These are all critical matters, each with serious factual predicates already uncovered by prosecutors.
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You can do sums, use predicates and run through many, many database entries in little time.
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Lilla and others fail to understand that consistent access to public bathrooms predicates all other civil rights.
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Xie's swallowed commands, shorn of their predicates, suggest that the rules of her art cannot be codified.
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Other lawyers at Justice Department headquarters debated whether the stolen materials could be used predicates for an investigation.
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The new product might contain characteristics substantially equivalent to a conglomeration of predicates but not a single product.
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Iran may also see too much pomp and circumstance around missile launches as potential predicates for more international pressure.
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Yet no machine can easily or quickly skim meaning from the internet's tangle of predicates, complements, sentences, and paragraphs.
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Premiums did spike significantly in 2016, so one of the predicates for a possible death spiral was in place.
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In fact, they are the predicates for the very demands the students have been making across the United States.
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Overturning the verdicts on the CSA and honest services fraud predicates is not meant to condone or minimize this behavior.
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Moving or invalidating the grandfather date would allow some or all of those products to act as "predicates" for future products.
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To applaud deconstruction without applauding the original is either perverse or mean; appreciation of what came before predicates appreciation of 22, A Million.
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But none of the factual predicates for that thought experiment are true, so there's little point in confusing people about the actual stakes.
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"What we want to do is constantly push the market toward incorporating better technology and better capabilities by advancing the predicates and always looking forward so the ... predicates the device companies are using as the basis of their approvals are constantly incorporating newer and better technology to make the devices better and safer," Gottlieb said Monday in an interview with CNBC's Becky Quick.
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The special counsel has no such statutory mandate that overrides Rule 85033(e), and, even if he did, its predicates might not be satisfied.
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Here we go again, with the unspoken predicates of a pompous duopoly that never directs words like "spoiler" or "siphon away" toward one another.
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It is perhaps no coincidence that he also largely refuses to participate in a foreign policy around Israel that predicates itself on Christian eschatology.
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In the global-management world, this predicates what is known as "the 2050 Challenge": how do we feed all those people without hastening climate change?
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In some ways the new proposal mimics a now frowned-upon practice known as "predicate stacking" in which companies would include multiple predicates in their application.
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Instead, those judges scrutinized carefully whether the Trump administration had the factual and legal predicates necessary to justify his unprecedented assertion of sweeping executive power over immigration.
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The statute includes references to the crimes that are "nearly identical to the language...use[d] to enumerate the three categories of state sexual-abuse predicates", she wrote.
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This idea predicates both the digital activism that helped elect Barack Obama to the presidency and the mechanism that turned the tables back around to elect our current president.
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Once they started to rattle on about split indicative predicates with a triple axel and a shot of mocha, however, I decided it was time to stop listening and just write.
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If an organization that predicates itself on revealing the absolute truth is so willing to mislead journalists and the public—sometimes by obfuscation and other times by lying outright—can it be trusted?
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But bit by bit the language is taking shape, definite articles and nouns and indirect objects and verbs and prepositional phrases hanging off subjects and predicates and predicate complements like a Calder mobile.
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"The proposed 10-year cut off criteria could prove arbitrary as older predicates can offer extensive data about their performance, which helps sponsors introduce newer, safer devices," AdvaMed CEO Scott Whitaker said in a statement.
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While the headline-grabbing RICO "predicates" were violent crimes like murder, kidnapping, arson and robbery, the statute also focused on crimes like fraud, obstruction of justice, money laundering and even aiding or abetting illegal immigration.
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It must accompany the rule with a statement of its basis and purpose in which the agency explains why it is issuing the rule and responds to all well-supported comments that criticized the proposed rule or its factual predicates.
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"If the grandfather date changes and becomes the effective date of the final rule, that will exempt all these products from any premarket review ... and worse, they can use these as predicates for new products coming down the road," Zeller said.
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The country is, by and large, more concerned with helping refugees than fearing them; part of this tech push predicates itself not on the projection, but the adaptive understanding that 50 percent of jobs will be robotized within the next 20 years.
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Moving or invalidating that grandfather date would allow some or all of the products to act as "predicates" for future products, something public health advocates say would allow e-cigarettes and other tobacco products to escape a critical first-step review by the FDA.
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It&aposs unusual, but prior to sentencing, in the interest of justice, the lawyers for Flynn can convince the judge that the predicates for a guilty plea, which the judge&aposs obligation to find out, whether the person is pleading guilty voluntarily and without coercion and duress.
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Now, the FDA wants to retire those predicates, or older base products, which sometimes aren't even on the market anymore, and make it easier for companies to establish new ones, FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb and Center for Devices and Radiological Health Director Jeff Shuren said in a statement Monday.
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A longing for human connection predicates much of the season so far, as it becomes clear that Lavinia's wealth has had the side effect of cutting her off from people, and Josh's recent move to Peck from New York is still the source of some derision from the townspeople.
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And yet, even if one doesn't agree with its predicates or its conclusions (I, for one, don't subscribe to B.H.L.'s portrait of the Jewish experience as being one of voluntary exile — "All that's required is the time to pack a suitcase, open a door, take off, and sometimes, learn a new language" — as though we were a nation of Mary Poppinses), there is a lot here that is genuinely provocative and, on occasion, insightful.
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There are at least two types of raising predicates/verbs: raising-to-subject verbs and raising-to-object predicates. Raising-to-object predicates overlap to a large extent with so-called ECM-verbs (= exceptional case-marking). These types of raising predicates/verbs are illustrated with the following sentences: ::a. They seem to be trying.
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The term syntactic predicate was coined by Parr & Quong and differentiates this form of predicate from semantic predicates (also discussed). Syntactic predicates have been called multi-step matching, parse constraints, and simply predicates in various literature. (See References section below.) This article uses the term syntactic predicate throughout for consistency and to distinguish them from semantic predicates.
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Each of these predicates is a periphrastic form insofar at least one function word is present. The b-predicates are, however, more periphrastic than the a-predicates since they contain more words. The closely similar meaning of these predicates across the a- and b-variants is accommodated in terms of catenae, since each predicate is a catena.
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The area of grammar that explores the nature of predicates, their arguments, and adjuncts is called valency theory. Predicates have valency; they determine the number and type of arguments that can or must appear in their environment. The valency of predicates is also investigated in terms of subcategorization.
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Distinguishing between predicates, arguments, and adjuncts becomes particularly difficult when secondary predicates are involved, for instance with resultative predicates, e.g. ::That made him tired. The resultative adjective tired can be viewed as an argument of the matrix predicate made. But it is also definitely a predicate over him.
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Goodman's solution is to argue that lawlike predictions are based on projectible predicates such as green and blue and not on non-projectible predicates such as grue and bleen and what makes predicates projectible is their entrenchment, which depends on their successful past projections. Thus, grue and bleen function in Goodman's arguments to both illustrate the new riddle of induction and to illustrate the distinction between projectible and non-projectible predicates via their relative entrenchment.
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On January 2, , however, emeralds and well- watered grass are bleen and bluebirds or blue flowers are grue. The predicates grue and bleen are not the kinds of predicates used in everyday life or in science, but they apply in just the same way as the predicates green and blue up until some future time t. From the perspective of observers before time t it is indeterminate which predicates are future projectible (green and blue or grue and bleen).
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Though a test engineer can typically reduce this by covering as many previously uncovered design predicates as possible with each new test. Also, some combinations of design predicates might be logically impossible.
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Similarly to English, for each clause in Tokelauan there is a predicate. There are five types of predicates including: verbal, locative, existential, possessive, and nominal. Each predicate is available for an interrogative and declarative statement, and can also have multiple predicates conjoined. Verbal Predicates -A verbal phrase will follow a verbal clause _Example:_ Kua fano '[S/he] has gone.
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Simple predicates use one of the operators `=`, `<>`, `>`, `>=`, `<`, `<=`, `IN`, `BETWEEN`, `LIKE`, `IS NULL` or `IS NOT NULL`. Predicates can be enclosed in parentheses if desired. The keywords `AND` and `OR` can be used to combine two predicates into a new one. If multiple combinations are applied, parentheses can be used to group combinations to indicate the order of evaluation.
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In this regard, the complement is a closely related concept. Most predicates take one, two, or three arguments. A predicate and its arguments form a predicate-argument structure. The discussion of predicates and arguments is associated most with (content) verbs and noun phrases (NPs), although other syntactic categories can also be construed as predicates and as arguments.
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Dependency grammars sometimes call arguments actants, following Tesnière (1959). The area of grammar that explores the nature of predicates, their arguments, and adjuncts is called valency theory. Predicates have a valence; they determine the number and type of arguments that can or must appear in their environment. The valence of predicates is also investigated in terms of subcategorization.
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All RICO predicates are also money laundering predicates.18 U.S.C. § 1956(c)(7)(A). Federal program bribery, while not a RICO predicate, is a money laundering predicate.18 U.S.C. § 1956(c)(7)(D).
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Iterative algorithms can be implemented by means of recursive predicates.
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The seminal work of Greg Carlson distinguishes between types of predicates., . Based on Carlson's work, predicates have been divided into the following sub-classes, which roughly pertain to how a predicate relates to its subject.
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Vagrant predicates are logical constructions that exhibit an inherent limit to conceptual knowledge. Such predicates can be used in general descriptions but are self-contradictory when applied to particulars. For instance, there are numbers which have never been mentioned but no example can be given as this would contradict its definition. Vagrant predicates have been proposed and studied by Nicholas Rescher.
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Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 below, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates.
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Iterative algorithms can be implemented by means of recursive predicates. Prolog systems typically implement a well-known optimization technique called tail call optimization (TCO) for deterministic predicates exhibiting tail recursion or, more generally, tail calls: A clause's stack frame is discarded before performing a call in a tail position. Therefore, deterministic tail-recursive predicates are executed with constant stack space, like loops in other languages.
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Intransitive predicates which take absolutive (rather than nominative) subjects are known as descriptives.
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Korean has three negative predicates that can form A-not-A question, , , and .
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See further Grinder and Elgin (1973:141ff.), Bach (1974:120ff., 146ff.), Emonds (1976:75ff.), Borsley (1996:126-144), Carnie (2007:285ff.). Raising predicates/verbs are related to control predicates, although there are important differences between the two predicate/verb types.
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A large corpus of Part-Of- Speech tagged sentences and an initial ontology with predefined categories, relations, mutually exclusive relationships between same-arity predicates, subset relationships between some categories, seed instances for all predicates, and seed patterns for the categories.
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Evidential predicates indicate an uncertainty of the knowledge asserted in the sentence. According to Johnston, evidential predicates nearly always hedge the assertions and allow the respondents to hedge theirs. They protect speakers from the social embarrassment that appears, in case the assertion turns out to be wrong. As is the case with conditional syntax, evidential predicates can also be used to soften criticisms and to afford courtesy or respect.
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Nominal and verbal predicates are negated by what is described as a suffix -m.
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Clauses in Timucua are: subjects, complements (direct or indirect object), predicates, and clause modifiers.
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Jacobs argues that the relationship between a predicate and its semantic interpretation is determined by syntax. Under this analysis, the difference between control and limited control predicates lies in the syntactic position of object agreement, with control predicates being associated with VP, and limited control predicates associated with a functional projection of aspect (which Jacobs refers to as FP-delimit). As limited control predicates are associated with aspect, a telic (completion) reading is obtained. In these constructions, the speaker conveys that the agent managed to complete something despite a lack of control, or accidentally did something due to a lack of control.
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A collection of 'facts' or predicates and variables form the knowledge base of a deductive language. Depending on the language, the order of declaration of these predicates within the knowledge base may or may not influence the result of applying logical rules. Upon application of certain 'rules' or inferences, new predicates may be added to a knowledge base. As new facts are established or added, they form the basis for new inferences.
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That raising predicates, unlike control predicates, do not semantically select one of their arguments is emphasized in all accounts of raising and control. See for instance van Riemsdijk and Williams (1986:130), Borsley (1996:133), Culicover (1997:102). The raising-to-subject verbs are not selecting their subject dependent, and the raising-to-object predicates are not selecting their object dependent. These dependents appear to have been raised from the lower predicate.
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They can also be nested to any depth. Paths specified in predicates begin at the context of the current step (i.e. that of the immediately preceding node test) and do not alter that context. All predicates must be satisfied for a match to occur.
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For examples of theories that pursue this understanding of predicates, see , , , , , , , , , . This understanding of predicates sometimes renders a predicate and its arguments in the following manner: ::Bob laughed. → laughed (Bob), or laughed = ƒ(Bob) ::Sam helped you. → helped (Sam, you) ::Jim gave Jill his dog.
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However, all mental events also have physical descriptions. It is in terms of the latter that such events can be connected in law-like relations with other physical events. Mental predicates are irreducibly different in character (rational, holistic, and necessary) from physical predicates (contingent, atomic, and causal).
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However, whether this prediction is lawlike or not depends on the predicates used in this prediction. Goodman observed that (assuming t has yet to pass) it is equally true that every emerald that has been observed is grue. Thus, by the same evidence we can conclude that all future emeralds will be grue. The new problem of induction becomes one of distinguishing projectible predicates such as green and blue from non-projectible predicates such as grue and bleen.
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Although by no means an exhaustive list, the following parsers and grammar formalisms employ syntactic predicates: ; ANTLR (Parr & Quong) :As originally implemented, syntactic predicates sit on the leftmost edge of a production such that the production to the right of the predicate is attempted if and only if the syntactic predicate first accepts the next portion of the input stream. Although ordered, the predicates are checked first, with parsing of a clause continuing if and only if the predicate is satisfied, and semantic actions only occurring in non-predicates. ; Augmented Pattern Matcher (Balmas) :Balmas refers to syntactic predicates as "multi-step matching" in her paper on APM. As an APM parser parses, it can bind substrings to a variable, and later check this variable against other rules, continuing to parse if and only if that substring is acceptable to further rules.
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In first- order theories, predicates are often associated with sets. In interpreted higher-order theories, predicates may be interpreted as sets of sets. There are many deductive systems for first-order logic which are both sound (i.e., all provable statements are true in all models) and complete (i.e.
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Loglan has three types of words: predicates (also called content words), structure words (also called little words), and names. The majority of words are predicates; these are words that carry meaning. Structure words are words that modify predicates or show how they are related to each other, like English conjunctions and prepositions. Names in Loglan are spelled in accordance with Loglan phonetics, so if the name comes from another language, the Loglan spelling may differ from the spelling in that language.
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Structure-mapping theory respond by arguing that it is not object attributes which are mapped in an analogy. Instead the theory contends that an analogy alerts the hearer to a similarity in the relationships between objects in a domain. The distinction is made in terms of the number of predicates - attributes are predicates with one argument, while relationships are predicates which take two or more arguments. So the proposition "x is large" asserts an attribute, while "x revolves around y" asserts a relationship.
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In mathematical logic, monadic second-order logic (MSO) is the fragment of second-order logic where the second-order quantification is limited to quantification over sets. It is particularly important in the logic of graphs, because of Courcelle's theorem, which provides algorithms for evaluating monadic second-order formulas over graphs of bounded treewidth. Second-order logic allows quantification over predicates. However, MSO is the fragment in which second-order quantification is limited to monadic predicates (predicates having a single argument).
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Grue and bleen are examples of logical predicates coined by Nelson Goodman in Fact, Fiction, and Forecast to illustrate the "new riddle of induction" – a successor to Hume's original problem. These predicates are unusual because their application is time-dependent; many have tried to solve the new riddle on those terms, but Hilary Putnam and others have argued such time-dependency depends on the language adopted, and in some languages it is equally true for natural-sounding predicates such as "green." For Goodman they illustrate the problem of projectible predicates and ultimately, which empirical generalizations are law-like and which are not. Goodman's construction and use of grue and bleen illustrates how philosophers use simple examples in conceptual analysis.
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While actions, situations, and objects are elements of the domain, the fluents are modeled as either predicates or functions.
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Most modern theories of syntax and grammar take their inspiration for the theory of predicates from predicate calculus as associated with Gottlob Frege. This understanding sees predicates as relations or functions over arguments. The predicate serves either to assign a property to a singular term argument or to relate two or more arguments to each other. Sentences consist of predicates and their arguments (and adjuncts) and are thus predicate-argument structures, whereby a given predicate is seen as linking its arguments into a greater structure.
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Abductive logic programming (ALP) is a high-level knowledge-representation framework that can be used to solve problems declaratively based on abductive reasoning. It extends normal logic programming by allowing some predicates to be incompletely defined, declared as abducible predicates. Problem solving is effected by deriving hypotheses on these abducible predicates (abductive hypotheses) as solutions of problems to be solved. These problems can be either observations that need to be explained (as in classical abduction) or goals to be achieved (as in normal logic programming).
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Control must be distinguished from raising, though the two can be outwardly similar.Concerning the difference between control and raising, see Bach (1974:149), Culicover (1997:102), Carnie (2007:403ff.). Control predicates semantically select their arguments, as stated above. Raising predicates, in contrast, do not semantically select (at least) one of their dependents.
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Susan Rothstein. 2004. The Syntactic Forms of Predication. In: Predicates and Their Subjects. Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy, vol 74.
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He also remembers events by memorizing A-B-C predicates—item-specific memory with a memorized (specific) association connecting them.
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Prolog systems typically implement a well-known optimization method called tail call optimization (TCO) for deterministic predicates exhibiting tail recursion or, more generally, tail calls: A clause's stack frame is discarded before performing a call in a tail position. Therefore, deterministic tail-recursive predicates are executed with constant stack space, like loops in other languages.
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Goldstein (2010a) The Carnegie Mellon-Intel Claytronics Research Project has created two new programming languages: Meld and Locally Distributed Predicates (LDP).
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The Structure of Complex Predicates in Urdu. Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications. and the Theories of CaseButt, Miriam. 2006. Theories of Case.
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Therefore, minimization is done on predicates in the first-order logic version of circumscription: the circumscription of a formula is obtained forcing predicates to be false whenever possible.Lifschitz, V. (1994). "Circumscription". In Gabbay, D.M.; Hogger, C.J.; Robinson, J.A. Nonmonotonic Reasoning and Uncertain Reasoning. Handbooks of Logic in Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence and Logic Programming. 3.
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The reference to an attribute of the top-level element in the first predicate affects neither the context of other predicates nor that of the location step itself. Predicate order is significant if predicates test the position of a node. Each predicate takes a node-set returns a (potentially) smaller node- set. So `a[1][@href='help.
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In general a test class' predicate is a conjunction of two or more predicates. It is likely, then, that some test classes are empty because their predicates are contradictions. These test classes must be pruned from the testing tree because they represent impossible combinations of input values, i.e. no abstract test case can be derived out of them.
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He said that although contradictory predicates are predicated of those that are the same in number, yet they are not convertibly the same.
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FO[LFP] and FO[PFP] are two logics without any predicates, apart from the equality predicates between variables and the letters predicates. They are equal respectively to relational-P and FO(PFP) is relational-PSPACE, the classes P and PSPACE over relational machines.Serge Abiteboul, Moshe Y. Vardi, Victor Vianu: Fixpoint logics, relational machines, and computational complexity Journal of the ACM archive, Volume 44 , Issue 1 (January 1997), Pages: 30-56, The Abiteboul- Vianu Theorem states that FO(LFP)=FO(PFP) if and only if FO(<,LFP)=FO(<,PFP), hence if and only if P=PSPACE. This result has been extended to other fixpoints.
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Richard Swinburne gets past the objection that green may be redefined in terms of grue and bleen by making a distinction based on how we test for the applicability of a predicate in a particular case. He distinguishes between qualitative and locational predicates. Qualitative predicates, like green, can be assessed without knowing the spatial or temporal relation of x to a particular time, place or event. Locational predicates, like grue, cannot be assessed without knowing the spatial or temporal relation of x to a particular time, place or event, in this case whether x is being observed before or after time t.
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Quine's explanation is that "blue" is a natural kind; a privileged predicate we can use for induction, while "grue" is not a natural kind and using induction with it leads to error. This suggests a resolution to the paradox – Nicod's criterion is true for natural kinds, such as "blue" and "black", but is false for artificially contrived predicates, such as "grue" or "non-raven". The paradox arises, according to this resolution, because we implicitly interpret Nicod's criterion as applying to all predicates when in fact it only applies to natural kinds. Another approach, which favours specific predicates over others, was taken by Hintikka.
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This group consists of ‘Relation’, and ‘Relation Type’ for expressing declarative knowledge, and ‘Function’ and ‘Function Type’ for expressing procedural knowledge. This group is to express qualitative and quantitative relations among the various instances stored in the knowledge base. While instantiating the predicates can be characterized by their logical properties of relations, quantifiers and cardinality as monadic predicates of these predicate objects.
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The understanding of predicates suggested by these examples sees the main predicate of a clause consisting of at least one verb and a variety of other possible words. The words of the predicate need not form a string nor a constituent,That many predicates are not constituents is acknowledged by many, e.g. , . but they can be interrupted by their arguments (or adjuncts).
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James D. G. Dunn. Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2006. . p.626-31 involving the sequencing of imperative and indicative predicates are taken by theologians as central to the relationship between Law and Gospel. Daniel Defoe discusses three pairs of these predicates in his second and final sequel to Robinson Crusoe, Serious Reflections (1720): "forbear and live", "do and live", "believe and live".
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Non-verbal predicates are non-verbal words like adjectives, nouns, positionals, or directionals that act as the main predicate and are semantically stative. These constructions do not inflect for Tense-Aspect, but do inflect for person and number. There is no overt copula in Chuj and copula constructions are expressed through non-verbal predicates. Chuj: a ix Malin kʼaybʼum ix.
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For instance the word "water" and the assertion water(X) may be associated with the three predicates clear(X), liquid(X) and tasteless(X).
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In this area, ECM-constructions should not be confused with control constructions, since control predicates semantically select their object (e.g., They told us to start).
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Jim believed her to have said it. \- believes is a raising- to-object verb. The control predicates ask and force semantically select their object arguments, whereas the raising-to-object verbs do not. Instead, the object of the raising verb appears to have "risen" from the subject position of the embedded predicate, in this case from the embedded predicates to read and to have said.
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Syntactic coordination and subordination is built by combining predicates in the superordinate moods (indicative, interrogative, imperative and optative) with predicates in the subordinate moods (conditional, causative, contemporative and participial). The contemporative has both coordinative and subordinative functions, depending on the context.Fortescue(1984) p. 34 The relative order of the main clause and its coordinate or subordinate clauses is relatively free and is subject mostly to pragmatic concerns.
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In the monadic second-order logic of graphs, the variables represent objects of up to four types: vertices, edges, sets of vertices, and sets of edges. There are two main variations of monadic second-order graph logic: MSO1 in which only vertex and vertex set variables are allowed, and MSO2 in which all four types of variables are allowed. The predicates on these variables include equality testing, membership testing, and either vertex-edge incidence (if both vertex and edge variables are allowed) or adjacency between pairs of vertices (if only vertex variables are allowed). Additional variations in the definition allow additional predicates such as modular counting predicates.
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Such examples illustrate that distinguishing predicates, arguments, and adjuncts can become difficult and there are many cases where a given expression functions in more ways than one.
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The standard, non-arrow dependency edges identify Sam, Susan, that very long story that you like, etc. as arguments (of one of the predicates in the sentence).
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The existential quantifier "there exists" expresses the idea that the claim "a is a philosopher and a is not a scholar" holds for some choice of a. The predicates "is a philosopher" and "is a scholar" each take a single variable. In general, predicates can take several variables. In the first-order sentence "Socrates is the teacher of Plato", the predicate "is the teacher of" takes two variables.
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Ontological dualism makes dual commitments about the nature of existence as it relates to mind and matter, and can be divided into three different types: # Substance dualism asserts that mind and matter are fundamentally distinct kinds of foundations. # Property dualism suggests that the ontological distinction lies in the differences between properties of mind and matter (as in emergentism). # Predicate dualism claims the irreducibility of mental predicates to physical predicates.
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Predicate dualism is a view espoused by such non-reductive physicalists as Donald Davidson and Jerry Fodor, who maintain that while there is only one ontological category of substances and properties of substances (usually physical), the predicates that we use to describe mental events cannot be redescribed in terms of (or reduced to) physical predicates of natural languages.Davidson, Donald. 1980. Essays on Actions and Events. Oxford University Press. .
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The approach to predicates illustrated with these sentences is widespread in Europe, particularly in Germany. This modern understanding of predicates is compatible with the dependency grammar approach to sentence structure, which places the finite verb as the root of all structure, e.g.Dependency trees like the one here can be found in, for instance, . ::Predicate tree 2' The matrix predicate is (again) marked in blue and its two arguments are in green.
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Other predicates, such as "is an individual", or "has some properties" are uninformative or vacuous. There is some resistance to regarding such so-called "Cambridge properties" as legitimate.
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This is often described as quantification over "sets" because monadic predicates are equivalent in expressive power to sets (the set of elements for which the predicate is true).
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A predicate F is distributive if, whenever some things are F, each one of them is F. But in standard logic, every monadic predicate is distributive. Yet such sentences also seem innocent of any existential assumptions, and do not involve quantification. So one can propose a unified account of plural terms that allows for both distributive and non-distributive satisfaction of predicates, while defending this position against the "singularist" assumption that such predicates are predicates of sets of individuals (or of mereological sums). Several writers have suggested that plural logic opens the prospect of simplifying the foundations of mathematics, avoiding the paradoxes of set theory, and simplifying the complex and unintuitive axiom sets needed in order to avoid them.
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Oded Goldreich and Leonid Levin. Hard-core Predicates for any One-Way Function. In the proceedings of the 21st ACM Symp. on Theory of Computing, pages 25-32, 1989.
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Relationships between predicates can be stated using logical connectives. Consider, for example, the first-order formula "if a is a philosopher, then a is a scholar". This formula is a conditional statement with "a is a philosopher" as its hypothesis, and "a is a scholar" as its conclusion. The truth of this formula depends on which object is denoted by a, and on the interpretations of the predicates "is a philosopher" and "is a scholar".
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Philosophers often regard fuzziness as a particular kind of vagueness,Susan Haack, Deviant logic, fuzzy logic - beyond the formalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. and consider that "no specific assignment of semantic values to vague predicates, not even a fuzzy one, can fully satisfy our conception of what the extensions of vague predicates are like".Matti Eklund, "Vagueness and Second-Level Indeterminacy", in: Richard Dietz & Sebastiano Moruzzi (eds.), Cuts and clouds.
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The formal system described above is sometimes called the pure monadic predicate calculus, where "pure" signifies the absence of function letters. Allowing monadic function letters changes the logic only superficially, whereas admitting even a single binary function letter results in an undecidable logic. Monadic second-order logic allows predicates of higher arity in formulas, but restricts second-order quantification to unary predicates, i.e. the only second-order variables allowed are subset variables.
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The principle of moral supervenience states that moral predicates (e.g., permissible, obligatory, forbidden, etc.), and hence moral facts attributing these predicates to various particular actions or action-types, supervene, or are defined by and depend, upon non-moral facts. The moral facts are hence said to be supervenient facts, and the non-moral facts the supervenience base of the former. The principle is sometimes qualified to say that moral facts supervene upon natural facts, i.e.
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Raising predicates/verbs can be identified in part by the fact that they alternatively take a full clause dependent and can take part in it-extraposition,Concerning the ability of raising predicates to appear with full clausal arguments, see Bach (1974:149), Borsley (1996:127f.), Carnie (2007:291). e.g. ::a. Tom seems to have won the race. ::b. It seems that Tom won the race. - Raising-to- subject verb seem occurs with it-extraposition ::a.
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Complex predicates based on generic auxiliaries as an areal feature in Northeastern Africa. Studies in Africamn Linguistic Typology ed. by F. K. Erhard Voeltz, pp. 131-154. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
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Regular languages over nested words are exactly the set of languages described by monadic second-order logic with two unary predicates call and return, linear successor and the matching relation ↝.
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While the predicate cannot be construed as a constituent in the formal sense, it is a catena. Barring a discontinuity, predicates and their arguments are always catenae in dependency structures.
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211-225, 2004. 16 Suryanto, H. and Compton, P. Invented Predicates to Reduce Knowledge Acquisition Effort. in Proceedings of the IJCAI-2003 Workshop on Mixed-Initiative Intelligent Systems. Acapulco, p.
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In this section, Goodman's new riddle of induction is outlined in order to set the context for his introduction of the predicates grue and bleen and thereby illustrate their philosophical importance.
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A predicate may be called with exactly one argument using the syntax: predicate argument Queries are submitted using this syntax, with predicate being `?` (or one of the other query-related predicates).
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From the model theoretic point of view, the Rado graph is an example of a saturated model. This is just a logical formulation of the property that the Rado graph contains all finite graphs as induced subgraphs. In this context, a type is a set of variables together with a collection of constraints on the values of some or all of the predicates determined by those variables; a complete type is a type that constrains all of the predicates determined by its variables. In the theory of graphs, the variables represent vertices and the predicates are the adjacencies between vertices, so a complete type specifies whether an edge is present or absent between every pair of vertices represented by the given variables.
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In the mathematical fields of graph theory and finite model theory, the logic of graphs deals with formal specifications of graph properties using formulas of mathematical logic. There are several variations in the types of logical operation that can be used in these formulas. The first order logic of graphs concerns formulas in which the variables and predicates concern individual vertices and edges of a graph, while monadic second order graph logic allows quantification over sets of vertices or edges. Logics based on least fixed point operators allow more general predicates over tuples of vertices, but these predicates can only be constructed through fixed-point operators, restricting their power to an intermediate level between first order and monadic second order.
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In logic, the formal languages used to create expressions consist of symbols, which can be broadly divided into constants and variables. The constants of a language can further be divided into logical symbols and non-logical symbols (sometimes also called logical and non-logical constants). The non-logical symbols of a language of first-order logic consist of predicates and individual constants. These include symbols that, in an interpretation, may stand for individual constants, variables, functions, or predicates.
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Design predicates are a method invented by Thomas McCabe, to quantify the complexity of the integration of two units of software. Each of the four types of design predicates have an associated integration complexity rating. For pieces of code that apply more than one design predicate, integration complexity ratings can be combined. The sum of the integration complexity for a unit of code, plus one, is the maximum number of test cases necessary to exercise the integration fully.
