites is that properties can be altered depending on fabrication process and the use of different fungus. Properties depend on type of fungus used and where they are grown. Additionally, fungi has an ability to degrade the cellulose component of the plant to make composites in a preferable manner. Some important mechanical properties such as compressive strength, morphology, tensile strength, hydrophobicity, and flexural strength can be modified as well for different use of the composite.
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A modern universal testing machine Test fixture for three point flex test A universal testing machine (UTM), also known as a universal tester, materials testing machine or materials test frame, is used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength of materials. An earlier name for a tensile testing machine is a tensometer. The "universal" part of the name reflects that it can perform many standard tensile and compression tests on materials, components, and structures (in other words, that it is versatile).
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There is little melting and minimum grain growth, but a definite bond and grain interface. Thus the materials actually bond while still in the solid state. The bonded materials typically exhibit excellent shear and tensile strength, but poor peel strength. In a fusion bond, either similar or dissimilar materials with similar grain structures are heated to the melting point (liquid state) of both. The subsequent cooling and combination of the materials forms a “nugget” alloy of the two materials with larger grain growth.
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Alan Birch, Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry (2006) Other important steel products—also made using the open hearth process—were steel cable, steel rod and sheet steel which enabled large, high-pressure boilers and high-tensile strength steel for machinery which enabled much more powerful engines, gears and axles than were previously possible. With large amounts of steel it became possible to build much more powerful guns and carriages, tanks, armored fighting vehicles and naval ships.
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In its raw form, tungsten is a hard steel-grey metal that is often brittle and hard to work. If made very pure, tungsten retains its hardness (which exceeds that of many steels), and becomes malleable enough that it can be worked easily. It is worked by forging, drawing, or extruding but it is more commonly formed by sintering. Of all metals in pure form, tungsten has the highest melting point (), lowest vapor pressure (at temperatures above ), and the highest tensile strength.
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Production tubing is the main conduit for transporting hydrocarbons from the reservoir to surface (or injection material the other way). It runs from the tubing hanger at the top of the wellhead down to a point generally just above the top of the production zone. Production tubing is available in various diameters, typically ranging from 2 inches to 4.5 inches. Production tubing may be manufactured using various grades of alloys to achieve specific hardness, corrosion resistance or tensile strength requirements.
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This new apparatus led to an abundance of new findings, including a study of the compressibility, electric and thermal conductivity, tensile strength and viscosity of more than 100 different compounds. Bridgman is also known for his studies of electrical conduction in metals and properties of crystals. He developed the Bridgman seal and is the eponym for Bridgman's thermodynamic equations. Bridgman made many improvements to his high-pressure apparatus over the years, and unsuccessfully attempted the synthesis of diamond many times.
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Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0.5% strain to failure. Although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material and finding alternative polymer matrix. One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength.
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Over a depth range known as the brittle ice zone, bubbles of air are trapped in the ice under great pressure. When the core is brought to the surface, the bubbles can exert a stress that exceeds the tensile strength of the ice, resulting in cracks and spall. At greater depths, the air disappears into clathrates and the ice becomes stable again.. At the WAIS Divide site, the brittle ice zone was from 520 m to 1340 m depth., pp. 20–21.
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Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength. As a result, without compensating, concrete would almost always fail from tensile stresses (Stress (mechanics)#Mohr's circle) even when loaded in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete elements subjected to tensile stresses must be reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops.
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For example, with rubber, tear resistance measures how the test specimen resists the growth of any cuts when under tension, it is usually measured in kN/m.Tear Resistance., , 15 June 2012 Tear resistance can be measured by the ASTM D 412 method (the same used to measure tensile strength, modulus and elongation). ASTM D 624 can be used to measure the resistance to the formation of a tear (tear initiation) and the resistance to the expansion of a tear (tear propagation).
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Components of the SiGe unicouple Heavily doped semiconductors, such as silicon-germanium (SiGe) thermoelectric couples (also called thermocouples or unicouples), are used in space exploration. SiGe alloys present good thermoelectric properties. Their performance in thermoelectric power production is characterized by high dimensionless figures-of-merit (ZT) under high temperatures, which has been shown to be near 2 in some nanostructured-SiGe models. SiGe alloy devices are mechanically rugged and can withstand severe shock and vibration due to its high tensile strength (i.e.
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These potassium ions are larger than the sodium ions and therefore wedge into the gaps left by the smaller sodium ions when they migrate to the potassium nitrate solution. This replacement of ions causes the surface of the glass to be in a state of compression and the core in compensating tension. The surface compression of chemically strengthened glass may reach up to 690 MPa. The strengthening mechanism depends on the fact that the compressive strength of glass is significantly higher than its tensile strength.
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Several tests can be performed on a certain plastic in order to determine whether a potential additive increases its biodegradability. Comparison of the changes in physical properties of the plastic both with and without potential biodegradable additives throughout the degradation process can provide insight into the efficacy of the additive. If the degradation is significantly affected with the addition of the additive, it could indicate that biodegradation is improved. Some important physical properties that can be measured experimentally are tensile strength, molecular weight, elasticity, and crystallinity.
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Glass microsphere filler (left) and fiber fillers (right) Glass filler materials come in a few diverse forms: glass beads, short glass fibers, long glass fibers. in plastics by tonnage. Glass fibers are used to increase the mechanical properties of the thermoplastic or thermoset such as flexural modulus and tensile strength, There is normally not an economic benefit for adding glass as a filler material. Some disadvantages of having glass in the matrix is low surface quality, very viscous when melted, low weldability and warpage.
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Beams and joist are horizontal structural members that distribute the dead and live load from the upper floors to the load-bearing walls. The beams and joist in Gedung Kuning are made out of timber because it was a readily available material back then. It is often made of Chengal, a hardwood that is resistant to the dead load transferred from the upper floors. It is an economical material as it could be sourced locally and has enough tensile strength to carry lateral loads.
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Ancient Egyptians were the first to document tools for ropemaking The availability of reliable and durable ropes and lines has had many consequences for the development and utility of traditional fishing boats. They can be used to lash planks and frames together, as stay lines for masts, as anchor lines to secure the boat, and as fishing lines for making fishing nets. Ropes and lines are made of fibre lengths, twisted or braided together to provide tensile strength. They are used for pulling, but not for pushing.
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The "Spanish" grade is usually regarded as the higher-quality, while the "Tripoli" grade, from Africa, is lesser quality. The fibers are fairly short in relation to their width, yet do not create any significant amount of dust. Because of the short fiber length, the tensile strength of the paper is less than that of many other papers, but its resistance to shrinkage and stretching is superior, and the paper is a well-filled, dense paper with excellent inking qualities. It also has very good folding properties.
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High entropy alloys (HEAs) such as AlLiMgScTi are composed of equal or nearly equal quantities of five or more metals. Compared to conventional alloys with only one or two base metals, HEAs have considerably better strength-to-weight ratios, higher tensile strength, and greater resistance to fracturing, corrosion, and oxidation. Although HEAs were described as early as 1981, significant interest did not develop until the 2010s; they continue to be the focus of research in materials science and engineering because of their potential for desirable properties.
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Goddard returned to a smaller design, and his L-13 reached an altitude of 2.7 kilometers (1.7 mi; 8,900 ft), the highest of any of his rockets. Weight was reduced by using thin-walled fuel tanks wound with high-tensile-strength wire. Goddard experimented with many of the features of today's large rockets, such as multiple combustion chambers and nozzles. In November 1936, he flew the world's first rocket (L-7) with multiple chambers, hoping to increase thrust without increasing the size of a single chamber.
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A photograph and representative spectrum of photoluminescence from colloidal CdSe quantum dots Cadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, is used in the aircraft industry to reduce corrosion of steel components. This coating is passivated by chromate salts. A limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high- strength steels from the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts heat- treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition).
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Ceramic materials are usually ionic or covalent bonded materials, and can be crystalline or amorphous. A material held together by either type of bond will tend to fracture before any plastic deformation takes place, which results in poor toughness in these materials. Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the pores and other microscopic imperfections act as stress concentrators, decreasing the toughness further, and reducing the tensile strength. These combine to give catastrophic failures, as opposed to the more ductile failure modes of metals.
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The bulk modulus of lead—a measure of its ease of compressibility—is 45.8 GPa. In comparison, that of aluminium is 75.2 GPa; copper 137.8 GPa; and mild steel 160–169 GPa. Lead's tensile strength, at 12–17 MPa, is low (that of aluminium is 6 times higher, copper 10 times, and mild steel 15 times higher); it can be strengthened by adding small amounts of copper or antimony. The melting point of lead—at 327.5 °C (621.5 °F)—is very low compared to most metals.
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An issue with the T-beam compared to the I-beam is the lack of the bottom flange. In addition, this makes the beam not as versatile because of the weaker side not having the flange making it have less tensile strength. Concrete beams are often poured integrally with the slab, forming a much stronger –shaped beam. These beams are very efficient because the slab portion carries the compressive loads and the reinforcing bars placed at the bottom of the stem carry the tension.
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By using a chilled glass slab, the working time will be increased. Clinical studies have been carried out and results show that over a ten-year period, zinc phosphate cemented restorations had a lower risk of failure compared to other conventional cements such as glass ionomer or resin-modified glass ionomer. However, it has some well-known clinical disadvantages including high clinical solubility, lack of adhesion, low setting pH and a low tensile strength. Zinc Polycarboxylate Zinc polycarboxylate was the first cement to bind to tooth structure.
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It is susceptible to chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine applications. S-glass ("S" for "stiff") is used when tensile strength (high modulus) is important and is thus an important building and aircraft epoxy composite (it is called R-glass, "R" for "reinforcement" in Europe). C-glass ("C" for "chemical resistance") and T-glass ("T" is for "thermal insulator"—a North American variant of C-glass) are resistant to chemical attack; both are often found in insulation-grades of blown fiberglass.
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FL-Ti3C2 (the most studied MXene) nanosheets can mix intimately with polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), forming alternating MXene-PVA layered structures. The electrical conductivities of the composites can be controlled from 4×10−4 to 220 S/cm (MXene weight content from 40% to 90%). The composites have tensile strength up to 400% stronger than pure MXene films and show better capacitance up to 500 F/cm3. A method of alternative filtration for forming MXene-carbon nanomaterials composite films is also devised.
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Flasks are often designed with bars that extend to span two opposite sides. The bars act as reinforcement to the molding sand, which is relatively weak in tensile strength. The bars help support the sand through the molding and pouring operation. Flasks are designed with an alignment or registration feature, so that the two flasks can be aligned to one another to ensure a casting can be more dimensionally accurate and also in small flasks, so that they cannot be fitted together the wrong way.
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Some of these new stabilizing techniques create hydrophobic surfaces and mass that prevent road failure from water penetration or heavy frosts by inhibiting the ingress of water into the treated layer. However, recent technology has increased the number of traditional additives used for soil stabilization purposes. Such non-traditional stabilizers include: Polymer based products (e.g. cross-linking water-based styrene acrylic polymers that significantly improves the load-bearing capacity and tensile strength of treated soils), Copolymer Based Products, fiber reinforcement, calcium chloride, and Sodium Chloride.
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Asbestos became increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders in the late 19th century because of its sound absorption, average tensile strength, its resistance to fire, heat, electrical and chemical damage, and affordability. It was used in such applications as electrical insulation for hotplate wiring and in building insulation. As of March 2013, there were 85 new personal-injury claims related to asbestos a day. There have been hundreds of thousands of asbestos injury claims over the past three decades which has led to bankruptcy for some companies.
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Sculpted head of a dignitary from ancient Iran (2000 BC) in arsenical copper Arsenical copper contains up to 0.5% arsenic which, at elevated temperatures, imparts higher tensile strength and a reduced tendency to scaling. It is typically specified in boiler work, especially locomotive fireboxes. It also helps prevent embrittlement of oxygen free copper by bismuth, antimony and lead by the formation of complex oxides. Copper with a larger percentage of arsenic is called arsenical bronze, which can be work-hardened much harder than copper.
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The original Ringer wore devices on the wrists of his body armor that allowed him to condense rings with tensile strength approaching steel appearing out of the air to use as weapons. This fired a variety of rings, including explosive rings, freezing rings, and constriction rings. He could also use a series of interlocking rings used as a ladder, a lasso, or a whip. In later versions of his suit, he had a "particulate-matter condenser", which could form rings from soot and smog in the air.
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A promising species is the fast-growing Trema orientalis which is appropriate for paper and pulp production; producing paper with good tensile strength and folding endurance. Another species for closer study is Celtis africana, which is fast-growing and can be used for furniture and panelling. Both of these species could be used as cover for slower-growing forest hardwoods which could be interplanted for more long-term production of more valuable timber. Forests have been a source of medicinal plants for hundreds of years.
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The removed loose anagen hairs are not fragile and are of normal tensile strength. In an electron microscope image of a loose anagen hair, deformities such as grooves, curls and ridges are visible in the hair shaft, which is made from keratin. A cross-sectional examination of a loose anagen hair displays irregularity such as the shape of the hair being triangular rather than oval. The electron microscopy scanned image of the inner root sheath of a loose anagen hair would exhibit ultrastructural changes.
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Cast iron is not a good structural material for handling tension or bending moments because of its brittleness and relatively low tensile strength compared to steel and wrought iron. Cast iron has good compressive strength and was successfully used for structural components that were largely in compression in well designed bridges and buildings. In a few instances bridges and buildings built with cast iron failed when misused. Cast iron was used as early as the 9th century in pagoda construction in Tang Dynasty China.
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Nylon gillnets gave higher catchability characteristics than any other gears mainly because of higher tensile strength, mesh-size constancy, resistance to abrasion and durability of the nylon fibre material. The introduction of new fish species also boosted fish production. Fish production increased by six times in 30 years rising from 60,000 tons in 1961 to 245,000 tons in 1990 partly as a result of higher productivity of the lakes but also because of the increased catch effort. In 1983 when production was estimated at 78,000 tons p.a.
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Diamond Rubber experimented with various additives, such as mercury iodide and aniline, in an attempt to improve the properties of lower quality rubber. The addition of only 2.5 to 6 percent of these additives improved the tensile strength of low quality rubber from 1800 psi to 2800 psi, and shortened the vulcanization time to a 90 minutes. However, these additives were detrimental to the lifetime of the rubber. In 1912, Spence was working with George Oenslager at Diamond Rubber to discover different additives to overcome these shortcomings.
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Diabetes mellitus is one such metabolic disorder that impedes the normal steps of the wound healing process. Many studies show a prolonged inflammatory phase in diabetic wounds, which causes a delay in the formation of mature granulation tissue and a parallel reduction in wound tensile strength. Treatment of diabetic foot ulcers should include: blood sugar control, removal of dead tissue from the wound, wound dressings, and removing pressure from the wound through techniques such as total contact casting. Surgery in some cases may improve outcomes.
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The effect, impact and significance of infection by this fungus is rooted in the fact that it causes brown rot, which degrades the cellulose. Thus there is a loss of tensile strength which often leads to brittle fracture near the stem base, even at a fairly early stage of decay. Decay initiated above ground can lead to branch snap or breakout. P. schweinitzii is native to North America and Eurasia, and has been identified as an exotic species in New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa.
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Magnesium wrought alloy proof stress is typically 160-240 MPa, tensile strength is 180-440 MPa and elongation is 7-40%. The most common wrought alloys are: : AZ31 : AZ61 : AZ80 : Elektron 675 : ZK60 : M1A : HK31 : HM21 : ZE41 : ZC71 ZM21 AM40 AM50 AM60 K1A M1 ZK10 ZK20 ZK30 ZK40 Wrought magnesium alloys have a special feature. Their compressive proof strength is smaller than tensile proof strength. After forming, wrought magnesium alloys have a stringy texture in the deformation direction, which increases the tensile proof strength.
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A. Blanton (Personal Communication, March 11, 2009). The superficial layer of the lamina propria is a structure that vibrates a great deal during phonation, and the viscoelasticity needed to support this vibratory function depends mostly on extracellular matrices. The primary extracellular matrices of the vocal fold cover are reticular, collagenous and elastic fibers, as well as glycoprotein and glycosaminoglycan. These fibers serve as scaffolds for structural maintenance, providing tensile strength and resilience so that the vocal folds may vibrate freely but still retain their shape.
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WMAP image of the (extremely tiny) anisotropies in the cosmic background radiation Anisotropy () is the property of a material which allows it to change or assume different properties in different directions as opposed to isotropy. It can be defined as a difference, when measured along different axes, in a material's physical or mechanical properties (absorbance, refractive index, conductivity, tensile strength, etc.) An example of anisotropy is light coming through a polarizer. Another is wood, which is easier to split along its grain than across it.
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The main components of a typical flywheel A typical system consists of a flywheel supported by rolling- element bearing connected to a motor–generator. The flywheel and sometimes motor–generator may be enclosed in a vacuum chamber to reduce friction and reduce energy loss. First-generation flywheel energy-storage systems use a large steel flywheel rotating on mechanical bearings. Newer systems use carbon-fiber composite rotors that have a higher tensile strength than steel and can store much more energy for the same mass.
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The high girders were also made of wrought iron and had a very high tensile strength. They were found after the accident at the bottom of the Tay estuary and relatively little damaged compared with the cast iron columns which supported them. Some were reused in local houses, and when they were demolished in the 1960s, some were removed to the Royal Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh, where they are on public display. He died in 1897, and was succeeded by his son in the family business.
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The 2006 Mitsubishi Pajero utilizes built-in frame monocoque body with crumple zones around the engine to absorb impact energy. Measures taken to boost body stiffness include more spot welds, a stiffer cowl top, switching from 270 MPa grade to 440 MPa grade high tensile strength steel, and the strategic use of structural adhesives. It features stiffer body joins and use of more plated steel sheet for improved durability and reliability. Switching to aluminum has lowered the weight of the engine hood by approximately 9 kg.
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World War I canvas webbing strap PALS and MOLLE grids of webbing, which are based on wide webbing with spacing between each sewing point. Military webbing, otherwise known as Mil-Spec webbing, is typically made of strips of woven narrow fabrics of high tensile strength, such as nylon, Kevlar, and Nomex. When these materials are used for parachute and ballooning applications, they must also conform to PIA (Parachute Industry Association) standards. Mil-Spec webbing is used to make military belts, packs, pouches, and other forms of equipment.
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A slushflow is rapid mass movement of water and snow, and is categorized as a type of debris flow. Slushflows are caused when water reaches a critical concentration in the snowpack due to more water inflow than outflow. The high water concentration weakens the cohesion of the snow crystals and increases the weight of the snowpack. A slushflow is released when the component of the force of gravity parallel to the slope generates a hydraulic pressure gradient exceeding the tensile strength and basal friction of the snowpack.
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Finally, iron powder is a common coating additive that increases the rate at which the electrode fills the weld joint, up to twice as fast. To identify different electrodes, the American Welding Society established a system that assigns electrodes with a four- or five-digit number. Covered electrodes made of mild or low alloy steel carry the prefix E, followed by their number. The first two or three digits of the number specify the tensile strength of the weld metal, in thousand pounds per square inch (ksi).
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Environmental stress cracking is defined as external or internal cracking in plastic induced by applied tensile stress less than its short-term tensile strength. ESC is a fairly common observation in HDPE geomembranes and thus needs to be evaluated carefully. Proper polymeric properties, such as molecular weight, orientation, and distribution, aid in ESC resistance. ASTM D5397 [standard test method for evaluation of stress crack resistance of polyolefin geomembranes using notched constant tensile load (NCTL)] provides the necessary procedure for measuring the ESC resistance of most HDPE geomembranes.
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Titanium alloys are alloys that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. However, the high cost of both raw materials and processing limit their use to military applications, aircraft, spacecraft, bicycles, medical devices, jewelry, highly stressed components such as connecting rods on expensive sports cars and some premium sports equipment and consumer electronics.
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Irradiation-assisted dissolution of inter-granular zirconium hydrides under 6 keV He implantation in situ in a Transmission Electron Microscope at MIAMI Facility, United Kingdom. Zirconium hydride describes an alloy made by combining zirconium and hydrogen. Hydrogen acts as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the zirconium atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of hydrogen and the form of its presence in the zirconium hydride (precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting zirconium hydride.
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She used an Instron Tensile Testing machine to assess the weight, compressive strength and tensile strength of the fabrics used. As a result of her findings, a number of balloons were ruled unfit for use. Vadala also used the Instron to test laminated light weight materials to see if they were suitable for use in aircraft. Her publications include Failure mechanisms for advanced composite sandwich construction in hostile environments (1979) and Triaxially Woven Fabrics of Kevlar, Dacron Polyester and Hybrids of Kevlar and Dacron Polyester (1980).
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Because of the Moon's lower gravity and lack of atmosphere, a lunar elevator would have less stringent requirements for the tensile strength of the material making up its cable than an Earth-tethered cable. An Earth-based elevator would require high strength-to-weight materials that are theoretically possible, but not yet fabricated in practice (e.g., carbon nanotubes). A lunar elevator, however, could be constructed using commercially available mass-produced high-strength para-aramid fibres (such as Kevlar and M5) or ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene fibre.
