141 Sentences With "plant kingdom" | Random Sentence Generator

Whatever you call it, it's the Kim Kardashian of the plant kingdom.

Rather than taking advantage of another insect, however, these parasites leech off the plant kingdom.

Food scientists had to cast a wide net to find any protein in the plant kingdom that behaved like that.

In the plant kingdom, if conditions are right where your parent put down roots, they will probably suit you too.

The plant bears some of the least attractive common names in the plant kingdom: Some know it as naked broomrape.

These compounds are a common source of red coloration in the plant kingdom, from fall foliage to raspberries, apples and cherries.

Some of the most important messenger molecules in the plant kingdom are called amines, and are typically derived from amino acids.

THE TRIUMPH OF SEEDS: How Grains, Nuts, Kernels, Pulses and Pips Conquered the Plant Kingdom and Shaped Human History, by Thor Hanson.

Outside of it, they've attracted worldwide attention by scaling redwoods, sequoias and other giants of the plant kingdom with sophisticated climbing technology.

"The bladderwort traps are considered as some of the most complex structures in the plant kingdom," said Poppinga in a press release.

The postscript to completing the manuscript: Sondker applied her extensive knowledge of the plant kingdom into Horticulture Skin Care, her own beauty company, which launched recently.

And because these meristem-leaf feedback loops exist widely in the plant kingdom, this trick should be possible in a wide variety of crops useful to humans.

It grows in Western equatorial Africa, from Cameroon to Angola, and belongs to the family Apocynaceae, which Alexander Shulgin called the richest single source of pharmacologically active compounds in the plant kingdom.

Not only that, but the valuable info in these slowly vanishing temples to the plant kingdom needs to be modernized in order to be of use to an increasingly digital-first scientific community.

But you'd have to be dumber than a tulip to deny that something—maybe not intelligence in its dictionary definition, but some guiding, autonomic power—is at work among the members of the plant kingdom.

So my past led me onto a very holistic [present], and I began to study the earth, essential oils, and really took a deep dive into the plant kingdom and how these ingredients affected the skin.

We tend to think of the plant kingdom as a benign realm, where life is able to flourish without having to resort to the more base instincts found within many animals, such as killing for sustenance.

Sex-changing tomatoes: A plant in northern Australia frequently changes its sexual form, going from male to female to sometimes both — a confounding phenomenon that scientists hope sheds a light on the sexual fluidity of the plant kingdom.

The researchers, from Australia and the United States, say they hope the work will shed light on the diversity of sexual expression in the plant kingdom, as well as challenging the notion of "normative" sexual conditions for other living things.

Perhaps the most likable member of the plant kingdom, each saguaro appears to have a unique personality — depending on how their arms are posed, some seem to be waving hello while others stand guard, some are praying for mercy while others are high-kicking the cancan.

It is not unusual for plants to be hermaphrodites — that is, for their flowers to have both male and female reproductive functions — but this species, a bush tomato whose fertilized purple flowers produce cream-color fruits, did not conform even to the fluid norms of the plant kingdom.

So "we like to think of meat, not from its origin — say from a chicken or a cow — but in terms of ... the proteins, the carbohydrates, the lipids, the minerals and vitamins, all of which are available — except for cholesterol — in the plant kingdom," says Beyond Meat biophysicist Rebecca Miller.

It is made of some wondrous substance that does not belong to any of the planet's three known realms — the animal kingdom, the plant kingdom or the mineral kingdom — and yet it receives all its nourishment from them, for fiction is part of mankind, and mankind is part of this world.

Phenols are found in the natural world, especially in the plant kingdom.

The bladder traps, conversely, are recognized as one of the most sophisticated structures in the plant kingdom.

As a building block of lignocelluloses, such as pectin and lignin, ferulic acid is ubiquitous in the plant kingdom.

In the plant kingdom (Plantae), almost all psychoactive plants are found within the flowering plants (angiosperms). There are many examples of psychoactive fungi, but fungi are not part of the plant kingdom. Some important plant families containing psychoactive species are listed below. The listed species are examples only, and a family may contain more psychoactive species than listed.

Beta-sitosterol is widely distributed in the plant kingdom and found in vegetable oil, nuts, avocados and prepared foods, such as salad dressings.

NLRs are highly conserved through evolution. Their homologs have been discovered in many different animal species (APAF1) and also in the plant kingdom (disease-resistance R protein).

The best-known groups of cryptogams are algae, lichens, mosses and ferns, but it also includes non-photosynthetic organisms traditionally classified as plants, such as fungi, slime molds, and bacteria. The classification is now deprecated in Linnaean taxonomy. At one time, the cryptogams were formally recognised as a group within the plant kingdom. In his system for classification of all known plants and animals, Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) divided the plant kingdom into 24 classes, one of which was the "Cryptogamia".

The vegetation De Hoop Nature Reserve is part of the world's smallest and most threatened plant kingdom, known as the Cape Floral Kingdom. The reserve also contains one of the largest areas of the rare lowland fynbos.

