The SEC has claimed this is a "post hoc" rationalization.
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But once we know the outcome, post-hoc rationalization sets in.
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But these, deCervo likes to point out, are post hoc variables.
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This kind of search-and-rescue mission is called "post hoc" analysis.
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"Courts, of course, may not accept post hoc rationalizations for agency action," he said.
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They explain the protest movement we are seeing post hoc, but they aren't predictive.
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" 'Danger of post-hoc explanation' Riikka Hofmann, a lecturer at Cambridge University's faculty of education, where she researches educational change, told CNN: "The reasons for the success of any education system are always complex, contextual and there is always the danger of post-hoc explanation.
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Ruling out such hands-on, preemptive initiatives, we are left with post hoc alternatives like cleanups.
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Post-hoc weights were made to the population characteristics on gender, age, race/ethnicity, region, and education.
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She suggested that Francisco was providing a kind of "post hoc rationalization" after the decision was made.
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Sotomayor recognized that allowing for post hoc justification for warrantless searches would most harm persons of color.
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Hook's own statements to OIG appear to be a post-hoc justification for terminating the detail early.
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He called this a type of "post-hoc rationalization" that Congress tried to prevent when passing the RFRA.
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"As passions rise, post hoc reasoning rises," says Jonathan Haidt, a professor of psychology at New York University.
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This all brings us to some type of "post hoc" conspiracy, or in this case, "post hack" conspiracy.
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To be sure, this "portfolio" has been specifically designed post hoc to capitalize on the post-Trump market move.
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"A University Education" is not the mix of gossip and post hoc justification normally churned out by former ministers.
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But they weren't yet willing to jettison the post-hoc justification for Comey's firing that Sessions and Rosenstein provided.
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"Only 25 people out of the sample of 238 met the post-hoc definition of 'experienced player,'" Hilgard writes.
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And now Sarepta's post-hoc testing programme will, in effect, be paid for by the American government and by insurers.
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Listen, here's what I tell people about Snapchat, and I authentically believe this even though it sounds like post hoc rationalization.
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They feel like slapped-on post-hoc explanations rather than a thought-through arc that strengthens the reasoning behind the show.
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" The motion said the lower court discarded "first-hand testimony ... in favor of theoretical and post-hoc expert opinions about motive.
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It might be a bit of post-hoc justification for supporting the weaker candidate just because they hated the stronger one.
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This is all very good post hoc justification for what was essentially lazy design choices on Lucas' part in the prequels.
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Feminist philosopher Kate Manne, author of Down Girl: The Logic of Misogyny, warns against applying "post hoc rationalizations" to backing a candidate.
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"People do sometimes latch onto male authority figures who are lionized and celebrated and then find post hoc rationalizations," Manne tells Refinery29.
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Regardless, other states should draft stronger sore loser laws to legislate against such post-hoc power shifts during future lame duck sessions.
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Uber says this amounts to a "'post hoc rationalization' of a remedy the City appears to have already selected," according to the suit.
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Now, you might say: Why make predictions when we can just wait for the outcome, and then make a post-hoc judgment call?
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But the IG report described his explanation as a "post-hoc justification" and recommended that Secretary of State Mike Pompeo consider disciplinary action.
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The judge labeled the "litigation risk" explanation a "post hoc rationalization" — an explanation made up after the fact to fit a desired outcome.
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Relying on public prosecutors able to police only a small percentage of violators post hoc, after much damage is done, is not ideal.
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A conclusory assertion that a prior policy is illegal accompanied by a hodgepodge of illogical or post hoc policy assertions simply will not do.
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And yet the individuals involved tend to use a very consistent and discernible number of post-hoc rationalizations to account for what they did.
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"Post-hoc remedies don't work in the public safety context, and that, unless I missed it, wasn't addressed anywhere in the order," the judge said.
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Had Golden peacefully left the car, that would have been the end of it -- but when he attacked Caban, even post-hoc justifications became valid.
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"WWI was a epochal event, but linking it mindlessly to technology is playing post hoc ergo propter hoc (after this, therefore because of this,)" he said.
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"What we think this is is a post hoc justification for their refusal all along to be enforcing civil rights laws for transgender people," she said.
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And he and Van Bramer refused a post-hoc invitation to participate on a community advisory council for the Amazon project, intent on resisting it entirely.
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"This is a 'ban first, study later' approach where the study is nothing more than post hoc window-dressing for a predetermined outcome," the complaint said.
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It requires resisting the temptation to reach a foregone conclusion, justifying one's belief in the innocence of the accused via motivated reasoning and post hoc rationalization.
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Raffat also asked how many post-hoc analyses were done before Biogen settled on the one it presented in December to argue for the drug&aposs benefit.
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"A conclusory assertion that a prior policy is illegal, accompanied by a hodgepodge of illogical or post hoc policy assertions, simply will not do," he wrote Friday.
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"In the near term, more affluent people will adopt self-driving cars and they will be subjected to the post-hoc information policing Orin describes," she added.
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Although the treatment failed to meet the main goal of the study, post-hoc analyses showed that the higher dose was more effective than a placebo, Alkermes said.
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According to David Perkins of Harvard University, the brighter people are, the more deftly they can conjure up post-hoc justifications for arguments that back their own side.
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This sort of post hoc dehumanization can then license subsequent violence toward the group, as it is easier to be aggressive toward someone that you have already mistreated.
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But as useful as the inter-partes review process is, it ultimately suffers from the same problem as all post-hoc remedies for the failings of the patent system.
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Perhaps most damaging to the Australia post hoc fallacy, however, is the indisputable fact that Australian firearm deaths were already in sharp decline before the 1996 law was enacted.
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Sure, you may not know anything about post hoc tests or degrees of freedom, but if you can answer a question about State Farm commercials, you might not fail.
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If such post hoc, one-sided revisions of the agreements were to become commonplace, the offers will come a lot less frequently and they'll have a lot fewer zeros.
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Exactly how few is hard to know, but most historians now dismiss Siebert's original tally of three thousand as considerably exaggerated, compiled as it was from post-hoc accounts.
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The FDA has shown a willingness recently to approve drugs, sometimes controversially, if they treat conditions with a dearth of options and if companies agree to conduct post hoc studies.
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But at this point, Gunn is starting to rival Harry Potter author J.K. Rowling for post-hoc reveals that don't actually turn up in the material the audience is given.
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COPENHAGEN, Aug 27 (Reuters) - Novo Nordisk says: * Ozempic (semaglutide) consistently reduced the risk of major cardiovascular events across type 2 diabetes populations at high CV risk regardless of prior CV events at baseline * Findings from two post-hoc subgroup analyses of the SUSTAIN 6 trial and one post-hoc meta-analysis of MACE in the SUSTAIN 1-5 trials were presented on Sunday at the ESC Congress 2018, organised by the European Society of Cardiology, in Munich, Germany.
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But they are not powerless, and now they must confront the questions raised by their own post-hoc objections to something Trump all but announced he would do several days in advance.
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A possible campaign finance violation does not get sanitized with a post-hoc theory that money got siphoned at the back end to fund a deal that was a secret to the client.
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While these small signs do technically warn, they typically seem like afterthoughts, where accessibility gestures like strobe warning signs were added on post-hoc rather than incorporated into the fabric of the exhibition design.
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Many of the analysts&apos questions were designed to get specifics on the core debate on aducanumab: Will a post-hoc analysis of a study that was stopped early be enough to gain FDA approval?
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It should also be said that, in the history of mankind, only liberal democracies have ever done such things—held conscientious post-hoc court proceedings in which the state arraigns itself for its own injustices.
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A key observation in early moral foundations theory was that people often seem to make quick decisions instinctively based on their own set of moral foundations while coming up with post hoc reasons and justifications later.
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And second, as Stephen Vladeck, a law professor at the University of Texas, explains, Mr Trump's statement of blanket refusal "suggests that case-specific objections are post-hoc rationalisations", which courts may be inclined to swiftly reject.
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Others will be conducted on a post-hoc basis by experts trained to decipher log files—the record of activity on each laptop, including what information was requested, who requested it, and what they did with it.
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In office, Trump has swerved this way and that on immigration, guns, taxes, health care, foreign policy, and trade, changing positions without warning, leaving his staff and supporters to scurry along after him, offering post-hoc justifications.
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COPENHAGEN, June 1.0 (Reuters) - Diabetes drugmaker Novo Nordisk presented a post-hoc analysis of the SUSTAIN 7 trial comparing treatment effect in body weight across baseline BMI subgroups receiving Novo's Ozempic or Eli Lilly's dulaglutide, marketed as Trulicity.
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Isn't the Kellogg-Briand Pact just a case of post hoc ergo propter hoc —an exercise in feel-good diplomacy that happened to find confirmation many years later in a state of global affairs made possible by other means?
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Trump's continued defenses of Flynn and efforts to be in touch with him strongly suggested what the Mueller report proves: Spicer and others drafted a post-hoc fiction to absolve Trump of any suspicion about his judgment in hiring Flynn.
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By artfully running down their frequent lies, their confident declarations of truth that turned out to be abysmally wrong, and their post-hoc justifications for their mistakes, Danner constructs a terrifyingly clear picture of the distorted logic of the Bush administration.
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At home, Russian surveillance technology relies less on mass filtering — or, as is the case in China, the blocking of information before it reaches citizens — and more on post-hoc monitoring, a repressive legal network and intimidation of private companies and nongovernmental organizations.
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The Republican Party's instant and still-hardening opposition to considering anyone President Barack Obama might nominate to replace deceased Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia has generated tremendous demand for post hoc conservative arguments that rationalize blanket obstruction as a matter of precedent and principle.
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"A new post-hoc analysis demonstrates that the decline in health-related quality of life scores... among patients taking Novartis' Entresto was lower - approximately 50 percent less of a decline - compared to those taking ACE inhibitor enalapril," Basel-based Novartis said in a statement.
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Shaun's approach also allows him to play a game of "Spot the Swastika (or Swastika-Adjacent Iconography)," the vast array of which on display here debunks the post-hoc Nazi talking point (parroted by Donald Trump) that not all of those people were white supremacists.
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Its executive order temporarily banning all people from seven majority-Muslim countries and nearly all refugees has been put on hold by federal judges, after a disastrous rollout, inconsistent interpretation, and an attempted post hoc fix to exempt green card holders from the order.
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The only previous firing of an FBI director, by Bill Clinton in 1993, happened in response to specific allegations of financial wrongdoing that were made by the Bush administration's attorney general, not as a post hoc pretext ginned up at the behest of the West Wing.