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1983 Chevrolet C-10 Custom Deluxe Third-generation Square-body C/K-Series pickups gained an all-new, high tensile strength carbon steel ladder type frame with "drop center" design. Steering controls included variable-ratio recirculating ball steering gear with optional hydraulic power assist. Braking controls included front self- adjusting disc brakes with rear finned drum brakes and optional four-wheel hydraulic Hydra-Boost or Vacuum-Boost power assist. Engines choices initially consisted of six or eight cylinder engines with either manual or Turbo Hydra- Matic transmissions.
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It is not possible to adjust the axial thermal expansion of the wire as well. Because of the much higher mechanical strength of the nickel-iron core compared to the copper, the axial thermal expansion of the Dumet-wire is about the same as of the core. Thus, a shear stress builds up which is limited to a safe value by the low tensile strength of the copper. This is also the reason why Dumet is only useful for wire diameters lower than about 0.5 mm.
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Spinnability, sometimes referred as shear spinnability, can be defined as the ability of a metal to undergo shear spinning deformation without exceeding its tensile strength and tearing. Published work on spinnability is available from the authors Kegg and Kalpakcioglu. Kegg predicted that for materials with a tensile reduction of 80%, the limiting spinning reduction will be equal or greater than 80%. Kalpakciouglu concluded that for metals with a true fracture strain of 0.5 or greater, there is a maximum limit for the shear forming reduction.
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Because of the way that bone is formed, bone has a high compressive strength of about , poor tensile strength of 104–121 MPa, and a very low shear stress strength (51.6 MPa). This means that bone resists pushing (compressional) stress well, resist pulling (tensional) stress less well, but only poorly resists shear stress (such as due to torsional loads). While bone is essentially brittle, bone does have a significant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefly by collagen. Mechanically, bones also have a special role in hearing.
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It is initially a liquid, and hardens not by exposure to air but as a result of being drawn out, which changes the internal structure of the protein. It is similar in tensile strength to nylon and biological materials such as chitin, collagen and cellulose, but is much more elastic. In other words, it can stretch much further before breaking or losing shape. Some spiders have a cribellum, a modified spinneret with up to 40,000 spigots, each of which produces a single very fine fiber.
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LLDPE is defined by a density range of 0.915–0.925 g/cm3. LLDPE is a substantially linear polymer with significant numbers of short branches, commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with short-chain alpha-olefins (for example, 1-butene, 1-hexene, and 1-octene). LLDPE has higher tensile strength than LDPE, and it exhibits higher impact and puncture resistance than LDPE. Lower- thickness (gauge) films can be blown, compared with LDPE, with better environmental stress cracking resistance, but they are not as easy to process.
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Closed wrapping involves applying FRP around the entire perimeter of the member, such that there are no free ends and the typical failure mode is rupture of the fibres. For all wrap configurations, the FRP can be applied along the length of the member as a continuous sheet or as discrete strips, having a predefined minimum width and spacing. Slabs may be strengthened by applying FRP strips at their bottom (tension) face. This will result in better flexural performance, since the tensile resistance of the slabs is supplemented by the tensile strength of FRP.
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Welding Parameters In DFSW, mechanical properties mainly include tensile strength, hardness, yield strength, elongation. Selecting optimum welding parameters results in achieving proper mechanical properties of the joint. Tool rotational speed (rpm), tool traverse speed (mm/min), tool tilt angle (degree), tool offset (mm), tool penetration (mm), and tool geometry are most important welding parameters in DFSW. The tool center is typically placed in the centerline of the joint for similar joints such as aluminum/aluminium or copper/copper joints; in contrast, it is shifted towards the softer materials in DFSW called tool offset.
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As pavement design has progressed, many highway engineers have noted that thermally induced stresses in rigid pavements can be just as intense as those imposed by wheel loadings. Due to the relatively low tensile strength of concrete, thermal stresses are extremely important to the design considerations of rigid pavements. Rigid pavements are generally constructed in three layers - a prepared subgrade, base or subbase, and a concrete slab. The concrete slab is constructed according to a designed choice of plan dimensions for the slab panels, directly influencing the intensity of thermal stresses occurring within the pavement.
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Fiber-reinforced composites (FRCs) consist of a matrix of one material containing parallel embedded fibers. There are two variants of fiber-reinforced composites, one with stiff fibers and a ductile matrix and one with ductile fibers and a stiff matrix. The former variant is exemplified by fiberglass which contains very strong but delicate glass fibers embedded in a softer plastic matrix resilient to fracture. The latter variant is found in almost all buildings as reinforced concrete with ductile, high tensile-strength steel rods embedded in brittle, high compressive-strength concrete.
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The rotor has no conductive windings or electrical connections; it consists of a solid disc of high tensile strength magnetic steel, with narrow slots cut in its circumference to create a series of narrow "teeth" that function as magnetic poles. The space between the teeth is filled with nonmagnetic material, to give the rotor a smooth surface to decrease aerodynamic drag. The rotor is turned at a high speed by an electric motor. The machine operates by variable reluctance (similar to an electric guitar pickup), changing the magnetic flux linking two coils.
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Silicon carbide fibers fibers range from 5–150 micrometres in diameter and composed primarily of silicon carbide molecules. Depending on manufacturing process, they may have some excess silicon or carbon, or have a small amount of oxygen. Relative to organic fibers and some ceramic fibers, silicon carbide fibers have high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion. (refs) These properties have made silicon carbide fiber the choice for hot section components in the next generation of gas turbines, e.g.
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Boron Fiber (also commonly called "boron filament") is an amorphous elemental boron product which represents the major industrial use of elemental (free) boron. Boron fiber manifests a combination of high strength and high elastic modulus. A common use of boron fibers is in the construction of high tensile strength tapes. Boron fiber use results in high-strength, lightweight materials that are used chiefly for advanced aerospace structures as a component of composite materials, as well as limited production consumer and sporting goods such as golf clubs and fishing rods.
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Plastics can also be classified by: their various physical properties, such as: hardness, density, tensile strength, resistance to heat and glass transition temperature, and by their chemical properties, such as the organic chemistry of the polymer and its resistance and reaction to various chemical products and processes, such as: organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt upon heating to a few hundred degrees celsius.Periodic Table of Polymers Dr Robin Kent – Tangram Technology Ltd. Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design.
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Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a high tensile strength. The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane called the middle lamella, which contains magnesium and calcium pectates (salts of pectic acid). Cells interact though plasmodesmata, which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall. In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a secondary wall is constructed between the plasma membrane and primary wall.
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Design codes and application standards and the cost of materials dictated the choice of steel with no welds for most gas cylinders; the steel is treated to resist corrosion. Some newly developed lightweight gas cylinders are made from stainless steel and composite materials. Due to the very high tensile strength of carbon fiber reinforced polymer, these vessels can be very light, but are more difficult to manufacture.See Composite overwrapped pressure vessel for details Cylinders reinforced or built-up with a fibre material usually must be inspected more frequently than metal cylinders, e.g.
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Because normal cast glass is brittle and has low tensile strength, there was a risk that the weight of any excess water build-up on the roof might have caused panes to shatter, showering shards of glass onto the patrons, ruining the valuable exhibits beneath, and weakening the structure. However, Paxton's ridge-and-furrow roof was designed to shed water very effectively. Rain ran off the angled glass roof panes into U-shaped cast-iron channels which ran the length of each roof section at the bottom of the 'furrow'. These channels were ingeniously multifunctional.
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A low-density TPS material might lack the tensile strength to resist spallation if the dynamic pressure is too high. A TPS material can perform well for a specific peak heat flux, but fail catastrophically for the same peak heat flux if the wall pressure is significantly increased (this happened with NASA's R-4 test spacecraft). Older TPS materials tend to be more labor-intensive and expensive to manufacture compared to modern materials. However, modern TPS materials often lack the flight history of the older materials (an important consideration for a risk-averse designer).
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The limiting distance to which a satellite can approach without breaking up depends on the rigidity of the satellite. At one extreme, a completely rigid satellite will maintain its shape until tidal forces break it apart. At the other extreme, a highly fluid satellite gradually deforms leading to increased tidal forces, causing the satellite to elongate, further compounding the tidal forces and causing it to break apart more readily. Most real satellites would lie somewhere between these two extremes, with tensile strength rendering the satellite neither perfectly rigid nor perfectly fluid.
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Type I chip Type I chips form when a material splits ahead of the cutting edge, owing to some upwards wedge action of the tool exceeding the tensile strength of the material, perpendicular to the surface. They are thus particularly important in fibrous materials, such as wood, where individual fibres are strong but they may be levered apart relatively easily. Type I chips generally form in cutting by tools with shallow cutting angles. Type I chips may form long, continuous swarf, limited in size only by the length of cut.
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It is also a popular filler in plastics. Some typical examples include around 15 to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) drainpipes, 5% to 15% loading of stearate-coated chalk or marble in uPVC window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene compounds are often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high usage temperatures.
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He conceptualized flying machines, a type of armoured fighting vehicle, concentrated solar power, an adding machine, and the double hull. Relatively few of his designs were constructed or even feasible during his lifetime, as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance. Some of his smaller inventions, however, entered the world of manufacturing unheralded, such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire. He is also sometimes credited with the inventions of the parachute, helicopter, and tank.
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Brittle materials may exhibit significant tensile strength by supporting a static load. Toughness indicates how much energy a material can absorb before mechanical failure, while fracture toughness (denoted KIc ) describes the ability of a material with inherent microstructural flaws to resist fracture via crack growth and propagation. If a material has a large value of fracture toughness, the basic principles of fracture mechanics suggest that it will most likely undergo ductile fracture. Brittle fracture is very characteristic of most ceramic and glass-ceramic materials that typically exhibit low (and inconsistent) values of KIc.
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Although 2218 is wrought alloy, owing to granular structure it can be used in casting and been precisely machined after casting. It is easy to weld, coat, or glue. Good workability, thermal conductivity and dimensional stability make 2218 alloy a material of choice whenever high-precision parts subject to thermal shocks (especially piston engine cylinders and cylinder heads) are needed.2218 Aluminium Forged Products Billet For Airplane Engine Cylinder Head 2218 alloy can be heat treated to increase tensile strength in expense of workability, with most common grades been F, T61, T71 and T72.
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Tendons are soft tissue structures that respond to changes in mechanical loading. Bulk mechanical properties, such as modulus, failure strain, and ultimate tensile strength, decrease over long periods of disuse as a result of micro-structural changes on the collagen fiber level. In micro-gravity simulations, human test subjects can experience gastrocnemius tendon strength loss of up to 58% over a 90-day period. Test subjects who were allowed to engage in resistance training displayed a smaller magnitude of tendon strength loss in the same micro- gravity environment, but modulus strength decrease was still significant.
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Rocket combustion chambers are normally operated at fairly high pressure, typically 10–200bar (1–20MPa, 150–3,000psi). When operated within significant atmospheric pressure, higher combustion chamber pressures give better performance by permitting a larger and more efficient nozzle to be fitted without it being grossly overexpanded. However, these high pressures cause the outermost part of the chamber to be under very large hoop stresses – rocket engines are pressure vessels. Worse, due to the high temperatures created in rocket engines the materials used tend to have a significantly lowered working tensile strength.
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By 2000 the condition of the house was severely degraded due to weathering. Extensive rust caused at least partly by spray from the nearby waterfall had seriously weakened the base fitting where the five support pillars for the house were fixed to the foundation rock. Many of the cross-struts and fittings were also rusted and loose or missing fixtures and not providing support. An engineering review noted the house was in danger of collapse due to loss of up to 90% of the tensile strength of the support beams and struts.
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The result is fibers with higher specific tensile strength than steel. Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink, artist's oil paint and water colours, carbon paper, automotive finishes, India ink and laser printer toner. Carbon black is also used as a filler in rubber products such as tyres and in plastic compounds. Activated charcoal is used as an absorbent and adsorbent in filter material in applications as diverse as gas masks, water purification, and kitchen extractor hoods, and in medicine to absorb toxins, poisons, or gases from the digestive system.
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Silk is an expensive material, and has been used for representative carpets of the Mamluk, Ottoman, and Safavid courts. Its tensile strength has been used in silk warps, but silk also appears in the carpet pile. Silk pile can be used to highlight special elements of the design in Turkmen rugs, but more expensive carpets from Kashan, Qum, Nain, and Isfahan in Persia, and Istanbul and Hereke in Turkey, have all-silk piles. Silk pile carpets are often exceptionally fine, with a short pile and an elaborate design.
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The lamina propria is a loose connective tissue, hence it is not as fibrous as the underlying connective tissue of the submucosa. The connective tissue and architecture of the lamina propria is very compressible and elastic, this can be seen in organs that require expansion such as the bladder. The collagen in the lamina propria of elastic organs has been shown to play a major role in mechanical function. In the bladder the collagen composition of its lamina propria allows for structure, tensile strength, and compliance, through complex coiling.
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Starting in the late 1970s and the early 1980s, several chemical companies identified the need to have an APP-like polymer produced to tight specifications. This type of polyolefin became known as on-purpose APAO, or just APAO, or APO. APAO synthesis and manufacture has been accomplished by properly designing the process of synthesizing the amorphous polyolefin, specifically, by the proper choice of catalyst system and the use of olefinic co-monomers. This process results in products with defined properties, such as melt viscosity, softening point, needle penetration, open time and tensile strength.
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The right arm hangs positioned by the figure's side, bearing no load. It is perhaps the earliest extant example of a free-hanging arm in a statue. In the surviving Roman marble copies, a large sculpted tree stump is obtrusively added behind one leg of the statue in order to support the weight of the stone; this would not have been present in the original bronze (the tensile strength of the metal would have made this unnecessary). A small strut is also usually present to support the right hand and lower arm.
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The method uses a single vessel reactor for simple synthesis and rapid scale up. The method results in a higher molecular weight which makes the polymer more structurally sound using a process with lower toxicity than competing technologies. The market for a bio-based and biodegradable replacement for polyester is expected to grow rapidly during the next five years. The bio- based polyester, P(3-HP), has attractive mechanical properties, such as rigidity, ductility, and exceptional tensile strength in drawn films and can be created using the new lower toxicity method.
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The details of the process depend on the type of metal and the precise alloy involved. In any case the result is a more ductile material but a lower yield strength and a lower tensile strength. This process is also called LP annealing for lamellar pearlite in the steel industry as opposed to a process anneal, which does not specify a microstructure and only has the goal of softening the material. Often the material to be machined is annealed, and then subject to further heat treatment to achieve the final desired properties.
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A blind rivet has strength properties that can be measured in terms of shear and tensile strength. Occasionally rivets also undergo performance testing for other critical features, such as pushout force, break load and salt spray resistance. A standardized destructive test according to the Inch Fastener Standards is widely accepted The shear test involves installing a rivet into two plates at specified hardness and thickness and measuring the force necessary to shear the plates. The tensile test is basically the same, except that it measures the pullout strength.
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These features indicate that the interplanar distance in exfoliated graphite is similar to that of the parent graphite, but the stack size (of graphene layers) is small. Since xGnP is composed of the same material as carbon nanotubes, it shares many of the electrochemical characteristics, although not the tensile strength. The platelet shape, however, offers xGnP edges that are easier to modify chemically for enhanced dispersion in polymers. Composite materials made with polymers, like plastics, nylon, or rubber, can be made electrically or thermally conductive with the addition of small amounts of xGnP.
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Several aspects of bamboo are extremely valuable to both cyclists and bicycle manufacturers: high strength-to-weight ratio, vibration control, and sustainable growth. Because of bamboo's tendency to grow straight, it does not exhibit "knots" and "turns" in its wood, unlike other types of wood. As a result, bamboo has a higher specific tensile strength than steel, as well as a higher specific compressive strength than concrete. This tendency also allows for excellent vibration control, which, in turn, provides for a smoother ride and increased stability on rough terrain.
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In the phloem, bast fibres occur in bundles that are glued together by pectin and calcium ions. More intense retting separates the fibre bundles into elementary fibres, that can be several centimetres long. Often bast fibres have higher tensile strength than other kinds, and are used in high-quality textiles (sometimes in blends with cotton or synthetic fibres), ropes, yarn, paper, composite materials and burlap. An important property of bast fibres is that they contain a special structure, the fibre node, that represents a weak point, and gives flexibility.
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Piano string ends Piano strings Piano wire, or "music wire", is a specialized type of wire made for use in piano strings but also in other applications as springs. It is made from tempered high-carbon steel, also known as spring steel, which replaced iron as the material starting in 1834. Piano wire has a very high tensile strength to cope with the heavy demands placed upon piano strings; accordingly, piano wire is also used for a number of other purposes, including springs, surgical uses, and in special effects.
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Geotextiles can be laminated on one or both sides of a geomembrane for a number of purposes. The geotextiles provide increased resistance to puncture, tear propagation, and friction related to sliding, as well as providing tensile strength in and of themselves. Quite often, however, the geotextiles are of the nonwoven, needle-punched variety and are of relatively heavy weight. In such cases the geotextile component acts as a drainage media, since its in- plane transmissivity feature can conduct water, leachate or gases away from direct contact with the geomembrane.
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They also showed the nonlinear elastic behaviors with higher-order terms in the stress- strain curve. In the higher strain region, it would need even higher-order (>3) to fully describe the nonlinear behavior. Other scientists also reported the nonlinear elasticity by the finite element method, and found that Young's modulus, tensile strength, and ductility of armchair graphene nanoribbons are all greater than those of zigzag graphene nanoribbons. Another report predicted the linear elasticity for the strain between -0.02 and 0.02 on the zigzag graphene nanoribbons by the density functional theory model.
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These qualities include such things as the hardness, quenching behaviour, need for annealing, tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting iron-hydrogen alloy. The retention of iron hydride's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by maintaining iron's ductility. At ordinary pressure, iron can incorporate a small amount of hydrogen into its crystal structure, and at extreme temperatures and pressures, such as might be found in the Earth's core, larger amounts of hydrogen can be incorporated. These substances are the subject of study in industrial metallurgy and planetary geology.
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Vibration is normally more easily excited by waves in ballast condition than in cargo condition. The converse may also be true since some ships experience more head wind and waves in ballast conditions, while other ships may experience more head wind and waves in cargo condition, thereby vibrating less overall. Ocean-going ships have not had this problem until recently, when high tensile strength steel was introduced as a common material in the whole ship to reduce initial costs. This makes the ships less stiff and the nominal stress level higher.
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Soil cement is a construction material, a mix of pulverized natural soil with small amount of portland cement and water, usually processed in a tumble, compacted to high density. Hard, semi-rigid durable material is formed by hydration of the cement particles. Soil cement is frequently used as a construction material for pipe bedding, slope protection, and road construction as a subbase layer reinforcing and protecting the subgrade. It has good compressive and shear strength, but is brittle and has low tensile strength, so it is prone to forming cracks.
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Filament tape used to mend a model airplane Filament tape or strapping tape is a pressure-sensitive tape used for several packaging functions such as closing corrugated fiberboard boxes, reinforcing packages, bundling items, pallet unitizing, etc. It consists of a pressure-sensitive adhesive coated onto a backing material which is usually a polypropylene or polyester film and fiberglass filaments embedded to add high tensile strength. It was invented in 1946 by Cyrus W. Bemmels, a scientist working for Johnson and Johnson. A variety of grades of filament tape are available.
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In the early years of rubber production, high quality natural rubber was obtained from the tree, Hevea braziliensis, found in the regions bordering the Amazon river. The high quality rubber exhibited desired properties, such as a high tensile strength (greater than 2800 psi) and a two-hour vulcanization time. Vulcanization is the process by which natural rubber is strengthened by cross-linking the different polymer chains, with either elemental sulfur bridges or other molecules known as accelerators. However, high quality natural rubber was expensive, with a price exceeding $1.50 per pound.
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Using this cartridge at full power in a handgun built around the standard .38 Super +P pressure limits and lower may result in a drastically increased level of wear on the firearm or even serious damage to it due to insufficient tensile strength and hardening of the frame, slide and various small parts. This is not a significant design problem as the recoil forces are directly comparable to those of the .45 ACP, and the lock up between barrel and slide is normally more than adequate to handle the increased pressure.
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He also pointed out similarities with the films The Sixth Sense and Ghost. David Armstrong, of the San Francisco Chronicle, praised the moments in the film when John and Frank Sullivan talked to each other over the ham radio but criticized the "unintentionally funny climax". He also praised actor Shawn Doyle's performance as the Nightingale killer, calling him "convincingly creepy". Todd McCarthy of Variety magazine said despite Dennis Quaid and James Caviezel's physical separation in the film, they formed a "palpable bond that [gave] the picture its tensile strength".