The land, the mineral resources, the water, the air space, the animal and plant kingdom, and other natural resources are the exclusive property of the state, and the state guarantees their efficient use in the interest of the people.

' was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition.Stace (1991), p. 22. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes.

8-prenylnaringenin, a prenylated flavanone found in hops Prenylated flavonoids or prenylflavonoids are a sub-class of flavonoids. They are widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom. Some are known to have phytoestrogenic or antioxidant properties. They are given in the list of adaptogens in herbalism.

Edited by James L. Reveal The classifications "animal kingdom" (or kingdom Animalia) and "plant kingdom" (or kingdom Plantae) remain in use by modern evolutionary biologists. The protozoa were originally classified as members of the animal kingdom. Now they are classified as multiple separate groups.

A substance that it secretes, 2,3-dimethoxy-geranyl- 1,4-benzoquinone (consisting of a quinonoid ring with a 10 or 11 carbon-membered side chain) is a remarkably strong sensitizer, which is found nowhere else in the plant kingdom. It has been described as approximating an "ideal allergen".

Some are salt tolerant (halophytes). Cycadales belong to the biological division Cycadophyta along with the fossil order Medullosales. The three extant families of cycadales are Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae, and Zamiaceae. Though they are a minor component of the plant kingdom today, during the Jurassic period, they were extremely common.

Tannins are distributed in species throughout the plant kingdom. They are commonly found in both gymnosperms and angiosperms. Mole studied the distribution of tannin in 180 families of dicotyledons and 44 families of monocotyledons (Cronquist). Most families of dicot contain tannin-free species (tested by their ability to precipitate proteins).

In ancient times, it was believed that liverworts cured diseases of the liver, hence the name.Dittmer, Howard J. Phylogeny and Form in the Plant Kingdom, p. 286. (Toronto: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1964) In Old English, the word liverwort literally means liver plant.Raven, P. H., R. F. Evert, & S. E. Eichhorn.

The white mulberry is scientifically notable for the rapid plant movement involved in pollen release from its catkins. The stamens act as catapults, releasing stored elastic energy in just 25 µs. The resulting movement is approximately , about half the speed of sound, making it the fastest known movement in the plant kingdom.

AN EVOLUTIONARY SURVEY OF THE PLANT KINGDOM, by Robert F. Scagel, Robert J. Bandoni, Glenn E. Rouse, W. B. Schofield, Janet R. Stein, and T. M. Taylor, 1965: Belmont, California, Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 658 pp. The barbed glochidia on the male spore clusters cause them to cling to the female megaspores, thus facilitating fertilization.

Other forms of adaptation include the climbing vines of Araceae (Alismatales) which use negative phototropism (skototropism) to locate host trees (i.e. the darkest area), while some palms such as Calamus manan (Arecales) produce the longest shoots in the plant kingdom, up to 185 m long. Other monocots, particularly Poales, have adopted a therophyte life form.

Johann Wolfgang Goethe was one of many naturalists and anatomists in the nineteenth century who was in search of an Ideal Plan in nature. In Germany, this was known as Urpflanze for the plant kingdom and Urtier for animals. He popularized the term "morphology" for this search. Transcendental anatomy first derived from the naturalist philosophy known as Naturphilosophie.

The largest island on Gatun Lake is Barro Colorado Island. It was established for scientific study when the lake was formed, and is operated by the Smithsonian Institution. Many important scientific and biological discoveries of the tropical animal and plant kingdom originated here. Gatun Lake covers about , a vast tropical ecological zone and part of the Atlantic Forest Corridor.

Jasmine gave name to the jasmonate plant hormones, as methyl jasmonate isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum led to the discovery of the molecular structure of jasmonates. Jasmonates occur ubiquitously across the plant kingdom, having key roles in responses to environmental cues, such as heat or cold stress, and participate in the signal transduction pathways of many plants.

Dark septate endophytes have been observed across the plant kingdom in Dicotyledoneae and Monocotyledonae (Angiospermae), and Equisetopsida, Lycopsida, Polypodiopsida, and Psilotopsida (Gymnospermae). Their diversity of hosts suggests little or no host-specificity in this group. They are found on plants that are non-mycorrhizal as well as plants with known arbuscular, ericoid, orchid, and ectomycorrhizal associations.

Carl Linnaeus (1753) originally recognized 15 genera of ferns and fern allies, classifying them in class Cryptogamia in two groups, Filices (e.g. Polypodium) and Musci (mosses). By 1806 this had increased to 38 genera, and has progressively increased since (see Figure 1). Ferns were traditionally classified in the class Filices, and later in a Division of the Plant Kingdom named Pteridophyta or Filicophyta.

The plant glutamate cysteine ligase is a redox-sensitive homodimeric enzyme, conserved in the plant kingdom. In an oxidizing environment, intermolecular disulfide bridges are formed and the enzyme switches to the dimeric active state. The midpoint potential of the critical cysteine pair is -318 mV. In addition to the redox- dependent control, the plant GCL enzyme is feedback inhibited by glutathione.