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Old-school economists might still hang on to the notion that we are all rational decision makers, but the field of behavioral economics has demonstrated that there are bounds to the rationality of economic agents, and that much of our rationality is really post hoc rationalization.
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Moreover, we should insist that the justices first see how the law "writes" before deciding a case, rather than its current method of taking a straw poll on how a case should come out and then assigning a justice to write a post hoc opinion justifying that result.
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In absence of everything we know to be true—about the Trump campaign's ties to Russia, the ongoing counterintelligence investigation of Trump associates and Russian interference in the election, disgraced former national security adviser Michael Flynn's post-hoc registration as a foreign agent—this would be an explosive allegation.
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Both stories are examples of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy: Just because somebody received naloxone and later recovered is not by itself proof that the medication had any more effect than that other tried-and-true antidote for what are likely to have been severe panic attacks: time.
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"Markets' little more than passing reaction to the Brussels terror attacks and increasing indifference to economic data (other than on a selective post-hoc rationalization basis), and central bank actions and utterances should be a matter for particular concern," Marc Ostwald, market strategist at ADM Investor Services International, said in a note on Wednesday.
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At this point, "we have to make up for decades of not regulating these chemicals—now we're essentially doing a post hoc experiment on everyone [to see what the health effects are]," says Tracey Woodruff, a professor of obstetrics and gynecology and director of the reproductive health and the environment program at the University of California, San Francisco.
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While the MPAA's ratings system works very well for pre-release review of content from a professionally- produced and curated industry, including the MPAA member companies and independent distributors, we do not believe that the MPAA model can work for dominant internet platforms like Google, Facebook, and Twitter that rely primarily on post hoc review of user-generated content (UGC).
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However, this event may have popularized the phrase (via post-hoc eponymy).
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In a scientific study, post hoc analysis (from Latin post hoc, "after this") consists of statistical analyses that were specified after the data were seen. This typically creates a multiple testing problem because each potential analysis is effectively a statistical test. Multiple testing procedures are sometimes used to compensate, but that is often difficult or impossible to do precisely. Post hoc analysis that is conducted and interpreted without adequate consideration of this problem is sometimes called data dredging by critics because the statistical associations that it finds are often spurious.
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While integrating garbage collection into the language's compiler and runtime system enables a much wider choice of methods, post-hoc GC systems exist, such as Automatic Reference Counting (ARC), including some that do not require recompilation. (Post-hoc GC is sometimes distinguished as litter collection.) The garbage collector will almost always be closely integrated with the memory allocator.
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He rejects deontology as a moral framework as holds that deontological theories may be reduced to "post-hoc" rationalisations of arbitrary emotional responses.
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In a post hoc ruling, the court ruled that trial by military tribunal was, in this case, unconstitutional.Duncan v. Kahanamoku, 327 U.S. 304 (1946).
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Sometimes the temptation to engage in post hoc analysis is motivated by a desire to produce positive results or see a project as successful. In the case of pharmaceutical research, there may be significant financial consequences to a failed trial, although the US Food and Drug Administration does not accept post hoc analysis. In some cases, additional subgroup analysis may be requested by scientific peers or the editors of academic journals. In one such incident, journal editors demanded that the statistician Richard Peto provide a post hoc analysis of subgroups for the use of aspirin as secondary prevention for people who had experienced heart attacks.
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Power analysis can either be done before (a priori or prospective power analysis) or after (post hoc or retrospective power analysis) data are collected. A priori power analysis is conducted prior to the research study, and is typically used in estimating sufficient sample sizes to achieve adequate power. Post-hoc analysis of "observed power" is conducted after a study has been completed, and uses the obtained sample size and effect size to determine what the power was in the study, assuming the effect size in the sample is equal to the effect size in the population. Whereas the utility of prospective power analysis in experimental design is universally accepted, post hoc power analysis is fundamentally flawed.
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Applications for the mEos4 protein include photoactivation localization microscopy (PALM), correlative light/ electron microscopy (CLEM), protein activity indication and activity integration (post-hoc imaging for protein activity over time).
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Post-hoc tests were proposed by Schaich and Hamerle (1984)Schaich, E. & Hamerle, A. (1984). Verteilungsfreie statistische Prüfverfahren. Berlin: Springer. . as well as Conover (1971, 1980)Conover, W. J. (1971, 1980).
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Post hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin: "after this, therefore because of this") is an informal fallacy that states: "Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have been caused by event X." It is often shortened simply to post hoc fallacy. A logical fallacy of the questionable cause variety, it is subtly different from the fallacy cum hoc ergo propter hoc ("with this, therefore because of this"), in which two events occur simultaneously or the chronological ordering is insignificant or unknown. Post hoc is a particularly tempting error because correlation appears to suggest causality. The fallacy lies in a conclusion based solely on the order of events, rather than taking into account other factors potentially responsible for the result that might rule out the connection.
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A statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed up with one or more different follow-up tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow-up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are planned (a priori) or post hoc. Planned tests are determined before looking at the data and post hoc tests are performed after looking at the data.
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Isolating and analyzing one's EEG microstate sequence is a post-hoc operation that typically utilizes several averaging and filtering steps. When Koenig and Lehman ran their experiment in 1999 they constructed these sequences by starting from a subject's eyes-closed resting state EEG. The first several event-free minutes of the EEG were isolated, then periods of around 2 seconds each were refiltered (Band-pass ≈ 2–20 Hz). Once the epochs were filtered, these microstates were analytically clustered into mean classes via k-means clustering, post hoc.
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Dandamaev (2010-01-26) The two edicts (one in Hebrew and one in Aramaic) are substantially different in content and tone, leading some historians to argue that one or both may be a post hoc fabrication.
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However, Zach at AlchemyToday pointed out that the tests suffer from issues of post-hoc test selection and concluded that by Pearson's chi-square test the results did not meet confidence intervals for being non-random.
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This figure may be an underestimate if researchers (a) are concerned about reporting questionable research practices, (b) do not perceive themselves to be responsible for HARKing that is proposed by editors and reviewers (i.e., passive HARKing), or (c) do not recognize their HARKing due to hindsight or confirmation biases. HARKing appears to be motivated by a desire to publish research in a publication environment that (a) values a priori hypotheses over post hoc hypotheses and (b) contains a publication bias against null results. In order to improve their chances of publishing their results, researchers may secretly suppress any a priori hypotheses that fail to yield significant results, construct or retrieve post hoc hypotheses that account for any unexpected significant results, and then present these new post hoc hypotheses in their research reports as if they are a priori hypotheses.
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Compton and Ivanov (2013) offer a comprehensive review of political inoculation scholarship and outline new directions for future work. In 1990, Pfau and his colleagues examined inoculation through the use of direct mail during the 1988 United States presidential campaign. The researchers were specifically interested in comparing inoculation and post hoc refutation. Post hoc refutation is another form of building resistance to arguments; however, instead of building resistance prior to future arguments, like inoculation, it attempts to restore original beliefs and attitudes after the counterarguments have been made.
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Post-hoc segmentation relies on access to rich datasets, usually with a very large number of cases and uses sophisticated algorithms to identify segments.Wedel, M. and Kamakura, W.A., Market Segmentation: Conceptual and Methodological Foundations, Springer Science & Business Media, 2010, pp 24-26. The figure alongside illustrates how segments might be formed using clustering; however, note that this diagram only uses two variables, while in practice clustering employs a large number of variables.Constantin, C., "Post-hoc Segmentation using Marketing Research," Economics, Vol 12, no 3, 2012, pp. 39–48.
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Also, argumentation scholars study the post hoc rationalizations by which organizational actors try to justify decisions they have made irrationally. Argumentation is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse), along with exposition, description, and narration.
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Outcome reporting bias occurs when multiple outcomes are measured and analyzed, but the reporting of these outcomes is dependent on the strength and direction of its results. A generic term coined to describe these post-hoc choices is HARKing ("Hypothesizing After the Results are Known").
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The regression (or regressive) fallacy is an informal fallacy. It assumes that something has returned to normal because of corrective actions taken while it was abnormal. This fails to account for natural fluctuations. It is frequently a special kind of the post hoc fallacy.
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The RSM uses a post-hoc approach to the identification of the attributes required to successfully solve each item on an existing test. In contrast, the AHM uses an a priori approach to identifying the attributes and specifying their interrelationships in a cognitive model.
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An important first step toward a functional analysis of survival processing is thinking about the kinds of problems memory would have evolved to solve. Figuring out selection pressures can be difficult. Post-hoc accounts, also known as just-so stories, are an important problem to avoid. Nairne et al.
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Gould advocates a third view, holding that the other two positions are examples of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy. Rather than assuming that either side of Nabokov's work caused or stimulated the other, Gould proposes that both stemmed from Nabokov's love of detail, contemplation, and symmetry.
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Rodger's method permits an absolutely unlimited amount of post hoc data snooping and this is accompanied by a guarantee that the long run expectation of type 1 errors will never exceed the commonly used rates of either 5 or 1 percent. Whenever a researcher falsely rejects a true null contrast (whether it is a planned or post hoc one) the probability of that being a type 1 error is 100%. It is the average number of such errors over the long run that Rodger's method guarantees cannot exceed Eα = 0.05 or 0.01. This statement is a logical tautology, a necessary truth, that follows from the manner in which Rodger's method was originally conceived and subsequently built.
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Given sufficient power, an ANOVA would most likely find a significant fall at one and two months, but the fall is not linear. Furthermore, a post-hoc test may be required. An alternative test may be repeated measures (two way) ANOVA, or Friedeman's test, depending on the nature of the data.
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In statistics, hypotheses suggested by a given dataset, when tested with the same dataset that suggested them, are likely to be accepted even when they are not true. This is because circular reasoning (double dipping) would be involved: something seems true in the limited data set; therefore we hypothesize that it is true in general; therefore we (wrongly) test it on the same limited data set, which seems to confirm that it is true. Generating hypotheses based on data already observed, in the absence of testing them on new data, is referred to as post hoc theorizing (from Latin post hoc, "after this"). The correct procedure is to test any hypothesis on a data set that was not used to generate the hypothesis.
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Falling for the temptation to use the statistical analysis of the collected data to estimate the power will result in uninformative and misleading values. In particular, it has been shown that post-hoc "observed power" is a one-to-one function of the p-value attained. This has been extended to show that all post-hoc power analyses suffer from what is called the "power approach paradox" (PAP), in which a study with a null result is thought to show more evidence that the null hypothesis is actually true when the p-value is smaller, since the apparent power to detect an actual effect would be higher. In fact, a smaller p-value is properly understood to make the null hypothesis relatively less likely to be true.
