237 Sentences With "read only memory" | Random Sentence Generator

Find more information and order links at the Read Only Memory website.

All 'The Chaos Engine' screenshots and Bitmap Brothers concept art courtesy of Read Only Memory.

Costing $1,565, the IBM 5150 had 40K of read-only memory and 16K of user memory.

Flash memory is in this category, as is ROM (read-only memory, as in EPROM and EEPROM).

Screenshot from 'The Chaos Engine' provided courtesy of Read Only Memory That it took two years in total had outsiders scratching their heads.

And since it's ROM (read-only memory), it can't be overwritten or patched by Apple through a software update, so it's here to stay.

That's because the flaw is baked into the read-only memory of the Nvidia Tegra X1 used in the Switch and a few other devices.

Waypoint is pleased to present an excerpt from The Bitmap Brothers: Universe, written by Duncan Harris and published by Read Only Memory, with design and editing by Darren Wall.

I have zero recollection of ever hearing about Optical Read-Only Memory (or OROM) storage disks, but people were very excited about them for at least one week 20 years ago.

Earlier today Ancel joyfully announced on Instagram that he'd discovered the original EPROM (or erasable programmable read-only memory cartridge) for the SNES version, just four days after giving it up for lost.

This is how that document describes the boot process for an iPhone: When an iOS device is turned on, its application processor immediately executes code from read-only memory known as the Boot ROM.

It appears Sega didn't provide any of its own specific tools through Workshop, meaning that modders can go wild with the ROMs (Read-only memory), the game software stored on the original game cartridges.

Whereas LV-ROM is an abbreviation of "LaserVision Read-Only Memory", LD-ROM is an abbreviation of "LaserDisc Read-Only Memory".

The book was made available on the website of Read-Only Memory, Wall's new publishing imprint.

It has origins in read-only memory (ROM). Programmable read-only memory (PROM) was invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, while working for the Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze of Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable read-only memory (ROM), which led to Dov Frohman of Intel inventing EPROM (erasable PROM) in 1971. EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) was developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972.

A programmable read-only memory (PROM) is a form of digital memory where the setting of each bit is locked by a fuse or antifuse. (eFUSEs can also be used) It is one type of ROM (read-only memory). The data in them are permanent and cannot be changed. PROMs are used in digital electronic devices to store permanent data, usually low level programs such as firmware or microcode.

Wen Tsing Chow (; 1918–2001), was a Chinese-born American missile guidance scientist and a digital computer pioneer, known for the invention of programmable read-only memory or PROM.

While he did not pursue it, this idea would later become the basis for EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) technology. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze proposed that floating-gate memory cells, consisting of floating-gate MOSFETs (FGMOS), could be used to produce reprogrammable ROM (read-only memory). Floating-gate memory cells later became the basis for non-volatile memory (NVM) technologies including EPROM, EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM) and flash memory.

MC families. Signifying features of the architecture are up to 4,096 fast on-chip registers which may be used as accumulators, pointers, or as ordinary random-access memory (RAM). A 16-bit address space for between 1 kibibyte (KB) and 64 KB of either programmable read-only memory (PROM, OTP), read-only memory (ROM), or flash memory, are used to store code and constants, and there is a second 16-bit address space which can be used for large applications.

In 1970, Drori founded Monolithic Memories, a semiconductor firm that pioneered advances in memory and logic technology. He served as President, CEO, Chairman of the Board and CTO of Monolithic through 1981 and as chairman of the board from 1981 to 1987. As CTO, he was responsible for the invention, development and manufacturing of the PAL (programmable array logic), the PROM (programmable read-only memory), ROM (read-only memory), and high performance signal processing chips. In 1980, Monolithic went public at $21 a share.

The emulator has 64 kB of functional random-access memory (RAM) which can be edited on the fly, and a functional 8-bit microprocessor based on the MOS Technology 6502; it also has functional and importable read-only memory (ROM). SethBling had the emulator run the original Atari 2600 read-only memory cartridges for the games Space Invaders, Pac-Man, and Donkey Kong. The ROM cartridge contains four kilobytes of data; each bit of RAM and ROM is represented by a Minecraft block. More than two thousand command blocks comprise the emulator's processor.

Transformer matrix ROM (TROS), from the IBM System/360 Model 40 Transformer read-only storage (TROS) was a type of read-only memory (ROM) used in the 1960s and early 1970s before solid-state memory devices were developed.

The VIO-C video board had 2K firmware ROM, 2K character generator read-only memory (ROM) with 256 characters and 2K of refresh memory. The VDP80/1050 was listed in January 1978 for $10,920 and the VDP-40/64 for $7,466.

An EPROM (rarely EROM), or erasable programmable read-only memory, is a type of programmable read-only memory (PROM) chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. Computer memory that can retrieve stored data after a power supply has been turned off and back on is called non-volatile. It is an array of floating-gate transistors individually programmed by an electronic device that supplies higher voltages than those normally used in digital circuits. Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased by exposing it to strong ultraviolet light source (such as from a mercury-vapor lamp).

MOS memory enabled higher performance, was cheaper, and consumed less power, than magnetic-core memory, leading to MOS memory overtaking magnetic core memory as the dominant computer memory technology by the early 1970s. Frank Wanlass, while studying MOSFET structures in 1963, noted the movement of charge through oxide onto a gate. While he did not pursue it, this idea would later become the basis for EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) technology. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze proposed that floating-gate memory cells, consisting of floating-gate MOSFETs (FGMOS), could be used to produce reprogrammable ROM (read-only memory).

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, video game manufacturers sometimes reported the amount of internal cartridge read-only memory (ROM) on packaging in megabits, where 1 megabit equaled 128 kibibyte and 8 megabits were 1 mebibyte of ROM, containing game instructions and data.

The palmtop ran Microsoft's MS-DOS version 3.22 and had a customized version of Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2 built in. Other software in read-only memory (ROM) included a calculator, an appointment calendar, a telecommunications program, and a simple text editor.

Variable declarations further have an optional storage class specifier. Properly this is a separate topic, distinct from the type, though `const` on a variable declaration is also taken to have implications for the storage class, namely that it can be stored in read-only memory.

The Classic uses the System 6.0.7 operating system with support for all versions up to System 7.5.5. A hidden Hierarchical File System (HFS) disk volume contained in the read-only memory (ROM) includes System 6.0.3. The Mac Classic can be booted into System 6.0.

A PC-based DVR's architecture is a classical personal computer with video capture cards designed to capture video images. An embedded type DVR is specifically designed as a digital video recorder with its operating system and application software contained in firmware or read- only memory.

Typically micro- controller programs must fit in the available on-chip memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable memory. Compilers and assemblers are used to convert both high-level and assembly language codes into a compact machine code for storage in the micro-controller's memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or it may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory. Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their micro-controllers in order to help the hardware and software development of the target system.

Rajchman emigrated to America in 1935. He joined RCA Laboratory directed by Vladimir K. Zworykin in January 1936. He was a prolific inventor with 107 US patents among others logic circuits for arithmetic. He conceived the first read-only memory, which was widely used in early computers.

Examples include CD-RW and SSD. ; Write once storage : Write Once Read Many (WORM) allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. Examples include semiconductor programmable read-only memory and CD-R. ; Read only storage : Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture.

The Robotron fully assembled printed circuit board contains the CPU, the RAM and read-only memory, screen control and multiple peripheral connections. The main board measured 215 mm x 230 mm 80 mm x 160 mm with the keyboard together with connection cables, various small parts and documentation.

American Megatrends BIOS 686. This BIOS chip is housed in a PLCC package in a socket. The original IBM PC BIOS (and cassette BASIC) was stored on mask-programmed read-only memory (ROM) chips in sockets on the motherboard. ROMs could be replaced, but not altered, by users.

It combined a 4-bit central processor unit, read-only memory (ROM), read/write memory (RAM), and input/output (I/O) lines as a complete "computer on a chip". It was intended for embedded systems in automobiles, appliances, games, and measurement instruments. It was the first high-volume commercial microcontroller.

In 1971, General Electric Company (GE) was developing a programmable logic device based on the new Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) technology. This experimental device improved on IBM's ROAM by allowing multilevel logic. Intel had just introduced the floating-gate UV erasable PROM so the researcher at GE incorporated that technology.

The 4001 is a ROM (read-only memory) with four lines of output; the 4002 is a RAM (random access memory) with four lines of input/output. The 4003 is a static shift register to be used for expanding the I/O lines; e.g., for keyboard scanning or controlling a printer.

Nintendo Life found the book flawless, as both accessible and interesting to newcomers as well as "every Sega fan's dream come true". Read-Only Memory editor-in- chief Darren Wall told The Guardian how crowdfunders shared their experiences and opinions of the book on Twitter, which generated significant traffic to the publisher's website.

Many early computers, or small microcomputers, support only an absolute object format. Programs are not relocatable; they need to be assembled or compiled to execute at specific, predefined addresses. The file contains no relocation or linkage information. These files can be loaded into read/write memory, or stored in read-only memory.

Non-volatile data storage can be categorized into electrically addressed systems (read-only memory) and mechanically addressed systems (hard disks, optical disc, magnetic tape, holographic memory, and such). Generally speaking, electrically addressed systems are expensive, have limited capacity, but are fast, whereas mechanically addressed systems cost less per bit, but are slower.

Fire in the Valley: The Making of The Personal Computer (Second Edition), McGraw Hill, .imm8-76 PROM Programmer Module Google Docs.Intel Silicon Gate MOS 1602A/1702A 2048-bit electrically programmable read only memory Google Docs. The chip-programming socket is the green device in the lower right corner of the Intellec's front panel.

An erasable, programmable read-only memory (EPROM) of 2MB in size was used to permanently store the startup diagnostic code (ROM Monitor), and RxBoot. This ROM was held in 2x PLCC sockets and was user upgradeable. Each unit had 32k of NVRAM, used for storage of the startup configuration. Some 2500 models (e.g.

Supporters received perks including archival prints from Sonic the Hedgehog character designer Naoto Ohshima. Upon doubling the project's funding goal, Wall and Read-Only Memory announced additional interviews and content to be included. The campaign ultimately raised over three times its goal: . The campaign also propelled Sega management from the period to offer their aid.

' •Samuel Beckett—evident influence in 'Epilog: Read Only Memory.' •James Joyce—similar in abundant usage of "puns, exotic allusions, and the artist-as-the-creator theme." •Ezra Pound—Kenney's style mirrors Pound's "rapid-fire imagery" • Greco-Roman mythologies, biblical and historical references, and hypothetical prehistoric landmasses Taken from Holinger's review in The Midwest Quarterly. See Bibliography.

A control store is the part of a CPU's control unit that stores the CPU's microprogram. It is usually accessed by a microsequencer. A control store implementation whose contents are unalterable is known as a Read Only Memory (ROM) or Read Only Storage (ROS); one whose contents are alterable is known as a Writable Control Store (WCS).

However these have either been somewhat impractical (e.g., the Selectron tube) or are usually considered to be read-only memory e.g., EPROM, because writing takes significantly longer than reading them. However, Flash memory has been developed to become a widely used form of read-write mass storage with write speeds far exceeding competing technologies such as hard disk.

Cryptographic functions are performed by an internal KOV-21 crypto PC Card. The SDS includes 64 MB of RAM, 32 MB of flash read-only memory, a QWERTY keyboard, half-VGA color display, and a USB port. It also has a 6-pin connector for cabling to NSA standard fill connectors. The keyboard includes two zeroize buttons.

Retrogaming emulation involves older gaming systems being emulated on new hardware. It bypasses the need to collect old consoles and original games. ROMs, read only memory files, are taken directly from the original cartridge or disc from third parties. They are then typically put online through file sharing sites and played via emulators on modern hardware.

This is 1/64th the size of the previous record holder, the mu-chip. Manufacture is enabled by using the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) process. These dust-sized chips can store 38-digit numbers using 128-bit Read Only Memory (ROM). A major challenge is the attachment of antennas, thus limiting read range to only millimeters.

Solid State Electronics, Vol. 13, pp. 1125–1144. The SGT became the basis of all modern NMOS and CMOS integrated circuits. It made possible the creation of MOS semiconductor memory chips during 1969–1970, the first microprocessor during 1970–1971, and the first CCD and EPROM (electrically programmable read-only memory) with floating silicon gates (1970-1971).

Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected by its ultraviolet emissions. Corona causes degradation of electrical insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen oxide. EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) are erased by exposure to UV radiation. These modules have a transparent (quartz) window on the top of the chip that allows the UV radiation in.

LV-ROM is an optical disc format developed by Philips Electronics to integrate analog video and computer software for interactive multimedia. The LV-ROM is a specialized variation of the CAV Laserdisc. LV-ROM is an initialism for "LaserVision Read-Only Memory". Like Laserdisc, LV-ROM discs store analog audio and video by encoding it in pulse-width modulation.

A stored-program computer requires an initial computer program stored in its read-only memory to boot. The boot process is to identify and initialize all aspects of the system, from processor registers to device controllers to memory contents. Following the initialization process, this initial computer program loads the operating system and sets the program counter to begin normal operations.

Mupen64Plus, formerly named Mupen64-64bit and Mupen64-amd64, is a free and open-source, cross-platform Nintendo 64 emulator, written in the programming languages C and C++. It allows users to play Nintendo 64 games on a computer by reading ROM images, either dumped from the read-only memory of a Nintendo 64 cartridge or created directly on the computer as homebrew.

The cycle begins as soon as power is applied to the system, with an initial PC value that is predefined by the system's architecture (for instance, in Intel IA-32 CPUs, the predefined PC value is `0xfffffff0`). Typically, this address points to a set of instructions in read-only memory (ROM), which begins the process of loading (or booting) the operating system.

The 30th anniversary of the ZX Spectrum home computer in 2012 generated renewed interest in Britsofta "golden era" of British video game development, particularly in the 1980s and '90s, little publicised outside Britain. Between games republished on digital platforms like Steam, re-releases for mobile platforms, and related crowdfunding projects through Kickstarter, coverage of British games development was brought closer to parity with the coverage of Japanese and American game developers. Through its Kickstarter projects, Read-Only Memory grew as a British publisher of art books on topics of video game history and culture. Kiyonori Muroga, the editor-in-chief of Japanese graphic design magazine Idea, highlighted Read-Only Memory in 2015 as performing groundbreaking art book design work with exceptional product quality. In late 2013, graphic designer Darren Wall released an art book about the history of British developer Sensible Software.

Prior to the development of integrated read-only memory (ROM) circuits, permanent (or read-only) random-access memory was often constructed using diode matrices driven by address decoders, or specially wound core rope memory planes. Semiconductor memory began in the 1960s with bipolar memory, which used bipolar transistors. While it improved performance, it could not compete with the lower price of magnetic core memory.

In later production computers, the most common use of a front panel was to an enter a small bootstrap program to read the operating system from disk. This was annoying. So, front panels were replaced by bootstrap programs in read-only memory. Most PDP-8 models had a data bus designed to let I/O devices borrow the control unit's memory read and write logic.

Masuoka attended Tohoku University in Sendai, Japan, where he earned an undergraduate degree in engineering in 1966 and doctorate in 1971. He joined Toshiba in 1971. There, he invented stacked- gate avalanche-injection metal–oxide–semiconductor (SAMOS) memory, a precursor to electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) and flash memory. In 1976, he developed dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) with a double poly-Si structure.

In 2013 book publishers Read-Only Memory released Sensible Software 1986–1999. This comprehensive retrospective on the entire history of the company was written by renowned Zzap!64 games journalist Gary Penn in conversational style. It features 19 different contributors including extensive interviews with Jon Hare and other Sensibles, plus games luminaries of the era including David Darling (entrepreneur), Dominik Diamond and Peter Molyneux.

Indian EVMs are stand-alone machines built with once write, read-only memory. The EVMs are produced with secure manufacturing practices, and by design, are self-contained, battery- powered and lack any networking capability. They do not have any wireless or wired internet components and interface.A look inside the electronic voting machine, The Hindu (March 10, 2019) The M3 version of the EVMs includes the VVPAT system.

The Four-Phase CPU used a 24-bit word size. It fit on a single card and was composed of three AL1 chips, three read-only-memory (ROM) chips, and three random logic chips. A memory card used Four-Phase's 1K RAM chips. The system also included a built-in video controller which could drive up to 32 terminals from a character buffer in main memory.

Read-Only Memory released its next art book in late 2014. Sega Mega Drive/Genesis: Collected Works covers the development, life, and legacy of Sega's 16-bit console. The 352-page book sought to be the "definitive volume" on the console. It was officially licensed by Sega and contains about 30 interviews with former team members and documentary production artwork from both classic and lesser-known games.

This means certification of systems do not need to re-test the kernel portion of their designs. SAFERTOS is included in the ROM of some Stellaris MicrocontrollersTI Stellaris Product range from Texas Instruments. SAFERTOS source code does not need to be separately purchased. In this usage scenario, a C header file is used to map SAFERTOS API functions to their location in read-only memory.

Write-only memory (WOM) is the opposite of read-only memory (ROM). By some definitions, a WOM is a memory device which can be written but never read. Initially there seemed to be no practical use for a memory circuit from which data could not be retrieved. The concept is still often used as a joke or a euphemism for a failed memory device.

COMPOSER Shigeru Araki - Kato Yusuke - Saiko Miki - Yasumasa Kitagawa The musical numbers, with forty tunes from the game and one remix of I Am Impact, were released October 3, 1997 on CD. The soundtrack was later extracted from Read- only memory and presented in Nintendo Ultra 64 Sound Format on May 9, 2005; it is one of the most downloaded releases at USF Central.

Punched cards and paper tape are obsolete WORM media. Although any unpunched area of the medium could be punched after the first write of the medium, doing so was virtually never useful. Read-only memory (ROM) is also a WORM medium. Such memory may contain the instructions to a computer to read the operating system from another storage device such as a hard disk.

Early computers used a variety of ad-hoc methods to get a small program into memory to solve this problem. The invention of read-only memory (ROM) of various types solved this paradox by allowing computers to be shipped with a start up program that could not be erased. Growth in the capacity of ROM has allowed ever more elaborate start up procedures to be implemented.

While the first game consoles were dedicate game systems, with the games programmed into the console's hardware, the Fairchild Channel F introduced the ability to store games in a form separate from the console's internal circuitry, thus allowing the consumer to purchase new games to play on the system. Since the Channel F, nearly all game consoles have featured the ability to purchase and swap games through some form, through those forms have changes with improvements in technology. ;ROM cartridge or game cartridge :The Read-only Memory (ROM) cartridge was introduced with the Fairchild Channel F. A ROM cartridge consist of a printed circuit board (PCB) housed inside of a plastic casing, with a connector allowing the device to interface with the console. The circuit board can contain a wide variety of components, at the minimum, the read-only memory with the software written on it.

Solid-state drives are one example of a storage device. Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory (see ROM), flash memory, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disk drives, floppy disks and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards.

Such devices are called programmable read-only memory. At the 2008 NSTI Nanotechnology Conference a paper was presented that discussed a nanoscale crossbar implementation of an adding circuit used as an alternative to logic gates for computation. Matrix arrays are fundamental to modern flat-panel displays. Thin-film-transistor LCDs have a transistor at each crosspoint, so they could be considered to include a crossbar switch as part of their structure.

MAC addresses are primarily assigned by device manufacturers, and are therefore often referred to as the burned-in address, or as an Ethernet hardware address, hardware address, or physical address. Each address can be stored in hardware, such as the card's read-only memory, or by a firmware mechanism. Many network interfaces, however, support changing their MAC address. The address typically includes a manufacturer's organizationally unique identifier (OUI).

SoCs must have semiconductor memory blocks to perform their computation, as do microcontrollers and other embedded systems. Depending on the application, SoC memory may form a memory hierarchy and cache hierarchy. In the mobile computing market, this is common, but in many low-power embedded microcontrollers, this is not necessary. Memory technologies for SoCs include read-only memory (ROM), random-access memory (RAM), Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) and flash memory.

The Nova 1200 executed core memory access instructions (LDA and STA) in 2.55 microseconds (μs). Use of read-only memory saved 0.4 μs. Accumulator instructions (ADD, SUB, COM, NEG, etc.) took 1.55 μs, MUL 2.55 μs, DIV 3.75 μs, ISZ 3.15-4.5 μs.Technical Manual Nova 1200, Data General 015-000002, 1971, p.1-4 On the later Eclipse MV/6000, LDA and STA took 0.44 μs, ADD, etc.

Early microcontrollers relied on erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) devices to hold the application program. The object code from a host system would be "burned" onto an EPROM with an EPROM programmer. This EPROM was then physically plugged into the board. As the EPROM would be removed and replaced many times during program development, it was common to provide a ZIF socket to avoid wear or damage.

Examples, in C, include: int val = 3; char string[] = "Hello World"; The values for these variables are initially stored within the read-only memory (typically within .text) and are copied into the .data segment during the start-up routine of the program. Note that in the above example, if these variables had been declared from within a function, they would default to being stored in the local stack frame.

Access to shared memory (32 KB random-access memory (RAM); 32 KB read-only memory (ROM)) is controlled via round-robin scheduling by an internal computer bus controller termed the hub. Each cog also has access to two dedicated hardware counters and a special video generator for use in generating timing signals for Phase Alternating Line (PAL), National Television System Committee (NTSC), Video Graphics Array (VGA), servomechanism-control, and others.

Dense machine code was very valuable in the 1960s, when main memory was very costly and limited, even on mainframe computers. It became important again on the initially-tiny memories of minicomputers, and then microprocessors. Density remains important today, for applications for smartphone, or downloaded into browsers over slow Internet connections, and in read-only memory (ROM) for embedded applications. A more general advantage of increased density is improved effectiveness of caches and instruction prefetch.

They codenamed the project SIBO, for "single-board organiser" or "sixteen-bit organiser". To develop the SIBO hardware and software, they needed samples of the 16-bit microprocessors they would be programming; but it took more than a year to secure the chips, which caused a significant delay. By 1987, development of EPOC was underway: It was a single- user, preemptive multitasking operating system designed to run in read-only memory (ROM).

The publisher presented Sega with a mock-up of the book and its potential design and content. Sega liked the focus on the 16-bit console, approved the project, and offered access to their developers and archives in Japan. Wall described himself as "a die-hard Mega Drive fan" and was thrilled to see Sega's archival findings. Read-Only Memory ran a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign in November 2013 to fund the book's publication.

The speed of the МИР-2 machine is about 12,000 op / s. The capacity of the random access memory (12-μs circulation cycle) is 8,000 13-bit symbols. The read-only memory has a capacity of about 1.6 million bits with a cycle of 4 μs, which is enough to store several tens of thousands of micro-commands. There is a buffer memory for output information with a volume of 4000 10-bit words.

Electrically addressed semiconductor non-volatile memories can be categorized according to their write mechanism. Mask ROMs are factory programmable only, and typically used for large-volume products which are not required to be updated after manufacture. Programmable read-only memory can be altered after manufacture, but require a special programmer and usually cannot be programmed while in the target system. The programming is permanent and further changes require replacement of the device.

An electrically erasable programmable read-only memory EEPROM uses voltage to erase memory. These erasable memory devices require a significant amount of time to erase data and to write new data; they are not usually configured to be programmed by the processor of the target system. Data is stored by use of floating-gate transistors which require special operating voltages to trap or release electric charge on an insulated control gate to store information.

In a Harvard architecture, there is no need to make the two memories share characteristics. In particular, the word width, timing, implementation technology, and memory address structure can differ. In some systems, instructions for pre-programmed tasks can be stored in read-only memory while data memory generally requires read-write memory. In some systems, there is much more instruction memory than data memory so instruction addresses are wider than data addresses.

A computer program memory can be largely categorized into two sections: read- only and read/write. This distinction grew from early systems holding their main program in read-only memory such as Mask ROM, PROM or EEPROM. As systems became more complex and programs were loaded from other media into RAM instead of executing from ROM, the idea that some portions of the program's memory should not be modified was retained. These became the .

The variety of output formats allows retargeting programs to virtually any x86 operating system (OS). Also, NASM can create flat binary files, usable to write boot loaders, read-only memory (ROM) images, and in various facets of OS development. NASM can run on non-x86 platforms as a cross assembler, such as PowerPC and SPARC, though it cannot generate programs usable by those machines. NASM uses a variant of Intel assembly syntax instead of AT&T; syntax.