She did her doctoral work at the University of Zurich, studying with Arnold Dodel-Port (de). In 1890, on completion of her dissertation, titled Über Protoplasma-Strömung im Pflanzenreich (On Protoplasmic Flow in the Plant Kingdom), she received a PhD degree. Ida had a brother, Harry Frederick Keller, who was educated as a chemist and also taught in Philadelphia public schools.

In 1839 he revised his division of the plant kingdom into classes in an article in the Botanical Register. Lindley's system culminated in the three editions of his Vegetable Kingdom (1846, 1847, 1853). The schema of the Natural History is shown on pages xxxv and xxxvii-xlviii. In the Vegetable Kingdom, the schema for the first edition is on pp. lv–lxviii.

Plukenetia conophora belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae in the order Malpighiales of angiosperms in the plant kingdom. Euphorbiaceae is a large family of flowering plants with about 300 genera and 7,500 species. Members of the family are generally called spurge. This family occurs mainly in the tropics, with the majority of the species in the tropical America and Indo-Malayan regions.

Claviceps spp. fungus growing on wheat spikes, a common endophyte of the grasses. The fungal endophytes are a diverse group of organisms forming associations almost ubiquitously throughout the plant kingdom. The endophytes which provide indirect defense against herbivores may have come from a number of origins, including mutualistic root endophyte associations and the evolution of entomopathogenic fungi into plant- associated endophytes.

They have cells with cellulose in their cell walls, and primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria that contain chlorophylls a and b and lack phycobilins. In some classification systems, the group has been treated as a kingdom, under various names, e.g. Viridiplantae, Chlorobionta, or simply Plantae, the latter expanding the traditional plant kingdom to include the green algae. Adl et al.

Their fronds – botanically a single leaf – are among the longest in the plant kingdom, those of R. regalis reaching a length of 25 m. The trunk of this species is up to 10 m tall and about 1 m in diameter – the topmost fronds reach up a further 10 m – and sheathed in persistent leaf bases. Trees occur singly or, because of suckering, in dense clumps.

The iridoids produced by plants act primarily as a defense against herbivores or against infection by microorganisms. The variable checkerspot butterfly also contains iridoids obtained through its diet which act as a defense against avian predators. To humans and other mammals, iridoids are often characterized by a deterrent bitter taste. Aucubin and catalpol are two of the most common iridoids in the plant kingdom.

The best-known epiphytic plants include mosses, orchids, and bromeliads such as Spanish moss (of the genus Tillandsia), but epiphytes may be found in every major group of the plant kingdom. 89% of terrestrial epiphyte species (about 24,000) are flowering plants. The second largest group are the leptosporangiate ferns, with about 2800 species (10% of epiphytes). In fact, about one third of all ferns are epiphytes.

Most of the synthesis in evo-devo has been in the field of animal evolution, one reason being the presence of model systems like Drosophila melanogaster, C. elegans, zebrafish and Xenopus laevis. However, since 1980, a wealth of information on plant morphology, coupled with modern molecular techniques has helped shed light on the conserved and unique developmental patterns in the plant kingdom also.Minelli, A. 2018. Plant Evolutionary Biology.

Their isolation and stable climate have enabled an entire plant kingdom to evolve. Over 7000 species make up the Fynbos, and many have developed unique relationships with pollinating insects and birds. The Rift Mountains of East Africa are active volcanoes, but their lives are short in geological terms. A sequence shows mountains of increasing age, from Lengai and Kilimanjaro to Mount Kenya and finally the weathered remnants of the Aberdare Range.

Vertebrate palaeontology had mapped out the evolutionary sequence of vertebrates as currently understood fairly well by the closing of the 19th century, followed by a reasonable understanding of the evolutionary sequence of the plant kingdom by the early 20th century. The tying together of the various trees into a grand Tree of Life only really became possible with advancements in microbiology and biochemistry in the period between the World Wars.

In contrast, most other algae (e.g. brown algae/diatoms, haptophytes, dinoflagellates, and euglenids) not only have different pigments but also have chloroplasts with three or four surrounding membranes. They are not close relatives of the Archaeplastida, presumably having acquired chloroplasts separately from ingested or symbiotic green and red algae. They are thus not included in even the broadest modern definition of the plant kingdom, although they were in the past.

Their fronds (leaves) are also very large, some of the largest in the plant kingdom. Some species have fronds reaching 3–4 m in length, and have a final crown width of some 6 m. The fronds are circinate before unfolding and usually pinnately or bipinnately compound, with deeply pinnately lobed leaflets. The large leaves are covered in scales and hairs, and bear sori (spore clusters) on their undersides.

Kino flows from a wound in the trunk of a marri (Corymbia calophylla) Gum is a sap or other resinous material associated with certain species of the plant kingdom. This material is often polysaccharide-based and is most frequently associated with woody plants, particularly under the bark or as a seed coating. The polysaccharide material is typically of high molecular weight and most often highly hydrophilic or hydrocolloidal.