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Any object, however, must have Categories as its characteristics if it is to be an object of experience. It is presupposed or assumed that anything that is a specific object must possess Categories as its properties because Categories are predicates of an object in general. An object in general does not have all of the Categories as predicates at one time. For example, a general object cannot have the qualitative Categories of reality and negation at the same time.
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Predicates, written as expressions in square brackets, can be used to filter a node-set according to some condition. For example, `a` returns a node-set (all the `a` elements which are children of the context node), and `a[@href='help.php']` keeps only those elements having an `href` attribute with the value `help.php`. There is no limit to the number of predicates in a step, and they need not be confined to the last step in an XPath.
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Generalized DBSCAN (GDBSCAN) is a generalization by the same authors to arbitrary "neighborhood" and "dense" predicates. The ε and ' parameters are removed from the original algorithm and moved to the predicates. For example, on polygon data, the "neighborhood" could be any intersecting polygon, whereas the density predicate uses the polygon areas instead of just the object count. Various extensions to the DBSCAN algorithm have been proposed, including methods for parallelization, parameter estimation, and support for uncertain data.
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In linguistics, selection denotes the ability of predicates to determine the semantic content of their arguments.For discussions of selection in general, see Chomsky (1965), Horrocks (1986:35f.), van Riemsdijk and Williams (1986:130), Cowper (1992:58), Napoli (1993:260ff.), Carnie (2007:220-221). Predicates select their arguments, which means they limit the semantic content of their arguments. One sometimes draws a distinction between types of selection; one acknowledges both s(emantic)-selection and c(ategory)-selection.
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On the other hand, a modern view of the problem of multiple generality in traditional logic concludes that quantifiers cannot nest usefully if there are no polyadic predicates to relate the bound variables.
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If we add that rule and ask what things are animals? ?- animal(X). X = crookshanks Due to the relational nature of many built-in predicates, they can typically be used in several directions.
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These predicates are not given a relational meaning and are only useful for the side-effects they exhibit on the system. For example, the predicate `write/1` displays a term on the screen.
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The use of the various modalities can be identified based by learning to respond to subtle shifts in breathing, body posture, accessing cues, gestures, eye movement and language patterns such as sensory predicates.
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The standard provides comparison predicates to compare one floating-point datum to another in the supported arithmetic format. Any comparison with a NaN is treated as unordered. −0 and +0 compare as equal.
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A line of identity connecting two or more predicates can be read as asserting that the predicates share a common variable. The presence of lines of identity requires modifying the alpha rules of Equivalence. The beta graphs can be read as a system in which all formula are to be taken as closed, because all variables are implicitly quantified. If the "shallowest" part of a line of identity has even (odd) depth, the associated variable is tacitly existentially (universally) quantified.
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The catena unit is suited to an understanding of predicates and their arguments.For a discussion and many illustrations of predicates as catenae, see Osborne (2005: 260-270) \-- a predicate is a property that is assigned to an argument or as a relationship that is established between arguments. A given predicate appears in sentence structure as a catena, and so do its arguments. A standard matrix predicate in a sentence consists of a content verb and potentially one or more auxiliary verbs.
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A rule is perhaps one of the simplest notions in computer science: it is an IF - THEN construct. If some condition (the IF part) that is checkable in some dataset holds, then the conclusion (the THEN part) is processed. Deriving somewhat from its roots in logic, rule systems use a notion of predicates that hold or not of some data object or objects. For example, the fact that two people are married might be represented with predicates as MARRIED(LISA,JOHN).
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In circuit complexity, FO(ARB) where ARB is the set of all predicates, the logic where we can use arbitrary predicates, can be shown to be equal to AC0, the first class in the AC hierarchy. Indeed, there is a natural translation from FO's symbols to nodes of circuits, with \forall, \exists being \land and \lor of size . FO(BIT) is the restriction of AC0 family of circuit constructible in alternating logarithmic time. FO(<) is the set of star-free languages.
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His address was published in the Conference Proceedings (The Theory of Models, North-Holland Publishing Co., 1965) as "On the denumerable models of theories with extra predicates", pp 376–389. In this paper he characterizes the countable ("denumerable") structures which can be made into models of a theory by adding interpretations of the extra predicates used in defining the theory. His characterization involves (infinite) expressions beginning with an infinite sequence of alternating quantifiers. Such expressions are now interpreted using infinite two-person games.
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Formally speaking, an SMT instance is a formula in first-order logic, where some function and predicate symbols have additional interpretations, and SMT is the problem of determining whether such a formula is satisfiable. In other words, imagine an instance of the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) in which some of the binary variables are replaced by predicates over a suitable set of non- binary variables. A predicate is a binary-valued function of non-binary variables. Example predicates include linear inequalities (e.g.
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Semantic representations (SemR) in meaning–text theory consist primarily of a web-like semantic structure (SemS) which combines with other semantic-level structures (most notably the semantic-communicative structure [SemCommS], which represents what is commonly referred to as "information structure" in other frameworks). The SemS itself consists of a network of predications, represented as nodes with arrows running from predicate nodes to argument node(s). Arguments can be shared by multiple predicates, and predicates can themselves be arguments of other predicates. Nodes generally correspond to lexical and grammatical meanings as these are directly expressed by items in the lexicon or by inflectional means, but the theory allows the option of decomposing meanings into more fine-grained representation via processes of semantic paraphrasing, which are also key to dealing with synonymy and translation-equivalencies between languages.
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However, this typing mechanism eliminates the need for predicates such as isPerson(X) or isLocation(Y), and need not consider livesAt(A,B) when A and B are defined to be person variables, reducing the search space. Additionally, typing can improve the accuracy of the resulting rule by eliminating from consideration impossible literals such as livesAt(A,B) which may nevertheless appear to have a high information gain. Rather than implementing trivial predicates such as equals(X,X) or between(X,X,Y), FOCL introduces implicit constraints on variables, further reducing search space. Some predicates must have all variables unique, others must have commutativity (adjacent(X,Y) is equivalent to adjacent(Y,X)), still others may require that a particular variable be present in the current clause, and many other potential constraints.
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Svenonius' reputation as a mathematical model theorist was established with the publication of three papers in Theoria in 1959 and 1960: # \aleph_0-categoricity in first-order predicate calculus, # A theorem on permutations in models, # On minimal models of first-order systems. In particular, paper (2) contains what is now called "Svenonius' Theorem", an important result on definability of predicates in first order theories. Even the statement of this result requires mathematical model- theoretic concepts. It states that if the interpretation of a predicate in any model of a first-order theory is invariant under permutations ("automorphisms") of the model fixing the other predicates, then the interpretation of that predicate is definable in every model by a formula involving only the other predicates; furthermore only finitely many such defining formulas are required.
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In computer science, a function accepting a variable number of arguments is called variadic. In logic and philosophy, predicates or relations accepting a variable number of arguments are called multigrade, anadic, or variably polyadic.
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Adjectives follow nouns they modify, function as predicates, or stand independently as nominal heads. Adverbs generally directly precede verbs, and reduplication is generally productive for adverbs of time (e.g. nám, "year" → nám-nám, "yearly").
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An Interview with David McGoveran. "Database Debunkings". His solution, based on relation predicates, formed the basis for the algorithms found in The Third Manifesto (Christopher J. Date, Hugh Darwen) for updating virtual relations (e.g.
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The following overview is a breakdown of the current divisions: ::Adjunct picture 1 This overview acknowledges three types of entities: predicates, arguments, and adjuncts, whereby arguments are further divided into obligatory and optional ones.
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See, e.g., Brown v. Ohio, 432 U.S. 161 (1977). Blockburger is the default rule, unless the legislature intends to depart; for example, Continuing Criminal Enterprise (CCE) may be punished separately from its predicates,Garrett v.
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Predicates may be of any lexical category. There may be additional arguments added to a sentence in Okanagan via complementizers. Okanagan is unique among the majority of Salish languages for the inclusion of the complementizer.
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Languages generated by LMGs contain the context-free languages as a proper subset, as every CFG is an LMG where all predicates have arity 0 and no production rule contains variable bindings or slash deletions.
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Access date: May 29, 2009. Liz Wendelbo, a member of Xeno & Oaklander, is also a filmmaker, positing "cold cinema" as filmmaking that "predicates resistance to cinema as a virtual medium". Access date: May 29, 2009.
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In contrast to valency-increasing mechanisms, valency-decreasing mechanisms modify predicates so as to transform valency 2 and 3 to lower valencies. There are three valency-decreasing voices, they are: middle, reciprocal, and anti-passive.
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There are additional predicates for functions with multiple inputs; the relation :T_k(e, i_1, \ldots, i_k, x), holds if x encodes a halting computation of the function with index e on the inputs i1,...,ik.
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It is therefore possible to define the value function F\\!\left(x\right) as the unique object y such that xFy – i.e.: x is F-related to y such that the relation f holds between x and y – or as the unique object y such that \left(x, y\right) \in F. The presence in both theories of functional predicates which are not sets makes it useful to allow the notation F\\!\left(x\right) both for sets F and for important functional predicates.
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Single verb as the head of predicates is infrequent in the corpus, as most heads of predicates (of both matrix and dependent clauses) are serial verb constructions. In addition, there is no clear distinction between copular clauses and nonverbal clauses The clauses inside Poula complex sentences have one matrix clause and one or more dependent clauses. In such constructions, typically, Poula verbs in dependent clauses are marked differently than the verbs in matrix clauses. Poula nonfinite dependent clauses mostly occur to the left of matrix clause.
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This is also different from the approach that is taken by the fluent calculus, where a state can be a collection of known facts, that is, a possibly incomplete description of the universe. In the original version of the situation calculus, fluents are not reified. In other words, conditions that can change are represented by predicates and not by functions. Actually, McCarthy and Hayes defined a fluent as a function that depends on the situation, but they then proceeded always using predicates to represent fluents.
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Berkeley declared that his intention was to make an inquiry into the First Principles of Human Knowledge in order to discover the principles that have led to doubt, uncertainty, absurdity, and contradiction in philosophy. In order to prepare the reader, he discussed two topics that lead to errors. First, he claimed that the mind cannot conceive abstract ideas. We can't have an idea of some abstract thing that is common to many particular ideas and therefore has, at the same time, many different predicates and no predicates.
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An SMT instance is a generalization of a Boolean SAT instance in which various sets of variables are replaced by predicates from a variety of underlying theories. SMT formulas provide a much richer modeling language than is possible with Boolean SAT formulas. For example, an SMT formula allows us to model the datapath operations of a microprocessor at the word rather than the bit level. By comparison, answer set programming is also based on predicates (more precisely, on atomic sentences created from atomic formula).
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She refuses _to consider the issue_. ::a. He attempted _to explain his concerns_. The to-infinitives to consider and to explain clearly qualify as predicates (because they can be negated). They do not, however, take overt subjects.
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Tesnière discusses valency and diathesis in detail in chapters 97-119 (1966:238-280). The concept of valency is now widely acknowledged in the study of syntax, even most phrase structure grammars acknowledging the valency of predicates.
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This will minimize computational cost in common cases where high precision is not needed.Jonathan R. Shewchuk, Adaptive Precision Floating-Point Arithmetic and Fast Robust Geometric Predicates, Discrete and Computational Geometry, vol. 18, pp. 305–363 (October 1997).
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FOIL learns function-free Horn clauses, a subset of first- order predicate calculus. Given positive and negative examples of some concept and a set of background-knowledge predicates, FOIL inductively generates a logical concept definition or rule for the concept. The induced rule must not involve any constants (color(X,red) becomes color(X,Y), red(Y)) or function symbols, but may allow negated predicates; recursive concepts are also learnable. Like the ID3 algorithm, FOIL hill climbs using a metric based on information theory to construct a rule that covers the data.
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The comparison of a subject with a remote, mediate predicate occurs through three judgments: #Luminous is a predicate of star; #Star is a predicate of sun; #Luminous is a predicate of sun (the original judgment). This can be stated as an affirmative ratiocination: Every star is luminous; the sun is a star; consequently the sun is luminous. Note: Kant's examples utilized obscure subjects such as Soul, Spirit, and God and their supposed predicates. These do not facilitate easy comprehension because these subjects are not encountered in everyday experience and consequently their predicates are not evident.
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The ontological fact that something has a property is typically represented in language by applying a predicate to a subject. However, taking any grammatical predicate whatsoever to be a property, or to have a corresponding property, leads to certain difficulties, such as Russell's paradox and the Grelling–Nelson paradox. Moreover, a real property can imply a host of true predicates: for instance, if X has the property of weighing more than 2 kilos, then the predicates "..weighs more than 1.9 kilos", "..weighs more than 1.8 kilos", etc., are all true of it.
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If the negated query can be refuted, i.e., an instantiation for all free variables is found that makes the union of clauses and the singleton set consisting of the negated query false, it follows that the original query, with the found instantiation applied, is a logical consequence of the program. This makes Prolog (and other logic programming languages) particularly useful for database, symbolic mathematics, and language parsing applications. Because Prolog allows impure predicates, checking the truth value of certain special predicates may have some deliberate side effect, such as printing a value to the screen.
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Theories of truth may be described according to several dimensions of description that affect the character of the predicate "true". The truth predicates that are used in different theories may be classified by the number of things that have to be mentioned in order to assess the truth of a sign, counting the sign itself as the first thing. In formal logic, this number is called the arity of the predicate. The kinds of truth predicates may then be subdivided according to any number of more specific characters that various theorists recognize as important.
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The intern rules created these match hypotheses because all the arguments were entities. If the arguments were functions or attributes instead of entities, the predicates would be expressed as: `transmit torque (inputgear gear) (secondgear gear) (p3)` `transmit signal (switch circuit) (div10 circuit) (p4)` These additional predicates make inputgear, secondgear, switch, and div10 functions or attributes depending on the value defined in the language input file. The representation also contains additional entities for gear and circuit. Depending on what type inputgear, secondgear, switch, and div10 are, their meanings change.
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Algebraic Logic Functional programming language, also known as ALF, is a programming language which combines functional and logic programming techniques. Its foundation is Horn clause logic with equality which consists of predicates and Horn clauses for logic programming, and functions and equations for functional programming. ALF was designed to be genuine integration of both programming paradigms, and thus any functional expression can be used in a goal literal and arbitrary predicates can occur in conditions of equations. ALF's operational semantics is based on the resolution rule to solve literals and narrowing to evaluate functional expressions.
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In data management, completeness is metaknowledge that can be asserted for parts of the KB via completeness assertions. As example, a knowledge base may contain complete information for predicates R and S, while nothing is asserted for predicate T. Then consider the following queries: Q1 :- R(x), S(x) Q2 :- R(x), T(x) For Query 1, the knowledge base would return a complete answer, as only predicates that are themselves complete are intersected. For Query 2, no such conclusion could be made, as predicate T is potentially incomplete.
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In fuzzy logic and modern many-valued logic, predicates are the characteristic functions of a probability distribution. That is, the strict true/false valuation of the predicate is replaced by a quantity interpreted as the degree of truth.
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This operation accepts a series of index ranges on indexes from the same table and returns a temporary table of primary keys that can be used to navigate to the base table records that satisfy all index predicates.
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"The Status of Content Revisited." Pacific Philosophical Quarterly. 71: 264-78. Georges Rey and Michael Devitt reply to this objection by invoking deflationary semantic theories that avoid analysing predicates like "x is true" as expressing a real property.
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Later philosophers have independently inferred that McTaggart must have understood tense as monadic because English tenses are normally expressed by the non- relational singular predicates "is past", "is present" and "is future", as noted by R. D. Ingthorsson.
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The most important predicates are #$isa and #$genls. The first one (#$isa) describes that one item is an instance of some collection (i.e.: specialization), the second one (#$genls) that one collection is a subcollection of another one (i.e.: generalization).
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Pykobjê widely uses the diminutive suffix -re and the augmentative suffix -teh, which may combine with nouns and descriptive predicates. Instrumental/locative nominalizations are formed by means of the suffix -xỳ, which attached to the nonfinite forms of verbs.
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In Guarani, valency increases occur by modifying the predicates in either valency 1 or valency 2 to the consecutive valency (i.e. valency 2 and 3 respectively for valency 1 and valency 2) (as cited in Estigarribia & Pinta, p. 50).
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Creoles, contact, and language change: Linguistic and social implications (Vol. 27). John Benjamins Publishing. Here are some examples of the equative clause type in Haitian Creole (predicates are in bold): (7) Ou sé jan mwen. 'You are my friend.
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Ivilyuat is an agglutinative language. It uses various affixes, alternating between prefixes and suffixes, to change the meaning and grammatical function of words. As well, Ivilyuat leans heavily on descriptive properties in the construction of nouns, turning predicates into nouns.
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It can support recursive predicates through SLG-resolution or linear tabling. In a multi-threaded Prolog system tabling results could be kept private to a thread or shared among all threads. And in incremental tabling, tabling might react to changes.
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Terminology Databases, when these contain Terms and Vocabularies, these become valuable for Ontologies and in turn ontologies can help process associated triples or complex predicates thus going deeper than hierarchies or keys in RDBMS. Semantic mapping can also enhance performance.
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Pragmatic theories of truth developed from the earlier ideas of ancient philosophy, the Scholastics, and Immanuel Kant. Pragmatic ideas about truth are often confused with the quite distinct notions of "logic and inquiry", "judging what is true", and "truth predicates".
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Full predication has a set of predicate registers for storing predicates (which allows multiple nested or sequential branches to be simultaneously eliminated) and most instructions in the architecture have a register specifier field to specify which predicate register supplies the predicate.
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Any rule may have a probability interval (called a support pair) associated with it by appending `:(min max)` to it, where min and max are the minimum and maximum probabilities. Fril includes predicates that calculate the support for a given query.
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IndoWordNet is highly similar to EuroWordNet. However, the pivot language is Hindi which, of course, is linked to the English WordNet. Also typical Indian language phenomena like complex predicates and causative verbs are captured in IndoWordNet. IndoWordNet is publicly browsable.
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In the philosophy of language, predication is distinguished from the linguistic predication with the notion that a predicable is a metaphysical item and is ontologically predicated of its subject. The subjects are also distinguished: in linguistic predication, a subject is a grammatical item while in philosophy, it is an item in the ontology. The Aristotelian conceptualization of predication, for instance, focused on the metaphysical configurations that underlie sentences. There are scholars who note that Aristotle's thought on the subject can be distinguished in two levels: ontological (where predicates pertain to things); and, logical (where predicates are something that is said of things).
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Loglan has several sets of conjunctions to express the fourteen possible logical connectives. One set is used to combine predicate expressions ("e" = and, "a" = or, "o" = if and only if), and another set is used to combine predicates to make more complex predicates ("ce", "ca", "co"). The sentence "la Kim matma e sadji" means "Kim is a mother and is wise", while "la Kim matma ce sadji vedma" means "Kim is a motherly and wise seller", or "Kim sells in a motherly and wise manner". In the latter sentence, "ce" is used to combine matma and sadji into one predicate which modifies vedma.
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Unlike FOIL, which does not put typing constraints on its variables, FOCL uses typing as an inexpensive way of incorporating a simple form of background knowledge. For example, a predicate livesAt(X,Y) may have types livesAt(person, location). Additional predicates may need to be introduced, though – without types, nextDoor(X,Y) could determine whether person X and person Y live next door to each other, or whether two locations are next door to each other. With types, two different predicates nextDoor(person, person) and nextDoor(location, location) would need to exist for this functionality to be maintained.
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A substantive difference between the TSQL2 proposal and what was adopted in SQL:2011 is that there are no hidden columns in the SQL:2011 treatment, nor does it have a new data type for intervals; instead two date or timestamp columns can be bound together using a `PERIOD FOR` declaration. Another difference is replacement of the controversial (prefix) statement modifiers from TSQL2 with a set of temporal predicates. Other features of SQL:2011 standard related to temporal databases are automatic time period splitting, temporal primary keys, temporal referential integrity, temporal predicates with Allen's interval algebra and time-sliced and sequenced queries.
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Although green can be given a definition in terms of the locational predicates grue and bleen, this is irrelevant to the fact that green meets the criterion for being a qualitative predicate whereas grue is merely locational. He concludes that if some x's under examination—like emeralds—satisfy both a qualitative and a locational predicate, but projecting these two predicates yields conflicting predictions, namely, whether emeralds examined after time t shall appear grue or green, we should project the qualitative predicate, in this case green.R. G. Swinburne, 'Grue', Analysis, Vol. 28, No. 4 (March 1968), pp. 123-128.
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This classical understanding of predicates was adopted more or less directly into Latin and Greek grammars; and from there, it made its way into English grammars, where it is applied directly to the analysis of sentence structure. It is also the understanding of predicates as defined in English-language dictionaries. The predicate is one of the two main parts of a sentence (the other being the subject, which the predicate modifies). The predicate must contain a verb, and the verb requires or permits other elements to complete the predicate, or it precludes them from doing so.
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In contrast, trial and error predicates, limiting recursive functions and limiting partial recursive functions present syntactic systems of symbols with formal rules for their manipulation. Simple inductive Turing machines and general Turing machines are related to limiting partial recursive functions and trial and error predicates as Turing machines are related to partial recursive functions and lambda- calculus. Note that only simple inductive Turing machines have the same structure (but different functioning semantics of the output mode) as Turing machines. Other types of inductive Turing machines have an essentially more advanced structure due to the structured memory and more powerful instructions.
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A relational database is the classical form for information storage. It's working with different tables which consist of rows. The well known SQL- language is able to retrieve information from a database. In contrast, the RDF triple storage is working with logical predicates.
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In addition, active and stative verbal predicates will have the positive future is marked by the preverbal particle ka rao. For example, the phrase Na ma'asu means "I slept". However the similar phrase Na=ka rao ma'asu translates to "I will sleep".
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Warlpiri verbs of change and causation: The thematic core. In Mengistu Amberber, Brett Baker and Mark Harvey (Ed.), Complex predicates: Cross-linguistic perspectives on event structure (pp. 167–236) Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Laughren, Mary, Pensalfini, Rob and Mylne, Tom (2005).
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Four varieties of dualist causal interaction. The arrows indicate the direction of causations. Mental and physical states are shown in red and blue, respectively. This part is about causation between properties and states of the thing under study, not its substances or predicates.
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Semantic dependencies are understood in terms of predicates and their arguments.Concerning semantic dependencies, see Melʹc̆uk (2003:192f.). The arguments of a predicate are semantically dependent on that predicate. Often, semantic dependencies overlap with and point in the same direction as syntactic dependencies.
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A cut (`!`) inside a rule will prevent Prolog from backtracking any predicates behind the cut: predicate(X) :- one(X), !, two(X). will fail if the first-found value of `X` for which `one(X)` is true leads to `two(X)` being false.
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Additionally there are specific relationship types like "deputyship" or "informed_by". These types can be extended by the modeler. All relationships can be context sensitive through the usage of predicates. On the type level organizational structures are described in a more general manner.
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Saint Francis predicates to Ezzelino da Romano, ca. 1690-1700 Giuseppe Palmieri (1674 - May 18, 1740) was an Italian painter of the late Baroque period. Palmieri was born in Genoa. Orphaned as a baby, he came into the care of an uncle.
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There are advantages and disadvantages to this simpler syntax. On the positive side, it renders predicates such as Prolog's `=..` (which maps between lists and clauses) unnecessary, as a clause is a list. On the other hand, it is more difficult to read.
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A converb depends syntactically on another verb form, but is not its argument. It can be an adjunct, an adverbial, but it cannot be the only predicate of a simple sentence or clausal argument. It cannot depend on predicates such as 'order' (Nedjalkov 1995: 97).
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Ohio, 432 U.S. 161 (1977). Blockburger is the default rule, unless the legislatively intends to depart; for example, Continuing Criminal Enterprise (CCE) may be punished separately from its predicates,Garrett v. United States, 471 U.S. 773 (1985); Rutledge v. United States, 517 U.S. 292 (1996).
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"Psychological Predicates," in W. H. Capitan and D. D. Merrill (eds.), Art, Mind, and Religion, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 37–48; Putnam, Hilary. Representation and Reality. 1988. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; "Multiple Realizability" entry at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by John Bickle.
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Thus, unlike English, where pronouns are an independent part of the language, personal pronouns are included under the noun class in Kéo (Baird, 2002, pp. 97). Furthermore, all five of these subclasses, including personal pronouns, may be used as nominal predicates (Baird, 2002, pp. 101).
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The Akuwẽ languages commonly employ different lexemes for singular, dual, and plural predicates. Although the lexicalized expression of verbal number is pervasive in the Jê family in general, the Akuwẽ languages are remarkable in having triads (rather than dyads) of verbs contrasting in number.
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In the nominal partitive, the first "friend" is ellipsed, becoming 13b), whereas the possessive partitive ellipses the second instance of "friend", yielding 13c).Zamparelli, R. (1998). A Theory of Kinds, Partitives and of/z Possessives. Possessors, Predicates, and Movement in the Determiner Phrase, 22, 259.
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Selection can be closely associated with thematic relations (e.g. agent, patient, theme, goal, etc.).Concerning the connection between selection and thematic relations/roles, see Ouhalla (125). By limiting the semantic content of their arguments, predicates are determining the thematic relations/roles that their arguments bear.
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Grammar can be described as a system of categories and a set of rules that determine how categories combine to form different aspects of meaning. Languages differ widely in whether they are encoded through the use of categories or lexical units. However, several categories are so common as to be nearly universal. Such universal categories include the encoding of the grammatical relations of participants and predicates by grammatically distinguishing between their relations to a predicate, the encoding of temporal and spatial relations on predicates, and a system of grammatical person governing reference to and distinction between speakers and addressees and those about whom they are speaking.
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The next examples illustrate how predicates and their arguments are manifest in synonymous sentences across languages: First picture illustrating predicate-argument structures The words in green are the main predicate and those in red are that predicate's arguments. The single-word predicate said in the English sentence on the left corresponds to the two-word predicate ' in German. Each predicate shown and each of its arguments shown is a catena. The next example is similar, but this time a French sentence is used to make the point: Second picture illustrating predicate argument structures The matrix predicates are again in green, and their arguments in red.
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Many treatments of predicate logic don't allow functional predicates, only relational predicates. This is useful, for example, in the context of proving metalogical theorems (such as Gödel's incompleteness theorems), where one doesn't want to allow the introduction of new functional symbols (nor any other new symbols, for that matter). But there is a method of replacing functional symbols with relational symbols wherever the former may occur; furthermore, this is algorithmic and thus suitable for applying most metalogical theorems to the result. Specifically, if F has domain type T and codomain type U, then it can be replaced with a predicate P of type (T,U).
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It finds matches only between the transmit predicates and between torque and signal. Additionally, the structural-evaluation scores for the remaining two matches decrease. In order to get the two predicates to match, p3 would need to be replaced by p5, which is demonstrated below. `transmit torque (inputgear gear) (div10 gear) (p5)` Since the true-analogy rule set identifies that the div10 attributes are the same between p5 and p4 and because the div10 attributes are both part of the higher-relation match between torque and signal, SME makes a match between (div10 gear) and (div10 circuit) — which leads to a match between gear and circuit.
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Some philosophers have decided, however, that it is important to exclude certain predicates (or purported predicates) from the principle in order to avoid either triviality or contradiction. An example (detailed below) is the predicate that denotes whether an object is equal to x (often considered a valid predicate). As a consequence, there are a few different versions of the principle in the philosophical literature, of varying logical strength—and some of them are termed "the strong principle" or "the weak principle" by particular authors, in order to distinguish between them. Willard Van Orman Quine thought that the failure of substitution in intensional contexts (e.g.
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The execution of actions is represented by the function result: the execution of the action a in the situation s is the situation result(a,s). The effects of actions are expressed by formulae relating fluents in situation s and fluents in situations result(a,s). For example, that the action of opening the door results in the door being open if not locked is represented by: : eg locked(door,s) \rightarrow open(door, result(opens,s)) The predicates locked and open represent the conditions of a door being locked and open, respectively. Since these condition may vary, they are represented by predicates with a situation argument.
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The boolean hierarchy is the hierarchy of boolean combinations (intersection, union and complementation) of NP sets. Equivalently, the boolean hierarchy can be described as the class of boolean circuits over NP predicates. A collapse of the boolean hierarchy would imply a collapse of the polynomial hierarchy.
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Assertions are executable predicates which are placed in a program that allow runtime checks of the program. Design by contract is a development approach in which preconditions and postconditions are included for each routine. Defensive programming is the protection a routine from being broken by invalid inputs.
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A predicate can also have its own predicate. In the example, the predicate "four-footed" can, itself, have the further predicate "animal." One of these predicates is immediately and directly connected to the subject or thing. The other predicate is mediate and indirectly connected to the subject.
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The concept is a predicate that has been abstracted from the concepts that are contained under it. Whatever is inconsistent with this concept is inconsistent with the subject and therefore also with the predicates of the subject. This is based on the rule of negative ratiocination.
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The punctuation of compound modifiers in English depends on their grammatical role. Attributive compounds—modifiers within the noun phrase—are typically hyphenated, whereas the same compounds used as predicates will typically not be (if they are temporary compounds), unless they are permanent compounds attested as dictionary headwords.
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The story knowledge database may use subjects, predicates and objects to refer to story fragments. The system then assists the user in matching between story fragments and animation fragments. Animation databases can also be used for the generation of visual scenes using humanoid models.Takaya Yuizona et al.
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The notion of multigrade relation/predicate has appeared as early as the 1940s and has been notably used by Quine (cf. Morton 1975). Plural quantification deals with formalizing the quantification over the variable-length arguments of such predicates, e.g. "xx cooperate" where xx is a plural variable.
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Italian Constitution: XIV final disposition. Titles of nobility shall not be recognised. The predicates of those existing before 28 October 1922 shall serve as part of the name. [...] Shortly afterwards he voted against the Chamberlain government in the debate following the British defeat at Narvik in Norway.
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The predicate P is regular if and only if all languages which can be defined in first order logic with atomic predicates for letters and the atomic predicate P are regular. The same property would hold for the monadic second order logic, and with modular quantifiers.
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Null complement anaphora elides a complete complement, whereby the elided complement is a finite clause, infinitive phrase, or prepositional phrase. The verbal predicates that can license null complement anaphora form a limited set (e.g. know, approve, refuse, decide). The elided complement cannot be a noun phrase.