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Spider silk is one of the earliest known dermal patches. Primarily used for wound binding, the glycoprotein adhesive found on the capture spiral silk, as well as the protein structure of the fiber itself, has mild antibacterial properties. Due to the silk acting as a local antiseptic, which of course wasn't discovered until modern medicine, reduced the rate of wound borne sepsis and chronic illness. The silk's viscoelastic properties and inordinate tensile strength and toughness aided wound healing by acting in what we know today as 'surgical tape'.
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The outward facing angled thread bearing surface, when acted on by the load force, also applies a radial (outward) force to the nut, causing tensile stress. This radial bursting force increases with increasing thread angle. If the tensile strength of the nut material is insufficient, an excessive load on a nut with a large thread angle can split the nut. The thread angle also has an effect on the strength of the threads; threads with a large angle have a wide root compared with their size and are stronger.
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For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength, it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as rebars). This strengthened concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete. In order to minimise any air bubbles, that would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building material in the modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport.
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In addition, chitosan scaffolds are biocompatible and biodegradable, but have low toughness, and the material itself is not osteoconductive. Hydroxyapatite, on the other hand, features excellent biocompatibility but is hindered by its brittle nature. When implemented with hydroxyapatite as a composite, both the toughness and osteoconductivity significantly improve, making the composite a viable option for material for artificial bone. Chitosan can also be used with carbon nanotubes, which have a high Young's modulus (1.0–1.8 TPa), tensile strength (30–200 GPa), elongation at break (10–30%), and aspect ratio (>1,000).
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Filament winding is well suited to automation, and there are many applications, such as pipe and small pressure vessel that are wound and cured without any human intervention. The controlled variables for winding are fibre type, resin content, wind angle, tow or bandwidth and thickness of the fiber bundle. The angle at which the fibre is wound has an effect on the properties of the final product. A high angle "hoop" will provide circumferential strength, while lower angle patterns (either polar or helical) will provide greater longitudinal / anal tensile strength.
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Examples of this are "E70" meaning the arc electrode must have a tensile strength of . There are also symbols that describe the aesthetics of the weld. A gentle curve pointing away from the hypotenuse means a concave weld is required, a straight line parallel with the hypotenuse calls for a flat faced weld, and a gentle curve towards the hypotenuse calls for a convex weld. The surface of the weld can be manipulated either by welding technique or by use of machining or grinding tools after the weld is completed.
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In some species of Bryozoa, the first part of the stomach forms a muscular gizzard lined with chitinous teeth that crush armoured prey such as diatoms. Wave-like peristaltic contractions then move the food through the stomach for digestion. The limpet rasps algae from rocks using teeth with the strongest known tensile strength of any biological material Molluscs have a structure called a radula which bears a ribbon of chitinous teeth. However, these teeth are histologically and developmentally different from vertebrate teeth and are unlikely to be homologous.
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A Borazon drill is used in the TV series and film Quatermass and the Pit. In this story an alien spacecraft is unearthed in London and the drill is used in an attempt to open a sealed bulkhead. The shell of the object is so hard that even the Borazon drill makes no impression, and when the attempt is made, vibrations cause severe distress in people around the object. In Randall Garrett's's short story "Thin Edge" (Analog, Dec 1963) a fictional borazon- tungsten cable of extraordinary tensile strength is a central plot element.
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The introduction of boron steel elements introduced issues for accident scene rescuers as its high strength and hardness resisted many conventional cutting tools (hydraulic shears) in use at that time. Flat boron steel for automotive use is hot stamped in cooled molds from the austentic state (obtained by heating to 900-950C). A typical steel 22MnB5 shows a 2.5x increase in tensile strength after this process, from a base of 600MPa. Stamping can be done in an inert atmosphere, otherwise abrasive scale forms - alternatively a protective Al-Si coating can be used.
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The ultimate tensile strength of a material is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, depending on the material, it may be dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic deformation and possibly necking before fracture.
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The major difference between the two is the thermodynamic paths that precede the formation of the vapor. Boiling occurs when the local temperature of the liquid reaches the saturation temperature, and further heat is supplied to allow the liquid to sufficiently phase change into a gas. Cavitation inception occurs when the local pressure falls sufficiently far below the saturated vapor pressure, a value given by the tensile strength of the liquid at a certain temperature. In order for cavitation inception to occur, the cavitation "bubbles" generally need a surface on which they can nucleate.
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Fabric made of woven carbon filaments Carbon fibers or carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are fibers about in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms. Carbon fibers have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion. These properties have made carbon fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However, they are relatively expensive when compared with similar fibers, such as glass fibers or plastic fibers.
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Ventral view of Patella rustica showing its foot and head with tentacles. Patellogastropoda have flattened, cone-shaped shells, and the majority of species are commonly found adhering strongly to rocks or other hard substrates. Many limpet shells are covered in microscopic growths of green marine algae, which can make them even harder to see, as they can closely resemble the rock surface itself. The substance making up the teeth in the radula of limpets is among the strongest biological materials known, with a tensile strength about five times stronger than that of spider silk.
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Prevention of over-enlargement is achieved by choosing balloons manufactured out of high tensile strength clear plastic membranes. The balloon is initially folded around the catheter, near the tip, to create a small cross-sectional profile to facilitate passage through luminal stenotic areas, and is designed to inflate to a specific pre-designed diameter. If over-inflated, the balloon material simply tears and allows the inflating radiocontrast agent to simply escape into the blood. Additionally, several other devices can be advanced into the artery via a guiding catheter.
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483-504, Simon & Schuster, NY In the late 1950s and early 1960s it was adopted for hydrogen fuelled stages such as Centaur and Saturn upper stages. Even as a liquid, hydrogen has low density, requiring large tanks and pumps, and the extreme cold requires tank insulation. This extra weight reduces the mass fraction of the stage or requires extraordinary measures such as pressure stabilization of the tanks to reduce weight. Pressure stabilized tanks support most of the loads with internal pressure rather than with solid structures, employing primarily the tensile strength of the tank material.
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The main cables of the bridge on each side, consist of fourteen 36mm diameter steel wire ropes, each with a specified tensile strength of . The fourteen ropes are grouped into two cables of seven ropes each, and each rope consists of six strands, each having seven wires. They are anchored vertically in pits at either end of the bridge and have facility for length adjustment. Each rope has its own anchorage yoke around which it passes and is then fastened back to itself using six U-bolt clips.
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The original mild steel diagonal rods have been replaced with high strength steel rods (presumably grade 8.8 steel with an ultimate tensile strength of 800 MPa). These bear on galvanised steel thrust plates which are either original or similar to the original detail. To assist with durability, the chords and vertical tops have been capped with galvanised steel flashing. Bearings and Centre Hinge The bottom chords of the side trusses terminate at mid-span at a pin joining the two truss halves, and at the abutments in bearings.
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Space fill model of cellulose, prior to winding into fibrils The primary cell wall derives its notable tensile strength from cellulose molecules, or long-chains of glucose residues stabilized by hydrogen bonding. Cellulose chains are observed to align in overlapping parallel arrays, with the similar polarity forming a cellulose microfibril. In plants, these cellulose microfibrils arrange themselves into layers, formally known as lamellae, and are stabilized in the cell wall by surface, long cross-linking glycan molecules. Glycan molecules increase the complexity of the potential networks plant-based cellulose can configure itself into.
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Explicitly, heterogeneous plastic deformation forms bands at the upper yield strength and these bands carrying with deformation spread along the sample at the lower yield strength. After the sample is again uniformly deformed, the increase of stress with the progress of extension results from work strengthening, that is, dense dislocations induced by plastic deformation hampers the further motion of dislocations. To overcome these obstacles, a higher resolved shear stress should be applied. As the strain accumulates, work strengthening gets reinforced, until the stress reaches the ultimate tensile strength.
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At the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, he was a crew member of the Swedish boat Sylvia together with his father which won the bronze medal in the 8 metre class. Sandblom graduated from the Karolinska Institute with the dissertation The tensile strength of healing wounds in 1944. In 1950, Sandblom was made professor of surgery at Lund University, and he later served as rector of the University in 1957–1968. After retiring from Lund University, Sandblom was active as a physician and scientist in San Diego, California, USA, and Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Almost all of the organic (non-mineral) component of bone is dense collagen type I, which forms dense crosslinked ropes that give bone its tensile strength. By mechanisms still unclear, osteoblasts secrete layers of oriented collagen, with the layers parallel to the long axis of the bone alternating with layers at right angles to the long axis of the bone every few micrometers. Defects in collagen type I cause the commonest inherited disorder of bone, called osteogenesis imperfecta. Minor, but important, amounts of small proteins, including osteocalcin and osteopontin, are secreted in bone's organic matrix.
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Cable is very strong in tensile strength, with a breaking strength in excess of 1000 lbs for these types of uses, and is a suitable in-fill material for a railing ("guard" in ICC codes). Typical diameters are 1/8", 3/16" for residential and 3/16" and 1/4" for commercial applications. There are many different types cable and strand (also referred to as wire rope). Cable and strand is available in galvanized carbon steel, type 304 stainless steel, or the highly corrosion resistant, type 316 stainless steel (best for coastal areas).
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Fibroblasts secrete collagen and other proteins into the extracellular matrix where they bind to existing proteins, making the composition thicker and less extensible. Although this potentiates the tensile strength of the fascia, it can unfortunately restrict the very structures it aims to protect. The pathologies resulting from fascial restrictions range from a mild decrease in joint range of motion to severe fascial binding of muscles, nerves and blood vessels, as in compartment syndrome of the leg. However, if fascial contraction can be interrupted long enough, a reverse form of fascial remodeling occurs.
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A broad metal chain made of torus-shaped links. A high-tensile chain, also referred to as a transport chain, is a link chain with a high tensile strength used for drawing or securing loads. This type of chain usually consist of broad (thick/heavy) metal, oblong torus-shaped links for high strength. All the links of the chain are usually identical, and on the ends are usually two hooks of the appropriate size and strength to slide easily over one chain link but small enough not let the links slip by.
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Hemp paper means paper varieties consisting exclusively or to a large extent from pulp obtained from fibers of industrial hemp. The products are mainly specialty papers such as cigarette paper, banknotes and technical filter papers. Compared to wood pulp, hemp pulp offers a four to five times longer fibre, a significantly lower lignin fraction as well as a higher tear resistance and tensile strength. Because the paper industry's processes have been optimized for wood as the feedstock, production costs currently are much higher than for paper from wood.
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Recent increases in cost are also forcing many to look to carbon nanotube films as a potential alternative. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have attracted much attention because of their materials properties, including a high elastic modulus (~1–2 TPa), a high tensile strength (~13–53 GPa), and a high conductivity (metallic tubes can theoretically carry an electric current density of 4×109 A/cm2, which is ~1000 times higher than for other metals such as copper). CNT thin films have been used as transparent electrodes in TCFs because of these good electronic properties.
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This is relevant when internal insulation is used to circulate air or gas at a temperature beyond the rating of the vessel. Although the design engineer can use the material of his or her own choice, the normal selection is SA516 Grade 70 PVQ (Pressure Vessel Quality) carbon steel.SA516 PVQ Steel Plate - Chapel Steel This steel is particularly well suited for use in pressure vessels by virtue of having an exceptional spread between its comparatively low yield strength of 38 ksi and its tensile strength of 70 to 90 ksi. Elongation in plate is 21%.
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Dragon Skin armor is made of an overlapping series of high tensile strength ceramic discs encased in a fiber glass textile. Different layout configurations with variations in coverage are available. Dragon Skin Extreme is made of overlapping approximately × ceramic discs encased in a fabric cover. In evaluating the Dragon Skin system, it is important to note that while the external measurements of the Dragon Skin panel are × , the area of level III coverage provided by the encased ceramic discs is × ; the fabric edges are not intended to provide ballistic protection.
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Since the distribution range of geometric tortoise lies within a winter rainfall area, the annual grasses, geophytes and other herbaceous taxa are important food items during winter. During the summer, the annual green component is reduced and therefore the perennial grass, shrub and succulent components would serve geometric tortoise as the major food resource. Food sources tend to have a higher concentration of iron and had lower failure load and tensile strength than non-food plants. When eating the tortoise uses a grab and pull method that tends to be used more in larger herbivores.
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Antique Persian Kerman Rug Kerman carpets (sometimes "Kirman") are one of the traditional classifications of Persian carpets. Kerman is both a city and a province located in south central Iran, though the term sometimes describes a type which may have been made elsewhere. Kerman rugs are prized for a wide range of designs, a broad palette, use of natural dyes and fibers, great tensile strength and abrasion resistance, and expert color combinations. Typical manufacturing used an asymmetrical knot on cotton foundation, but rare examples include silk or part silk piles, or silk foundations with wool pile.
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By the early 1980s, this transmission capacity was no longer sufficient. It could not be increased by using bundle conductors or more conductive cables, as bundle conductors tend to have much greater wind-induced oscillations than single conductors, which can result in short circuits in such a long span. Normal overhead lines use conducting cables with a larger aluminium portion but these do not have the tensile strength needed for this span. In 1985 a 380 kV three- phase AC submarine cable with a maximum transmission capacity of 1000 MW was laid underneath the Strait of Messina.
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However, the third generation Outlander are not sold in the Philippine market due to poor sales, in favor of the third-row Mitsubishi Montero Sport. Mitsubishi Outlander (2014 facelift) Mitsubishi Outlander (2014 facelift) The redesigned model has a new lightweight body that weighs approximately less than the previous model due to extensive use of high tensile strength steel. With a lower drag coefficient of cd 0.33, fuel economy has been improved over the previous model. Inside, the dashboard and front doors are covered with soft touch material, the seats are redesigned, and there is good sound insulation.
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Polymers fracture via breaking of inter- and intra molecular bonds; hence, the chemical structure of these materials plays a huge role in increasing strength. For polymers consisting of chains which easily slide past each other, chemical and physical cross linking can be used to increase rigidity and yield strength. In thermoset polymers (thermosetting plastic), disulfide bridges and other covalent cross links give rise to a hard structure which can withstand very high temperatures. These cross-links are particularly helpful in improving tensile strength of materials which contain much free volume prone to crazing, typically glassy brittle polymers.
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There are also cases in which the tube reduces in diameter before closing off. Their unique molecular structure results in extraordinary macroscopic properties, including high tensile strength, high electrical conductivity, high ductility, high heat conductivity, and relative chemical inactivity (as it is cylindrical and "planar" — that is, it has no "exposed" atoms that can be easily displaced). One proposed use of carbon nanotubes is in paper batteries, developed in 2007 by researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Another highly speculative proposed use in the field of space technologies is to produce high-tensile carbon cables required by a space elevator.
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The large globular domains from both ends of the molecule are removed by C- and amino(N)-terminal-proteinases to generate triple-helical type III collagen monomers called tropocollagen. In addition, crosslinks form between certain lysine and hydroxylysine residues. In the extracellular space in tissues, type III collagen monomers assemble into macromolecular fibrils, which aggregate into fibers, providing a strong support structure for tissues requiring tensile strength. The triple-helical conformation, which is a characteristic feature of all fibrillar collagens, is possible because of the presence of a glycine as every third amino acid in the sequence of about 1000 amino acids.
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The various modifications have downstream effects on gene regulation, in which genes can be activated or repressed. Lysine has also been implicated to play a key role in other biological processes including; structural proteins of connective tissues, calcium homeostasis, and fatty acid metabolism. Lysine has been shown to be involved in the crosslinking between the three helical polypeptides in collagen, resulting in its stability and tensile strength. This mechanism is akin to the role of lysine in bacterial cell walls, in which lysine (and meso- diaminopimelate) are critical to the formation of crosslinks, and therefore, stability of the cell wall.
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Collagen is one of the long, fibrous structural proteins whose functions are quite different from those of globular proteins, such as enzymes. Tough bundles of collagen called collagen fibers are a major component of the extracellular matrix that supports most tissues and gives cells structure from the outside, but collagen is also found inside certain cells. Collagen has great tensile strength, and is the main component of fascia, cartilage, ligaments, tendons, bone and skin. Along with elastin and soft keratin, it is responsible for skin strength and elasticity, and its degradation leads to wrinkles that accompany aging.
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Kevlar is a heat-resistant and strong synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965, this high-strength material was used first commercially in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Typically it is spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such or as an ingredient in composite material components. Kevlar has many applications, ranging from bicycle tires and racing sails to bulletproof vests, because of its high tensile strength-to-weight ratio; by this measure it is five times stronger than steel.
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Wood fibers are used to produce biocomposites The differential for this class of composites is that they are biodegradable and pollute the environment less which is a concern for many scientists and engineers to minimize the environmental impact of the production of a composite. They are a renewable source, cheap, and in certain cases completely recyclable. One advantage of natural fibers is their low density, which results in a higher specific tensile strength and stiffness than glass fibers, besides of its lower manufacturing costs. As such, biocomposites could be a viable ecological alternative to carbon, glass, and man-made fiber composites.
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Woven reinforcements are cheaper, but the high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many higher-frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous structure also introduces local variations in electrical parameters, due to different resin/glass ratio at different areas of the weave pattern. Nonwoven reinforcements, or materials with low or no reinforcement, are more expensive but more suitable for some RF/analog applications. The substrates are characterized by several key parameters, chiefly thermomechanical (glass transition temperature, tensile strength, shear strength, thermal expansion), electrical (dielectric constant, loss tangent, dielectric breakdown voltage, leakage current, tracking resistance...), and others (e.g.
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The precise tensile strength of bulk diamond is unknown;however, compressive strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and it could be as high as 90–100 GPa in the form of nanometer-sized wires or needles (~100-300 nanometers in diameter),with a corresponding local maximum tensile elastic strain in excess of 9%. The anisotropy of diamond hardness is carefully considered during diamond cutting. Diamond has a high refractive index (2.417) and moderate dispersion (0.044) properties that give cut diamonds their brilliance. Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of crystallographic defects present.
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The standard steel core used for ACSR is galvanized steel, but zinc, 5% or 10% aluminium alloy and trace mischmetal coated steel (sometimes called by the trade-names Bezinal or Galfan) and aluminium-clad steel (sometimes called by the trade-name Alumoweld) are also available. Higher strength steel may also be used. In the United States the most commonly used steel is designated GA2 for galvanized steel (G) with class A zinc coating thickness (A) and regular strength (2). Class C zinc coatings are thicker than class A and provide increased corrosion protection at the expense of reduced tensile strength.
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Advanced manufacturing techniques such as pre- pregs and fiber rovings extend fiberglass's applications and the tensile strength possible with fiber-reinforced plastics. Fiberglass is also used in the telecommunications industry for shrouding antennas, due to its RF permeability and low signal attenuation properties. It may also be used to conceal other equipment where no signal permeability is required, such as equipment cabinets and steel support structures, due to the ease with which it can be molded and painted to blend with existing structures and surfaces. Other uses include sheet-form electrical insulators and structural components commonly found in power-industry products.
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In rod pumping applications, fiberglass rods are often used for their high tensile strength to weight ratio. Fiberglass rods provide an advantage over steel rods because they stretch more elastically (lower Young's modulus) than steel for a given weight, meaning more oil can be lifted from the hydrocarbon reservoir to the surface with each stroke, all while reducing the load on the pumping unit. Fiberglass rods must be kept in tension, however, as they frequently part if placed in even a small amount of compression. The buoyancy of the rods within a fluid amplifies this tendency.
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The controlled variables for winding are fiber type, resin content, wind angle, tow or bandwidth and thickness of the fiber bundle. The angle at which the fiber has an effect on the properties of the final product. A high angle "hoop" will provide circumferential or "burst" strength, while lower angle patterns (polar or helical) will provide greater longitudinal tensile strength. Products currently being produced using this technique range from pipes, golf clubs, Reverse Osmosis Membrane Housings, oars, bicycle forks, bicycle rims, power and transmission poles, pressure vessels to missile casings, aircraft fuselages and lamp posts and yacht masts.
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The spider is not aggressive and only bites if handled roughly; the venom is relatively harmless and rarely causes more than slight redness and temporary localized pain.Weems H. V. Jr. and Edwards, G. B. Jr. 2001 (2004 revision). "Golden silk spider", at UF / IFAS Featured Creatures website A single thread of the anchor silk has a tensile strength of 4×109 N/m2, which exceeds that of steel by a factor of eight (ultimate strength of steel 500x106 N/m2). The silk of T. clavipes has recently been investigated to evaluate its usefulness in surgically improving mammalian neuronal regeneration.
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Originally, transite had between 12-50% of asbestos fiber added to a cement base to provide tensile strength (similar to the rebar in reinforced concrete), and other materials. It was frequently used for such purposes as furnace flues, roof shingles, siding, soffit and fascia panels, and wallboard for areas where fire retardancy is particularly important. It was also used in walk-in coolers made in large supermarkets in the 1960s, 1970s and even the 1980s. Other uses included roof drain piping, water piping, sanitary sewer drain piping, laboratory fume hood panels, ceiling tiles, landscape edging, and HVAC ducts.