By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, only few of which are used on a commercial scale. The first synthetic dye, mauve, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856. The discovery of mauveine started a surge in synthetic dyes and in organic chemistry in general. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, and induline.

Following publication of Whittaker's system, the five-kingdom model began to be commonly used in high school biology textbooks. But despite the development from two kingdoms to five among most scientists, some authors as late as 1975 continued to employ a traditional two-kingdom system of animals and plants, dividing the plant kingdom into subkingdoms Prokaryota (bacteria and cyanobacteria), Mycota (fungi and supposed relatives), and Chlorota (algae and land plants).

The pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) is a 35-amino acid sequence motif. Pentatricopeptide-repeat-containing proteins are a family of proteins commonly found in the plant kingdom. They are distinguished by the presence of tandem degenerate PPR motifs and by the relative lack of introns in the genes coding for them. Approximately 450 such proteins have been identified in the Arabidopsis genome, and another 477 in the rice genome.

Sugarcane plantation, Mauritius Sugarcane plantation in Bangladesh Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of of annual moisture. It is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom. It is a C4 plant, able to convert up to 1% of incident solar energy into biomass. In primary growing regions across the tropics and subtropics, sugarcane crops can produce over 15 kg/m2 of cane.

Ophioglossum, the adder's-tongue ferns, is a genus of about 50 species of ferns in the family Ophioglossaceae. The name Ophioglossum comes from the Greek, and means "snake-tongue".eFloras: Ophioglossum accessed 14 February 2014. The genus has the largest number of chromosomes in the known plant kingdom, but contrary to popular belief does not have the largest number of chromosomes out of all known organisms, falling short to the protist Oxytricha trifallax.

Fungi were considered to be part of the plant kingdom (subkingdom Cryptogamia) until the mid-20th century. They were divided into four classes: Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Deuteromycetes. In the middle of the 20th century Fungi were considered a distinct kingdom, the newly recognized kingdom Fungi becoming the third major kingdom of multicellular eukaryotes with kingdom Plantae and kingdom Animalia, the distinguishing feature between these kingdoms being the way they obtain nutrition.

His arrangement of flowering plants taxa, with focus on the evolutionary divergence of primitive forms, is considered by many as the system most likely to form the basis of a modern, comprehensive taxonomy of the plant kingdom. In 1967, Iowa State University built a Plant Industry Building, which was named after Bessey. Today the building is used by departments in the biological sciences. In 2009 he was inducted to the Nebraska Hall of Fame.

Noeggerathiales is a now-extinct order of vascular plants. The fossil range of the order extends from the Upper Carboniferous to the Triassic. Due to gaps in the fossil record, the group is incompletely known and poorly defined, and their taxonomic status and position in the plant kingdom are uncertain. The Noeggerathiales have been proposed in the evolutionary scheme in two remotely related groups of vascular plants, the Pteropsida and the Sphenopsida.

Alliteration is encouraged with proper nouns in one game variation; Ronald Reagan is worth 2 points, and Hubert Horatio Humphrey is worth 3."The Game of Scattergories", Hasbro, 2003 # Writing a bad answer is still better than no answer though because there is always the possibility that the group playing will accept the answer. For example, "citrus" is "vegetable" in the sense referring to the entire plant kingdom, i.e. neither "animal" nor "mineral".

In the late 1970s, it was shown that there is a single stranded covalently closed, i.e. circular form of RNA expressed throughout the animal and plant kingdom (see circRNA). circRNAs are thought to arise via a "back-splice" reaction where the spliceosome joins a downstream donor to an upstream acceptor splice site. So far the function of circRNAs is largely unknown, although for few examples a microRNA sponging activity has been demonstrated.

The Eichler System divided the plant kingdom into non-floral plants (Cryptogamae) and floral plants (Phanerogamae). It was the first to accept the concept of evolution and therefore also the first to be considered phylogenetic. Moreover, Eichler was the first taxonomist to separate the Phanerogamae into Angiosperms and Gymnosperms and the former into Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae. The Eichler system was the foundation for Adolf Engler's System and was widely accepted in Europe and other parts of the world.

Although totarol was first isolated in Podocarpus totara, (+)-totarol has also been identified in numerous other species of Podocarpaceae and Cupressaceae, with the majority found in the genus Podocarpus of the family Podocarpaceae and the subfamily Cupressoideae of the family Cupressaceae.Sharp, H.; Latif, Z.; Bartholomew, B.; Bright, C.; Jones, C. D.; Sarker, S. D.; Nash, R. J. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 2001, 29, 215-217. Outside Podocarpus and Cupressoideae, (+)-totarol is rarely found in the plant kingdom.

This included all plants with concealed reproductive organs. He divided Cryptogamia into four orders: Algae, Musci (bryophytes), Filices (ferns), and Fungi. Not all cryptogams are treated as part of the plant kingdom; the fungi, in particular, are regarded as a separate kingdom, more closely related to animals than plants, while blue-green algae are now regarded as a phylum of bacteria. Therefore, in contemporary plant systematics, "Cryptogamae" is not a taxonomically coherent group, but is cladistically polyphyletic.