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Whenever a particular event E1 is causally related to a second particular event E2, there must be, according to Davidson, a law such that (C1 & D1) -> D2, where C1 represents a set of preliminary conditions, D1 is a description of E1 which is sufficient, given C1, for an occurrence of an event of the kind D2, which represents the description of E2. The cause-law principle was intended by Davidson to take in both laws of temporal succession as well as bridge laws. Since Davidson denies that any such laws can involve psychological predicates (including such laws as "(M1 & M2) -> M3" wherein the predicates are all psychological or mixed laws such as ((M1 & M2 -> P1) and ((P1 & P2 -> M1))), it follows that such bridge laws as "P1 -> M1", "M1 -> P1" or "M1 if and only if P1" are to be excluded. However, mental predicates may be allowed in what are called "hedged laws" which are just strict laws qualified by ceteris paribus (all other things being equal) clauses.
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Independently of Gerd Gigerenzer, Vernon L. Smith has developed his own account of ecological rationality, mostly discussed in economics. The two notions are related, however Smith predicates the concept to social entities such as markets, which have evolved in a trial-and-error process to reaching an efficient outcome.
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A complete Khmer sentence consists of four basic elements—an optional topic, an optional subject, an obligatory predicate, and various adverbials and particles. The topic and subject are noun phrases, predicates are verb phrases and another noun phrase acting as an object or verbal attribute often follows the predicate.
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Archive for Mathematical Logic 53 (2014), pages 949-967. This is a system of modal logic with the "necessity" operators [0],[1],[2],…, understood as a natural series of incrementally weak provability predicates for Peano arithmetic. In "The polymodal logic of provability"G. Japaridze, "The polymodal logic of provability".
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Than is a grammatical particle analyzed as both a conjunction and a preposition in the English language. It introduces a comparison and is associated with comparatives and with words such as more, less, and fewer. Typically, it measures the force of an adjective or similar description between two predicates.
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Mally was the first logician ever to attempt an axiomatization of ethics (Mally 1926). He used five axioms, which are given below. They form a first-order theory that quantifies over propositions, and there are several predicates to understand first. !x means that x ought to be the case.
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He is to be distinguished from every other atom in the universe, with which He has no similarity. In this sense, God is ʻayn, the primordial atom, the subject of God (dhāt), beside which there is no other atom, i.e., a second subject. God constitutes the identity of predicates.
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The deviance of the b-sentences is addressed in terms of selection. The selectional restrictions of the predicates is wilting and drank are violated. When a mismatch between a selector and a selected element triggers reinterpretation of the meaning of those elements, that process is referred to as coercion.
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It is possible to apply the same results to graphs in which the vertices or edges have labels from a fixed finite set, either by augmenting the graph logic to incorporate predicates describing the labels, or by representing the labels by unquantified vertex set or edge set variables.
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Once the assembly structure(s) have been defined, then the next step is to define the context rules that apply to that content. The technique used is to identify a part of the structure by pointing to it using an XPath target locator reference, and then also applying an assertion using one of the structure predicates provided for that purpose. There are two sections to these business context rules, default rules normally apply, and conditional rules that only apply if a particular rule block evaluates to true. Rules are expressed using XPath 2.0 syntax along with an additional set of structure predicates that CAM provides that simplify the control over the structure and its information content model.
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As with English and modern Chinese, Old Chinese sentences can be analysed as a subject (a noun phrase, sometimes understood) followed by a predicate, which could be of either nominal or verbal type. Before the Classical period, nominal predicates consisted of a copular particle followed by a noun phrase: The negated copula is attested in oracle bone inscriptions, and later fused as . In the Classical period, nominal predicates were constructed with the sentence-final particle instead of the copula , but was retained as the negative form, with which was optional: The copular verb (shì) of Literary and Modern Chinese dates from the Han period. In Old Chinese the word was a near demonstrative ('this').
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The number of possible results in a boolean 9IM matrix is 29=512, and in a DE-9IM matrix is 39=6561. The percentage of these results that satisfy a specific predicate is determined as following, On usual applications the geometries intersects a priori, and the other relations are checked. The composite predicates "Intersects OR Disjoint" and "Equals OR Different" have the sum 100% (always true predicates), but "Covers OR CoveredBy" have 41%, that is not the sum, because they are not logical complements neither independent relations; idem "Contains OR Within", that have 21%. The sum 25%+12.5%=37.5% is obtained when ignoring overlapping of lines in "Crosses OR Overlaps", because the valid input sets are disjoints.
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Among concepts, again, two kinds at least must be distinguished, namely those indicated by adjectives and those indicated by verbs" (1903:44). Concept- adjectives are "predicates"; concept-verbs are "relations": "The former kind will often be called predicates or class-concepts; the latter are always or almost always relations." (1903:44) The notion of a "variable" subject appearing in a proposition: "I shall speak of the terms of a proposition as those terms, however numerous, which occur in a proposition and may be regarded as subjects about which the proposition is. It is a characteristic of the terms of a proposition that anyone of them may be replaced by any other entity without our ceasing to have a proposition.
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This section presents some characteristic properties of predicate transformers. Below, T denotes a predicate transformer (a function between two predicates on the state space) and P a predicate. For instance, T(P) may denote wp(S,P) or sp(S,P). We keep x as the variable of the state space.
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In making a verbal statement about an object, a speaker makes a judgment. A general object, that is, every object, has attributes that are contained in Kant's list of Categories. In a judgment, or verbal statement, the Categories are the predicates that can be asserted of every object and all objects.
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A simple sentence could be ', which means 'We were really frightened'. Saliba also has nonverbal clauses such as nominal clauses, existential clauses, possessive clauses and clauses with other special predicates. An example of a nominal clause would be ', which means 'we are teachers'. The next nonverbal clause is the existential clause.
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Kant himself was a proponent of the aether theory, which is mentioned in his Opus Postumum. But in whatever capacity Kant's metaphysics actually predicates the discoveries of Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell, it represented one of the first efforts to reconcile action-at-a-distance on physical rather than mathematical grounds.
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"In the 1970s, federal prosecutors began to argue that RICO was applicable to corrupt state and local government bodies."Baxter, 1983, at 325. With the exception of program bribery, all of the aforementioned offenses are predicates for liability under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO).18 U.S.C. § 1961(1).
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See for instance Chomsky's (1965) original discussion of subcategorization. Predicates do, however, c-select their subject arguments, e.g. ::Fred eats beans. The predicate eats c-selects both its subject argument Fred and its object argument beans, but as far as subcategorization is concerned, eats subcategorizes for its object argument beans only.
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This difference between c-selection and subcategorization depends crucially on the understanding of subcategorization. An approach to subcategorization that sees predicates as subcategorizing for their subject arguments as well as for their object arguments will draw no distinction between c-selection and subcategorization; the two concepts are synonymous for such approaches.
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Since Brian does not receive theta-role from leave, it only bears one theta-role, nor does PRO receive a second theta-role from persuade. Every argument only receives one theta-role, and every theta-role of the two predicates is assigned to only one argument. The sentence is thus grammatical.
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The word always precedes the predicate unless the subject is a or . The direct object marker comes before direct objects. More and markers can present new predicates or direct objects. Vocative phrases come before the main sentence and are marked with at the end of the phrase, after the addressee.
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Unlike in Prolog, statements of a Datalog program can be stated in any order. Furthermore, Datalog queries on finite sets are guaranteed to terminate, so Datalog does not have Prolog's cut operator. This makes Datalog a fully declarative language. In contrast to Prolog, Datalog # disallows complex terms as arguments of predicates, e.g.
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Once this identification has been made, the characteristic function of a set A, which always returns 1 or 0, can be viewed as a predicate that tells whether a number is in the set A. Such an identification of predicates with numeric functions will be assumed for the remainder of this article.
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Each dtype and itype may be constrained to a universe (a set of allowable values). Fril has predicates for fuzzy set operations (but does not directly support control through fuzzy logic). It is even possible to combine dtypes and itypes through some operations, as long as the dtypes contain only real numbers.
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"Part of our understanding about analogy is that it conveys a system of connected knowledge, not a mere assortment of independent facts. Such a system can be represented by an interconnected predicate structure in which higher-order predicates enforce connections among lower-order predicates. reflect this tacit preference for coherence in analogy, I propose the systematicity principle: A predicate that belongs to a mappable system of mutually interconnecting relationships is more likely to be imported into the target than is an isolated predicate." (Gentner 1983, p162-163; emphasis added) The systematicity principle helps to explain why, when comparing the atom to the solar system, we don't try to map the relative temperature of sun and the earth onto the nucleus-electron system.
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The four major word classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Only nouns can stand in argument position, only verbs and some adjectives can be used as predicates without the copula i, only adjectives can be used as attributes to nouns without further modification. The two biggest word classes by far are nouns and verbs.
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In mathematical logic, the Hilbert–Bernays provability conditions, named after David Hilbert and Paul Bernays, are a set of requirements for formalized provability predicates in formal theories of arithmetic (Smith 2007:224). These conditions are used in many proofs of Kurt Gödel's second incompleteness theorem. They are also closely related to axioms of provability logic.
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Young is more interested in the open-ended aspect of the phrase. Together with the absence of the name “Jesus” between Mk 6:30 and 8:27, it creates semantic instability. This “allows the reader to write and re-write endless predicates, since none are given.”George W. Young: Subversive Symmetry, 1999, p. 129-133.
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The term antipassive is applied to a wide range of grammatical structures and is therefore difficult to define. R. M. W. Dixon has nonetheless proposed four criteria for determining whether a construction is an antipassive:Dixon, R.M.W. (1994). Ergativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. # It applies to clauses containing traditionally transitive predicates and forms a derived intransitive.
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These two competing concepts (c-command vs. rank) have been debated extensively and they continue to be debated. C-command is a configurational notion; it is defined over concrete syntactic configurations. Syntactic rank, in contrast, is a functional notion that resides in the lexicon; it is defined over the ranking of the arguments of predicates.
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Experimental implementations have been created for Common LISP, and for Java (JPred). It allows open extension of previously declared methods at a fine-grained level, but multiple extensions with identical or overlapping predicates created by different developers may interfere with each other in unanticipated ways. In this respect it is similar to aspect-oriented programming.
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One response is to appeal to the artificially disjunctive definition of grue. The notion of predicate entrenchment is not required. Goodman said that this does not succeed. If we take grue and bleen as primitive predicates, we can define green as "grue if first observed before t and bleen otherwise", and likewise for blue.
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There is thus a world of perfect, eternal, and changeless meanings of predicates, the Forms, existing in the realm of Being outside of space and time; and the imperfect sensible world of becoming, subjects somehow in a state between being and nothing, that partakes of the qualities of the Forms, and is its instantiation.
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In linguistics, negative raising is a phenomenon that concerns the raising of negation from the embedded or subordinate clause of certain predicates to the matrix or main clause. The higher copy of the negation, in the matrix clause, is pronounced; but the semantic meaning is interpreted as though it were present in the embedded clause.
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The geometries are also associated with spatial reference systems. The standard also specifies attributes, methods and assertions with the geometries. In general, a 2D geometry is simple if it contains no self-intersection. The specification defines DE-9IM spatial predicates and several spatial operators that can be used to generate new geometries from existing geometries.
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More complex functional primitives may be defined by boolean combinations of simpler predicates. Furthermore, the theory of R-functions allow conversions of such representations into a single function inequality for any closed semi analytic set. Such a representation can be converted to a boundary representation using polygonization algorithms, for example, the marching cubes algorithm.
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By decree no. 25.766 on November 19, 1859, Ioan Bran received authorization to wear the "Lemény" and "Kozla" predicates, elevating to the Hungarian nobility. When Ioan was four years old his father died at the age of 41. He started his studies in his home village and continued with secondary studies in Blaj and Sibiu.
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The wide range of countries in which bananas grow predicates an incredible diversity in the cultures of those producing the banana worldwide. Issues with GMO acceptance rates have been identified by a Ugandan study, suggesting that other cultures may also be averse to converting their local crops to the FB920 cultivar despite the observed advantages.
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Sentences in Kwaio either have verbal predicates or do not. If a sentence has a verbal predicate, a comprising declarative, or is an interrogative sentence, it follows an SVO word order. Phrases in Kwaio include noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, and temporal phrases. Sentences that do not have a verbal predicate include sentences that are equational and locative.
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It is > very important in logical analysis, because a continuous predicate obviously > cannot be a compound except of continuous predicates, and thus when we have > carried analysis so far as to leave only a continuous predicate, we have > carried it to its ultimate elements. (C.S. Peirce, "Letters to Lady Welby" > (14 December 1908), Selected Writings, pp. 396–397).
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In logical parlance, the inference is invalid, since under at least one interpretation of the predicates it is not validity preserving. People often have difficulty applying the rules of logic. For example, a person may say the following syllogism is valid, when in fact it is not: #All birds have beaks. #That creature has a beak.
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Non-human animals can have clear representations of things that are predicates of a subject. Humans can also have knowledge that a predicate is a predicate of a subject and are therefore able to make a judgment. Non-human animals can distinguish things from one another. The different ideas are the causes of their actions, which are irrational.
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All negative judgments have the principle of Contradiction as their foundation. A subject is opposed to its predicate. Judgments in which identity or contradiction is mediately known, by means of intermediate predicates and by means of the analysis of concepts, are provable. Judgments in which identity or contradiction is immediately known cannot be proved (See Section II).
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Predicates formed using a copula may express identity: that the two noun phrases (subject and complement) have the same referent or express an identical concept: ::I want only to be myself. ::The Morning Star is the Evening Star. They may also express membership of a class or a subset relationship: ::She was a nurse. ::Cats are carnivorous mammals.
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The term is typical of the Oracle DBMS, where the implementation is very general: tables can be associated to SQL functions, which return a predicate as a SQL expression. Whenever a query is executed, the relevant predicates for the involved tables are transparently collected and used to filter rows. SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE can have different rules.
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The distinction between properties and relations can hardly be given in terms that do not ultimately presuppose it. Relations are true of several particulars, or shared amongst them. Thus the relation "... is taller than ..." holds "between" two individuals, who would occupy the two ellipses ('...'). Relations can be expressed by N-place predicates, where N is greater than 1.
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Libanius, who wrote 57 hypotheses or introductions to Demosthenes' orations predicates that On the Halonnesus does not belong to Demosthenes, but to Hegesippus, another prominent member of the anti-Macedonian faction. A. Galinos supports Libanius' position, pointing that this speech differs in terms of style and argumentation from the other orations of Demosthenes.A. Galinos, Comments on Demosthenes, 347-349.
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The Divine Perfection, one and invisible, is, in its infinity, the transcendental analogue of all actual and possible finite perfections. By means of an accumulation of analogous predicates methodically co-ordinated, it is possible to form an approximate conception of the Deity. Other attributes are simplicity, perfection, infinity, immutability, unity, truth, goodness, beauty, omnipresence, intellect and will.Fox, James.
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Noun phrases are everything in a sentence that is not the verb. Noun phrases can be subjects, objects, predicates and parts of prepositional and post-positional phrases. In its simplest form, a noun phrase can be made out of just a noun and a determiner. For example, , which in Saliba means an eel, is a simple noun phrase.
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Every node in the database keeps the neighbourhood information, such as its super- class, sub-class, instance-of, and other relations, in which the object has a role, in the form of predicates. This feature makes computation of drawing graphs and inferences, on the one hand, and dependency and navigation paths on the other hand very easy.
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This section has numerous clarifications (notably in the area of comparisons), and several previously recommended operations (such as copy, negate, abs, and class) are now required. New operations include fused multiply–add (FMA), explicit conversions, classification predicates (isNan(x), etc.), various min and max functions, a total ordering predicate, and two decimal-specific operations (samequantum and quantize).
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Subjunctive clauses most commonly appear as clausal complements of non-veridical operators. The commonest use of the English subjunctive is the mandative or jussive subjunctive,Quirk, Randolph; Greenbaum, Sidney; Leech, Geoffrey; Svartik, Jan (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman. . which is optionally used in the clausal complements of some predicates whose meanings involve obligation.
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In the language of set theory, atomic formulas are of the form x = y or x ∈ y, standing for equality and respectively set membership predicates. The first level of the Levy hierarchy is defined as containing only formulas with no unbounded quantifiers, and is denoted by \Delta _0=\Sigma_0=\Pi_0.Walicki, Michal (2012). Mathematical Logic, p. 225.
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Logtalk aims to bring together the advantages of object-oriented programming and logic programming. Object-orientation emphasizes developing discrete, reusable units of software, while logic programming emphasizes representing the knowledge of each object in a declarative way. As an object- oriented programming language, Logtalk's major features include support for both classes (with optional metaclasses) and prototypes, parametric objects, protocols (interfaces), categories (components, aspects, hot patching), multiple inheritance, public/protected/private inheritance, event-driven programming, high-level multi-threading programming, reflection, and automatic generation of documentation. For Prolog programmers, Logtalk provides wide portability, featuring predicate namespaces (supporting both static and dynamic objects), public/protected/private object predicates, coinductive predicates, separation between interface and implementation, simple and intuitive meta-predicate semantics, lambda expressions, definite clause grammars, term-expansion mechanism, and conditional compilation.
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Constraints on the search space are allowed, as are predicates that are defined on a rule rather than on a set of examples (called intensional predicates); most importantly a potentially incorrect hypothesis is allowed as an initial approximation to the predicate to be learned. The main goal of FOCL is to incorporate the methods of explanation-based learning (EBL) into the empirical methods of FOIL. Even when no additional knowledge is provided to FOCL over FOIL, however, it utilizes an iterative widening search strategy similar to depth-first search: first FOCL attempts to learn a clause by introducing no free variables. If this fails (no positive gain), one additional free variable per failure is allowed until the number of free variables exceeds the maximum used for any predicate.
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For example, `length/2` can be used to determine the length of a list (`length(List, L)`, given a list `List`) as well as to generate a list skeleton of a given length (`length(X, 5)`), and also to generate both list skeletons and their lengths together (`length(X, L)`). Similarly, `append/3` can be used both to append two lists (`append(ListA, ListB, X)` given lists `ListA` and `ListB`) as well as to split a given list into parts (`append(X, Y, List)`, given a list `List`). For this reason, a comparatively small set of library predicates suffices for many Prolog programs. As a general purpose language, Prolog also provides various built-in predicates to perform routine activities like input/output, using graphics and otherwise communicating with the operating system.
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An example of a filter rule from the true-analogy rule set creates match hypotheses between predicates that have the same functor. The true- analogy rule set has an intern rule that iterates over the arguments of any match hypothesis, creating more match hypotheses if the arguments are entities or functions, or if the arguments are attributes and have the same functor. In order to illustrate how the match rules produce match hypotheses consider these two predicates: `transmit torque inputgear secondgear (p1)` `transmit signal switch div10 (p2)` Here we use true analogy for the type of reasoning. The filter match rule generates a match between p1 and p2 because they share the same functor, transmit. The intern rules then produce three more match hypotheses: torque to signal, inputgear to switch, and secondgear to div10.
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The quicksort example mentioned in the introduction uses the overloading in the orders, having the following type annotation in Haskell: quickSort :: Ord a => [a] -> [a] Herein, the type `a` is not only polymorphic, but also restricted to be an instance of some type class `Ord`, that provides the order predicates `<` and `>=` used in the functions body. The proper implementations of these predicates are then passed to quicksorts as additional parameters, as soon as quicksort is used on more concrete types providing a single implementation of the overloaded function quickSort. Because the "classes" only allow a single type as their argument, the resulting type system can still provide inference. Additionally, the type classes can then be equipped with some kind of overloading order allowing one to arrange the classes as a lattice.
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The clauses in P define a set of non-abducible predicates and through this they provide a description (or model) of the problem domain. The integrity constraints in IC specify general properties of the problem domain that need to be respected in any solution of a problem. A problem, G, which expresses either an observation that needs to be explained or a goal that is desired, is represented by a conjunction of positive and negative (NAF) literals. Such problems are solved by computing "abductive explanations" of G. An abductive explanation of a problem G is a set of positive (and sometimes also negative) ground instances of the abducible predicates, such that, when these are added to the logic program P, the problem G and the integrity constraints IC both hold.
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Peirce notated predicates using intuitive English phrases; the standard notation of contemporary logic, capital Latin letters, may also be employed. A dot asserts the existence of some individual in the domain of discourse. Multiple instances of the same object are linked by a line, called the "line of identity". There are no literal variables or quantifiers in the sense of first-order logic.
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It is also considered a completed notion. According to Willard Van Orman Quine, predication involves the act of connecting singular terms in a referential position and general terms in a predicative position where, in the composed sentence, both terms have different roles. He maintained that predicates do not name, stand for, or rely on the existence of abstract entities (e.g. properties, relations, sets).
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In a sentence such as "Sally runs", the predicate is "runs", because it is the word that predicates a specific state about its argument "Sally". Some verbs such as "curse" can take two arguments, e.g. "Sally cursed John". A predicate that can only take a single argument is called intransitive, while a predicate that can take two arguments is called transitive.
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ECM-constructions are also studied within the context of raising. The verbs that license ECM are known as raising-to-object verbs. Many languages lack ECM-predicates, and even in English, the number of ECM-verbs is small. The structural analysis of ECM-constructions varies in part according to whether one pursues a relatively flat structure or a more layered one.
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The original definition of circumscription proposed by McCarthy is about first-order logic. The role of variables in propositional logic (something that can be true or false) is played in first-order logic by predicates. Namely, a propositional formula can be expressed in first-order logic by replacing each propositional variable with a predicate of zero arity (i.e., a predicate with no arguments).
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Axiomatic semantics is an approach based on mathematical logic for proving the correctness of computer programs. It is closely related to Hoare logic. Axiomatic semantics define the meaning of a command in a program by describing its effect on assertions about the program state. The assertions are logical statements—predicates with variables, where the variables define the state of the program.
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Kant maintained the view that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in general, not of a particular thing.
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Propositions that contain no logical connectives are called atomic propositions. Unlike first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with non-logical objects, predicates about them, or quantifiers. However, all the machinery of propositional logic is included in first-order logic and higher-order logics. In this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic and higher-order logic.
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Miriam Butt is Professor of Linguistics at the Department of Linguistics (Fachbereich Sprachwissenschaft) at the University of Konstanz. She is best known for her theoretical linguistic work on complex predicates and on grammatical case, and for her computational linguistic work in large-scale grammar development within the ParGram project.Butt, Miriam, Tracy Holloway King, Maria-Eugenia Niño & Frederique Segond. 1999. A Grammar Writer’s Cookbook.
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T/A fed-up indeed COMP drink 1sg EXCLM '[They] were tired of trying to get me to drink.' Ona: Complement used in sentences pertaining to “phasal, modal, and commentative predicates.” Example: Kua tatau ono fai he fale. T/A necessary COMP make a house 'It had become necessary to acquire a house' Oi: Complement used in sentences pertaining to items of sequence.
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This is grounded on the rule of affirmative ratiocination. A concept that contains other concepts has been abstracted from them and is a predicate. Whatever belongs to this concept is a predicate of other predicates and therefore a predicate of the subject. The dictum de nullo says: Whatever is denied of a concept is also denied of everything that is contained under it.
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Peirce, taking this further, talked of univalent, bivalent and trivalent relations linking predicates to their subject and it is just the number and types of relation linking subject and predicate that determine the category into which a predicate might fall.Op.cit.5 Vol I pp.159,176 Primary categories contain concepts where there is one dominant kind of relation to the subject.
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In other words, a useful classification scheme is one in which category knowledge can be used to accurately infer object properties, and property knowledge can be used to accurately infer object classes. One may also compare this idea to Aristotle's criterion of counter-predication for definitional predicates, as well as to the notion of concepts described in formal concept analysis.
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Similarly, an object in general cannot have both unity and plurality as quantitative predicates at once. The Categories of Modality exclude each other. Therefore, a general object cannot simultaneously have the Categories of possibility/impossibility and existence/non-existence as qualities. Since the Categories are a list of that which can be said of every object, they are related only to human language.
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Ute marks nouns for nominative and oblique case. The former category contains subjects and predicates, and the latter contains objects and genitives. In most cases, the final vowel of the entire noun is devoiced in the nominative case and voiced in the oblique case. For example, "woman" in the nominative is mama-ch _i_ and in the oblique is mama-chi.
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F is a vagrant predicate iff (\existsu)Fu is true while nevertheless Fu0 is false for each and every specifically identified u0. When infinity is thought of as a number greater than any given, a similar idea is conceived. However vagrancy needs not to be monotonous and occurs also within bounds. Rescher has used vagrant predicates to solve the vagueness problem.
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Responses to this study noted that it only compared elided material to nothing, and that even in grammatical comparatives, ellipsis of repeated phrases is preferred.; . In order to control for the awkwardness of identical predicates, Alexis Wellwood and colleagues compared comparative illusions with ellipsis to those with a different predicate. : (a) More girls ate pizza than the boy {did} / {ate yogurt}.
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Within a major sentence it can be broken up into two types, simple and complex sentences. Simple major sentences have a subject associated with a predicate. In a simple major sentence, the subject and predicates are interchangeable—so sometimes the subject comes first, and sometimes the predicate comes first. Simple major sentences can then be broken up into either equational or predicative.
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Some implementations employ abstract interpretation to derive type and mode information of predicates at compile time, or compile to real machine code for high performance. Devising efficient implementation methods for Prolog code is a field of active research in the logic programming community, and various other execution methods are employed in some implementations. These include clause binarization and stack-based virtual machines.
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Given a choice sequence x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,\ldots, any finite sequence of elements x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,\ldots,x_i of this sequence is called an initial segment of this choice sequence. There are three forms of bar induction currently in the literature, each one places certain restrictions on a pair of predicates and the key differences are highlighted using bold font.
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Core Data supports fetched properties; multiple configurations within a managed object model; local stores; and store aggregation (the data for a given entity may be spread across multiple stores); customization and localization of property names and validation warnings; and the use of predicates for property validation. These features of the original Objective-C implementation are not supported by the Java implementation.
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A focused crawler is a web crawler that collects Web pages that satisfy some specific property, by carefully prioritizing the crawl frontier and managing the hyperlink exploration process.Soumen Chakrabarti, Focused Web Crawling, in the Encyclopedia of Database Systems. Some predicates may be based on simple, deterministic and surface properties. For example, a crawler's mission may be to crawl pages from only the .
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Rabbeinu Tam, in Tosafot Rosh Hashana 17b; in, e.g., Nosson Scherman, The Stone Edition: The Chumash (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1993), page 509. Interpreting the Attributes of God in Judah Halevi argued that all characterizations of God, except for the four- letter Name of God, the Tetragrammaton, are predicates and attributive descriptions, derived from the way God's actions affect the world.
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Abui has a small class of adjectives. Adjectives can modify NPs but they can't head a VP. Stative verbs, on the other hand, can both modify NPs and serve as predicates. In order for an adjectival stem to be used predicatively, the addition of the generic verb -i is required. Compare the adjective akan ‘black’, with the stative verb fing 'be eldest', below.
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Cursors can not only be used to fetch data from the DBMS into an application but also to identify a row in a table to be updated or deleted. The SQL:2003 standard defines positioned update and positioned delete SQL statements for that purpose. Such statements do not use a regular WHERE clause with predicates. Instead, a cursor identifies the row.
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The abducibles, A, declare all ground instances of the predicates "amount" as assumable. This reflects that in the model the amounts at any time of the various substances are unknown. This is incomplete information that is to be determined in each problem case. The integrity constraints, IC, state that the amount of any substance (S) can only take one value.
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For instance, two-dimensional convex hulls can be computed using predicates that test the sign of quadratic polynomials, and therefore may require twice as many bits of precision within these calculations as the input numbers. When integer arithmetic cannot be used (for instance, when the result of a calculation is an algebraic number rather than an integer or rational number), a second method is to use symbolic algebra to perform all computations with exactly represented algebraic numbers rather than numerical approximations to them. A third method, sometimes called a "floating point filter", is to compute numerical predicates first using an inexact method based on floating point arithmetic, but to maintain bounds on how accurate the result is, and repeat the calculation using slower symbolic algebra methods or numerically with additional precision when these bounds do not separate the calculated value from zero.
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In the ARM architecture, the original 32-bit instruction set provides a feature called conditional execution that allows most instructions to be predicated by one of 13 predicates that are based on some combination of the four condition codes set by the previous instruction. ARM's Thumb instruction set (1994) dropped conditional execution to reduce the size of instructions so they could fit in 16 bits, but its successor, Thumb-2 (2003) overcame this problem by using a special instruction which has no effect other than to supply predicates for the following four instructions. The 64-bit instruction set introduced in ARMv8-A (2011) replaced conditional execution with conditional selection instructions. Some SIMD instruction sets, like AVX2, have the ability to use a logical mask to conditionally load/store values to memory, a parallel form of the conditional move.
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Yannis Karpouzis makes a structuralistic analysis on La Jetée, examining it as an intermedial artwork: Chris Marker creates an "archive" of objects and conditions that have a photographic quality of their own and they are followed by the same predicates as pictures. The dialogue between the media (photography and cinematography) and the filmic signifier (film stills, storyline and narration) is constantly in the backdrop.
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Robinson argues that, if predicate dualism is correct, then there are "special sciences" that are irreducible to physics. These allegedly irreducible subjects, which contain irreducible predicates, differ from hard sciences in that they are interest-relative. Here, interest-relative fields depend on the existence of minds that can have interested perspectives. Psychology is one such science; it completely depends on and presupposes the existence of the mind.
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Perl 5 also has such lookahead, but it can only encapsulate Perl 5's more limited regexp features. ; ProGrammar (NorKen Technologies) :ProGrammar's GDL (Grammar Definition Language) makes use of syntactic predicates in a form called parse constraints. ATTENTION NEEDED: This link is no longer valid! ; Conjunctive and Boolean Grammars (Okhotin) :Conjunctive grammars, first introduced by Okhotin, introduce the explicit notion of conjunction-as-predication.
