281 Sentences With "RNA virus" | Random Sentence Generator

A mutation in an RNA virus could also make it milder and less deadly.

An RNA virus is one where the genetic material is a strand of RNA.

Ebola is an RNA virus, one that encodes its genetic material in RNA rather than DNA.

Also, it's an RNA virus, which means it tends to mutate—it's very difficult to stop.

Previously discovered Crispr molecules are very good at whacking apart DNA but don't protect bacteria from an RNA virus.

The virus that causes Covid-19, SARS-CoV-2, is an RNA virus, which means it uses ribonucleic acid as its genetic material.

RNA virus infections are often acute but transient, coming and going in a relatively short time—as with the flu or the common cold.

The worst thing about a cataclysmic weather event, or a single-stranded-RNA virus that wipes out the species is … it might impact the economy.

Zika is an RNA virus that mutates and evolves at a fairly high rate, which makes its genetic data like a trail of bread crumbs that scientists can follow.

For example, Dr. Lipkin of the Columbia immunity center said that his lab in 2010 infected pregnant mice with a synthetic RNA virus that replicated in fetal mouse brains.

Leishmaniavirus (also known as Leishmania RNA virus or LRV) is a genus of double-stranded RNA virus, in the family Totiviridae. Protozoa serve as natural hosts, and Leishmaniaviruses are present in several species of the human protozoan parasite Leishmania. There are currently only two species in this genus including the type species Leishmania RNA virus 1.

Bebaru virus is an RNA virus in the genus Alphavirus.

Cabassou virus is an RNA virus in the genus Alphavirus.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Replication follows the positive-strand RNA virus replication model. Positive- strand RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by cell-to-cell movement.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Replication follows the positive-strand RNA virus replication model. Positive-strand RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by cell-to-cell movement.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Replication follows the double-stranded RNA virus replication model. Double-stranded rna virus transcription is the method of transcription. The virus exits the host cell by cell to cell movement.

Replication follows the double-stranded RNA virus replication model. Double-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. The viruses are released from the cell by budding. Mammals serve as the natural host.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment to host receptors, which mediate endocytosis. Replication follows the positive-stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by cell receptor endocytosis. Replication follows the double-stranded RNA virus replication model in the cytoplasm. Double-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription in cytoplasm.

S. cerevisiae virus L-A Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by virus remains intracellular. Replication follows the double-stranded RNA virus replication model. Double-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription.

Entry into the host cell is achieved by adsorption into the host cell. Replication follows the positive-strand RNA virus replication model. Positive-strand RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. Translation takes place by suppression of termination.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic, and is lysogenic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded rna virus transcription is the method of transcription.

Batai orthobunyavirus (BATV) is a RNA virus belonging to order Bunyavirales, genus Orthobunyavirus.

Life cycle of cystoviruses Cytoviruses enter the bacteria by adsorption on its pilus and then membrane fusion. Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Replication follows the double-stranded RNA virus replication model. Double-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription.

Replication and movement of soybean mosaic virus (SMV) Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration. Replication follows the positive- stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription.

Leviviridae life cycle Entry into the host cell is achieved by adsorption into the host cell. Replication follows the positive-strand RNA virus replication model. Positive-strand RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. Translation takes place by suppression of termination.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral G glycoproteins to host receptors, which mediates endocytosis. Replication follows the negative stranded RNA virus replication model. Negative stranded RNA virus transcription, using polymerase stuttering is the method of transcription.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic, and is lysogenic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by penetration into the host cell. Replication follows the positive stranded RNA virus replication model. Positive stranded RNA virus transcription, using the premature termination model of subgenomic RNA transcription is the method of transcription.

Viral replication is cytoplasmic. Entry into the host cell is achieved by attachment of the viral G glycoproteins to host receptors, which mediates clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Replication follows the negative stranded RNA virus replication model. Negative stranded rna virus transcription, using polymerase stuttering is the method of transcription.

Double-stranded RNA virus transcription is the method of transcription. The fungi Rosellinia necatrix serves as a natural host.

Weeks, R.S., et al., Transcribing and replicating particles in a double-stranded RNA virus from Leishmania. Mol Biochem Parasitol, 1992.

The rat coronavirus is a single-stranded RNA virus with positive polarity that is approximately 27 to 33 kb long.

SHRV is an enveloped, bullet-shaped RNA virus measuring approximately 170 nm x 60 nm with an electron dense nucleocapsid.

Widmer, G., et al., Characterization of a RNA virus from the parasite Leishmania. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 1989.

It is noncytopathogenic -it does not kill its host cells. It is a single stranded RNA virus that is labile in the environment.

Stuart, K.D., et al., Molecular organization of Leishmania RNA virus 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 1992. 89(18): p. 8596.

Tilapia lake virus is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. It belongs to Group V of the Baltimore Classification System of viruses.

Hepacivirus A, or Canine hepacivirus, is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Hepacivirus. It causes pulmonary infections in dogs.

Because SeV is a negative-strand RNA virus the virus entire life cycle is completed in the cytoplasm using its own RNA polymerase.

The bacteriophage f2 is an icosahedral, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that infects the bacterium Escherichia coli. It is extremely similar to bacteriophage MS2.

Ndumu virus is an RNA virus in the genus Alphavirus. It was first isolated in 1961 from culicine mosquitoes collected in northern Natal, Union of South Africa.

Now, quantitative PCR assays offered as-good or better sensitivity than nested PCR, fast turnaround time in the lab, and lower rates of cross- contamination via closed-tube amplification. As an RNA virus with a 15 kb genome, PRRS mutates at a relatively high rate as it is transmitted from pig- pig over time. The calculated rate of PRRSV nucleotide substitution is the highest reported so far for an RNA virus.

Preliminary data of PUS4 modifying mRNA, but more research is needed to confirm. Also binds to a specific Brome Mosaic Virus, which is a plant-infecting RNA virus.

Biology Direct. Retrieved 29 March 2020.Thompson, Helen (20 April 2012). "Hot spring yields hybrid genome: Researchers discover natural chimaeric DNA-RNA virus". Nature. Retrieved 27 March 2020.

Quadriviruses are transmitted internally. They are propagated during cell division and hyphal anastomosis. Viral replication occurs in the cytoplasm. It follows the double-stranded RNA virus replication model.

RYMV is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus. There is a high level of genetic diversity with the RYMV nucleotides, which is roughly 14%. RYMV is a sobemovirus.

Louping ill is caused by RNA virus called Louping ill virus. Louping ill virus belongs to genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae. There are four subtypes: British, Irish, Spanish and Turkish.

Adelaide River ephemerovirus is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the family Rhabdoviridae. The virus's primary hosts are all bovine, including domestic water buffalo, and cape buffalo.

Upon joint infection of plant host cells with two different CCMV gene deletion mutants, functional RNA virus genomes can be regenerated by homologous recombination repair.Allison R, Thompson C, Ahlquist P. Regeneration of a functional RNA virus genome by recombination between deletion mutants and requirement for cowpea chlorotic mottle virus 3a and coat genes for systemic infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Mar;87(5):1820-4. doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.5.1820.

Bluetongue virus (BTV), a member of Orbivirus genus within the Reoviridae family causes serious disease in livestock (sheep, goat, cattle). It is non-enveloped, double-stranded RNA virus. The genome is segmented.

Arteriviridae is a family of viruses in the suborder Arnidovirineae. Members of the family are known as arteriviruses. Positive strand RNA virus, virions are enveloped, spherical, and 45–60 nm in diameter.

Remarkably, some 25% of ladybirds revive and emerge from paralysis once the cocoon has been emptied. The paralytic effect has been proposed to be associated with an RNA virus, Dinocampus coccinellae paralysis virus.

Bacillarnavirus is a genus of viruses in the order Picornavirales. Marine diatoms serve as natural hosts. There are currently three species in this genus, including the type species Rhizosolenia setigera RNA virus 01.

Visceral Leishmaniasis/kala-azar samples from India revealed the presence of not only the primary causative protozoan parasite, i.e. Leishmania donovani (LD) but also co-infection with another protozoan member called Leptomonas seymouri (LS). The latter parasite (LS) further contained a RNA virus known as Leptomonas seymouri narna-like virus 1 (Lepsey NLV1). So, it appears that a great majority of kala-azar victims in the Indian subcontinent are exposed to a RNA virus in LS, the co-infecting parasite with LD i.e.

Rhinolophus bat coronavirus HKU2 (Chinese horseshoe bat virus; Bat-CoV HKU2) is a novel enveloped, single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus species in the Alphacoronavirus, or Group 1, genus with a corona-like morphology.

DOUBLE-STRANDED-RNA VIRUS IN COLLETOTRICHUM- LINDEMUTHIANUM. Transactions of the British Mycological Society 65, no. oct, (accessed April 01, 2014). However, the particles proved to be inseparable from the fungus, making an effective control difficult to acquire.

Moshe Dessau, Daniel Goldhill, Robert C. McBride, Paul E. Turner & Yorgo Modis (2012). Selective pressure causes an RNA virus to trade reproductive fitness for increased structural and thermal stability of a viral enzyme. PLoS Genet., 8, e1003102.

Mymonaviridae is a family in the order Mononegavirales. This family was established in 2016 to taxonomically accommodate Sclerotinia sclerotiorum negative-stranded RNA virus 1 (SsNSRV-1), a novel virus discovered in a hypovirulent strain of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum.

Labyrnavirus is a monotypic genus of viruses in the order Picornavirales. Protist and labyrinthulomycetes serve as natural hosts, notably Aurantiochytrium. There is only one species in this genus: the type species Aurantiochytrium single-stranded RNA virus 01.

Pulau virus (PuV) is a novel strain of Nelson Bay orthoreovirus species. It is a double-stranded RNA virus. It is fusogenic and syncytia-forming. It varies from Nelson Bay virus in the S1 and S2 nucleotide segments.

Catacamas virus is a single-stranded, enveloped novel RNA virus in the genus Orthohantavirus of the order Bunyavirales isolated in Oryzomys couesi near the town of Catacamas in eastern Honduras. It is a member virus of Bayou orthohantavirus.

HRSV is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus of the family Pneumoviridae. Its name comes from the fact that F proteins on the surface of the virus cause the cell membranes on nearby cells to merge, forming syncytia.

Yokose virus is a positive sense single-stranded RNA virus. It is enveloped and has icosohedral symmetry with a triangulation number (T) of 3. It is roughly 50 nm in diameter.The genome is non-segmented and contains 10,857 nucleotides.

The West Nile virus genome. Modified after Guzman et al. 2010. WNV is a positive-sense, single- stranded RNA virus. Its genome is approximately 11,000 nucleotides long and is flanked by 5′ and 3′ non-coding stem loop structures.

Deltaarterivirus hemfev, formerly Simian hemorrhagic fever virus or simian haemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV), is a highly pathogenic virus in monkeys. It is a positive-stranded RNA virus classified in the family Arteriviridae. It is the only member of the subgenus Hedartevirus.

Miniopterus bat coronavirus HKU8 (Bat-CoV HKU8) is an enveloped, single- stranded positive-sense RNA virus species in the genus Alphacoronavirus with a corona-like morphology. It causes severe acute respiratory syndrome in bats. Isolates have not been found in humans.

They named this "mythological beast of a virus" the "Boiling Springs Lake RNA−DNA Hybrid Virus" or "BSL−RDHV".Thompson, Helen (20 April 2012). "Hot spring yields hybrid genome: Researchers discover natural chimaeric DNA-RNA virus". Nature. Retrieved 27 March 2020.

Scotophilus bat coronavirus 512 (Bat-CoV 512) is an enveloped, single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus species in the Alphacoronavirus, or Group 1, genus with a corona-like morphology. It was isolated from a lesser Asiatic yellow house bat discovered in southern China.

Negative-stranded RNA virus transcription, using polymerase stuttering, is the method of transcription. Translation takes place by leaky scanning, ribosomal shunting, and RNA termination-reinitiation. The virus exits the host cell by budding. Human, vertebrates, and birds serve as the natural hosts.

PRRSV is a small, enveloped RNA virus. It contains a single-stranded, positive- sense, RNA genome with a size of approximately 15 kilobases. The genome contains nine open reading frames. PRRSV is a member of the genus Arterivirus, family Arteriviridae, order Nidovirales.