Manicaria saccifera – MHNT Manicaria is a palm genus which is found in Trinidad, Central and South America. It contains two recognized species:Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families #Manicaria martiana Burret – Colombia, northwestern Brazil #Manicaria saccifera Gaertn. – Central America, Trinidad, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, northwestern Brazil It has one of the largest known leaves in the plant kingdom (up to 8 metres in length). Illustration Manicaria thrives in swamps or estuarine areas where river meets ocean.

Many shades of green have been named after plants or are related to plants. Due to varying ratios of chlorophylls (and different amounts as well as other plant pigments being present), the plant kingdom exhibits many shades of green in both hue (true color) and value (lightness/darkness). The chlorophylls in living plants have distinctive green colors, while dried or cooked portions of plants are different shades of green due to the chlorophyll molecules losing their inner magnesium ion.

Scientists had falsely believed that D. galeatus was a close cousin of the other two species, because of the visual similarity, and because the three species live in the same habitat and eat similar food. Batesian mimicry also occurs in the plant kingdom, such as the chameleon vine, which adapts its leaf shape and colour to match that of the plant it is climbing, such that its edible leaves appear to be the less desirable leaves of its host.

New and revised "phylogenetic" classification systems of the plant kingdom were produced by several botanists, including August Eichler. A massive 23 volume ' was published by Adolf Engler & Karl Prantl over the period 1887 to 1915. Taxonomy based on gross morphology was now being supplemented by using characters revealed by pollen morphology, embryology, anatomy, cytology, serology, macromolecules and more. The introduction of computers facilitated the rapid analysis of large data sets used for numerical taxonomy (also called taximetrics or phenetics).

Saprophyte (-phyte meaning "plant") is a botanical term that is no longer in popular use,as such plants have been discovered to actually be parasitic on fungi.biology onlineThere are no real saprotrophic organisms that are embryophytes, and fungi and bacteria are no longer placed in the plant kingdom. Plants that were once considered saprophytes, such as non-photosynthetic orchids and monotropes, are now known to be parasites on fungi. These species are now termed myco- heterotrophs.

The correct term for mammals in this group is "carnivoran". Besides, some mammals, especially the cetaceans, are highly carnivorous yet are not true Carnivorans. Outside the animal kingdom, there are several genera containing carnivorous plants (predominantly insectivores) and several phyla containing carnivorous fungi (preying mostly on microscopic invertebrates such as nematodes, amoebae and springtails). Members of the plant kingdom can live on meat too, such as the Venus flytrap, a carnivorous plant Carnivores are sometimes characterized by their type of prey.

Within a species the development of niches may occur through ecotype differentiation. This is especially common in the plant kingdom in which a single species may be distributed over a vast area. Two rice (Oryza sativa) ecotypes are adapted to very different water regimes of the upland and lowland ecosystems in China. The upland ecotype has a strong root system and excellent drought tolerance, whereas the lowland ecotype grows well under normal irrigated conditions, but is highly sensitive to drought.

The subsection "Economical and Laborial" contains a table which compares the cost of raising cattle versus growing various vegetables, noting that the cost of living on "beef alone[...] would require two hundred and sixteen times as many items of cost, as [would] wheat." In the supplementary section, the author compiles a list of foods derived from the plant kingdom, itemizing what he describes as plants which are mealy, oily, and fleshy, as well as listing roots, stems, and saps, among others.

This information, available at the Human Metabolome Database (www.hmdb.ca) and based on analysis of information available in the current scientific literature, is far from complete. In contrast, much more is known about the metabolomes of other organisms. For example, over 50,000 metabolites have been characterized from the plant kingdom, and many thousands of metabolites have been identified and/or characterized from single plants. Each type of cell and tissue has a unique metabolic ‘fingerprint’ that can elucidate organ or tissue-specific information.

Senecioneae is the largest tribe of the Asteraceae, or the sunflower family, comprising about 150 genera and 3,000 species. Almost one-third of the species in this tribe are placed in the genus Senecio. Its members exhibit probably the widest possible range of form to be found in the entire plant kingdom, and include annuals, minute creeping alpines, perennial herbs, shrubs, climbers, succulents, trees, and semiaquatic plants. Plants in this tribe are responsible for more livestock poisonings than all other plants combined.

Many important scientific and biological discoveries of the tropical animal and plant kingdom originated here. Lake Gatun encompasses a tropical ecological zone (part of the Atlantic Forest Corridor) and ecotourism on Gatun Lake has become an industry for Panamanians. Angling is one of the primary recreational pursuits on Gatun Lake. Non-native peacock bass were introduced deliberately to Gatun Lake around 1967 by a local businessman, and have since flourished to become the dominant angling game fish in Gatun Lake.