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In the Scandinavian languages, adjectives (both attributive and predicative) are declined according to the gender, number, and definiteness of the noun they modify. In Icelandic and Faroese, adjectives are also declined according to grammatical case, unlike the other Scandinavian languages. In some cases in Swedish, Norwegian and Danish, adjectives and participles as predicates appear to disagree with their subjects. This phenomenon is referred to as pancake sentences.
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He argues against Maimonides for the admissibility of divine attributes. From the human subjective point of view, attributes may appear to posit differences in God; but this does not mean that they do so in God objectively. In God, in the Absolutely Good, they merge as identical unity; predicates, especially of only logical or conceptual significance, are incompetent to cause real multiplicity or composition.
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For predicates p3 and p4, SME assigns less evidence because the arguments of the transmit relations are functions. The transmit relation gets positive evidence of 0.65 because rule 3 no longer adds evidence. The match between (input gear) and (switch circuit) becomes 0.7120. This match gets 0.4 evidence because of rule 3, and 0.52 evidence propagated from the transmit relation because of rule 5.
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An important feature of Classical Nahuatl is that any noun can function as a standalone predicate. For example, calli is commonly translated "house" but could also be translated "(it) is a house". As predicates, nouns can take the verbal subject prefixes (but not tense inflection). Thus, nitēuctli means "I am a lord" with the regular first person singular subject ni- attached to the noun tēuctli "lord".
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The assertion that the Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in 1947 (not the 1950s as Brown predicates), contain lost or hidden Gospels is also false. The scrolls contain books of the Hebrew Scriptures, apocryphal and pseudepigraphic books, and manuals used by the Jewish community at Qumran. No definite Christian documents—orthodox, Gnostic, or otherwise—have ever been found at this site, with the possible exception of 7Q5.
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Concerning basic sentence structure, however, these representations suggest above all that verbs are predicates, and the noun phrases that they appear with their arguments. On this understanding of the sentence, the binary division of the clause into a subject NP and a predicate VP is hardly possible. Instead, the verb is the predicate, and the noun phrases are its arguments. Other function words – e.g.
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A stage-level predicate is true of a temporal stage of its subject. For example, if John is "hungry", then he typically will eat some food. His state of being hungry therefore lasts a certain amount of time, and not his entire lifespan. Stage-level predicates can occur in a wide range of grammatical constructions and are probably the most versatile kind of predicate.
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Another theoretical approach is known as "supervaluationism". This approach has been defended by Kit Fine and Rosanna Keefe. Fine argues that borderline applications of vague predicates are neither true nor false, but rather are instances of "truth value gaps". He defends an interesting and sophisticated system of vague semantics, based on the notion that a vague predicate might be "made precise" in many alternative ways.
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Selection in general stands in contrast to subcategorization:See Fowler (1971:58) concerning the distinction between selection and subcategorization. predicates both select and subcategorize for their complement arguments, whereas they only select their subject arguments. Selection is a semantic concept, whereas subcategorization is a syntactic one. Selection is closely related to valency, a term used in other grammars than the Chomskian generative grammar, for a similar phenomenon.
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The Vaiśeṣika categories or Padārthas are separate from the categories of Aristotle, Kant and Hegel. According to Aristotle, categories are logical classification of predicates; Kant states that categories are only patterns of the understanding and Hegel’s categories are dynamic stages in the development of thought, but the Vaiśeṣika categories are metaphysical classification of all knowable objects. Aristotle accepts ten categories 1. Substance, 2 Quality, 3 Quantity, 4.
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The Stoics on Cases, Predicates and the Unity of the Proposition, in Aristotle and After ed. R. Sorabji (London: Institute of Classical Studies, 1997), 91–108. DOI 10.1111/j.2041-5370.1997.tb02264.x. Fregean Sense and Russellian Propositions, Philosophical Studies 86, 1997, 131–54. DOI 10.1023/A:1017929320501 Conditionals of Freedom and Middle Knowledge Philosophical Quarterly 43, 1993, 412–30. (Winner of 1992 PQ essay competition.) DOI 10.2307/2219983.
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Both Paxos and Gbcast are subject to the FLP impossibility result. Thus neither protocol can be guaranteed live under all possible conditions. At best we can talk about the conditions under which liveness is guaranteed, expressed as predicates on the failure detection mechanism: if the condition for liveness holds, then the protocol will be live. The liveness conditions of Basic Paxos and Gbcast are similar but not identical.
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An earlier formulation of circumscription by McCarthy is based on minimizing the domain of first-order models, rather than the extension of predicates. Namely, a model is considered less than another if it has a smaller domain and the two models coincide on the evaluation of the common tuples of values. This version of circumscription can be reduced to predicate circumscription. Formula circumscription was a later formalism introduced by McCarthy.
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It is incompatible with the phrase structure model, because the strings in bold are not constituents under that analysis. It is, however, compatible with dependency grammars and other grammars that view the verb catena (verb chain) as the fundamental unit of syntactic structure, as opposed to the constituent. Furthermore, the verbal elements in bold are syntactic units consistent with the understanding of predicates in the tradition of predicate calculus.
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Philo affirms a transcendent God without physical features or emotional qualities resembling those of human beings. In Philo, God exists beyond time and space and does not make special interventions into the world because he already encompasses the entire cosmos. Philo's notion is even more abstract than that of the monad of Pythagoras or the Good of Plato. Only God's existence is certain, no appropriate predicates can be conceived.
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Embedded clauses can be categorized according to their syntactic function in terms of predicate-argument structures. They can function as arguments, as adjuncts, or as predicative expressions. That is, embedded clauses can be an argument of a predicate, an adjunct on a predicate, or (part of) the predicate itself. The predicate in question is usually the matrix predicate of a main clause, but embedding of predicates is also frequent.
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Hartman goes on to consider infinite sets of properties. Hartman claims that according to a theorem of transfinite mathematics, any collection of material objects is at most denumerably infinite. The Structure of Value, page 117 This is not, in fact, a theorem of mathematics. But, according to Hartman, people are capable of a denumerably infinite set of predicates, intended in as many ways, which he gives as \aleph_1.
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Ontologies can of course be written down in a wide variety of languages and notations (e.g., logic, LISP, etc.); the essential information is not the form of that language but the content, i.e., the set of concepts offered as a way of thinking about the world. Simply put, the important part is notions like connections and components, not the choice between writing them as predicates or LISP constructs.
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An attribute-value system is a basic knowledge representation framework comprising a table with columns designating "attributes" (also known as "properties", "predicates", "features", "dimensions", "characteristics", "fields", "headers" or "independent variables" depending on the context) and "rows" designating "objects" (also known as "entities", "instances", "exemplars", "elements", "records" or "dependent variables"). Each table cell therefore designates the value (also known as "state") of a particular attribute of a particular object.
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Research undertaken by Katerina Naitoro has shown that the 'Are'are language has a basic tense distinction between future and non-future. Tense is used to tie situations to a specific point in time so the following structure is recognized. The future tense is marked in all types of predicates but the non-future is unmarked. Non-verbal clauses can be used in non-future but not in future.
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A deductive language is a computer programming language in which the program is a collection of predicates ('facts') and rules that connect them. Such a language is used to create knowledge based systems or expert systems which can deduce answers to problem sets by applying the rules to the facts they have been given. An example of a deductive language is Prolog, or its database- query cousin, Datalog.
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Paul Montgomery Churchland was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, on October 21, 1942. Note, this link presents only an excerpt of the chapter, the first 10 pages. He graduated from the University of British Columbia with a Bachelor of Arts in 1964 He earned his Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1969, his dissertation entitled "Persons and P-Predicates" written with Wilfrid Sellars as his advisor.
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In computer programming, predicate dispatch is a generalisation of multiple dispatch ("multimethods") that allows the method to call to be selected at runtime based on arbitrary decidable logical predicates and/or pattern matching attached to a method declaration. Raku supports predicate dispatch using "where" clauses that can execute arbitrary code against any function or method parameter. Julia has a package for it with PatternDispatch.jl but otherwise natively supports multiple dispatch.
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The predominant word order in the language is Verb – Subject – Object (VSO), a common word order in Nilotic. An example of a simple VSO sentence in Nandi can be seen in (1). (1) kêerey Kípe:t làakwéet - see.3sg Kibet.nom child - ‘Kibet sees the child.’ (Nandi, Creider 1989: 124) The order in sentences with nominal or adjectival predicates is Predicate – Subject, as can be seen in (2) and (3).
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The shown graph appears as a subgraph of a graph G if, and only if. G satisfies the formula \exists x_1, x_2, x_3, x_4. x_1 \sim x_2 \land x_2 \sim x_3 \land x_3 \sim x_1 \land x_3 \sim x_4. In the first-order logic of graphs, a graph property is expressed as a quantified logical formula whose variables represent graph vertices, with predicates for equality and adjacency testing.
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This, for Goodman, becomes a problem of determining which predicates are projectible (i.e., can be used in lawlike generalizations that serve as predictions) and which are not. Goodman argues that this is where the fundamental problem lies. This problem is known as Goodman's paradox: from the apparently strong evidence that all emeralds examined thus far have been green, one may inductively conclude that all future emeralds will be green.
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Hume, Goodman argues, missed this problem. We do not, by habit, form generalizations from all associations of events we have observed but only some of them. All past observed emeralds were green, and we formed a habit of thinking the next emerald will be green, but they were equally grue, and we do not form habits concerning grueness. Lawlike predictions (or projections) ultimately are distinguishable by the predicates we use.
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Soku-hi () means "is and is not". The term is primarily used by the representatives of the Kyoto School of Eastern philosophy. The logic of soku- hi or "is and is not" represents a balanced logic of symbolization reflecting sensitivity to the mutual determination of universality and particularity in nature, and a corresponding emphasis on nonattachment to linguistic predicates and subjects as representations of the real.G. S. Axtell.
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Only those families bearing titles before 28 October 1922 (i.e. before the rise to power of Fascism) were permitted to use predicates of such titles as a part of their names. These laws did not apply to the nobility of Rome, insofar as their titles had been created by the pope, when he was a sovereign head of state (i.e. until the Capture of Rome on 20 September 1870).
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Compound verbs in Hindi-Urdu have the additional property of alternation. That is, under partly specifiable conditions [such as negation] compound verbs like nikal gayā and nikal paṛā are replaced with a non-compound counterpart [niklā, निकला, نِکلا ] with little or no change in meaning. However, the phenomenon of alternation is not found in all languages that have compound verbs. The Noun + Verb complex predicates are a quite different matter.
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There is a dynamic relationship between the universal and particular, the terms of definition (predicates) and the thing defined. The process of definition is founded on human action and meaning understood as "meaning for a human actor." At the bottom of definition is, Miller contended, an unending search for local control—i.e., an understanding of oneself and one’s world that was adequate to support a plan of action.
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The analysis engine finds all paths which can lead to violations of the API usage rules and are presented as source level error paths through the driver source code. Internally, it abstracts the C code into a boolean program and a set of predicates which are rules that are to be observed on this program. Then it uses the symbolic model checkingMcMillan, Kenneth L. "Symbolic Model Checking". Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1993.
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There are several categories of non-inflecting verbs in Mbula: #stative experiential verbs #stative verbs encoding properties #verbs of manner #aspectual verbs All of these non-inflecting verbs function only as predicates in clauses. Thus they cannot function as heads of noun phrases and they cannot function as restrictive modifiers of nouns unless they are relativised or nominalised. Syntactically, they resemble inflected verbs. They are only distinguished from other verbs morphologically.
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The ultimate concepts were drawn centuries after the earliest designs. It follows that Brabantine Gothic style is neither homogeneous, nor strictly defined.Because in many cases, a building shows characteristics of several styles, it may be more accurate to use predicates like 'Gothic' for elements instead of for the entire building. Nevertheless, it is customary to categorize a building by its mainly perceived style, or occasionally by its most noteworthy features.
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Conventional wisdom about Salishan languages has long maintained an absence of lexical categories in that family. Many researchers believe there is a lack of contrast between parts of speech like nouns and verbs in Nlaka'pamuctsin, based on a lack of clear morphological differences. Instead, linguists discuss morphology and syntax in Salishan based on a framework of predicates and particles. However, recent work suggests a changing understanding of Salishan grammar.
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In fuzzy logic, e.g. the predicates cold, warm, and hot apply gradually (vertical axis, 0 and 1 meaning certainly not and certainly, respectively) to a given temperature (horizontal axis). One theoretical approach is that of fuzzy logic, developed by American mathematician Lotfi Zadeh. Fuzzy logic proposes a gradual transition between "perfect falsity", for example, the statement "Bill Clinton is bald", to "perfect truth", for, say, "Patrick Stewart is bald".
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ACM Digital Library. The Association for Computing Machinery. Web. A syntactic approach to analyzing volition focuses primarily on structural change, and does not rely on either speaker meaning or the information understood by the listener in order to explain the phenomena. In his analysis of the Squamish language, Peter Jacobs examines how transitive predicates are marked differently according to the degree of control an agent has over an event.
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Net: \forall s \forall t \exist r[t A consequence of Net is that every stage is earlier than some stage. Inf: \exist r \exist u [u The sole purpose of Inf is to enable deriving in S the axiom of infinity of other set theories. The second and final group of axioms involve both sets and stages, and the predicates other than '<': All: \forall x \exist r Fxr \,.
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Simple inductive Turing machines are equivalent to other models of computation. More advanced inductive Turing machines are much more powerful. It is proved (Burgin, 2005) that limiting partial recursive functions, trial and error predicates, general Turing machines, and simple inductive Turing machines are equivalent models of computation. However, simple inductive Turing machines and general Turing machines give direct constructions of computing automata, which are thoroughly grounded in physical machines.
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Both are functions that take as input a small, uniformly random seed and produce a longer output that "looks" uniformly random. Some pseudorandom generators are, in fact, also extractors. (When a PRG is based on the existence of hard-core predicates, one can think of the weakly random source as a set of truth tables of such predicates and prove that the output is statistically close to uniform.) However, the general PRG definition does not specify that a weakly random source must be used, and while in the case of an extractor, the output should be statistically close to uniform, in a PRG it is only required to be computationally indistinguishable from uniform, a somewhat weaker concept. NIST Special Publication 800-90B (draft) recommends several extractors, including the SHA hash family and states that if the amount of entropy input is twice the number of bits output from them, that output can be considered essentially fully random.
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" (The logisticians' claims to logic and its historiography), ) For Jacoby, the judgments and conclusions are subject-bound, the concepts are subject-free objective, and since the object of logic must be the investigation of objective conditions, logic must begin at the level of concepts and not - as he sees it in modern formal logic - at the level of statements or conclusions. One consequence of this point of view is that the analysis of statements in the concept of subject and predicate (species and genus) and in the expression of their "identity", as it is carried out by traditional logic in the form of syllogistic, must be regarded as the only logically correct "Conceptual logic applies to identities between relations as well as between subjects and predicates. Here it subsumes subjects as species or individuals under their inherent predicates as general, their relations as species under their inherent relational genus. The subsumption is the same both times.
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While propositional logic deals with simple declarative propositions, first-order logic additionally covers predicates and quantification. A predicate takes an entity or entities in the domain of discourse as input while outputs are either True or False. Consider the two sentences "Socrates is a philosopher" and "Plato is a philosopher". In propositional logic, these sentences are viewed as being unrelated, and might be denoted, for example, by variables such as p and q.
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This definition of a formula does not support defining an if- then-else function `ite(c, a, b)`, where "c" is a condition expressed as a formula, that would return "a" if c is true, and "b" if it is false. This is because both predicates and functions can only accept terms as parameters, but the first parameter is a formula. Some languages built on first-order logic, such as SMT-LIB 2.0, add this.
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A generalization to infinite domains and infinite signs is easy. A generalization to infinite predicates needs no explanation. A convenient fact is that this logic can also accommodate the domain of the null set, as quantificational claims will not need to assume an element in the domain. For example, \forall x\,Fx \rightarrow (\exists x\,Fx) will be true on an empty domain using the unrestricted interpretation, where 'c' still does not refer.
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Early, most logical positivists proposed that all knowledge is based on logical inference from simple "protocol sentences" grounded in observable facts. In the 1936 and 1937 papers "Testability and meaning", individual terms replace sentences as the units of meaning. Further, theoretical terms no longer need to acquire meaning by explicit definition from observational terms: the connection may be indirect, through a system of implicit definitions. Carnap also provided an important, pioneering discussion of disposition predicates.
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Circumscription was later used by McCarthy in an attempt to solve the frame problem. To implement circumscription in its initial formulation, McCarthy augmented first-order logic to allow the minimization of the extension of some predicates, where the extension of a predicate is the set of tuples of values the predicate is true on. This minimization is similar to the closed-world assumption that what is not known to be true is false.
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Glauber is based in two procedures: Form-Class and Determine-Quantifier. The procedure Form-Class generalize the Reacts predicates by replacing the substance names by variables ranging on equivalence classes determined by a quality whose value distinguishes the substances in each class. In the experiment designed by its authors, the substances are partitioned in three classes based in the value of the taste quality according on their value: acids (sour), alkalis (bitter) and salts (salty).
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493-498, 1994. Self-Modifying Finite State Automata (SMFAs) are shown to be, in a restricted form, Turing powerful. ;Adaptive automata (Neto) :In 1994, Neto introduced the machine he called a structured pushdown automaton, the core of adaptive automata theory as pursued by Iwai, Pistori, Bravo and others. This formalism allows for the operations of inspection (similar to syntactic predicates, as noted above relating to Iwai's adaptive grammars), addition, and deletion of rules.
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In other languages, typical pseudo- coordinative verbs and/or hendiadys predicates are egressive verbs (e.g. go) and verbs of body posture (e.g. sit, stand and lie down). ::Why don't you go and jump in the lake ::I will try and jump in the lake ::The pupils sat and read their textbooks A typical property of pseudo-coordinative constructions is that, unlike ordinary coordination, they appear to violate the Across-the- Board extraction property (see above).
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The specification defines the data type `XML`, functions for working with XML, including element construction, mapping data from relational tables, combining XML fragments, and embedding XQuery expressions in SQL statements. Functions which can be embedded include XMLQUERY (which extracts XML or values from an XML field) and XMLEXISTS (which predicates whether an XQuery expression is matched). Further information and examples of the SQL/XML functions are provided in the external links below.
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The term coverb (like preverb) is also sometimes used to denote the first element in a compound verb or complex predicate. There, the coverb supplies significant semantic information, and the second element (a light verb) is inflected to convey mainly grammatical information. The term is used in this way in relation to, for instance, North Australian languages.Mengistu Amberber, Brett Baker, Mark Harvey, Complex Predicates: Cross-linguistic Perspectives on Event Structure, CUP 2010, p. 59.
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Each clause in Okanagan can be divided into two parts: inflected predicates which are required for every sentence, and optional arguments. Okanagan allows a maximum of two arguments per sentence construction. These are marked by pronominal markers on the predicate. Each argument is introduced to the sentence via an initial determiner; the only exception to initial determiners is in the case of proper names which do not need determiners to introduce them.
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Each type had a number of defined predicates, called "properties". > [U]nlike the W3C approach to the semantic web, which starts with controlled > ontologies, Metaweb adopts a folksonomy approach, in which people can add > new categories (much like tags), in a messy sprawl of potentially > overlapping assertions. However, Freebase differed from the wiki model in many ways. User-created types were not adopted in the "public commons" until promoted by a Metaweb employee.
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Quantificatives include numerals and others like ho'tu "all, everything," na'mu "many, much," ka'šku "a few, a little bit," ka'škuto'hku "several, quite a few," and ʔa'mari "enough." They can be used as minimal clauses, substitutes for nouns, modifiers of nouns, and modifiers of active verbs. Postpositions are used to modify locatives and predicates. Adjectives can be used as predicate words, as noun modifiers used as predicative words, or as modifiers of the interrogative-indefinite pronoun ka'nahku.
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Broadly speaking, nominalism denies the existence of universals (abstract entities), like sets, classes, relations, properties, etc. Thus the plural logic(s) were developed as an attempt to formalize reasoning about plurals, such as those involved in multigrade predicates, apparently without resorting to notions that nominalists deny, e.g. sets. Standard first-order logic has difficulties in representing some sentences with plurals. Most well-known is the Geach–Kaplan sentence "some critics admire only one another".
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For example, acting is a profession which predicates real jobs on fictional premises. Charades is a game people play by guessing imaginary objects from short play-acts. Imaginary personalities and histories are sometimes invented to enhance the verisimilitude of fictional universes, and/or the immersion of role-playing games. In the sense that they exist independently of extant personalities and histories, they are believed to be fictional characters and fictional time frames.
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He predicates his actions in the later novels on his underlying assumption that particular crimes are committed by particular types of people. Poirot focuses on getting people to talk. In the early novels, he casts himself in the role of "Papa Poirot", a benign confessor, especially to young women. In later works, Christie made a point of having Poirot supply false or misleading information about himself or his background to assist him in obtaining information.
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Although Zermelo's fix allows a class to describe arbitrary (possibly "large") entities, these predicates of the meta-language may have no formal existence (i.e., as a set) within the theory. For example, the class of all sets would be a proper class. This is philosophically unsatisfying to some and has motivated additional work in set theory and other methods of formalizing the foundations of mathematics such as New Foundations by Willard Van Orman Quine.
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Suppose we have a language without modal adverbs like "necessarily". Such a language would be extensional, in the way that two predicates which are true about the same objects are interchangeable again without altering the truth-value. Thus, there is no assurance that two terms that are interchangeable without the truth-value changing are interchangeable because of meaning, and not because of chance. For example, "creature with a heart" and "creature with kidneys" share extension.
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The subject and predicative adjective must also be connected by a copula. This traditional understanding of predicates has a concrete reflex in many phrase structure theories of syntax. These theories divide an English declarative sentence (S) into a noun phrase (NP) and verb phrase (VP), e.g.Constituency trees like the one here, which divides the sentence into a subject NP and a predicate VP, can be found in most textbooks on syntax and grammar, e.g.
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An Interview with David Alternative Technologies. McGoveran sought to improve upon the science of database design. This work lead to the development of #new analyses of and solutions to the problem of "missing information" and avoiding the use of nulls and therefore many-valued logic #the specification and uses of relation predicates (relation or set membership functions) as an application of Leibniz' LawDate, C. J., McGoveran, D. (July, 1994). A New Database Design Principle.
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The standard provides a predicate totalOrder, which defines a total ordering on canonical members of the supported arithmetic format. The predicate agrees with the comparison predicates when one floating-point number is less than the other. The totalOrder predicate does not impose a total ordering on all encodings in a format. In particular, it does not distinguish among different encodings of the same floating-point representation, as when one or both encodings are non-canonical.
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Romanian has terminology and rules for phrase syntax, which describes the way simple sentences relate to one another within a single complex sentence. There are many functions a simple sentence may take, their number usually being determined by the number of predicates. It is also noteworthy that Romanian terminology for the terms simple sentence, complex sentence, and phrase is somewhat counterintuitive. The Romanian term propoziție means as much as simple sentence (or clause).
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The MHA Handbook is a consolidated reference guide outlining the requirements and guidelines for the Making Home Affordable (MHA) Program and particularly HAMP, its most popular component. A complex calculation called the net present value (NPV) test is the foundation of the HAMP program. Tier 1 and Tier 2 have their own NPV test. The NPV test predicates modification on whether the investor will make more money by modifying the mortgage rather than foreclosing.
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The concepts of c-selection and subcategorization overlap in meaning and use to a significant degree.Concerning the overlap in meaning and use of the terms c-selection and subcategorization, see Fromkin (2000:230). If there is a difference between these concepts, it resides with the status of the subject argument. Traditionally, predicates are interpreted as NOT subcategorizing for their subject argument because the subject argument appears outside of the minimal VP containing the predicate.
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Toki Pona's word order is subject–verb–object. The word introduces predicates, introduces direct objects, prepositional phrases follow the objects, and phrases come before the subject to add additional context. Some roots are grammatical particles, while others have lexical meanings. The lexical roots do not fall into well defined parts of speech; rather, they may be used generally as nouns, verbs, modifiers, or interjections depending on context or their position in a phrase.
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The signature σ of a language is a triple consisting of the alphabet of constants O, the function symbols F, and the predicates P. The Herbrand baseRogelio Davila. Answer Set Programming Overview. of a signature σ consists of all ground atoms of σ: of all formulas of the form R(t1, …, tn), where t1, …, tn are terms containing no variables (i.e. elements of the Herbrand universe) and R is an n-ary relation symbol (i.e. predicate).
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Even if all the information are available as logical predicates, the model fails in answering what-if questions. For example, suppose in the RDF-format the world of a robot is described very well. The robot knows what the location of the table is, is aware of the distance to the table in centimeter and knows also that a table is a furniture. Before the robot can plan the next action he needs temporal reasoning capabilities.
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The philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued in his Critique of Pure Reason that the human mind knows objects in innate, a priori ways. Kant claimed that humans, from birth, must experience all objects as being successive (time) and juxtaposed (space). His list of inborn categories describes predicates that the mind can attribute to any object in general. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) agreed with Kant, but reduced the number of innate categories to one—causality—which presupposes the others.
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An interpretation of a first-order language assigns a denotation to each non-logical symbol in that language. It also determines a domain of discourse that specifies the range of the quantifiers. The result is that each term is assigned an object that it represents, each predicate is assigned a property of objects, and each sentence is assigned a truth value. In this way, an interpretation provides semantic meaning to the terms, the predicates, and formulas of the language.
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Rosser (1939) formally identified the three notions-as-definitions: Kleene proposes Church's Thesis: This left the overt expression of a "thesis" to Kleene. In his 1943 paper Recursive Predicates and Quantifiers Kleene proposed his "THESIS I": (22) references Church 1936; (23) references Turing 1936–7 Kleene goes on to note that: (24) references Post 1936 of Post and Church's Formal definitions in the theory of ordinal numbers, Fund. Math. vol 28 (1936) pp.11–21 (see ref.
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When the negative particle ti is suffixed onto the auxiliary, it creates a single complex auxiliary as the particle ti also combines with other tense and aspect particles. Depending on the clause type the negative particle ti can occur with or without the subordinating construction to instigate negation in a clause. The negative particle ti can be used to express negation in many types of clauses including the ‘be thus’ clause, nominal clauses and with equative predicates.
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Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications. Butt earned her doctorate in linguistics in 1993 at Stanford University. She subsequently held research and teaching positions at the Institut für Maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung at the University of Stuttgart, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology and the University of Tübingen before taking up her current position at the University of Konstanz. She is the author or editor of 11 books, including The Structure of Complex Predicates in UrduButt, Miriam. 1995.
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Most operators encountered in programming and mathematics are of the binary form. For both programming and mathematics, these can be the multiplication operator, the radix operator, the often omitted exponentiation operator, the logarithm operator, the addition operator, the division operator. Logical predicates such as OR, XOR, AND, IMP are typically used as binary operators with two distinct operands. In CISC architectures, it is common to have two source operands (and store result in one of them).
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In descriptive complexity, a branch of computational complexity, FO is a complexity class of structures that can be recognized by formulas of first- order logic, and also equals the complexity class AC0. Descriptive complexity uses the formalism of logic, but does not use several key notions associated with logic such as proof theory or axiomatization. Restricting predicates to be from a set X yields a smaller class FO[X]. For instance, FO[<] is the set of star-free languages.
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Neither a morphological feature nor a syntactic feature is common to all inverse systems. Direct-inverse systems on verbs coexist with the various morphosyntactic alignments in nouns. In some inverse languages, including all Mesoamerican inverse languages, the direct-inverse alternation changes the morphosyntactic alignment, and the language is said to have hierarchical alignment. Klaiman has suggested four common properties of inverse languages: #Core participants of transitive predicates are ranked on a hierarchy of salience, topicality or animacy.
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Arguments must be distinguished from adjuncts. While a predicate needs its arguments to complete its meaning, the adjuncts that appear with a predicate are optional; they are not necessary to complete the meaning of the predicate.Concerning the completion of a predicates meaning via its arguments, see for instance Kroeger (2004:9ff.). Most theories of syntax and semantics acknowledge arguments and adjuncts, although the terminology varies, and the distinction is generally believed to exist in all languages.
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Hintikka was born in Helsingin maalaiskunta (now Vantaa). In 1953, he received his doctorate from the University of Helsinki for a thesis entitled Distributive Normal Forms in the Calculus of Predicates. He was a student of Georg Henrik von Wright. Hintikka was a Junior Fellow at Harvard University (1956-1969), and held several professorial appointments at the University of Helsinki, the Academy of Finland, Stanford University, Florida State University and finally Boston University from 1990 until his death.
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Bunt (1985), a study of the semantics of natural language, shows how mereology can help understand such phenomena as the mass–count distinction and verb aspect. But Nicolas (2008) argues that a different logical framework, called plural logic, should be used for that purpose. Also, natural language often employs "part of" in ambiguous ways (Simons 1987 discusses this at length). Hence, it is unclear how, if at all, one can translate certain natural language expressions into mereological predicates.
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Statements whose truth value may change are modeled by relational fluents, predicates which take a situation as their final argument. Also possible are functional fluents, functions which take a situation as their final argument and return a situation-dependent value. Fluents may be thought of as "properties of the world"'. In the example, the fluent is\\_ carrying(o,s) can be used to indicate that the robot is carrying a particular object in a particular situation.
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The initial "O" in the name is a reflection of the fact that Hawaiian predicates unique identity by using a copula form, o, immediately before a proper noun. Thus, in Hawaiian, the name of the island is expressed by saying ', which means "[This] is Hawaii." The Cook expedition also wrote "Otaheite" rather than "Tahiti." The spelling "why" in the name reflects the pronunciation of wh in 18th-century English (still used in parts of the English-speaking world).
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So the Lemma is proven. Now if D_n is refutable for some n, it follows that φ is refutable. On the other hand, suppose that D_n is not refutable for any n. Then for each n there is some way of assigning truth values to the distinct subpropositions E_h (ordered by their first appearance in D_n; "distinct" here means either distinct predicates, or distinct bound variables) in B_k , such that D_n will be true when each proposition is evaluated in this fashion.
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The most common and challenging criticism to metalinguistic description theories was put forth by Kripke himself: they seem to be an ad hoc explanation of a single linguistic phenomenon. Why should there be a metalinguistic theory for proper nouns (like names) but not for common nouns, count nouns, verbs, predicates, indexicals and other parts of speech. Another recent approach is two-dimensional semantics. The motivations for this approach are rather different from those that inspired other forms of descriptivism, however.