Escherichia virus MS2 is an icosahedral, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that infects the bacterium Escherichia coli and other members of the Enterobacteriaceae. MS2 is a member of a family of closely related bacterial viruses that includes bacteriophage f2, bacteriophage Qβ, R17, and GA.

The Nipah virus (NiV) is a type of RNA virus in the genus Henipavirus. The virus normally circulates among specific types of fruit bats. It can both spread between people and from other animals to people. Spread typically requires direct contact with an infected source.

In Thai, the disease is called .Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission: Non-Native Species Summaries: Yellowhead Virus (YHV) , 2003. Accessed June 30, 2005. The disease is caused by the Yellow head virus (YHV), a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus related to coronaviruses and arteriviruses.

Melaka virus is a nonenveloped, segmented, double-stranded RNA virus. Having a segmented genome facilitates reassortment. Melaka is a fusogenic virus which enhances virulence in its ability to carry out cell-cell fusion.Day JM. The diversity of the orthoreoviruses: molecular taxonomy and phylogenetic divides.

On 14 September 2015, the body of a girl who had died in Sierra Leone tested positive for Ebola and it was suspected that she may have contracted the disease from the semen of an Ebola survivor who was discharged in March 2015. According to some news reports, a new study to be published in the New England Journal of Medicine indicated that the RNA virus could remain in the semen of survivors for up to six months, and according to other researchers, the RNA virus could continue in semen for 82 days and maybe longer. Furthermore, Ebola RNA had been found up to 284 days post-onset of viral symptoms.

The Orsay virus is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that infects Caenorhabditis elegans nematode. It resembles nodaviruses (family Nodaviridae), but has yet to be formally classified.Orsay virus. Virus-Host DB Orsay virus has a (+)ssRNA genome consisting of two segments, termed RNA1 and RNA2.

Measles morbillivirus, formerly called measles virus (MV), is a single- stranded, negative-sense, enveloped, non-segmented RNA virus of the genus Morbillivirus within the family Paramyxoviridae. It is the cause of measles. Humans are the natural hosts of the virus; no animal reservoirs are known to exist.

Sclerodarnavirus is a genus of viruses in the order Tymovirales, in the family Alphaflexiviridae. Fungi serve as natural hosts. There is currently only one species in this genus: the type species Sclerotinia sclerotiorum debilitation- associated RNA virus. Diseases associated with this genus include: hypovirulence or debilitation.

White bream virus is a species of virus. It is the sole species in the subgenus Blicbavirus, which is in the genus Bafinivirus. It was first isolated from white bream (Blicca bjoerkna) in Germany. It is a bacilliform (rod- shaped) positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus.

In 2011 the first naturally associated virus was isolated from C. elegans found outside of a laboratory. The Orsay virus is an RNA virus that is closely related to nodaviruses. The virus is not stably integrated into the host genome. It is transmitted horizontally under laboratory conditions.

Saaremaa virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense, RNA virus Orthohantavirus that causes a milder form of Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. It is a member virus of Dobrava-Belgrade orthohantavirus. It was first isolated from a striped field mouse in Slovakia.Plyusnin, Alexander, Vaheri, Antti.

Like all paramyxoviruses, Menangle virus has an envelope, negative sense ssRNA, and pleomorphic (both spherical and elongated forms) proteins (HN and fusion) which protrude from the surface as spikes that help the virus get into cells. As an RNA virus, it must enter the cell to replicate.

The virus is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid receptor. It has the Hemagglutinin esterase (HE) gene, which distinguishes it as a member of the genus Betacoronavirus and subgenus Embecovirus.

Bunyaviruses and innate immunity. In: Cellular signaling and innate immune responses to RNA virus infections. (2009) Washington, DC: ASM Press. pp. 287–299. This would establish it as the main virulence factor as it acts during the transcriptional phase by inhibiting RNA polymerase II–mediated transcription.

Alvernaviridae is a family of viruses. Dinoflagellates serve as natural hosts. There is currently only one species in this family: the type species Heterocapsa circularisquama RNA virus 01. Diseases associated with this family include: control of the host population possibly through lysis of the host cell.

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a small (55–65 nm in size), enveloped, positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae. The hepatitis C virus is the cause of hepatitis C and some cancers such as liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma, abbreviated HCC) and lymphomas in humans.

Setae in pupa orange. The caterpillar is a minor pest on several banyan species such as Ficus benjamina, Ficus benghalensis, Ficus racemosa, Ficus pumila and Ficus religiosa. and also many crop plants like Artocarpus and Mangifera. The species is associated with an RNA virus called Perina nuda virus.

Bloodland Lake virus (BLLV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus of New World Orthohantavirus first isolated in a Prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) near Bloodland Lake, Fort Leonard Wood, Pulaski County, Missouri in 1994. BLLV has also been isolated in Prairie voles in St. Louis County, Missouri.

Salmon Alphavirus is an RNA virus. There are six sub-types of the SAV virus have been identified (referred to as SAV1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6), differentiated by the nucleic acid sequences of certain genes. The strands of SAV causing PD is SAV1, Marine SAV2 and SAV3.

Amur virus (AMRV) is a zoonotic negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus. It may be a member of the genus Orthohantavirus, but it has not be definitively classified as a species and may only be a strain. It has been identified as a causative agent of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome.

Marklewitz M, Zirkel F, Kurth A, Drosten C, Junglen S (2015) Evolutionary and phenotypic analysis of live virus isolates suggests arthropod origin of a pathogenic RNA virus family. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112(24):7536–7541. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1502036112 A Gn–Gc glycoprotein dimer binds to the cell receptor.

Muju virus (MUV) is a zoonotic negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Orthohantavirus. It is a member virus of Puumala orthohantavirus. It is one of four rodent-borne Hantaviruses found in the Republic of Korea. It is the etiologic agent for Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS).

ISA is caused by the infectious salmon anemia virus (ISAV). ISAV, a RNA virus, is the only species in the genus "Isavirus" which is in the family Orthomyxoviridae, and therefore related to the influenza viruses. The genome encodes at least 10 proteins. There are several distinct strains of the virus.

It was caused by Marburg virus which is an African RNA virus that causes green monkey disease. Now thought to be under control, there were 374 cases with 88% deaths. According to the United Nations, it was, at the time, the world's worst epidemic of any kind of hemorrhagic fever.

Betacoronavirus 1 is a species of coronavirus which infects humans and cattle. The infecting virus is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus and is a member of the genus Betacoronavirus and subgenus Embecovirus. It has, like other embecoviruses, an additional shorter spike-like surface protein called hemagglutinin esterase (HE).

Positive-strand RNA virus genomes usually contain relatively few genes, usually between three and ten, including an RNA- dependent RNA polymerase. Coronaviruses have the largest known RNA genomes, between 27 and 32 kilobases in length, and likely possess replication proofreading mechanisms in the form of an exoribonuclease within nonstructural protein nsp14.

Cameron was appointed the Eberly Chair in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at Penn State in 2013. His research considers RNA virus infections. Cameron developed lethal mutagenesis; an alternative mechanism of action of ribavirin that renders genes unable to function. He has pioneered the use of lethal mutagenesis in novel antiviral drugs.

Hantaan orthohantavirus (HTNV) is an enveloped, single-stranded, negative- sense RNA virus species of Old World Orthohantavirus. It is the causative agent of Korean hemorrhagic fever in humans. It is named for the Hantan River in South Korea, and in turn lends the name to its genus Orthohantavirus and family Hantaviridae.

It has long been suspected that the disease is caused by a Sindbis-like virus, a positive-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Alphavirus genus and family Togaviridae. In 2002 a strain of Sindbis was isolated from patients during an outbreak of the Pogosta disease in Finland, confirming the hypothesis.

Escherichia virus Qβ is a positive-strand RNA virus which infects bacteria that have F-pili, most commonly Escherichia coli. Its linear genome is packaged into an icosahedral capsid with a diameter of 28 nm. Bacteriophage Qβ enters its host cell after binding to the side of the F-pilus.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is a member of the Aphthovirus genus in the Picornaviridae family and is the cause of foot-and- mouth disease in pigs, cattle, sheep and goats. It is a non-enveloped, positive strand, RNA virus. FMDV is a highly contagious virus. It enters the body through inhalation.

The genome has the highest G+C content of any currently known single stranded RNA virus (~70%).Zhou Y, Chen X, Ushijima H, Frey TK (2012) Analysis of base and codon usage by rubella virus. Arch Virol Despite this high GC content its codon use is similar to that of its human host.

The causal agent, Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a variant of avian orthoavulavirus 1, a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. NDV belongs to the subfamily Avulavirinae, which infect birds. Transmission occurs by exposure to faecal and other excretions from infected birds, and through contact with contaminated food, water, equipment, and clothing.

Barmah Forest virus (BFV) is an RNA virus in the genus Alphavirus. This disease was named after the Barmah Forest in the northern Victoria region of Australia where it was first isolated in 1974. The first documented case in humans was in 1986. As of 2015, it has been found only in Australia.

Poliovirus is a positive single-stranded RNA virus in the family Picornaviridae. Coinfections appear to be common and several pathways have been identified for transmitting multiple virions to a single host cell.Aguilera ER, Pfeiffer JK. Strength in numbers: Mechanisms of viral co-infection. Virus Res. 2019;265:43-46. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2019.03.

VHSV is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the order Mononegavirales, family Rhabdoviridae, and genus Novirhabdovirus.NCBI Taxonomy browser (Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus). NCBI Taxonomy Database. United States Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved on 2007-07-14.

Brazilian hemorrhagic fever (BzHF) is an infectious disease caused by Brazilian mammarenavirus, an arenavirus. Brazilian mammarenavirus is one of the arenaviruses from South America to cause hemorrhagic fever. It shares a common progenitor with Argentinian mammarenavirus, Machupo mammarenavirus, Tacaribe mammarenavirus, and Guanarito mammarenavirus. It is an enveloped RNA virus and is highly infectious and lethal.

The natural reservoir and route of transmission of BASV are unknown. A machine learning algorithm designed to predict animal reservoirs and arthropod vectors suggests the natural host may be cattle and the insect vector a biting midge.S. A. Babayan et al., Predicting reservoir hosts and arthropod vectors from evolutionary signatures in RNA virus genomes.

The first virus to be discovered, tobacco mosaic virus, is an RNA virus. In modern history, RNA viruses have caused numerous disease outbreaks, and RNA plant viruses infect many economically important crops. Most eukaryotic viruses, including most human, animal, and plant viruses, are RNA viruses. In contrast, there are relatively few prokaryotic RNA viruses.

Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus (BUNV) is a negative-sense, single-stranded enveloped RNA virus. It is the type species of the Orthobunyavirus genus, in the Bunyavirales order. Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus can infect both humans and Aedes aegypti (yellow fever mosquito). It is named for Bunyamwera, a town in western Uganda, where the type species was isolated in 1943.

Attoui H, Mohd Jaafar F, de Lamballerie X, Mertens PPC Seadornavirus, Reoviridae In: Fauquet CM, Mayo MA, Maniloff J, Desselberger U, Ball LA, editors. Virus taxonomy: eighth report of the international committee on taxonomy of viruses. London: Elsevier/Academic Press; 2005. p. 504–10 The word seadornavirus is an portmanteau, meaning Southeast Asian dodeca RNA virus.

Various molecular descriptions of Leishmaniavirus were revealed over the subsequent decade, and mostly performed on members of the South American L. (Viannia) subgenus of parasites (which carries the LRV1 species) such as L. guyanensis (L.g) Tarr, P.I., et al., LR1: a candidate RNA virus of Leishmania. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 1988. 85(24): p. 9572.

Canine coronavirus (CCoV) is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which is a member of the species Alphacoronavirus 1. It causes a highly contagious intestinal disease worldwide in dogs. The infecting virus enters its host cell by binding to the APN receptor. It was discovered in 1971 in Germany during an outbreak in sentry dogs.

An arenavirus is a bisegmented ambisense RNA virus that is a member of the family Arenaviridae. These viruses infect rodents and occasionally humans. A class of novel, highly divergent arenaviruses, properly known as reptarenaviruses, have also been discovered which infect snakes to produce inclusion body disease. At least eight arenaviruses are known to cause human disease.

Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is an RNA virus in the subfamily Oncovirinae belonging to the Retroviridae family. The virus comprises 5' and 3' LTRs and three genes: Gag (structural), Pol (enzymes) and Env (envelope and transmembrane); the total genome is about 9,600 base pairs. See the entry on retroviruses for more details on the life cycle of FeLV.

Magboi virus (MGBV) is a novel, bat-borne Orthohantavirus discovered in a slit-faced bat trapped near the Magboi Stream in eastern Sierra Leone in 2011. It is a single-stranded, negative sense, RNA virus in the Bunyavirales order.Weiss S, Witkowski PT, Auste B, Nowak K, Weber N, Fahr J, et al. Hantavirus in bat, Sierra Leone [letter].

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a small, enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus. It is a member of the genus Hepacivirus in the family Flaviviridae. There are seven major genotypes of HCV, which are known as genotypes one to seven. The genotypes are divided into several subtypes with the number of subtypes depending on the genotype.

There is a large class of drugs called protease inhibitors that inactivate this enzyme. Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus. In 80% of people infected, the disease is chronic, and without treatment, they are infected for the remainder of their lives. There is now an effective treatment that uses the nucleoside analogue drug ribavirin combined with interferon.

It is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that causes physical characteristics of spotting and/or discoloration. The Sunn-hemp mosaic virus is listed as a species within the genus Tobamovirus and the virus family Virgaviridae by the International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses, who renamed it from "Sunnhemp" to "Sunn- hemp" in 1991.

In some species of RNA virus, the genes are not on a continuous molecule of RNA, but are separated. The influenza virus, for example, has eight separate genes made of RNA. When two different strains of influenza virus infect the same cell, these genes can mix and produce new strains of the virus in a process called reassortment.

Mokola lyssavirus, commonly called Mokola virus (MOKV), is a RNA virus related to rabies virus that has been sporadically isolated from mammals across sub- Saharan Africa. The majority of isolates have come from domestic cats exhibiting symptoms characteristically associated to rabies virus infection. There have been two reported cases of humans being infected with Mokola virus.

The mumps virus is an enveloped, single-stranded, linear negative- sense RNA virus of the genus Orthorubulavirus and family Paramyxovirus. The genome consists of 15,384 bases encoding nine proteins. Proteins involved in viral replication are the nucleoprotein, phosphoprotein, and polymerase protein while the genomic RNA forms the ribonucleocapsid. Humans are the only natural host for the virus.

The virus is an RNA virus of the genus Flavivirus. The disease may be difficult to tell apart from other illnesses, especially in the early stages. To confirm a suspected case, blood-sample testing with polymerase chain reaction is required. A safe and effective vaccine against yellow fever exists, and some countries require vaccinations for travelers.

Human metapneumovirus was first classified as a pneumovirus in 2001. Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) is a negative single-stranded RNA virus that is the second most common cause of lower respiratory infection in young children. Pneumovirus is intermediate in size between other Paramyxoviridae and the Orthomyxoviridae. Cytoplasmic inclusions are considerably more dense than those of other viruses in the family.

Tanganya virus (TGNV) is an enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus, possibly of the genus orthohantavirus in the Bunyavirales order. It is the second indigenous Murinae-associated African hantavirus to be discovered. It has a low sequence similarity to other hantaviruses and serologically distinct from other hantaviruses.Boris Klempa, Elisabeth Fichet-Calvet, Emilie Lecompte, S. et al.

El Moro Canyon orthohantavirus is a single-stranded, negative sense RNA virus of the genus Orthohantavirus. It is a causative agent of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.Calisher CH, Root JJ, Mills JN, Rowe JE, Reeder SA, Jentes ES, Wagoner K, Beaty BJ. Epizootiology of Sin Nombre and El Moro Canyon hantaviruses, southeastern Colorado, 1995–2000. J Wildl Dis.

However, in the early 1950s trees were identified in Italy that survived fungal infection. On these trees the fungus caused more superficial cankers, that appeared to be healing. The reduced infection was due to the presence of CHV1, an RNA virus that infects C. parasitica. CHV1 spread naturally throughout Europe but is also spread artificially as a biocontrol measure (particularly in France).

Hepatitis C virus is a single-stranded RNA virus in the family Flaviviridae. The genome consists made up of about 10,000 nucleotides and encodes a single polyprotein. Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) used host cell machinery to process its genome to synthesize 3 crucial viral proteases of which each has peptide cleaving role. These 3 proteases are also known as structural proteins.

Qalyub orthonairovirus, also known as Qalyub nairovirus or simply Qalyub virus, is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus discovered in a rat's nest in a tomb wall in the Egyptian town of Qalyub ( ) in 1952. The primary vector for transmission is the Carios erraticus tick, and thus it is an arbovirus. There is no evidence of clinical disease in humans.

There are no vaccines or antiviral drugs to prevent or treat human coronavirus infections. They are enveloped viruses with a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome and a nucleocapsid of helical symmetry. The genome size of coronaviruses ranges from approximately 26 to 32 kilobases, among the largest for an RNA virus (second only to a 41-kb nidovirus recently discovered in planaria).

Hepatitis C virus belongs to the family Flaviviridae and genus hepavirus. It is a small enveloped, single stranded RNA virus with positive polarity. A lipid bilayer which contains two viral glycoproteins, E1 and E2, forms the envelope and virion . Hepatitis C virus is transmitted through exposure to infected blood or body fluids, and the most common route is through injection by infected needles.

Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4 (Bat-CoV HKU4) is an enveloped, positive- sense single-stranded RNA virus mammalian Group 2 Betacoronavirus that has been found to be genetically related to the Middle East respiratory syndrome- related coronavirus (MERS-CoV) that is responsible for the 2012 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus outbreak in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy.

Sangassou orthohantavirus (SANGV) is single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus species of the genus Orthohantavirus in the Bunyavirales order. It was first isolated in an African wood mouse (Hylomyscus simus) in the forest in Guinea, West Africa in 2010. It is named for the village near where the mouse was trapped. It is the first indigenous Murinae-associated African hantavirus to be discovered.

Picobirnavirus is a small (pico, Spanish for small), bisegmented (bi, Latin for two), double-stranded RNA virus. Picobirnaviruses were initially considered to be birna-like viruses, and the name was derived from birnavirus (bisegmented RNA), but the virions are much smaller (diameter 35 nm vs. 65 nm). Picobirnaviruses were first detected in humans and black-footed pigmy rice rats in 1988.

In 2018, the realm Riboviria was established and initially included the three RNA virus groups. A year later, Riboviria was expanded to also include both RT groups. Within the realm, RT viruses are included in the kingdom Pararnavirae and RNA viruses in the kingdom Orthornavirae. Furthermore, the three Baltimore groups for RNA viruses are used as defining characteristics of the phyla in Orthornavirae.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1) is a strain of virus that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). It is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which infects the epithelial cells within the lungs. The virus enters the host cell by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2. It infects humans, bats, and palm civets.

Thottopalayam thottimvirus, formerly Thottapalayam virus, (TMPV) is single- stranded, enveloped, negative-sense RNA virus species of the genus Thottimvirus in the Bunyavirales order. It is the first hantavirus to be isolated from a shrew. It was discovered in India in 1964.Carey DE, Reuben R, Panicker KN, Shope RE, Myers RM. Thottapalayam virus: a presumptive arbovirus isolated from a shrew in India.

Topografov virus is an enveloped, negative-sense RNA virus species of the genus orthohantavirus in the Bunyavirales order. It is the first hantavirus to be isolated from Siberian lemmings (Lemmus sibiricus) found near the Topografov River in the Taymyr Peninsula, Siberia.Plyusnin A, Vapalahti O, Lundkvist Å, Henttonen H, Vaheri A. Newly recognized hantavirus in Siberian lemmings. Lancet. 1996;347:1835–1836.Olli Vapalahti.

Imjin thottimvirus (MJNV) is a single-stranded, enveloped, negative-sense RNA virus of the orthohantavirus genus in the Bunyavirales order. It is a newly identified hantavirus isolated from the lung tissues of Ussuri white-toothed shrews of the species Crocidura lasiura (order Soricomorpha, family Soricidae, subfamily Crocidurinae) captured near the demilitarized zone in the Republic of Korea during 2004 and 2005.

Andes orthohantavirus is a species of Hantavirus, a group of enveloped, Negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus, belonging to the family Hantaviridae. The family consists of 5 genera: bunyavirus, phlebovirus, nairovirus, tospovirus, and hantavirus. All genera excluding hantavirus are air-borne viruses while the hantavirus is rodent-borne. Transmission of the hantaviruses are through aerosol exposure to rodent bodily fluids.

Parecherovirus B is a positive sense, single stranded RNA virus. Parechovirus B is a virus that contains an outer shell. This outer shell, or capsid is made up of proteins set up in an icosahedral formation. Unlike other picornaviruses, the capsid shell of Parechovirus B has some proteins that protrude and are markedly displaced form the remainder fo the proteins.

Thermal scanning of passengers arriving at Singapore Changi airport The CDC recommends real-time PCR as the method of choice for diagnosing H1N1. The oral or nasal fluid collection and RNA virus- preserving filter-paper card is commercially available. This method allows a specific diagnosis of novel influenza (H1N1) as opposed to seasonal influenza. Near-patient point-of-care tests are in development.

Parker, Roy (25 May 2012). “Skill Development in Graduate Education”. Molecular Cell. 46 (4): 377-381. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2012.05.003 “Analysis of Double-Stranded RNA from Microbial Communities Identifies Double-Stranded RNA Virus-Like Elements”(2014) Decker and Parker suggested from this publication that investigating double-stranded RNAs could potentially lead to a multitude of discoveries about the genetics of viruses and other microbes.Decker, Carolyn J.; Parker, Roy (8 May 2014). “Analysis of Double-Stranded RNA from Microbial Communities Identifies Double-Stranded RNA Virus-Like Elements”. Cell Reports. 7 (3): 898-906. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2014.03.049 “The Link between Adjacent Codon Pairs and mRNA Stability”(2017) In 2017, Harigaya and Parker found that there was a connection between the stability of mRNA and codon pairs that act to suppress certain functions in the codon-mediated gene regulation.

IRF3 cooperative activation with NF-κB transcription factor through phosphorylation leads to the induction of the IFNβ promoter transcription. Examples of genes whose RNA virus-triggered expression is stimulated by SNX8 are IFNB1, ISG56 and IL6 (being IL6 and IFNB1 related to cytokine secretion). In addition, SNX8 also plays a role in RIG-I containing CARD domain-mediated and MDA5-mediated activation of the IFNβ promoter, since VISA works as an intermediate for both signaling pathways. The mechanism for SNX8 recruitment to VISA remains unclear, although two options have been suggested: translocation of viral RNA-bound RIG-I or MDA5 to VISA may result in a conformational switch that would increase its affinity for SNX8 or the RNA virus may induce post-translational modifications of one of these proteins allowing the translocation of SNX8 to mitochondria for its interaction with VISA.

Black Creek Canal orthohantavirus (BCCV) is a single-stranded, negative sense RNA virus species of New World Orthohantavirus. It was first isolated in cotton rats (Sigmodon hispidus) found in the Black Creek Canal area of Dade County, Florida in 1995. The discovery followed from an isolated case of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome diagnosed in a Dade County resident.E. V. Ravkov, S. T. Nichol and R. W. Compans.

Marnaviridae is a family of positive-stranded RNA viruses in the order Picornavirales. The first marnavirus that was isolated, and which is the type species for the family, infects a Microphyte: the toxic bloom-forming Raphidophyte, Heterosigma akashiwo. Algae therefore seem to serve as natural hosts. There is only one genus (Marnavirus) and one species in this family, the type species Heterosigma akashiwo RNA virus (HaRNAV).

Miniopterus bat coronavirus 1 (Bat-CoV MOP1) is a novel enveloped, single- stranded positive-sense RNA virus species in the Alphacoronavirus, or Group 1, genus with a corona-like morphology. It causes severe acute respiratory syndrome in bats. Isolates have not been found in humans.Chu DK, Poon LL, Chan KH, Chen H, Guan Y, Yuen KY, Peiris JS. Coronaviruses in bent-winged bats (Miniopterus spp.).

BAV is a small (72–75 nm in size), non-enveloped, double-stranded RNA virus surrounded by an icosahedral protein coat. Fibre proteins extend outward from the surface of the protein coat. The genome of BAV is about 19,500 base pairs in length, linear and segmented into 12 parts, encoding for genes VP1-12. Seven of these, VP1-4 and VP8-10, are structural proteins.