OMVs signal epithelial host cells (EHC) to ruffle (R) aiding macropinoctosis of gram negative (G-) microbe (stage E) Fig.3 Transmission electron micrograph of human Salmonella organism bearing periplasmic organelles, (p, line arrow) on its surface and releasing bacterial outer membrane vesicles (MV) being endocytosed (curved arrow) by macrophage cell (M) in chicken ileum in vivo. In conclusion, membrane vesicle trafficking via OMVs of Gram-negative organisms, cuts across species and kingdoms - including plant kingdom \- in the realm of cell-to-cell signaling.

The raffinose family of oligosaccharides (RFOs) are alpha-galactosyl derivatives of sucrose, and the most common are the trisaccharide raffinose, the tetrasaccharide stachyose, and the pentasaccharide verbascose. RFOs are almost ubiquitous in the plant kingdom, being found in a large variety of seeds from many different families, and they rank second only to sucrose in abundance as soluble carbohydrates. Raffinose may have a form of a white crystalline powder. It is odorless and has a sweet taste approximately 10% that of sucrose.

Anthocyanins are phenolic compounds found throughout the plant kingdom, being frequently responsible for the blue to red colors found in flowers, fruits and leaves. In wine grapes, they develop during the stage of veraison when the skin of red wine grapes changes color from green to red to black. As the sugars in the grape increase during ripening so does the concentration of anthocyanins. In most grapes anthocyanins are found only in the outer cell layers of the skin, leaving the grape juice inside virtually colorless.

Stylidium section Tenella is a taxonomic rank in the plant kingdom under Stylidium subgenus Andersonia. In 2000, A.R. Bean published a taxonomic revision of subgenus Andersonia and established this section to separate these eleven species based on morphological and cladistic analysis. This taxonomic rank is named after George Bentham's series Tenellae, which he established in his 1869 treatment of the family Stylidiaceae. Series Tenellae was not used in Johannes Mildbraed's 1908 taxonomic monograph in which he completely revised the subgeneric taxonomy of the genus.

Linnaeus divided the 12th edition into three volumes, the first of which was published in two parts. Volume 1 covered ' – the animal kingdom – with the first 532 pages appearing as Part 1 in 1766, and pages 533–1327 appearing as Part 2 in 1767. Volume 2 covered ' – the plant kingdom; it comprised 736 pages and appeared in 1767, with an additional 142-page '. Volume 3 covered ' – the mineral kingdom – and appendices to all three volumes; it comprised 236 pages and was published in 1768.

Notable for deep blue-purple pigmentation, the skin of Norton grapes has a higher content of total anthocyanins (888 mg per 100 g) than other purple grape cultivars, Concord or Marechal Foch grapes. Anthocyanins are the largest group of water-soluble pigments in the plant kingdom and belong to the family of compounds known as polyphenols. Major sources of anthocyanins are blueberries, cherries, raspberries, strawberries, blackcurrants, purple grapes, and red wine. Anthocyanins are under basic research to understand if they have any biological role in humans.

Salvius, Stackholm. He adopted and popularized a binomial (or binary) system of designation (Morton, 1981) using one name as the genus and a second name as the species name both in Latin or Latinised. This specific name he referred to as a trivial name nomen triviale consisting of a single word, normally a Latin adjective, but any single word would suffice, to identify a particular species, but not intended to describe it. He developed a coherent system for naming organisms and divided the plant kingdom into 25 classes (according to Smith p.

Though originally thought unique to the animal kingdom, evidence of kin selection has been identified in the plant kingdom. Competition for resources between developing zygotes in plant ovaries increases when seeds are sired by different fathers. How developing zygotes differentiate between full siblings and half-siblings in the ovary is undetermined, but genetic interactions are thought to play a role. Nonetheless, competition between zygotes in the ovary is detrimental to the reproductive success of the mother plant, as fewer zygotes mature into seeds, and is also thought to harm the mother plant itself.

Bernhard Adalbert Emil Koehne Bernhard Adalbert Emil Koehne (February 12, 1848 - October 12, 1918) was a German botanist and dendrologist born near Striegau, a town known today as Strzegom, Poland. Koehne was a professor of botany in Berlin and was a leading authority of the plant family Lythraceae. In Adolf Engler's treatise Das Pflanzenreich ("The Plant Kingdom"), he was author of the chapter on Lythraceae. He also made important contributions involving Lythraceae to Engler and Karl Prantl's Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien ("The Natural Plant Families"), as well as to Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius' Flora Brasiliensis.

Many plants that people widely regard as weeds also are intentionally grown in gardens and other cultivated settings, in which case they are sometimes called beneficial weeds. The term weed also is applied to any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, or is invasive outside its native habitat. More broadly "weed" occasionally is applied pejoratively to species outside the plant kingdom, species that can survive in diverse environments and reproduce quickly; in this sense it has even been applied to humans. 302x302px Weed control is important in agriculture.