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After the study was completed, post-hoc analysis revealed that in the icotinib treatment group, patients with activating EGFR mutations showed improved PFS as compared to patients with wild-type EGFR. Icotinib also was associated with fewer adverse events than gefitinib when considering all grades of reactions together (61% versus 70% respectively, p = 0.046).
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Quantitative Set Analysis for Gene Expression (QuSAGE) is a computational method for gene set enrichment analysis . QuSAGE improves power by accounting for inter-gene correlations and quantifies gene set activity with a complete probability density function (PDF). From this PDF, P values and confidence intervals can be easily extracted. Preserving the PDF also allows for post-hoc analysis (e.g.
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External post hoc fact-checking by independent organizations began in the United States in the early 2000s. In the 2010s, particularly following the 2016 election of Donald Trump as US President, fact-checking gained a rise in popularity and spread to multiple countries mostly in Europe and Latin America. However, the US remains the largest market for fact-checking.
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There are three panel windows with tracery in the choir, though they have been altered or replaced. The Organ is also located in the choir. The elaborately worked choir screen, which separates the choir from the nave, dates from 1927, the 400th anniversary of the university. It was added post hoc, just like the galleries and the organ.
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Research shows that human volunteers can estimate their response times accurately, in fact knowing their "mental processes" well, but only with substantial demands made on their attention and cognitive resources (i.e. they are distracted while estimating). Such estimation is likely more than post hoc interpretation and may incorporate privileged information. Mindfulness training can also increase introspective accuracy in some instances.
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TauRx has presented a post-hoc subgroup analysis suggesting that a small group of patients in the trial, who were taking only LMTX without any other Alzheimer's medication, did show significant improvement. However, this characterization of the secondary analysis results has been challenged on statistical grounds, and based on the fact that an inappropriate placebo group was used in the comparison.
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In contrast, post-hoc segmentation makes no assumptions about the optimal theoretical framework. Instead, the analyst's role is to determine the segments that are the most meaningful for a given marketing problem or situation. In this approach, the empirical data drives the segmentation selection. Analysts typically employ some type of clustering analysis or structural equation modeling to identify segments within the data.
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Madonna by Tiepolo, 1760 :Salve, Regina, Mater misericordiæ, :vita, dulcedo, et spes nostra, salve. :Ad te clamamus exsules filii Hevæ, :Ad te suspiramus, gementes et flentes :in hac lacrimarum valle. :Eia, ergo, advocata nostra, illos tuos :misericordes oculos ad nos converte; :Et Jesum, benedictum fructum ventris tui, :nobis post hoc exsilium ostende. :O clemens, O pia, O dulcis Virgo Maria.
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The signatures are described as post hoc attributions and mnemonics, of value only in creating a system for remembering actions attributed to medical herbs. There is no scientific evidence that plant shapes and colors help in the discovery of medical uses of plants. Another explanation is that the human mind, in trying to find patterns to explain phenomena, while lacking adequate scientific knowledge, resorts to anthropomorphism.
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That would be an argument post hoc ergo propter hoc. Cardinal Castiglione's advanced age and deteriorating health are thought to have contributed both to his status as papabile and his ultimate election, making him an ideal compromise candidate, "stop-gap",Kington-Oliphant, 1862, p. 304. or "provisional Pope". More polemical sources describe Celestine IV as a "feeble, ignorant, old fanatic" who was "destitute of any other qualification".
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Koxinga followed his advice and the Dutch redoubt fell within a day. This claim of a defector appears in a post hoc account of the siege written by Frederick Coyett, whom scholars have noted sought to absolve the author of responsibility for the defeat. A Swiss soldier also writes about the betrayal independently. Ming records make no mention of any defector or German named Hans Jurgen Radis.
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Broadly speaking, GS quantify spontaneous pain according to objective and blinded scoring of facial expressions, as is done routinely for the measurement of pain in non-verbal humans. Observers score the presence and extent of "facial action units" (FAU), e.g. Orbital Tightening, Nose Bulge, Ear Position and Whisker Change. These are scored in real-time by observing the animal directly, or, post hoc from photographs or screen-grabs from videos.
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There was a significant reduction in the rate of cardiovascular death, but not in the rate of death from any cause. Later post- hoc analysis of the ATHENA-results showed a significant reduction in the rate of stroke. Patients randomized to dronedarone were more likely to develop bradycardia and QT-interval prolongation (but only 1 case of Torsades). Nausea, diarrhea, rash, and creatinine elevation also were more common in the dronedarone arm.
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According to Ernesto Priego, while the work adapts a comic-book source, the painting is neither a comic nor a comics panel, and "its meaning is solely referential and post hoc." It directs the attention of its audience to features such as genre and printing methods. Visually and narratively, the original panel was the climactic element of a dynamic page composition. Lichtenstein emphasizes the onomatopoeia while playing down articulated speech by removing the speech balloon.
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Bayesian model reduction was initially developed for use in neuroimaging analysis, in the context of modelling brain connectivity, as part of the dynamic causal modelling framework (where it was originally referred to as post-hoc Bayesian model selection). Dynamic causal models (DCMs) are differential equation models of brain dynamics. The experimenter specifies multiple competing models which differ in their priors – e.g. in the choice of parameters which are fixed at their prior expectation of zero.
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This recommendation is based on post hoc analysis of prospective trials, suggesting higher levels may be associated with increased mortality rates. For heart rate control (atrial fibrillation), plasma levels are less defined and are generally titrated to a goal heart rate. Typically, digoxin levels are considered therapeutic for heart rate control between 0.5 and 2.0 ng/ml (or 0.6 and 2.6 nmol/l).() In suspected toxicity or ineffectiveness, digoxin levels should be monitored.
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Other psychologists have questioned the assumption that moral action is primarily a result of formal reasoning. Social intuitionists such as Jonathan Haidt argue that individuals often make moral judgments without weighing concerns such as fairness, law, human rights or ethical values. Thus the arguments analyzed by Kohlberg and other rationalist psychologists could be considered post hoc rationalizations of intuitive decisions; moral reasoning may be less relevant to moral action than Kohlberg's theory suggests.
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6 Nov. 1962, Election du Président de la République, Rec. 27. Some scholars had regarded the amendment as a post hoc manifestation of the constituent power, which is the inherent power of the people to bypass an existing constitution to adopt a new constitution. Article 11 was used for constitutional changes for the second and final time in 1969, but the "No" prevailed, causing Charles de Gaulle to resign from the presidency.
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Anti-fat bias is not a strictly Western cultural phenomenon. Instances of implicit anti-fat bias have been found across several cultures. Newer research suggests that the stereotypical traits and attributions are post hoc justifications for the expression of prejudice against obese people. That is, a person first experiences involuntary feelings of disgust and aversion when seeing an obese person, and then the person tries to figure out a "rational" reason for these feelings.
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The magician purposely sent her a biorhythm chart based on a different birthdate. After he explained that he sent the wrong chart to her, he sent her another chart, also having the wrong birthdate. She then said that this new chart was even more accurate than the previous one. This kind of willful credulous belief in vague or inaccurate prognostication derives from motivated reasoning backed up by fallacious acceptance of confirmation bias, post hoc rationalization, and suggestibility.
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We were passengers, we're guys going on a flight."Shown at the 8:30 mark in the video. Sibrel refers, in post hoc interviews, to two confrontations with Aldrin prior to the one that resulted in his being punched. Regarding the subsequent interaction, occurring on September 9, 2002, witnesses came forward to the police with jurisdiction, the Beverly Hills Police Department, stating that "Mr Sibrel... lured Mr Aldrin to the hotel under false pretences in order to interview him.
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Abductive reasoning allows inferring a as an explanation of b. As a result of this inference, abduction allows the precondition a to be abduced from the consequence b. Deductive reasoning and abductive reasoning thus differ in the direction in which a rule like "a entails b" is used for inference. As such, abduction is formally equivalent to the logical fallacy of affirming the consequent (or post hoc ergo propter hoc) because of multiple possible explanations for b.
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In The Innate Capacity, he gives the example of a man who had the Buddhist experience of satori, although not himself a Buddhist at the time, and only later learnt about satori. Indeed, even if one did learn about an experience and later have it, in Forman's view this does not prove that the learning causes the experience; to think in this way would, in Forman's view, be to commit the logical error of post hoc ergo propter hoc.
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A frequent (but false) accusation against pattern cladistics is that its proponents claim that systematics should be "theory free." At some point in the 1960s and '70s pheneticists may have believed that, but pattern cladists are not pheneticists. Obviously, rejecting a priori evolutionary process theories is not the same thing as categorically rejecting "theory" in toto. Furthermore, pattern cladists do not reject post hoc evolutionary explanations for cladograms, they simply think that the evidence is independent of the explanation.
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News stories and features, whether in magazine writing or broadcast news, can be categorized in terms of article structures that define the order in which information is introduced to the story. Some writers deny consciously organizing articles according to specific structures, but may use them to describe the writing post hoc. Others recognize a style within a developing story and use it to develop the narrative. Still others may be required to pursue a specific style from the beginning by publisher guidelines.
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HARKing is an acronym coined by social psychologist Norbert Kerr for the "questionable" research practice of "Hypothesizing After the Results are Known". Kerr defined HARKing as “presenting a post hoc hypothesis in the introduction of a research report as if it were an a priori hypothesis”.Kerr (1998), p. 197 HARKing may also occur when a researcher tests an a priori hypothesis but then omits that hypothesis from their research report after they find out the results of their test.
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The effectiveness of augury could only be judged retrospectively; the divinely ordained condition of peace (pax deorum) was an outcome of successful augury. Those whose actions had led to divine wrath (ira deorum) could not have possessed a true right of augury (ius augurum).Rosenstein (1990), pp. 57–58: the post hoc search for vitium in Republican ritual seems motivated by a need to limit aristocratic responsibility for military disaster, and offer some protection against accusations of incompetence by rivals.
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Suchman (1993) argues that planning in the context of work-activity is similar to navigating a canoe through rapids: you know what point on the river you are aiming for, but you constantly adjust your course as you interact with rocks, swells, and currents on the way. As a result, many organizational theorists argue that plans can only be viewed as post-hoc justifications of action, while Suchman herself appears to view plans and actions as interrelated in the moment of action.
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What is usually spoken of as the 'classical' approach to tensors tries to read this backwards – and is therefore a heuristic, post hoc approach rather than truly a foundational one. Implicit in defining tensors by how they transform under a coordinate change is the kind of self-consistency the cocycle expresses. The construction of tensor densities is a 'twisting' at the cocycle level. Geometers have not been in any doubt about the geometric nature of tensor quantities; this kind of descent argument justifies abstractly the whole theory.