Tula orthohantavirus, formerly Tula virus, (TULV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus species of orthohantavirus first isolated from a European common vole (Microtus arvalis) found in Central Russia. It causes Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. The Microtus species are also found in North America, Europe, Scandinavia, Slovenia, Asia, and Western Russia. Human cases of Tula orthohantavirus have also been reported in Switzerland and Germany.

Soochong virus (SOOV) is a zoonotic negative sense single-stranded RNA virus. It may be a member of the genus Orthohantavirus, but it has not be definitively classified as a species and may only be a strain. It is one of four rodent-borne Hantaviruses found in the Republic of Korea. It is the etiologic agent for Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS).

Rotavirus gastroenteritis is the most common cause of severe diarrhoea among infants and young children. It is caused by Rotavirus, a genus of double- stranded RNA virus in the family Reoviridae. By the age of five, nearly every child in the world has been infected with rotavirus at least once. However, with each infection, immunity develops, and subsequent infections are less severe; adults are rarely affected.

HIV is dependent on an enzyme called the HIV-1 protease for the virus to become infectious. There is a class of drugs called protease inhibitors, which bind to this enzyme and stop it from functioning. Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus. In 80% of those infected, the disease becomes chronic, and they remain infectious for the rest of their lives unless they are treated.

Sandfly fever Naples phlebovirus (SFNV) is an antigenic species of genus Phlebovirus within the family Phenuiviridae of the order Bunyavirales. It is an enveloped RNA virus with a tripartite genome e Uukuniemi (UUK) serogroup. The Sandfly group's natural reservoir are sandflies, while the natural reservoir for Uukuniemi is ticks. The SFNV serogroup consists of two main serocomplexes associated with disease in humans, the Naples and Sicilian serocomplexes.

Human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43) is a member of the species Betacoronavirus 1, which infects humans and cattle. The infecting coronavirus is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid receptor. OC43 is one of seven known coronaviruses to infect humans. It is one of the viruses responsible for the common cold.

The genome of SVNV is a negative sense single stranded RNA virus (Group V) that has three segments (S, M, and L segments). The L segment is 9010 nt and encodes for the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The M segment is 4955 nt and to encode for NSm and GN/GC proteins. The S segment is 2603 nt and encodes the N and NSs proteins.

Polyprotein synthesis, internal ribosome entry sites, and uncapped mRNA were all discovered by studying poliovirus infected cells, and a poliovirus clone was the first infectious DNA clone made of an RNA virus in animals. Along with rhinovirus, poliovirus was the first animal virus to have its structure determined by x-ray crystallography. RNA dependent RNA polymerase was discovered in Mengovirus, a genus of picornaviruses.

Alphacoronavirus 1 is a species of coronavirus that infects cats, dogs and pigs. It includes species earlier described as Feline coronavirus, Canine coronavirus and Transmissible gastroenteritis virus. It is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus and able to enter its host cell by binding to the APN receptor. It was first recognised as a virus that caused transmissible gastroenteritis in pigs in 1965.

Carrot virus Y (CarVY) is a (+)ss-RNA virus that affects crops of the carrot family (Apiaceae), such as carrots, anise, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill and parsnip. Carrots are the only known crop to be infected in the field. Infection by the virus leads to deformed roots and discolored or mottled leaves. The virus is spread through insect vectors, and is currently only found in Australia.

Bovine coronavirus (BCV or BCoV) is a coronavirus which is a member of the species Betacoronavirus 1. The infecting virus is an enveloped, positive- sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid recepter. Infection causes calf enteritis and contributes to the enzootic pneumonia complex in calves. It can also cause winter dysentery in adult cattle.

Seoul orthohantavirus (SEOV) is a member of the Orthohantavirus family of rodent-borne viruses and is one of the 4 hantaviruses that are known to be able to cause Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS).US Centers for Disease Control. Virology, Hantaviruses Page last reviewed: August 29, 2012. It is an Old World hantavirus; a negative sense, single-stranded, tri-segmented RNA virus.

Fish viperin gene was identified as an interferon-stimulated gene against VHSV. Whereas, viperin produces inhibitory ddhCTP (3ʹ-deoxy-3′,4ʹdidehydro-CTP), which is an elongation inhibitor. Thereby, the VHSV RNA replication is terminated. Shanaka KASN, Tharuka MDN, Priyathilaka TT, Lee J (2019) Molecu- lar characterization and expression analysis of rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii) viperin, and its ability to enervate RNA virus transcrip-tion and replication in vitro.

West Caucasian bat lyssavirus (WCBL) is a bullet shaped negative sense single stranded RNA virus. WCBL is composed of an internal helical nucleocapsid and a lipid envelope derived from the host cell. The virus contains knobbed spikes that protrude from the membrane to aid in host membrane fusion. In addition, WCBL, along with other lyssaviruses, has a glycoprotein which is important in mediating viral entry.

BoDV-1/2 have the smallest genome (8.9 kilobases) of any Mononegavirales member and are unique within that order in their ability to replicate within the host cell nucleus. BoDV-1 was isolated from a diseased horse in the 1970s, but the virus particles were difficult to characterise. Nonetheless, the virus' genome has been characterised. It is a linear negative-sense single stranded RNA virus in the order Mononegavirales.

Murine coronavirus (M-CoV) is a species of coronavirus which infects mice. It is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the CEACAM1 receptor. It has, like other coronaviruses from genus Betacoronavirus, subgenus Embecovirus, an additional hemagglutinin esterase (HE) gene. The Murine coronavirus is a coronavirus that causes an epidemic murine illness with high mortality, especially among colonies of laboratory mice.

Transmissible gastroenteritis virus or Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV) is a coronavirus which infects pigs. It is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the APN receptor. The virus is a member of the genus Alphacoronavirus, subgenus Tegacovirus, species Alphacoronavirus 1. Proteins that contribute to the overall structure of TGEV include the spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M) and nucleocapsid (N).

Franklin continued to explore another major nucleic acid, RNA, a molecule equally central to life as DNA. She again used X-ray crystallography to study the structure of the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), an RNA virus. Her meeting with Aaron Klug in early 1954 led to a longstanding and successful collaboration. Klug had just then earned his PhD from Trinity College, Cambridge, and joined Birkbeck in late 1953.

Rinderpest virus (RPV), a member of the genus Morbillivirus, is closely related to the measles and canine distemper viruses. Like other members of the Paramyxoviridae family, it produces enveloped virions, and is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus. The virus was particularly fragile and is quickly inactivated by heat, desiccation and sunlight. Measles virus evolved from the then-widespread rinderpest virus most probably between the 11th and 12th centuries.

Prospect Hill orthohantavirus is a single-stranded, negative-sense Hantaan- like zoonotic RNA virus isolated from meadow voles and microtine and other cricetid rodents in the United States. It has a widespread distribution in Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, Minnesota and California. The overall risk of infection in humans is low. It was first isolated from a meadow vole found in Prospect Hill, Maryland for which it is named.

The best characterized toxin system is from yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), which was found to spoil brewing of beer. In S. cerevisiae are toxins encoded by a double-stranded RNA virus, translated to a precursor protein, cleaved and secreted outside of the cells, where they may affect susceptible yeast. There are other killer systems in S. cerevisiae, such as KHR1 and KHS1 genes encoded on chromosomes IX and V, respectively.

Barley yellow dwarf virus has binding between mRNA segments on its 5' end and 3' end (called kissing stem loops), circularizing the mRNA without any proteins involved. RNA virus genomes (the + strands of which are translated as mRNA) are also commonly circularized. During genome replication the circularization acts to enhance genome replication speeds, cycling viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase much the same as the ribosome is hypothesized to cycle.

Morphologically, the virus is a double stranded RNA virus that is composed of ten segments. The genome and proteins that are encoded by the genome can be separated into three different sizes ranging from small, medium, or large. Of the eleven proteins that are encoded for by the genome, two are nonstructural, while the remaining nine are structural. Avian reoviruses can withstand a pH range of 3.0–9.0.

Bourbon virus is a type of thogotovirus, which is in the RNA virus family Orthomyxoviridae. The virus particles show different morphologies, including filamentous and roughly spherical forms, and have projections from the surface. The spherical virions have a range of diameters, with broadly 100–130 nm being common. Virus was present at high levels in the extracellular space, with occasional particles being observed in the process of endocytosis.

This is an image of the genome of Bat Mumps Rubulavirus, which consists of N, V, P, M, F, SH, HN, and L proteins in addition to a 3-inch leader sequence and a 5-inch trailer sequence. Bat mumps rubulavirus (BMV) is a spherical shaped negative sense single stranded RNA virus. Some researchers have noted a pleomorphic structure. BMV is about 15kb in size, with a diameter of about 150nm.

He also continued to pursue fundamental questions in RNA viruses and in 1981, Baltimore and Vincent Racaniello, a post-doctoral fellow in his laboratory, used recombinant DNA technology to generate a plasmid encoding the genome of poliovirus, an animal RNA virus. The plasmid DNA was introduced into cultured mammalian cells and infectious poliovirus was produced. The infectious clone, DNA encoding the genome of a virus, is a standard tool used today in virology.

Dinocampus coccinellae paralysis virus (DcPV) is a single-stranded, positive- sense RNA virus of insects, in the picorna-like virus family Iflaviridae, which was first characterised in 2015. It asymptomatically infects the parasitic braconid wasp, Dinocampus coccinellae, and has been proposed to be associated with the paralytic effect the wasp has on its host, the spotted lady beetle, Coleomegilla maculata, which it turns into a so-called "zombie bodyguard" for its pupa.

Oropouche fever is caused by the oropouche virus (OROV) that belongs to the bunyaviridae family of arboviruses. This virus is a single-stranded, negative sense RNA virus which is the cause of this disease. There are no specific ultrastructural studies of the oropouche virus in human tissues that have been recorded to this date. It is likely that this viral agent shares similar morphological characteristics with other members of the Orthobunyavirus genus.

Location of Liberia in Africa An epidemic of Ebola virus disease occurred in Liberia from 2014 to 2015, along with the neighbouring countries of Guinea and Sierra Leone. The first cases of virus were reported by late March 2014. The Ebola virus, a biosafety level four pathogen, is an RNA virus discovered in 1976. Before the outbreak of the Ebola epidemic the country had 50 doctors for its population of 4.3 million.

In 2012 the most recent outbreak occurred in Uganda, where fifteen individuals contracted the disease and four ultimately died from elevated hemorrhagic fevers. Rising numbers of deforestation, urbanization, and exotic animal trade have increased the likeliness of spreading this viral disease. West Nile virus is a single stranded RNA virus that can cause neurological diseases within humans. The first outbreak was recorded in Uganda and other areas of West Africa in 1937.

Batai virus is a member of the genus Orthobunyavirus and a member of the family Bunyaviridae. Batai virus is part of a diverse group of arthropod- borne viruses. Classified via the Baltimore scheme, Batai virus is a negative- sense, single-stranded RNA virus. The orthobunyavirus genome has a characteristic segmented genome, with small, medium, and large (S, M, and L) segments which generally encode the nucleocapsid, envelope protein and the polymerase protein, respectively.

An electron micrograph of the measles virus Measles is caused by the measles virus, a single- stranded, negative-sense, enveloped RNA virus of the genus Morbillivirus within the family Paramyxoviridae. The virus is highly contagious and is spread by coughing and sneezing via close personal contact or direct contact with secretions. Measles is the most contagious transmissible virus known. It remains infective for up to two hours in that airspace or nearby surfaces.

In the early 1970s, retroviruses and reverse transcriptase were discovered, showing for the first time that enzymes could copy RNA into DNA (the opposite of the usual route for transmission of genetic information). For this work, David Baltimore, Renato Dulbecco and Howard Temin were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1975. In 1976, Walter Fiers and his team determined the first complete nucleotide sequence of an RNA virus genome, that of bacteriophage MS2.

Hedgehog coronavirus 1 is a mammalian Group C Betacoronavirus, a positive- sense RNA virus, discovered in European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) from Germany and first described in 2014. Most Betacoronavirus clade c viruses are known from bats. The hedgehog is in the animal order Eulipotyphla, which is phylogenetically related to the bats, Chiroptera, so the researchers investigated faecal samples to look for coronaviruses. The virus was found in the highest concentrations in the lower gastrointestinal tract.