In 2000, Jones switched his research effort to the study of the heterotrimeric G protein signaling pathway in Arabidopsis. His rationalization was that Arabidopsis, having a simpler repertoire of G signaling elements than mouse and much easier to genetically engineer, would serve as a good multicellular model for G signaling research. Jones showed that G protein signaling in plants and many other taxa on the tree of life differed from the well- established animal paradigm.Urano, D Chen, J-G Botella, JR and Jones AM (2013) Heterotrimeric G protein signaling in the plant kingdom.

Green algae from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce food by photosynthesis and thus have traditionally been included in the plant kingdom. The seaweeds range from large multicellular algae to single-celled organisms and are classified into three groups, the green algae, red algae and brown algae. There is good evidence that the brown algae evolved independently from the others, from non-photosynthetic ancestors that formed endosymbiotic relationships with red algae rather than from cyanobacteria, and they are no longer classified as plants as defined here.

His most extensive work, "Iconographia familiarum naturalium regni vegetabilis" (1843–1870), was issued in four volumes. A taxonomic representation of the plant kingdom, it contained 399 copper plates, and in its time, was considered to be a major work in systematics. Another significant effort by Schnizlein was a treatise on Bavarian flora, titled "Die Flora Von Bayern" (1847).Google Books Die Flora Von Bayern He also made contributions to Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius' "Flora Brasiliensis", to Theodor Friedrich Ludwig Nees von Esenbeck's "Genera plantarum florae germanicae" and to Jacob Sturm's "Deutschlands Flora in Abbildungen".

21-37 indicating not simply a hierarchical rank in gene activation, but also which genes may have arisen later during evolution after initial WRKY regulatory networks were established. Phylogenetic tree of WRKY transcription factors from the plant kingdom and beyond. WRKY transcription factor genes are found throughout the plant lineage and also outside of the plant lineage in some diplomonads, social amoebae, fungi incertae sedis, and amoebozoa.Charles I. Rinerson, Roel C. Rabara, Prateek Tripathi Qingxi J Shen, and Paul J. Rushton (2015) Structure and evolution of WRKY transcription factors.

Beresford-Kroeger completed her undergraduate studies at University College Cork (UCC), graduating first in her year (1963) with a bachelor of science honours in botany and medical biochemistry. She completed a master of science degree at UCC in 1965. Her thesis was: Frost Resistance and Gibberellins in the Plant Kingdom. She received a fellowship at the University of Connecticut to study nuclear radiation in biological systems and organic chemistry. She completed a diploma in experimental surgery at the University of Ottawa’s department of surgery, while engaged in cardiovascular research (1973).

At around 400 million years old, the Rhynie chert contains an assemblage of fossil plants preserved in sufficient detail that mycorrhizas have been observed in the stems of Aglaophyton major. Mycorrhizas are present in 92% of plant families studied (80% of species), with arbuscular mycorrhizas being the ancestral and predominant form, and the most prevalent symbiotic association found in the plant kingdom. The structure of arbuscular mycorrhizas has been highly conserved since their first appearance in the fossil record, with both the development of ectomycorrhizas, and the loss of mycorrhizas, evolving convergently on multiple occasions.

Her first book, L'Origine des animaux (1883), was written in response to Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species, which had been published in France in an 1862 translation by Clémence Royer. Renooz described Darwin's theory as unscientific, arguing instead for an evolutionary theory based on embryology. Renooz concluded that humanity's ancestors could be traced to the plant kingdom and specifically to the bean family, a concept possibly influenced by Ernst Haeckel's recapitulation theory. In Renooz's theory, the human head corresponded to the root ball of a plant, and the body to the stem and branches.

A. W. Eichler A system of plant taxonomy, the Eichler system was the first phylogenetic (phyletic) or evolutionary system. It was developed by August W. Eichler (1839–1887), initially in his Blüthendiagramme (1875–1878) and then in successive editions of his Syllabus (1876–1890). After his death his colleague Adolf Engler (1844–1930) continued its development, and it became widely accepted. The system was based on dividing the plant kingdom into those plants with concealed reproductive organs (non-floral), the (Cryptogamae, = hidden reproduction) and those with visible reproductive organs (floral), the (Phanerogamae, = visible reproduction).

Ty3-gypsy retrotransposons are widely distributed in the plant kingdom, including both gymnosperms and angiosperms. They encode at least four protein domains in the order: protease, reverse transcriptase, ribonuclease H, and integrase. Based on structure, presence/absence of specific protein domains, and conserved protein sequence motifs, they can be subdivided into several lineages: Errantiviruses contain an additional defective envelope ORF with similarities to the retroviral envelope gene. First described as Athila-elements in Arabidopsis thaliana, they have been later identified in many species, such as Glycine max and Beta vulgaris.

Tannins comprise a large group of natural products widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They have a great structural diversity, but are usually divided into two basic groups: the hydrolyzable type and the condensed type. Hydrolyzable tannins include the commonly occurring gallic and ellagic acid contained in the nut galls. Hydrolyzable tannins are present in many different plant species but are found in particularly high concentrations in nut galls growing on Rhus semialata (Chinese and Korean gallotannins) and Quercus infectoria (Turkish and Chinese gallotannins), the seedpods of Caesalpinia spinosa (Tara tannins), and the fruits of Terminalia chebula.