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The Newman–Keuls or Student–Newman–Keuls (SNK) method is a stepwise multiple comparisons procedure used to identify sample means that are significantly different from each other. It was named after Student (1927), D. Newman, and M. Keuls. This procedure is often used as a post-hoc test whenever a significant difference between three or more sample means has been revealed by an analysis of variance (ANOVA). The Newman–Keuls method is similar to Tukey's range test as both procedures use studentized range statistics.
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As for its efficacy in the treatment of acute mania, a recent meta-analysis showed that it produces comparatively small improvements in manic symptoms in patients with acute mania and mixed episodes than most other antipsychotic drugs (with the exception of ziprasidone) such as risperidone and olanzapine. Drop-out rates (in clinical trials) were also unusually high with asenapine. According to a post-hoc analysis of two 3-week clinical trials it may possess some antidepressant effects in patients with acute mania or mixed episodes.
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In 2001, Jonathan Haidt introduced his social intuitionist model which claimed that with few exceptions, moral judgments are made based upon socially derived intuitions. Moral intuitions happen immediately, automatically, and unconsciously, with reasoning largely serving to generate post-hoc rationalizations to justify one's instinctual reactions. He provides four arguments to doubt causal importance of reason. Firstly, Haidt argues that since there is a dual process system in the brain when making automatic evaluations or assessments, this same process must be applicable to moral judgement as well.
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A significant omnibus F test in ANOVA procedure, is an in advance requirement before conducting the Post Hoc comparison, otherwise those comparisons are not required. If the omnibus test fails to find significant differences between all means, it means that no difference has been found between any combinations of the tested means. In such, it protects family-wise Type I error, which may be increased if overlooking the omnibus test. Some debates have occurred about the efficiency of the omnibus F Test in ANOVA.
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Results of the research reinforced prior conclusions that refutational same and different treatments both increase resistance to attacks. More importantly, results also indicated inoculation was superior to post hoc refutation when attempting to protect original beliefs and attitudes. Other examples are studies showing it is possible to inoculate political supporters of a candidate in a campaign against the influence of an opponent's attack adverts ; and inoculate citizens of fledgling democracies against the spiral of silence (fear of isolation) which can thwart the expression of minority views.
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The minister evaded further questions regarding what information had been provided, and the discussion was cut short when Parliament was dissolved on April 12.. Peter Regenstreif, who studied the four elections between 1957 and 1963, wrote of the situation at the start of the election campaign, "In 1957, there was no tangible indication that the Liberals would be beaten or, even in the opposition's darkest moment of reflection, could be. All the hindsight and post hoc gazing at entrails cannot change that objective fact.".
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Erich von Falkenhayn later claimed that his tactics at Verdun were designed not to take the city but rather to destroy the French Army in its defense. Falkenhayn is described as wanting to "bleed France white" and thus the attrition tactics were employed in the battle. Attritional warfare in World War I has been shown by historians such as Hew Strachan to have been used as a post hoc ergo propter hoc excuse for failed offensives. Contemporary sources disagree with Strachan's view on this.
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In early 1990s, one set of researchers made this statement about their decision to use Rodger's method: “We chose Rodger’s method because it is the most powerful post hoc method available for detecting true differences among groups. This was an especially important consideration in the present experiments in which interesting conclusions could rest on null results” (Williams, Frame, & LoLordo, 1992, p. 43).Williams, D. A., Frame, K. A., & LoLordo, V. M. (1992). Discrete signals for the unconditioned stimulus fail to overshadow contextual or temporal conditioning.
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Second, if the Court were to set Harmelin's sentence aside, it would necessarily have to reject the judgment of the legislature, where the initial responsibility for making the substantive judgment about appropriate punishments rests. Third, Michigan's system did not entirely lack mechanisms for considering the individual circumstances of a particular defendant. Prosecutors have discretion in bringing charges, the governor has the power to grant clemency post hoc, and the legislature has the power to retroactively modify the sentence for all persons convicted of Harmelin's crime.
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"Benefits may result because of the natural progression of the illness, rarely but regularly occurring spontaneous remission or through the placebo effect." The first is post hoc ergo propter hoc, meaning that a genuine improvement or spontaneous remission may have been experienced coincidental with but independent from anything the healer or patient did or said. These patients would have improved just as well even had they done nothing. The second is the placebo effect, through which a person may experience genuine pain relief and other symptomatic alleviation.
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Skeptics of faith healing offer primarily two explanations for anecdotes of cures or improvements, relieving any need to appeal to the supernatural. The first is post hoc ergo propter hoc, meaning that a genuine improvement or spontaneous remission may have been experienced coincidental with but independent from anything the faith healer or patient did or said. These patients would have improved just as well even had they done nothing. The second is the placebo effect, through which a person may experience genuine pain relief and other symptomatic alleviation.
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Inspired in part by Antonio Damasio's somatic marker hypothesis, Jonathan Haidt's (2001) Social Intuitionist Model de- emphasized the role of reasoning in reaching moral conclusions. Haidt asserts that moral judgment is primarily given rise to by intuition, with reasoning playing a smaller role in most of our moral decision-making. Conscious thought-processes serve as a kind of post hoc justification of our decisions. His main evidence comes from studies of "moral dumbfounding" where people have strong moral reactions but fail to establish any kind of rational principle to explain their reaction.
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Annotations in the Vilna Talmud. Text Annotation is the practice and the result of adding a note or gloss to a text, which may include highlights or underlining, comments, footnotes, tags, and links. Text annotations can include notes written for a reader's private purposes, as well as shared annotations written for the purposes of collaborative writing and editing, commentary, or social reading and sharing. In some fields, text annotation is comparable to metadata insofar as it is added post hoc and provides information about a text without fundamentally altering that original text.
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Results of the clinical trial indicated that neither LY-2140023 nor olanzapine were significantly more efficacious than the placebo as determined with PANSS total scores. Post hoc analyses indicated only a trend towards improvement with LY-2140023, while olanzapine was associated with a significant improvement in total PANSS total score. Of the decision to stop development, Jan Lundberg, PhD and president of Lilly Research Laboratories, said "I'm disappointed in what these results mean for patients with schizophrenia who still are searching for options to treat this terrible illness".
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It has been noted that DBA/2 strain mice, but not CBA strain mice, show an increase in GS score following only isoflurane anaesthesia, which should be taken into account when using the GS to assess pain. Administration of a common analgesic, buprenorphine, had no effect on the GS of either strain. There are interactions between the sex and strain of mice in their GS and also the method that is used to collect the data (i.e. real-time or post hoc), which indicates scorers need to consider these factors.
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Practitioners of complementary medicine usually discuss and advise patients as to available alternative therapies. Patients often express interest in mind-body complementary therapies because they offer a non-drug approach to treating some health conditions. In addition to the social-cultural underpinnings of the popularity of alternative medicine, there are several psychological issues that are critical to its growth, notably psychological effects, such as the will to believe, cognitive biases that help maintain self-esteem and promote harmonious social functioning, and the post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy.
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More than 70 observatories covering the electromagnetic spectrum observed the source. The radio and X-ray light continued to rise for several months after the merger, and have been represented to be diminishing. In September 2019, astronomers reported obtaining an optical image of GW170817 [putative] afterglow by the Hubble Space Telescope. In March 2020, continued X-ray emission at 5-sigma was observed by the Chandra Observatory 940 days after the merger, demanding further augmentation or refutation of prior models that had previously been supplemented with additional post-hoc interventions.
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PACE was a large trial investigating the efficacy and safety of three treatments adjunctive to specialist medical care (SMC): cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), graded exercise therapy (GET), and adaptive pacing therapy (APT). The results were published in February 2011 and concluded that CBT and GET were each "moderately" effective compared to SMC alone, while APT was not found to be effective when added to SMC. The trial generated considerable adverse criticism. Letters to the editor critiqued the definitions of secondary outcomes, questioned post-hoc protocol changes, and expressed concern over generalisability of the results.
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Books in Early Modern Spain faced prepublication licensing and approval (which could include modification) by both secular and religious authorities. However, once approved and published, the circulating text also faced the possibility of post-hoc censorship by being denounced to the Inquisition—sometimes decades later. Likewise, as Catholic theology evolved, once-prohibited texts might be removed from the Index. At first, inclusion in the Index meant total prohibition of a text; however, this proved not only impractical and unworkable but also contrary to the goals of having a literate and well-educated clergy.
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The advertisement was clever in claiming that it enhanced the body's natural healing ability. The Electropoise, it claimed: Elsewhere it claimed: Skeptics pointed out the fraudulent logic used in claims and endorsements of its curative effect stating that it was dangerous use of post hoc ergo propter hoc as the logic. Sanche was careful in that he never claimed that his device would cure diseases like tuberculosis. Others like E.L. Moses, inventor of Oxypathor, would go to jail for 18 months in 1915 for making false curative claims.
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Catherine Hakim carried out two national surveys, in Britain and Spain, to test the theory, and showed that questions eliciting personal preferences can strongly predict women's employment decisions and fertility. In contrast, women's behaviour did not predict their attitudes, showing that lifestyle preferences are not post hoc rationalisations. This study also showed that other sex-role attitudes do not have the same impact on women's behaviour; notably, the patriarchal values measured by most social surveys, including the European Social Survey, have virtually no impact on women's personal choices and behaviour.
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She exhibited impaired familiarity but intact recollection processes relative to controls in a yes-no recognition paradigm, and this was elucidated using ROC, RK, and response-deadline procedures. In another study, even when performance between patient N.B. was matched to one amnesic patient who had their hippocampus removed, the double dissociation was still present. While performance was matched post hoc and replication is needed, this evidence rules out the idea that these brain regions are part of a unitary memory strength system. Instead, this double dissociation strongly suggests that distinct brain regions and systems underlie both recollection and familiarity processes.
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Kristiansen and Hotte reviewed many research articles regarding people's values and attitudes and whether they guide behavior. With the research they reviewed and their own extension of Ajzen and Fishbein's theory of reasoned action, they conclude that value- attitude-behavior depends on the individual and their moral reasoning. Another issue that Kristiansen and Hotte discovered through their research was that individuals tended to "create" values to justify their reactions to certain situations, which they called the "value justification hypothesis". Their theory is comparable to Jonathan Haidt's social intuitionist theory, where individuals justify their intuitive emotions and actions through post-hoc moral reasoning.
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The first position is that all HARKing is unethical under all circumstances because it violates a fundamental principle of communicating scientific research honestly and completely (e.g., Kerr, 1998, p. 209). According to this position, HARKing always conceals a useful part of the truth. Consistent with this view, a 2017 Twitter poll found that 75.5% of 212 votes agreed that "it is fraud for an auth to assert that a study tested an a priori hypothesis that the auth knowingly thought of only after post hoc analysis." A second position is that HARKing falls into a “gray zone” of ethical practice.