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In 2002-2003 a remedial works program replaced all the foundation fittings and re-braced the house to reduce movement and improve strength while carefully maintaining the original design and engineering ethos of the house. Bracing was increased in some areas from 1/2" steel rods to 3/4" steel rods which provided much greater tensile strength for the house. Internal bracing was repainted from original primer-red to a neutral green to blend in to the external environment visible through the glass walls. As at 1 January 2019, the condition of the building was good.
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Conspicuous materials include fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants; ground granulated blast furnace slag, a byproduct of steelmaking; and silica fume, a byproduct of industrial electric arc furnaces. Structures employing Portland cement concrete usually include steel reinforcement because this type of concrete can be formulated with high compressive strength, but always has lower tensile strength. Therefore, it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, typically steel rebar. Other materials can also be used as a concrete binder, the most prevalent alternative is asphalt, which is used as the binder in asphalt concrete.
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The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes makes them of potential use in controlling other nanoscale structures, which suggests they will have an important role in nanotechnology engineering. The highest tensile strength of an individual multi-walled carbon nanotube has been tested to be 63 GPa. Carbon nanotubes were found in Damascus steel from the 17th century, possibly helping to account for the legendary strength of the swords made of it. Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as building blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic (>1mm in all three dimensions) all-carbon devices.
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Over time, this webbing loses its tensile strength and can be removed. Pressure applied to his forearms has occasionally caused him to release webbing without meaning to. Although the original Spider-Man is able to have any part of his body (such as his back) adhere to surfaces through unknown and invisible means, Miguel can only cling to surfaces with his hands and feet due to angled talons protruding from his fingers and toes. These talons are not retractable but can fold down when Miguel concentrates and do so automatically when he touches his own skin so that he does not injure himself.
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Artificial spider webs are used by the superhero Spider-Man to restrain enemies and to make ropes on which to swing between buildings as quick transportation. Some incarnations of the character, such as the one in the original film trilogy and Spider-Man 2099, shoot natural webs, generated by spinneret-like organs in their forearms. The World Wide Web is thus named because of its tangled and interlaced structure, said to resemble that of a spider web. The notable tensile strength of spider webs is often exaggerated in science fiction, often as a plot device to justify the presence of artificially giant spiders.
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232x232pxIncreasing the rubber concentration in a nanocomposite decreases the modulus and tensile strength. In one study, looking at PA6-EPDM blend, increasing the concentration of rubber up to 30 percent showed a negative linear relationship with the brittle-tough transition temperature, after which the toughness decreased. This suggests that the toughening effect of adding rubber particles is limited to a critical concentration. This is examined further in a study on PMMA from 1998; using SAXS to analyze crazing density, it was found that crazing density increases and yield stress decreases until the critical point when the relationship flips.
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Recycling plastics presents the difficulty of handling mixed plastics, as unmixed plastics are usually necessary to maintain desirable properties. Mixing many plastics results in diminished material properties, with even just a few percent of polypropylene mixed with polyethylene producing a plastic with significantly reduced tensile strength. An alternative to recycling of these plastics and those which can’t be easily recycled such as thermosets is to use degradation to break the polymers down into monomers of low molecular weight. The products of this process can be used to make high quality polymers however energy stored in the polymer bonds is lost during this process.
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It is often used for small castings requiring good tensile strength and the ability to flex without breaking (ductility). Uses include electrical fittings, hand tools, pipe fittings, washers, brackets, fence fittings, power line hardware, farm equipment, mining hardware, and machine parts. Before the widespread use of malleable iron in everyday items, heavy- duty bench vises were made from cast steel. The use of cast steel has rapidly declined in most application due to its poor castability, and hence high- quality cast vises (as opposed to forged ones), among other tools and machine elements, are now almost exclusively made of malleable iron.
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Customs accepted seals are security seals which the customs department of a given country will accept as a secure seal to be placed onto a container. This does not mean that all exporters or importers should place a customs accepted seal on their containers or trailers. Many businesses who transport high value goods like to use Customs Accepted Seals as these seals have been through rigorous testing and are of high quality. The UK Security Seal Testing Authority tests these seals on various points such as "Tensile Strength", "Effects of Heat", "Direct Effects of Freezing", "Effective Numbering & Marking", "Tamper Evidence", and more.
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The three diameters that characterize threads Sign ⌀ in a technical drawing There are three characteristic diameters (⌀) of threads: major diameter, minor diameter, and pitch diameter: Industry standards specify minimum (min.) and maximum (max.) limits for each of these, for all recognized thread sizes. The minimum limits for external (or bolt, in ISO terminology), and the maximum limits for internal (nut), thread sizes are there to ensure that threads do not strip at the tensile strength limits for the parent material. The minimum limits for internal, and maximum limits for external, threads are there to ensure that the threads fit together.
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Another important aspect of textile-reinforced concrete is the permeability of the textile. Special attention must be paid to its structure, such that the textile is open enough for the concrete to flow through, while remaining stable enough to hold its own shape, since the placement of the reinforcement is vital to the final strength of the piece. The textile material must also have a high tensile strength, a high elongation before breaking, and a higher Young's Modulus than the concrete surrounding it. The textile can be hand laid into the concrete or the process could be mechanized to increase efficiency.
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62, 86 In the Lexingtons longitudinal strength was challenged further by the large amount of freeboard required at the forward section of the hull to keep the ships dry and maintain a high speed in various types of weather. Also, while the of belt armor being considered was not an impressive amount in itself, the belt's running potentially along 80 percent of the waterline and covering the entire side amidships made the amount of armor protection impressive by European standards. Because of the difference in ultimate tensile strength between armor steel and hull steel, severe stresses on the hull were expected.
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Within the linear region, the electronic properties would be relatively stable under the slightly changing geometry. The energy gaps increase from -0.02 eV to 0.02 eV for the strain between -0.02 and 0.02, which provides the feasibilities for future engineering applications. The tensile strength of the armchair graphene nanoribbons is 175 GPa with the great ductility of 30.26% fracture strain, which shows the greater mechanical properties comparing to the value of 130 GPa and 25% experimentally measured on monolayer graphene. As expected, graphene nanoribbons with smaller width would completely break down faster, since the ratio of the weaker edged bonds increased.
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After heat treatment the metal parts are finished with a proprietary nitriding process called Tenifer Plus+. This finish is characterized by extreme wear and corrosion resistance; it penetrates the metal, and treated parts have similar properties even below the surface to a certain depth. The Tenifer Plus+ process produces a matte gray-colored, non- glare surface with a 64 Rockwell C hardness rating and a 1,200–1,300 N/mm2 tensile strength. This finish makes the HS2000 particularly suitable for concealed carry, as the highly chloride-resistant finish allows the pistol to better endure the effects of perspiration.
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Other factors can include the thickness of the linkplates and the design (contour) of the linkplates. The rule of thumb for roller chain operating on a continuous drive is for the chain load to not exceed a mere 1/6 or 1/9 of the chain's tensile strength, depending on the type of master links used (press-fit vs. slip-fit). Roller chains operating on a continuous drive beyond these thresholds can and typically do fail prematurely via linkplate fatigue failure. The standard minimum ultimate strength of the ANSI 29.1 steel chain is 12,500 x (pitch, in inches)2.
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In electronics applications, where circuits typically operate over a −55 °C to +125 °C range, eutectic tin-lead (Sn63) solder is working at 0.48Tmp to 0.87Tmp. The upper temperature is high relative to the melting point; from this we can deduce that solder will have limited mechanical strength (as a bulk material) and significant creep under stress. This is borne out by its comparatively low values for tensile strength, shear strength and modulus of elasticity. Copper, on the other hand, has a much higher melting point, so foils are working at only 0.16Tmp to 0.29Tmp and their properties are little affected by temperature.
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The zirconium and titanium based Liquidmetal alloys achieved yield strength of over 1723 MPa, nearly twice the strength of conventional crystalline titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V is ~830 MPa), and about the strength of high-strength steels and some highly engineered bulk composite materials (see tensile strength for a list of common materials). However, the early casting methods introduced microscopic flaws that were excellent sites for crack propagation which led to Vitreloy being fragile like glass. Although strong, these early batches shattered easily when struck. Newer casting methods, adjustments of the alloy mixtures and other changes have improved this.
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Three-strand natural fiber laid line Rope may be constructed of any long, stringy, fibrous material, but generally is constructed of certain natural or synthetic fibres. Synthetic fibre ropes are significantly stronger than their natural fibre counterparts, they have a higher tensile strength, they are more resistant to rotting than ropes created from natural fibers, and they can be made to float on water. But synthetic rope also possess certain disadvantages, including slipperiness, and some can be damaged more easily by UV light. Common natural fibres for rope are manila hemp, hemp, linen, cotton, coir, jute, straw, and sisal.
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Footwear that is specialized to provide shock- absorption can be utilized to defend the longevity of the tendon. Achilles tendon injuries can be the result of exceeding the tendon's capabilities for loading, therefore it is important to gradually adapt to exercise if someone is inexperienced, sedentary, or is an athlete who is not progressing at a steady rate. Eccentric strengthening exercises of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles are utilized to improve the tensile strength of the tendon and lengthen the muscle-tendon junction, decreasing the amount of strain experienced with ankle joint movements.G T Allison, C Purdam.
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Secondly, the alloy is capable of greater work-hardening than is the case with pure copper, so that it performs better when used for cutting or chopping. An increase in work-hardening capability arises with an increasing percentage of arsenic, and the bronze can be work-hardened over a wide range of temperatures without fear of embrittlement. Its improved properties over pure copper can be seen with as little as 0.5 to 2 wt% As, giving a 10-to-30% improvement in hardness and tensile strength. Thirdly, in the correct percentages, it can contribute a silvery sheen to the article being manufactured.
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Numerous studies have shown decreases in both compressive and tensile strength as well as elastic modulus of concrete at around a dosage of around 1019 neutrons per square centimeter. These trends were also shown to exist in reinforced concrete, a composite of both concrete and steel. The knowledge gained from current analyses of materials in fission reactors in regards to the effects of temperature, irradiation dosage, materials compositions, and surface treatments will be helpful in the design of future fission reactors as well as the development of fusion reactors. Solids subject to radiation are constantly being bombarded with high energy particles.
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The stimulation ranged from 200-800uA and the treated group showed 200%-350% faster healing rates, with stronger tensile strength of scar tissue and antibacterial effects. In 1991, the German scientists Drs. Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their development of the patch-clamp technique that allows the detection of minute electrical currents in cell membranes. This method allowed the detection of 20 to 40 types of ion channels that allow positive or negatively charged ions into and out of the cells and confirmed that electrical activity is not limited to nerve and muscle tissue.
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Some researchers report increased expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinases in individuals with AAA. This leads to elimination of elastin from the media, rendering the aortic wall more susceptible to the influence of blood pressure. Other reports have suggested the serine protease granzyme B may contribute to aortic aneurysm rupture through the cleavage of decorin, leading to disrupted collagen organization and reduced tensile strength of the adventitia. There is also a reduced amount of vasa vasorum in the abdominal aorta (compared to the thoracic aorta); consequently, the tunica media must rely mostly on diffusion for nutrition, which makes it more susceptible to damage.
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They may discourage herbivory by damaging digestive passages in small insect larval stages. Sclereids form the hard pit wall of peaches and many other fruits, providing physical protection to the developing kernel. Fibres are elongated cells with lignified secondary walls that provide load-bearing support and tensile strength to the leaves and stems of herbaceous plants. Sclerenchyma fibres are not involved in conduction, either of water and nutrients (as in the xylem) or of carbon compounds (as in the phloem), but it is likely that they evolved as modifications of xylem and phloem initials in early land plants.
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There would need to be significant infrastructure in place before industrial scale production of lunarcrete could be possible. The casting of lunarcrete would require a pressurized environment, because attempting to cast in a vacuum would simply result in the water sublimating, and the lunarcrete failing to harden. Two solutions to this problem have been proposed: premixing the aggregate and the cement and then using a steam injection process to add the water, or the use of a pressurized concrete fabrication plant that produces pre-cast concrete blocks. Lunarcrete shares the same lack of tensile strength as terrestrial concrete.
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Structural testing is the evaluation of an object (which might be an assembly of objects) to ascertain its characteristics of physical strength. Testing includes evaluating compressive strength, shear strength, tensile strength, all of which may be conducted to failure or to some satisfactory margin of safety. Evaluations may also be indirect, using techniques such as x-ray ultrasound, and ground-penetrating radar, among others, to assess the quality of the object. Structural engineers conduct structural testing to evaluate material suitability for a particular application and to evaluate the capacity of existing structures to withstand foreseeable loads.
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Stress-strain curve provides all the relevant mechanical properties including; tensile modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and fracture strength The study of nanowire mechanics has boomed since the advent of the Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), and associated technologies which have enabled direct study of the response of the nanowire to an applied load. Specifically, a nanowire can be clamped from one end, and the free end displaced by an AFM tip. In this cantilever geometry, the height of the AFM is precisely known, and the force applied is precisely known. This allows for construction of a force vs.
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The plastic component of the stress strain curve (or more accurately the onset of plasticity) is described by the yield strength. The strength of a material is increased by decreasing the number of defects in the solid, which occurs naturally in nanomaterials where the volume of the solid is reduced. As a nanowire is shrunk to a single line of atoms, the strength should theoretically increase all the way to the molecular tensile strength. Gold nanowires have been described as ‘ultrahigh strength’ due to the extreme increase in yield strength, approaching the theoretical value of E/10.
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The second stage is the strain hardening region. This region starts as the stress goes beyond the yielding point, reaching a maximum at the ultimate strength point, which is the maximal stress that can be sustained and is called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). In this region, the stress mainly increases as the material elongates, except that for some materials such as steel, there is a nearly flat region at the beginning. The stress of the flat region is defined as the lower yield point (LYP) and results from the formation and propagation of Lüders bands.
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The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by dipoles in the monomer units. Polymers containing amide or carbonyl groups can form hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains; the partially positively charged hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one chain are strongly attracted to the partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O groups on another. These strong hydrogen bonds, for example, result in the high tensile strength and melting point of polymers containing urethane or urea linkages. Polyesters have dipole-dipole bonding between the oxygen atoms in C=O groups and the hydrogen atoms in H-C groups.
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He gave her the name of Tilikum ("Relative" in Chinook jargon), rigged her, and led her in a hectic three-year voyage from British Columbia to London. Redcedar branches are very flexible and have good tensile strength. They were stripped and used as strong cords for fishing line, rope cores, twine, and other purposes where bark cord was not strong enough or might fray. Both the branches and bark rope have been replaced by modern fiber and nylon cordage among the aboriginal northwest coast peoples, though the bark is still in use for the other purposes mentioned above.
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Clay plaster is a mixture of clay, sand and water with the addition of plant fibers for tensile strength over wood lath. Clay plaster has been used since antiquity. Settlers in the American colonies used clay plaster on the interiors of their houses: “Interior plastering in the form of clay antedated even the building of houses of frame, and must have been visible in the inside of wattle filling in those earliest frame houses in which …wainscot had not been indulged. Clay continued in the use long after the adoption of laths and brick filling for the frame.
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The plant cell wall has high tensile strength and must be loosened to enable the cell to grow (enlarge irreversibly). Within the cell wall, this expansion of surface area involves slippage or movement of cellulose microfibrils, which normally is coupled to simultaneous uptake of water. In physical terms, this mode of wall expansion requires cell turgor pressure to stretch the cell wall and put the network of interlinked cellulose microfibrils under tension. By loosening the linkages between cellulose microfibrils, expansins allow the wall to yield to the tensile stresses created in the wall through turgor pressure.
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The T-3000 (Jason Clarke) uses nanorobotics in a similar shapeshifting capacity as the T-1000; however, it is not a liquid metal being. The T-5000 (Matt Smith) has the ability to convert a living organism into a nanorobotic T-3000 Terminator at the cellular level. The new T-3000 Terminator keeps the appearance of its original organic form and retains its host's memories and behavioral characteristics (see posthuman/technological singularity). Mimetic polyalloy is a fictional type of "liquid metal", described as an amorphous alloy that is twice the tensile strength of titanium, and composed entirely from microscopic nanites.
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Developments in face-hardened armour in the late nineteenth and early to mid-twentieth centuries revealed that such armour was less effective against glancing oblique impacts. The hardened face layer's brittleness was counterproductive against such impacts. Consequently, alongside face hardened armour such as KCA, homogeneous armour types that combined ductility and tensile strength were developed to protect against glancing impacts. Homogeneous armour was typically used for deck armour, which is subject to more high-obliquity impacts and, on some warships such as and battleships, for lower belt armour below the waterline to protect against shells that land short and dive underwater.
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This is a less well developed design, but offers some other possibilities. If the cable provides a useful tensile strength to density of about 48.1 GPa/(kg/m3) or above, then a constant width cable can reach beyond geostationary orbit without breaking under its own weight. The far end can then be turned around and passed back down to the Earth forming a constant width loop, which would be kept spinning to avoid tangling. The two sides of the loop are naturally kept apart by coriolis forces due to the rotation of the Earth and the loop.
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S-N curve for a brittle aluminium with an ultimate tensile strength of 320 MPa Materials fatigue performance is commonly characterized by an S-N curve, also known as a Wöhler curve. This is often plotted with the cyclic stress (S) against the cycles to failure (N) on a logarithmic scale. S-N curves are derived from tests on samples of the material to be characterized (often called coupons or specimens) where a regular sinusoidal stress is applied by a testing machine which also counts the number of cycles to failure. This process is sometimes known as coupon testing.
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It plots stress amplitude against mean stress with the fatigue limit and the ultimate tensile strength of the material as the two extremes. Alternative failure criteria include Soderberg and Gerber. As coupons sampled from a homogeneous frame will display a variation in their number of cycles to failure, the S-N curve should more properly be a Stress-Cycle-Probability (S-N-P) curve to capture the probability of failure after a given number of cycles of a certain stress. With body-centered cubic materials (bcc), the Wöhler curve often becomes a horizontal line with decreasing stress amplitude, i.e.
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Much of Unwin's work in the 1890s was the testing of engines and boilers initially for coal- fired steam systems but later on internal combustion engines. He also investigated the tensile strength of various alloys using the 100 ton testing equipment at the college. Between 1896 and 1900 he was a member of the Departmental Committee of the Board of Trade investigating the loss of strength in steel rails performing many experiments on behalf of the committee. He was elected as President of the Institution of Civil Engineers in November 1911 and served a one-year term.
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The high-temperature, high-neutron dose, and, if using a molten salt coolant, the corrosive environment, of the VHTR require materials that exceed the limitations of current nuclear reactors. In a study of Generation IV reactors in general (of which there are numerous designs, including the VHTR), Murty and Charit suggest that materials that have high dimensional stability, either with or without stress, maintain their tensile strength, ductility, creep resistance, etc. after aging, and are corrosion resistant are primary candidates for use in VHTRs. Some materials suggested include nickel-base superalloys, silicon carbide, specific grades of graphite, high-chromium steels, and refractory alloys.
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Mount Dorothy Reservoir was completed in 1961 to meet the increasing need for water in the western suburbs of Sydney, particularly at Wentworthville and Westmead. Mount Dorothy Reservoir (WS 73) is one of only two reservoirs using prestressed concrete technology to be built by the Metropolitan Water Sewerage & Drainage Board, although a number of similar reservoirs have been taken over by the Board. It was the first in the board's area to employ the technology. The reservoir was also wrapped in a stressed steel wire providing compressive and tensile strength to the walls of the reservoir.
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The top roll is usually a standard roll, while the bottom roll is actually a large CC roll with an extended shoe curved to the shape of the top roll, surrounded by a rotating rubber belt rather than a standard roll cover. The goal of the ENP is to extend the dwell time of the sheet between the two rolls thereby maximising the de-watering. Compared to a standard roll press that achieves up to 35% solids after pressing, an ENP brings this up to 45% and higher—delivering significant steam savings or speed increases. ENPs densify the sheet, thus increasing tensile strength and some other physical properties.
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This effectively makes the bow function very similar to a recurve, with the draw length determined by the shooter's preferred anchor point. This removes the necessity to adjust the bow draw length or use a different bow for different shooters (or to change bows as the shooter gets older). An example of this type of bow is the Genesis, which is standard equipment in the U.S. National Archery in the Schools Program. Compound bow strings and cables are normally made of high-modulus polyethylene and are designed to have great tensile strength and minimal stretchability, so that the bow transfers its energy to the arrow as efficiently and durably as possible.
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A similar envelope can be used to reduce the critical size of a nuclear weapon, but here the envelope has an additional role: its inertia delays the expansion of the reacting material. For this reason such an envelope is often called a tamper. The weapon tends to disintegrate as the reaction proceeds and this tends to stop the reaction, so the use of a tamper makes for a longer-lasting, more energetic, and more efficient explosion. The most effective tamper is the one having the highest density; high tensile strength is irrelevant because no material remains intact under the extreme pressures of a nuclear weapon.