They are monophyletic and descended from a common RNA virus ancestor. In the Baltimore classification system, +ssRNA viruses belong to Group IV. Positive-sense RNA viruses account for a large fraction of known viruses, including many pathogens such as the hepacivirus C, West Nile virus, dengue virus, and the SARS, MERS, and SARS-CoV-2 coronaviruses, as well as less clinically serious pathogens such as the rhinoviruses that cause the common cold.

SEOV, along with all other hantaviruses, is a negative sense, single-stranded RNA virus. Its genome has three different segments: S (small), M (medium), and L (large). The virus is pleomorphic, having various shapes, but often is seen as spherical, with its two surface glycoproteins arranged in rows. Inside this sphere, the three RNA segments are arranged as circles, coated in the virus' N (nucleocapsid) protein and attached to the L protein.

In molecular biology, VP40 is the name of a viral matrix protein. Most commonly it is found in the Ebola virus (EBOV), a type of non-segmented, negative-strand RNA virus. Ebola virus causes a severe and often fatal haemorrhagic fever in humans, known as Ebola virus disease. The virus matrix protein VP40 is a major structural protein that plays a central role in virus assembly and budding at the plasma membrane of infected cells.

Therefore, the evolutionary trajectory of the viral infection cannot be predicted solely from the characteristics of the fittest sequence. High mutation rates also place an upper limit compatible with inheritable information. Crossing such a limit leads to RNA virus extinction, a transition that is the basis of an antiviral design termed lethal mutagenesis, and of relevance to antiviral medicine. The relevance of quasispecies in virology has been the subject of extended debate.

She uncovered the rhomboid protease of Haemophilus influenzae. During the COVID-19 pandemic Lemieux investigated whether an antiviral drug that was used to treat peritonitis in cats could be used to protect people from coronavirus disease. Peritonitis is an aberrant immune system response that cats experience toward feline coronavirus, and was shown to be almost identical to the SARS virus. The human coronavirus disease is an RNA virus, and makes use of proteases to replicate within a cell.

This research is funded by the National Science Foundation. Researchers led by Arnold demonstrated the detection and sizing of the smallest individual RNA virus. They developed the Whispering Gallery-Mode Biosensor, an ultra-sensitive biosensor based on their original proposal and patent application. An additional discovery by co-researcher S.I. Shopova that gold nano-receptors on the microcavity lead to a further frequency shift enhancement led to another patent issued in 2013, from a filing in 2011.

In the 1960s, the replication process of RNA virus was believed to be similar to other single-stranded RNA. Single-stranded RNA replication involves RNA-dependent RNA synthesis which meant that virus-coding enzymes would make partial double-stranded RNA. This belief was proven to be incorrect because there were no double-stranded RNA found in the retrovirus cell. In 1964, Howard Temin proposed a provirus hypothesis, but shortly after reverse transcription in the retrovirus genome was discovered.

Dobrava-Belgrade orthohantavirus (DOBV), also known as Dobrava virus, is an enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus species of Old World Orthohantavirus. It is one of several species of Hantavirus that is the causative agent of severe Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. It was first isolated from yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) found in Dobrava Village, Slovenia, Yugoslavia. It was subsequently isolated in striped field mice in Russia and other parts of Eastern Europe.

Small African rodents harbor this disease and infect prairies, wildlife markets, and other areas where large African primates and carnivores are hunted for bushmeat and exotic trade purposes. Marburg virus, which causes Marburg virus disease, is a zoonotic RNA virus within the filovirus family. It is closely related to the Ebola virus and is transmitted by wild animals to humans. African monkeys and fruit bats are believed to be the main carries of the infectious disease.

In Raphidovirus (likely misspelled Rhaphidovirus), there is only one species, Heterosigma akashiwo virus (HaV), which infects the unicellular alga, Heterosigma akashiwo. H. akashiwo is a member of the class Raphidophyceae, a bloom forming species and is widely distributed in temperate and neritic waters. Several other types of viruses infecting H. akashiwo have been isolated and are not to be confused with HaV, such as the H. akashiwo RNA virus (HaRNAV). and H. akashiwo nuclear inclusion virus (HaNIV).

Adenovirus, herpes simplex virus, HSV-1 and HSV-2, as well as negative-stranded RNA virus-vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) have been shown to be able to activate a STING-dependent innate immune response. STING deficiency in mice led to lethal susceptibility to HSV-1 infection due to the lack of a successful type I interferon response. Point mutation of Serine S358 dampens STING-IFN activation in bats and is suggested to give bats their ability as reservoir hosts.

Fig mosaic emaravirus (FMV) is a segmented, negative sense, single-stranded RNA virus that is determined to be the causal agent of fig mosaic disease (FMD) in fig plants, Ficus carica. It is a member of the genus Emaravirus and order Bunyavirales and is transmitted mainly by the eriophyid mite Aceria ficus. FMV can cause a range of symptoms varying in severity, including leaf chlorosis, deformity, and mosaic or discoloration patterns, as well as premature fruit drop.

TCV is a small (4054 base pairs), single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus (viral RNA is in the same orientation as mRNA). It has been shown to infect various types of plant species (including Nicotiana benthamiana) including the common plant model, Arabidopsis thaliana. Its gRNA encodes for five proteins: p28 and p88 (replication), p8 and p9 (movement) and CP (coat protein or encapsidation). The structure of the virus was determined to 3.2 Ångstrom resolution using x-ray crystallography in 1986.

Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) is a Potyvirus of the family Potyviridae that causes diseases in cruciferous plants, among others. The virus is usually spread by 40-50 species of aphids in a non-persistent manner. Infected plants, especially the natural hosts, show symptoms such as chlorotic local lesions, mosaic, mottling, puckering or rugosity. TuMV is a positive-sense single stranded RNA virus, consisting of a non-enveloped, helical capsid that is filamentous and flexuous, with an average length of 720 nm.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV or SARS- CoV)The terms SARSr-CoV and SARS-CoV are sometimes used interchangeably, especially prior to the discovery of SARS-CoV-2. is a species of coronavirus that infects humans, bats and certain other mammals. It is an enveloped positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that enters its host cell by binding to the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. It is a member of the genus Betacoronavirus and subgenus Sarbecovirus.

SBPV is a non-enveloped Positive-sense single- stranded RNA virus, and is 9470 nucleotides long. The virus has approximately 300 nucleotides of 5' untranslated region and approximately 270 nucleotides of 3' untranslated region and is terminated by a poly(A) tail. The RNA has a coding region which codes for RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Though it was not identified, it is expected that a viral genome-linked protein, involved in stability, replication, and translation, would be bound to the 5' end.

A large number of causes of myocarditis have been identified, but often a cause cannot be found. In Europe and North America, viruses are common culprits. Worldwide, however, the most common cause is Chagas disease, an illness endemic to Central and South America that is due to infection by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. In viral myocarditis, the Coxsackie B family of the single-stranded RNA viruses, in particular the plus-strand RNA virus Coxsackievirus B3 and Coxsackievirus B5 are the most frequent cause.

Racaniello graduated from Cornell University in 1974 (BA, biological sciences) and completed his PhD in the laboratory of Peter Palese in 1980, studying genetic reassortment of influenza virus. As a post-doctoral fellow in David Baltimore's laboratory at MIT (1979–1982), Racaniello used recombinant DNA technology to clone and sequence the genome of the small RNA animal virus poliovirus. Using these tools he generated the first infectious clone of an animal RNA virus. Construction of the infectious clone revolutionized modern virology.

Polioencephalitis is a viral infection of the brain, causing inflammation within the grey matter of the brain stem. The virus has an affinity for neuronal cell bodies and has been found to affect mostly the midbrain, pons, medulla and cerebellum of most infected patients. The infection can reach up through the thalamus and hypothalamus and possibly reach the cerebral hemispheres. The infection is caused by the poliomyelitis virus which is a single-stranded, positive sense RNA virus surrounded by a non-enveloped capsid.

Equine viral arteritis (EVA) is a disease of horses caused by a virus of the species Alphaarterivirus equid, an RNA virus. It is the only species in the genus Alphaarterivirus, and that is the only genus in the Equarterivirinae subfamily. The virus which causes EVA was first isolated in 1953, but the disease has afflicted equine animals worldwide for centuries. It has been more common in some breeds of horses in the United States, but there is no breed "immunity".

CMVICTVd Descriptions:Cucumber mosaic virus is a linear positive-sense, tripartite single-stranded RNA virus . Its genome size is 8.623 kb and it is divided among RNA1 (3357 pb) , RNA2 (3050 pb) and RNA3 (2216 pb) , all of which has a tRNA-like structure . These three RNAs encode five proteins, proteins 1a, 2a, 2b, movement protein (MP) and coat protein (CP). While proteins 1a and 2a are responsible for the replication of the virus, protein 2b is the host-silencing suppressor.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), is a member of the genus Alphavirus, and family Togaviridae. It was first isolated in 1953 in Tanzania and is an RNA virus with a positive-sense single-stranded genome of about 11.6kb. It is a member of the Semliki Forest virus complex and is closely related to Ross River virus, O'nyong'nyong virus, and Semliki Forest virus. Because it is transmitted by arthropods, namely mosquitoes, it can also be referred to as an arbovirus (arthropod-borne virus).

IHNV is the causal agent of infectious hematopoietic necrosis (IHN) disease of fish and is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus. IHNV is a member of the genus Novirhabdovirus, belongs to the family of Rhabdoviridae. The North American IHNV isolates are grouped based on the partial glycoprotein (G) gene sequences. The three major IHNV genogroups in North America are designated as U, M, and L for the upper, middle and lower portions of IHNV geographical range in North America.

However, its prevalence in the general population in China and USA is very low at 0.1–0.2%. The chronic infection by HPgV-2 is maintained in presence of antienvelop antibodies as is the case for HCV chronic infections, whereas in case of GB virus C, appearance of antibodies usually leads to resolution of the infection. HPgV-2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus with the genome length around 9,800 nucleotides. Its genomic organization is similar to that of other flaviviruses.

There are many systems that have been used to study robustness. In silico models have been used to model RNA secondary structure, protein lattice models, or gene networks. Experimental systems for individual genes include enzyme activity of cytochrome P450, B-lactamase, RNA polymerase, and LacI have all been used. Whole organism robustness has been investigated in RNA virus fitness, bacterial chemotaxis, Drosophila fitness, segment polarity network, neurogenic network and bone morphogenetic protein gradient, C. elegans fitness and vulval development, and mammalian circadian clock.

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is an RNA virus, one of 22 known viruses affecting honey bees. While most commonly infecting the honey bee, Apis mellifera, it has also been documented in other bee species, like Bombus terrestris, thus, indicating it may have a wider host specificity than previously anticipated. The virus was first isolated from a sample of symptomatic honeybees from Japan in the early 1980s and is currently distributed worldwide. It is found also in pollen baskets and commercially reared bumblebees.

Ribbon representation of the NS2B/NS3 protease of West Nile virus West Nile virus (WNV) is a single-stranded RNA virus that causes West Nile fever. It is a member of the family Flaviviridae, specifically from the genus Flavivirus, which also contains the Zika virus, dengue virus, and yellow fever virus. West Nile virus is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes, mostly species of Culex. The primary hosts of WNV are birds, so that the virus remains within a "bird–mosquito–bird" transmission cycle.

Feline coronavirus (FCoV) is a positive-stranded RNA virus that infects cats worldwide. It is a coronavirus of the species Alphacoronavirus 1 which includes canine coronavirus (CCoV) and porcine transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus (TGEV). It has two different forms: feline enteric coronavirus (FECV) that infects the intestines and feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) that causes the disease feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). Feline coronavirus is typically shed in feces by healthy cats and transmitted by the fecal-oral route to other cats.

HCV is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that has been demonstrated to replicate in the hepatocytes of both humans and chimpanzees. A single HCV polyprotein is translated, and then cleaved by cellular and viral proteases into three structural proteins (core, E1, and E2) and seven nonstructural proteins (p7, NS2, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5A, and NS5B). HCV is among the leading causes of liver disease around the world. It is transmitted by blood and is most commonly contracted through the use of infected needles.