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The BIT predicate is often examined in the context of first-order logic, where we can examine the system resulting from adding the BIT predicate to first-order logic. In descriptive complexity, the complexity class FO + BIT resulting from adding the BIT predicate to FO results in a more robust complexity class. The class FO + BIT, of first-order logic with the BIT predicate, is the same as the class FO + PLUS + TIMES, of first-order logic with addition and multiplication predicates.
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FALSE) TRUE` The following predicate tests whether the first argument is less-than-or-equal-to the second: : `LEQ := λm.λn.ISZERO (SUB m n)`, and since `m = n`, if `LEQ m n` and `LEQ n m`, it is straightforward to build a predicate for numerical equality. The availability of predicates and the above definition of `TRUE` and `FALSE` make it convenient to write "if-then-else" expressions in lambda calculus. For example, the predecessor function can be defined as: : `PRED := λn.
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As each additional auxiliary verb is added, the predicate grows, the predicate catena gaining links. When assessing the approach to predicate- argument structures in terms of catenae, it is important to keep in mind that the constituent unit of phrase structure grammar is much less helpful in characterizing the actual word combinations that qualify as predicates and their arguments. This fact should be evident from the examples here, where the word combinations in green would not qualify as constituents in phrase structure grammars.
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Simple inductive Turing machines and general Turing machines are related to limiting partial recursive functions and trial-and-error predicates as Turing machines are related to partial recursive functions and lambda calculus. The non-halting computations of inductive Turing machines should not be confused with infinite-time computations (see, for example, Potgieter 2006). First, some computations of inductive Turing machines do halt. As in the case of conventional Turing machines, some halting computations give the result, while others do not.
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Classical query optimization associates each query plan with one scalar cost value. Parametric query optimization assumes that query plan cost depends on parameters whose values are unknown at optimization time. Such parameters can for instance represent the selectivity of query predicates that are not fully specified at optimization time but will be provided at execution time. Parametric query optimization therefore associates each query plan with a cost function that maps from a multi-dimensional parameter space to a one- dimensional cost space.
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He analyzes the concept of "medical theory" in line with the so-called structuralist view of theories to represent their structure and content, according to Patrick Suppes and Joseph D. Sneed's approach, as set-theoretic predicates. This enables him to show that a theory in medicine cannot be confirmed, supported, disconfirmed, verified or falsified simply because it is merely a conceptual structure and no epistemic entity to be true, probable or false. It does not make any empirical claims about the world.
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Since there is no copula in Hidatsa, all adjectives, adverbs, and nouns that are used as predicates of nouns are regarded as intransitive verbs. They do not undergo a change of form to denote different modes and tenses. They may take the incorporated pronouns 'mi' and 'di' for their nominatives, which are prefixed. Verbs beginning with consonants are usually prefixed in full: 'liié' ("old, to be old") and 'liie' ("he, she, or it is or was old" or "you are or were old").
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This stance gives him an additional reason to reject the foundational pretensions of the two classical first order axiomatic systems of Peano Arithmetic and Zermelo- Fraenkel set theory. Not only does he object to the operationalism inherent in the very construction of such formal systems, but he now also rejects the intelligibility of the free use of unrestricted quantifiers in the formation of predicates in the axiom schemata of Induction and Replacement. Mayberry's fourth core doctrine is connected with his third.
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All trees, and most graphs, can be described by first order sentences with only two variables, but extended by counting predicates. For graphs that can be described by sentences in this logic with a fixed constant number of variables, it is possible to find a graph canonization in polynomial time (with the exponent of the polynomial equal to the number of variables). By comparing canonizations, it is possible to solve the graph isomorphism problem for these graphs in polynomial time.
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Lutherans, on the other hand, describe the Personal Union of the two natures in Christ (the divine and the human) as sharing their predicates or attributes more fully. The doctrine of the sacramental union is more consistent with this type of Christology. The Lutheran scholastics described the Reformed christological position which leads to this doctrine as the extra calvinisticum, or "Calvinistic outside," because the Logos is thought to be outside or beyond the body of Christ.Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 4 vols.
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For example, consider if one of the sources served a weather website. The designer would likely then add a corresponding element for weather to the global schema. Then the bulk of effort concentrates on writing the proper mediator code that will transform predicates on weather into a query over the weather website. This effort can become complex if some other source also relates to weather, because the designer may need to write code to properly combine the results from the two sources.
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North Moluccan Malay uses predicate operators to express negation (negators). Predicate operators are used to express certain meaning aspects, they also act as a grammatical function by showing that the construction in which they take part in is best to be interpreted as predicate. tara 'not (present)' and bukang 'not' are two negators that are frequently used to negate predicates in this language. tara implies absolute absence 'not present'; however, while used in negating thing constructions contexts, tara could mean 'not possess'.
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It cannot be applied to an object that does not permit arbitrary division. Countability is not the only criterion. Thus "red thing" in the sentence "There are two red things on the shelf" is not treated as a sortal by some philosophers who use the term. There is disagreement about the exact definition of the term as well as whether it is applied to linguistic things (such as predicates or words), abstract entities (such as properties), or psychological entities (such as concepts).
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When the predicates in p3 and p4 are attributes, rule 4 adds -0.8 evidence to the transmit match because — though the functors of the transmit relation match — the arguments do not have the potential to match and the arguments are not functions. To summarize, the intern match rules compute a structural evaluation score for each match hypothesis. These rules enforce the systematicity principle. Rule 5 provides trickle-down evidence in order to strengthen matches that are involved in higher-order relations.
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The most notable is the Limit (or Identity) View defended by Charles B. Martin and John Heil. According to this view, dispositional and categorical - or as Martin prefers: "qualitative," because categorical seems to be misleading - predicates are different ways of identifying one and the same property.[6] Additionally, the properties lies on a spectrum in which it could approach either limit; however, it can never reach either end because those concepts are unrealisable. Ontologically, however, there is no real difference between the two.
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Control verbs have semantic content; they semantically select their arguments, that is, their appearance strongly influences the nature of the arguments they take.Accounts of control emphasize that control verbs semantically select their dependents, as opposed to raising predicates, which do not select one of their dependents. See for instance van Riemsdijk and Williams (1986:130), Borsley (1996:133), Culicover (1997:102). In this regard, they are very different from auxiliary verbs, which lack semantic content and do not semantically select arguments.
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In a typed language where we can quantify over predicates, the axiom schema of specification becomes a simple axiom. This is much the same trick as was used in the NBG axioms of the previous section, where the predicate was replaced by a class that was then quantified over. In second- order logic and higher-order logic with higher-order semantics, the axiom of specification is a logical validity and does not need to be explicitly included in a theory.
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The `Table` encapsulates the data in the table, and implements the `IQueryable` interface, so that the expression tree is created, which the LINQ to SQL provider handles. It converts the query into T-SQL and retrieves the result set from the database server. Since the processing happens at the database server, local methods, which are not defined as a part of the lambda expressions representing the predicates, cannot be used. However, it can use the stored procedures on the server.
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They maintain that vague predicates do, in fact, draw sharp boundaries, but that one cannot know where these boundaries lie. One's confusion about whether some vague word does or does not apply in a borderline case is explained as being due to one's ignorance. For example, on the epistemicist view, there is a fact of the matter, for every person, about whether that person is old or not old. It is just that one may sometimes be ignorant of this fact.
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Logically, it is the copula of a judgment. In the proposition, "God is almighty", the copula "is" does not add a new predicate; it only unites a predicate to a subject. To take God with all its predicates and say that "God is" is equivalent to "God exists" or that "There is a God" is to jump to a conclusion as no new predicate is being attached to God. The content of both subject and predicate is one and the same.
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Thus for example, we have incorporation of handshapes from the Nepali manual alphabet into lexical items as we saw above the sections above on manual alphabet and lexicon. Incorporation also occurs in NSL verbs, in what are often referred to as "classifier predicates". Here, as in many other sign languages studied,MW Morgan (2009)) the pattern is ergative-accusative, with subjects of intransitive verbs (e.g. ONE-PERSON in "One person passed by in front of me")), and objects of transitive verbs (e.g.
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In modal logic, standard translation is a way of transforming formulas of modal logic into formulas of first-order logic which capture the meaning of the modal formulas. Standard translation is defined inductively on the structure of the formula. In short, atomic formulas are mapped onto unary predicates and the objects in the first-order language are the accessible worlds. The logical connectives from propositional logic remain untouched and the modal operators are transformed into first-order formulas according to their semantics.
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1992 Accetturo was brought from Florida, the Taccetta brothers were arrested in Newark, and 17 other known members were put on trial for 76 Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) predicates. These charges of criminal activity claimed that the Lucchese Family participated in loansharking, extortion, racketeering, illegal gambling, money laundering, drug trafficking, arson, thefts, as well as murder and conspiracy to commit murder. The trial began in November 1986. During the trial, DiNorscio went on to fire his lawyer and represent himself during the entire trial.
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Ludwig Feuerbach The main influence on Marx's thinking in this regard is Ludwig Feuerbach, who in his Essence of Christianity aims to overcome the harm and distress of the separation of individuals from their essential human nature. Feuerbach believes the alienation of modern individuals is caused by their holding false beliefs about God. Individuals misidentify as an objective being what is a man-made projection of their own essential predicates. For Feuerbach, Man is not a self-alienated God, God is self-alienated Man.
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Professor Seidenfeld teaches Administrative Law, Constitutional Law I (Structure of Government) and a required first year course on Legislation and Regulation. He has also taught numerous courses on particular areas of federal regulation (including Environmental Law, Energy Law, Telecommunications Law and Health Law) as well as courses on Law and Economics. In addition to his many influential publications on how administrative law doctrine relates to institutional behavior and agency accountability, he is the author of Microeconomic Predicates to Law and Economics (Anderson Pub. Co., 1996).
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Lutherans, on the other hand, describe a union in which the divine and the human natures share their predicates more fully. Lutheran scholastics of the 17th century called the Reformed doctrine that Christ's divine nature is outside or beyond his human nature the extra calvinisticum. They spoke of the genus maiestaticum, the view that Jesus Christ's human nature becomes "majestic", suffused with the qualities of the divine nature. Therefore, in the eucharist the human, bodily presence of Jesus Christ is "in, within, under" the elements (sacramental union).
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Or can they be expressed using only objects, or only properties? Do the objects have to retain their identity over time or can they change?Identity and Individuality in Quantum Theory, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy If they change, then are they still the same object? Can theories be reformulated by converting properties or predicates (such as "red") into entities (such as redness or redness fields) or processes ('there is some redding happening over there' appears in some human languages in place of the use of properties).
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Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology) The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were written by Avicenna, who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of definition and classification and the quantification of the predicates of categorical propositions, and developed an original theory on "temporal modal" syllogism. Its premises included modifiers such as "at all times", "at most times", and "at some time".
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Propositional variables can be considered nullary predicates in first order logic, because there are no object variables such as x and y attached to predicate letters such as Px and xRy. The internal structure of propositional variables contains predicate letters such as P and Q, in association with individual variables (e.g., x, y), individual constants such as a and b (singular terms from a domain of discourse D), ultimately taking a form such as Pa, aRb.(or with parenthesis, P(11) and R(1, 3)).
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Query Rewriting is a typically automatic transformation that takes a set of database tables views and/or queries, usually indices, often gathered data and query statistics, and other metadata, and yields a set of different queries, which produce the same results but execute with better performance (for example, faster, or with lower memory use). Query rewriting can be based on relational algebra or an extension thereof (e.g. multiset relational algebra with sorting, aggregation and three-valued predicates i.e. NULLs as in the case of SQL).
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The first-order language of graphs is the collection of well-formed sentences in mathematical logic formed from variables representing the vertices of graphs, universal and existential quantifiers, logical connectives, and predicates for equality and adjacency of vertices. For instance, the condition that a graph does not have any isolated vertices may be expressed by the sentence :\forall u:\exists v: u\sim v where the \sim symbol indicates the adjacency relation between two vertices., Section 1.2, "What Is a First Order Theory?", pp. 15–17.
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There is no general copula; instead, a nominal (or other non-verbal) predicate with no verbal component may be made a clause's grammatical nucleus. Some of these take subject indices just like verbal predicates, but tense can only be expressed periphrastically in such sentences. Negation is achieved by placing a negative particle in front of the predicate. Yes-no questions have no special grammatical marking, while wh-questions are identified by the presence of a question word, which usually precedes the verb (or other predicate).
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He is also an "Area Editor" for philosophy of mathematics on PhilPapers. In addition to being a Professorial fellow at the Northern Institute of Philosophy, University of Aberdeen he has also been awarded many grants. Most recently he led a research project as part of a European Research Council Starting Grant entitled "Plurals, Predicates, and Paradox: Towards a Type-Free Account" which ran from January 2010 until December 2013. In 2018, he published Thin Objects: An Abstractionist Account, an abstractionist approach to thin objects.
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A `WHERE` clause in SQL specifies that a SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML) statement should only affect rows that meet specified criteria. The criteria are expressed in the form of predicates. `WHERE` clauses are not mandatory clauses of SQL DML statements, but can be used to limit the number of rows affected by a SQL DML statement or returned by a query. In brief SQL WHERE clause is used to extract only those results from a SQL statement, such as: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.
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More advanced inductive Turing machines are much more powerful. There are hierarchies of inductive Turing machines that can decide membership in arbitrary sets of the arithmetical hierarchy (Burgin 2005). In comparison with other equivalent models of computation, simple inductive Turing machines and general Turing machines give direct constructions of computing automata that are thoroughly grounded in physical machines. In contrast, trial-and-error predicates, limiting recursive functions, and limiting partial recursive functions present only syntactic systems of symbols with formal rules for their manipulation.
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Predicate transformer semantics were introduced by Edsger Dijkstra in his seminal paper "Guarded commands, nondeterminacy and formal derivation of programs". They define the semantics of an imperative programming paradigm by assigning to each statement in this language a corresponding predicate transformer: a total function between two predicates on the state space of the statement. In this sense, predicate transformer semantics are a kind of denotational semantics. Actually, in guarded commands, Dijkstra uses only one kind of predicate transformer: the well-known weakest preconditions (see below).
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Even when restricted to predicates and proper classes definable in first order set theory, the principle implies existence of Σn correct extendible cardinals for every n. If κ is an almost huge cardinal, then a strong form of Vopěnka's principle holds in Vκ: :There is a κ-complete ultrafilter U such that for every {Ri: i < κ} where each Ri is a binary relation and Ri ∈ Vκ, there is S ∈ U and a non- trivial elementary embedding j: Ra → Rb for every a < b in S.
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The general concept or principle of moral universalizability is that moral principles, maxims, norms, facts, predicates, rules, etc., are universally true; that is, if they are true as applied to some particular case (an action, person, etc.) then they are true of all other cases of this sort. Some philosophers, like Immanuel Kant, Richard Hare, and Alan Gewirth, have argued that moral universalizability is the foundation of all moral facts. Others have argued that moral universalizability is a necessary, but not a sufficient, test of morality.
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Plato Parmenides 129, cf. 136 For Aristotle relation was one of ten distinct kinds of categories (Greek: kategoriai) which list the range of things that can be said about any particular subject: "...each signifies either substance or quantity or quality or relation or where or when or being-in-a-position or having or acting or being acted upon".Aristotle Categories in Aristotle's Categories and De Interpretatione (tr. Ackrill J.L., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1963) Ch.4 Subjects and predicates were combined together to form simple propositions.
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As a partial converse, proved that, whenever a family of graphs has a decidable MSO2 satisfiability problem, the family must have bounded treewidth. The proof is based on a theorem of Robertson and Seymour that the families of graphs with unbounded treewidth have arbitrarily large grid minors. Seese also conjectured that every family of graphs with a decidable MSO1 satisfiability problem must have bounded clique-width; this has not been proven, but a weakening of the conjecture that extends MSO1 with modular counting predicates is true.
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Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology) The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were written by Avicenna (980–1037), who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of definition and classification and the quantification of the predicates of categorical propositions, and developed an original theory on "temporal modal" syllogism. Its premises included modifiers such as "at all times", "at most times", and "at some time".
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Nouns are generally preceded by any modifiers (adjectives, possessives and relative clauses), and verbs also generally follow any modifiers (adverbs, auxiliary verbs and prepositional phrases). The predicate can be an intransitive verb, a transitive verb followed by a direct object, a copula (linking verb) shì () followed by a noun phrase, etc. In predicative use, Chinese adjectives function as stative verbs, forming complete predicates in their own right without a copula. For example, Another example is the common greeting nǐ hăo (你好), literally "you good".
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This was the official language of the deterministic track of the 4th IPC in 2004. It introduced derived predicates (to model the dependency of given facts from other facts, e.g. if A is reachable from B, and B is reachable from C, then A is reachable from C (transitivity)), and timed initial literals (to model exogenous events occurring at given time independently from plan-execution). Eventually PDDL2.2 extended the language with a few important elements, but wasn't a radical evolution compared to PDDL2.1 after PDDL1.2.
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In linguistics, valency or valence is the number and type of arguments controlled by a predicate, content verbs being typical predicates. Valency is related, though not identical, to subcategorization and transitivity, which count only object arguments – valency counts all arguments, including the subject. The linguistic meaning of valency derives from the definition of valency in chemistry. The valency metaphor appeared first in linguistics in Charles Sanders Peirce's essay "The Logic of Relatives" in 1897,Przepiórkowski (2018) investigates the origins of the valency metaphor in linguistics.
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In this terminology, it can be seen that the seven predicates get translated to the following seven possibilities. Each proposition p has the following seven states: # p is a member of every standpoint in S. # Not-p is a member of every standpoint in S. # p is a member of some standpoints, and Not-p is a member of the rest. # p is a member of some standpoints, the rest being neutral. # Not-p is a member of some standpoints, the rest being neutral.
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While the structures assumed here can be disputed - especially the constituency structures - the trees all show the main stance toward raising structures. This stance is that the "subject" of the lower predicate appears as a dependent of the higher predicate - the relevant constituents are in bold. Relatively flat structures are assumed to accommodate this behavior. Both it and the claim are shown as dependents of expects and proves, respectively, although they are semantic arguments of the lower predicates to happen and to be false, respectively.
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Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology) The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were written by Avicenna (980–1037), who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of definition and classification and the quantification of the predicates of categorical propositions, and developed an original theory on "temporal modal" syllogism. Its premises included modifiers such as "at all times", "at most times", and "at some time".
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Devitt is a noted proponent of the causal theory of reference. He claims that repeated groundings in an object can account for reference change. However, such a response leaves open the problem of cognitive significance that originally intrigued Bertrand Russell and Gottlob Frege. Devitt, along with Georges Rey, is also a critic of the transcendental argument against eliminativism, and defends this position against claims that it is self-refuting by invoking deflationary semantic theories that avoid analysing predicates like "x is true" as expressing a real property.
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Thus universal statements, like "All men are mortal," or "Everything is a unicorn," do not presuppose that there are men or that there is anything. These would be symbolized, with the appropriate predicates, as \forall x\,(Mx \rightarrow Lx) and \forall x\, Ux, which in Principia Mathematica entail \exists x\,(Mx \land Lx) and \exists x\,Ux, but not in free logic. The truth of these last statements, when used in a free logic, depend on the domain of quantification, which may be the null set.
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A predicative verb is a verb that behaves as a grammatical adjective; that is, it predicates (qualifies or informs about the properties of its argument). It is a special kind of stative verb. Many languages do not use the present forms of the verb "to be" to separate an adjective from its noun: instead, these forms of the verb "to be" are understood as part of the adjective. Egyptian uses this structure: "my mouth is red" is written as "red my mouth" (/dSr=f r=i/).
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With control predicates, the object agreement is associated with the VP, so a non-telic reading is obtained. In this case, the speaker conveys that an action was initiated, and as the actor exercised control over the situation, the action was expected to be completed as a natural course of events. Whether or not the action was actually completed is not specified. Unlike semantic approaches, this and others based on syntax focus on the relationship between elements within the sentence structure hierarchy to explain differences in meaning.
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In this case is functions similar to the English prefixes 'non-' or 'un-'. All four dialects of Mekeo have existential negators: maini in North-West Mekeo, aibaia or aibaida in West Mekeo, aibaia or aibaiza in North Mekeo, and laaʼi in East Mekeo. The existential negators are sentence-final predicates — where a verb would otherwise be — and express denial of the existence, presence or identity of the preceding nominal predicate.See Mosel (1999) for an explanation of the interpretation of the term 'denial' in this context.
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Alternatively, a transitive infinitive can be expressed with the suffix -bel to the verbal theme; notably, these forms are fully inflected for ergative and absolutive cases. Thus the morphemes in j-le-bel-at ("for me to look for you") correspond to (first-person ergative marker)-"look for"-(infinitive marker)-(second person absolutive marker). Like many Mayan languages, Tzeltal has affect verbs, which can be thought of as a subcategory of intransitive verbs. They generally function as secondary predicates, with adverbial function in the phrase.
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Tony Soprano made good on his promise to Johnny, and sent two men from Naples to whack Rusty Millio and soldier Eddie Pietro outside of his home. However, more tension arose between the two families when Phil's cousin-in-law, Vito Spatafore, the captain of Tony's top-earning crew, was outed as a homosexual. In the winter of 2006, Johnny Sack pleaded guilty to 47 RICO predicates, receiving a 15-year sentence. As part of the plea, he admitted that he was a member of La Cosa Nostra.
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In computer programming, an opaque predicate is a predicate—an expression that evaluates to either "true" or "false"—for which the outcome is known by the programmer a priori, but which, for a variety of reasons, still needs to be evaluated at run time. Opaque predicates have been used as watermarks, as they will be identifiable in a program's executable. They can also be used to prevent an overzealous optimizer from optimizing away a portion of a program. Another use is in obfuscating the control or dataflow of a program to make reverse engineering harder.
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The predicate "is a philosopher" occurs in both sentences, which have a common structure of "a is a philosopher". The variable a is instantiated as "Socrates" in the first sentence, and is instantiated as "Plato" in the second sentence. While first-order logic allows for the use of predicates, such as "is a philosopher" in this example, propositional logic does not.Goertzel, B., Geisweiller, N., Coelho, L., Janičić, P., & Pennachin, C., Real-World Reasoning: Toward Scalable, Uncertain Spatiotemporal, Contextual and Causal Inference (Amsterdam & Paris: Atlantis Press, 2011), p. 29.
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For any propositions H1, H2, ... Hn, and permutation σ(n) of the numbers 1 through n, it is the case that: :H1 \land H2 \land ... \land Hn is equivalent to :Hσ(1) \land Hσ(2) \land Hσ(n). For example, if H1 is :It is raining H2 is :Socrates is mortal and H3 is :2+2=4 then It is raining and Socrates is mortal and 2+2=4 is equivalent to Socrates is mortal and 2+2=4 and it is raining and the other orderings of the predicates.
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Tanja soon discovers that Adrian was behind that, after Sebastian von Lahnstein, Ansgar's cousin, found out the child was still alive. Tanja only wants to come back to take Hannes again from his father, but her plan doesn't work and instead she soon has problems with the police responsible for kidnapping her own son and faking her death. But Tanja manages to blackmail Ansgar with one of his own intrigues and doesn't need go to prison after he predicates that Tanja had no other choice. Then Ansgar and Tanja fight for custody of Hannes again.
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Difference, in other words, goes all the way down. To confront reality honestly, Deleuze argues, we must grasp beings exactly as they are, and concepts of identity (forms, categories, resemblances, unities of apperception, predicates, etc.) fail to attain what he calls "difference in itself." "If philosophy has a positive and direct relation to things, it is only insofar as philosophy claims to grasp the thing itself, according to what it is, in its difference from everything it is not, in other words, in its internal difference."Desert Islands, p. 32.
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The sentence "la Kim matma e sadji vedma" would mean "Kim is a mother and wisely sells." A special conjunction "ze" is used to create a "mixed" predicate which may be true even if it is not necessarily true for either of the component predicates. For example, "le negda ga nigro ze blabi" means "the egg is black- and-white". This would be true if the egg were striped or speckled; in that case it would not be true that the egg is black nor that it is white.
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Likewise, if another person, say Cindy, has the same non-moral relationship to David that Alice does (e.g., having borrowed $10 from him), then she must have the same obligation Alice does. The principle is compatible with a very fine-grained analysis of the supervenience base for moral predicates, and hence is compatible with moral particularism. (R.M. Hare, in the first recorded usage of the term moral particularism, defined these as incompatible, saying they were contradictories, but his definition of particularism is not identical with its contemporary usage.
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Concepts are an extension to the templates feature provided by the C++ programming language. Concepts are named Boolean predicates on template parameters, evaluated at compile time. A concept may be associated with a template (class template, function template, or member function of a class template), in which case it serves as a constraint: it limits the set of arguments that are accepted as template parameters. Originally dating back to suggestions for C++11, the original concepts specification has been revised multiple times before now formally being a required part of C++20.
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Rather than interpret the truth predicate via a single extension, as is done with non-circular predicates, revision theory interprets it via a revision process. The revision process is a collection of revision sequences that result when arbitrary hypotheses concerning the interpretation of truth are revised using a rule provided by the Tarski biconditionals. In the revision process, problematic sentences such as the Liar (“this very sentence is not true”) do not settle on a definite truth value. Remarkably, however, ordinary unproblematic sentences do receive a definite truth value.
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Apophatic theology is often assessed as being a version of atheism or agnosticism, since it cannot say truly that God exists. "The comparison is crude, however, for conventional atheism treats the existence of God as a predicate that can be denied ("God is nonexistent"), whereas negative theology denies that God has predicates". "God or the Divine is" without being able to attribute qualities about "what He is" would be the prerequisite of positive theology in negative theology that distinguishes theism from atheism. "Negative theology is a complement to, not the enemy of, positive theology".
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Words can be formed by prefixation, suffixation, or compounding. Word classes include nouns, defined by the ability to appear with a numeral classifier; verbs, defined by the ability to appear with negation and the person and tense marking; postpositions, which are enclitic to NPs, numerals, and classifiers. Adjectives are a subset of stative verbs for which reduplication means intensification or adverbialization rather than the perfective aspect (reduplication with nouns has a distributive meaning, ‘every’). Adjectives can be used as predicates or can appear nominalized in a copula clause.
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Given a concrete category (C, U) and a cardinal number N, let UN be the functor C → Set determined by UN(c) = (U(c))N. Then a subfunctor of UN is called an N-ary predicate and a natural transformation UN → U an N-ary operation. The class of all N-ary predicates and N-ary operations of a concrete category (C,U), with N ranging over the class of all cardinal numbers, forms a large signature. The category of models for this signature then contains a full subcategory which is equivalent to C.
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A sign-to-sign transaction relating to an object is a transaction that involves three parties, or a relation that involves three roles. This is called a ternary or triadic relation in logic. Consequently, pragmatic theories of truth are largely expressed in terms of triadic truth predicates. The statement above tells us one more thing: Peirce, having started out in accord with Kant, is here giving notice that he is parting ways with the Kantian idea that the ultimate object of a representation is an unknowable thing-in-itself.
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POWER's successor, PowerPC (1993), dropped these instructions. Digital Equipment Corporation's Alpha architecture (1992) also featured conditional move instructions. MIPS gained conditional move instructions in 1994 with the MIPS IV version; and SPARC was extended in Version 9 (1994) with conditional move instructions for both integer and floating-point registers. In the Hewlett-Packard/Intel IA-64 architecture, most instructions are predicated. The predicates are stored in 64 special-purpose predicate registers; and one of the predicate registers is always true so that unpredicated instructions are simply instructions predicated with the value true.
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From a theoretical point of view, the meta-process modeling explains the key concepts needed to describe what happens in the development process, on what, when it happens, and why. From an operational point of view, the meta-process modeling is aimed at providing guidance for method engineers and application developers. The activity of modeling a business process usually predicates a need to change processes or identify issues to be corrected. This transformation may or may not require IT involvement, although that is a common driver for the need to model a business process.
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Shi is originally from Hangzhou, and did her undergraduate studies at Tsinghua University before completing her doctorate in 2008 at Carnegie Mellon University. Her dissertation, Evaluating Predicates over Encrypted Data, was supervised by Adrian Perrig. She worked as a researcher at PARC and the University of California, Berkeley, and as an assistant professor at the University of Maryland, College Park before joining the Cornell faculty in 2015. She is a recipient of a Packard Fellowship, a Sloan Fellowship, an ONR YIP award, and various other best paper awards.
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In the New Foundations approach to set theory pioneered by W.V.O. Quine, the axiom of comprehension for a given predicate takes the unrestricted form, but the predicates that may be used in the schema are themselves restricted. The predicate (C is not in C) is forbidden, because the same symbol C appears on both sides of the membership symbol (and so at different "relative types"); thus, Russell's paradox is avoided. However, by taking P(C) to be (C = C), which is allowed, we can form a set of all sets. For details, see stratification.
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This allows the most common comparisons in SQL predicates to be performed on encoded values without needing to decompress the data, thereby accelerating evaluations, reducing memory requirements and lowering processing needs for queries at runtime., Once encoded, data is packed as tightly as possible in a collection of bits that equal the register width of the CPU of the server being used. This results in fewer I/Os (because the data is smaller), better memory utilization (because more data can be stored in memory), and fewer CPU cycles (because the data is "register aligned").
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Again, the one finite verb, did, is the root of the entire verb catena and the subject, they, is a dependent of the finite verb. The third sentence has the following dependency structure: ::Nonfinite tree 3 Here the verb catena contains three main verbs so there are three separate predicates in the verb catena. The three examples show distinctions between finite and nonfinite verbs and the roles of these distinctions in sentence structure. For example, nonfinite verbs can be auxiliary verbs or main verbs and they appear as infinitives, participles, gerunds etc.
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In classical mathematics, characteristic functions of sets only take values 1 (members) or 0 (non-members). In fuzzy set theory, characteristic functions are generalized to take value in the real unit interval [0, 1], or more generally, in some algebra or structure (usually required to be at least a poset or lattice). Such generalized characteristic functions are more usually called membership functions, and the corresponding "sets" are called fuzzy sets. Fuzzy sets model the gradual change in the membership degree seen in many real-world predicates like "tall", "warm", etc.