Her name is based on Read-only memory (ROM) and her portable video game counterpart is the Nintendo DS which has twin screens. She is wary of strangers, soft spoken and quiet compared to her twin sister. Prior to her adventures in Mk2, she had never stepped outside of Lowee. When transformed into a White Sister, she wears a pink and white uniform, has pink eyes, and has blue hair that is longer on her right side.

Much of the functionality of Zapple would find its way into applications like 'Debug' in MS-DOS. Zapple commands would allow a user to examine and modify memory, I/O, execute software (Goto or Call) and had a variety of other commands. The program required little in the way of then expensive Read Only Memory or RAM. An experienced user could use Zapple to test and debug code, verify hardware function, test memory, and so on.

Semiconductor packages may include special features. Light-emitting or light-sensing devices must have a transparent window in the package; other devices such as transistors may be disturbed by stray light and require an opaque package. An ultraviolet erasable programmable read-only memory device needs a quartz window to allow ultraviolet light to enter and erase the memory. Pressure-sensing integrated circuits require a port on the package that can be connected to a gas or liquid pressure source.

In 2015, he was the first to do so on a home video game console. He injected code to play a Flappy Bird-like game within Super Mario World on a stock Super Nintendo Entertainment System. He was the first to perform this kind of arbitrary code execution by hand. In 2017, Cooper Harasyn and SethBling created a jailbreak by hand using exploits to save a hex editor onto a read-only memory cartridge, allowing for creation of mods.

Datacube was founded in the mid-1970s by Stanley Karandanis and J Stewart Dunn. In the early days, Datacube manufactured board level products for the Multibus, which was one of the first computer buses developed for microprocessors. Early boards designed by Dunn were PROM, RAM and character generator boards. Of these, character display boards such as the VT103 and VR107 were the best sellers, and were used in programmable read-only memory (PROM) programmers and similar systems.

The ROM in CD-ROM stands for Read Only Memory. In the late 1990s CD-R and later, rewritable CD-RW drives were included instead of standard CD ROM drives. This gave the personal computer user the capability to copy and "burn" standard Audio CDs which were playable in any CD player. As computer hardware grew more powerful and the MP3 format became pervasive, "ripping" CDs into small, compressed files on a computer's hard drive became popular.

Both SAFERTOS and FreeRTOS share the same scheduling algorithm, have similar APIs, and are otherwise very similar, but they were developed with differing objectives.Relationship between FreeRTOS and SAFERTOS SAFERTOS was developed solely in the C language to meet requirements for certification to IEC61508. SAFERTOS can reside solely in the on-chip read only memory of a microcontroller for standards compliance. When implemented in hardware memory, SAFERTOS code can only be utilized in its original, already- certified, configuration.

The programmable logic plane is a programmable read-only memory (PROM) array that allows the signals present on the device pins, or the logical complements of those signals, to be routed to output logic macrocells. PAL devices have arrays of transistor cells arranged in a "fixed-OR, programmable-AND" plane used to implement "sum-of-products" binary logic equations for each of the outputs in terms of the inputs and either synchronous or asynchronous feedback from the outputs.

An EPROM or erasable programmable read only memory, is a type of memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off. Development of the EPROM memory cell started with investigation of faulty integrated circuits where the gate connections of transistors had broken. Stored charge on these isolated gates changed their properties. The EPROM was invented by the Amsterdam-born Israeli electrical engineer Dov Frohman in 1971, who was awarded US patent 3660819 in 1972.

By 1974, charge trap technology was used as a storage mechanism in electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), and was an alternative to the standard floating-gate MOSFET technology. In 1977, P.C.Y. Chen of Fairchild Camera and Instrument published a paper detailing the invention of SONOS, a MOSFET technology with far less demanding program and erase conditions and longer charge storage. This improvement led to manufacturable EEPROM devices based on charge-trapping SONOS in the 1980s.

An Intel 2708 EPROM "chip" on a circuit board. The boot process for minicomputers and microcomputersThe IBM 1401, IBM 7090, IBM System/360 and many others did not require keying in a boot loader. The S/360 had a read only storage in most models,although not using integrated. was revolutionized by the introduction of integrated circuit read-only memory (ROM), with its many variants, including mask-programmed ROMs, programmable ROMs (PROM), erasable programmable ROMs (EPROM), and flash memory.

The desired outputs for each combination of inputs could be programmed into a read-only memory, with the inputs being loaded onto the address bus and the outputs being read out as data. However, that would require a separate memory location for every possible combination of inputs, including combinations that are never supposed to occur, and also duplicating data for "don't care" conditions (for example, logic like "if input A is 1, then, as far as output X is concerned, we don't care what input B is": in a ROM this would have to be written out twice, once for each possible value of B, and as more "don't care" inputs are added, the duplication grows exponentially); therefore, a programmable logic array can often implement a piece of logic using fewer transistors than the equivalent in read-only memory. This is particularly valuable when it is part of a processing chip where transistors are scarce (for example, the original 6502 chip contained a PLA to direct various operations of the processorHow MOS 6502 Illegal Opcodes really work).

In 1986, a SCSI-equipped LaserDisc player attached to a BBC Master computer was used for the BBC Domesday Project. The player was referred as an LV-ROM (LaserVision Read Only Memory) as the discs contained the driving software as well as the video frames. The discs used the CAV format, and encoded data as a binary signal represented by the analog audio recording. These discs could contain in each CAV frame video/audio or video/binary data, but not both.

The Mattel Intellivision game console offered the Intellivoice Voice Synthesis module in 1982. It included the SP0256 Narrator speech synthesizer chip on a removable cartridge. The Narrator had 2kB of Read-Only Memory (ROM), and this was utilized to store a database of generic words that could be combined to make phrases in Intellivision games. Since the Orator chip could also accept speech data from external memory, any additional words or phrases needed could be stored inside the cartridge itself.

A ROM dumping device for the Game Boy Advance ROMs can be copied from the read-only memory chips found in cartridge-based games and many arcade machines using a dedicated device in a process known as dumping. For most common home video game systems, these devices are widely available, examples being the Doctor V64, or the Retrode. Dumping ROMs from arcade machines, which are highly customized PCBs, often requires individual setups for each machine along with a large amount of expertise.

A diode matrix is a two-dimensional grid of wires: each "intersection" wherein one row crosses over another has either a diode connecting them, or the wires are isolated from each other. It is one of the most popular techniques for implementing a read-only memory. A diode matrix is used as the control store or microprogram in many early computers. A logically equivalent transistor matrix is still used as the control store or microprogram or 'decode ROM' in many modern microprocessors.

1288–1295 They proposed the concept of floating-gate memory cells, using FGMOS transistors, which could be used to produce reprogrammable ROM (read-only memory). Floating-gate memory cells later became the basis for non-volatile memory (NVM) technologies including EPROM (erasable programmable ROM), EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM) and flash memory. Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in 1980. Masuoka and his colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984, and then NAND flash in 1987.

The Yamaha DX21 is a digital bi-timbral programmable algorithm synthesizer with a four operator synth voice generator which was released in 1985. It uses sine wave-based Frequency Modulation (FM) synthesis. It has two FM tone generators and a 32-voice Random Access Memory (RAM), 32 user voices and 128 Read Only Memory (ROM) factory preset sounds. As a programmable synth, it enables users to create their own unique synthesized tones and sound effects by using the algorithms and oscillators.

Instead, the A1000 includes a daughterboard with 256 KB of RAM, dubbed the "writable control store" (WCS), into which the core of the operating system is loaded from floppy disk (this portion of the operating system is known as the "Kickstart"). The WCS is write-protected after loading, and system resets do not require a reload of the WCS. In Europe, the WCS was often referred to as WOM (Write Once Memory), a play on the more conventional term "ROM" (read-only memory).

Toshiba commercially launched NAND flash memory in 1987. Intel Corporation introduced the first commercial NOR type flash chip in 1988. NOR- based flash has long erase and write times, but provides full address and data buses, allowing random access to any memory location. This makes it a suitable replacement for older read-only memory (ROM) chips, which are used to store program code that rarely needs to be updated, such as a computer's BIOS or the firmware of set-top boxes.

The SIM card is a type of smart card, the basis for which is the silicon integrated circuit (IC) chip. The idea of incorporating a silicon IC chip onto a plastic card originates from the late 1960s. Smart cards have since used MOS integrated circuit chips, along with MOS memory technologies such as flash memory and EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory). The SIM was initially specified by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute in the specification with the number TS 11.11.

"Rom" was a toy co- created by Scott Dankman, Richard C. Levy, and Bryan L. McCoy (US Patent #4,267,551). It was sold to Parker Brothers, and was the inspiration for the comic book series Rom: Spaceknight. The toy was originally named COBOL, after the programming language, but was later changed to Rom, after ROM (read-only memory), by Parker Brothers executives. The toy set a precedent for the game publishing company, which up until that time had only ever produced board games.

The ROM-based application 'pac' modules added up to 4 kilobytes of read- only memory (some up to 8 kilobytes, but these were simply two independent 4K modules in the same box). Most modules held dozens of programs written in the HP-41C programming language, FOCAL. Programs in the ROM modules could be called from a user program, using the ubiquitous XEQ function. In the program code, XEQ appeared as "`XROM`" when it was used to call a ROM program.

Non-volatile memory (NVM) or non-volatile storage is a type of computer memory that can retrieve stored information even after having been power cycled. In contrast, volatile memory needs constant power in order to retain data. Examples of non-volatile memory include flash memory, read-only memory (ROM), ferroelectric RAM, most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disk drives, floppy disks, and magnetic tape), optical discs, and early computer storage methods such as paper tape and punched cards.

The pictures made by Maillardet's automaton are among other artifacts in the collections of the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California. The museum has a collection of machines from the pre-computer era. Particularly for Maillardet's, the museum highlights the use of its cams in similar function to computer read-only memory (ROM) to store pre-defined data for retrieval at a later time. In the case of Maillardet's automaton, it stores motion data necessary to write a poem on paper.

Programmable calculators are calculators that can automatically carry out a sequence of operations under control of a stored program, much like a computer. The first programmable calculators such as the IBM CPC used punched cards or other media for program storage. Hand-held electronic calculators store programs on magnetic strips, removable read-only memory cartridges, flash memory, or in battery-backed read/write memory. Since the early 1990s, most of these flexible handheld units belong to the class of graphing calculators.

The maximum random access memory (RAM) installed in any computer system is limited by hardware, software and economic factors. The hardware may have a limited number of address bus bits, limited by the processor package or design of the system. Some of the address space may be shared between RAM, peripherals, and read-only memory. In the case of a microcontroller with no external RAM, the size of the RAM array is limited by the size of the integrated circuit die.

LBIST that requires additional circuitry (or read-only memory) increases the cost of the integrated circuit. LBIST that only requires temporary changes to programmable logic or rewritable memory avoids this extra cost, but requires more time to first program in the BIST and then to remove it and program in the final configuration. Another disadvantage of LBIST is the possibility that the on-chip testing hardware itself can fail; external automated test equipment tests the integrated circuit with known-good test circuitry.

It employed a faster, more open architecture that took advantage of the economies of scale enjoyed by Intel and other PC component vendors. The slot machine platform is based on the Linux operating system, initially ran on an Intel Pentium III processor and was the first to use flash memory rather than erasable programmable read only memory. By 2001, WMS introduced its very successful Monopoly-themed series of "participation" slots, which the company licenses or leases to casinos, instead of selling the games to the casinos.

They may be less susceptible to alpha particles which can cause circuits to malfunction. Also circuits built via the antifuse's permanent conductive paths may be faster than similar circuits implemented in PLDs using SRAM technology. QuickLogic Corporation refers to their antifuses as "ViaLinks" because blown fuses create a connection between two crossing layers of wiring on the chip in the same way that a via on a printed circuit board creates a connection between copper layers. Antifuses may be used in programmable read-only memory (PROM).

While he did not pursue it, this idea would later become the basis for EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory) technology. In 1964, Wanlass moved to General Microelectronics (GMe), where he made the first commercial MOS integrated circuits, and a year later to General Instrument Microelectronics Division in New York, where he developed four-phase logic. He was also remembered for his contribution to solving threshold voltage stability in MOS transistors due to sodium ion drift. In 1991, Wanlass was awarded the IEEE Solid-State Circuits Award.