Hantaviruses have a genome that consists of three segments of single-stranded, negative-sense RNA (see RNA virus: Replication), called the large (L), medium (M), and small (S) segments. The entire S segment and a fragment of the M segment have been sequenced. The S segment consists of 1953 bases, of which 1287 (starting at position 43) code for the nucleocapsid protein. In addition, a second 192-base open reading frame occurs in the middle of this sequence (starting at position 122), as in several other hantaviruses.

Drosophila C virus belongs to the genus Cripavirus and was previously thought to be a member of the virus family Picornaviridae; it has since been classified as belonging to the Dicistroviridae.Genomes It is a single stranded positive sense RNA virus of approximately 9300 nucleotides and it contains two open reading frames. The virus particles are 30 nm in diameter and are made up of approximately 30% of RNA and 70% protein. The virus capsid is composed of three major polypeptides and two minor polypeptides.

An oncovirus is a virus that can cause cancer. This term originated from studies of acutely transforming retroviruses in the 1950–60s, when the term "oncornaviruses" was used to denote their RNA virus origin. With the letters "RNA" removed, it now refers to any virus with a DNA or RNA genome causing cancer and is synonymous with "tumor virus" or "cancer virus". The vast majority of human and animal viruses do not cause cancer, probably because of longstanding co-evolution between the virus and its host.

For example, ancestral reconstruction has been used to identify co-evolving residues in proteins encoded by RNA virus genomes, particularly in HIV. Ancestral protein and DNA reconstruction allows for the recreation of protein and DNA evolution in the laboratory so that it can be studied directly. With respect to proteins, this allows for the investigation of the evolution of present-day molecular structure and function. Additionally, ancestral protein reconstruction can lead to the discoveries of new biochemical functions that have been lost in modern proteins.

In virology, the term "sense" has a slightly different meaning. The genome of an RNA virus can be said to be either positive-sense, also known as a "plus-strand", or negative-sense, also known as a "minus-strand". In most cases, the terms "sense" and "strand" are used interchangeably, making terms such as "positive-strand" equivalent to "positive-sense", and "plus-strand" equivalent to "plus-sense". Whether a viral genome is positive-sense or negative-sense can be used as a basis for classifying viruses.

Helleborus net necrosis virus (HeNNV) also known as Hellebore black death is an RNA virus that can cause serious disease in Hellebore plants by stunting or deforming the plant as it grows. The disease marks the leaves of the hellebores with black streaks, often following the veins of the leaf, and creating ring patterns. It can also mark the sepals and flowers with black spots or streaks, but it will not always do so. When symptoms are severe new leaves will have limited growth before dying off.

SARS-CoV-2 is a Baltimore class IV positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that is contagious in humans. As described by the U.S. National Institutes of Health, it is the successor to SARS-CoV-1, the strain that caused the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak. Taxonomically, SARS-CoV-2 is a strain of severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV). It is believed to have zoonotic origins and has close genetic similarity to bat coronaviruses, suggesting it emerged from a bat- borne virus.

Sendai virus position in Paramyxoviridae phylogenetic tree Murine respirovirus, formerly Sendai virus (SeV) and previously also known as murine parainfluenza virus type 1 or hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ), is an enveloped,150-200 nm in diameter, a negative sense, single-stranded RNA virus of the family Paramyxoviridae. It typically infects rodents and it is not pathogenic for humans or domestic animals. Sendai virus (SeV) is a member of genus Respirovirus. The virus was isolated in the city of Sendai in Japan in the early 1950s.

This image shows an example of the structure of a negative sense single stranded RNA virus with a glycoprotein. Rabies viruses were found in bats as far back as 1954 in Germany. However, until a bat worker in Finland died as a result of rabies in 1985, few cases had been noted. Increased surveillance and documentation in the 1986 and 1987 revealed several additional cases. These virus strains mostly consisted of European bat lyssavirus type 1 (EBLV-1) and European bat lyssavirus type 2 (EBLV-2).

RHBV is a single stranded, negative- sense RNA virus of the genus Tenuivirus, derived from the Latin "tenui", meaning thin or weak. This comes from the nature of Tenuiviruses to form thin, filamentous viral particles. Other viruses in the genus Tenuivirus include maize stripe virus (MSV), rice stripe virus (RSV), and rice grassy stunt virus (RGSV). While RHBV and other Tenuiviruses have single stranded RNA genomes, it is interesting to note that examination of non-denaturing gel electrophoresis performed with Tenuiviruses has yielded both single stranded and double stranded RNA.

Chandipura vesiculovirus is an enveloped RNA virus with an approximate genome length of ~11 kb. Viral genome codes for five polypeptides, namely, Nucleocapsid protein N, Phosphoprotein P, Matrix protein M, Glycoprotein G and Large protein L in five monocistronic mRNAs. N protein encapsidates genome RNA into a nuclease-resistant form to protect in from cellular RNAse function. L and P protein together forms viral RNA dependent RNA polymerase; where catalytic functions for RNA polymerization, Capping and Poly-A polymerase resides within the L protein and P acts as a transcriptional activator.

This damage can be so severe that it takes a long time to heal, which means that the time for ventilation is longer than expected. In this specific type of RNA virus, a human's immune system response can be so intense that it damages the lungs. Calfee analyses the fluid and blood samples to understand what factors cause the most extreme responses of coronavirus disease. At the time, Calfee served as an intensive care physician, and remarked that “the scale and severity of this epidemic is like nothing any of us have experienced,”.

The FeFV viral genome is linear with (+) single stranded RNA or double stranded DNA depending on the timing of reverse transcription as this process occurs later in the replication cycle of foamy viruses. This results in the infectious particles having DNA. Because the virus has a late reverse transcription, which results in the viral particles containing DNA instead of RNA, it raises question to if this virus is actually considered a DNA virus or RNA virus. FeFV also has characteristics that are more consistent with hepadnaviruses (DNA genome) rather than conventional retroviruses (RNA genome).

IBDV is a double-stranded RNA virus that has a bi- segmented genome and belongs to the genus Avibirnavirus of family Birnaviridae. There are two distinct serotypes of the virus, but only serotype 1 viruses cause disease in poultry. At least six antigenic subtypes of IBDV serotype 1 have been identified by in vitro cross-neutralization assay. Viruses belonging to one of these antigenic subtypes are commonly known as variants, which were reported to break through high levels of maternal antibodies in commercial flocks, causing up to 60 to 100 percent mortality rates in chickens.

Strawberry crinkle cytorhabdovirus, commonly called Strawberry crinkle virus (SCV), is a negative sense single stranded RNA virus that threatens strawberry production worldwide. This virus reduces plant rigidity, runner production, fruit size, and production, while causing distortion and crinkling of the leaves. This virus was first described in 1932 in Oregon and California with commercial strawberry varieties, and later became an issue around the world, including North America, South America, Europe, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and Japan. Of the family Rhabdoviridae, it is a large family of viruses that affects plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates.

The pathogen that causes blueberry shoestring virus is a single-stranded RNA virus with isometric particles that are 27 nanometers in diameter. Aphids obtain viral particles from diseased plants by inserting their stylet into the stem. The viral particles can be transmitted to healthy plants through aphid saliva for up to 10 days after feeding on an infected plant and it has been found that aphid hemolymph (blood-like fluid) contains virus particles, which indicates that the virus circulates within the insect. The blueberry shoestring plant virus causes a systemic infection of the blueberry plant.

HTLV types HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 viruses are the first retroviruses which were discovered. Both belong to the oncovirus subfamily of retroviruses and can transform human lymphocytes so that they are self-sustaining in vitro. The HTLVs are believed to originate from interspecies transmission of STLVs. The HTLV-1 genome is diploid, composed of two copies of a single-stranded RNA virus whose genome is copied into a double-stranded DNA form that integrates into the host cell genome, at which point the virus is referred to as a provirus.

It was thought to be caused by comets, earthquakes, volcanoes, cosmic dust, the rising and setting of the sun, vapors arising from the air and ground, or a blast from the stars. Now we know that it is caused by an RNA virus of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses). In humans, common symptoms of influenza infection are fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, and weakness and fatigue. In more serious cases, influenza causes pneumonia, which can be fatal, particularly in young children and the elderly.

TBSV is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus with a linear genome of ~4800 nucleotides. The genome contains five genes that encode a replicase composed of two proteins (p33 and p92), a capsid protein (called CP or p41), and two additional proteins, the RNA silencing suppressor p19 and movement protein p22. These two proteins are expressed from overlapping genes arranged so that the open reading frame of p19 is completely within the ORF of p22. The genome contains one additional possible gene, called pX, of unknown function.

Model of poliovirus-binding CD155 (shown in purple) In 1981, Racaniello and Baltimore used recombinant DNA technology to generate the first infectious clone of an animal RNA virus, poliovirus. DNA encoding the RNA genome of poliovirus was introduced into cultured mammalian cells and infectious poliovirus was produced. Creation of the infectious clone propelled understanding of poliovirus biology, and has become a standard technology used to study many other viruses. In 2002, Eckard Wimmer's group at Stony Brook University succeeded in synthesizing poliovirus from its chemical code, producing the world's first synthetic virus.

Blue River virus (BRV) is a single-stranded, negative sense RNA virus of New World hantavirus isolated from a white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) near the Blue River in Jackson County, Missouri in 1995. Its genome is similar to Sin Nombre orthohantavirus (SNV) but varies in the S1 and S2 segments. Like Sin Nombre orthohantavirus, Blue River virus causes Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in humans.Orzunov, S.P., J.E.Rowe, T.G.Ksiazek, C.J. Peters, S.C.ST.Jeor, and S.T.Nichol.1998. Genetic analysis of the diversity and origin of hantaviruses in Peromyscus leucopus mice in NorthAmerica. J.Virology. 72:57–64.

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus species in the genus Tobamovirus that infects a wide range of plants, especially tobacco and other members of the family Solanaceae. The infection causes characteristic patterns, such as "mosaic"-like mottling and discoloration on the leaves (hence the name). TMV was the first virus to be discovered. Although it was known from the late 19th century that a non- bacterial infectious disease was damaging tobacco crops, it was not until 1930 that the infectious agent was determined to be a virus.

Galidesivir (BCX4430, Immucillin-A) is an antiviral drug, an adenosine analog (a type of nucleoside analog). It is developed by BioCryst Pharmaceuticals with funding from NIAID, originally intended as a treatment for hepatitis C, but subsequently developed as a potential treatment for deadly filovirus infections such as Ebola virus disease, Marburg virus disease and Zika virus. Currently, Galidesivir is under phase 1 human trial in Brazil for Coronavirus. It also shows broad-spectrum antiviral effectiveness against a range of other RNA virus families, including bunyaviruses, arenaviruses, paramyxoviruses, coronaviruses, flaviviruses and phleboviruses.

Bourbon virus is an RNA virus in the genus Thogotovirus of the family Orthomyxoviridae, which is similar to Dhori virus and Batken virus. It was first identified in 2014 in a man from Bourbon County, Kansas, United States, who died after being bitten by ticks. The case is the eighth report of human disease associated with a thogotovirus globally, and the first in the Western hemisphere. As of May 2015, a case was discovered in Stillwater, Oklahoma (the patient fully recovered) and relatively little is known about the virus.

Longan witches broom-associated virus (LWBD or LWBaV) is a species of positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that has not been assigned to a genus within the family Potyviridae. It is thought to be the cause of witch's broom in longan (Dimocarpus longan), a large tropical tree from southeastern Asia of economic value. Longan witches broom disease is a condition that was first described in 1941. The virus was found in symptomatic plants and absent in healthy plants, but not all of Koch's postulates have been fulfilled.

The F, SH, HN genes, used to distinguish genotypes, are estimated to experience genetic mutations at a rate of substitutions per site per year, which is considered to be a very low mutation rate for an RNA virus. Phylogenetic analysis of the entire SH gene indicates that genotypes A and J are related in one branch and split apart from the other genotypes. In that second branch, genotype I is a sister clade of the other genotypes, which cluster into five sequential sister clades: G and H; D and K; C; L; and B, F, and N.

These important mechanisms prevent potentially lethal mutations from being passed on to offspring. But these mechanisms do not work for RNA and when an RNA virus replicates in its host cell, changes in their genes are occasionally introduced in error, some of which are lethal. One virus particle can produce millions of progeny viruses in just one cycle of replication, therefore the production of a few "dud" viruses is not a problem. Most mutations are "silent" and do not result in any obvious changes to the progeny viruses, but others confer advantages that increase the fitness of the viruses in the environment.