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The Kankanaey vocabulary is arranged by root morphemes, and points out the important semantic properties of each root. Kankanaey roots deeply rely on the combination with their affixes to determine their meaning in phrases and clauses. The predicates that form are determined by the interaction of the affixation to the semantic properties of the root that are relevant in its context. Aktionsart is a way to categorize event semenatics, proposed by Vendler (1967), by if they are "happening" or are static, and it distinguishes them by their temporal properties and its dynamicity.
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Furthermore, these approaches work only when the data scientist can discover bad outputs. To debug analytics without known bad outputs, the data scientist need to analyze the data-flow for suspicious behavior in general. However, often, a user may not know the expected normal behavior and cannot specify predicates. This section describes a debugging methodology for retrospectively analyzing lineage to identify faulty actors in a multi-stage data-flow. We believe that sudden changes in an actor’s behavior, such as its average selectivity, processing rate or output size, is characteristic of an anomaly.
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When combined with adverbs it yields stative nouns, with nouns it can either signal an intensification of meaning or a slight change in meaning (with no intensification), it turns stative verbs into stative nouns and dynamic verbs into nouns. Semantically, -nga derivations tend to convey the idea of generic, habitual or characteristic actions. A further nominalisation suffix -i exists but is far less productive than -nga. Transitivity of predicates can be altered by the addition of one or more of the following prefixes: pa, par, m and these are extremely productive processes.
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Some theories of grammar seek to avoid the confusion generated by the competition between the two predicate notions by acknowledging predicators.For examples of grammars that employ the term predicator, see for instance , , , and The term predicate is employed in the traditional sense of the binary division of the clause, whereas the term predicator is used to denote the more modern understanding of matrix predicates. On this approach, the periphrastic verb catenae briefly illustrated in the previous section are predicators. Further illustrations are provided next: ::Predicate trees 3' The predicators are in blue.
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Pure reason mistakenly goes beyond its relation to possible experience when it concludes that there is a Being who is the most real thing (ens realissimum) conceivable. This ens realissimum is the philosophical origin of the idea of God. This personified object is postulated by Reason as the subject of all predicates, the sum total of all reality. Kant called this Supreme Being, or God, the Ideal of Pure Reason because it exists as the highest and most complete condition of the possibility of all objects, their original cause and their continual support.
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Verbal predicates (which consist of a verb wordJones (1998) notes that while a Mekeo verb and its various affixes have traditionally been referred to as a 'verb phrase', this construction is more accurately called a "verb word". and its arguments) in Mekeo are negated by a negator prefix attached to the predicate's verb word. Within the verb word, the negator prefix is found between tense-aspect-mood prefixes and the subject marker, with an intrusive consonant before the subject marker in some dialects. This negator prefix negates the entire verbal predicate.
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Z is based on the standard mathematical notation used in axiomatic set theory, lambda calculus, and first-order predicate logic. All expressions in Z notation are typed, thereby avoiding some of the paradoxes of naive set theory. Z contains a standardized catalogue (called the mathematical toolkit) of commonly used mathematical functions and predicates, defined using Z itself. Because Z notation (just like the APL language, long before it) uses many non-ASCII symbols, the specification includes suggestions for rendering the Z notation symbols in ASCII and in LaTeX.
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Ground terms are terms that contain no variables. They may be defined by logical recursion (formula-recursion): # Elements of C are ground terms; # If f ∈ F is an n-ary function symbol and α1, α2, ..., αn are ground terms, then f(α1, α2, ..., αn) is a ground term. # Every ground term can be given by a finite application of the above two rules (there are no other ground terms; in particular, predicates cannot be ground terms). Roughly speaking, the Herbrand universe is the set of all ground terms.
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Quine Reprinted in: argued that the solution to the paradox lies in the recognition that certain predicates, which he called natural kinds, have a distinguished status with respect to induction. This can be illustrated with Nelson Goodman's example of the predicate grue. An object is grue if it is blue before (say) and green afterwards. Clearly, we expect objects that were blue before to remain blue afterwards, but we do not expect the objects that were found to be grue before to be blue after , since after they would be green.
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In the theory of relational databases, a Boolean conjunctive query is a conjunctive query without distinguished predicates, i.e., a query in the form R_1(t_1) \wedge \cdots \wedge R_n(t_n), where each R_i is a relation symbol and each t_i is a tuple of variables and constants; the number of elements in t_i is equal to the arity of R_i. Such a query evaluates to either true or false depending on whether the relations in the database contain the appropriate tuples of values, i.e. the conjunction is valid according to the facts in the database.
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"Human or divine, as Stirner said, the predicates are the same whether they belong analytically to the divine being, or whether they are synthetically bound to the human form" (Gilles Deleuze. The Logic of Sense. Continuum. 2004). p. 122. Saul Newman calls Stirner a proto-poststructuralist who on the one hand had essentially anticipated modern post-structuralists such as Foucault, Lacan, Deleuze and Derrida, but on the other had already transcended them, thus providing what they were unable to—i.e. a ground for a non-essentialist critique of present liberal capitalist society.
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In programming languages that include a distinct boolean data type in their type system, like Pascal, Ada, or Java, these operators usually evaluate to true or false, depending on if the conditional relationship between the two operands holds or not. In languages such as C, relational operators return the integers 0 or 1, where 0 stands for false and any non-zero value stands for true. An expression created using a relational operator forms what is termed a relational expression or a condition. Relational operators can be seen as special cases of logical predicates.
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Current research is exploring the potential of modular reconfigurable robotics and the complex software necessary to control the “shape changing” robots. “Locally Distributed Predicates or LDP is a distributed, high-level language for programming modular reconfigurable robot systems (MRRs)”. There are many challenges associated with programming and controlling a large number of discrete modular systems due to the degrees of freedom that correspond with each module. For example, reconfiguring from one formation to one similar may require a complex path of movements controlled by an intricate string of commands even though the two shapes differ slightly.
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This inversion of the courtly poetry popular in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance in which women were confined to the role of the humble, reticent and inactive role of the beloved spars with the expectations of the 17th century reader. Despite the sexual overtones of the poem, the Bucolic environment captures the Adamic or Pre-fall Edenic innocence of Western tradition, which effectively predicates the licentious and exploitative associations with human sexuality. In this sense, the poem escapes the regular criticism so prevalent in Góngora's time. The bucolic genre effectively bypassed the social formalities, norms, taboos and concerns of posterior civilization.
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All languages contain the semantic structure of predication: a structure that predicates a property, state, or action. Traditionally, semantics has been understood to be the study of how speakers and interpreters assign truth values to statements, so that meaning is understood to be the process by which a predicate can be said to be true or false about an entity, e.g. "[x [is y " or "[x [does y ". Recently, this model of semantics has been complemented with more dynamic models of meaning that incorporate shared knowledge about the context in which a sign is interpreted into the production of meaning.
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He regarded such relations as (real) qualities of things (Leibniz admitted unary predicates only): For him, "Mary is the mother of John" describes separate qualities of Mary and of John. This view contrasts with the relational logic of De Morgan, Peirce, Schröder and Russell himself, now standard in predicate logic. Notably, Leibniz also declared space and time to be inherently relational. Leibniz's 1690 discovery of his algebra of conceptsLeibniz: Die philosophischen Schriften VII, 1890, pp. 236–247; translated as "A Study in the Calculus of Real Addition" (1690) by G. H. R. Parkinson, Leibniz: Logical Papers – A Selection, Oxford 1966, pp. 131–144.
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It is assumed that the system is initially in a legitimate configuration. Then the network topology is changed; the superstabilization time is the maximum time it takes for the system to reach a legitimate configuration again. Similarly, the adjustment measure is the maximum number of nodes that have to change their state after such changes. The “almost-legitimate configurations” which occur after one topology change can be formally modelled by using passage predicates: a passage predicate is a predicate that holds after a single change in the network topology, and also during the convergence to a legitimate configuration.
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This general assignment must lead to every one of the B_k and D_k being true, since if one of the B_k were false under the general assignment, D_n would also be false for every n > k. But this contradicts the fact that for the finite collection of general E_h assignments appearing in D_k, there are infinitely many n where the assignment making D_n true matches the general assignment. From this general assignment, which makes all of the D_k true, we construct an interpretation of the language's predicates that makes φ true. The universe of the model will be the natural numbers.
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Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 106 but it is probable that these names designated splinter groups distinct from the Megarian school. Besides Ichthyas, Euclides' most important pupils were Eubulides of MiletusDiogenes Laërtius, ii. 108 and Clinomachus of Thurii.Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 112 It seems to have been under Clinomachus that a separate Dialectical school was founded, Although the name "Dialectical school" was apparently coined by Dionysius of Chalcedon, (Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 106) which placed great emphasis on logic and dialectic, and Clinomachus was said to have been "the first to write about propositions and predicates." However, Euclides himself taught logic,Diogenes Laërtius, ii.
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The FrameNet project produced the first major computational lexicon that systematically described many predicates and their corresponding roles. Daniel Gildea (University of California, Berkeley / International Computer Science Institute) and Daniel Jurafsky (currently teaching at Stanford University, but previously working at University of Colorado and UC Berkeley) developed the first automatic semantic role labeling system based on FrameNet. The PropBank corpus added manually created semantic role annotations to the Penn Treebank corpus of Wall Street Journal texts. Many automatic semantic role labeling systems have used PropBank as a training dataset to learn how to annotate new sentences automatically.
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The language's main advantage over similar languages is its ability to use the same code for all steps of compiling, (e.g. lexing and parsing). OMeta also supports the defining of production rules based on arguments; this can be used to add such rules to OMeta itself, as well as the host language that OMeta is running in. Additionally, these rules can use each other as arguments, creating “higher-order rules”, and inherit each other to gain production rules from existing code. OMeta is capable of using host-language booleans (True/False) while pattern matching; these are referred to as “semantic predicates”.
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The Tagalog puwera kung (from Sp. fuera) is used as a negative exceptive conditional conjunction, translatable in English as "unless" or "except if", used along side "maliban sa" or "liban sa". The Tagalog oras na (from Sp. hora) is a temporal conjunction which can be translated in English as "the moment that". The Tagalog imbes na (from Sp. en vez) is used as an implicit adversative conjunction and it can be translated in English as "instead of". The Tagalog para (from Sp. para), when used to introduce verb-less or basic-form predicates, assumes the role of a purposive conjunction.
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Within each of those blocks, the top 2^n/4 will have bit #2 set to zero and the other 2^n/4 will have it as one, so they agree on two blocks of 2^n/4 or on half of all the cases. No matter which two elements one picks. So if we have no preconceived bias about which categories are better, everything is then equally similar (or equally dissimilar). The number of predicates simultaneously satisfied by two non-identical elements is constant over all such pairs and is the same as the number of those satisfied by one.
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Moreover, predicate transformer semantics are a reformulation of Floyd–Hoare logic. Whereas Hoare logic is presented as a deductive system, predicate transformer semantics (either by weakest-preconditions or by strongest-postconditions see below) are complete strategies to build valid deductions of Hoare logic. In other words, they provide an effective algorithm to reduce the problem of verifying a Hoare triple to the problem of proving a first-order formula. Technically, predicate transformer semantics perform a kind of symbolic execution of statements into predicates: execution runs backward in the case of weakest-preconditions, or runs forward in the case of strongest-postconditions.
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Typically, in languages with coverb+light-verb predicates, these words must be directly adjacent; however, in extremely rare cases in languages such as Jingulu, there can be intervening elements between the semantically- rich preverb and the inflected matrix verb. See the following example where the subject ngaya appears between the preverb ambaya 'speak' and the inflected main verb nu 'do.' This rare but significant phenomenon provides evidence that, even in more heavily agglutinating languages like Jingulu wherein the main verb may not be morphologically independent from the preverb, these are in fact light verbs and not inflectional affixes.
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In the Towers of Hanoi example, the Prolog inference engine figures out how to move a stack of any number of progressively smaller disks, one at a time, from the left pole to the right pole in the described way, by means of a center as transit, so that there's never a bigger disk on top of a smaller disk. The predicate `hanoi` takes an integer indicating the number of disks as an initial argument. class hanoi predicates hanoi : (unsigned N). end class hanoi implement hanoi domains pole = left; center; right. clauses hanoi(N) :- move(N, left, center, right).
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Database tables in a cache group must each have a defined primary key or a unique index declared across a set of non- nullable columns and must be related in a parent-child hierarchy via primary key-foreign key constraints. SQL predicates can be used to control what data is to be cached. Once a cache group is defined, the cache group can then be "loaded", allowing Oracle Database data to be cached in TimesTen. Applications can then read from and write to cache groups, and all data modifications will then be synchronized with the corresponding Oracle database tables either automatically or manually.
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In type-theoretic foundations of mathematics, setoids may be used in a type theory that lacks quotient types to model general mathematical sets. For example, in Per Martin- Löf's intuitionistic type theory, there is no type of real numbers, only a type of regular Cauchy sequences of rational numbers. To do real analysis in Martin-Löf's framework, therefore, one must work with a setoid of real numbers, the type of regular Cauchy sequences equipped with the usual notion of equivalence. Predicates and functions of real numbers need to be defined for regular Cauchy sequences and proven to be compatible with the equivalence relation.
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GiST can be used for any data type that can be naturally ordered into a hierarchy of supersets. Not only is it extensible in terms of data type support and tree layout, it allows the extension writer to support any query predicates that they choose. GiST is an example of software extensibility in the context of database systems: it allows the easy evolution of a database system to support new tree-based indexes. It achieves this by factoring out its core system infrastructure from a narrow API that is sufficient to capture the application-specific aspects of a wide variety of index designs.
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Lafont (1993) first showed how intuitionistic linear logic can be explained as a logic of resources, so providing the logical language with access to formalisms that can be used for reasoning about resources within the logic itself, rather than, as in classical logic, by means of non-logical predicates and relations. Tony Hoare (1985)'s classical example of the vending machine can be used to illustrate this idea. Suppose we represent having a candy bar by the atomic proposition , and having a dollar by . To state the fact that a dollar will buy you one candy bar, we might write the implication .
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Chapter nine concerns the complementation of languages and the transitive closure operator, including the Immerman–Szelepcsényi theorem that nondeterministic logarithmic space is closed under complementation. Chapter ten provides complete problems and a second-order logical characterization of polynomial space. Chapter eleven concerns uniformity in circuit complexity (the distinction between the existence of circuits for solving a problem, and their algorithmic constructibility), and chapter twelve concerns the role of ordering and counting predicates in logical characterizations of complexity classes. Chapter thirteen uses the switching lemma for lower bounds, and chapter fourteen concerns applications to databases and model checking.
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Each predicate P in the ontology has a list of other same-arity predicates with which P is mutually exclusive. If A is mutually exclusive with predicate B, A’s positive instances and patterns become negative instances and negative patterns for B. For example, if ‘city’, having an instance ‘Boston’ and a pattern ‘mayor of arg1’, is mutually exclusive with ‘scientist’, then ‘Boston’ and ‘mayor of arg1’ will become a negative instance and a negative pattern respectively for ‘scientist.’ Further, Some categories are declared to be a subset of another category. For e.g., ‘athlete’ is a subset of ‘person’.
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He states that by taking the subject of God with all its predicates and then asserting that God exists, "I add no new predicate to the conception of God". He argues that the ontological argument works only if existence is a predicate; if this is not so, he claims the ontological argument is invalidated, as it is then conceivable a completely perfect being doesn't exist. In addition, Kant claims that the concept of God is not of one a particular sense; rather, it is an "object of pure thought". He asserts that God exists outside the realm of experience and nature.
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Thus we shall say that "Socrates is human" is a proposition having only one term; of the remaining component of the proposition, one is the verb, the other is a predicate.. . . Predicates, then, are concepts, other than verbs, which occur in propositions having only one term or subject." (1903:45) Truth and falsehood: Suppose one were to point to an object and say: "This object in front of me named 'Emily' is a woman." This is a proposition, an assertion of the speaker's belief, which is to be tested against the "facts" of the outer world: "Minds do not create truth or falsehood.
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Although Pasterka mass is closely associated with the specific time in Christian liturgy, it is not the actual hour of the night that predicates its meaning. According to Polish ordinance of the Eucharist, the Pasterka is defined only by the type of prayer and biblical texts used during Christmas celebrations. It can be held more than once on December 24, in more than one location by the parish priest; at the church and at a nearby chapel. Often, there are two (or even three) Pasterkas celebrated next to each other – earlier ones for the families with children, then at 9 and 10 p.m.
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This approach is referred to as the lazy approach. Dubbed DPLL(T), this architecture gives the responsibility of Boolean reasoning to the DPLL-based SAT solver which, in turn, interacts with a solver for theory T through a well-defined interface. The theory solver only needs to worry about checking the feasibility of conjunctions of theory predicates passed on to it from the SAT solver as it explores the Boolean search space of the formula. For this integration to work well, however, the theory solver must be able to participate in propagation and conflict analysis, i.e.
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Mary is a citizen. together with the five abducible predicates, "is born in the USA", "is born outside the USA", "is a resident of the USA", "is naturalized" and "is registered" and the integrity constraint: false if John is a resident of the USA. The goal "John is citizen" has two abductive solutions, one of which is "John is born in the USA", the other of which is "John is born outside the USA" and "John is registered". The potential solution of becoming a citizen by residence and naturalization fails because it violates the integrity constraint.
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In linguistics, a resultative' (abbreviated ') is a form that expresses that something or someone has undergone a change in state as the result of the completion of an event. Resultatives appear as predicates of sentences, and are generally composed of a verb (denoting the event), a post-verbal noun phrase (denoting the entity that has undergone a change) and a so-called resultative phrase (denoting the state achieved as the result of the action named by the verbLevin, Beth. (1993). English verb classes and alternations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.) which may be represented by an adjective, a prepositional phrase, or a particle, among others.
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Unlike natural languages, such as English, the language of first-order logic is completely formal, so that it can be mechanically determined whether a given expression is well formed. There are two key types of well-formed expressions: terms, which intuitively represent objects, and formulas, which intuitively express predicates that can be true or false. The terms and formulas of first-order logic are strings of symbols, where all the symbols together form the alphabet of the language. As with all formal languages, the nature of the symbols themselves is outside the scope of formal logic; they are often regarded simply as letters and punctuation symbols.
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One introduces into the single- sorted theory a unary predicate symbol for each sort in the many-sorted theory, and adds an axiom saying that these unary predicates partition the domain of discourse. For example, if there are two sorts, one adds predicate symbols P_1(x) and P_2(x) and the axiom :\forall x ( P_1(x) \lor P_2(x)) \land \lnot \exists x (P_1(x) \land P_2(x)). Then the elements satisfying P_1 are thought of as elements of the first sort, and elements satisfying P_2 as elements of the second sort. One can quantify over each sort by using the corresponding predicate symbol to limit the range of quantification.
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The Predication of Saint Paul In addressing the Problem of Universals, Aristotle established a kind of predication where universal terms are involved in a relation of predication provided some facts that are expressed by ordinary sentences hold. It is also argued that the particular instantiates or participates in the universal, hence, universals may be needed for the predication of relations. Predication is also used to explain the indeterminacy of mass terms. When mass terms are treated as predicates, indeterminacy is demonstrated when the terms are applied to combination of quantities by being portions of such combinations as well as to quantities that are qualified in other ways.
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In Kwaza, the morpheme -he- is one of the negation morphemes, which creates the negative in predicates and propositions when bound together. In this negation morpheme, the negative usually comes before the person and mood marking. For example: (1)awỹi-‘he-da-ki ti-hỹ-‘re see- NEG-1S-DEC what-NOM-INT ‘I haven’t seen him, where is he?’ (2) areta-‘he-da-ki know-NEG-1S-DEC ‘I don’t know’ (3) awỹi-he-ta-ki see-NEG-1O-DEC ‘He didn’t see me’ However, if the clause in the sentence is declarative, and there is no clear argument cross-reference, the declarative mood marker is -tse.
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In CL, any non- NIL value is treated as true by conditionals, such as `if`, whereas in Scheme all non-#f values are treated as true. These conventions allow some operators in both languages to serve both as predicates (answering a boolean-valued question) and as returning a useful value for further computation, but in Scheme the value '() which is equivalent to NIL in Common Lisp evaluates to true in a boolean expression. Lastly, the Scheme standards documents require tail-call optimization, which the CL standard does not. Most CL implementations do offer tail-call optimization, although often only when the programmer uses an optimization directive.
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While the exposition in Goodman and Leonard invoked a bit of naive set theory, the variant of the calculus of individuals that grounds Goodman's 1951 The Structure of Appearance, a revision and extension of his Ph.D. thesis, makes no mention of the notion of set (while his Ph.D. thesis still did).Cohnitz and Rossberg (2003), ch. 5 Simons (1987) and Casati and Varzi (1999) show that the calculus of individuals can be grounded in either a bit of set theory, or monadic predicates, schematically employed. Mereology is accordingly "ontologically neutral" and retains some of Quine's pragmatism (which Tymoczko in 1998 carefully qualified as American Pragmatism).
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Players can also create their own "maps" (custom world save files) which often contain specific rules, challenges, puzzles and quests, and share them for others to play. Mojang added an adventure mode in August 2012 and "command blocks" in October 2012, which were created specially for custom maps in Java Edition. Data packs, introduced in version 1.13 of the Java Edition, allow further customization, including the ability to add new advancements, dimensions, functions, loot tables, predicates, recipes, structures, tags, world generation settings, and biomes. The Xbox 360 Edition supports downloadable content, which is available to purchase via the Xbox Games Store; these content packs usually contain additional character skins.
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Figdor's professional philosophical work has been published in a number of refereed journals, including The Journal of Philosophy, Philosophy of Science, Neuroethics, and The Journal of Mass Media Ethics. She has also contributed a number of book chapters, including a chapter about the possibility of the existence of objective news, and a number about topics in the philosophy of mind. Figdor published a book on July 17, 2018 titled Pieces of Mind: The Proper Domain of Psychological Predicates. In this volume she aims to develop a theoretical foundation for scientific attempts to explain the relationship between the mind and the brain, focusing on the differences between processes and objects.
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Ameka has made seminal contributions to the cross-linguistic study of interjections, editing a highly influential special issue on 'the universal yet neglected part of speech' . Ameka has pioneered research on the interaction of grammar, culture, and social structure, using the framework of Natural Semantic Metalanguage to elucidate cultural scripts and interactional resources. A long-term research associate at the Max Planck Institute of Psycholinguistics, Ameka has led a large-scale comparative project on the semantics of locative predicates and contributed to cross-linguistic work on the expression of motion events. With Alan Dench and Nick Evans, he co-edited an influential collection on the art of grammar writing.
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Noun and adjective predicates are constructed without a copula, in the order Subject + Predicate, e.g. "This is my house" (this my house), "His name is Basilio" (his name Basilio), "The manatee is a big animal" (manatee animal big), "My house is pretty" (my house pretty); so also "That cat is mine" and "My cat is for killing rats". The Subject + Predicate order is inverted in a question such as "What is his name?" The verb "stay" is used to express "be (in a place)" and "be (in a state)", as in "The school is on the south side" (school south side in stay), "I am fine" (I well stay).
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Bust of Tillich by James Rosati in New Harmony, Indiana Throughout most of his work Tillich provides an ontological view of God as being-itself, the ground of being, and the power of being, one in which God is beyond essence and existence. He was critical of conceptions of God as a being (e.g., the highest being), as well as of pantheistic conceptions of God as universal essence. Traditional medieval philosophical theology in the work of figures such as St. Anselm, Duns Scotus, and William of Ockham tended to understand God as the highest existing being, to which predicates such as omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence, goodness, righteousness, holiness, etc.
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Let p and q be two unary predicates. Then ⊓x(p(x)⊔¬p(x))⟜⊓x(q(x)⊔¬q(x)) expresses the problem of Turing-reducing q to p (in the sense that q is Turing reducible to p if and only if the interactive problem ⊓x(p(x)⊔¬p(x))⟜⊓x(q(x)⊔¬q(x)) is computable). ⊓x(p(x)⊔¬p(x))→⊓x(q(x)⊔¬q(x)) does the same but for the stronger version of Turing reduction where the oracle for p can be queried only once. ⊓x⊔y(q(x)↔p(y)) does the same for the problem of many-one reducing q to p.
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For example, when presented with the word "dog", an individual may come up with statements, or predicates, such as "has four legs", "is an animal", or "barks and wags its tail". Words with higher ease of predication scores are more easily read aloud by deep dyslexics than words with lower ease of predicaton scores, yet there is no correlation between ease of predication and ease of reading seen in normal adult readers. Ease of predication may not explain specific symptoms of deep dyslexia, but rather indicates that deep dyslexics read using imagery, or a predicational route, rather than the more precise mechanisms used in normal reading.
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For a treatment of there as a dummy predicate, based on the analysis of the copula, see Moro, A., The Raising of Predicates. Predicative Noun Phrases and the Theory of Clause Structure, Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, 80, Cambridge University Press, 1997. However, its identification as a pronoun is most consistent with its behavior in inverted sentences and question tags as described above. Because the word there can also be a deictic adverb (meaning "at/to that place"), a sentence like There is a river could have either of two meanings: "a river exists" (with there as a pronoun), and "a river is in that place" (with there as an adverb).
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If the predicate evaluates to `UNKNOWN`, then the constraint is not violated and the row can be inserted or updated in the table. This is contrary to predicates in `WHERE` clauses in `SELECT` or `UPDATE` statements. For example, in a table containing products, one could add a check constraint such that the price of a product and quantity of a product is a non-negative value: PRICE >= 0 QUANTITY >= 0 If these constraints were not in place, it would be possible to have a negative price (−$30) or quantity (−3 items). Check constraints are used to ensure the validity of data in a database and to provide data integrity.
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One interesting aspect of this case is the potential to affect a minor section of the USA PATRIOT Act. As the government notes in its response to the request for Certiorari: :Finally, Congress's recent enactment of other legislation that predicates criminal liability on convictions entered "in any court" suggests that definitive guidance by this Court would be of value at this time. See 18 U.S.C. 175b(d)(2)(B) (prohibition on possession of biological weapons), added by Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-56, Title VIII, § 817(2), 115 Stat.
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Like other modern axiomatizations of Euclidean geometry, Tarski's employs a formal system consisting of symbol strings, called sentences, whose construction respects formal syntactical rules, and rules of proof that determine the allowed manipulations of the sentences. Unlike some other modern axiomatizations, such as Birkhoff's and Hilbert's, Tarski's axiomatization has no primitive objects other than points, so a variable or constant cannot refer to a line or an angle. Because points are the only primitive objects, and because Tarski's system is a first-order theory, it is not even possible to define lines as sets of points. The only primitive relations (predicates) are "betweenness" and "congruence" among points.
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A more modern view is that the dichotomy between white-box testing and black-box testing has blurred and is becoming less relevant. Whereas "white-box" originally meant using the source code, and black-box meant using requirements, tests are now derived from many documents at various levels of abstraction. The real point is that tests are usually designed from an abstract structure such as the input space, a graph, or logical predicates, and the question is what level of abstraction we derive that abstract structure from. That can be the source code, requirements, input space descriptions, or one of dozens of types of design models.
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As mentioned above, the verb is by far the most morphologically complex part of speech in Madí. However, the precise delineation of a "single verb" is difficult, since certain grammatically bound inflections can nonetheless form independent phonological words. For example, the masculine declarative suffix -ke is phonologically bound to the verb root in the word kake "he is coming", but part of a phonologically independent word in the sentence okofawa oke "I drink (something) with it". For this reason, Dixon prefers to analyse Madí in terms of "predicates" and "copulas" - sentence-level grammatical units which includes the verb root, personal pronouns in any position, and inflectional affixes, but excludes noun phrases.
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Thus, there are two classes of complex predicates: # V+V compounds: One type of compound verb, where the second verb (rarely the first...) is a "light verb" (LV) is preceded by (rarely followed by ...) a primary or "heavy verb". With a few exceptions all V+V compound verbs alternate with their simple counterparts. That is, removing the light verb / vector does not affect grammaticality at all nor the meaning very much: निकल गया – نِکَل گَیا "nikal gayā" {exit + WENT} versus निकला – نِکلا nikalā {exited}, both meaning '(I/you/he) went out.' In a few languages both components of the compound verb can be finite forms: Kurukh kecc-ar ker-ar lit.
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In the research, elitist schools are defined as schools that focus on providing its best students with the tools to succeed, whereas an egalitarian school is one that predicates itself on giving equal opportunity to all its students to achieve academic success. When private education supplements were not considered, it was found that the greatest amount of social mobility was derived from a system with the least elitist public education system. It was also discovered that the system with the most elitist policies produced the greatest amount of utilitarian welfare. Logically, social mobility decreases with more elitist education systems and utilitarian welfare decreases with less elitist public education policies.
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1992 Accetturo was brought from Florida, the Taccetta brothers were arrested in Newark, and 17 other known members were put on trial for 76 Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) predicates, which included loansharking, extortion, racketeering, illegal gambling, money laundering, drug trafficking, arson and thefts, as well as murder and conspiracy to commit murder. The trial began in late 1986-early 1987. During the trial, former member of the Philadelphia crime family Giacomo "Jackie" DiNorscio fired his lawyer and went on to represent himself during the entire trial. Although not popular with Accetturo and Taccetta, DiNorscio is reported to have charmed the jury.
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Martin Löb showed Henkin's conjecture to be true, as well as identifying an important "reflection" principle also neatly codified using the modal logical approach. Some of the key provability results involving the representation of provability predicates had been obtained earlier using very different methods by Solomon Feferman. Boolos was an authority on the 19th-century German mathematician and philosopher Gottlob Frege. Boolos proved a conjecture due to Crispin Wright (and also proved, independently, by others), that the system of Frege's Grundgesetze, long thought vitiated by Russell's paradox, could be freed of inconsistency by replacing one of its axioms, the notorious Basic Law V with Hume's Principle.