CD-ROMs/DVD-ROMs (read-only-memory) are commercial grade discs and use a metallic data layer created using a molding machine that stamps pits (depressions) and lands (flat surfaces) into a polycarbonate substrate base. The metal layer is then applied to the base, creating the data layer. While aluminium is most frequently used, it can potentially oxidize and lose data, a process sometimes called "disk rot". For archival discs, silver or gold layers are preferred because of longer life expectancies and better reflectivity.

A Star Raiders read-only memory (ROM) cartridge for an Atari computer. A ROM cartridge, usually referred to simply as a cartridge or cart, is a removable memory card containing ROM designed to be connected to a consumer electronics device such as a home computer, video game console or, to a lesser extent, electronic musical instruments. ROM cartridges can be used to load software such as video games or other application programs. The cartridge slot could also be used for hardware additions, for example speech synthesis.

It incorporated numerous technologies and techniques such as "multiprogramming, job scheduling, spooling, interrupts, pipelining, interleaved storage, autonomous transfer units, virtual storage and paging – though none of these techniques had been invented when the project started in 1956." Other innovations included read only memory and a compiler-compiler. The greatest innovation was virtual memory, which allowed the drum storage to be treated as if it were core. Three of them were built, and installed at Manchester University, the University of London and the Rutherford Laboratory.

Core rope memory test sample from the Apollo program. Core rope memory is a form of read-only memory (ROM) for computers, first used in the 1960s by early NASA Mars space probes and then in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) designed and programmed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Instrumentation Lab and built by Raytheon. Software written by MIT programmers was woven into core rope memory by female workers in factories. Some programmers nicknamed the finished product LOL memory, for Little Old Lady memory.

For example, the code segment of an object file is loaded into a corresponding code segment in memory. The code segment in memory is typically read-only and has a fixed size, so on embedded systems it can usually be placed in read-only memory (ROM), without the need for loading. If the code segment is not read-only, then the particular architecture allows self-modifying code. Fixed-position or position independent code may be shared in memory by several processes in segmented or paged memory systems.

The initial MyKad was a contact card solution developed and manufactured by IRIS Corporation. Made of PC with the dimensions in the ISO/IEC 7816 ID-1 format (standard credit card format), the initial card had a 32kb EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable Read- Only Memory) embedded chip running on M-COS (MyKad Chip Operating System). In November 2002, the capacity was increased to 64kb. The upgraded and current version of the MyKad is a hybrid card containing two chips for both contact and contactless interfaces.

The earliest smart cards were introduced as calling cards in the 1970s, before later being adapted for use as payment cards. Smart cards have since used MOS integrated circuit chips, along with MOS memory technologies such as flash memory and EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory). The first standard for smart payment cards was the Carte Bancaire M4 from Bull-CP8 deployed in France in 1986, followed by the B4B0' (compatible with the M4) deployed in 1989. Geldkarte in Germany also predates EMV.

The FPGA industry sprouted from programmable read-only memory (PROM) and programmable logic devices (PLDs). PROMs and PLDs both had the option of being programmed in batches in a factory or in the field (field-programmable). However, programmable logic was hard-wired between logic gates. Altera was founded in 1983 and delivered the industry's first reprogrammable logic device in 1984 – the EP300 – which featured a quartz window in the package that allowed users to shine an ultra- violet lamp on the die to erase the EPROM cells that held the device configuration.

A 4 Kbyte Read- Only Memory (ROM) in the normal address space provided a system bootstrap capable of downloading the operating software over the normal synchronous communications line, loading or dumping from/to local floppy disc or providing a local engineer's console. For diagnostic purposes an Engineer's Test Unit could be installed between the CPU card and the backplane. This gave the engineer full capability of reading and writing registers or memory and single-stepping machine code or CPU microcode. A digital cassette tape device could be used to load test or operating software.

The latest revision is entirely solid-state, consisting of a single large FPGA chip as the board's glue logic, an SPROM (Serial Programmable Read- Only Memory) chip, containing the FPGA's operating code, a few SRAM chips for buffering and a solid-state or 'Flash' drive. The MSM remains an optional, field-installable module for the 3900 and Unisite. Unisite programmers require 8MB of user RAM and controller board revision 701-2313-00 or higher to utilize this option. In addition, the MSM requires operating software revisions of 6.6 or above.

The basis for the smart card is the silicon integrated circuit (IC) chip. It was invented by Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, and was made possible by Mohamed M. Atalla's silicon surface passivation process (1957) and Jean Hoerni's planar process (1959). The invention of the silicon integrated circuit led to the idea of incorporating it onto a plastic card in the late 1960s. Smart cards have since used MOS integrated circuit chips, along with MOS memory technologies such as flash memory and EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory).

When first switched on, the Model 100 displays a menu of applications and files and the date and time. The ROM firmware-based system boots instantly, and the program that was running when the unit was powered off is ready to use immediately on power-up. Cursor keys are used to navigate the menu and select one of the internal or added application programs, or any data file to be worked upon. The 32 kilobyte read-only memory of the Model 100 contains the N82 version of the Microsoft BASIC 80 programming language.

The last member of the family, the System 9003 industrial computer, was introduced in 1985. All members of the System 9000 family did not find much commercial success and the entire family was discontinued on 2 December 1986. The System 9000 was based around the Motorola 68000 microprocessor and the Motorola VERSAbus system bus. All members had the IBM CSOS real-time operating system (OS) stored on read-only memory; and the System 9002 could also run the multi-user Microsoft Xenix OS, which was suitable for business use and supported up to four users.

The final decision of the PTO appellate board was that while the claim could be interpreted to describe machinery such as a combination of elements such as an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), read-only memory (ROM), and shift registers, it could also be interpreted to describe a programmed general purpose digital computer. The board considered the claim thus to be the equivalent of a claim to computer instructions for carrying out a mathematical algorithm and therefore not patentable subject matter under 35 U.S.C. § 101.Ex parte Alappat, 23 U.S.P.Q.2d (B.N.A.) 1340 (B.

The Enterprise has a 4 megahertz (MHz) Z80 Central processing unit (CPU), 64 KB (65,536 bytes) or 128 KB of RAM, and 32 KB (32,768 bytes) of internal read-only memory (ROM) that contains the EXOS operating system and a screen editor / word processor. The BASIC programming language was supplied on a 16 KB ROM module. Two application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chips take some of the workload off of the central processor. They are named "Nick" and "Dave" after their designers, Nick Toop, who had previously worked on the Acorn Atom, and Dave Woodfield.

It was the starting point for all Video DACs and RAMDACs by Brooktree and others. Datacube was to ride several technological waves including fast ADCs, disk drives, DRAM, DSP devices and custom ASICs. Programmable logic was the key to Datacube's functional density: from the early days of bipolar programmable array logic (PAL) and programmable read-only memory (PROM) to generic array logic (GAL), to every generation of FPGAs from Xilinx and then Actel and Quick Logic, and Altera CPLDs. Many semiconductor manufacturers acknowledged that Datacube could help bring their new products to market.

Following the invention of the MOSFET (metal- oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs, presented in 1960, Frank Wanlass studied MOSFET structures in the early 1960s. In 1963, he noted the movement of charge through oxide onto a gate. While he did not pursue it, this idea would later become the basis for EPROM technology. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze at Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOSFET could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM (read-only memory).

Since the whole memory array is exposed, all the memory is erased at the same time. The process takes several minutes for UV lamps of convenient sizes; sunlight would erase a chip in weeks, and indoor fluorescent lighting over several years.. Generally, the EPROMs must be removed from equipment to be erased, since it is not usually practical to build in a UV lamp to erase parts in-circuit. The Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) was developed to provide an electrical erase function and has now mostly displaced ultraviolet-erased parts.

Project64 is a free and open-source software Nintendo 64 emulator written in the programming language C for Microsoft Windows. This software uses a plug-in system allowing third-party groups to use their own plug-ins to implement specific components. Project64 can play Nintendo 64 games on a computer reading ROM images, either dumped from the read-only memory of a Nintendo 64 ROM cartridge or created directly on the computer as homebrew. Project64 is considered one of the top performing emulators used today and the most popular Nintendo 64 emulator.

In 1972, WOM, an antithesis of read- only memory (ROM), was introduced as an inside practical joke perpetrated by Signetics. However, it was soon recognized that this concept actually describes certain functionalities in microprocessor systems. The most frequent occurrences of write-only memories are where the memory locations are registers or an integrated circuit being used to control, or pass information to, hardware outside the processor. A central processing unit (CPU) can write to these locations, and thus control the hardware, but cannot read back the information and discover the current state of the hardware.

Versions 0 to 2 of the MOS were 16 KiB in size, written in 6502 machine code, and held in read-only memory (ROM) on the motherboard. The upper quarter of the 16-bit address space (0xC000 to 0xFFFF) is reserved for its ROM code and I/O space. Versions 3 to 5 were still restricted to a 16 KiB address space, but managed to hold more code and hence more complex routines, partly because of the alternative 65C102 central processing unit (CPU) with its denser instruction set plus the careful use of paging.

One book credits TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran with the successful creation of the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS 1000, which became commercially available in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems. During the early- to-mid-1970s, Japanese electronics manufacturers began producing microcontrollers for automobiles, including 4-bit MCUs for in-car entertainment, automatic wipers, electronic locks, and dashboard, and 8-bit MCUs for engine control.

Home game consoles may present the player with the opportunity for storing game positions and original user- generated content such as custom game levels. Based on the read-only memory cartridge medium, the premium cost of easy-to-use solid-state data storage technology, such as battery-backed memory, drove the 1980s market to seek cheaper compromises. Utilizing standard compact cassette tapes, Nintendo began with the Famicom Data Recorder. A compatible game runs on cartridge and optionally allows the creation of user-generated content to be saved onto cassette tapes using this tape drive.

The phase-amplitude converter creates the sample-domain waveform from the truncated phase output word received from the PA. The PAC can be a simple read only memory containing 2M contiguous samples of the desired output waveform which typically is a sinusoid. Often though, various tricks are employed to reduce the amount of memory required. This include various trigonometric expansions, trigonometric approximations and methods which take advantage of the quadrature symmetry exhibited by sinusoids. Alternatively, the PAC may consist of random access memory which can be filled as desired to create an arbitrary waveform generator.

The original program code, graphics and sound data need to be present so that the game can be emulated. In most arcade machines, the data is stored in read-only memory chips (ROMs), although other devices such as cassette tapes, floppy disks, hard disks, laserdiscs, and compact discs are also used. The contents of most of these devices can be copied to computer files, in a process called "dumping". The resulting files are often generically called ROM images or ROMs regardless of the kind of storage they came from.

Finally, dialogue text files had to be shortened due to the limited data storage space available on the game cartridge's read-only memory. As a result, additional changes were rendered to dialogue in order to compress it into the available space. The PlayStation re-release featured only minor changes to the English localization. The title of the game was reverted to Final Fantasy VI from Final Fantasy III, to unify the numbering scheme of the series in North America and Japan with the earlier release of Final Fantasy VII.

A polyfuse is a one-time-programmable memory component used in semiconductor circuits for storing unique data like chip identification numbers or memory repair data, but more usually small to medium volume production of read only memory devices or microcontroller chips. They were also used as to permit programming of Programmable Array Logic. The use of fuses allowed the device to be programmed electrically some time after it was manufactured and sealed into its packaging. Earlier fuses had to be blown using a laser at the time memory was manufactured.

Half Machine Lip Moves remains their best-known work. It was listed at No. 62 in The Wire list of "100 Records That Set the World on Fire (While No One Was Listening)", and was cited as the "beginning of industrial rock". Half Machine Lip Moves and their 1979 EP Read Only Memory cemented the band's growing reputation in the UK and led to the band being signed to Beggars Banquet Records for their fourth album, Red Exposure. By this time Chrome consisted solely of Edge and Creed.

The Dismac D8000 was the first personal computer manufactured in Brazil, and in 1980 it was the first Brazilian clone of TRS-80 Model I computer. It used a 2 MHz Zilog Z80A microprocessor, with 16Kb of random access memory and 16Kb of read-only memory. The video output was through a PAL-M television with 16×32/64 within text mode and 48×128 points within the graphic mode. The keyboard contained 51 keys and was stored in the same case as the cassette recorder and the processor unit.