DNA oncoviruses typically cause cancer by inactivating p53 and Rb, thereby allowing unregulated cell division and creating tumors. There may be many different mechanisms which have evolved separately; in addition to those described above, for example, the Hepatitis B virus (an RNA virus) inactivates p53 by sequestering it in the cytoplasm. SV40 has been well studied and does not cause cancer in humans, but a recently discovered analogue called Merkel cell polyomavirus has been associated with Merkel cell carcinoma, a form of skin cancer. The Rb binding feature is believed to be the same between the two viruses.

Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), or EMC/2012 (HCoV-EMC/2012), is a species of coronavirus which infects humans, bats, and camels. The infecting virus is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the DPP4 receptor. The species is a member of the genus Betacoronavirus and subgenus Merbecovirus. Initially called simply novel coronavirus or nCoV, it was first reported in 2012 after genome sequencing of a virus isolated from sputum samples from a person who fell ill in a 2012 outbreak of a new flu-like respiratory illness.

After completing his Masters he went to London to work for the National Institute for Medical Research, staying in London until 1948. When he returned to Australia, he conducted research at the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research under director Frank Macfarlane Burnet and was involved in the establishment of the Biochemistry and Biophysics Research Unit with Henry Holden. At the Hall Institute he initially worked on the viruses that cause influenza and Murray Valley encephalitis. He was the first to establish that influenza is an RNA virus and was awarded his DSc by the University of Sydney in 1959.

In canines, distemper affects several body systems, including the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts and the spinal cord and brain, with common symptoms that include high fever, eye inflammation and eye/nose discharge, labored breathing and coughing, vomiting and diarrhea, loss of appetite and lethargy, and hardening of nose and footpads. The viral infection can be accompanied by secondary bacterial infections and can present eventual serious neurological symptoms. Canine distemper is caused by a single-stranded RNA virus of the family Paramyxoviridae (the same family of the viruses that causes measles, mumps, and bronchiolitis in humans). The disease is highly contagious via inhalation.

Coxsackievirus B4 is one of the six serotypes found in Group B and is a positive sense, single-stranded, non- enveloped RNA virus. Its genome is linear and is 7,293 nucleotides in length with both a 5’ and 3’ untranslated region and encodes its own 3’ poly-A tail. The 5’ untranslated region contains an internal ribosomal entry site (Type I IRES). Covalently bonded to the 5’ UTR is the viral protein VPg which aids in viral entry and replication. 2A and 3C are viral proteinases which aid in the cleavage of the polyprotein encoded for by the genome.

The most widely known example of ADE occurs in the setting of infection with dengue virus, a single-stranded positive- polarity RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae. It causes a disease of varying severity in humans, from dengue fever (DF), which is usually self-limited, to dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome, either of which may be life-threatening. It is estimated that as many as 390 million individuals are infected with dengue virus annually. The phenomenon of ADE may be observed when a person who has previously been infected with one serotype of the dengue virus becomes infected months or years later with a different serotype.

The Influenza virus is an RNA virus that is divided into three serological types: A, B and C. Hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) are two important glycoproteins on influenza virus membranes. The hemagglutinin is a sialic acid receptor-binding molecule and mediates entry of the virus into the host cell, while neuraminidase cleaves cellular-receptor sialic acid to form new particles. Neuraminidase is an exoglycosidase that destroys the hemagglutinin receptor by cleaving the α(2,6)- or α(2,3)-ketosidic linkage that exists between a terminal sialic acid and a sugar residue of the Neu5Ac containing receptor on the surface of host cells.Air, Gillian M, and W Graeme Laver.

Nipah virus, an enveloped RNA virus, associated with fever associated with encephalitis and acute respiratory distress out-breaks with high mortality. The first outbreak occurred in Malaysia-Singapore, related to contact with pigs in slaughterhouses and an outbreak in Philippines related to slaughter of horses, most other outbreaks have affected India and Bangladesh. in Bangladesh outbreaks are often associated with consumption of raw date palm sap contaminated by saliva and urine of fruit bats. In a study published in the Scientific Reports, Syrian hamster model for Nipah virus infection was used, which closely mirrors most aspects of human disease, such as widespread vasculitis, pneumonia, and encephalitis.

Bokeloh bat lyssavirus (BBLV) is negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus of the genus Lyssavirus first isolated from a Natterer's bat (Myotis nattereri) found in Bokeloh, Lower Saxony, Germany in 2010. Bokeloh bat lyssavirus was found in Myotis nattereri for the first time in northeastern France in July 2012. The complete genome sequence of the virus from the infected Natterer's bat was determined by whole genome sequencing and compared to that of the first BBLV strain isolated in 2010 in Germany and with those of all currently identified lyssaviruses. The French isolate [KC169985] showed 98.7% nucleotide sequence identity to the German BBLV strain [JF311903].

Lujo is a bisegmented RNA virus—a member of the family Arenaviridae—and a known cause of viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) in humans. Its name was suggested by the Special Pathogens Unit of the National Institute for Communicable Diseases of the National Health Laboratory Service (NICD-NHLS) by using the first two letters of the names of the cities involved in the 2008 outbreak of the disease, Lusaka (Zambia) and Johannesburg (Republic of South Africa). It is the second pathogenic Arenavirus to be described from the African continent—the first being Lassa virus—and since 2012 has been classed as a "Select Agent" under U.S. law.

Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHNV), is a negative-sense single- stranded, bullet-shaped RNA virus that is a member of the Rhabdoviridae family, and from the genus Novirhabdovirus. It causes the disease known as infectious hematopoietic necrosis in salmonid fish such as trout and salmon. The disease may be referred to by a number of other names such as Chinook salmon disease, Coleman disease, Columbia River sockeye disease, Cultus Lake virus disease, Oregon sockeye disease, Sacramento River Chinook disease and sockeye salmon viral disease. IHNV is commonly found in the Pacific Coast of Canada and the United States, and has also been found in Europe and Japan.

Nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) and nucleotide reverse- transcriptase inhibitors (NtRTI) are nucleoside and nucleotide analogues which inhibit reverse transcription. HIV is an RNA virus and hence unable to become integrated into the DNA in the nucleus of the human cell; it must be "reverse" transcribed into DNA. Since the conversion of RNA to DNA is not done in the mammalian cell it is performed by a viral protein which makes it a selective target for inhibition. NRTIs are chain terminators such that once incorporated, work by preventing other nucleosides from also being incorporated into the DNA chain because of the absence of a 3' OH group.

RNA viruses generally have very high mutation rates compared to DNA viruses, because viral RNA polymerases lack the proofreading ability of DNA polymerases. This is one reason why it is difficult to make effective vaccines to prevent diseases caused by RNA viruses—diversity is their strength. Retroviruses also have a high mutation rate even though their DNA intermediate integrates into the host genome (and is thus subject to host DNA proofreading once integrated), because errors during reverse transcription are embedded into both strands of DNA before integration. Some genes of RNA virus are important to the viral replication cycles and mutations are not tolerated.

Yellow fever is caused by yellow fever virus, an enveloped RNA virus 40–50 in width, the type species and namesake of the family Flaviviridae. It was the first illness shown to be transmissible by filtered human serum and transmitted by mosquitoes, by Walter Reed around 1900. The positive-sense, single-stranded RNA is around 11,000 nucleotides long and has a single open reading frame encoding a polyprotein. Host proteases cut this polyprotein into three structural (C, prM, E) and seven nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, NS5); the enumeration corresponds to the arrangement of the protein coding genes in the genome.

Her graduate work was supported in part by an International Student Research Fellowship awarded by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. At Johns Hopkins, she worked in the laboratory of Robert F. Siliciano studying the human immunodeficiency virus's (HIV) interactions with the CD4+ T cells the virus targets and infects. HIV is a retrovirus, which means it is an RNA virus that inserts a copy of itself in the genome of the T cells it infects; the integrated virus is known as a provirus. Ho worked to characterize the subset of HIV proviruses that remain in a dormant state within resting T cells, not producing virus particles; this subset is known as the latent reservoir.

Human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E) is a species of coronavirus which infects humans and bats. It is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the APN receptor. Along with Human coronavirus OC43 (a member of the Betacoronavirus genus), it is one of the viruses responsible for the common cold.Susanna K. P. Lau, Paul Lee, Alan K. L. Tsang, Cyril C. Y. Yip,1 Herman Tse, Rodney A. Lee, Lok-Yee So, Yu-Lung Lau, Kwok-Hung Chan, Patrick C. Y. Woo, and Kwok-Yung Yuen. Molecular Epidemiology of Human Coronavirus OC43 Reveals Evolution of Different Genotypes over Time and Recent Emergence of a Novel Genotype due to Natural Recombination.

Human metapneumovirus (HMPV) is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus of the family Pneumoviridae and is closely related to the Avian metapneumovirus (AMPV) subgroup C. It was isolated for the first time in 2001 in the Netherlands by using the RAP-PCR (RNA arbitrarily primed PCR) technique for identification of unknown viruses growing in cultured cells. It is the second most common cause after Human orthopneumovirus (RSV) of lower respiratory infection in young children. The peak age of hospitalization for infants with HMPV occurs between 6–12 months of age, slightly older than the peak of RSV, which is around 2–3 months. The clinical features and severity of HMPV are similar to those of RSV.

Taxonomy and replication strategies of different types of RNA viruses An RNA virus is a virus that has RNA (ribonucleic acid) as its genetic material. This nucleic acid is usually single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) but may be double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Notable human diseases caused by RNA viruses include the common cold, influenza, SARS, COVID-19, Dengue Virus, hepatitis C, hepatitis E, West Nile fever, Ebola virus disease, rabies, polio and measles. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) classifies RNA viruses as those that belong to Group III, Group IV or Group V of the Baltimore classification system of classifying viruses and does not consider viruses with DNA intermediates in their life cycle as RNA viruses.

As opposed to nuclear viruses, loss of m6A on hepatitis C virus (HCV, a cytoplasmic RNA virus) increases the production of infectious HCV virions, which indicates that in this particular virus the m6A mark has a negative effect on virus production. Nevertheless, in other cytoplasmic RNA viruses such as dengue virus and yellow fever virus, m6A sites have been selected for during evolution, suggesting that the m6A mark is beneficial for these viruses. Since m6A enhances viral replication, m6A can be used as a target for antiviral therapy. The major challenge is to target this mark in viral transcripts without causing major effects to the host cells, as normally occurring cellular m6A marks will also be depleted.

Another key question is whether the molecular mechanisms that trigger autoimmune/autoinflammatory responses in children with PMIS and adults with severe COVID-19 (including the induction of high concentrations of IL-6) are similar or distinct. A potential link with Kawasaki disease is under discussion. It has been noted that a leading hypothesis for the pathogenesis of Kawasaki disease also involves a hyperinflammatory response to viral infection (such as by a novel RNA virus) in some genetically predisposed children, and that SARS-CoV-2 is now "added to the list" of implicated viral triggers. Hopes have been expressed that study of the new condition may help understand the hidden mechanisms behind Kawasaki disease.

The genome is approximately 15,000 nucleotides in length and is composed of a single strand of RNA with negative polarity. It has 10 genes encoding 11 proteins. RSV, and the closely related pneumonia virus of mice, are unique in the RNA virus family Paramyxoviridae for having two separate genes coding for nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2) that suppress the host's innate immunity, mediated primarily by type I interferon (IFN).Barik S (2013) Respiratory syncytial virus mechanisms to interfere with type 1 interferons. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 372:173-91. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-38919-1_9. .Ribaudo M, Barik S (2017) The nonstructural proteins of Pneumoviruses are remarkably distinct in substrate diversity and specificity. Virol J. ;14(1):215. doi: 10.1186/s12985-017-0881-7, .

There is speculation that this line of research could lead to producing bacteria that have been engineered to perform specific reactions, for example, produce fuels, make medicines, combat global warming, and so on. In May 2010, a team of scientists led by Venter became the first to successfully create what was described as "synthetic life". This was done by synthesizing a very long DNA molecule containing an entire bacterium genome, and introducing this into another cell, analogous to the accomplishment of Eckard Wimmer's group, who synthesized and ligated an RNA virus genome and "booted" it in cell lysate. The single-celled organism contains four "watermarks" written into its DNA to identify it as synthetic and to help trace its descendants.