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The bond results because the metal atoms become somewhat positively charged due to loss of their electrons while the electrons remain attracted to many atoms, without being part of any given atom. Metallic bonding may be seen as an extreme example of delocalization of electrons over a large system of covalent bonds, in which every atom participates. This type of bonding is often very strong (resulting in the tensile strength of metals). However, metallic bonding is more collective in nature than other types, and so they allow metal crystals to more easily deform, because they are composed of atoms attracted to each other, but not in any particularly-oriented ways.
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Today osseointegration is a highly predictable and commonplace treatment modality. More recently since 2010 Al Muderis in Sydney Australia utilised a high tensile strength titanium implant with high prose plasma sprayed surface as an intramedullary prosthesis that is inserted into the bone residuum of amputees and then connect through an opening in the skin to a robotic limb prosthesis. This allows amputees to mobilise with more comfort and less energy consumption. Al Muderis also published the first series of combining osseointegration prosthesis with Joint replacement enabling below knee amputees with knee arthritis or short residual bone to mobilise without the need of a socket prosthesis.
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Hydrogen hardens nickel (as it does most metals), inhibiting dislocations in the nickel atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another. Varying the amount of alloying hydrogen and the form of its presence in the nickel hydride (precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting nickel hydride. Nickel hydride with increased hydrogen content can be made harder and stronger than nickel, but such nickel hydride is also less ductile than nickel. Loss of ductility occurs due to cracks maintaining sharp points due to suppression of elastic deformation by the hydrogen, and voids forming under tension due to decomposition of the hydride.
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Pulp produced by the kraft process is stronger than that made by other pulping processes and maintains a high effective sulfur ratio (sulfidity), an important determiner of the strength of the paper. Acidic sulfite processes degrade cellulose more than the kraft process, which leads to weaker fibers. Kraft pulping removes most of the lignin present originally in the wood whereas mechanical pulping processes leave most of the lignin in the fibers. The hydrophobic nature of lignin interferes with the formation of the hydrogen bonds between cellulose (and hemicellulose) in the fibers needed for the strength of paper (strength refers to tensile strength and resistance to tearing).
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Brown went on to build several further chain bridges, as well as the Trinity Chain Pier in Newhaven, Edinburgh (opened in 1821 and destroyed in a storm in 1898) and the Chain Pier at Brighton (1823–1896).Chain Pier Encyclopaedia of Brighton by Tim Carder, 1990, Brighton & Hove Most of his designs used an unstiffened bridge deck, before it became clear that this form was vulnerable to wind forces and unstable under concentrated loads. His designs were reviewed by eminent engineers including John Rennie and Thomas Telford, and generally approved. Brown's designs were significantly less conservative than his contemporaries, adopting a higher tensile strength for his iron chains.
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The width of the rim in relationship to the tire is a factor in the handling characteristics of an automobile, because the rim supports the tire's profile. The sidewall is that part of the tire, or bicycle tire, that bridges between the tread and bead. The sidewall is largely rubber but reinforced with fabric or steel cords that provide for tensile strength and flexibility. The sidewall contains air pressure and transmits the torque applied by the drive axle to the tread to create traction but supports little of the weight of the vehicle, as is clear from the total collapse of the tire when punctured.
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Canadian blacksmith in the 1970s Heating iron to a "forging heat" allows bending as if it were a soft, ductile metal, like copper or silver. Bending can be done with the hammer over the horn or edge of the anvil or by inserting a bending fork into the hardy hole (the square hole in the top of the anvil), placing the work piece between the tines of the fork, and bending the material to the desired angle. Bends can be dressed and tightened, or widened, by hammering them over the appropriately shaped part of the anvil. Some metals are "hot short", meaning they lose their tensile strength when heated.
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RMGIC, also known as hybrid cements, was developed with the purpose of eliminating weaknesses of the traditional glass-ionomer (GI) to enhance its existing properties. The addition of polymerisable resins (hydrophilic methacrylate monomers) results in higher compressive and tensile strength, as well as lower solubility, all of which are ideal properties of a dental luting agent. The setting reaction takes place with the relatively quick polymerisation of resins and gradual acid-base reaction of GI. At the early stage of setting reaction, RMGIC has a certain degree of solubility at the margins. Therefore, it is important to keep the margin dry for around 10 minutes to minimise loss of marginal cement.
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Provisional (or temporary) luting agents are used specifically for inter- appointment fixation of temporary restorations, prior to cementation of a permanent restoration. It is mainly provisional crowns and bridges (fixed partial dentures) that are cemented with eugenol-containing temporary cements, but sometimes they may be used for permanent restorations. As these temporary restorations will require removal, their ideal properties should consist of poor physical properties, such as low tensile strength and high solubility; as well as no pulp irritability and easy handling. The main examples of temporary luting agents include zinc oxide-eugenol cements, non-eugenol containing zinc oxide cements and calcium hydroxide pastes.
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The crystals and fibres interpenetrate and reinforce each other, the minerals supplying the hardness and resistance to compression, while the chitin supplies the tensile strength. Biomineralization occurs mainly in crustaceans; in insects and Arachnids the main reinforcing materials are various proteins hardened by linking the fibres in processes called sclerotisation and the hardened proteins are called sclerotin. Four sclerites form a ring around each segment: a dorsal tergite, lateral sternites and a ventral pleurite. In either case, in contrast to the carapace of a tortoise or the cranium of a vertebrate, the exoskeleton has little ability to grow or change its form once it has matured.
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The reaction occurring between double bonds and ozone is known as ozonolysis when one molecule of the gas reacts with the double bond: A generalized scheme of ozonolysis The immediate result is formation of an ozonide, which then decomposes rapidly so that the double bond is cleaved. This is the critical step in chain breakage when polymers are attacked. The strength of polymers depends on the chain molecular weight or degree of polymerization: The higher the chain length the greater the mechanical strength (such as tensile strength). By cleaving the chain, the molecular weight drops rapidly and there comes a point when it has little strength whatsoever, and a crack forms.
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The I-301 was a single-seat, low-wing monoplane, with a semi- monocoque fuselage, and skinned with birch veneer and plywood. The I-301 airframe was partially made of "delta wood": a material composed of very thin (0.35–0.55 mm) layers of birch or pine wood veneer, and a phenol-formaldehyde resin known as VIAM-B-3, which together were baked at high temperatures and pressures. Delta wood was used for critical parts of the airframe. This novel construction material had tensile strength comparable to that of non-hardened aluminum alloys and only 30% lower than that of precipitation hardened D-1A grade duralumin.
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Significant deposits of goethite are found in England, Australia, Cuba, and Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Colorado, Alabama, Georgia, Virginia, and Tennessee, and Florida caves in the United States. Deposits significant in location, if not in abundance, have been found in the Martian crater Gusev by NASA's Spirit rover, providing strong evidence for the presence of liquid water on the planet in an earlier stage of its evolution. In 2001, John Emsley, in his book "Nature's Building blocks", reported that limpet's teeth are made of goethite (pg. 210). In 2015 it was reported that limpet's teeth have goethite fibres in them, which accounts for their extreme tensile strength.
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The handrail provides a handhold for passengers while they are riding the escalator. The handrail is pulled along its own track by a chain that is connected to the main drive gear by a series of pulleys, keeping it at the same speed as the steps. Four distinct sections make up the rail: at its center is a "slider", also known as a "glider ply", which is a layer of a cotton or synthetic textile that allows the rail to move smoothly along its track. The "tension member" lies on the slider and consists of either steel cable or flat steel tape, providing the handrail with tensile strength and flexibility.
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In the engineering stress strain curve, the onset of necking occurs at the curve's maximum, that is, the maximum applied load that the material can carry, or the Ultimate Tensile Strength. The load carried is given by F = σT Ai where σT is the true stress and Ai is the instantaneous area. At the maximum, the derivative of the force is equal to dF = dσT Ai \+ σT dAi = 0 or dσT/σT = -dAi /Ai The criterion for necking is therefore that the incremental increase in internal stress is exactly equal to the incremental decrease in the cross sectional area where the stress is localized.
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The process was described in 1850 by John Mercer, who treated cotton with solutions of 110–125°Tw sulfuric acid, at room temperature, followed by washing. Mercer observed that the treated fabric was soft like fine wool when treated at 110°Tw, shrank and stiffened at 114°Tw, or shrank, stiffened, and became semi-transparent from 116–125°Tw. In general, treating indefinitely with concentrations below 110°Tw (64%) only swells and shrinks the fabric, while higher concentrations produce the stiff, translucent parchment-like effect in a few seconds, with some loss of tensile strength. Textile makers have combined sulfuric acid treatment with other processes to achieve different effects.
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However, the acetone extraction process was too expensive to meet the large rubber demand brought on by World War II, creating a push to develop more conventional mechanical processing methods to extract the latex. A significant production challenge in the production of latex from Guayule was that both the mass of the latex extracted, and the tensile strength of latex, fell off due to the long storage time between the harvesting of the Guayule and its processing. Spence was tasked by Intercontinental Rubber to solve this challenge. Guayule Shrub Spence patented methodologies to both improve the quality and yield of rubber produced from Guayule via conventional mechanical techniques in 1933.
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Steel metallurgy for the non-metallurgist By John D. Verhoeven - ASM International 2007 Page 99-105 Precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is crucial to achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low tempering temperatures may only relieve the internal stresses, decreasing brittleness while maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher tempering temperatures tend to produce a greater reduction in the hardness, sacrificing some yield strength and tensile strength for an increase in elasticity and plasticity. However, in some low alloy steels, containing other elements like chromium and molybdenum, tempering at low temperatures may produce an increase in hardness, while at higher temperatures the hardness will decrease.
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If steel is exposed to hydrogen at high temperatures, hydrogen will diffuse into the alloy and combine with carbon to form tiny pockets of methane at internal surfaces like grain boundaries and voids. This methane does not diffuse out of the metal, and collects in the voids at high pressure and initiates cracks in the steel. This selective leaching process is known as hydrogen attack, or high temperature hydrogen attack, and leads to decarburization of the steel and loss of strength and ductility. Steel with an ultimate tensile strength of less than 1000 MPa (~145,000 psi) or hardness of less than 32 HRC is not generally considered susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.
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Friction spinning: air is used to propel the sliver of fibres (1) to a carding drum (2) where they drop (3) between two perforated drums (5) that integrate and twist the yarn Friction Spinning or Dref Spinning is a textile technology that suitable for spinning coarse counts of yarns and technical core-wrapped yarns. Dref yarns are bulky, with low tensile strength making them suitable for blankets and mop yarns, they can be spun from asbestos, carbon fibres and make filters was water systems. Yarns such as Rayon and Kevlar can be spun using this method. The technology was developed around 1975 by Dr. Ernst Fehrer.
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Cement and water are not required. The concrete doesn't have to be cured, instead it is simply heated to above the melting point of sulfur, 140 °C, and after cooling it reaches high strength immediately. The best mixture for tensile and compressive strength is 65% JSC-1 lunar regolith simulant and 35% sulfur, with an average compressive strength of 33.8 MPa and tensile strength of 3.7 MPa. Addition of 2% metal fiber increase the compressive strength to 43.0 MPaPRODUCTION OF LUNAR CONCRETE USING MOLTEN SULFUR Final Research Report for JoVe NASA Grant NAG8 - 278 by Dr. Husam A. Omar Addition of silica also increases the strength of the concrete.
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Cold rubber, or cold polymerized rubber, is synthetic rubber (especially, SBR and NBR) emulsion polymerized at a relatively low temperature. The polymerizing temperature is approximately 5℃ in the case of SBR and 5∼10℃ in the case of NBR. Since rubber molecule types have a smaller number of branches than hot rubber polymerized at high temperature (50℃) and are characterized by good stereoregularity, cold rubber has superior processability as well as the ability to produce vulcanized materials with good tensile strength, expansion and aging resistance, and flex resistance. Except some SBR and NBR used for special purposes, most SBR and NBR available in the market are considered cold rubber.
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As an additive in paint, it improves the durability of the paint film, acts as a pH buffer, improves its resistance to weathering, reduces gloss, reduces pigment consumption, and acts as a flatting and suspending agent. In plastics, wollastonite improves tensile and flexural strength, reduces resin consumption, and improves thermal and dimensional stability at elevated temperatures. Surface treatments are used to improve the adhesion between the wollastonite and the polymers to which it is added. As a substitute for asbestos in floor tiles, friction products, insulating board and panels, paint, plastics, and roofing products, wollastonite is resistant to chemical attack, inert, stable at high temperatures, and improves flexural and tensile strength.
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There are more than 25 basic tests, however only the important ones for the given casting process are used. The basic tests measure the following parameters: wet tensile strength, cone jolt, mouldability, friability, moisture content, permeability, green compression strength, compactibility, loss on ignition, volatiles content, grain size & distribution, dust (dead clay) content, and active clay content, impact strength . Each of these tests can lead you to obtain specific characteristics of sand which can be crucial to the quality of casting.Mold & Core Test Handbook, published by the American Foundry Society, Advanced testing tests for other parameters, such as splitting strength, shear strength, and high- temperature compression strength.
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As austenite cools, the carbon diffuses out of the austenite and forms carbon rich iron-carbide (cementite) and leaves behind carbon poor ferrite. Depending on alloy composition, a layering of ferrite and cementite, called pearlite, may form. If the rate of cooling is very swift, the carbon does not have time enough to diffuse and the alloy may experience a large lattice distortion known as martensitic transformation in which it transforms into martensite, a body centered tetragonal structure (BCT).The rate of cooling determines the relative proportions of martensite, ferrite, and cementite, and therefore determines the mechanical properties of the resulting steel, such as hardness and tensile strength.
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The penultimate digit generally identifies the welding positions permissible with the electrode, typically using the values 1 (normally fast-freeze electrodes, implying all position welding) and 2 (normally fast-fill electrodes, implying horizontal welding only). The welding current and type of electrode covering are specified by the last two digits together. When applicable, a suffix is used to denote the alloying element being contributed by the electrode. Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode with a minimum tensile strength of which is operated using DCEP, and provides deep weld penetration with a forceful arc capable of burning through light rust or oxides on the workpiece.
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The locomotive body is a welded monocoque design, constructed of steel plates and profiled members, which has a compressive strength of and a tensile strength of . The Class 21E has a single cab and a gangway along the centre of the locomotive. It is equipped with a wireless data transmission system which can send the locomotive operation status, fault data and energy consumption data via GSM and Wi-Fi to a trackside station for analysis. It is also equipped with an axle temperature alarm device, fire alarm system, closed-circuit television (CCTV) system, wheel flange lubricating device and, as personnel safety measure, high voltage protective interlocking devices.
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Some jacket alloys have greater tensile strength than others; and, for any given alloy and annealing process, a thicker jacket will be stronger than a thinner jacket. Energy available to expand the bullet is proportional to the square of the velocity at which the bullet strikes the target. If the bullet passes through the target, the energy represented by the square of the velocity of the departing bullet has no effect on the target. Soft point bullets may not expand if they strike a target at low velocity, or if the target does not slow the bullet enough to deform the exposed point or rupture the surrounding jacket.
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Desmosomal cadherins, including the desmocollin family members and desmogleins, are found at desmosome cell-cell junctions and are required for cell adhesion and desmosome formation via interactions with their extracellular cadherin regions. Desmosomes function to anchor intermediate filaments at sites of strong adhesion, which undergo high mechanical stress, such as in cardiac muscle. Desmocollins are integral components to desmosomes and studies have shown that in addition to tensile strength, desmocollins also function as molecular sensors and facilitators of signal transduction. Studies in zebrafish expressing a mutant desmocollin-2 have shed light on its function in the myocardium as a pivotal component for normal myocardial structure and function.
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Within the ECM community of vocal ligament, fibrous proteins such as elastin and collagen are pivotal in maintaining the proper elastic biomechanical property of vocal fold. Elastin fibers impart the flexibility and elasticity of the vocal folds and, collagen is responsible for the resistance and resiliece to tensile strength. The normal strain level of vocal ligament ranges from 0–15% during phonation These fibrous proteins exhibit distribution variations spatially and temporally due to fibroblast turnover during tissue maturation and aging. Each vocal ligament is a band of yellow elastic tissue attached in front to the angle of the thyroid cartilage, and behind to the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage.
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A finished dovetail joint Dovetailed woodworking joints on a Romanian church Stone pillar at the Vazhappally Maha Siva Temple A dovetail joint or simply dovetail is a joinery technique most commonly used in woodworking joinery (carpentry), including furniture, cabinets,carcase construction log buildings, and traditional timber framing. Noted for its resistance to being pulled apart (tensile strength), the dovetail joint is commonly used to join the sides of a drawer to the front. A series of 'pins' cut to extend from the end of one board interlock with a series of 'tails' cut into the end of another board. The pins and tails have a trapezoidal shape.
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Studies have been conducted which observe the effect of the mechanical properties of hydrogels based on the amount of clay combined with the polymer. When combining polymers with clay, the results are promising, showing an increase in the elastic modulus and the tensile strength of clay-polymer hydrogels. In general, combining inorganic substances with polymers can improve the electrical, mechanical, thermal, and gas barrier properties of materials like hydrogels. In order to obtain these results, ultra-high molecular mass polymers higher than a few millions are recommended to be used so that the mechanical properties can improve regardless of the type of polymer used.
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One modern amorphous metal, known as Vitreloy, has a tensile strength that is almost twice that of high-grade titanium. However, metallic glasses at room temperature are not ductile and tend to fail suddenly when loaded in tension, which limits the material applicability in reliability-critical applications, as the impending failure is not evident. Therefore, there is considerable interest in producing metal matrix composites consisting of a metallic glass matrix containing dendritic particles or fibers of a ductile crystalline metal. Perhaps the most useful property of bulk amorphous alloys is that they are true glasses, which means that they soften and flow upon heating.
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This steel has a yield strength of at least , ultimate tensile strength of , must elongate at least 19% in an long specimen before fracturing and 22% in a 2-inch (50 mm) long specimen. A safety factor above the yield strength has to be applied, since steel regularly pushed to its yield strength will suffer from metal fatigue. Steels typically have a fatigue limit, below which any quantity of stress load cycles will not cause metal fatigue and cracks/failures. Ship design criteria generally assume that all normal loads on the ship, times a moderate safety factor, should be below the fatigue limit for the steel used in their construction.
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Once the force on each member is known, the next step is to determine the cross section of the individual truss members. For members under tension the cross-sectional area A can be found using A = F × γ / σy, where F is the force in the member, γ is a safety factor (typically 1.05 but depending on building codes) and σy is the yield tensile strength of the steel used. The members under compression also have to be designed to be safe against buckling. The weight of a truss member depends directly on its cross section—that weight partially determines how strong the other members of the truss need to be.
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The reaction occurring between double bonds and ozone is known as ozonolysis when one molecule of the gas reacts with the double bond: A generalized scheme of ozonolysis The immediate result is formation of an ozonide, which then decomposes rapidly so that the double bond is cleaved. This is the critical step in chain breakage when polymers are attacked. The strength of polymers depends on the chain molecular weight or degree of polymerization, the higher the chain length, the greater the mechanical strength (such as tensile strength). By cleaving the chain, the molecular weight drops rapidly and there comes a point when it has little strength whatsoever, and a crack forms.
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The locomotive body is a welded monocoque design, constructed of steel plates and profiled members which has a compressive strength of and a tensile strength of . The Class 20E is equipped with a wireless data transmission system which can send the locomotive operation status, fault data and energy consumption data via GSM and Wi-Fi to a trackside station for analysis. It is also equipped with an axle temperature alarm device, fire alarm system, closed-circuit television (CCTV) system, wheel flange lubricating device and, as personnel safety measure, high voltage protective interlocking devices. The AC traction motors are powered through insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) control.
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Hyde design space fountain. A space fountain is a proposed form of space elevator that does not require the structure to be in geosynchronous orbit, and does not rely on tensile strength for support. In contrast to the original space elevator design (a tethered satellite), a space fountain is a tremendously tall tower extending up from the ground. Since such a tall tower could not support its own weight using traditional materials, massive pellets are projected upward from the bottom of the tower and redirected back down once they reach the top, so that the force of redirection holds the top of the tower aloft.
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The measured values of Modulus of Elasticity based on the standard methods usually range from 29,000 to 30,000 ksi (200 to 207 GPa). A value of 29,500 ksi (203 GPa) is recommended by AISI in its specification for design purposes. The ultimate tensile strength of steel sheets in the sections has little direct relationship to the design of those members. The load-carrying capacities of cold-formed steel flexural and compression members are usually limited by yield point or buckling stresses that are less than the yield point of steel, particularly for those compression elements having relatively large flat-width ratios and for compression members having relatively large slenderness ratios.
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The Gairloch Bridge is an example of the earliest use of concrete, where it was restricted to applications requiring only compressive strength such as piers and abutments. The introduction to Queensland of reinforced concrete a few years after the bridge was built broadened the applications of concrete to include components requiring tensile strength. The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places. The Gairloch Bridge is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of submersible bridges: it is a low level bridge, crossing only the main channel of the river, and is designed to present the least possible obstruction to flood waters and debris.