The standard does not take into account important > embedded systems issues such as read only memory and embedded assembly > language. For this reason, practical compilers intended for embedded systems > do not completely comply with the standard, but use it as a guide. As an example of an addition, Dynamic C has a chaining mechanism to chain fragments of code from different subroutines to an arbitrary number of chains. This extension permits the use of not only initialized variables, but any arbitrary code to execute before a program starts execution in the main function.

The Pioneer BDR-101A was the world's first PC compatible Blu-ray Disc recorder. It utilized an ATAPI connection and complied with the then latest specifications for BD-R (Blu-ray Disc recordable), BD-RE (Blu-ray Disc rewritable) and BD-ROM (Blu-ray Disc read-only memory). The drive began shipping on May 17, 2006. It supports a data transfer rate of 72 Mbit/s (2x) for both reading and writing making it possible to record over two hours of a high-definition (HD) video (at 24Mbit/s transfer rate) on a single disc.

Internally, the machine was designed by Jim Westwood around a Z80 central processing unit with a clock speed of 3.25 MHz, and was equipped with 1 KB of static RAM and 4 KB of read- only memory (ROM). It had no sound output. The ZX80 was designed around readily available TTL chips; the only proprietary technology was the firmware. The successor ZX81 used a semi-custom chip (a ULA or Uncommitted Logic Array) which combined the functions of much of the earlier hardware onto a single chip reducing the chip-count from 21 to 4.

The Outbound laptop was introduced in 1989 and was significantly lighter, at just over 4 kg, and easier to carry than Apple's own Macintosh Portable released at around the same time. Due to Apple's refusal to license the Macintosh Toolbox in read-only memory (ROM), Outbound users had to install a Mac ROM to make the computer work. The ROM was typically removed from an older Mac, a process that would render the donor Mac unusable. Even with this additional cost, a typical price of $4,000 USD compared favorably to that of the Mac Portable.

The CPU additionally contained instructions, operator communication, bootstrap loaders, and hardware test programs, that were implemented in a 1K read-only memory. The microprocessor also allowed for customer specified instructions to be built in. Nord-10 had a memory management system with hardware paging extending the memory size from 64 to 256K 16-bit words and two independent protecting systems, one acting on each page and one on the mode of instructions. The interrupt system had 16 program levels in hardware, each with its own set of general-purpose registers.

The ROM/RAM chip (DC327) implemented one-fifth of the patchable control store. It contained a 16,384 by 8-bit (16 KB) read-only memory (ROM), a 1,024 by 8-bit (1 KB) random-access memory RAM and a 32 by 14-bit content-addressable memory (CAM). The ROM contained the control store, with the RAM used to hold control store patches. The ROM/RAM consisted of 208,000 transistors on a die measuring 344 mils by 285 mils (8.74 mm by 7.24 mm) for an area of 98,040 mil2 (63.25 mm2).

An HP64000 system photographed in 1987. The HP 64000 Logic Development System, introduced 17 September 1979, is a tool for developing hardware and software for products based on commercial microprocessors from a variety of manufacturers. The systems assisted software development with assemblers and compilers for Pascal and C, provided hardware for in-circuit emulation of processors and memory, had debugging tools including logic analysis hardware, and a programmable read-only memory (PROM) chip programmer. A wide variety of optional cards and software were available tailored to particular microprocessors.

Erasure sometimes happened accidentally when a program bug caused a loop that overwrote all of memory. Other minicomputers with such simple form of booting include Hewlett-Packard's HP 2100 series (mid-1960s), the original Data General Nova (1969), and DEC's PDP-11 (1970). DEC later added an optional diode matrix read-only memory for the PDP-11 that stored a bootstrap program of up to 32 words (64 bytes). It consisted of a printed circuit card, the M792, that plugged into the Unibus and held a 32 by 16 array of semiconductor diodes.

The character set now included a complete 128-character ASCII set, including upper and lower case as well as various control characters. The character set was stored in read only memory (ROM), and optional ROMs for Katakana and the APL symbols were also available. The 63-key keyboard followed the ANSI X4.14-1971 typewriter layout, and included a further 19 keys for numeric input and various controls. The tractor feed was much larger, with a fixed section on the left and a movable one on the right, allowing it to feed paper from wide and print up to 132 columns.

The smartphone is shipped with the Android 2.1 "Eclair" operating system. It features a 3.7-inch AMOLED capacitive touchscreen with WVGA resolution, 5-megapixel camera capable with automatic geotagging supported by the integrated Assisted GPS antenna and digital compass. The device is upgradable and powered by a Qualm Snapdragon 1 gigahertz processor and 512 megabytes random access memory. It also has 512 megabytes of read-only memory alongside its 2 gigabytes internal memory backed up with a microSD card slot capable of offering up to 32 gigabytes of expandable storage memory with 8 gigabytes included respectively.

Sony CD Walkman D-E330 The CD was primarily planned as the successor to the vinyl record for playing music, rather than as a data storage medium. However, CDs have grown to encompass other applications. In 1983, following the CD's introduction, Immink and Joseph Braat presented the first experiments with erasable compact discs during the 73rd AES Convention. It took, however, almost 10 years before their technology was commercialized in Sony's MiniDisc. In June 1985, the computer- readable CD-ROM (read-only memory) and, in 1990, CD-Recordable were introduced, also developed by both Sony and Philips.

In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze of Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable read-only memory (ROM), which led to Dov Frohman of Intel inventing EPROM (erasable PROM) in 1971. EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) was developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972. Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984, and then NAND flash in 1987.

Program memory (PMEM, though less common in usage than IRAM and XRAM) is up to 64 KB of read-only memory, starting at address 0 in a separate address space. It may be on- or off-chip, depending on the particular model of chip being used. Program memory is read-only, though some variants of the 8051 use on-chip flash memory and provide a method of re-programming the memory in-system or in-application. In addition to code, it is possible to store read-only data such as lookup tables in program memory, retrieved by the or instructions.

By the early 1980s, the chaos and incompatibility that was rife in the early microcomputer market had given way to a smaller number of de facto industry standards, including the S-100 bus, CP/M, the Apple II, Microsoft BASIC in read-only memory (ROM), and the inch floppy drive. No single firm controlled the industry, and fierce competition ensured that innovation in both hardware and software was the rule rather than the exception. Microsoft Windows and Intel processors gained ascendance and their ongoing alliance gave them market dominance."Microsoft Alliance With Intel Shows Age", Wall Street Journal, Jan 4, 2011.

A huge advance in NVRAM technology was the introduction of the floating-gate MOSFET transistor, which led to the introduction of erasable programmable read-only memory, or EPROM. EPROM consists of a grid of transistors whose gate terminal (the "switch") is protected by a high-quality insulator. By "pushing" electrons onto the base with the application of higher-than-normal voltage, the electrons become trapped on the far side of the insulator, thereby permanently switching the transistor "on" ("1"). EPROM can be re-set to the "base state" (all "1"s or "0"s, depending on the design) by applying ultraviolet light (UV).

Each DR-220 has 11 pulse-code modulation (PCM) synthesizer "voices" available, plus an Accent; each voice is directly available for realtime play using the four-by-three grid of miniature pads (though these do not sense either velocity or pressure). The voices are in 12-bit resolution, each occupying a 128 KB Read-only memory (ROM) bank. Because of "channel sharing" restrictions due to circuitry limitations, some voices cannot be sounded simultaneously; for instance, only one tom may be used per beat. With the DR-220, up to 16 steps are displayed (or 12 in 3/4 tempo mode).

L.R. 581 The verdict was appealed to the Full Court of the Federal Court of Australia, where it was held unanimously that the two Apple programs were original literary works. The majority also held that the Apple read only memory (ROM) chips in the Wombat computer were sufficiently derived from these literary works to constitute an infringement of copyright. Special leave to appeal was granted, and in the High Court of Australia it was held that machine-readable works were not literary works under the 1968 Copyright Act. Consequences of the successful High Court appeal were limited in scope.

BootX is a software-based bootloader designed and developed by Apple Inc. for use on the company's Macintosh computer range. BootX is used to prepare the computer for use, by loading all required device drivers and then starting-up Mac OS X by booting the kernel on all PowerPC Macintoshes running the Mac OS X 10.2 operating system or later versions. Using BootROM, a read-only memory (ROM) computer chip containing OpenFirmware, a graphical bootsplash is shown briefly on all compatible Macintosh computers as a grey Apple logo with a spinning cursor that appears during the startup sequence.

For example, the Gibson Robot Guitar features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose of the Robot Guitar is, of course, to play music.Embedded.com – Under the Hood: Robot Guitar embeds autotuning By David Carey, TechOnline EE Times (04/22/08, 11:10:00 AM EDT)Embedded Systems Design – Embedded.com Similarly, an embedded system in an automobile provides a specific function as a subsystem of the car itself. e-con Systems eSOM270 & eSOM300 Computer on Modules The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and are stored in read-only memory or flash memory chips.

The original transputer used a very simple and rather unusual architecture to achieve a high performance in a small area. It used microcode as the main method to control the data path, but unlike other designs of the time, many instructions took only one cycle to execute. Instruction opcodes were used as the entry points to the microcode read-only memory (ROM) and the outputs from the ROM were fed directly to the data path. For multi-cycle instructions, while the data path was performing the first cycle, the microcode decoded four possible options for the second cycle.

E-mu Systems came to prominence in the early 1980s with their relatively affordable Emulator sampler, and subsequently pioneered sample-based synthesis technology with the Proteus range. Unlike the true synthesiser, sample-based equipment does not derive its raw sounds from electronic oscillators but from recorded sounds held in read-only memory (ROM) chips. These sounds may then be layered, filtered, modulated by low frequency oscillation and shaped by envelopes. However, unlike a true sampler, such devices do not allow the user to record sounds but instead offer a range of factory sounds suitable for any given use.

1995 Oldsmobile 88 Royal control chip module Chip tuning is changing or modifying an erasable programmable read only memory chip in an automobile's or other vehicle's electronic control unit (ECU) to achieve superior performance, whether it be more power, cleaner emissions, or better fuel efficiency. Engine manufacturers generally use a conservative electronic control unit map to allow for individual engine variations as well as infrequent servicing and poor-quality fuel. Vehicles with a remapped electronic control unit may be more sensitive to fuel quality and service schedules. This was done with early engine computers in the 1980s and 1990s.

In the 1970s through the early 1980s, paper tape was commonly used to transfer binary data for incorporation in either mask-programmable read-only memory (ROM) chips or their erasable counterparts EPROMs. A significant variety of encoding formats were developed for use in computer and ROM/EPROM data transfer. Encoding formats commonly used were primarily driven by those formats that EPROM programming devices supported and included various ASCII hex variants as well as a number of proprietary formats. A much more primitive as well as a much longer high-level encoding scheme was also used, BNPF (Begin-Negative- Positive-Finish).

Patrons who crowdfunded the project on Kickstarter received rewards including signed copies of the book and art prints. Monocle and Kotaku UK praised the book's content and beauty, while Nintendo Life reviewer praised the book's anecdotes and recommended the title for readers interested in the history of British games. In late 2017, Read-Only Memory partnered with Polygon to publish the website's oral history of Final Fantasy 7 with Kickstarter crowdfunding. The book, 500 Years Later: An Oral History of Final Fantasy 7, adds new illustrations, additional standalone interviews, and a foreword by the creator of the Final Fantasy series.

Atalla and Kahng later proposed the concept of the MOS integrated circuit, and they did pioneering work on Schottky diodes and nanolayer-base transistors in the early 1960s. Kahng then invented the floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS) with Simon Sze in 1967. Kahng and Sze proposed that FGMOS could be used as floating-gate memory cells for non-volatile memory (NVM) and reprogrammable read-only memory (ROM), which became the basis for EPROM (erasable programmable ROM), EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM) and flash memory technologies. Kahng was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2009.

IBM 305 RAMAC Manual of Operation Many peripheral devices, e.g. the IBM 711 and 716, for first and second generation IBM computers, including the IBM 700/7000 series and the IBM 650, were based on unit record machines and included plugboards. Plugboards remained in use in specialty-purpose computers for some time, acting as a read only memory (ROM) but able to be manually reprogrammed in the field. One example is the Ferranti Argus computer, used on the Bristol Bloodhound missile, which feature a plugboard programmed by inserting small ferrite rods into slots, in effect creating a read-only core memory by hand.