Because EHDV is a double-stranded RNA virus, it needs to overcome a specific set of problems, the main one being the fact that double- stranded RNA is unable to be used as template strand during mRNA translation using host cell machinery. Therefore, EHDV must bring its own transcription enzymes into the cell, to survive and synthesize viral RNA and proteins. However, antiviral defense mechanisms are able to easily recognize and eliminate naked double-stranded RNA in the cell. The presence of the double- stranded RNA would trigger antiviral mechanisms such as apoptosis and interferon production. In order to bypass these host defenses, double-stranded RNA viruses such as EHDV “hide” their genome and other translation machinery within closed protein capsids.

The addition of 2 non- templated G residues of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is necessary for expressing the phosphoprotein, in order for viral replication and synthesis to occur since it is a negative single-stranded RNA virus. BMV (as well as a parainfluenza virus known as PIV5) contain short hydrophobic proteins, which have a role in blocking the TNFalpha-mediated apoptosis pathway. In terms of gene expression, the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase binds the encapsulated genome at the leader region, which starts the transcription process. The 3’ leader sequence is approximately 50 nucleotides in length, and this is the area acting as the transcriptional promoter. The 5’ trailer sequence (at the opposite end of the leader sequence) is between 50 and 161 nucleotides in length.

Different strains of FCV can vary in virulence (the degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host). Being an RNA virus, FCV has a high elasticity of its genome, which makes it more adaptable to environmental pressures. This not only makes the development of vaccines more difficult, but also allows for the development of more virulent strains. In persistently infected cats, the gene for the major structural protein of the viral capsid (the outer protein coat of a mature virus) has been shown to evolve through immune-mediated positive selection, which allows the virus to escape detection by the immune system.

A general scenario of RNA virus evolution All members of Riboviria contain a gene that encodes for an RNA-dependent polymerase, also called RNA-directed polymerase. There are two types of RNA-dependent polymerases: RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), also called RNA replicase, which synthesizes RNA from RNA, and RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (RdDp), also called reverse transcriptase (RT), which synthesizes DNA from RNA. In a typical virus particle, called a virion, the RNA-dependent polymerase is bound to the viral genome in some manner and begins transcription of the viral genome after entering a cell. As part of a virus's life cycle, the RNA- dependent polymerase also synthesizes copies of the viral genome as part of the process of creating new viruses.

Steitz completed postdoctoral research at the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) at the University of Cambridge (UK), where she collaborated with Francis Crick, Sydney Brenner, and Mark Bretscher. At the LMB, Steitz focused on the question of how bacteria know where to start the "reading frame" on mRNA. In the process, Steitz discovered the exact sequences on a mature RNA virus encoding three proteins where the virus mRNA binds bacterial ribosomes to produce proteins. In 1969 she published a seminal paper in Nature showing the nucleotide sequence of the binding start points. In 1970, Steitz joined the faculty at Yale. In 1975, she published a research finding for which she is widely known, demonstrating that ribosomes use complementary base pairing to identify the start site on mRNA.

In many cases subgenomic RNAs are also created during replication. After infection, the entirety of the host cell's translation machinery may be diverted to the production of viral proteins as a result of the very high affinity for ribosomes by the viral genome's internal ribosome entry site (IRES) elements; in some viruses, such as poliovirus and rhinoviruses, normal protein synthesis is further disrupted by viral proteases degrading components required to initiate translation of cellular mRNA. All positive-strand RNA virus genomes encode RNA-dependent RNA polymerase a viral protein that synthesizes RNA from an RNA template. Host cell proteins recruited by +ssRNA viruses during replication include RNA-binding proteins, chaperone proteins, and membrane remodeling and lipid synthesis proteins, which collectively participate in exploiting the cell's secretory pathway for viral replication.

Based on the Baltimore classification, which is a virus classification system the groups viruses into families based on their genome type, we can know the steps the virus must take in order to produce mRNA and how the genome is copied to create more genomes. All viruses want to get to mRNA in order to go through the process of translation; however, only positive sense single stranded RNA virus (+RNA) have the capability to do this. (-)RNA viruses, such as SCV, are not able to be translated by the host because cells do not have the machinery to copy it, indicating that the virus needs to bring their own enzyme, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, in order to copy the negative strand into mRNA. This allows viruses, such as SCV, to produce (+)RNA, which can therefore be translated by the host.

Poliovirus is structurally similar to other human enteroviruses (coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and rhinoviruses), which also use immunoglobulin-like molecules to recognize and enter host cells. Phylogenetic analysis of the RNA and protein sequences of poliovirus suggests that it may have evolved from a C-cluster Coxsackie A virus ancestor, that arose through a mutation within the capsid. The distinct speciation of poliovirus probably occurred as a result of a change in cellular receptor specificity from intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), used by C-cluster Coxsackie A viruses, to CD155; leading to a change in pathogenicity, and allowing the virus to infect nervous tissue. The mutation rate in the virus is relatively high even for an RNA virus with a synonymous substitution rate of 1.0 x 10−2 substitutions/site/year and non synonymous substitution rate of 3.0 x 10−4 substitutions/site/year.

PMID: 14149958 When a multimer is formed from polypeptides produced by two different mutant alleles of a particular gene, the mixed multimer may exhibit greater functional activity than the unmixed multimers formed by each of the mutants alone. In such a case, the phenomenon is referred to as intragenic complementation (also called inter-allelic complementation). Intragenic complementation appears to be common and has been studied in many different genes in a variety of organisms including the fungi Neurospora crassa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe; the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium; the virus bacteriophage T4Bernstein H, Edgar RS, Denhardt GH. Intragenic complementation among temperature sensitive mutants of bacteriophage T4D. Genetics. 1965;51(6):987-1002., an RNA virus Smallwood S, Cevik B, Moyer SA. Intragenic complementation and oligomerization of the L subunit of the sendai virus RNA polymerase. Virology. 2002;304(2):235-245. doi:10.1006/viro.

TEM micrograph showing dengue virus virions (the cluster of dark dots near the center) Dengue fever virus (DENV) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus Flavivirus. Other members of the same genus include yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kyasanur forest disease virus, and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus. Most are transmitted by arthropods (mosquitos or ticks), and are therefore also referred to as arboviruses (arthropod-borne viruses). The dengue virus genome (genetic material) contains about 11,000 nucleotide bases, which code for the three different types of protein molecules (C, prM and E) that form the virus particle and seven other non-structural protein molecules (NS1, NS2a, NS2b, NS3, NS4a, NS4b, NS5) that are found in infected host cells only and are required for replication of the virus.

Drawing of the measles virus attaching to the lining of the trachea Once the measles virus gets onto the mucosa, it infects the epithelial cells in the trachea or bronchi. Measles virus uses a protein on its surface called hemagglutinin (H protein), to bind to a target receptor on the host cell, which could be CD46, which is expressed on all nucleated human cells, CD150, aka signaling lymphocyte activation molecule or SLAM, which is found on immune cells like B or T cells, and antigen-presenting cells, or nectin-4, a cellular adhesion molecule. Once bound, the fusion, or F protein helps the virus fuse with the membrane and ultimately get inside the cell. As the virus is a single-stranded negative-sense RNA virus, it includes the enzyme RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) which is used to transcribe its genome into a positive-sense mRNA strand.

This is an image of the genome of West Caucasian bat lyssavirus, which comprises five main genes: N, P, M, G, and L. The WCBL contains a linear genome that is 12,278 base pairs in length and comprises five main genes, denoted N, P, M, G, and L. Gene N encodes for the nucleoprotein, P encodes for the phosphoprotein, M encodes for matrix proteins, G encodes for the glycoprotein, and L encodes for the polymerase. WCBL must encode for an RNA- dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) in its genome in order for viral replication and synthesis to occur because it is a negative single-strand RNA virus. In comparison to other lyssaviruses, WCBL has a shorter trailer region of 57 nucleotides (as opposed to 69-70), but a longer non-coding region specifically in the glycoprotein gene at 697 nucleotides. These differences have resulted in its classification into its own phylogroup.

NS2 is one of seven nonstructural proteins in HCV, with each being encoded near the carboxy-terminal end of the positive-strand RNA virus. Once translated it is 217 amino acids in length and has a molecular weight of approximately 23 kDa. NS2 possesses a hydrophobic amino-terminal subdomain as well as a carboxy-terminal cytoplasmic domain, with the amino-terminal subdomain containing up to three putative transmembrane segments. NS2 proteins are post-translationally processed by the HPV-encoded cysteine protease NS2-3, which is formed by residues 94-217 of NS2 itself as well as residues 1-181 of nonstructural protein 3 (NS3). The NS2-3 autoprotease acts by making a single cleavage between the junction of NS2 and NS3. While the NS2 protein itself is unnecessary for replication of the HCV virus (as demonstrated by HPV replicons that were able to self-replicate after removal of the entire C to NS2 coding region), this cleavage of the NS2/NS3 junction is critical.

When multiple copies of a polypeptide encoded by a gene form a complex, this protein structure is referred to as a multimer. When a multimer is formed from polypeptides produced by two different mutant alleles of a particular gene, the mixed multimer may exhibit greater functional activity than the unmixed multimers formed by each of the mutants alone. In such a case, the phenomenon is referred to as intragenic complementation (also called inter-allelic complementation). Intragenic complementation has been demonstrated in many different genes in a variety of organisms including the fungi Neurospora crassa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe; the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium; the virus bacteriophage T4Bernstein H, Edgar RS, Denhardt GH. Intragenic complementation among temperature sensitive mutants of bacteriophage T4D. Genetics. 1965;51(6):987-1002., an RNA virus Smallwood S, Cevik B, Moyer SA. Intragenic complementation and oligomerization of the L subunit of the sendai virus RNA polymerase. Virology. 2002;304(2):235-245. doi:10.1006/viro.2002.1720 and humans.

Powassan virus is an RNA virus split into two separate lineages: Lineage I, labeled as the “prototype” lineage; and Lineage II, the deer tick virus (DTV) lineage. Lineage II has the most genetic variation, which indicates that it is most likely the ancestral lineage that split as a result of positive natural selection. DTV is very closely related to Powassan virus and a sequence analysis showed that the two viruses diverged about 200 years ago. Even though Lineage II has been predominant in POWV positive tick pools, both lineages have had confirmed cases of human disease in North America and Russia The lineages share 84% nucleotide sequences and 94% amino acid sequence identity. Cross- neutralization occurs among flaviviruses due to the conservation of the envelope protein; this is what contributes to the fact that the two lineages are “serologically indistinguishable.” As a result, the lineages are part of the same viral species.

This and other repair activities, that may act on standard RNA or retroviral genomes, do not prevent the formation of mutant spectra, although their amplitude may be lower than for other RNA viruses, at least in populations close to a clonal (single genome) origin. Quasispecies dynamics will operate in any viral or cellular system in which due to high mutation rates (as a result of low fidelity nucleic acid polymerases or environmental alterations) mutant spectra are rapidly generated. Studies with different virus-host systems have established some general observations on the mechanisms of mutant generation, and implications of quasispecies dynamics. In RNA virus genetics when we speak of “a mutant” the entity we handle is a cloud of mutants in which the specific mutation to which we direct our attention is present in all (or the great majority of) individual genomes. There is no such a thing as “a” wild type or “a” mutant virus.

Geometric examples for many values of h, k, and T can be found at List of geodesic polyhedra and Goldberg polyhedra. Many exceptions to this rule exist: For example, the polyomaviruses and papillomaviruses have pentamers instead of hexamers in hexavalent positions on a quasi-T=7 lattice. Members of the double-stranded RNA virus lineage, including reovirus, rotavirus and bacteriophage φ6 have capsids built of 120 copies of capsid protein, corresponding to a "T=2" capsid, or arguably a T=1 capsid with a dimer in the asymmetric unit. Similarly, many small viruses have a pseudo-T=3 (or P=3) capsid, which is organized according to a T=3 lattice, but with distinct polypeptides occupying the three quasi-equivalent positions T-numbers can be represented in different ways, for example T = 1 can only be represented as an icosahedron or a dodecahedron and, depending on the type of quasi-symmetry, T = 3 can be presented as a truncated dodecahedron, an icosidodecahedron, or a truncated icosahedron and their respective duals a triakis icosahedron, a rhombic triacontahedron, or a pentakis dodecahedron.