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Barotrauma generally manifests as sinus or middle ear effects, DCS, lung over-expansion injuries, and injuries resulting from external squeezes. Barotraumas of descent are caused by preventing the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver, resulting in a pressure difference between the tissues and the gas space, and the unbalanced force due to this pressure difference causes deformation of the tissues resulting in cell rupture. Barotraumas of ascent are also caused when the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver is prevented. In this case the pressure difference causes a resultant tension in the surrounding tissues which exceeds their tensile strength.
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Due to the non-hazardous nature of this foam-generating process, these plastics are able to be recycled and put back into the production cycle, reducing their carbon footprint as well as reducing the cost of raw materials. With the porous nature of this material, the overall density is much lower than that of any solid plastic, considerably dropping the weight per unit volume of the part. This also entails less consumption of raw plastic with the addition of the tiny gas-filled pockets, allowing for further cost reduction, up to 35%. When observing the mechanical properties of these foams, a loss of tensile strength is correlated with the decrease in density, in a nearly linear fashion.
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A standard 20 MPa, 5 L steel bottle has a mass of 7.5 kg, a superior one 5 kg. High-tensile strength fibers such as carbon-fiber or Kevlar can weigh below 2 kg in this size, consistent with the legal safety codes. One cubic meter of air at 20 °C has a mass of 1.204 kg at standard temperature and pressure.Air – Density and Specific Weight, The Engineering Toolbox Thus, theoretical specific energies are from roughly 70 kJ/kg at the motor shaft for a plain steel bottle to 180 kJ/kg for an advanced fiber-wound one, whereas practical achievable specific energies for the same containers would be from 40 to 100 kJ/kg.
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Unlike a sponge, foams from this process are closed-cell, meaning it's waterproof and resists mold, mildew and bacteria from entering the material. It is also cross-linked, which means that the cells are connected in a way that makes the foam strong and durable with high tear and tensile strength. All polyolefin elastomers are also resistant to most chemicals, which allow the products to not only be used in a chemical environment, but also very cleanable with most household cleaners. The process itself is known to be very interesting, because the injected compound is not foam, until an endothermic reaction in a hot mold activates the blowing agents, resulting in an expanded foam part.
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Today, taller retaining walls are increasingly built as composite gravity walls such as geosynthetic or steel- reinforced backfill soil with precast facing; gabions (stacked steel wire baskets filled with rocks), crib walls (cells built up log cabin style from precast concrete or timber and filled with soil or free-draining gravel) or soil-nailed walls (soil reinforced in place with steel and concrete rods). For reinforced-soil gravity walls, the soil reinforcement is placed in horizontal layers throughout the height of the wall. Commonly, the soil reinforcement is geogrid, a high-strength polymer mesh, that provides tensile strength to hold the soil together. The wall face is often of precast, segmental concrete units that can tolerate some differential movement.
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Steel casing pipe generally has no specific specifications, other than the need for the material to be extremely straight and round. In some areas A.S.T.M. specifications may be required by project engineers. The specification most commonly called for is A.S.T.M. 139 Grade B. This specification gives parameters for minimum yield and tensile strength of the steel pipe being used for casing, and tolerances of straightness and concentricity. Steel casing pipe is often specified as ASTM A-252 which is a structural grade material that does not require hydrostatic testing and the inspection requirements are not stringent and it usually costs less than other grades such as A-53, A-139 or API 5L.
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Z-tube The Z-tube is an experimental apparatus for measuring the tensile strength of a liquid. It consists of a Z-shaped tube with open ends, filled with a liquid, and set on top of a spinning table. If the tube were straight, the liquid would immediately fly out one end or the other of the tube as it began to spin. By bending the ends of the tube back towards the center of rotation, a shift of the liquid away from center will result in the water level in one end of the tube rising and thus increasing the pressure in that end of the tube, and consequently returning the liquid to the center of the tube.
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Total and uniform elongation of the Fe–55Mn–3Al–3Si wt% TWIP steel as a function of the test temperature; strain rate ε=10−4.s−1. 0.2% proof and ultimate tensile strength of the Fe–55Mn–3Al–3Si wt% TWIP steel as a function of the test temperature; strain rate ε=10−4.s−1. Austenitic steels are used widely in many applications because of their excellent strength and ductility combined with good wear and corrosion resistance. High-Mn TWIP steels are attractive for automotive applications due to their high energy absorption, which is more than twice that of conventional high strength steels, and high stiffness which can improve the crash safety.
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The chemical formula of cellulose is (C6H10O5)n where n is the degree of polymerization and represents the number of glucose groups.Chapter 2: Chemical Composition and Structure of Natural Lignocellulose Plant-derived cellulose is usually found in a mixture with hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and other substances, while bacterial cellulose is quite pure, has a much higher water content and higher tensile strength due to higher chain lengths. Cellulose consists of fibrils with crystalline and amorphous regions. These cellulose fibrils may be individualized by mechanical treatment of cellulose pulp, often assisted by chemical oxidation or enzymatic treatment, yielding semi-flexible cellulose nanofibrils generally 200 nm to 1 μm in length depending on the treatment intensity.
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The cloth or fiber material used, resin material, and the cloth to resin ratio determine the laminate's type designation (FR-4, CEM-1, G-10, etc.) and therefore the characteristics of the laminate produced. Important characteristics are the level to which the laminate is fire retardant, the dielectric constant (er), the loss factor (tδ), the tensile strength, the shear strength, the glass transition temperature (Tg), and the Z-axis expansion coefficient (how much the thickness changes with temperature). There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3.
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Micrograph of grey cast iron. Gray iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has a graphitic microstructure. It is named after the gray color of the fracture it forms, which is due to the presence of graphite.. It is the most common cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight.. It is used for housings where the stiffness of the component is more important than its tensile strength, such as internal combustion engine cylinder blocks, pump housings, valve bodies, electrical boxes, and decorative castings. Grey cast iron's high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity are often exploited to make cast iron cookware and disc brake rotors.
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To aid in adhesion, chemical admixtures can be added to help the fibers stick to the concrete. The characteristic features of TRC are its thin structure and malleable nature, as well as its ability to retain a high tensile strength; this is due to reinforcement in the concrete that uses long continuous fibers that are woven in a specific direction in order to add strength. As the result of the varying strength and properties needed to support correct loading, there are many different types of yarns, textiles weaves, and shapes that can be used in TRC. The textile begins with a yarn that is made of a continuous strand of either filaments or staples.
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Finally, the elasticity of the barrel can be tested by applying internal pressure once more, but this time care is taken to ensure that the inner layers are not stretched beyond their new elastic limit. The end result is an inner surface of the gun barrel with a residual compressive stress able to counterbalance the tensile stress that would be induced when the gun is discharged. In addition the material has a higher tensile strength as a result of the heat treatment process.Brassey's Battlefield Weapons Systems & Technology Volume II, Guns, Mortars & Rockets by J W Ryan Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, UK. In early practice of autofrettage of a gun barrel, the barrel was pressurized hydraulically.
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Since the outer conductor layer is low-impedance copper, and only the center is higher impedance steel, the skin effect gives RF transmission lines with heavy copper-cladding a low impedance at high frequencies, equivalent to that of a solid copper wire. Tensile strength of copper-clad steel conductors is greater than that of ordinary copper conductors permitting greater span lengths than with copper. Another advantage is that smaller diameter copper-clad steel conductors may be used in coaxial cables, permitting higher impedance and smaller cable diameter than with copper conductors of similar strength. Due to the inseparable union of the two metals, it deters theft since copper recovery is impractical and thus has very little scrap value.
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This process is continued until the end blank shape matches the as-designed part geometry.Nikolaj Mole, Gasper Cafuta, Boris Stok, “A Method for Optimal Blank Shape Determination in Sheet Metal Forming Based on Numerical Simulation,” Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Volume 59, Issue 4, Pages 237–250, 2013. Metal forming simulation offers particular advantages in the case of high strength steel and advanced high-strength steel which are used in current day automobiles to reduce weight while maintaining crash safety of the vehicle. The materials have higher yield and tensile strength than conventional steel so the die undergoes greater deformation during the forming process which in turn increases the difficulty of designing the die.
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Neoloy Geocells are suitable for use in the base layer reinforcement of asphalt paved roads, where high tensile strength, resistance to permanent deformation and dynamic (elastic) stiffness are required to retain the geocell geometry even under repeated dynamic & cyclical load stresses. Applicable for new road construction, as well as for rehabilitation, Neoloy Geocells are typically used to reinforce the base and subbase layers of pavement types, such as highways, railways, intermodal ports, storage yards and unpaved haul, access and service roads. One notable unpaved road project was undertaken by the UK Royal Engineering Corps Route Trident under difficult conditions in Afghanistan to create a secure patrol road for the benefit of troops and civilians alike.
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The debris deposit is the accumulated mass of the avalanched snow once it has come to rest in the runout zone. For the image at left, many small avalanches form in this avalanche path every year, but most of these avalanches do not run the full vertical or horizontal length of the path. The frequency with which avalanches form in a given area is known as the return period. The start zone of an avalanche must be steep enough to allow snow to accelerate once set in motion, additionally convex slopes are less stable than concave slopes, because of the disparity between the tensile strength of snow layers and their compressive strength.
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This allows the metal to bend before breaking. Depending on how much temper is imparted to the steel, it may bend elastically (the steel returns to its original shape once the load is removed), or it may bend plastically (the steel does not return to its original shape, resulting in permanent deformation), before fracturing. Tempering is used to precisely balance the mechanical properties of the metal, such as shear strength, yield strength, hardness, ductility and tensile strength, to achieve any number of a combination of properties, making the steel useful for a wide variety of applications. Tools such as hammers and wrenches require good resistance to abrasion, impact resistance, and resistance to deformation.
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Therefore, interpretation of these observations would be that in spite of high protein production and protein turnover in diabetic ulcer fibroblasts, vesicles containing secretory proteins could not travel along the microtubules to release the products outside. Fibroblasts from diabetic ulcer exhibit proliferative impairment that probably contributes to a decreased production of extracellular matrix proteins and delayed wound contraction and impaired wound healing. ;Increased matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) activity :In order for a wound to heal, extracellular matrix not only needs to be laid down but also must be able to undergo degradation and remodeling to form a mature tissue with appropriate tensile strength. Proteases, namely matrix metalloproteinases are known to degrade almost all the extracellular matrix components.
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Steels with pearlitic (eutectoid composition) or near-pearlitic microstructure (near-eutectoid composition) can be drawn into thin wires. Such wires, often bundled into ropes, are commercially used as piano wires, ropes for suspension bridges, and as steel cord for tire reinforcement. High degrees of wire drawing (logarithmic strain above 3) leads to pearlitic wires with yield strengths of several gigapascals. It makes pearlite one of the strongest structural bulk materials on earth.. Some hypereutectoid pearlitic steel wires, when cold wire drawn to true (logarithmic) strains above 5, can even show a maximal tensile strength above 6 GPa.. Although pearlite is used in many engineering applications, the origin of its extreme strength is not well understood.
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Some modifications were made to its original composition that have enabled it to be even more creep-resistant and weldable. Because of this, the uses of Inconel 625 have expanded into a wide range of industries such as the chemical processing industry, and for marine and nuclear applications to make pumps and valves and other high pressure equipment. Because of the metal's high Niobium (Nb) levels as well as its exposure to harsh environments and high temperatures, there was concern about the weldability of Inconel 625. Studies were therefore conducted to test the metal's weldability, tensile strength and creep resistance, and Inconel 625 was found to be an ideal choice for welding.
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Boyle's law describes the relationship between the volume of the gas space and the pressure in the gas. Barotraumas of descent are caused by preventing the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver, resulting in a pressure difference between the tissues and the gas space, and the unbalanced force due to this pressure difference causes deformation of the tissues resulting in cell rupture. Barotraumas of ascent are also caused when the free change of volume of the gas in a closed space in contact with the diver is prevented. In this case the pressure difference causes a resultant tension in the surrounding tissues which exceeds their tensile strength.
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Flat lead shanks and thin diameter ropes generally lack the strength to securely tie a large animal such as a horse or cow, but may be more comfortable in a person's hand for leading. Ropes of a thick diameter (3/4 in or more) and high tensile strength generally are adequate to tie a large animal that resists being tied; thinner and/or weaker leads generally will break if significant tension is put on them. A common point of failure is the snap fastener used to attach the lead to the halter. An animal that panics and attempts to escape while tied with a lead can cause itself serious injury or damage the objects to which it is tied.
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Comparison of gauges in India with the standard gauge As of 31 March 2019, IR network spans of track length, while the route length is . Track sections are rated for speeds ranging from , though the maximum speed attained by passenger trains is 180 km/h (110 mph) during trial runs. Almost the entire broad-gauge network is equipped with long-welded, high-tensile strength 52 kg/60 kg 90 UTS rails and pre-stressed concrete (PSC) sleepers with elastic fastenings. broad gauge is the predominant gauge used by IR and spans of route (93.29% of total route network), It is the broadest gauge in use across the world for regular passenger movement.
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The pots were removed after about 3 hours in the furnace, impurities in the form of slag skimmed off, and the molten steel poured into moulds to end up as cast ingots.Juleff 1998, 11 Complete melting of the steel produced a highly uniform crystal structure upon cooling, which gave the metal increased tensile strength and hardness in comparison with other steels being made at the time. Before the introduction of Huntsman's technique, Sheffield produced about 200 tonnes of steel per year from Swedish wrought iron (see Oregrounds iron). The introduction of Huntsman's technique changed this radically: one hundred years later the amount had risen to over 80,000 tonnes per year, or almost half of Europe's total production.
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The fibers were grown in an atmosphere of argon, pressure = 92 atm and temperature = 3900K. The tensile strength, elastic modulus and room-temperature resistivity were as much as 2000 kg/mm2 (19,600 MPa), 7×1012 dyne/cm2 (700 GPa) and 65 μΩ·cm, all comparable to the single-crystal values. The triple-point of carbon was confirmed as approximately 100 atm and 3900 K. The strength and modulus for the best steels are typically 2000 MPa and 200 GPa, resp. Invention of the carbon nanotube is credited to Sumio Iijima in 1991, but Figure 8 in Bacon's paper shows a carbon nanotube derived from a whisker subjected to heavy current that caused the outer layers to explode.
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It was also found that the ultimate tensile strength, or the strength to withstand rupture, of aneurysmal vessel wall is 50% lower than that of normal aortas. The wall strength of ruptured aneurysmal aortic wall was also found to be 54.2 N/cm2, which is much lower than that of a repaired aorta wall, 82.3 N/cm2. Due to the change in composition of the arterial wall, aneurysms overall have much lower strength to resist rupture. Predicting the risk of rupture is difficult due to the regional anisotropy the hardened blood vessels exhibit, meaning that the stress and strength values vary depending on the region and the direction of the vessel they are measured along.
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Pectin and hemicellulose are the dominant constituents of collenchyma cell walls of dicotyledon angiosperms, which may contain as little as 20% of cellulose in Petasites. Collenchyma cells are typically quite elongated, and may divide transversely to give a septate appearance. The role of this cell type is to support the plant in axes still growing in length, and to confer flexibility and tensile strength on tissues. The primary wall lacks lignin that would make it tough and rigid, so this cell type provides what could be called plastic support – support that can hold a young stem or petiole into the air, but in cells that can be stretched as the cells around them elongate.
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There are two types of seep that can occur, depending on the degree of overpressure. Capillary failure can occur in moderate overpressure conditions, resulting in widespread but low intensity seepage until the overpressure equalizes and resealing occurs. In some cases, the moderate overpressure cannot be equalized because the pores in the rock are small so the displacement pressure, the pressure required to break the seal, is very high. If the overpressure continues to increase to the point that it overcomes the rock's minimum stress and its tensile strength before overcoming the displacement pressure, then the rock will fracture, causing local and high intensity seepage until the pressure equalizes and the fractures close.
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Mechanical properties of GaNNTs are influenced by the rolling of the nanotubes, though it is unclear if the size of the nanotubes plays a part as well. The Young's modulus was computed to be 793 GPa for a (5,5) armchair nanotube, while that for a (9,0) zig-zag nanotube was calculated to be 721 GPa. For the (5,5) armchair and (9,0) nanotubes, other calculated values include the maximum tensile strength was 4.25 and 3.43 eV/Angstrom, the critical strain was 14.6% and 13.3%, and the Poisson ratio was 0.263 and 0.221 respectively. It is assumed that the properties for any (n, m) nanotube in between would have a property somewhere in those ranges.
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Dental compomers are another type of white filling material although their use is not as widespread. Compomers were formed by modifying dental composites with poly-acid in an effort to combine the desirable properties of dental composites, namely their good aesthetics, and glass ionomer cements, namely their ability to release fluoride over a long time. Whilst this combination of good aesthetics and fluoride release may seem to give compomers a selective advantage, their poor mechanical properties (detailed below) limits their use. Compomers have a lower wear resistance and a lower compressive, flexural and tensile strength than dental composites, although their wear resistance is greater than resin-modified and conventional glass ionomer cements.
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Fire From The Sky. 1997. The theory was first proposed by Ignatius L. Donnelly in 1883, and was revived in a 1985 book and further explored in an unpublished 2004 scientific paper. However, experts dispute such a scenario - meteorites in fact are cold to the touch when they reach the Earth's surface, and there are no credible reports of any fire anywhere having been started by a meteorite. Given the low tensile strength of such bodies, if a fragment of an icy comet were to strike the Earth, the most likely outcome would be for it to disintegrate in the upper atmosphere, leading to an air burst explosion analogous to that of the Tunguska event.
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Oxide precipitates offer some strength (as discussed above), but are not very responsive to heat treatment and can substantially decrease the alloy's toughness. Many alloys also contain titanium as a minor additive, but since alloys are usually categorized according to which element forms the majority of the material, these are not usually considered to be "titanium alloys" as such. See the sub- article on titanium applications. Commercial (99.2% purity) grades of titanium have an ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, but are less dense. Titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy.
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Cold mix asphalt is often used on lower-volume rural roads, where hot mix asphalt would cool too much on the long trip from the asphalt plant to the construction site. An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1200 vehicles per day. Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil and groundwater or waterways.
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Perforated hardboard and similar systems are made of a variety of materials, each of which has different characteristics that affect the range of possible uses. Standard perforated hardboard is made of wood fibers, usually with the addition of resin, and tempered by coating with a thin layer of linseed oil and baking at a high temperature to polymerize the oil. This provides more water and impact resistance, hardness, rigidity and tensile strength. Hardboard will bend and warp with age and in the presence of moisture, and will sag under heavy weight (the exact weight is based on the dimensions and quality of the hardboard) unless secured to even weight distribution among several mounting points.
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A piece of the valuable unobtanium from Avatar. Unobtainium can refer to any substance that is needed to build some device critical to the plot of a science fiction story but which does not exist in the universe as we know it. For example, a hull material that gets stronger by absorbing and converting heat and pressure into energy in the film The Core (2003) was nicknamed unobtainium. The same concept under different names can be seen in the anti-gravity material cavorite from H. G. Wells' 1901 novel The First Men in the Moon, as well as the super-strong material scrith from Larry Niven's novel Ringworld, which requires a tensile strength (i.e.
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Comparison of gauges in India with the standard gauge As of 31 March 2019, IR network spans 1,23,542 km (76,765 mi) of track length, while the route length is . Track sections are rated for speeds ranging from , though the maximum speed attained by passenger trains is 180 km/h (110 mph) during trial runs. Almost all the broad-gauge network is equipped with long-welded, high-tensile strength 52kg/60kg 90 UTS rails and pre-stressed concrete (PSC) sleepers with elastic fastenings. broad gauge is the predominant gauge used by IR and spans of route (93.29% of total route network), It is the broadest gauge in use across the world for regular passenger movement.
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Mechanical properties such as longitudinal tensile strength, and burst and collapse resistance (calculated considering biaxial effects of axial and hoop stresses), must be sufficient at various depths. Pipe of differing strengths often comprises a long casing string, which typically will have the greatest axial tension and perhaps highest internal burst pressure differentials in the upper parts, and the greatest collapsing loads deeper in the well from external pressure vs lowered internal pressure. Casing strings are supported by casing hangers that are set in the wellhead, which later will be topped with the Christmas tree. The lower members of the wellhead usually are installed on top of the first casing string after it has been cemented in place.
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Elektron is the registered trademark of a wide range of magnesium alloys manufactured by a British company Magnesium Elektron Limited. There are about 100 alloys in the Elektron range, containing from 0% to 9.5% of some of the following elements in varying proportions: aluminium (< 9.5%), yttrium (5.25%), neodymium (2.7%), silver (2.5%), gadolinium (1.3%), zinc (0.9%), zirconium (0.6%), manganese (0.5%) and other rare-earth metals. Varying amounts of alloying elements (up to 9.5%) added to the magnesium result in changes to mechanical properties such as increased tensile strength, creep resistance, thermal stability or corrosion resistance. Elektron is unusually light and has a specific gravity of about 1.8 compared with the 2.8 of aluminium alloy, or the 7.9 of steel.