After MMI succeeded with the 20-pin PAL parts introduced circa 1978, AMD introduced the 24-pin 22V10 PAL with additional features. After buying out MMI (circa 1987), AMD spun off a consolidated operation as Vantis, and that business was acquired by Lattice Semiconductor in 1999. Altera introduced the EP300 (first CMOS PAL) in 1983 and later moved into the FPGA business. Lattice Semiconductor introduced the generic array logic (GAL) family in 1985, with functional equivalents of the "V" series PALs that used reprogrammable logic planes based on EEPROM (electrically eraseable programmable read-only memory) technology.

The operating system and factory sounds are often stored in a Read-only memory (ROM) unit. A MIDI instrument can also be a stand-alone module (without a piano style keyboard) consisting of a General MIDI soundboard (GM, GS and XG), onboard editing, including transposing/pitch changes, MIDI instrument changes and adjusting volume, pan, reverb levels and other MIDI controllers. Typically, the MIDI Module includes a large screen, so the user can view information for the currently selected function. Features can include scrolling lyrics, usually embedded in a MIDI file or karaoke MIDI, playlists, song library and editing screens.

Intel MCS8 Intellec microcomputer with the cover removed Intel MCS8 Intellec microcomputer showing the rear of the chassis Intel did not market the Intellec as a general-purpose microcomputer, but rather as a development system. As the first microprocessors were intended to run embedded systems such as in calculators, computer terminals and digital watches, the Intellec was used for programming programmable memory chips used by embedded systems, e.g. the 2048-bit (256-byte) Intel 1602A programmable read-only memory (PROM) or erasable 1702A EPROM chips which were plugged into a ZIF socket on the Intellec-8's front panel.Freiberger & Swaine (2000).

The MCM/70, manufactured by Micro Computer Machines in Kingston, was encased in a wedge- shaped metal box about half a metre on a side, with a keyboard at the front, a compact audio cassette tape recorder(s) in the middle, and a one-line plasma display at the top. The MCM/70 had a one-line display and alphanumeric keyboard, and optional had a second tape drive. It resembled desktop calculators of the time, such as HP 9830A. An APL interpreter was built into the read-only memory (ROM),"Judge dismisses Canadian IT pioneer’s Intel patent suit".

Types can be qualified to indicate special properties of their data. The type qualifier `const` indicates that a value does not change once it has been initialized. Attempting to modify a `const` qualified value yields undefined behavior, so some C compilers store them in rodata or (for embedded systems) in read-only memory (ROM). The type qualifier `volatile` indicates to an optimizing compiler that it may not remove apparently redundant reads or writes, as the value may change even if it was not modified by any expression or statement, or multiple writes may be necessary, such as for memory-mapped I/O.

Cromemco JS-1 analog joystick console Melen and Garland began work on the Cyclops Camera interface for the Altair, and this spawned several other projects for their young company. There was no convenient way to store software for the Altair, other than on punched paper tape. To remedy this problem Melen and Garland went to work on designing a programmable read-only memory card they called the “Bytesaver.” The Bytesaver also could support a resident program that allowed the computer to function immediately when it was powered up, without having to first manually load a bootstrap program.

The IBM PC reserved the uppermost 128 KiB of the address space from 0xE0000 to 0xFFFFF for the ROM BIOS and Cassette BASIC read-only memory (ROM). For example, the monochrome video adapter memory area ran from 704 to 736 KiB (0xB0000–0xB7FFF). If only a monochrome display adapter was used, the address space between 0xA0000 and 0xAFFFF could be used for RAM, which would be contiguous with the conventional memory. The system BIOS ROMs must be at the upper end of the address space because the CPU starting address is fixed by the design of the processor.

9830s were built with a processor similar in architecture to the HP 1000/2100 series minicomputer with 16-bit memory address, and an AX and BX general processor register. They ran at a speed comparable to the first IBM PCs. They could draw a mesh of a 3D SIN(X)/X function with no hidden lines over the course of several minutes, a technological breakthrough for the time. Because programs were designed to run from ROM (read only memory) the call subroutine instruction had to be changed because in the HP211x the return location was written in the first location of the subroutine.

The first modern memory cells were introduced in 1965, when John Schmidt designed the first 64-bit MOS SRAM (static RAM). In 1967, Robert H. Dennard of IBM filed a patent for a single-transistor DRAM (dynamic RAM) memory cell, using a MOSFET. The earliest practical application of floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS) was floating-gate memory cells, which Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze proposed could be used to produce reprogrammable ROM (read-only memory). Floating-gate memory cells later became the basis for non-volatile memory (NVM) technologies including EPROM (erasable programmable ROM), EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM) and flash memory.

When a computer is turned off, its softwareincluding operating systems, application code, and dataremains stored on non-volatile memory. When the computer is powered on, it typically does not have an operating system or its loader in random-access memory (RAM). The computer first executes a relatively small program stored in read-only memory (ROM) along with a small amount of needed data, to access the nonvolatile device or devices from which the operating system programs and data can be loaded into RAM. The small program that starts this sequence is known as a bootstrap loader, bootstrap or boot loader.

DVB Additive scramblers (they are also referred to as synchronous) transform the input data stream by applying a pseudo-random binary sequence (PRBS) (by modulo-two addition). Sometimes a pre-calculated PRBS stored in the read-only memory is used, but more often it is generated by a linear-feedback shift register (LFSR). In order to assure a synchronous operation of the transmitting and receiving LFSR (that is, scrambler and descrambler), a sync-word must be used. A sync-word is a pattern that is placed in the data stream through equal intervals (that is, in each frame).

Drewry also emphasized that the open-source nature of the operating system would contribute greatly to its security by allowing constant developer feedback. At a December 2010 press conference, Google claimed that Chrome OS would be the most secure consumer operating system due in part to a verified boot ability, in which the initial boot code, stored in read-only memory, checks for system compromises. In the following nine years, Chrome OS has been affected by 55 documented security flaws of any severity, compared with over 1,100 affecting Microsoft Windows 10 in the five years to the end of 2019 and over 2,200 affecting Apple OS X in 20 years.

Taking Kenney ten years to write, The Invention of the Zero features six long poems: A 'Colloquy of Ancient Men,' 'The Invention of the Zero,' 'The Encantadas,' 'Typhoon,' 'Lucifer,' and 'Epilog: Read Only Memory.' All tell one story, however. Though four are set in World War II, all examine the history of the universe and its evolution from the Big Bang to the invention of computers to the development of the atomic bomb. Free verse and with extravagant style, The Invention of the Zero provokes questions about invention and whether or not technology has actually helped humanity or just furthered the disparity between science and different aspects of faith.

By contrast, read-only memory (ROM) stores data by permanently enabling or disabling selected transistors, such that the memory cannot be altered. Writeable variants of ROM (such as EEPROM and flash memory) share properties of both ROM and RAM, enabling data to persist without power and to be updated without requiring special equipment. These persistent forms of semiconductor ROM include USB flash drives, memory cards for cameras and portable devices, and solid-state drives. ECC memory (which can be either SRAM or DRAM) includes special circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults (memory errors) in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes.

Early control stores were implemented as a diode-array accessed via address decoders, a form of read-only memory. This tradition dates back to the program timing matrix on the MIT Whirlwind, first described in 1947. Modern VLSI processors instead use matrices of field-effect transistors to build the ROM and/or PLA structures used to control the processor as well as its internal sequencer in a microcoded implementation. IBM System/360 used a variety of techniques: CCROS (Card Capacitor Read-Only Storage) on the Model 30, TROS (Transformer Read-Only Storage) on the Model 40, and BCROS (Balanced Capacitor Read-Only Storage) on the Model 50.

A HIDS will usually go to great lengths to prevent the object-database, checksum-database and its reports from any form of tampering. After all, if intruders succeed in modifying any of the objects the HIDS monitors, nothing can stop such intruders from modifying the HIDS itself – unless security administrators take appropriate precautions. Many worms and viruses will try to disable anti-virus tools, for example. Apart from crypto- techniques, HIDS might allow administrators to store the databases on a CD-ROM or on other read-only memory devices (another factor in favor of infrequent updates...) or storing them in some off-system memory.

Non-volatile random-access memory (NVRAM) is random-access memory that retains data without applied power. This is in contrast to dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) and static random-access memory (SRAM), which both maintain data only for as long as power is applied, or such forms of memory as magnetic tape, which cannot be randomly accessed but which retains data indefinitely without electric power. Read-only memory devices can be used to store system firmware in embedded systems such as an automotive ignition system control or home appliance. They are also used to hold the initial processor instructions required to bootstrap a computer system.

In some cases, the media serves as the direct read-only memory for the game, or it may be the form of installation media that is used to write the main assets to the player's platform's local storage for faster loading periods and later updates. Games can be extended with new content and software patches through either expansion packs which are typically available as physical media, or as downloadable content nominally available via digital distribution. These can be offered freely or can be used to monetize a game following its initial release. Several games offer players the ability to create user-generated content to share with others to play.

The road database may be stored in solid state read-only memory (ROM), optical media (CD or DVD), solid state flash memory, magnetic media (hard disk), or a combination. A common scheme is to have a base map permanently stored in ROM that can be augmented with detailed information for a region the user is interested in. A ROM is always programmed at the factory; the other media may be preprogrammed, downloaded from a CD or DVD via a computer or wireless connection (bluetooth, Wi-Fi), or directly used utilizing a card reader. Some navigation device makers provide free map updates for their customers.

In 1953, whilst still a post-graduate research student at Manchester University, Grimsdale achieved one of the first major landmarks in his career with his design and development work on the Metrovick 950, the world's first computer made from transistors rather than valves or electromechanical devices. The computer used early point-contact transistors which were the first generation of transistors, however later developments of the machine used more advanced junction transistors which offered better performance. Grimsdale also worked on the Ferranti Mark I computer, a commercial development of the Manchester Mark 1 computer. He also designed the 100-nanosecond read-only memory for the Atlas computer.

BYTE in December 1975 stated "Welcome, IBM, to personal computing". Describing the 5100 as "a 50-lb package of interactive personal computing", the magazine stated that with the company's announcement "personal computing gains an entry from the industry's production and service giant", albeit "at a premium price". A single integrated unit provided the keyboard, five-inch CRT display, tape drive, processor, several hundred KiB of read-only memory containing system software, and up to 64 KiB of RAM. It was the size of a small suitcase, weighed about 55 lb (25 kg), and could be transported in an optional carrying case, hence the "portable" designation.

The Commodore PET is a line of home/personal computers produced starting in 1977 by Commodore International. The system combined a MOS 6502 microprocessor, Commodore BASIC in read only memory (ROM), a keyboard, a computer monitor and (in early models) a cassette deck for data and program storage in a single all-in-one case. Development of the system began in 1976 and a prototype was demonstrated in January 1977 at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES). A series of problems meant that production versions did not begin to arrive until December 1977, by which time the TRS-80 and Apple II had already begun deliveries.

Read-Only Memory is a British publisher of art books on topics of video game history and culture. Following a resurgence of interest in 1980s and '90s British video game development, the company crowdfunded and produced four art books: an oral history of that Britsoft era, two books on British developers Sensible Software and The Bitmap Brothers, and a definitive volume on the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis, for which the publisher became best known. Read-Only Memory's books are archival anthologies, including original design documents juxtaposed with developer interviews and high-quality prints of in-game graphics. Reviewers were particularly impressed with each book's breadth of unreleased concepts.

Basic Charactron tube design Charactron was a U.S. registered trademark (number 0585950, 23 February 1954) of Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation (Convair) for its shaped electron beam cathode ray tube. Charactron CRTs performed functions of both a display device and a read-only memory storing multiple characters and fonts. The similar Typotron was a U.S. registered trademark (23 November 1953) of Hughes Aircraft Corporation for its type of shaped electron beam storage tube with a direct-view bistable storage screen. The Charactron CRT used an electron beam to flood a specially patterned perforated anode that contained the stencil patterns for each of the characters that it could form.