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Only by satisfying or thwarting that purpose, by > forwarding or baffling that interest. If they do the one, the assertion is > 'good' and pro tanto 'true' ; if they do the other, 'bad' and 'false'. Its > 'consequences,' therefore, when investigated, always turn out to involve the > 'practical' predicates 'good ' or 'bad,' and to contain a reference to ' > practice' in the sense in which we have used that term. So soon as therefore > we go beyond an abstract statement of the narrower pragmatism, and ask what > in the concrete, and in actual knowing, 'having consequences ' may mean, we > develop inevitably the fullblown pragmatism in the wider sense.
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A so-called fourth-person category enables switch-reference between main clauses and subordinate clauses with different subjects. Greenlandic is notable for its lack of a system of grammatical tense, and temporal relations are expressed normally by context but also by the use of temporal particles such as "yesterday" or "now" or sometimes by the use of derivational suffixes or the combination of affixes with aspectual meanings with the semantic lexical aspect of different verbs. However, some linguists have suggested that Greenlandic always marks future tense. Another question is whether the language has noun incorporation or whether the processes that create complex predicates that include nominal roots are derivational in nature.
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Nominal predicates (which consist of one or more nominals) are negated in two ways — through either the negative particle or proclitic aʼi, or through existential negator particles. The negative particle aʼi is found in all dialects of Mekeo, with ⟨ʼ⟩ pronounced as either a weak glottal stop or slight pause most dialects, or even not at all () in East Mekeo.Jones (1998) only attempts a rough phonemic transcription of this particle, but does record this variation between dialects. Aʼi negates a nominal predicate as seen in examples 10 and 11: Aʼi also occurs as a proclitic particle before nominals, as seen in examples 12 and 13.
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A Middle Indo-Aryan innovation are the serial verb constructions that have evolved into complex predicates in modern north Indian languages such as Hindi and Bengali. For example, भाग जा (bhāg jā) 'go run' means run away, पका ले (pakā le) 'take cook' means to cook for oneself, and पका दे (pakā de) 'give cook' means to cook for someone. The second verb restricts the meaning of the main verb or adds a shade of meaning to it. Subsequently, the second verb was grammaticalised further into what is known as a light verb, mainly used to convey lexical aspect distinctions for the main verb.
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Hintikka was motivated to find a Bayesian approach to the paradox that did not make use of knowledge about the relative frequencies of ravens and black things. Arguments concerning relative frequencies, he contends, cannot always account for the perceived irrelevance of evidence consisting of observations of objects of type A for the purposes of learning about objects of type not-A. His argument can be illustrated by rephrasing the paradox using predicates other than "raven" and "black". For example, "All men are tall" is equivalent to "All short people are women", and so observing that a randomly selected person is a short woman should provide evidence that all men are tall.
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This occurs because if the statement "This sentence is false" is true, then it is false; this would mean that it is technically true, but also that it is false, and so on without end. Although the Pinocchio paradox belongs to the liar paradox tradition, it is a special case because it has no semantic predicates, as for example "My sentence is false" does. The Pinocchio paradox has nothing to do with Pinocchio being a known liar. If Pinocchio were to say "I am getting sick," this could be either true or false, but Pinocchio's sentence "My nose grows now" can be neither true nor false; hence this and only this sentence creates the Pinocchio (liar) paradox.
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Cypher uses compact fixed- and variable-length patterns which combine visual representations of node and relationship (edge) topologies, with label existence and property value predicates. (These patterns are usually referred to as "ASCII art" patterns, and arose originally as a way of commenting programs which used a lower-level graph API.) By matching such a pattern against graph data elements, a query can extract references to nodes, relationships and paths of interest. Those references are emitted as a "binding table" where column names are bound to a multiset of graph elements. The name of a column becomes the name of a "binding variable", whose value is a specific graph element reference for each row of the table.
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Recent research on the early precursors of theory of mind has looked at innovative ways at capturing preverbal infants' understanding of other people's mental states, including perception and beliefs. Using a variety of experimental procedures, studies have shown that infants from their first year of life have an implicit understanding of what other people see and what they know. A popular paradigm used to study infants' theory of mind is the violation of expectation procedure, which predicates on infants' tendency to look longer at unexpected and surprising events compared to familiar and expected events. Therefore, their looking-times measures would give researchers an indication of what infants might be inferring, or their implicit understanding of events.
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Predicate monism can be characterized as the view subscribed to by eliminative materialists, who maintain that such intentional predicates as believe, desire, think, feel, etc., will eventually be eliminated from both the language of science and from ordinary language because the entities to which they refer do not exist. Predicate dualists believe that so-called "folk psychology," with all of its propositional attitude ascriptions, is an ineliminable part of the enterprise of describing, explaining, and understanding human mental states and behavior. For example, Davidson subscribes to anomalous monism, according to which there can be no strict psychophysical laws which connect mental and physical events under their descriptions as mental and physical events.
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As Gupta and Belnap put it, "the moral we draw from the paradoxes is that the domain of the meaningful is more extensive than it appears to be, that certain seemingly meaningless concepts are in fact meaningful."Gupta and Belnap (1993, 278) The meaning of a circular predicate is not an extension, as is often assigned to non-circular predicates. Its meaning, rather, is a rule of revision that determines how to generate a new hypothetical extension given an initial one. These new extensions are at least as good as the originals, in the sense that, given one extension, the new extension contains exactly the things that satisfy the definiens for a particular circular predicate.
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Kleene also demanded that such an algorithm must eventually exhibit "some object" (Kleene 1952:137). Burgin argues that this condition is satisfied by inductive Turing machines, as their results are exhibited after a finite number of steps. The reason that inductive Turing machines cannot be instructed to halt when their final output is produced is that in some cases inductive Turing machines may not be able to tell at which step the result has been obtained. Simple inductive Turing machines are equivalent to other models of computation such as general Turing machines of Schmidhuber, trial and error predicates of Hilary Putnam, limiting partial recursive functions of Gold, and trial-and- error machines of Hintikka and Mutanen (1998).
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Last year Mary, who stands five-foot-four, was taller than her five-foot tall, 13-year-old son John; today Mary is shorter than her now five- foot-six, 14-year-old son. Mary has undergone a Cambridge change. The Cambridge change that Mary has undergone consists in the fact that a predicate true of her last year (taller than John) is not true now, and a predicate not true of her last year (shorter than John) is now true; but the change in the predicates’ truth values is not grounded in any change in her height. By contrast, the change in the truth value of last year's and this year's statement about John's height reflects his growth.
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The U.S. government filed a letter with the Second Circuit arguing that, like the Clapper plaintiffs, the Hedges plaintiffs could not "establish a present or 'certainly impending' injury-in-fact" because that the NDAA's detention provisions, like the NSA warrantless wiretapping authorization, merely permitted rather than required the government to take a particular action. The government argued that Clapper supported its argument that dismissal of the Hedges suit was required due to lack of standing. The Hedges plaintiffs responded in mid-March 2013, arguing that Clapper had "factual and legal predicates differ dramatically from those in the instant appeal and have only superficial similarities to Hedges," and seeking supplemental briefing and argument. The government responded on April 4, 2013.
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From this they infer that nothing is added to the assertion of the sentence "Snow is white" by quoting it, appending the predicate "__is true", and then asserting the result. Most predicates attribute properties to their subjects, but the redundancy theory denies that the predicate is true does so. Instead, it treats the predicate is true as empty, adding nothing to an assertion except to convert its use to its mention. That is, the predicate "___is true" merely asserts the proposition contained in the sentential clause to which it is applied but does not ascribe any additional property to that proposition or sentence, and in Ramsey's British lexicon, "is true" is redundant.
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The consequence is that if a CFG is transliterated directly to a PEG, any ambiguity in the former is resolved by deterministically picking one parse tree from the possible parses. By carefully choosing the order in which the grammar alternatives are specified, a programmer has a great deal of control over which parse tree is selected. Like boolean context-free grammars, parsing expression grammars also add the and- and not- syntactic predicates. Because they can use an arbitrarily complex sub-expression to "look ahead" into the input string without actually consuming it, they provide a powerful syntactic lookahead and disambiguation facility, in particular when reordering the alternatives cannot specify the exact parse tree desired.
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It was the first international standard to establish the format conventions for DE-9IM string codes, and the names of the "Named Spatial Relationship predicates based on the DE-9IM" (see section with this title). format. For output checking or pattern analysis, a matrix value (or a string code) can be checked by a "mask": a desired output value with optional asterisk symbols as wildcards — that is, "" indicating output positions that the designer does not care about (free values or "don't-care positions"). The domain of the mask elements is , or for the boolean form. The simpler models 4-Intersection and 9-Intersection were proposed before DE-9IM for expressing spatial relationsM.
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The Australian philosopher David Malet Armstrong has been one of the leading realists in the twentieth century, and has used a concept of universals to build a naturalistic and scientifically realist ontology. In both Universals and Scientific Realism (1978) and Universals: An Opinionated Introduction (1989), Armstrong describes the relative merits of a number of nominalist theories which appeal either to "natural classes" (a view he ascribes to Anthony Quinton), concepts, resemblance relations or predicates, and also discusses non-realist "trope" accounts (which he describes in the Universals and Scientific Realism volumes as "particularism"). He gives a number of reasons to reject all of these, but also dismisses a number of realist accounts.
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A paradox usually involves contradictory-yet- interrelated elements that exist simultaneously and persist over time. In logic, many paradoxes exist which are known to be invalid arguments, but which are nevertheless valuable in promoting critical thinking, while other paradoxes have revealed errors in definitions which were assumed to be rigorous, and have caused axioms of mathematics and logic to be re-examined. One example is Russell's paradox, which questions whether a "list of all lists that do not contain themselves" would include itself, and showed that attempts to found set theory on the identification of sets with properties or predicates were flawed. Others, such as Curry's paradox, cannot be easily resolved by making foundational changes in a logical system.
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If it did, it would be making a match between the clock and car based on their appearance — not on the relationships between them. When the additional predicates in p3 and p4 are functions, the results from matching p3 and p4 are similar to the results from p1 and p2 except there is an additional match between gear and circuit and the values for the match hypotheses between (inputgear gear) and (switch circuit), and (secondgear gear) and (div10 circuit), are lower. The next section describes the reason for this in more detail. If the inputgear, secondgear, switch, and div10 are attributes instead of entities, SME does not find matches between any of the attributes.
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Control and prevention of zoonotic diseases depends on appropriate global surveillance at various levels, including identification of novel pathogens, public health surveillance (including serological surveys), and analysis of the risks of transmission. The complexity of zoonotic events around the world predicates a multidisciplinary approach to prevention. The One Health Model has been proposed as a global strategy to help prevent the emergence of zoonotic diseases in humans, including novel viral diseases. The One Health concept aims to promote the health of animals, humans, and the environment, both locally and globally, by fostering understanding and collaboration between practitioners of different interrelated disciplines, including wildlife biology, veterinary science, medicine, agriculture, ecology, microbiology, epidemiology, and biomedical engineering.
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A syntactic expletive' (abbreviated ') is a form of expletive: a word that in itself contributes nothing to the semantic meaning of a sentence, yet does perform a syntactic role. Expletive subjects in the form of dummy pronouns are part of the grammar of many non-pro-drop languages such as English, whose clauses normally require overt provision of subject even when the subject can be pragmatically inferred. (For an alternative theory considering expletives like there as a dummy predicate rather than a dummy subject based on the analysis of the copula see Moro 1997Moro, A. 1997 The Raising of Predicates. Predicative Noun Phrases and the Theory of Clause Structure, Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, 80, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.).
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Greenlandic has a number of morphemes that require a noun root as their host and form complex predicates, which correspond closely in meaning to what is often seen in languages that have canonical noun incorporation. Linguists who propose that Greenlandic had incorporation argue that such morphemes are in fact verbal roots, which must incorporate nouns to form grammatical clauses.Sadock (1980)Sadock(1986)Sadock (1999)van Geenhoven (2002) That argument is supported by the fact that many of the derivational morphemes that form denominal verbs work almost identically to canonical noun incorporation. They allow the formation of words with a semantic content that correspond to an entire English clause with verb, subject and object.
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The subject noun does not appear alone, but is accompanied by markers for gender or noun classifiers (which are determined by shape). These noun classifiers are as follows: :animate ::masculine :::present (-ya-) :::absent (-o-) ::feminine :::present (-î-) :::absent (-ô-) ::collective (-ə-) :inanimate ::flexible or hollow (-o-) ::rigid or elongated (-ó-) ::other (-ʌ-) Person markers include o- ("I"), ha- ("you (singular)"), ka- ("we") and kə- ("you (plural)"). The adjectival or verbal predicate has a suffix which agrees with the subject: -ʌ for animate subjects and flexible or hollow ones; -ó for rigid or elongated ones; -i for others. Adjectival and verbal predicates are also marked with prefixes indicating mood, direction or aspect, and infixes for tense.
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In addition to discussing meaning analysis, Carnap discusses modal logic, describing it as his second main topic. The term "state-description" is used by Carnap to refer to a class of sentences which "contains for every atomic sentence either this sentence or its negation, but not both, and no other sentences". He considers the term justified because a state-description "obviously gives a complete description of a possible state of the universe of individuals with respect to all properties and relations expressed by predicates of the system." The enlarged edition of Meaning and Necessity includes previously published papers replying to criticism of Carnap by the philosophers Gilbert Ryle, Ernest Nagel, and Alonzo Church.
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The court noted that these disorders generally include schizophrenia, other serious psychotic disorders, and dissociative disorders with schizophrenia. Therefore, the test envisaged herein predicates that the offender needs to have a severe mental illness or disability, which simply means that a medical professional would objectively consider the illness to be most serious so that he cannot understand or comprehend the nature and purpose behind the imposition of such punishment. The notion of death penalty and the sufferance it brings along causes incapacitation and is idealised to invoke a sense of deterrence. If the accused is not able to understand the impact and purpose of his execution because of his disability, the raison d’etre for the execution itself collapses.
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Web services can be activated "behind the scenes" when a web browser makes a request to a web server, which then uses various web services to construct a more sophisticated reply than it would have been able to do on its own. Semantic web services can also be used by automatic programs that run without any connection to a web browser. A semantic-web-services platform that uses OWL (Web Ontology Language) to allow data and service providers to semantically describe their resources using third-party ontologies is SSWAP: Simple Semantic Web Architecture and Protocol. SSWAP establishes a lightweight protocol (few OWL classes and predicates; see the SSWAP Protocol) and the concept of a "canonical graph" to enable providers to logically describe a service.
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It is claimed that pessimistic predictions made by the authors were responsible for a change in the direction of research in AI, concentrating efforts on so-called "symbolic" systems, a line of research that petered out and contributed to the so-called AI winter of the 1980s, when AI's promise was not realized. The meat of Perceptrons is a number of mathematical proofs which acknowledge some of the perceptrons' strengths while also showing major limitations. The most important one is related to the computation of some predicates, such as the XOR function, and also the important connectedness predicate. The problem of connectedness is illustrated at the awkwardly colored cover of the book, intended to show how humans themselves have difficulties in computing this predicate.
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A seeming paradox is that there are non- standard models of the theory of hereditarily finite sets which contain infinite sets, but these infinite sets look finite from within the model. (This can happen when the model lacks the sets or functions necessary to witness the infinitude of these sets.) On account of the incompleteness theorems, no first-order predicate, nor even any recursive scheme of first- order predicates, can characterize the standard part of all such models. So, at least from the point of view of first-order logic, one can only hope to describe finiteness approximately. More generally, informal notions like set, and particularly finite set, may receive interpretations across a range of formal systems varying in their axiomatics and logical apparatus.
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At first glance, it would seem that the pragmatic conception of meaning, despite its different formulation and its focus on action, very much resembles the logical positivist verification requirement. Nevertheless, Lewis argued that there is a deep difference between the two: pragmatism ultimately grounds meaning on conceivable experience, while positivism reduces the relation between meaning and experience to a matter of logical form. For Lewis, the positivist conception of meaning omits precisely what a pragmatist would count as empirical meaning. Specifying which observation sentences follow from a given sentence helps us determine the empirical meaning of the given sentence only if the observation sentences themselves have an already understood meaning in terms of the specific qualities of experience to which the predicates of the observation sentences refer.
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For Bot Colony, North Side improved the natural language understanding pipeline by adding a semantic reasoner able to reason on logical axioms expressed in English (the equivalent of Prolog with predicates in English) and on formalized procedural knowledge expressed in English. A key feature distinguishing North Side's technology from an intelligent personal assistant based on machine learning, such as Apple's Siri, Google's Now, Microsoft's Cortana, Nuance's Nina or IBM's Watson, is its ability to clarify ambiguous or incomplete input and handle paraphrases, using a deterministic, rule-based approach. North Side relies on advances in parsing and disambiguation to understand language more precisely, making financial transactions through voice or text-messaging feasible. The underlying database technology supporting North Side's NLU technology is the Versant Object Database from Actian.
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Multiple discoveries in the history of science provide evidence for evolutionary models of science and technology, such as memetics (the study of self-replicating units of culture), evolutionary epistemology (which applies the concepts of biological evolution to study of the growth of human knowledge), and cultural selection theory (which studies sociological and cultural evolution in a Darwinian manner). A recombinant-DNA-inspired "paradigm of paradigms" has been posited, that describes a mechanism of "recombinant conceptualization". This paradigm predicates that a new concept arises through the crossing of pre-existing concepts and facts. This is what is meant when one says that a scientist or artist has been "influenced by" another—etymologically, that a concept of the latter's has "flowed into" the mind of the former.
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A distinction is sometimes made between serial verbs and compound verbs (also known as complex predicates). In a compound verb, the first element (verb or noun) generally carries most of the semantic load, while the second element, often called a vector verb (light verb) or explicator verb, provides fine distinctions (such as speaker attitude or grammatical aspect) and carries the inflection (markers of tense, mood and agreement). The first element may be a verb in conjunctive participle form, or as in Hindi and Punjabi, a bare verbstem). For example, Hindi: : In this example, लिया liyā (from the verb लेना lenā, meaning "to take") is a vector verb that indicates a completed action, while खा khā "eat" is the main or primary verb.
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As a logic- based system, a SNePS KB consists of a set of terms, and functions and formulas over those terms. The set of logical connectives and quantifiers extends the usual set used by first-order logics, all taking one or more arbitrarily-sized sets of arguments. In accord with the intended use of SNePS to represent the mind of a natural-language-competent intelligent agent, propositions are first-class entities of the intended domain, so formulas are actually proposition-denoting functional terms. SNePSLOG, the input-output language of the logic-based face of SNePS, looks like a naive logic in that function symbols (including "predicates"), and formulas (actually proposition- denoting terms) may be the arguments of functions and may be quantified over.
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Zermelo himself never accepted Skolem's formulation of ZFC using the language of first-order logic. As José Ferreirós notes, Zermelo insisted instead that "propositional functions (conditions or predicates) used for separating off subsets, as well as the replacement functions, can be 'entirely arbitrary' [ganz beliebig];" the modern interpretation given to this statement is that Zermelo wanted to include higher-order quantification in order to avoid Skolem's paradox. Around 1930, Zermelo also introduced (apparently independently of von Neumann), the axiom of foundation, thus—as Ferreirós observes— "by forbidding 'circular' and 'ungrounded' sets, it [ZFC] incorporated one of the crucial motivations of TT [type theory]—the principle of the types of arguments". This 2nd order ZFC preferred by Zermelo, including axiom of foundation, allowed a rich cumulative hierarchy.
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These are supposed to be the qualities or attributes that can be affirmed of each and every thing in experience. Any particular object that exists in thought must have been able to have the Categories attributed to it as possible predicates because the Categories are the properties, qualities, or characteristics of any possible object in general. The Categories of Aristotle and Kant are the general properties that belong to all things without expressing the peculiar nature of any particular thing. Kant appreciated Aristotle's effort, but said that his table was imperfect because " … as he had no guiding principle, he merely picked them up as they occurred to him..."Kant, Immanuel, Critique of Pure Reason, A 81 The Categories do not provide knowledge of individual, particular objects.
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Like LMGs, RCG clauses have the general schema A(x_1, ..., x_n) \to \alpha, where in an RCG, \alpha is either the empty string or a string of predicates. The arguments x_i consist of strings of terminal symbols and/or variable symbols, which pattern match against actual argument values like in LMG. Adjacent variables constitute a family of matches against partitions, so that the argument xy, with two variables, matches the literal string ab in three different ways: x = \epsilon,\ y = ab;\ x = a,\ y = b;\ x = ab,\ y = \epsilon. Predicate terms come in two forms, positive (which produce the empty string on success), and negative (which produce the empty string on failure/if the positive term does not produce the empty string).
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Many approaches to grammar including construction grammar and the Simpler Syntax model (see also Jackendoff's earlier work on argument structure and semantics, including and ) claim that theta roles (and thematic relations) are neither a good way to represent the syntactic argument structure of predicates nor of the semantic properties that they reveal. They argue for more complex and articulated semantic structures (often called Lexical-conceptual structures) which map onto the syntactic structure. Similarly, most typological approaches to grammar, functionalist theories (such as functional grammar and Role and Reference Grammar , and dependency grammar do not use theta roles, but they may make reference to thematic relations and grammatical relations or their notational equivalents. These are usually related to one another directly using principles of mapping.
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Martin was generally well-disposed towards Carnap's work, contributed a long paper to the Schilpp volume on Carnap, and was seen as a disciple. Paradoxically, Martin was a positivist and radical nominalist who also sympathized with process theology and orthodox Christianity. Between 1943 and 1992, Martin published 16 books and about 240 papers (of which 179 were included in his books) on an extraordinary range of subjects, including aesthetics, logic, the foundation of mathematics, metaphysics, syntax/semantics/pragmatics, the philosophy of science, phenomenology, process philosophy, theology, Frege, and Charles Sanders Peirce. Martin preached and practiced that philosophy should be done formally, by employing first-order logic, the theory of virtual sets and relations, and a multiplicity of predicates, all culminating in an event logic.
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Here is a piece of Prolog code: girl(sally). girl(jane). boy(B) :- \\+ girl(B). A WAM-based Prolog compiler will compile this into WAM instructions similar to the following: predicate(girl/1): switch_on_term(2,1,fail,fail,fail), label(1): switch_on_atom([(sally,3),(jane,5)]) label(2): try_me_else(4) label(3): get_atom(sally,0) proceed label(4): trust_me_else_fail label(5): get_atom(jane,0) proceed predicate(boy/1): get_variable(x(1),0) put_structure(girl/1,0) unify_local_value(x(1)) execute((\\+)/1)]) An important characteristic of this code is its ability to cope with the various modes in which the predicates can be evoked: any argument might be a variable, a ground term, or a partly instantiated term. The "switch" instructions handle the different cases.
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Lewis put forth a set of primitive predicates and a number of axioms governing CT and a scheme for translating standard modal claims in the language of quantified modal logic into his CT. In addition to interpreting modal claims about objects and possible worlds, CT can also be applied to the identity of a single object at different points in time. The view that an object can retain its identity over time is often called endurantism, and it claims that objects are ‘wholly present’ at different moments (see the counterpart relation, below). An opposing view is that any object in time is made up of temporal parts or is perduring. Lewis' view on possible worlds is sometimes called modal realism.
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Young-Eisendrath and Hall write that 'in Jung's work, self can refer to the notion of inherent subjective individuality, the idea of an abstract center or central ordering principle, and the account of a process developing over time'. In 1947 Michael Fordham proposed a distinct theory of the primary self to describe the state of the psyche of neonates, characterised by homeostasis, or 'steady state' in his words, where self and other (usually the mother) are undifferentiated. It predicates that there is no distinction between the internal and external world, and there are as yet no different components in the internal world. Fordham derived his hypothesis partly from the Jungian concept of the archetype of the self, and the psychoanalytic idea of internal 'objects'.
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Defenders of the status quo are precisely such – they are conservative members of society who perceive the present status quo as amicable to their place in society. Generally upper-class, these thinkers are situated in a scenario of little hope. Their ahistorical view of the world distances themselves from the reactionaries and reformers who seek some variation of the past. Rather, these thinkers are trapped in an ever-changing society, whereby they witness the natural progression of society. Their ideal society – the present status quo – is seemingly displaying the throes of death, progressing aimlessly and with rapidity towards “civilizations end.” Their fascination with the present predicates a hatred of the future; the future is the coming death-knell to their way of life.
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His lawyer, Ron Perse, floated the possibility of cooperating with the FBI, but John was quick to dismiss this. However, as the trial neared, Ron arranged a deal with the government on Johnny's behalf. Facing a massive asset seizure that would have left both him and beloved wife destitute and a case he could not possibly beat, Johnny pleaded guilty to 47 Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) predicates for a reduced sentence of 15 years and a fine of 4.2 million dollars — effectively ending his position as boss (but still leaving Ginny enough money to live comfortably). As part of the deal, he was also required to give an allocution admitting his involvement in organized crime (although he did not reveal the names of any associates).
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An inclusion dependency over two (possibly identical) predicates R and S from a schema is written R[A_1, ..., A_n] \subseteq S[B_1, ..., B_n], where the A_i, B_i are distinct attributes (column names) of R and S. It implies that the tuples of values appearing in columns A_1, ..., A_n for facts of R must also appear as a tuple of values in columns B_1, ..., B_n for some fact of S. Logical implication between inclusion dependencies can be axiomatized by inference rules and can be decided by a PSPACE algorithm. The problem can be shown to be PSPACE-complete by reduction from the acceptance problem for a linear bounded automaton. However, logical implication between dependencies that can be inclusion dependencies or functional dependencies is undecidable by reduction from the word problem for monoids.
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An XML schema is a description of a type of XML document, typically expressed in terms of constraints on the structure and content of documents of that type, above and beyond the basic syntactical constraints imposed by XML itself. These constraints are generally expressed using some combination of grammatical rules governing the order of elements, Boolean predicates that the content must satisfy, data types governing the content of elements and attributes, and more specialized rules such as uniqueness and referential integrity constraints. There are languages developed specifically to express XML schemas. The document type definition (DTD) language, which is native to the XML specification, is a schema language that is of relatively limited capability, but that also has other uses in XML aside from the expression of schemas.
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At times, however, semantic dependencies can point in the opposite direction of syntactic dependencies, or they can be entirely independent of syntactic dependencies. The hierarchy of words in the following examples show standard syntactic dependencies, whereas the arrows indicate semantic dependencies: ::Semantic dependencies The two arguments Sam and Sally in tree (a) are dependent on the predicate likes, whereby these arguments are also syntactically dependent on likes. What this means is that the semantic and syntactic dependencies overlap and point in the same direction (down the tree). Attributive adjectives, however, are predicates that take their head noun as their argument, hence big is a predicate in tree (b) that takes bones as its one argument; the semantic dependency points up the tree and therefore runs counter to the syntactic dependency.
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The following principles have been proposed as desirable properties of a rational prior probability function w for L. The constant exchangeability principle, Ex. The probability of a sentence \theta(a_1,a_2, \ldots, a_m) does not change when the a_1, a_2, \ldots, a_m in it are replaced by any other m-tuple of (distinct) constants. The principle of predicate exchangeability, Px. If R,R' are predicates of the same arity then for a sentence \theta, :w(\theta)=w(\theta') where \theta' is the result of simultaneously replacing R by R' and R' by R throughout \theta. The strong negation principle, SN. For a predicate R and sentence \theta , :w(\theta)=w(\theta') where \theta' is the result of simultaneously replacing R by eg R and eg R by R throughout \theta. The principle of regularity, Reg.
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Hegel distinguishes between the being of objects (being in itself) and the being of people (Geist). Hegel, however, in his Science of logic, did not think there was much hope for delineating a "meaning" of being, because being stripped of all predicates is simply nothing. Heidegger, in his main work Being and Time, in his quest to re-pose the original pre-Socratic question of Being, wondered at how to meaningfully ask the question of the meaning of being, since it is both the greatest, as it includes everything that is, and the least, since no particular thing can be said of it. He distinguishes between different modes of beings: a privative mode is present- at-hand, whereas beings in a fuller sense are described as ready-to-hand.
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While some philosophers have argued that the notion of a sortal is similar to that of the idea of a "secondary substance" in Aristotle, the first actual use of the term 'sortal' did not appear until John Locke in his 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding: Gottlob Frege is also named as an antecedent to the present debate over sortals. Frege pointed out that in counting things, we need to know what kind of thing it is that we are counting; that is, there needs to be a "criterion of identity". In contemporary philosophy, sortals make a return with the work of P. F. Strawson, W. V. O. Quine, Peter Geach, and David Wiggins. Strawson holds that sortals are universals, Quine thinks they are predicates, and Wiggins sees them as concepts.
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For backtracking to be effective, there must be a way to detect this situation, at least for some candidates c, without enumerating all those mn − k n-tuples. For example, if F is the conjunction of several boolean predicates, , and each F[i] depends only on a small subset of the variables , then the reject procedure could simply check the terms F[i] that depend only on variables , and return true if any of those terms returns false. In fact, reject needs only check those terms that do depend on x[k], since the terms that depend only on will have been tested further up in the search tree. Assuming that reject is implemented as above, then accept(P, c) needs only check whether c is complete, that is, whether it has n elements.
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What might be called the "most active" case, then, marks the subject of a transitive verb, while the "least active" or "most patientive" case is that used to mark a direct object. This is precisely what happens in Georgian, in the restricted environment of the second or third conjugation verbs in the aorist series. In Georgian, the classification of verbs according to the agentive or patientive nature of their subject has to do with performing an action, regardless of whether the subject is in control or not. (There are some exceptions to this: weather verbs and verbs of emission of light and sound are usually zero-place predicates, and thus have no agent at all.) The division between classes is conventional and rigid; each verb receives the class that typically corresponds to it.
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Multiple discoveries in the history of science provide evidence for evolutionary models of science and technology, such as memetics (the study of self-replicating units of culture), evolutionary epistemology (which applies the concepts of biological evolution to study of the growth of human knowledge), and cultural selection theory (which studies sociological and cultural evolution in a Darwinian manner). A recombinant-DNA-inspired "paradigm of paradigms", describing a mechanism of "recombinant conceptualization", predicates that a new concept arises through the crossing of pre-existing concepts and facts. This is what is meant when one says that a scientist, scholar, or artist has been "influenced by" another — etymologically, that a concept of the latter's has "flowed into" the mind of the former.Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh: the Creation of a Historical Novel," The Polish Review, vol.