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In a separate placebo-controlled trial of obese adults without known hypothalamic lesions, obese subjects who received long-acting octreotide lost weight and reduced their BMI compared to subjects receiving placebo; post hoc analysis suggested greater effects in patients receiving the higher dose of the drug, and among "Caucasian subjects having insulin secretion greater than the median of the cohort." "There were no statistically significant changes in QoL scores, body fat, leptin concentration, Beck Depression Inventory, or macronutrient intake", although subjects taking octreotide had higher blood glucose after a glucose tolerance test than those receiving placebo.
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On the basis of the testimony of someone writing in year 1271, a birthplace in England can be taken as having more likelihood than other possibilities. Among other possibilities, several different tenuous efforts have been made to figure out his birthplace from his appellative de Sacrobosco. Long after his death, Johannes de Sacrobosco was called and sometimes still is called by the name John of Holywood or John of Holybush, a name which was constructed by post-hoc reverse translation of the Latin sacro bosco, where sacro = "holy" (sacred), and bosco = "wood". "Sacrobosco" as such is an unknown town or region.
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She was also dating the senator, which angered Deputy White House Chief of Staff Josh Lyman, who used to date her himself. In the second episode of Season 1, "Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc", Mandy leaves the employ of the senator, and stops dating him, when he defies her wishes and tables a bill in committee for which she planned to fight vigorously. As a result, she is hired as a media consultant for Bartlet, much to Josh's chagrin. In her new capacity, she reports directly to him and to Toby Ziegler, the White House communications director.
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Often one of the "treatments" is none, so the treatment group can act as a control. Dunnett's test (a modification of the t-test) tests whether each of the other treatment groups has the same mean as the control.Montgomery (2001, Section 3-5.8: Experiments with a single factor: The analysis of variance; Practical interpretation of results; Comparing means with a control) Post hoc tests such as Tukey's range test most commonly compare every group mean with every other group mean and typically incorporate some method of controlling for Type I errors. Comparisons, which are most commonly planned, can be either simple or compound.
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Sense of agency, on this view, is a product of fallible post hoc inference rather than infallible direct access to one's conscious force of will. The attribution of self-agency is made most strongly when the following three conditions are met: priority, exclusivity, and consistency. Thus, one's action must be the exclusive potential cause of the event (exclusivity), one must have had prior thoughts or plans about the action before it occurred (priority), and the action the occurred must match the action that was planned (consistency). An inference of self-agency is thus made under at least three parameters of uncertainty.
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This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc", which translates as "after this, therefore because of this". Definition: Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Sometimes one event really does cause another one that comes later—for example, if one registers for a class, and their name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that came later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time are not really related as cause and event. That is, temporal correlation does not necessarily entail causation.
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He describes moral judgment as akin to aesthetic judgment, where an instant approval or disapproval of an event or object is produced upon perception. Hence, once produced, the immediate intuitive response toward a situation or person cannot easily be overridden by the rational consideration that follows. The theory explained that in many cases, people resolve inconsistency between the intuitive and rational processes by using the latter for post-hoc justification of the former. Haidt, using the metaphor "the emotional dog and its rational tail", applied such nature of our reasoning to the contexts ranging from person perception to politics.
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In everyday reasoning, humans do little to get real evidence when taking positions or making decisions, and do even less to get evidence for opposing positions. Instead, they tend to fabricate "pseudo-evidence" – often after the decision had already been made ("post hoc fabrication"). Humans take a position, look for evidence that supports it, then, if they find some evidence – enough so that the position "makes sense" – they stop thinking altogether (the "makes-sense stopping rule"). And, when pressed to produce real evidence, they tend to seek and interpret "evidence" that confirms what they already believe (the "confirmation bias").
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We now have post-hoc motivation for these notions from physics, together with several interpretations of the axioms that were not initially known. Physically, the vertex operators arising from holomorphic field insertions at points (i.e., vertices) in two dimensional conformal field theory admit operator product expansions when insertions collide, and these satisfy precisely the relations specified in the definition of vertex operator algebra. Indeed, the axioms of a vertex operator algebra are a formal algebraic interpretation of what physicists call chiral algebras, or "algebras of chiral symmetries", where these symmetries describe the Ward identities satisfied by a given conformal field theory, including conformal invariance.
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It is thought that patients with neuropathic pain can be grouped into clusters based on their sensory profiles and that this may have a role in determining treatment. After-the fact (or Post Hoc) analysis of the responders to treatments in clinical trials have suggested different clinical responses may cluster based on phenotype and preliminary clinical trials suggest some analgesics show a greater efficacy in patient subtypes. The european medicines agency allow the classification of patients by QST in clinical trials. It is proposed that in cases where efficacy is only shown in one identified QST group, the drug will only be approved for use with those patients.
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Haidt (2001) lists four reasons to doubt the cognitive primacy model championed by Kohlberg and others. # There is considerable evidence that many evaluations, including moral judgments, take place automatically, at least in their initial stages (and these initial judgments anchor subsequent judgments). # The moral reasoning process is highly biased by two sets of motives, which Haidt labels "relatedness" motives (relating to managing impressions and having smooth interactions with others) and "coherence" motives (preserving a coherent identity and worldview). # The reasoning process has repeatedly been shown to create convincing post hoc justifications for behavior that are believed by people despite not actually correctly describing the reason underlying the choice.
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Frequently, superscript letters are used to indicate which values are significantly different using the Scheffé method. For example, when mean values of variables that have been analyzed using an ANOVA are presented in a table, they are assigned a different letter superscript based on a Scheffé contrast. Values that are not significantly different based on the post-hoc Scheffé contrast will have the same superscript and values that are significantly different will have different superscripts (i.e. 15a, 17a, 34b would mean that the first and second variables both differ from the third variable but not each other because they are both assigned the superscript "a").
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Drug-interaction studies and post hoc analyses of Phase III studies showed no clinically relevant interaction of sucroferric oxyhydroxide with the systemic exposures to losartan, furosemide, omeprazole, digoxin, and warfarin, the lipid-lowering effects of statins, and oral vitamin D receptor agonists. According to the European label (Summary of Product Characteristics), medicinal products that are known to interact with iron (e.g. doxycycline) or have the potential to interact with Velphoro should be administered at least one hour before or two hours after Velphoro. This allows sucroferric oxyhydroxide to bind phosphate as intended and be excreted without coming into contact with medications in the gut that it might interact with.
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The F-test in ANOVA is an example of an omnibus test, which tests the overall significance of the model. A significant F test means that among the tested means, at least two of the means are significantly different, but this result doesn't specify exactly which means are different one from the other. Actually, testing means' differences is done by the quadratic rational F statistic ( F=MSB/MSW). In order to determine which mean differs from another mean or which contrast of means are significantly different, Post Hoc tests (Multiple Comparison tests) or planned tests should be conducted after obtaining a significant omnibus F test.
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Wade recognizes that > his ideas may not be acceptable to everyone but warns that "to falter in > scientific inquiry would be a retreat into darkness". He seems to be > warning, appropriately enough, against benighted political correctness. But > we should never become casual about how comparable "slopular" science and > very similar speculative evolutionary reasoning by leading scientists fed a > venomous kind of darkness not too many decades ago. Wade's post-hoc tales > often put him in step with a long march of social darwinists who, with > comfortable detachment from the (currently) dominant culture, insist that we > look starkly at life in the raw and not blink at what we see.
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In: Calvin Dytham: Choosing And Using Statistics: A Biologist's Guide. Wiley-Blackwell, 2003, , S. 145–150 For this reason, and because the method was described later than most other parametric and non-parametric variance analysis tests, it has found little use in textbooks and statistical analysis software. With computer programs that contain a function for parametric multi-factorial ANOVA, however, with additional manual effort and a calculation of the Scheirer Ray Hare test is possible. Since the Scheirer–Ray–Hare test only makes a statement about the diversity of all samples considered, it makes sense to perform a post-hoc test that compares the individual samples in pairs.
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Fritz Heider and Mary-Ann Simmel (1944) conducted seminal work on the perception of external causal events. Work on attribution of agency to oneself, however, began with Benjamin Libet's demonstration that brain activity predictive of action precedes conscious awareness of the intention to act (Libet, Gleason, Wright and Pearl 1983; Libet 1985). Since this demonstration psychologists have been trying to determine the relationship between the sense of agency, also known as the phenomenal will, and actual self-agency. Daniel Wegner’s book The Illusion of Conscious Will (Illusion of control; 2002; see also Wegner 2003 and 2004) posits the phenomenal will as the illusory product of post hoc inference.
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Although the Amendment gave women the right to vote in national elections, many women were still reluctant participants in the electoral process. However, post-hoc analyses of American National Election Studies data indicate that majorities of women supported different candidates than majorities of men at least since the organization began to collect data on American elections. Through 1960, these preferences skewed Republican, with women more likely to support Thomas Dewey in 1948, Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956, and Richard M. Nixon in 1960. However, men were more likely to support Barry Goldwater's 1964 Republican candidacy, as well as Nixon's 1968 and 1972 campaigns.
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Follow-up of all core members of the CFPS is designed to take place on a yearly basis. Five provinces are chosen for initial oversampling (1600 families in each) so that regional comparisons can be made. The remainder of the CFPS sample (8000 families) is drawn from the other provinces so as to make the overall CFPS sample representative of the country through weighting (except for remote areas). Time method: Longitudinal Weight: This study provides several weights at the individual, household, and community level that should be used in analysis, including sampling design weights, non-response adjustments weights, and post-hoc stratification adjustment weights.
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Similar insights were developed by Pierre Bourdieu, who also rejected the arguments of the new institutional economists. While these economists attempted to incorporate culture in their models, they did so by arguing that non-market "tradition" was the product of rational maximizing action in the market (i.e., to show they are the solution to an economic problem, rather than having deep cultural roots). Bourdieu argued strongly against what he called RAT (Rational Action Theory) theory, arguing that any actor, when asked for an explanation for their behaviour will provide a rational post hoc answer, but that excuse does not in fact guide the individual in the act.
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The post-war interest in several complex variables made it natural to pursue the idea of automorphic form in the cases where the forms are indeed complex-analytic. Much work was done, in particular by Ilya Piatetski-Shapiro, in the years around 1960, in creating such a theory. The theory of the Selberg trace formula, as applied by others, showed the considerable depth of the theory. Robert Langlands showed how (in generality, many particular cases being known) the Riemann–Roch theorem could be applied to the calculation of dimensions of automorphic forms; this is a kind of post hoc check on the validity of the notion.