The C64 uses an 8-bit MOS Technology 6510 microprocessor. This is a close derivative of the 6502 with an added 6-bit internal I/O port that in the C64 is used for two purposes: to bank-switch the machine's read-only memory (ROM) in and out of the processor's address space and to operate the datasette tape recorder. The C64 has of 8-bit-wide dynamic RAM, of 4-bit-wide static color RAM for text mode and are available to built-in Commodore BASIC 2.0 on startup. There is of ROM, made up of the BASIC interpreter, the KERNAL, and the character ROM.

The origins of flash memory can be traced back to the development of the floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS), also known as the floating- gate transistor. The original MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented by Egyptian engineer Mohamed M. Atalla and Korean engineer Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. Kahng went on to develop a variation, the floating-gate MOSFET, with Simon Min Sze at Bell Labs in 1967. They proposed that it could be used as floating-gate memory cells for storing a form of programmable read-only memory (PROM) that is both non-volatile and re-programmable.

In computing, a hardware code page (HWCP) refers to a code page supported natively by a hardware device such as a display adapter or printer. The glyphs to present the characters are stored in the alphanumeric character generator's resident read-only memory (like ROM or flash) and are thus not user- changeable. They are available for use by the system without having to load any font definitions into the device first. Startup messages issued by a PC's System BIOS or displayed by an operating system before initializing its own code page switching logic and font management and before switching to graphics mode are displayed in a computer's default hardware code page.

Seligman's new design took advantage of both of these improvements. To start, the new ICs allowed the ALU to be expanded to a full 16-bit width, allowing it to carry out operations in a single cycle and thereby making the new design four times as fast as the original. In addition, a new smaller core memory was used that improved the cycle time from the original's 1,200 ns to 800 ns, offering a further improvement gain. Performance could be further improved by replacing the core with read-only memory; lacking core's read/write cycle, this could be accessed at 300 ns for a dramatic performance boost.

IBM Cassette BASIC came in 32 kilobytes (KB) of read-only memory (ROM), separate from the 8 KB BIOS ROM of the original IBM PC, and did not require an operating system to run. Cassette BASIC provided the default user interface invoked by the BIOS through INT 18h if there was no floppy disk drive installed, or if the boot code did not find a bootable floppy disk at power up. The name Cassette BASIC came from its use of cassette tapes rather than floppy disks to store programs and data. Cassette BASIC was built into the ROMs of the original PC and XT, and early models in the PS/2 line.

The B2500/B3500 machines were followed by B2700/B3700/B4700 in 1972; The B2800/B3800/B4800 in 1976, The B2900/B3900/B4900 in 1980 (which was the first of the range to load its microcode from floppy disk, rather than implementing it as hardware read-only memory) and finally the Unisys V Series machines V340-V560 in 1985-90. Machines prior to the B4800 had no cache memory. Every operand byte or result byte required its own separate main memory cycle, which limited program performance. To compensate for this, the B3700/B4700 generation used semiconductor main memory that was faster but more expensive and power hungry than the DRAM used in competing machines.

A unique feature of the ELF is that it did not require any read only memory (ROM) for startup, instead, the processor's direct memory access (DMA) system was used to read front-panel switches directly into memory. RCA debated whether to introduce pre-packaged versions of the ELF to the market. While they debated, further development led to a simplified machine combining the ELF with a new display driver chip, the CDP1861, to produce a game console. During this time, Joyce was hired by RCA to write several videogames for the platform, including a quiz-style educational product in partnership with Random House, one of the many companies that had been picked up by RCA's buying sprees.

Shima's initial design included arithmetic units (adders), multiplier units, registers, read-only memory, and a macro- instruction set to control a decimal computer system. Busicom wanted to produce a general-purpose LSI chipset, for not only desktop calculators, but also other equipment such as a teller machine, cash register and billing machine. Shima began work on a general-purpose LSI chipset in late 1968, and Busicom then approached the American companies Mostek and Intel for converting the logic into MOS circuits and the chips layout for manufacturing. The job was given to Intel, who back then was more of a memory company and had facilities to manufacture the high density silicon gate metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) chip Busicom required.

The first MOSFET was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and presented in 1960. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET (FGMOS) was later made by Dawon Kahng and Simon Min Sze at Bell Labs, and dates from 1967. The earliest practical application of FGMOS was floating- gate memory cells, which Kahng and Sze proposed could be used to produce reprogrammable ROM (read-only memory). Initial applications of FGMOS was digital semiconductor memory, to store nonvolatile data in EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory. In 1989, Intel employed the FGMOS as an analog nonvolatile memory element in its electrically trainable artificial neural network (ETANN) chip,M.

As the company's only engineer, Bristow rapidly developed a prototype himself before turning the game over to new hire Lyle Rains to develop into a finished product, codenamed K2 Tank. Rains added the maze and central minefield to the game design and developed the final hardware, including the simple control scheme. Peter Takaichi designed a large custom cabinet to house it. Tank was one of the first games to use integrated circuit-based memory—specifically, mask ROM (read-only memory)—to store graphical data, rather than the diode arrays that previous arcade games used; it is sometimes claimed in sources to be the very first, but was preceded at minimum by Atari's Gran Trak 10 (1974).

Intelligent Systems ROM burner for the Nintendo DS A ROM image, or ROM file, is a computer file which contains a copy of the data from a read-only memory chip, often from a video game cartridge, or used to contain a computer's firmware, or from an arcade game's main board. The term is frequently used in the context of emulation, whereby older games or firmware are copied to ROM files on modern computers and can, using a piece of software known as an emulator, be run on a different device than which they were designed for. ROM burners are used to copy ROM images to hardware, such as ROM cartridges, or ROM chips, for debugging and QA testing.

The same principle was later used in the magnetic bubble memory developed in the 1980s, and is still found in various magnetic strip items such as metro tickets and some credit cards. In modern semiconductor memory, such as dynamic random-access memory, the two values of a bit may be represented by two levels of electric charge stored in a capacitor. In certain types of programmable logic arrays and read-only memory, a bit may be represented by the presence or absence of a conducting path at a certain point of a circuit. In optical discs, a bit is encoded as the presence or absence of a microscopic pit on a reflective surface.

Read–write memory is a type of computer memory that may be relatively easily written to as well as read from, that is, using electrical signalling normally associated with running a software, and without any other physical processes (unlike ROM or "read-only memory" and distinct from EEPROM). The related term RAM (for "random access memory") means something different; it refers to memory that can access any memory location in a constant amount of time. The term might also refer to memory locations having both read and write permissions. In modern computer systems using memory segmentation, each segment has a length and set of permissions (for example, read, write, execute) associated with it.

Some VGA connectors in personal computers provided a basic form of identification by connecting one, two or three pins to ground, but this coding was not standardized. The channel for transmitting the EDID from the display to the graphics card is usually the I²C-bus, defined in DDC2B (DDC1 used a different serial format which never gained popularity). The EDID is often stored in the monitor in a memory device called a serial PROM (programmable read-only memory) or EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) and is accessible via the I²C-bus at address . The EDID PROM can often be read by the host PC even if the display itself is turned off.

The origins of Rocky Mountain BASIC can be traced to Hewlett-Packard's facilities in Colorado. Since Colorado is located in the Rocky Mountains, this variation of BASIC was dubbed "Rocky Mountain BASIC", to differentiate it from the other BASIC dialects developed within the company. It is unclear if the Rocky Mountain BASIC name was original to HP or came from outside, but HP/Keysight use the term in their own documentation, as well as the more formal "HP BASIC" product name. The HP 9830A, introduced in 1972, was the top of the 9800 line programmable calculator line, which was the first HP computer which fit on a desktop to have a BASIC interpreter in read-only memory (ROM).

It had support of optical (write once read many (WORM)) disks file system and featured a window system, a window toolkit (and a direct manipulation user interface (UI) editor) and an Interscript-based text editor, for enriched documents written in Interpress (a HTML precursor). The OS had to be fitted in a 512 kibibyte (KB) read-only memory (ROM) ROM image. This suggests that ARX had a microkernel-type design. It was not finished in time to be used in the Acorn Archimedes range of computers, which shipped in 1987 with an operating system named Arthur, later renamed RISC OS, derived from the earlier Machine Operating System (MOS) from Acorn's earlier 8-bit BBC Micro range.

Apple Inc.'s first computer, the Apple 1 introduced in 1976, featured PROM chips that eliminated the need for a front panel for the boot process (as was the case with the Altair 8800) in a commercial computer. According to Apple's ad announcing it "No More Switches, No More Lights ... the firmware in PROMS enables you to enter, display and debug programs (all in hex) from the keyboard."Apple Ad, Interface Age, October 1976 Due to the expense of read- only memory at the time, the Apple II series booted its disk operating systems using a series of very small incremental steps, each passing control onward to the next phase of the gradually more complex boot process.

Because MS-DOS was available as a separate product, some companies attempted to make computers available which could run MS-DOS and programs. These early machines, including the ACT Apricot, the DEC Rainbow 100, the Hewlett-Packard HP-150, the Seequa Chameleon and many others were not especially successful, as they required a customized version of MS-DOS, and could not run programs designed specifically for IBM's hardware. (See List of early non-IBM-PC- compatible PCs.) The first truly IBM PC compatible machines came from Compaq, although others soon followed. Because the IBM PC was based on relatively standard integrated circuits, and the basic card-slot design was not patented, the key portion of that hardware was actually the BIOS software embedded in read-only memory.

Read-Only Memory published Britsoft: An Oral History in 2015 and The Bitmap Brothers: Universe in 2016, both about a golden age of British game development. Britsoft: An Oral History was designed as a companion to the 2014 film From Bedrooms to Billions, which covers the "Britsoft" era of British game development from the late '70s bedroom developer cottage industry to the present-day billion-pound industry. The book uses developer interviews to tell the era's story so as to supplement rather than reproduce the film's narrative. Interviewed developers include coders and designers David Braben, Geoff Crammond, Mel Croucher, Dino Dini, Jon Hare, Archer MacLean, Jeff Minter, Peter Molyneux and David Perry, businessman David Darling, and writers Chris Anderson, Gary Penn, and Julian Rignall.

The processing power of the Nairi-3 was considerably higher than competing systems due to multiple storage system improvements. Some of which includes the usage of a long-term form of read- only memory to store the computer's firmware, on a sampling cycle of 8 μs, while on other, similar systems, the firmware as well as external, foreign programs were stored on external storage devices, such as magnetic drums, the predecessor to modern day hard drives. A feature of the proposed computer architecture for a model of the Nairi-3 computer systems was the use of a permanent, non-volatile memory cassette tape, the main functional block of the ROM device was the storage, which consisted of YAN-9 accumulator cells.

The DDC suite of standards aims to provide a "plug and play" experience for computer displays. DDC1 and DDC2B/Ab/B+/Bi protocols are a physical link between a monitor and a video card, which was originally carried on either two or three pins in a 15-pin analog VGA connector. Extended display identification data (EDID) is a companion standard; it defines a compact binary file format describing the monitor's capabilities and supported graphics modes, stored in a read-only memory (EEPROM) chip programmed by the manufacturer of the monitor. The format uses a description block containing 128 bytes of data, with optional extension blocks to provide additional information. The most current version is Enhanced EDID (E-EDID) Release A, v2.0.

Schottky Bipolar 3101, 3101A RAMs Google Docs. In the same year, Intel also produced the 3301 Schottky bipolar 1024-bit read-only memory (ROM)Schottky Bipolar 3301A ROM Google Docs. and the first commercial metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) silicon gate SRAM chip, the 256-bit 1101.Silicon Gate MOS 1101A RAM Google Docs. While the 1101 was a significant advance, its complex static cell structure made it too slow and costly for mainframe memories. The three-transistor cell implemented in the first commercially available dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), the 1103 released in 1970, solved these issues. The 1103 was the bestselling semiconductor memory chip in the world by 1972, as it replaced core memory in many applications.

Fused silica is also used to form the windows of manned spacecraft, including the Space Shuttle and International Space Station. The combination of strength, thermal stability, and UV transparency makes it an excellent substrate for projection masks for photolithography. An EPROM with fused quartz window in the top of the package Its UV transparency also finds uses in the semiconductor industry; an EPROM, or erasable programmable read only memory, is a type of memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off, but which can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. EPROMs are recognizable by the transparent fused quartz window which sits on top of the package, through which the silicon chip is visible, and which permits exposure to UV light during erasing.