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Magnetic audio tapes: acetate base (left) and polyester base (right) Magnetic tape recording uses an amplified electrical audio signal to generate analogous variations of the magnetic field produced by a tape head, which impresses corresponding variations of magnetization on the moving tape. In playback mode, the signal path is reversed, the tape head acting as a miniature electric generator as the varyingly magnetized tape passes over it. The original solid steel ribbon was replaced by a much more practical coated paper tape, but acetate soon replaced paper as the standard tape base. Acetate has fairly low tensile strength and if very thin it will snap easily, so it was in turn eventually superseded by polyester.
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In 2014, a Chinese researcher discovered that Indian mealmoth larvae could metabolize polyethylene from observing that plastic bags at his home had small holes in them. Deducing that the hungry larvae must have digested the plastic somehow, he and his team analyzed their gut bacteria and found a few that could use plastic as their only carbon source. Not only could the bacteria from the guts of the Plodia interpunctella moth larvae metabolize polyethylene, they degraded it significantly, dropping its tensile strength by 50%, its mass by 10% and the molecular weights of its polymeric chains by 13%. In 2017, researchers reported that the caterpillar of Galleria mellonella eats plastic garbage such as polyethylene.
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Once the semi-finished extruded product is ready (in this phase it is when colors and UV stabilizers are added to the PP mix), the product is passed thru a stretching section, this is where the strength and other mechanical properties are given as the polymer molecules are aligned. The net is first oriented longitudinally in hot water and then transversally in a ramose. The final result is a net with a lot of tensile strength (between 50 and 70 kg per meter) that weighs between 6 and 9 grams per square meter, and a mesh size that may reach up to 30x30 cm according to the technical capacity of the manufacturer.
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The best plastic tarp gym floor covers today are made of single- layer woven polyester and the newest polymer materials made via the knife- coating process, which enables dyes to be deposited deep into the core of the PVC material and prevent peeling of the layers - a side effect of extrusion coating or lamination process.. Modern gym floor covers are manufactured with a variety of colors, anti-slip surfaces, and weights ranging from . Custom sizing is available with most products. The following technical characteristics are used to describe and classify the covers: filament size, weave count, total weight, core weight, tear strength, tensile strength, adhesion, coefficient of friction, slip resistance, hydrostatic resistance, fire resistance and others.
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Among those inventions that are credited with passing into general practical use are the strut bridge, the automated bobbin winder, the rolling mill, the machine for testing the tensile strength of wire and the lens-grinding machine pictured at right. In the lens- grinding machine, the hand rotation of the grinding wheel operates an angle- gear, which rotates a shaft, turning a geared dish in which sits the glass or crystal to be ground. A single action rotates both surfaces at a fixed speed ratio determined by the gear. As an inventor, Leonardo was not prepared to tell all that he knew: > How by means of a certain machine many people may stay some time under > water.
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They combined long range, high speed and an armament approaching that of battleship with enough armor to protect them against quick-firing guns, considered the most important weapons afloat at the time. Their speed was made possible due to another development, case-hardened steel armor—first Harvey armor and then crucially Krupp armor. The higher tensile strength of these armors compared to nickel steel and mild steel made it feasible to put a light yet useful armor belt on a large cruiser. They saved further weight by not requiring a heavy timber backing, as previous armor plating had, to soften and spread the force of the impact from oncoming shells; of teak to give a fair surface upon which to attach them was all that was needed.
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The all-new Type 175, with a 4.5-litre inline overhead-valve six, was introduced in 1946, with the 175S version displayed on Delahaye's stand, but deliveries of these motorized chassis to coachbuilders was delayed by continued developmental evolution and further performance testing, until early 1948. The Type 175 and the closely related longer wheelbased Type 178 and 180, proved unsuccessful. the reason for buyer resistance is credited to crucial component failures, specifically the Dubonnet front suspension's fulcrum arms inside the horizontal cylindrical housing, that actuated the internal coil-spring and integral hydraulic shock-absorber; and, breakages of the DeDion rear suspension system's splined half-shafts. These issues arose out of the inferior grade of high tensile strength steel after the war.
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In rabbits, collagen fascicles that are immobilized have shown decreased tensile strength, and immobilization also results in lower amounts of water, proteoglycans, and collagen crosslinks in the tendons. Several mechanotransduction mechanisms have been proposed as reasons for the response of tenocytes to mechanical force that enable them to alter their gene expression, protein synthesis, and cell phenotype, and eventually cause changes in tendon structure. A major factor is mechanical deformation of the extracellular matrix, which can affect the actin cytoskeleton and therefore affect cell shape, motility, and function. Mechanical forces can be transmitted by focal adhesion sites, integrins, and cell-cell junctions. Changes in the actin cytoskeleton can activate integrins, which mediate “outside-in” and “inside-out” signaling between the cell and the matrix.
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This means that copper's high thermal conductivity allows heat to pass through it quickly. Other desirable properties of copper in heat exchangers include its corrosion resistance, biofouling resistance, maximum allowable stress and internal pressure, creep rupture strength, fatigue strength, hardness, thermal expansion, specific heat, antimicrobial properties, tensile strength, yield strength, high melting point, alloyability, ease of fabrication, and ease of joining. The combination of these properties enable copper to be specified for heat exchangers in industrial facilities, HVAC systems, vehicular coolers and radiators, and as heat sinks to cool computers, disk drives, televisions, computer monitors, and other electronic equipment. Copper is also incorporated into the bottoms of high-quality cookware because the metal conducts heat quickly and distributes it evenly.
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Preparation of chitin and chitosan from marine crustaceans Materials suited for use in artificial bones need to be biocompatible, osteoconductive, and mechanically strong. Hydroxyapatite is often used in artificial bone studies because it has the biocompatibility and osteoconductivity required for an effective, long-lasting bone implant, but is quite brittle, and further exhibits a dissolution rate of about 10 wt% per year, which is significantly slower than the growth rate of newly formed bone, necessitating measures to enhance its dissolution rate. For applications that require a material with better toughness, nanostructured artificial nacre may be used due to its high tensile strength and Young's modulus. In many cases, using one type of material limits the capabilities of an artificial bone implant, so composites are utilized.
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A more complete list of conceptual and existing megastructures, along with a discussion of megastructure criteria, is found under megastructure. Of all the proposed megastructures, only the orbital elevator, the Lofstrom launch loop, and Martian or lunar space elevator concepts could be built using conventional engineering techniques, and are within the grasp of current material science. Carbon nanotubes may have the requisite tensile strength for the more technologically challenging Earth-based space elevator, but creation of nanotubes of the required length is a laboratory exercise, and adequate cable-scale technology has not yet been shown at all. The assembly of structures more massive than a space elevator would likely involve a combination of new engineering techniques, new materials, and new technologies.
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While yielding of material of structure could render the structure unusable it would not necessarily lead to the collapse of the structure. The factor of safety on ultimate tensile strength is to prevent sudden fracture and collapse, which would result in greater economic loss and possible loss of life. An aircraft wing might be designed with a factor of safety of 1.25 on the yield strength of the wing and a factor of safety of 1.5 on its ultimate strength. The test fixtures that apply those loads to the wing during the test might be designed with a factor of safety of 3.0 on ultimate strength, while the structure that shelters the test fixture might have an ultimate factor of safety of ten.
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Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. For some non- homogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit is the pascal (Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa), using the SI prefix mega); or, equivalently to pascals, newtons per square metre (N/m²). A United States customary unit is pounds per square inch (lb/in² or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi, or sometimes kpsi), which is equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used in one country (US), when measuring tensile strengths.
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The suture holds its tensile strength for approximately two to three weeks in tissue and is completely absorbed by hydrolysis within 56 to 70 days. Vicryl and other polyglycolic-acid sutures may also be treated for more rapid breakdown ("Vicryl Rapide") in rapidly healing tissues such as mucous membrane or impregnated with triclosan ("Vicryl Plus Antibacterial") to provide antimicrobial protection of the suture line. Because Vicryl is slow-absorbing and often braided, its use is contraindicated in the closure of any cutaneous wound exposed to the air, as it draws moisture from the healing tissue to the skin and allows bacteria and irritants to migrate into the wound. This inevitably leads to high reactivity to the contaminants, poor wound healing, and eventually infection.
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Nickel foam (top) and its internal structure (bottom) The global production of nickel is presently used as follows: 68% in stainless steel; 10% in nonferrous alloys; 9% in electroplating; 7% in alloy steel; 3% in foundries; and 4% other uses (including batteries). Nickel is used in many specific and recognizable industrial and consumer products, including stainless steel, alnico magnets, coinage, rechargeable batteries, electric guitar strings, microphone capsules, plating on plumbing fixtures, and special alloys such as permalloy, elinvar, and invar. It is used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is preeminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in nickel steels and nickel cast irons, in which it typically increases the tensile strength, toughness, and elastic limit.
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The rigidity of the ECM is significantly different across cell types; for example, it ranges from the soft ECM of brain tissue to that of rigid bone or the stiff cell wall of plant cells. This difference in rigidity is a result of the qualitative and quantitative biochemical properties of the ECM or in other words, the concentration and categories of the various macromolecules that form the ECM meshwork. Though the ECM is composed of many intracellularly-synthesized components - including a number of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and fibrous proteins such as fibronectin, laminin, collagen, and elastin - it is the latter two fibers that are most influential in defining the mechanical properties of the ECM. Collagen is the fibrous protein that gives the ECM its tensile strength, or rigidity.
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A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold, brake fluid, and sunlight. Notice the discoloration, swelling, and crazing of the material Polymer degradation is a change in the properties—tensile strength, color, shape, or molecular weight—of a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors, such as heat, light, and the presence of certain chemicals, oxygen, and enzymes. This change in properties is often the result of bond breaking in the polymer backbone (chain scission) which may occur at the chain ends or at random positions in the chain. Although such changes are frequently undesirable, in some cases, such as biodegradation and recycling, they may be intended to prevent environmental pollution.
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While EPDM has decent tensile strength, its flexibility makes it inappropriate for rigid parts such as gears, shafts, and structural beams. It is used to create weatherstripping, seals on doors for refrigerators and freezers (where it also acts as an insulator), face masks for industrial respirators, glass-run channels, radiators, garden and appliance hose (where it is used as a hose material as well as for gaskets), tubing, washers, O-rings, electrical insulation, and geomembranes. A common use is in vehicles, where EPDM is used for door seals, window seals, trunk seals, and sometimes hood seals. Other uses in vehicles include cooling system circuit hoses; water pumps, thermostats, EGR valves, EGR coolers, heaters, oil coolers, radiators, and degas bottles are connected with EPDM hoses.
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The eyebars in the Silver Bridge were not redundant, as links were composed of only two bars each, of high-strength steel (more than twice the tensile strength of common mild steel), rather than a thick stack of thinner bars of modest material strength "combed" together, as is usual for redundancy. With only two bars, the failure of one could impose excessive loading on the second, causing total failure -- which would be unlikely if more bars were used. While a low-redundancy chain can be engineered to the design requirements, the safety is completely dependent upon correct, high-quality manufacturing, assembly, and maintenance. In comparison, the Brooklyn Bridge, with wire-cable suspension, was designed with an excess strength factor of six.
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These factors include scratch or abrasion resistance (Rosiwal scale), toughness, strength, ductility, indentation hardness (measured by the Brinell scale and expressed in BHN, or measured by the Vickers test and expressed in kg/mm²) and brittleness factor.Iyengar, KT, Raviraj, S 2001. Analytical study of fracture in concrete beams using blunt crack model. Journal of Engineering Mechanics 127: 828–834. Abrasion hardness, indentation hardness and brittleness factor (ratio of the uniaxial compressive strength and the uniaxial tensile strength) combine to determine the “composite hardness index” θ, which governs the production coefficient ρ: ρ = V θ² The approximate cupule volume V is determined by: V = π × d × (R² + r² + R × r) ⁄ 3 in which r = mean radius at rim and d = cupule depth.
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The material was developed in 1928 in several different laboratories by many chemists, such as William Chalmers, Otto Röhm, and Walter Bauer, and was first brought to market in 1933 by German Röhm & Haas AG (as of January 2019 part of Evonik Industries) and its partner and former U.S. affiliate Rohm and Haas Company under the trademark Plexiglas acrylic.Plexiglas history by Evonik (German only) PMMA is an economical alternative to polycarbonate (PC) when tensile strength, flexural strength, transparency, polishability, and UV tolerance are more important than impact strength, chemical resistance, and heat resistance. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate and is a far better choice for laser cutting. It is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost.
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The earliest disc records (1889–1894) were made of variety of materials including hard rubber. Around 1895, a shellac-based material was introduced and became standard. Formulas for the mixture varied by manufacturer over time, but it was typically about one-third shellac and two-thirds mineral filler (finely pulverized slate or limestone), with cotton fibers to add tensile strength, carbon black for color (without which it tended to be an unattractive "dirty" gray or brown color), and a very small amount of a lubricant to facilitate release from the manufacturing press. Columbia Records used a laminated disc with a core of coarser material or fiber. The production of shellac records continued throughout the 78 rpm era which lasted until the 1950s in industrialized nations, but well into the 1960s in others.
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Watap, watape, wattap, or wadab ( or ) is the thread and cordage used by the Native Americans and First Nations peoples of Canada to sew together sheets and panels of birchbark. The word itself comes from the Algonquian language family, but watap cordage was used and sewn by all of the people who lived where the paper birch tree grows. The cordage was usually manufactured from the roots of various species of conifers, such as the white spruce, black spruce, or Northern whitecedar, but could originate from a variety of species that sprouted root fibers with sufficient tensile strength for the required purpose. In a typical manufacturing process, the roots would be debarked, subjected to a lengthy soaking process, and then steamed or boiled to render them pliable for sewing.
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For the most part, after 1940, year-to-year appearance changes were very minimal. The grille design was lightly changed again in 1941, and this style continued through 1947, except for the lower chrome strips, which were omitted post war. The Job-Rated trucks had stronger frames than previous Dodge trucks, using steel with a higher tensile strength, and the frame-rails extended further forward past the engine than before, such that the truck's beefy, channel-type bumpers tied the rails together, reinforcing the frame. After World War II, several changes were made to production truck chassis parts, based on reliability experience gained during military service – for instance stronger differentials and larger axle shafts were used in post-war trucks, and steering boxes were beefed up as well.
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Window film is a thin laminate film that can be installed to the interior or exterior of glass surfaces in automobiles and boats and also to the interior or exterior of glass in homes and buildings. It is usually made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family, due to its clarity, tensile strength, dimensional stability, and ability to accept a variety of surface-applied or embedded treatments. Window films are generically categorised by their construction components (dyed, pigmented, metallized, ceramic or nano), by their intended use (automotive, marine or architectural), by substrate type (glass or polycarbonate), and/or by their technical performance (privacy, solar control, safety and security). Window film is normally installed by professional service companies but there are also DIY kits widely available.
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If the bark is steeped in warm water, it will dye both the container and water a rich carmine color. Because of its ability to grow in wet bogs and flats where loblolly pine does poorly, loblolly-bay silviculture may offer a management alternative for such areas. Laboratory papermaking tests conducted recently and other results reported in the literature (3,4) indicate that the pulp yield from loblolly-bay was acceptable (52 percent), the bulk of the paper was low (1.46 cm/g or 2.53 in/oz), and the strength acceptable. One laboratory test indicated a breaking length of 11,525 m (37,800 ft), a tensile strength of 10.2 kgf/15 mm (38.1 lbf/in), and a count of 836 folds using the Massachusetts Institute of Technology paper folding tester (1 kg or 2.2 lb).
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The consist was made up of lightweight, streamlined passenger carriages designed expressly for use with this train and built at the Shahekou Works. Trains were generally made up of six carriages - following the locomotive, one Teyu8 (テユ8) type baggage/mail car, two Ha8 (ハ8) type third-class coaches, one Shi8 (シ8) type dining car, one Ro8 (ロ8) type second-class coach, and one Ten'i8 (テンイ8) type first class observation carriage. Occasionally, longer trains were run, adding equipment such as an I8 (イ8) type first-class coaches or an additional Ha8 coach as required. In order to minimise weight, these carriages made extensive use of aluminium and magnesium fittings, and the semi-monocoque bodies were made using sheet steel of high tensile strength imported from Germany.
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As a result of their high energy absorption capacity and fatigue strength, TRIP steels are particularly well suited for automotive structural and safety parts such as cross members, longitudinal beams, B-pillar reinforcements, sills and bumper reinforcements. The TRIP effect can also be utilized in forming operations, where improvements to ductility enable greater bend angles and more aggressive forming operations without cracking. The most common TRIP range of steels comprises 2 cold rolled grades in both uncoated and coated formats (TRIP 690 and TRIP 780) and one hot rolled grade (TRIP 780), identified by their minimum ultimate tensile strength expressed in MPa. TRIP steels are well suited to armor applications, where increases in uniform ductility (and therefore ballistic energy absorption) can improve protection against projectiles and ballistic threats while maintaining or reducing plate thicknesses.
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By adding another element to a metal, differences in the size of the atoms create internal stresses in the lattice of the metallic crystals; stresses that often enhance its properties. For example, the combination of carbon with iron produces steel, which is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element, but engineering properties such as tensile strength,Mills, Adelbert Phillo (1922) Materials of Construction: Their Manufacture and Properties, John Wiley & sons, inc, originally published by the University of Wisconsin, Madison ductility, and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials.
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Lomonosov Chymiae Physicae 1752 Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of the principles, practices, and concepts of physics such as motion, energy, force, time, thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, analytical dynamics and chemical equilibrium. Physical chemistry, in contrast to chemical physics, is predominantly (but not always) a macroscopic or supra-molecular science, as the majority of the principles on which it was founded relate to the bulk rather than the molecular/atomic structure alone (for example, chemical equilibrium and colloids). Some of the relationships that physical chemistry strives to resolve include the effects of: # Intermolecular forces that act upon the physical properties of materials (plasticity, tensile strength, surface tension in liquids). # Reaction kinetics on the rate of a reaction.
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Those fibers were manufactured by heating strands of rayon until they carbonized. This process proved to be inefficient, as the resulting fibers contained only about 20% carbon and had low strength and stiffness properties. In the early 1960s, a process was developed by Dr. Akio Shindo at Agency of Industrial Science and Technology of Japan, using polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as a raw material. This had produced a carbon fiber that contained about 55% carbon. In 1960 Richard Millington of H.I. Thompson Fiberglas Co. developed a process (US Patent No. 3,294,489) for producing a high carbon content (99%) fiber using rayon as a precursor. These carbon fibers had sufficient strength (modulus of elasticity and tensile strength) to be used as a reinforcement for composites having high strength to weight properties and for high temperature resistant applications.
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Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low- carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.30% carbon"Classification of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels" making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.Engineering fundamentals page on low-carbon steel In applications where large cross-sections are used to minimize deflection, failure by yield is not a risk so low-carbon steels are the best choice, for example as structural steel.
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Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is less known if he even knew how much reinforcing actually improved concrete's tensile strength. Before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire, and having been reintroduced in the early 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. American New Yorker Thaddeus Hyatt published a report titled An Account of Some Experiments with Portland-Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of Metal in Construction and for Security against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking Surfaces where he reported his experiments on the behavior of reinforced concrete. His work played a major role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven and studied science.
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E-SAPI (Enhanced Small Arms Protective Insert) plates and their smaller counterparts E-SBI (Enhanced Side Ballistic Inserts) plates, are ceramic trauma plates that provide the bulk of the protection against projectiles when carried in an Improved Outer Tactical Vest, and are also used as part of many other body armors such as the Modular Tactical Vest. E-SAPI plates are designed to cover the vital front and back torso areas of the torso, while E-SBI plates are designed to protect the sides of the torso. The plate component itself is made of boron carbide, a widely used and extremely hard boron-carbon ceramic. Backing the plate is a layer of Spectra, a woven polymer material with extremely high tensile strength meant to stop any projectile that manages to pass through the ceramic strikeface.
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In 1982, NBC ran a television special on the bullets, wherein it was argued that the bullets were a threat to police. Various gun control organizations in the U.S. labeled Teflon-coated bullets with the epithet "cop killers" because of the supposedly increased penetration the bullets offered against ballistic vests, a staple of the American police uniform. Many erroneously focused on the Teflon coating as the source of the bullets' supposedly increased penetration, rather than the hardness of the metals used and the sharp conical projectile design. Woven ballistic vests, like Kevlar, rely on the dense weave of the textile and the tensile strength of the fiber to create resistance (or drag) on the exterior of the projectile slowing and eventually stopping the bullet before it penetrates all of the fabric layers of a vest.