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Construct validity concerns whether evidence can show that what the instrument is measuring is at all what the offered theory claims it is (whether each construct in the model "adequately represents what is intended by theoretical account of the construct being measured"Validity (statistics)#Construct validity). > The data disconfirmed both the two- and four-factor confirmatory models. In > the post hoc exploratory factor analyses, many of the factor > pattern/structure coefficients were ambiguously associated with two or more > of the four theoretical channels as well. Overall, there was little support > for the GSD's theoretical basis or design and the concomitant accurate > portrayal of one's cognitive learning style.
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The results of a study conducted by McMaster University suggest humour can positively affect one's desirability for a specific relationship partner, but this effect is only most likely to occur when men use humour and are evaluated by women. No evidence was found to suggest men prefer women with a sense of humour as partners, nor women preferring other women with a sense of humour as potential partners. When women were given the forced-choice design in the study, they chose funny men as potential relationship partners even though they rated them as being less honest and intelligent. Post-Hoc analysis showed no relationship between humour quality and favourable judgments.
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This included frequent descriptions of suicides occurring within synagogues (which were on occasion burning), and the shedding of blood on the Holy Ark. Despite this, somewhat more post hoc explanations provided by Medieval Jewish chroniclers also existed. Most often, the homicide of the Rhineland children was explained by the adage "lest they dwell among the Gentiles; it is better that they die innocent and not guilty", meaning that it was better to kill Jewish children and prevent them from losing their religion, then allow them to die later as a non-Jew. The descriptions of Jewish parents killing their children was shocking to Christian ears, and may have served as fuel for later accusations of blood libel.
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All of this ambiguity necessitate some serpentine, post-hoc explanation to show that results fit a chaotic model. By adapting a model of career counseling to include a chaotic interpretation of the relationship between employees and the job market, Aniundson and Bright found that better suggestions can be made to people struggling with career decisions. Modern organizations are increasingly seen as open complex adaptive systems with fundamental natural nonlinear structures, subject to internal and external forces that may contribute chaos. For instance, team building and group development is increasingly being researched as an inherently unpredictable system, as the uncertainty of different individuals meeting for the first time makes the trajectory of the team unknowable.
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" Since 2010, there has been more research that disputes the Zamboni theory. On November 28, 2017, Zamboni admitted that balloon venous angioplasty cannot be indiscriminately applied to all patients affected by relapsing remitting MS with associated CCSVI on the basis of "a double-blind randomized controlled trial versus sham therapy.Branswell H. Scientist concedes his controversial MS therapy, once a source of great hope, is ‘largely ineffective’ StatNews:Health. November 28, 2017 A further expanded analysis of the same double blinded randomized sham controlled trial (Brave Dreams) showed that venoplasty decreases new cerebral lesions at 1 year in a wider patients population which includes also secondary progressive MS. Further post hoc analysis demonstrated the need to select patients.
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Some democratic peace researchers have been criticized for post hoc reclassifying some specific conflicts as non-wars or political systems as non-democracies without checking and correcting the whole data set used similarly. Supporters and opponents of the democratic peace agree that this is bad use of statistics, even if a plausible case can be made for the correction (, , ). A military affairs columnist of the newspaper Asia Times has summarized the above criticism in a journalist's fashion describing the theory as subject to the no true Scotsman problem: exceptions are explained away as not being between "real" democracies or "real" wars . Some democratic peace researchers require that the executive result from a substantively contested election.
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Ars Technica, Vox, and Wired, among others, stated that discussions of gender equality, sexism and other social issues in game reviews present no ethical conflict. Several writers who attempted to understand Gamergate's motivations concluded that, rather than relating to purported issues with gaming journalism ethics, Gamergate represented an effort to suppress opposing views. Salter writes that "mass media had a decisive role in evaluating the competing claims of Gamergate and its critics, and ultimately dismissing Gamergate as a misogynist abuse campaign". Screenshots of 4chan boards, collected and published by Quinn, suggested that complaints about ethics in games journalism were invented post hoc by Gamergaters to distract critics from their ongoing abuse of Quinn.
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Judge Batts explicitly rejected arguments of parody and criticism, stating, > To the extent Defendants contend that 60 Years and the character of Mr. C > direct parodic comment or criticism at Catcher or Holden Caulfield, as > opposed to Salinger himself, the Court finds such contentions to be post-hoc > rationalizations employed through vague generalizations about the alleged > naivety of the original, rather than reasonably perceivable parody. The case was vacated and remanded by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit with orders to apply the eBay v. MercExchange test in determining whether publication of a work can be prohibited on a theory of intellectual property infringement before the case has gone to trial.Salinger v.
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Historians have generally believed Lysias' claim that seduction was considered to be more serious than rape, though not all have accepted Lysias' explanation for this. For instance, Christopher Carey argues that this explanation was merely a post-hoc rationalisation, and that in fact the law was more concerned with the possibility of illegitimate children in cases of adultery. The view that seduction was considered to be a worse crime than rape has been questioned by more recent scholars, however. For example, Eva Cantarella, dismisses Lysias' claim as "ingenious but totally inconsistent", and argues that rape and adultery could both be punished with a range of penalties, of which in both cases the most severe was death.
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There have been critiques of the theory from several perspectives. Arguments include that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other moral values, such as caring; that there is such an overlap between stages that they should more properly be regarded as domains or that evaluations of the reasons for moral choices are mostly post hoc rationalizations (by both decision makers and psychologists) of intuitive decisions. A new field within psychology was created by Kohlberg's theory, and according to Haggbloom et al.'s study of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, Kohlberg was the 16th most frequently cited in introductory psychology textbooks throughout the century, as well as the 30th most eminent.
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There are however problems with the shell model when an attempt is made to account for nuclear properties well away from closed shells. This has led to complex post hoc distortions of the shape of the potential well to fit experimental data, but the question remains whether these mathematical manipulations actually correspond to the spatial deformations in real nuclei. Problems with the shell model have led some to propose realistic two-body and three-body nuclear force effects involving nucleon clusters and then build the nucleus on this basis. Three such cluster models are the 1936 Resonating Group Structure model of John Wheeler, Close- Packed Spheron Model of Linus Pauling and the 2D Ising Model of MacGregor.
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Critical values of the studentized range distribution are used in Tukey's range test. The studentized range is used to calculate significance levels for results obtained by data mining, where one selectively seeks extreme differences in sample data, rather than only sampling randomly. The Studentized range distribution has applications to hypothesis testing and multiple comparisons procedures. For example, Tukey's range test and Duncan's new multiple range test (MRT), in which the sample x1, ..., xn is a sample of means and q is the basic test-statistic, can be used as post-hoc analysis to test between which two groups means there is a significant difference (pairwise comparisons) after rejecting the null hypothesis that all groups are from the same population (i.e.
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It was reported that post hoc GS (but not real-time GS) indicated a significant proportion of the mice were in low-level pain at 24 h which were not identified as such by traditional assessment methods. Importantly, those mice identified as experiencing low-level pain responded to analgesic treatment, indicating the traditional methods of welfare assessment were insensitive in this aspect of pain recognition. Mice with induced sickle cell disease and their controls exhibited a "pain face" when tested on a cold plate, but sickle mice showed increased intensity compared to controls; this was confirmed using Von Frey filaments a traditional method of pain assessment. GS have also been used to assess pain and methods of its alleviation in pancreatitis.
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The COVID-19 pandemic in Spain is part of the pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 () caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (). The virus was first confirmed to have spread to Spain on 31 January 2020, when a German tourist tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in La Gomera, Canary Islands. Post-hoc genetic analysis has shown that at least 15 strains of the virus had been imported, and community transmission began by mid-February. By 13 March, cases had been confirmed in all 50 provinces of the country. A lockdown was imposed on 14 March 2020. On 29 March, it was announced that, beginning the following day, all non-essential workers were ordered to remain at home for the next 14 days.
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He seems instead to have been made commander of the Raetian garrison while his cavalry went east with the Emperor under the command of Claudius (later the Emperor Claudius Gothicus) or Aurelian who also became Emperor in due course. Losing command of the elite cavalry he had done so much to create and had once led so brilliantly must have seemed a humiliating demotion for Aureolus. That it distinguished itself still further in the campaign against the Goths (especially at the battle of Nessus (the River Nestus that divided the provinces of Macedonia and Thrace) was no doubt additionally galling. (Post hoc ergo propter hoc (?) Aureolus confirmed his disaffection from Gallienus by deserting his Alpine command, and invading Italy where he took his old base, Milan.
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Wegner's account is a leading example of a postdictive or inferential account of the attribution of self-agency. On this type of view, the feeling of self-agency emerges entirely from post hoc inference and does not track or emerge from anything directly related to the actual causation of the action. Computational models of motor control, by contrast, hypothesize that the sense of agency for a given action arises most directly from internal motor representations associated with generating the movement. An internal forward model based on efference copy, for example, can predict the sensory consequences of a motor command and compare them with the actual sensory state after that action has been initiated (Blakemore, Wolpert and Frith, 2000, 2002; Haggard, 2005).
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Paired comparisons, confusion, constraint, contradictions, and confidence intervals. Unpublished manuscript. A very different desired outcome for Rodger's method was conveyed in this statement by Roberts: "Will Rodger’s method continue to be used by only a few researchers, become extinct, or supplant most or all of the currently popular post hoc procedures following ANOVA? This article and the SPS computer program constitute an attempted intervention in the competition for dominance and survival that occurs among ideas. My hope is that the power and other virtues of Rodger’s method will become much more widely known and that, as a consequence, it will become commonly used. ... Better ideas and the ‘mousetraps’ they are instantiated in, ought, eventually, to come to the fore" (Roberts, 2011, p. 78).
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In statistics, the phrase "correlation does not imply causation" refers to the inability to legitimately deduce a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables solely on the basis of an observed association or correlation between them. The idea that "correlation implies causation" is an example of a questionable-cause logical fallacy, in which two events occurring together are taken to have established a cause-and-effect relationship. This fallacy is also known by the Latin phrase cum hoc ergo propter hoc ("with this, therefore because of this"). This differs from the fallacy known as post hoc ergo propter hoc ("after this, therefore because of this"), in which an event following another is seen as a necessary consequence of the former event.
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A Phase 3 multinational RCT (BEACON) designed to test the effect of bardoxolone methyl on progression to end-stage renal disease or cardiovascular death in patients with stage 4 CKD and type 2 diabetes was initiated by Reata in June 2011 and halted in October 2012 after bardoxolone methyl-treated patients were found to have experienced a higher rate of heart- related adverse events, including heart failure, hospitalizations, and deaths. A retrospective post-hoc analyses of the Phase 3 data, conducted by Reata, identified prior hospitalization for heart failure and the baseline level of brain natriuretic peptide, a marker of fluid retention, as predictors of heart failure hospitalizations in the BEACON trial. For patients without these baseline characteristics, the risk for heart failure events among bardoxolone methyl- and placebo-treated patients was similar.