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Internal set theory (IST) is a mathematical theory of sets developed by Edward Nelson that provides an axiomatic basis for a portion of the nonstandard analysis introduced by Abraham Robinson. Instead of adding new elements to the real numbers, Nelson's approach modifies the axiomatic foundations through syntactic enrichment. Thus, the axioms introduce a new term, "standard", which can be used to make discriminations not possible under the conventional axioms for sets. Thus, IST is an enrichment of ZFC: all axioms of ZFC are satisfied for all classical predicates, while the new unary predicate "standard" satisfies three additional axioms I, S, and T. In particular, suitable nonstandard elements within the set of real numbers can be shown to have properties that correspond to the properties of infinitesimal and unlimited elements.
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Denis Miéville was raised in the towns of Colombier (Canton of Neuchâtel) and Essert-Pittet (Canton of Vaud). After studying mathematics and logic at the University of Neuchâtel (Switzerland) and Bowling Green University (Ohio, United States), Denis Miéville developed an interest in the development and formalization of natural logic that led him to study both the theory of collective classes and the foundations of maximal predicates in propositional logic. These interests were integrated in the doctoral thesis that he defended in 1984 ("A Development of Stanislaw Lesniewski's logical systems: Protothetic, ontology and mereology") at the University of Neuchâtel, supervised by the eminent logician Jean-Blaise Grize. Appointed Professor at the University of Neuchâtel in 1987 (he will become its rector from 1999 to 2003), he taught logic and chaired the Semiologic Research Centre.
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On October 19, 2000, a pile of federal indictments were launched at over 50 members of the DeCavalcante crime family, with predicates in violation of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO statutes), as Scarabino was charged with extortion, illegal gambling, conspiracy to commit bookmaking and loansharking activities. He was also charged with the murder of Fred Weiss, as well as conspiracy to the attempted murders of Daniel Annunziatta, Gaetano "Corky" Vastola and Louis "Fat Lou" LaRasso. Four days prior to his arrest, Scarabino was ordered to kill the wives and children of Anthony Capo (a known cooperator) and Anthony Rotondo (a suspected cooperator). This order so disturbed and repulsed Scarabino he chose to become an informant and testify against his former associates of the DeCavalcante family.
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Despite the fact that we lack background knowledge to indicate that there are dramatically fewer men than short people, we still find ourselves inclined to reject the conclusion. Hintikka's example is: "... a generalization like 'no material bodies are infinitely divisible' seems to be completely unaffected by questions concerning immaterial entities, independently of what one thinks of the relative frequencies of material and immaterial entities in one's universe of discourse." His solution is to introduce an order into the set of predicates. When the logical system is equipped with this order, it is possible to restrict the scope of a generalization such as "All ravens are black" so that it applies to ravens only and not to non-black things, since the order privileges ravens over non- black things.
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Even though the via negativa essentially rejects theological understanding in and of itself as a path to God, some have sought to make it into an intellectual exercise, by describing God only in terms of what God is not. One problem noted with this approach is that there seems to be no fixed basis on deciding what God is not, unless the Divine is understood as an abstract experience of full aliveness unique to each individual consciousness, and universally, the perfect goodness applicable to the whole field of reality. Apophatic theology is often accused of being a version of atheism or agnosticism, since it cannot say truly that God exists. "The comparison is crude, however, for conventional atheism treats the existence of God as a predicate that can be denied (“God is nonexistent”), whereas negative theology denies that God has predicates".
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Gago relished operating in a holding role at Boca Juniors, functioning as a deep-lying playmaker in front of the defence, due to his intelligence and ability to dictate play in midfield with his passing; he has also played in a similar role with the Argentina national team and other clubs. Upon arriving in Europe in 2006, Gago drew comparisons to compatriot and former Real Madrid man Fernando Redondo, due to his ability to build up play and break down the oppositions' attacks, thus enabling him to contribute both offensively and defensively. His Real Madrid profile described Gago as a "very dynamic footballer who predicates his game on ball movement". He is also capable of reaching the opponent's box, possesses a tremendous vision for the game, can cover much ground and knows how to protect the ball.
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Different main clause constructions present different combinations of alignment patterns, including split-S (default), ergative–absolutive (recent past), and nominative–absolutive (evaluative, progressive, continuous, completive, and negated clauses). In contrast, subordinate clauses are always ergative–absolutive. Prototypically, finite matrix clauses in Canela have a split-S alignment pattern, whereby the agents of transitive verbs (A) and the sole arguments of a subclass of intransitive verbs (SA) receive the nominative case (also called agentive case), whereas the patients of transitive verbs (P) and the sole arguments of the remaining intransitive predicates (SP) receive the absolutive case (also called internal case). In addition, transitive verbs are subdivided into two classes according to whether the third person patient is indexed as absolutive (allomorphs h-, ih-, im-, in-, i-, ∅-) or accusative (cu-), which has been described as an instance of a split-P alignment.
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In order to supply the information that the mother of a dog is a dog in turn, another declaration mother: dog → dog may be issued; this is called function overloading, similar to overloading in programming languages. Walther gave a unification algorithm for terms in order-sorted logic, requiring for any two declared sorts s1, s2 their intersection s1 ∩ s2 to be declared, too: if x1 and x2 is a variable of sort s1 and s2, respectively, the equation x1 ≐ x2 has the solution { x1 = x, x2 = x }, where x: s1 ∩ s2. After incorporating this algorithm into a clause-based automated theorem prover, he could solve a benchmark problem by translating it into order-sorted logic, thereby boiling it down an order of magnitude, as many unary predicates turned into sorts. Smolka generalized order-sorted logic to allow for parametric polymorphism.
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Willard Van Orman Quine provided an early and influential formulation of ontological commitment: The purpose of Quine's strategy is to determine just how the ontological commitment of a theory is to be found. Quine argued that the only ontologically committing expressions are variables bound by a first-order existential quantifier, and natural language expressions which were formalized using variables bound by first-order existential quantifiers. Attempts have been made to argue that predicates are also ontologically committing, and thus that subject-predicate sentences bear additional ontological commitment to abstract objects such as universals, sets, or classes. It has been suggested that the use of meaningful names in nonexistence statements such as "Pegasus does not exist" brings with it an ontological commitment to empty names like Pegasus, a quandary referred to as Plato's beard and escaped by using quantifiers.
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Many of these were shramanas, who represented a non-Vedic tradition rooted in India's pre-Aryan history.Jaroslav Krejčí, Anna Krejčová (1990) Before the European Challenge: The Great Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East, p:170, SUNY Press, The emphasis of the Upanishads turned to knowledge, specifically the ultimate identity of all phenomena.Doniger, Wendy, (1990) Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, P. 441, Merriam-Webster, This is expressed in the notion of Brahman, the key idea of the Upanishads, and much later philosophizing has been taken up with deciding whether Brahman is personal or impersonal.Smart, Ninian (1998) The World's Religions P.73-74, CUP The understanding of the nature of Brahman as impersonal is based in the definition of it as 'ekam eva advitiyam' (Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1) – it is one without a second and to which no substantive predicates can be attached.
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Since, given the diagonal lemma, every sufficiently strong theory will have to accept something like (K), absurdity can only be avoided either by rejecting one of the two principles of knowledge (KF) and (PK) or by rejecting classical logic (which validates the reasoning from (KF) and (PK) to absurdity). The first kind of strategy subdivides in several alternatives. One approach takes its inspiration from the hierarchy of truth predicates familiar from Alfred Tarski's work on the Liar paradox and constructs a similar hierarchy of knowledge predicates.Anderson, A. (1983), 'The Paradox of the Knower', The Journal of Philosophy 80, pp. 338–355. Another approach upholds a single knowledge predicate but takes the paradox to call into doubt either the unrestricted validity of (PK)Maitzen, S. (1998), 'The Knower Paradox and Epistemic Closure', Synthese 114, pp. 337–354.
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118, Note 1 Speaking in modern linguistic terms, this is a case of exceptional case marking (ECM), and verbs allowing that are called raising-to-object ones. However, with verbs like "see", "hear", "find", there is another possible construction that does not involve indirect speech, but is a mere description of a sensory input: :: Lysias, 1.24 :: Those of us who entered first saw him still lying beside my wife, those who came later saw him standing naked on the bed. (Not: We saw [that he was lying].) : :: Plato, Symposium 194d :: I am happy to hear Socrates (when he is) having a discussion. (Not: I hear [that he is discussing].) In the above sentences and are second arguments of the verbs and respectively, while the participles are added as their third arguments (in modern linguistic terms called (verbal) secondary predicates or small clauses).
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In linguistics, center embedding is the process of embedding a phrase in the middle of another phrase of the same type. This often leads to difficulty with parsing which would be difficult to explain on grammatical grounds alone. The most frequently used example involves embedding a relative clause inside another one as in: : A man that a woman loves \Rightarrow : A man that a woman that a child knows loves \Rightarrow : A man that a woman that a child that a bird saw knows loves \Rightarrow : A man that a woman that a child that a bird that I heard saw knows loves In theories of natural language parsing, the difficulty with multiple center embedding is thought to arise from limitations of the human short term memory. In order to process multiple center embeddings, we have to store many subjects in order to connect them to their predicates.
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In particular, after the abolition of the monarchy, the former kings Vittorio Emanuele III and Umberto II, went into exile in Egypt and Portugal, respectively. Their heir Vittorio Emanuele made his first trip back to Italy in over half a century on December 23, 2002.Vittorio Emanuele di Savoia: "Fedeltà alla Costituzione" La Repubblica, 3 febbraio 2002Willan, Philip Exiled Italian royals go home The Guardian, 24 December 2002 Nevertheless, Provision XIII also imposes the confiscation by the State of the assets of the former kings of the House of Savoy, their spouses and their male descendants existing on national territory, while declaring null and void the acquisitions or transfers of said properties which took place after 2 June 1946. Titles of nobility are no longer recognised, while the predicates included in those existing before 28 October 1922 are established as part of the name of the title holders.
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Other variants, allowing negative implications or multiple simultaneously-defined predicates, are also possible, but provide no additional definitional power. A predicate, defined in one of these ways, can then be applied to a tuple of vertices as part of a larger logical formula. Fixed point logics, and extensions of these logics that also allow integer counting variables whose values range from 0 to the number of vertices, have been used in descriptive complexity in an attempt to provide a logical description of decision problems in graph theory that can be decided in polynomial time. The fixed point of a logical formula can be constructed in polynomial time, by an algorithm that repeatedly adds tuples to the set of values for which the predicate is true until reaching a fixed point, so deciding whether a graph models a formula in this logic can always be decided in polynomial time.
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This reduction can be attempted in a one-sorted theory by adding unary predicates that tell whether an element is a number or a set, and taking the domain to be the union of the set of real numbers and the power set of the real numbers. But notice that the domain was asserted to include all sets of real numbers. That requirement cannot be reduced to a first-order sentence, as the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows. That theorem implies that there is some countably infinite subset of the real numbers, whose members we will call internal numbers, and some countably infinite collection of sets of internal numbers, whose members we will call "internal sets", such that the domain consisting of internal numbers and internal sets satisfies exactly the same first-order sentences as are satisfied by the domain of real numbers and sets of real numbers.
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A copular predicate is necessary for use with nominal and adjectival predicates. The predicate connects noun and adjective and a nominal predicate compliments both. When using present tense the copula is zero, past and future tenses have their distinct copula. We can see how this works in the following sentences: > "kit ma:ʔeɬtawaʔae:ní I am a teacher "kit ma:ʔeɬtawaʔae:ní ʃakwaní: I was a > teacher "kit ma:ʔeɬtawaʔae:ní nakwán I will be a teacher" In the following example we can see how the verb “wan” (meaning “be”) is what the copula is based on. Through the morphological derivation the copula joins with the desiderative suffix “-kutun” giving us the meaning of “wanting to X,” as seen below: > "tsamá: ʔawátʔa púʃku wankutún the boy wants to be a chief (someday)" Predicate nominals follow a word order with the subject at the beginning and verb at the end so that the copula is between them.
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The issue is that of innate nobility—jure sanguinis—that looks into the prerogatives known as jus majestatis and jus honorum, and argues that the holder of such prerogatives is a subject of international law with the logical consequences of that situation. That is to say, a deposed sovereign may legitimately confer titles of nobility, with or without predicates, and the honorifics that pertain to his heraldic patrimony as head of his dynasty. The qualities that render a deposed Sovereign a subject of international law are undeniable, and in fact constitute an absolute personal right the subject may never divest himself of, and that needs no ratification or recognition from any other authority. A reigning Sovereign or Head of State may use the term recognition\ to demonstrate the existence of such a right, but the term is a mere declaration and not a constitutive act”.
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In Australian Aboriginal languages, the distinction between adjectives and nouns is typically thought weak, and many of the languages only use nouns--or nouns with a limited set of adjective-deriving affixes--to modify other nouns. In languages that have a subtle adjective-noun distinction, one way to tell them apart is that a modifying adjective can come to stand in for an entire elided noun phrase, while a modifying noun cannot. For example, in Bardi, the adjective moorrooloo 'little' in the phrase moorrooloo baawa ‘little child’ can stand on its own to mean 'the little one,' while the attributive noun aamba 'man' in the phrase aamba baawa 'male child' cannot stand for the whole phrase to mean 'the male one.' In other languages, like Warlpiri, nouns and adjectives are lumped together beneath the nominal umbrella because of their shared syntactic distribution as arguments of predicates.
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In Tzeltal they are often onomatopoeic. Affect verbs have the following characteristics: 1) they have their own derivational morphology (the suffixes -et, lajan, and C1on being the most frequent); 2) they take the imperfective prefix x- but never its auxiliary imperfective marker ya, which is usually present with x- for intransitive verbs; 3) they take the same person markers as intransitive verbs (the absolutive suffixes), but aspect–tense markers appear only in the imperfective; and 4) they may function as primary or secondary predicates. For example, the onomatopoeic affect verb tum can function as a primary predicate in describing the beating of one's heart: X-tum-ton nax te jk-otʼan e (essentially, "to me goes tum my heart"). As a secondary predicate, an effect verb is typically exhortative, or indicative/descriptive as in the sentence X-kox-lajan y-akan ya x-been ("his injured leg he walks," "he limped").
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Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language. Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (instead of having a raft of new periphrastic constructions) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well).
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Additionally, one can define functional predicates after proving an appropriate theorem. (If you're working in a formal system that doesn't allow you to introduce new symbols after proving theorems, then you will have to use relation symbols to get around this, as in the next section.) Specifically, if you can prove that for every X (or every X of a certain type), there exists a unique Y satisfying some condition P, then you can introduce a function symbol F to indicate this. Note that P will itself be a relational predicate involving both X and Y. So if there is such a predicate P and a theorem: : For all X of type T, for some unique Y of type U, P(X,Y), then you can introduce a function symbol F of domain type T and codomain type U that satisfies: : For all X of type T, for all Y of type U, P(X,Y) if and only if Y = F(X).
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Because of his outstanding services, Hedin was raised to the untitled nobility by King Oskar II in 1902, the last time any Swede was to receive a charter of nobility. Oskar II suggested that he prefix the name Hedin with one of the two common predicates of nobility in Sweden, "af" or "von", but Hedin abstained from doing so in his written response to the king. In many noble families in Sweden, it was customary to do without the title of nobility. The coat of arms of Hedin, together with those of some two thousand noble families, is to be found on a wall of the Great Hall in Riddarhuset, the assembly house of Swedish nobility in Stockholm's inner city, Gamla Stan. In 1905, Hedin was admitted to membership in the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and in 1909 to the Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences. From 1913 to 1952 he held the sixth of 18 chairs as an elected member of the Swedish Academy.
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There are only several dozen of transitive verbs which take an accusative patient, all of which are monosyllabic and have distinct finite and nonfinite forms. It has been suggested that all transitive verbs which satisfy both conditions (monosyllabicity and a formal finiteness distinction), and only them, select for accusative patients, while all remaining transitive verbs take absolutive patients in Canela and all other Northern Jê languages. All subordinate clauses as well as recent past clauses (which are historically derived from subordinate clauses and are headed by a nonfinite verb) are ergatively organized: the agents of transitive verbs (A) are encoded by ergative postpositional phrases, whereas the patients of transitive verbs (P) and the sole arguments of all intransitive predicates (S) receive the absolutive case (also called internal case). Evaluative, progressive, continuous, completive, and negated clauses (which are historically derived from former biclausal constructions with an ergatively organized subordinate clause and a split-S matrix clause) in Canela have the cross-linguistically rare nominative-absolutive alignment pattern.
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In mathematics, specifically in computational geometry, geometric nonrobustness is a problem wherein branching decisions in computational geometry algorithms are based on approximate numerical computations, leading to various forms of unreliability including ill-formed output and software failure through crashing or infinite loops. For instance, algorithms for problems like the construction of a convex hull rely on testing whether certain "numerical predicates" have values that are positive, negative, or zero. If an inexact floating-point computation causes a value that is near zero to have a different sign than its exact value, the resulting inconsistencies can propagate through the algorithm causing it to produce output that is far from the correct output, or even to crash. One method for avoiding this problem involves using integers rather than floating point numbers for all coordinates and other quantities represented by the algorithm, and determining the precision required for all calculations to avoid integer overflow conditions.
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It is done so systematically in later Jain texts through saptibhaṅgīnaya or "the theory of sevenfold scheme". These saptibhaṅgī seem to be have been first formulated in Jainism by the 5th or 6th century CE Svetambara scholar Mallavadin, and they are:Grimes, John (1996) p. 312 #Affirmation: syād-asti—in some ways, it is, #Denial: syān-nāsti—in some ways, it is not, #Joint but successive affirmation and denial: syād-asti-nāsti—in some ways, it is, and it is not, #Joint and simultaneous affirmation and denial: '—in some ways, it is, and it is indescribable, #Joint and simultaneous affirmation and denial: '—in some ways, it is not, and it is indescribable, #Joint and simultaneous affirmation and denial: '—in some ways, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable, #Joint and simultaneous affirmation and denial: '—in some ways, it is indescribable. Each of these seven predicates state the Jain viewpoint of a multifaceted reality from the perspective of time, space, substance and mode.
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Thus abductive explanations extend the logic program P by the addition of full or partial definitions of the abducible predicates. In this way, abductive explanations form solutions of the problem according to the description of the problem domain in P and IC. The extension or completion of the problem description given by the abductive explanations provides new information, hitherto not contained in the solution to the problem. Quality criteria to prefer one solution over another, often expressed via integrity constraints, can be applied to select specific abductive explanations of the problem G. Computation in ALP combines the backwards reasoning of normal logic programming (to reduce problems to sub-problems) with a kind of integrity checking to show that the abductive explanations satisfy the integrity constraints. The following two examples, written in simple structured English rather than in the strict syntax of ALP, illustrate the notion of abductive explanation in ALP and its relation to problem solving.
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In most formalisms that use syntactic predicates, the syntax of the predicate is noncommutative, which is to say that the operation of predication is ordered. For instance, using the above example, consider the following pseudo-grammar, where X ::= Y PRED Z is understood to mean: "Y produces X if and only if Y also satisfies predicate Z": S ::= a X X ::= Y PRED Z Y ::= a+ BNCN Z ::= ANBN c+ BNCN ::= b [BNCN] c ANBN ::= a [ANBN] b Given the string ', in the case where Y must be satisfied first (and assuming a greedy implementation), S will generate aX and X in turn will generate ', thereby generating '. In the case where Z must be satisfied first, ANBN will fail to generate ', and thus ' is not generated by the grammar. Moreover, if either Y or Z (or both) specify any action to be taken upon reduction (as would be the case in many parsers), the order that these productions match determines the order in which those side-effects occur.
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Syntactic patterns specific to this sub-vocabulary in present-day English include periphrastic constructions for tense, aspect, questioning and negation, and phrasal lexemes functioning as complex predicates, all of which occur also in CDS. As noted above, baby talk often involves shortening and simplifying words, with the possible addition of slurred words and nonverbal utterances, and can invoke a vocabulary of its own. Some utterances are invented by parents within a particular family unit, or are passed down from parent to parent over generations, while others are quite widely known and used within most families, such as wawa for water, num-num for a meal, ba-ba for bottle, or beddy-bye for bedtime, and are considered standard or traditional words, possibly differing in meaning from place to place. Baby talk, language regardless, usually consists of a muddle of words, including names for family members, names for animals, eating and meals, bodily functions and genitals, sleeping, pain, possibly including important objects such as diaper, blanket, pacifier, bottle, etc.
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Early attempts for solving SMT instances involved translating them to Boolean SAT instances (e.g., a 32-bit integer variable would be encoded by 32 single-bit variables with appropriate weights and word-level operations such as 'plus' would be replaced by lower-level logic operations on the bits) and passing this formula to a Boolean SAT solver. This approach, which is referred to as the eager approach, has its merits: by pre-processing the SMT formula into an equivalent Boolean SAT formula existing Boolean SAT solvers can be used "as- is" and their performance and capacity improvements leveraged over time. On the other hand, the loss of the high-level semantics of the underlying theories means that the Boolean SAT solver has to work a lot harder than necessary to discover "obvious" facts (such as x + y = y + x for integer addition.) This observation led to the development of a number of SMT solvers that tightly integrate the Boolean reasoning of a DPLL-style search with theory-specific solvers (T-solvers) that handle conjunctions (ANDs) of predicates from a given theory.
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Scotus was an Augustinian-Franciscan theologian. He is usually associated with theological voluntarism, the tendency to emphasize God's will and human freedom in all philosophical issues. The main difference between Aquinas's rational theology and that of Scotus is that Scotus believed certain predicates may be applied univocally – with exactly the same meaning – to God and creatures, whereas Aquinas insisted that this is impossible and that only analogical predication can be employed, in which a word as applied to God has a meaning different from, although related to, the meaning of that same word as applied to creatures. Duns struggled throughout his works in demonstrating his univocity theory against Aquinas's analogy doctrine. Scotus gave the lecture, Lectura I 39, during 1297–1299 to refute the view that everything is necessary and immutable. He claims that the aim of this lecture has two points (Lectura I 39, §31): first, to consider the contingency in what is (de contingentia in entibus); second, to consider how God's certain knowledge is compatible with the contingency of things.
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For the last four centuries the family has divided itself between two Branches named after the two brothers whom all living Bibra descend: Valentine (1560–1595) and Bernhard (1562–1609). Within each branch, the family has divided further in Lines centered on castles and a manor house (Gleicherwiesen). The last two centuries, the Lines are as follows: Valentine Branch :Adelsdorf Line (extinct in the male line since 1993) ::Raised to Imperial Barons (Reichsfreiherr) 1698 ::Became Bavarian Barons 1815 :Gleicherweisen Line ::Raised to Imperial Barons (Reichsfreiherr) 1698 ::Became Bavarian Barons 1815 :Schwebheim Line (extinct 1958) ::Raised to Imperial Barons (Reichsfreiherr) 1698 ::Became Bavarian Barons 1817 :Schnabelwaid, later Weisendorf Line (extinct 1856) ::Raised to Imperial Barons (Reichsfreiherr) 1698 ::Became Bohemian (part of the Austrian Empire) Barons 1810 Bernhard Branch :Brennhausen Line ::Raised to Imperial Barons (Reichsfreiherr) 1772 ::Became Bavarian Barons 1828 :Bibra-Bibra Line ::Raised to Imperial Barons (Reichsfreiherr) 1772 ::Became Bavarian Barons 1816 :Irmelshausen Line (Older sub-line & Younger sub-line) ::Raised to Imperial Barons (Reichsfreiherr) 1713 ::Became Bavarian Barons 1816 All branches of the family were raised to Freiherr. In 1919, all nobility predicates were transformed into constituents of the family name in Germany.
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Note that an individual instance of the sentence, such as "Alice, Bob and Carol admire only one another", need not involve sets and is equivalent to the conjunction of the following first-order sentences: :∀x(if Alice admires x, then x = Bob or x = Carol) :∀x(if Bob admires x, then x = Alice or x = Carol) :∀x(if Carol admires x, then x = Alice or x = Bob) where x ranges over all critics (it being taken as read that critics cannot admire themselves). But this seems to be an instance of "some people admire only one another", which is nonfirstorderizable. Boolos argued that 2nd-order monadic quantification may be systematically interpreted in terms of plural quantification, and that, therefore, 2nd-order monadic quantification is "ontologically innocent".. Later, Oliver & Smiley (2001), Rayo (2002), Yi (2005) and McKay (2006) argued that sentences such as :They are shipmates :They are meeting together :They lifted a piano :They are surrounding a building :They admire only one another also cannot be interpreted in monadic second-order logic. This is because predicates such as "are shipmates", "are meeting together", "are surrounding a building" are not distributive.
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Thus a domain and a connecting problem description forms the PDDL-model of a planning-problem, and eventually this is the input of a planner (usually domain-independent AI planner) software, which aims to solve the given planning-problem via some appropriate planning algorithm. The output of the planner is not specified by PDDL, but it is usually a totally or partially ordered plan (a sequence of actions, some of which may be executed even in parallel sometimes). Now lets take a look at the contents of a PDDL1.2 domain and problem description in general... (1) The domain description consisted of a domain-name definition, definition of requirements (to declare those model-elements to the planner which the PDDL-model is actually using), definition of object-type hierarchy (just like a class-hierarchy in OOP), definition of constant objects (which are present in every problem in the domain), definition of predicates (templates for logical facts), and also the definition of possible actions (operator-schemas with parameters, which should be grounded/instantiated during execution). Actions had parameters (variables that may be instantiated with objects), preconditions and effects.
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In his 1952 Introduction of Meta-Mathematics Stephen Kleene provides a definition of what it means to be a primitive recursive function: :"A function is primitive recursive in (briefly Ψ), if there is a finite sequence of (occurrences of) functions ... such that each function of the sequence is either one of the functions Ψ (the assumed functions), or an initial function, or an immediate dependent of preceding functions, and the last function is ." (Kleene 1952:224) In other words, given a "basis" function (it can be a constant such as 0), primitive recursion uses either the base or the previous value of the function to produce the value of the function; primitive recursion is sometimes called mathematical induction Minsky (above) is describing a two-CASE operator. A demonstration that the nested IF-THEN- ELSE—the "case statement" (or "switch statement")--is primitive recursive can be found in Kleene 1952:229Kleene's 5 primitive recursion "schema" include the following: at "#F ('mutually-exclusive predicates')". The CASE operator behaves like a logical multiplexer and is simply an extension of the simpler two-case logical operator sometimes called AND-OR-SELECT (see more at Propositional formula).
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Stephen Neale, among others, has defended Russell's theory, and incorporated it into the theory of generalized quantifiers. On this view, 'the' is a quantificational determiner like 'some', 'every', 'most' etc. The determiner 'the' has the following denotation (using lambda notation): (That is, the definite article 'the' denotes a function which takes a pair of properties and to truth if, and only if, there exists something that has the property , only one thing has the property , and that thing also has the property .) Given the denotation of the predicates 'present King of France' (again for short) and 'bald' ( for short) we then get the Russellian truth conditions via two steps of function application: 'The present King of France is bald' is true if, and only if, \exists x((Kx \land \forall y(Ky \rightarrow y =x)) \land Bx). On this view, definite descriptions like 'the present King of France' do have a denotation (specifically, definite descriptions denote a function from properties to truth values—they are in that sense not syncategorematic, or "incomplete symbols"); but the view retains the essentials of the Russellian analysis, yielding exactly the truth conditions Russell argued for.
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Thus, a simple `CASE` expression cannot check for the existence of Null directly. A check for Null in a simple `CASE` expression always results in Unknown, as in the following: SELECT CASE i WHEN NULL THEN 'Is Null' -- This will never be returned WHEN 0 THEN 'Is Zero' -- This will be returned when i = 0 WHEN 1 THEN 'Is One' -- This will be returned when i = 1 END FROM t; Because the expression `i = NULL` evaluates to Unknown no matter what value column i contains (even if it contains Null), the string `'Is Null'` will never be returned. On the other hand, a "searched" `CASE` expression can use predicates like `IS NULL` and `IS NOT NULL` in its conditions. The following example shows how to use a searched `CASE` expression to properly check for Null: SELECT CASE WHEN i IS NULL THEN 'Null Result' -- This will be returned when i is NULL WHEN i = 0 THEN 'Zero' -- This will be returned when i = 0 WHEN i = 1 THEN 'One' -- This will be returned when i = 1 END FROM t; In the searched `CASE` expression, the string `'Null Result'` is returned for all rows in which i is Null.
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Glauber uses two predicates: Reacts and Has-Quality, represented in Lisp lists as follows: :(Reacts Inputs {reactant1 reactant2 ...} Outputs {product1 product2 ...}) :(Has-Quality Object {substance} quality {value}) For their experiment the authors used the following facts: :(Reacts Inputs {HCl NaOH} Outputs {NaCl}) :(Reacts Inputs {HCl KOH} Outputs {KCl}) :(Reacts Inputs {HNO3 NaOH} Outputs {NaNO3}) :(Reacts Inputs {HNO3 KOH} Outputs {KNO3 }) :(Has-Quality Object {HCl} Tastes {Sour}) :(Has-Quality Object {HNO3} Tastes {Sour }) :(Has-Quality Object {NaOH} Tastes {Bitter}) :(Has-Quality Object {KOH} Tastes {Bitter}) :(Has-Quality Object {NaCl} Tastes {Salty}) :(Has-Quality Object {NaNO3} Tastes {Salty}) :(Has-Quality Object {KCl} Tastes {Salty}) :(Has-Quality Object {KNO3} Tastes {Salty}) Discovering the following law and equivalence classes: :Salts: {KNO3, KCl, NaNO3, NaCl} :Acids: {HCl, HNO3} :Alkalis: {NaOH, KOH} :∀ alkali ∀ acid ∃ salt (Reacts Inputs {acid, alkali} Outputs {salt}) :∀ salt (Has-Quality Object {salt} Tastes {Salty}) :∀ acid (Has-Quality Object {acid} Tastes {Sour}) :∀ alkali (Has-Quality Object {alkali} Tastes {Bitter}) The modern notation with strings like: NaOH, HCl, etc., is used just as short substance names. Here they do not mean the chemical structure of the substances, which was not known at the time of the discovery; the program works with any name used in the 17th century like aqua regia, muriatic acid, etc.
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