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Fulcrum (1987) by Richard Serra in the Broadgate office estate, London Weathering steel, often referred to by the genericised trademark COR-TEN steel and sometimes written without the hyphen as corten steel, is a group of steel alloys which were developed to eliminate the need for painting, and form a stable rust-like appearance after several years' exposure to weather. U.S. Steel holds the registered trademark on the name COR-TEN. The name COR-TEN refers to the two distinguishing properties of this type of steel: corrosion resistance and tensile strength. Weathering Steel: A Guide to Corten and the A/B Equivalents, Origins & Standards Although USS sold its discrete plate business to International Steel Group (now ArcelorMittal) in 2003, it still sells COR-TEN branded material in strip-mill plate and sheet forms.
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Since polymer blends are basically unstable, they undergo stabilization during melt processing, at a nano-level combined with compatibilized material.Halahmi, I., Erez, O., Erez, A., (2011), Process for Producing Compatibilized Polymer Blends, US Patent 8,026,309 B2 The novel polymeric alloy core layer/s is made of a high performance polymer compound with a storage modulus of ≥1400 MPa at 23 °C, measured by Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) at a frequency of 1 Hz according to ASTM D4065; or an ultimate tensile strength of at least 30 MPa. The outer layers are usually made of a polyethylene or polypropylene polymer, with a blend or alloy with other polymers, fillers, additives, fibers and elastomers. The high performance alloys of polyamides, polyesters, and polyurethanes are combined with polypropylene, copolymers, block copolymers, blends and/or other combinations.
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Another view of the Adam Viaduct The bridge was constructed as a test case, to see if prestressed concrete construction was feasible for rail projects in the UK, by the LMS railway company, and designed by their chief civil engineer William Kelly Wallace. The beams used were prestressed using the Freyssinet system, in which concrete is precast with stressed high-tensile-strength metal tendons, which consist of multiple steel wires, running down the length of them. In construction, the beams internal rods are tightened and tied together so, under live load, they act as one. The LMS developed this system in the 1930s, and prestressed beams were first used for emergency repairs during World War Two, but the Adam Viaduct first to use them for a full-scale project.
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In animal models, extensive studies have been conducted to investigate the effects of mechanical strain in the form of activity level on tendon injury and healing. While stretching can disrupt healing during the initial inflammatory phase, it has been shown that controlled movement of the tendons after about one week following an acute injury can help to promote the synthesis of collagen by the tenocytes, leading to increased tensile strength and diameter of the healed tendons and fewer adhesions than tendons that are immobilized. In chronic tendon injuries, mechanical loading has also been shown to stimulate fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis along with collagen realignment, all of which promote repair and remodeling. To further support the theory that movement and activity assist in tendon healing, it has been shown that immobilization of the tendons after injury often has a negative effect on healing.
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His biographer states that he and Vidal were vying to be known as the "Henry Ford of aviation" and Atwood felt he was "cheated" out of his patent by Vidal, whom he says purchased it for $10,000 in 1939 and then only paid a year's royalty before filing for a patent under his own name with slight changes in the process. Atwood's process and Vidal's superficially resembled each other but employed different bonding methods. (Mansfield, pp, 132, 165, and 185-186) After leaving the BAC, Vidal experimented from 1937 to 1940 with wood-resin composites using a thermosetting polymer process similar to Duramold under the banner of the Vidal Research Corporation. The experiments with the durable waterproof plywood material, said to have a greater tensile strength than a comparable thickness of aluminum, evolved initially into a small business producing only trays and dinghies.
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Medusa possesses a long, thick head of red hair; thanks to her exposure to the mutagenic Terrigen Mist, every strand of her hair has great tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and sheer resistance far surpassing human hair. She possesses the psychokinetic ability to animate her hair for a number of feats, including elongating it to almost twice its normal length (Medusa's hair is approximately in length when relaxed), and using her hair to lift and move heavy weights (up to 1.6 tons); a portion of her hair must be used to anchor the rest at these greater weights, so that more than her scalp/skull is used as a brace.Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe #7 Medusa and her hair, by Jae Lee. Medusa can control the movement of her hair as if it were countless thin appendages growing from her head.
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Polymer fracture is the study of the fracture surface of an already failed material to determine the method of crack formation and extension in polymers both fiber reinforced and otherwise.John Scheirs, “john wiley and sons”, 30-oct-2000 “[Compositional and Failure Analysis of Polymers: A Practical Approach]” Failure in polymer components can occur at relatively low stress levels, far below the tensile strength because of four major reasons: long term stress or creep rupture, cyclic stresses or fatigue, the presence of structural flaws and stress-cracking agents. Formations of submicroscopic cracks in polymers under load have been studied by x ray scattering techniques and the main regularities of crack formation under different loading conditions have been analyzed. The low strength of polymers compared to theoretically predicted values are mainly due to the many microscopic imperfections found in the material.
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Determining whether a moon is currently in hydrostatic equilibrium requires close observation, and is easier to disprove than to prove. Earth's moon, which is entirely rocky, solidified out of equilibrium billions of years ago, but most of the other six moons larger than Pluto, five of which are icy, are assumed to still be in equilibrium. (Ice has less tensile strength than rock, and is deformed at lower pressures and temperatures than rock.) The evidence is perhaps strongest for Ganymede, which has a magnetic field that indicates fluid movement of electrically conducting material in its interior, though whether that fluid is a metallic core or a subsurface ocean is unknown.Planetary Science Decadal Survey Community White Paper, Ganymede science questions and future exploration One of the mid-sized moons of Saturn (Rhea) may also be in equilibrium,P.
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The treasury awarded a $1500 contract to the Franklin Institute to conduct a study. As part of the study, Walter R. Johnson and Benjamin Reeves conducted strength tests on various boiler iron using a tester they had built in 1832 based on the design of one by Lagerhjelm in Sweden. Unfortunately, because of the misunderstanding of tensile strength and ductility, their work did little to reduce failures. The importance of ductility was recognized by some very early in the development of tube boilers, such as Thurston's comment: Various 19th-century investigations of boiler explosions, especially those by insurance companies, found causes to be most commonly the result of operating boilers above the safe pressure range, either to get more power or due to defective boiler pressure relief valves and difficulties of obtaining reliable indication of pressure and water level.
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Sue can also mentally generate a psionic field of invisible force apparently drawn from hyperspace, which she is able to manipulate for a variety of effects. For example, Sue can shape her fields into simplistic invisible constructs (e.g. barriers, clamps, columns, cones, cylinders, darts, discs, domes, platforms, rams, ramps, slides, spheres, etc.) or generate a near-indestructible invisible force field around herself or her target. She can vary the texture and tensile strength of her field to some extent, rendering it rigid as steel or as soft and yielding as foam rubber; softer variants on the field enable her to cushion impacts more gently, and are less likely to result in psionic backlash against Susan herself (in some cases, sufficiently powerful assaults on her more rigid psionic fields can cause her mental or physical pain via psychic feedback).
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On the other hand, the Handbook states that the character Quicksilver was born with adaptations that make higher speeds possible, such as enhanced cardiovascular, respiratory, musculature, and digestive systems, a more efficient metabolism, better lubricated joints, tendons with the tensile strength of spring steel, unidentified bone composition that can withstand the dynamic shock of his touching the ground at speeds over 100 miles an hour, and a brain that can process information fast enough for him to react to his surroundings at high speed.The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe, by Mark Gruenwald and Peter Sanderson; Volume Five; Pages 55 & 128. In DC Comics, the Flash family of speedsters derive their abilities from an extradimensional energy source known as the Speed Force, which grants them superspeed and various other abilities required to use it, such as durability.
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LDPE has more branching (on about 2% of the carbon atoms) than HDPE, so its intermolecular forces (instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction) are weaker, its tensile strength is lower, and its resilience is higher. Also, because its molecules are less tightly packed and less crystalline due to the side branches, its density is lower. When exposed to ambient solar radiation the plastic produces two greenhouse gases, methane and ethylene. Due to its low density properties (branching) it breaks down more easily over time, leading to higher surface areas. The production of these trace gases from virgin LDPE increase with surface area/time, with rates at the end of a 212-day incubation of 5.8 nmol g-1 d-1 of methane, 14.5 nmol g-1 d-1 of ethylene, 3.9 nmol g-1 d-1 of ethane and 9.7 nmol g-1 d-1 of propylene.
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Ordinary-strength ABS shipbuilding steel comes in a number of grades, A, B, D, E, DS, and CS. On certified steels, the plates are marked with the grade and a preceding "AB/", e.g. AB/A etc.Steel Vessel Rules 2010, Part 2 - Materials and Welding, American Bureau of Shipping, 2010, Chapter 1, Sections 2 and 3 Yield point for all ordinary-strength ABS steels is specified as 34,000 psi (235 MPa), except for ABS A in thicknesses of greater than 1 inch (25 mm) which has yield strength of 32,000 psi (225 MPa), and cold flange rolled sections, which have yield strength of 30,000 psi (205 MPa). Ultimate tensile strength of ordinary strength alloys is 58,000 - 71,000 psi (400-490 MPa), except for ABS A shapes and bars with 58,000 - 80,000 psi (400-550 MPa), and cold flanged sections with 55,000 - 65,000 psi (380-450 MPa).
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English, The Textile Industry (1969), 89-97; W. H. Chaloner, People and Industries (1993), 45-54 The equal warp and weft mean that the tensile strength and shrinkage is the same in any two directions at right angles and that the fabric absorbs liquids such as ink, paint and aircraft dope equally along its X and Y axes. It was used as the covering for the de Havilland MosquitoKennedy Hickman, World War II: De Havilland Mosquito, About.com a pioneer of wooden monocoque airframe construction in military aircraft, as well as in other aircraft, where it was tautened and stiffened with aircraft dope.John Brandon, "Aircraft fabric covering systems", Builders guide to aircraft materials, 25 June 2006, archived at the Wayback Machine, 16 September 2008 The cloth takes its name from the eponymous village near Narsapur, West Godavari, Andhra Pradesh, India, where the East India Company had a cloth factory.
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The polyolefin in the novel polymeric alloy polymer blend provides stress cracking resistance, hydrolytic resistance, very low temperature functionality and tear resistance, while the polyamide engineering polymer provides strength, stiffness, retention of mechanical strength at elevated temperatures, creep resistance and long-term dimensional stability. Novel polymeric alloy has a coefficient of thermal expansion CTE less than about 135 ppm/°C; resistance to acidic media greater than polyamide 6 resin and/or resistance to basic media greater than PET resin; resistance to hydrocarbons greater than that of HDPE; creep modulus of > 400 MPa at 25 °C at 20% of yield stress load for 60 minutes (ISO 899-1); and 1 percent secant flexural modulus > 700 MPa at 25 °C (ASTM D790). Novel polymeric alloy has a tensile strength in the range of 19.1 to 32 MPa with an elastic modulus of 440 to 820 MPa (at 2% strain).
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Novel polymeric alloy was developed for a high-modulus geosynthetics, including geocells, geogrids and geomembranes, which require higher strength, stiffness and durability. In a geocell application, the high modulus of Novel Polymeric Alloy means stiff and strong cell walls, which provide a very high elastic response to dynamic loading even after millions of cycles without permanent plastic deformation.Pokharel, S. K., Han, J., Manandhar, C., Yang, X. M., Leshchinsky, D., Halahmi, I., and Parsons, R. L. (2011). “Accelerated Pavement Testing of Geocell-Reinforced Unpaved Roads over Weak Subgrade.” Journal of Transportation Research Board, the 10th International Conference on Low-Volume Roads, July 24–27, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, USA The strength and stiffness of novel polymeric alloy, as measured by tensile strength, long-term resistance to deformation, coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and performance at elevated temperatures (storage modulus), provides a performance lifespan previously available in geocell applications.
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Siphon principle In the flying-droplet siphon, surface tension pulls the stream of liquid into separate droplets inside of a sealed air-filled chamber, preventing the liquid going down from having contact with the liquid going up, and thereby preventing liquid tensile strength from pulling the liquid up. It also demonstrates that the effect of atmospheric pressure at the entrance is not canceled by the equal atmospheric pressure at the exit. A siphon (from , "pipe, tube", also spelled nonetymologically syphon) is any of a wide variety of devices that involve the flow of liquids through tubes. In a narrower sense, the word refers particularly to a tube in an inverted "U" shape, which causes a liquid to flow upward, above the surface of a reservoir, with no pump, but powered by the fall of the liquid as it flows down the tube under the pull of gravity, then discharging at a level lower than the surface of the reservoir from which it came.
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Viper Knives: MV-5, MV-3, and MV-1 As a direct result of watching his fellow martial artists train with a fixed-blade fighting knife in class, yet carry some type of a folding knife when they left the training area, Emerson decided there was a need for a sturdy folding knife designed primarily for combat. Although Emerson had always maintained that the knives he made were built as fighting knives first and foremost, in October 1985 he stripped down five of these designs to simpler materials. He continued his use of linen or canvas micarta because of its high tensile strength and superior gripping surface when wet; he decided on black or dark grey for the color instead of the brighter colors used previously. He retained the titanium for the liners and bolsters but chose to bead-blast them a flat grey matte color as opposed to the colorful anodizing which used to appear on his knives.
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Shortly before he began working on the development of the diamond anvil cell, Weir worked in the Leather Section at the National Bureau of Standards, where he developed a piston/cylinder device for high pressure experiments on leather and similar materials. He then used this device for unfunded discretionary work on the compressibility of (and phase transitions in) many other materials. Ultimately, this discretionary work brought him into contact with Alvin Van Valkenburg (a mineralogist by training), who was also pursuing high-pressure research at the National Bureau of Standards, along with Ellis Lippincott from the University of Maryland, College Park and Elmer Bunting from the National Bureau of Standards. After a failed experiment that involved compressing a sample with a diamond piston inserted into a cylindrical hole bored into a 7.5 carat diamond crystal, Weir proposed an opposed anvil device that would take advantage of the high compressive strength of diamond (as opposed to its less impressive tensile strength) to perform infrared absorption measurements at high pressure.
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When a diver holds their breath during an ascent the reduction in pressure will cause the gas to expand and the lungs will also have to expand to continue to contain the gas. If the expansion exceeds the normal capacity of the lungs, they will continue to expand elastically until the tissues reach their tensile strength limit, after which any increase in pressure difference between the gas in the lungs and the ambient pressure will cause the weaker tissues to rupture, releasing gas from the lungs into any permeable space exposed by the damaged tissue. This could be the pleural space between the lung and the chest walls, between the pleural membranes, and this condition is known as pneumothorax. The gas could also enter the interstitial spaces within the lungs, the neck and larynx, and the mediastinal space around the heart, causing interstititial or mediastinal emphysema, or it could enter the blood vessels of the venous pulmonary circulation via damaged alveolar capillaries, and from there reach the left side of the heart, from which they will be discharged into the systemic circulation.
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Bristol Aerospace developed a WSPS qualified for the Bell OH-58 Kiowa under contract to the Canadian Armed Forces in May 1979. Nelson Chan is credited with inventing WSPS, according to the patents granted in 1980. Bristol staged a series of 52 tests of the WSPS by mounting it on the fuselage of a wrecked Kiowa; the fuselage was loaded onto a flatbed truck and driven into wires at speeds ranging from , yaw angles ranging from 0 to 45°, and a variety of cables that were typically used in overhead power and telecommunication transmission lines, including a 7-strand steel cable with a tensile strength exceeding . Because the Bristol testing did not determine the effectiveness of the lower fuselage-mounted cutter, and was a ground-based test that did not evaluate how a wire strike with the cutter would affect aircraft attitude during flight, the United States Army Research Laboratory conducted supplemental pendulum swing tests at the Impact Dynamics Research Facility located at Langley Research Center with a Kiowa in October 1979.
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The material must be ductile for a similar reason that the tensile strength cannot be too high, ductility allows the material to bend without fracture and also prevents the concentration of stresses in the tissue when temperature changes. The material property of toughness is also important for dental implants as well as any other rigid, load-bearing implant such as a replacement hip joint. Toughness describes the material's ability to deform under applied stress without fracturing and having a high toughness allows biomaterial implants to last longer within the body, especially when subjected to large stress or cyclically-loaded stresses, like the stresses applied to a hip joint during running. For medical devices that are implanted or attached to the skin, another important property requiring consideration is the flexural rigidity, D. Flexural rigidity will determine how well the device surface can maintain conformal contact with the tissue surface, which is especially important for devices that are measuring tissue motion (strain), electrical signals (impedance), or are designed to stick to the skin without delaminating, as in epidermal electronics.
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" Richard Roeper wrote for The Chicago Sun Times that "Max often takes a passenger seat to Theron's Imperator Furiosa, this is one female- empowered action vehicle." Marc Savlov of The Austin Chronicle wrote that "Furiosa, who more than lives up to her name, is Fury Roads heart and soul – well, after all those nightmarishly souped-up deathmobiles – and this future über-feminist/humanist gets all of the good lines." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe proclaimed, "About a half hour into Mad Max: Fury Road, you may realize with a start that Max is sharing hero duties with a fiery woman warrior named Furiosa, played with tensile strength by Charlize Theron, and that Furiosa may actually be the central figure in this breakneck and emotionally resonant film. Utterly capable while yearning for 'the green place' from which she was kidnapped as a child, outfitted with a spidery mechanical arm that is one of Miller's many nods to that classic movie dystopia 'Metropolis,' Furiosa is the movie's soul and spine.
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The novel is set on year 2016 Earth, with several interstellar ships being launched by the US and the EU in the hopes of finding habitable worlds to alleviate the overpopulation of Earth, only to find that while inhabitable worlds exists aplenty, they are all taken by a Commonwealth of alien races. This device allows the author to explain why his colonists are sent to the one world available, devoid of any life form because of its unexplainable lack of metals. Zahn describes briefly the conflicts between the military and civilian parts of the Astra expedition, the latter further divided between scientists and colonists, then introduces the main device of the novel - the planet itself somehow absorbs the metal, leading to equipment literally vanishing into the ground. Soon after the disappearance, what was thought to be a dormant volcano launches into orbit a cable of an unknown material, which turns out to be superconductive, of great tensile strength and with the ability to atomically bond with anything it touches.
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Owens-Corning is still the major glass-fiber producer in the market today. The most common types of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E-glass, which is alumino- borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass- reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-glass (Alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low Dielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as reinforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength). Pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass, but has the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures.
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The discrepancy between D and D^2 shows that a balance of energy release and dissipation rate can exist for every size D only if \sigma_N decreases with increasing D. If the energy dissipated within the damage zone of width h is added, one obtains the Bažant (1984) size effect law (Type 2): (Fig. 4c,d) where B, f'_t, D_0 = constants, where f'_t = tensile strength of material, and B accounts for the structure geometry. For more complex geometries such an intuitive derivation is not possible. However, dimensional analysis coupled with asymptotic matching showed that Eq. 8 is applicable in general, and that the dependence of its parameters on the structure geometry has approximately the following form: where c_f \approx half of the FPZ length, \alpha_0 = a/D = relative initial crack length (which is constant for geometrically similar scaling); g(\alpha_0) = k^2(\alpha_0) = dimensionless energy release function of linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM), which brings about the effect of structure geometry; k(\alpha_0)= K(\alpha_0) b \sqrt D /P, and K = stress intensity factor.
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Because titanium alloys have high tensile strength to density ratio, high corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance, high crack resistance, and ability to withstand moderately high temperatures without creeping, they are used in aircraft, armour plating, naval ships, spacecraft, and missiles. For these applications, titanium is alloyed with aluminium, zirconium, nickel, vanadium, and other elements to manufacture a variety of components including critical structural parts, fire walls, landing gear, exhaust ducts (helicopters), and hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in aircraft engines and frames. The titanium 6AL-4V alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in aircraft applications. The Lockheed A-12 and its development the SR-71 "Blackbird" were two of the first aircraft frames where titanium was used, paving the way for much wider use in modern military and commercial aircraft. An estimated 59 metric tons (130,000 pounds) are used in the Boeing 777, 45 in the Boeing 747, 18 in the Boeing 737, 32 in the Airbus A340, 18 in the Airbus A330, and 12 in the Airbus A320.
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Composition: the most common types of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E-glass, which is alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly used for glass-reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-glass (Alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low Dielectric constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high mechanical requirements as Reinforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength). Naming and use: pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass but has the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures. In order to lower the necessary work temperature, other materials are introduced as "fluxing agents" (i.e.
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For massive bodies with a surface, the tensile force is largest near the surface, and this maximum value is only dependent on the object and the average density of the massive body (as long as the object is small relative to the massive body). For example, for a rod with a mass of 1 kg and a length of 1 m, and a massive body with the average density of the Earth, this maximum tensile force due to the tidal force is only 0.4 μN. Due to the high density, the tidal force near the surface of a white dwarf is much stronger, causing in the example a maximum tensile force of up to 0.24 N. Near a neutron star, the tidal forces are again much stronger: if the rod has a tensile strength of 10,000 N and falls vertically to a neutron star of 2.1 solar masses, setting aside that it would melt, it would break at a distance of 190 km from the center, well above the surface (a neutron star typically has a radius of only about 12 km).An 8-meter rod of the same strength, with a mass of 8 kg, breaks at a distance 4 times as high.
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