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In a study in September 2011, researchers involved with the trial at Mahidol University in Bangkok and the United States Military HIV Research Program in Washington DC tested the blood of trial subjects for different immune indicators between those who received the vaccine and contracted HIV (41 subjects) and those who did not become infected (205 subjects). Their work is not complete, but those in the study who produced IgG antibodies that recognise the V2 loop in the HIV envelope protein gp120 were 43% less likely to become infected. Those who produced envelope specific IgA were 54% more likely to become infected, but no more susceptible than trial subjects receiving the placebo. However, these studies all emphasize that such post-hoc analyses are subject to inherent bias and must be interpreted with caution.
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Sheldrake performed 12 further tests, in which the dog's owner travelled home in a taxi or other unfamiliar vehicle at randomly selected times communicated to her by telephone, to rule out the possibility that the dog was reacting to familiar car sounds or routines. Sheldrake also carried out similar experiments with another dog, Kane, describing the results as similarly positive and significant. Before the publication of Dogs That Know When Their Owners Are Coming Home, Sheldrake invited Richard Wiseman, Matthew Smith, and Julie Milton to conduct an independent experimental study with the dog Jaytee. They concluded that their evidence did not support telepathy as an explanation for the dog's behaviour, and proposed possible alternative explanations for Sheldrake's conclusions, involving artefacts, bias resulting from experimental design, and post hoc analysis of unpublished data.
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It is worth noting that this explanation is a form of diplomatic, post hoc rationalizing, as their cowardice is a biologically ingrained trait and not actually a rational choice. It is diplomatic, in that it validates in other species what Puppeteers consider to be irrationally insane bravery, although it is doubtful that the Puppeteers genuinely accept other species' claims to having souls. A courageous Puppeteer is regarded as insane by his species, and actually shows symptoms associated with human mental illness, such as bipolar disorder, clinical depression and so on. However, aside from the crew of the Explorer (in the novel Fleet of Worlds), no human has ever met a completely sane Puppeteer, as no sane Puppeteer would ever leave the safety of the Fleet of Worlds (see below).
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An additional problem with the literature on the nonspecific effects of vaccines has been the variety and unexpected nature of the hypotheses which have appeared (in particular relating to sex-specific effects), which has meant that it has not always been clear whether some apparent 'effects' were the result of post hoc analyses or whether they were reflections of a priori hypotheses. This was discussed at length at a review of the work of Aaby and his colleagues in Copenhagen in 2005. The review was convened by the Danish National Research Foundation and the Novo Nordisk Foundation who have sponsored much of the work of Aaby and his colleagues. An outcome of the review was the explicit formulation of a series of testable hypotheses, agreed by the Aaby group.
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The third-cause fallacy (also known as ignoring a common causeLabossiere, M.C., Dr. LaBossiere's Philosophy Pages or questionable cause) is a logical fallacy where a spurious relationship is confused for causation. It asserts that X causes Y when, in reality, X and Y are both caused by Z. It is a variation on the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy and a member of the questionable cause group of fallacies. All of these examples deal with a lurking variable, which is simply a hidden third variable that affects both causes of the correlation. A difficulty often also arises where the third factor, though fundamentally different from A and B, is so closely related to A and/or B as to be confused with them or very difficult to scientifically disentangle from them (see Example 4).
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In 2007, a randomized phase II clinical trial showed that LY-2140023 taken twice daily for 4 weeks improved schizophrenia symptoms as measured with the PANSS and CGI-S when compared to placebo. However, post hoc analysis did not demonstrate a statistically significant difference in efficacy between LY-2140023 and olanzapine (positive control) groups. The researchers on the clinical trial hypothesized that the lack of significant difference between LY-2140023 and olanzapine on their outcome measures was due to incorrect dosage of LY-2140023, and that the optimal therapeutic dose was yet to be determined. A second randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled clinical trial gave schizophrenia patients various doses (5, 20, 40, or 80 mg) of LY-2140023 monohydrate twice daily, yet none of the four doses were found to be more efficacious than placebo on measures of PANSS total score.
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Such practices, while not intentionally fraudulent, involve capitalizing on the gray area of acceptable scientific practices or exploiting flexibility in data collection, analysis, and reporting, often in an effort to obtain a desired outcome. Examples of QRPs include selective reporting or partial publication of data (reporting only some of the study conditions or collected dependent measures in a publication), optional stopping (choosing when to stop data collection, often based on statistical significance of tests), post-hoc storytelling (framing exploratory analyses as confirmatory analyses), and manipulation of outliers (either removing outliers or leaving outliers in a dataset to cause a statistical test to be significant). A survey of over 2,000 psychologists indicated that a majority of respondents admitted to using at least one QRP. The publication bias (see Section "Causes" below) leads to an elevated number of false positive results.
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The retrospective cohort study compares groups of individuals who are alike in many ways but differ by a certain characteristic (for example, female nurses who smoke and ones who do not smoke) in terms of a particular outcome (such as lung cancer). Data on the relevant events for each individual (the form and time of exposure to a factor, the latent period, and the time of any subsequent occurrence of the outcome) are collected from existing records and can immediately be analyzed to determine the relative risk of the cohort compared to the control group. This is fundamentally the same methodology as for a prospective cohort study, except that the retrospective study is performed post-hoc, looking back. The prospective study looks forward, enrolling patients unaffected by the outcome and observing them to see whether the outcome has occurred.
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The second argument, based on research on motivated reasoning, claims that people behave like "intuitive lawyers", searching primarily for evidence that will serve motives for social relatedness and attitudinal coherence. Thirdly, Haidt found that people have post hoc reasoning when faced with a moral situation, this a posteriori (after the fact) explanation gives the illusion of objective moral judgement but in reality is subjective to one's gut feeling. Lastly, research has shown that moral emotion has a stronger link to moral action than moral reasoning, citing Damasio's research on the somatic marker hypothesis and Batson's empathy- altruism hypothesis. Following the publication of a landmark fMRI study in 2001, Joshua Greene separately proposed his dual process theory of moral judgment, according to which intuitive/emotional and deliberative processes respectively give rise to characteristically deontological and consequentialist moral judgments.
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The battle of Dak To () in Vietnam was a series of major engagements of the Vietnam War that took place between 3 and 23 November 1967, in Kon Tum Province, in the Central Highlands of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). The action at Đắk Tô was one of a series of People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) offensive initiatives that began during the second half of the year. PAVN attacks at Lộc Ninh (in Bình Long Province), Song Be (in Phước Long Province) and at Con Thien and Khe Sanh, (in Quảng Trị Province), were other actions which, combined with Đắk Tô, became known as "the border battles". The post hoc purported objective of the PAVN forces was to distract American and South Vietnamese forces away from cities towards the borders in preparation for the Tet Offensive.
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Article 13 requires that within a member state a competent national authority must be able to provide a suitable domestic remedy to an aggrieved party, both to deal with the substance of the relevant Convention complaint and to grant appropriate relief. As the Applicant's Article 11 right had been violated, he was entitled to such relief under Article 13. The Court stated that, in the circumstances, an appropriate remedy would have been for the Applicant to have been able to obtain a court ruling concerning the authorisation of the march before it was intended to take place. The Court found that the judicial remedies which had been available to the Applicant in the circumstances were of a post-hoc nature and could not have provided adequate redress to the Applicant, and that there had therefore been a violation of Article 13 (para. 99).
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He questioned the quality of his economic analysis, believing that his theory did not go beyond the assertions that individuals have acquired preferences and that they respond to opportunities provided for sexual activities in a social marketplace. He argued that his analysis was not systematic, instead being "largely metaphorical" in nature and reliant on "post hoc speculation". He also criticized him for interpreting Plato's Symposium as being about homosexuality rather than "Eros and wisdom among men of equal social status in classical Greece", and for arguing that rape is solely motivated by sexual desire rather than the wish to subordinate women. He considered his economic explanations of specific forms of sexual behavior and his perspective on their regulation to be the most interesting part of Sex and Reason, endorsing his view that there should be less government regulation of sexual conduct.
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Physicist Robert Park states that parapsychology's reported positive results are problematic because most such findings are invariably at the margin of statistical significance and that might be explained by a number of confounding effects; Park states that such marginal results are a typical symptom of pathological science as described by Irving Langmuir. Researcher J. E. Kennedy has said that concerns over the use of meta-analysis in science and medicine apply as well to problems present in parapsychological meta-analysis. As a post-hoc analysis, critics emphasize the opportunity the method presents to produce biased outcomes via the selection of cases chosen for study, methods employed, and other key criteria. Critics say that analogous problems with meta-analysis have been documented in medicine, where it has been shown different investigators performing meta- analyses of the same set of studies have reached contradictory conclusions.
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By providing this foundation, further curation activities may be carried out by specialists at appropriate institutional and organisation levels, whilst causing the minimum of interference to others. A similar idea is curation at source used in the context of Laboratory Information Management Systems LIMS. This refers more specifically to automatic recording of metadata or information about data at the point of capture, and has been developed to apply semantic web techniques to integrate laboratory instrumentation and documentation systems.Frey, J. 'Sharing and Collaboration' keynote presentation at UK e-Science All Hands Meeting , 8–11 September 2008, Edinburgh Sheer curation and curation-at-source can be contrasted with post hoc digital preservation, where a project is initiated to preserve a collection of digital assets that have already been created and are beyond the period of their primary use.
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Indeed, they claim that it cannot achieve what it set out to, because, like all universalist theories, it treats all objects of study as though they were of the same type. Universalism inevitably results in what Shapiro calls ‘method driven’ rather than ‘problem driven’ social science. “Hypotheses are formulated in empirically intractable ways: evidence is selected and tested in a biased fashion; conclusions are drawn without serious attention to competing explanations; empirical anomalies and discordant facts are often either ignored or circumvented by way of post hoc alterations to deductive arguments...” These issues “generate and reinforce a debilitating syndrome in which theories are elaborated and modified in order to save their universal character, rather than by reference to the requirements of viable empirical testing. When this syndrome is at work, data no longer test theories: instead, theories continually impeach and elude data.