Programmer Ron Surratt was hired to write the software for the module, and Patrick Jost would analyze the voice data for the device.Intellivision Lives Intellivoice Page The Narrator had 2kB of Read-Only Memory (ROM), and this was utilized to store a database of generic words that could be combined to make phrases in Intellivision games. The words included numbers, "press," "enter," "and," "or," and "Mattel Electronics Presents" in a generic male voice. These phrases (as well as the speech for the first game, Space Spartans) were recorded and digitized by Carlson and Jost at General Instrument's facility in New York, and the resulting data was turned into a mask so that a customized version of the SP0256 could be manufactured with the generic phrases permanently stored inside the chip.

Emmons also used integrated circuit-based memory—specifically, mask ROM (read-only memory)— in his circuit design to store graphical data such as the tracks, rather than the diode arrays that previous arcade games used. This is believed to be the first use of integrated circuit-based memory in an arcade game, and ROMs thereafter became the standard for arcade and console video games. The mechanical designs for the game, including the steering wheel, pedal, and gear shift controllers, were developed by Eigen Systems, located in the same building as Cyan and founded by ex-coworkers of the Cyan founders Emmons and Steven Mayer. At one point, the game's design included a small printer that would print high scores when achieved, but this was removed prior to the final design.

The Central Control Complex comprises the Central Processing Unit (CPU), Program Store (PS), Data Store (DS) and the Central Message Controller (CMC). Block Diagram of the DMS-100 Telephone Switch The CPU contains two identical 16-bit processors running in hot standby mode. The original CPU core was referred to as the NT40 CPU and was implemented in approximately 250 discrete logic devices across several circuit boards running at 36 MHz. The NT40 core consisted mainly of the NT1X44 stack card, which provides some register and stack functions of the processor, the NT1X45 which contained the arithmetic and logic functions, the NT1X46 which provides more registers and the load- route read-only memory (ROM) and the NT1X47 timing and control card which provides the micro-cycle source and microstore decoding functions of the processor.

Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) integrated circuits in dual in- line packages. These packages have a transparent window that shows the die inside. The window is used to erase the memory by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light. Integrated circuit from an EPROM memory microchip showing the memory blocks, the supporting circuitry and the fine silver wires which connect the integrated circuit die to the legs of the packaging Virtual detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of planarized copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and substrate (green) An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of semiconductor material that is normally silicon.

The fundamental difference between a calculator and computer is that a computer can be programmed in a way that allows the program to take different branches according to intermediate results, while calculators are pre-designed with specific functions (such as addition, multiplication, and logarithms) built in. The distinction is not clear-cut: some devices classed as programmable calculators have programming functions, sometimes with support for programming languages (such as RPL or TI-BASIC). For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement floating point mathematics with code in read-only memory (ROM), and compute trigonometric functions with the CORDIC algorithm because CORDIC does not require much multiplication. Bit serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers, because a bit serial design minimizes chip complexity, but takes many more clock cycles.

The Apple II Plus shipped with 16 KB, 32 KB or 48 KB of main RAM, expandable to 64 KB by means of the Language Card, an expansion card that could be installed in the computer's slot 0. The Apple's 6502 microprocessor could support a maximum of 64 KB of address space, and a machine with 48KB RAM reached this limit because of the additional 12 KB of read-only memory and 4 KB of I/O addresses. For this reason, the extra RAM in the language card was bank-switched over the machine's built-in ROM, allowing code loaded into the additional memory to be used as if it actually were ROM. Users could thus load Integer BASIC into the language card from disk and switch between the Integer and Applesoft dialects of BASIC with DOS 3.3's and commands just as if they had the BASIC ROM expansion card.

The game's circuits include possibly the first instance of integrated circuit-based read- only memory (ROM), which thereafter became the standard for arcade games, replacing diode-stored graphics. Gran Trak 10 was developed during a time of several internal changes at Atari; as a result communication problems led Atari to not accurately track the expense of manufacturing the game. It was initially sold to distributors for a net loss of US$100 per cabinet; although this flaw was fixed it contributed to a total loss of $500,000 for the company that fiscal year, placing Atari in financial difficulties. The game itself was successful, and led to several versions of the game being produced in 1974 by Atari and its subsidiary Kee Games, including a smaller cabinet version titled Trak 10 and a two-player version titled Gran Trak 20, as well as numerous later racing games.

GD-ROM (an abbreviation of "Gigabyte Disc Read-Only Memory") is a proprietary optical disc format originally used for the Dreamcast video game console, as well as its arcade counterpart, the Sega NAOMI and select Triforce arcade board titles. It was developed by Yamaha to curb piracy common to standard compact discs and to offer increased storage capacity without the expense of the fledgling DVD-ROM. It is similar to the standard CD-ROM except that the pits on the disc are packed more closely together, resulting in a higher storage capacity of 1 gigabyte, a 42% increase over a conventional CD's capacity of 700 megabytes. The Dreamcast ended up being the only sixth- generation console with a disc based on CD technology rather than DVD technology; even the Nintendo GameCube's smaller 8 cm discs held 50% more data due to being based on DVD technology.

Early console hardware was designed as customized printed circuit boards (PCB)s, selecting existing integrated circuit chips that performed known functions, or programmable chips like erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) chips that could perform certain functions. Persistent computer memory was expensive, so dedicated consoles were generally limited to the use of processor registers for storage of the state of a game, thus limiting the complexities of such titles. Pong in both its arcade and home format a handful of logic and calculation chips that used the current input of the players' paddles and resisters storing the ball's position to update the game's state and sent to the display device. Even with more advanced integrated circuits (IC)s of the time, designers were limited to what could be done through the electrical process rather than through programming as normally associated with video game development.

With all 512 diodes in place, the memory contained all "one" bits; the card was programmed by cutting off each diode whose bit was to be "zero". DEC also sold versions of the card, the BM792-Yx series, pre-programmed for many standard input devices by simply omitting the unneeded diodes. Following the older approach, the earlier PDP-1 has a hardware loader, such that an operator need only push the "load" switch to instruct the paper tape reader to load a program directly into core memory. The Data General Supernova used front panel switches to cause the computer to automatically load instructions into memory from a device specified by the front panel's data switches, and then jump to loaded code; the Nova 800 and 1200 had a switch that loaded a program into main memory from a special read- only memory and jumped to it.

Japan's copyright laws are similar to the United States in that a form of artistic expression in a fixed medium is sufficient for copyright protection. Japan is also a member of the Berne convention. Video games, and computer code in general, are considered to fall under copyright as they are a "work of authorship" as "a production in which thoughts or emotions are expressed in a creative way and which falls in the literary, scientific, artistic or musical domain." Video games being eligible for copyrights in the same manner as cinematic works were established through three cases related to video game clones from 1982 to 1984, in which Japan's courted ruled, collectively, that the act of storing data into a computer's read-only memory (ROM) constitutes copying and thus unauthorized copies can be violations of copyright, that similarly hardware circuitry can carry software information and is also copyrightable, and that video games can contain artistic expression that is protected by copyright.

Chow invented and holds a fundamental patent on what is now commonly known as programmable read-only memory or PROM. PROM, in the late 1950s called a "constants storage matrix," was invented for the Atlas E/F ICBM airborne digital computer. He would continue working throughout the 1960s and early 1970s to develop and advance missile and spacecraft digital computers and guidance systems technology beyond the state of the art - working at the Aerospace Corporation in the Gemini and Minuteman programs and at IBM in the B-1, B-52, Saturn V and Skylab programs, and of course, in the development of the AP-101 digital computer used in the Space Shuttle Computer Complex. Chow, uniquely, worked on the guidance computers and guidance systems for every major United States Air Force ICBM and NASA manned space program from the very beginning with the Atlas, through Titan, Gemini, Saturn, and Skylab, to missiles and spacecraft still in service today, Minuteman and the Space Shuttle.

The arcade PAC-MAN system board contained 2KB of main RAM (random-access memory) in which to run the program, 2KB of video RAM to store the screen state, and 16KB of ROM (read- only memory) to store the game code, whereas the Atari 2600 featured only 128 bytes of RAM memory and none dedicated to video: effectively 32 times less RAM. The Zilog Z80 CPU microprocessor used by the Namco Pac-Man arcade system is clocked at three times the speed of the MOS 6507 CPU in the Atari 2600 - though the Z80 typically does less work per clock cycle. To deal with these limitations, Frye simplified the maze's intricate pattern of corridors to a more repetitive pattern. The small tan pellets in the arcade original were changed to rectangular "wafers" that shared the wall color on the 2600; a change necessitated because both the pellets and walls were drawn with the 2600's Playfield graphics, which have a fixed width.

HP Vectra 286/12 PC, IBM PC compatible computer with Intel 80286 processor Compaq DeskPro 386S, IBM PC compatible computer with Intel 80386 processor MikroMikko 4 TT, IBM PC compatible computer with Intel 80486 processor The original PC design was followed up in 1983 by the IBM PC XT, which was an incrementally improved design; it omitted support for the cassette, had more card slots, and was available with a 10MB hard drive. Although mandatory at first, the hard drive was later made an option and a two floppy disk XT was sold. While the architectural memory limit of 640K was the same, later versions were more readily expandable. Although the PC and XT included a version of the BASIC language in read-only memory, most were purchased with disk drives and run with an operating system; three operating systems were initially announced with the PC. One was CP/M-86 from Digital Research, the second was PC DOS from IBM, and the third was the UCSD p-System (from the University of California at San Diego).

Showing all three icons of the OldWorld ROM (from left to right: Missing OS, Happy Mac (Found OS), and Sad Mac (Macintosh 128k/Plus) logos) Old World ROM computers are the Macintosh (Mac) models that use a Macintosh Toolbox read- only memory (ROM) chip, usually in a socket (but soldered to the motherboard in some models). All Macs prior to the iMac, the iBook, the Blue and White Power Mac G3 and the Bronze Keyboard (Lombard) PowerBook G3 use Old World ROM, while said models, as well as all subsequent models until the introduction of the Intel-based EFI Models, are New World ROM machines. In particular, the Beige Power Mac G3 and all other beige and platinum-colored Power Macs are Old World ROM machines. In common use, the "Old World" designation usually applies to the early generations of PCI-based "beige" Power Macs (and sometimes the first NuBus-equipped models), but not the older Motorola 68000-based Macs; however, the Toolbox runs the same way on all three types of machines.

The MK-52 has 105 steps of volatile program memory, an internal EEPROM module (with 512 bytes of memory), and 15 7-byte registers. It uses four AA-size battery cells or can be plugged into a power adapter. It has a relatively dim, ten-digit (8 digit mantissa, 2 digit exponent) green vacuum fluorescent display. The MK-52 has an expansion port to which various ROM (Read-only memory) modules could be attached. Its system clock speed is approximately 75 kHz (derived from a phases generator chip), and it weighs approximately 400 grammes. The MK-52 is the first Soviet micro-calculator with non-volatile electrically erasable memory (EEPROM, type KR1601RP1, with a capacity of 4 kilobits, and capable of 10,000 rewrites), ensuring security for programs, and for the clipboard, when the power is turned off. This EEPROM memory is capable of storing up to 512 1-byte program words (or the contents of 72 7-byte registers) and exchanging its contents with the calculator's RAM. The calculator is fully compatible with the second-generation models (B3-34 and MK-54), using the same command system and machine codes.

The first programmable pocket calculator was the HP-65, in 1974; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. Two years later the HP-25C introduced continuous memory, i.e., programs and data were retained in CMOS memory during power-off. In 1979, HP released the first alphanumeric, programmable, expandable calculator, the HP-41C. It could be expanded with random access memory (RAM, for memory) and read-only memory (ROM, for software) modules, and peripherals like bar code readers, microcassette and floppy disk drives, paper-roll thermal printers, and miscellaneous communication interfaces (RS-232, HP-IL, HP-IB). The HP-65, the first programmable pocket calculator (1974) The first Soviet pocket battery-powered programmable calculator, Elektronika B3-21, was developed by the end of 1976 and released at the start of 1977. The successor of B3-21, the Elektronika B3-34 wasn't backward compatible with B3-21, even if it kept the reverse Polish notation (RPN). Thus B3-34 defined a new command set, which later was used in a series of later programmable Soviet calculators.