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Emergency management software is the software used by local, state and federal emergency management personnel to deal with a wide range of disasters (including natural or human-made hazards) and can take many forms. For example, training software such as simulators are often used to help prepare first responders, word processors can keep form templates handy for printing and analytical software can be used to perform post-hoc examinations of the data captured during an incident. All of these systems are interrelated, as the results of an after-incident analysis can then be used to program training software to better prepare for a similar situation in the future. Crisis Information Management Software (CIMS) is the software found in emergency management operation centers (EOC) that supports the management of crisis information and the corresponding response by public safety agencies.
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When time series X Granger-causes time series Y, the patterns in X are approximately repeated in Y after some time lag (two examples are indicated with arrows). Thus, past values of X can be used for the prediction of future values of Y. The Granger causality test is a statistical hypothesis test for determining whether one time series is useful in forecasting another, first proposed in 1969. Ordinarily, regressions reflect "mere" correlations, but Clive Granger argued that causality in economics could be tested for by measuring the ability to predict the future values of a time series using prior values of another time series. Since the question of "true causality" is deeply philosophical, and because of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy of assuming that one thing preceding another can be used as a proof of causation, econometricians assert that the Granger test finds only "predictive causality".
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Because the equations governing the flow of current in wire antennas are identical to the telegrapher's equations, antenna segments can be modeled as two-way, single-conductor transmission lines. The antenna is broken into multiple line segments, each segment having approximately constant primary line parameters, and .Since voltage lost due to radiation is typically small compared to the voltages required due to the antenna's surge impedance, and since dry air is a very good insulator, the antenna is often modeled as lossless: The essential loss or gain of voltage due to transmission or reception is usually inserted post-hoc, after the transmission line solutions, although it can be modeled as a small value of at the expense of working with complex numbers. At the tip of the antenna, the transmission-line impedance is essentially infinite (equivalently, the admittance is almost zero) and after a brief "pile-up" at the tip, the wave reverses direction and flows back towards the feedpoint.
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Hydrazine sulfate:Human/Clinical Studies National Cancer Institute Overall, the trials in California saw no statistically significant effect on survival from hydrazine sulfate treatment, but noted increased calorie intake in treated patients versus controls. The authors also performed a post-hoc analysis on one or more subgroups of these patients, which they reported as suggesting a beneficial effect from treatment. The design and interpretation of this trial, and in particular the validity of this subgroup analysis, was criticized in detail in an editorial in the Journal of Clinical Oncology. Later randomized controlled trials trials failed to find any improvement in survival, For example, in a trial of the treatment of advanced lung cancer, with either cisplatin and vinblastine or these drugs plus hydrazine sulfate, saw complete tumor regression in 4% of the hydrazine group, versus 3% in the control group, and tumor progression in 36% of the hydrazine group, versus 30% of the control group; however, none of these differences were statistically significant.
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The Supreme Court stated it would not draw a "bright line" rule but instead would rely on "common sense and ordinary human experience" instead over "rigid criteria." Specifically, the Court stated that: > "In assessing whether a detention is too long in duration to be justified as > an investigative stop, we consider it appropriate to examine whether the > police diligently pursued a means of investigation that was likely to > confirm or dispel their suspicions quickly, during which time it was > necessary to detain the defendant." The Supreme Court stated that courts conducting this analysis "should take care to consider whether the police are acting in a swiftly developing situation" and courts "should not indulge in unrealistic second-guessing." They added this caution out of a concern for creative judges engaging in post hoc evaluation of police conduct who could always imagine some alternative means by which the police could have conducted the investigation in hindsight.
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However, pooled analysis of the effect of apabetalone in three phase II clinical trials ASSERT, ASSURE, and SUSTAIN demonstrated increases in HDL-cholesterol (HDL-c) and apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) levels, as well as decreases in the incidence of major adverse cardiac events (MACE).J. Johansson, A. Gordon, C. Halliday, N.C. Wong, Effects of RVX-208 on major adverse cardiac events (MACE), apolipoprotein A-I and High-Density-Lipoproteins; A post-hoc analysis from the pooled SUSTAIN and ASSURE clinical trials (Congress abstract), Eur Heart J Suppl, 35 (2014) 723-724. Reduction of MACE was more profound in patients with diabetes mellitus. In a short term study in prediabetics, favorable changes in glucose metabolism were observed in patients receiving apabetalone. An international, multicenter phase III trial, “Effect of RVX000222 on Time to Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events in High-Risk Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Subjects with Coronary Artery Disease” (BETonMACE) commenced in October 2015.
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In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court found that the jurisprudential rule of Miranda must yield in "a situation where concern for public safety must be paramount to adherence to the literal language of the prophylactic rules enunciated in Miranda". The rule of Miranda is not, therefore, absolute and can be a bit more elastic in cases of public safety. Under this exception, to be admissible in the government's direct case at a trial, the questioning must not be "actually compelled by police conduct which overcame his will to resist," and must be focused and limited, involving a situation "in which police officers ask questions reasonably prompted by a concern for the public safety." The suspect's unadvised statement was therefore admissible in evidence because "[i]n a kaleidoscopic situation such as the one confronting these officers, where spontaneity rather than adherence to a police manual is necessarily the order of the day, the application of the exception we recognize today should not be made to depend on post hoc findings at a suppression hearing concerning the subjective motivation of the police officer".
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Maarten Boudry and others have argued that formal, deductive fallacies rarely occur in real life and that arguments that would be fallacious in formally deductive terms are not necessarily so when context and prior probabilities are taken into account, thus making the argument defeasible and/or inductive. Boudry coined the term fallacy fork. For a given fallacy, one must either characterize it by means of a deductive argumentation scheme, which rarely applies (the first prong of the fork) or one must relax definitions and add nuance to take the actual intent and context of the argument into account (the other prong of the fork). To argue, for example, that one became nauseated after eating a mushroom because the mushroom was poisonous could be an example of the post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy unless one were actually arguing inductively and probabilistically that it is likely that the mushroom caused the illness since some mushrooms are poisonous, it is possible to misidentify a mushroom as edible, one doesn't usually feel nauseated, etc.
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As Robert L. Park, a critic of alternative medicine, explains, some of the characteristics of flu may suggest that Oscillococcinum works. Since the flu normally goes away on its own in a variable number of days, the natural course of the disease is a potential source of error in assessing the efficacy of any intervention: if one takes any medication, and then one's flu goes away, there is a tendency to attribute this to the medication even though the infection would have resolved anyway, which is an example of the informal fallacy post hoc ergo propter hoc. Someone who gets over a mild strain of flu may attribute the mildness to the efficacy of the homeopathic preparation and not to the fact that it was a mild strain, and might recommend it to other people, spreading its popularity. Also, the most likely explanation for its effectiveness with flu symptoms is that patients are misdiagnosing the symptoms of several rhinovirus diseases or of allergies to several hundred substances, and attributing them to a flu infection that they do not have.
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In frequentist statistics, the likelihood function is itself a statistic that summarizes a single sample from a population, whose calculated value depends on a choice of several parameters θ1 ... θp, where p is the count of parameters in some already-selected statistical model. The value of the likelihood serves as a figure of merit for the choice used for the parameters, and the parameter set with maximum likelihood is the best choice, given the data available. The specific calculation of the likelihood is the probability that the observed sample would be assigned, assuming that the model chosen and the values of the several parameters θ give an accurate approximation of the frequency distribution of the population that the observed sample was drawn from. Heuristically, it makes sense that a good choice of parameters is those which render the sample actually observed the maximum possible post-hoc probability of having happened. Wilks' theorem quantifies the heuristic rule by showing that the difference in the logarithm of the likelihood generated by the estimate’s parameter values and the logarithm of the likelihood generated by population’s "true" (but unknown) parameter values is χ² distributed.
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Sometimes a speaker or writer uses a fallacy intentionally. In any context, including academic debate, a conversation among friends, political discourse, advertising, or for comedic purposes, the arguer may use fallacious reasoning to try to persuade the listener or reader, by means other than offering relevant evidence, that the conclusion is true. Examples of this include the speaker or writer: # Diverting the argument to unrelated issues with a red herring (Ignoratio elenchi) # Insulting someone's character (argumentum ad hominem) # Assume the conclusion of an argument, a kind of circular reasoning, also called "begging the question" (petitio principii) # Making jumps in logic (non sequitur) # Identifying a false cause and effect (post hoc ergo propter hoc) # Asserting that everyone agrees (argumentum ad populum, bandwagoning) # Creating a "false dilemma" ("either-or fallacy") in which the situation is oversimplified # Selectively using facts (card stacking) # Making false or misleading comparisons (false equivalence and false analogy) # Generalizing quickly and sloppily (hasty generalization) In humor, errors of reasoning are used for comical purposes. Groucho Marx used fallacies of amphiboly, for instance, to make ironic statements; Gary Larson and Scott Adams employed fallacious reasoning in many of their cartoons.
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He used a study design with alternation of patients to serum vs standard treatments, established inclusion criteria and severity scales, approximated an intention-to-treat analysis, and included nearly 800 participants. His work was published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 1928; this work "reveals a knowledge and use of statistics which was still unusual among medical researchers at that time" and "stands out as one of the most sophisticated invocations of the controlled clinical trial in the 1920s, and as a self-conscious attempt to justify and promote the methodology". Bullowa acknowledged statistician Louis Israel Dublin for help, and introduced a measure of the "ratio of outcome differences between the two groups divided by the square root of the sum of the squares of the two groups' standard errors", arguing that once the ratio was above 2 then the beneficial treatment should be administered to all patients. He later tested sulfa therapy, serum therapy, and combined therapy in 1939, but despite the results favoring sulfa monotherapy he made post-hoc arguments for the benefit of his serum treatment in sub-stratified patient groups.
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Jäckel, Eberhard "The Impoverished Practice of Insinuation: The Singular Aspect of National-Socialist Crimes Cannot Be Denied" pages 74-78 from Forever In The Shadow of Hitler? edited by Ernst Piper, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, 1993 page 77 Jäckel went on to accuse Nolte of engaging in a post hoc, ergo propter hoc argument to establish the "causal nexus" between Hitler's supposed fear of the "rat cage" torture, and the Holocaust.Jäckel, Eberhard "The Impoverished Practice of Insinuation: The Singular Aspect of National-Socialist Crimes Cannot Be Denied" pages 74-78 from Forever In The Shadow of Hitler? edited by Ernst Piper, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, 1993 page 77 Jäckel wrote in a 1986 essay entitled "The Impoverished Practice of Insinuation: The Singular Aspect of National-Socialist Crimes Cannot Be Denied" first published in the Die Zeit newspaper on 12 September 1986 that > Hitler often said why he wished to remove and kill the Jews. His explanation > is a complicated and structurally logical construct that can be reproduced > in great detail. A rat cage, the murders committed by the Bolsheviks, or a > special fear of these are not mentioned.
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