Linnaeus's "sexual system" (Linnaeus, 1754) Linnaeus, C. 1754. Genera plantarum. Holmiae. in which he grouped plants according to the number of stamens and carpels in their flowers, although wholly artificial was advantageous in that a newly discovered plant could be fitted in amongst those already known. He divided the plant kingdom into 25 classes, one of which was the Cryptogamia — plants with "concealed reproductive organs" (see above) (Smith, 1955). Linnaeus accepted 14 genera of algae of which only four, Conferva, Ulva, Fucus and Chara, contained organisms now regarded as algae (Dixon, 1973 p. 231).Dixon, P.S. 1973, Biology of the Rhodophyta.

Barro Colorado Island is the largest island on Gatun Lake and home to the world famous Barro Colorado Tropical Research Institute which was established for scientific study in 1923, shortly after the lake was formed. Today the research and nature reserve are operated by the Smithsonian Institution. Many of the most important ground breaking scientific and biological discoveries of the tropical animal and plant kingdom originated here. Gatun Lake also serves to provide the millions of gallons of water necessary to operate the Panama Canal locks each time a ship passes through and provides drinking water for Panama City and Colon.

Man, being his own ground and starting point, (the scriptural I AM in that I AM or YHWH) is then confronted with the mystery of life. There is an apparent chain of being from the lowliest form of biological life to the highest. The highest is man himself, the one with the unique capability for self-awareness and self-reflection, thinking about things and even thinking about thinking, the highest form. It is also obvious that there are different kinds as well as degrees, seen in the distinction between minerals and animals, and between these two kingdoms and the plant kingdom.

Ehret's illustrations, in Systema Naturae, showing the characters used to determine Linnaeus's 24 classes of plants. In the work Linnaeus divided the plant kingdom into 24 classes, each of which he named according to the number of stamens and their arrangement in the flowers. In Ehret's engraved plate these classes are represented by the 24 letters of the Latin alphabet. In Ehret's original drawing for the plate, preserved in the Natural History Museum in London, he has written the name of the plant he had chosen as an example of each particular class, but only for the first ten and last four classes.

Some species are of importance to the cut flower industry, especially some Banksia and Protea species. Two species of the genus Macadamia are grown commercially for edible nuts. Sugarbushes (Protea), pincushions (Leucospermum) and conebushes (Leucadendron), as well as others like pagodas (Mimetes), Aulax and blushing brides (Serruria), comprise one of the three main plant groups of fynbos, which forms part of the Cape Floral Kingdom, the smallest but richest plant kingdom for its size and the only kingdom contained within a single country. The other main groups of plants in fynbos are the Ericaceae and the Restionaceae.

Dodoens' initial work was in the fields of cosmography and physiology. His De frugum historia (1552), a treatise on cereals, vegetables, and fodders marked the beginning of a distinguished career in botany, and his herbal Cruydeboeck (herb book) with 715 images (1554, 1563) was influenced by earlier German botanists, particularly that of Leonhart Fuchs. Rather than the traditional method of arranging the plants in alphabetical order, he divided the plant kingdom into six groups (Deel), based on their properties and affinities. It treated in detail especially the medicinal herbs, which made this work, in the eyes of many, a pharmacopoeia.

Konstantin Sergeevich Mereschkowski (; – 9 January 1921) was a prominent Russian biologist and botanist, active mainly around Kazan, whose research on lichens led him to propose the theory of symbiogenesis – that larger, more complex cells (of eukaryotes) evolved from the symbiotic relationship between less complex ones. He presented this theory in 1910, in his Russian work, The Theory of Two Plasms as the Basis of Symbiogenesis, a New Study of the Origins of Organisms, although the fundamentals of the idea already had appeared in his earlier 1905 work, The nature and origins of chromatophores in the plant kingdom.

In his Elemens de botanique ou methode pour connoître les plantes of 1694, Joseph Pitton de Tournefort first described this group as a taxonomic unit, calling it the "13th class of the plant kingdom". He only assigned taxa to it that are still regarded part of the Cichorieae today. Sébastien Vaillant gave this group the name "Cichoracées" in 1723. Since the name predates the start of the Linnean nomenclature in 1753, it is not valid, but Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Augustin Pyramus de Candolle used the name Cichorieae in the Synopsis Plantarium in Flora Gallica Descriptarum, published in 1806.

The cacao plant was first given its botanical name by Swedish natural scientist Carl Linnaeus in his original classification of the plant kingdom, where he called it Theobroma ("food of the gods") cacao. Cocoa was an important commodity in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. A Spanish soldier who was part of the conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés tells that when Moctezuma II, emperor of the Aztecs, dined, he took no other beverage than chocolate, served in a golden goblet. Flavored with vanilla or other spices, his chocolate was whipped into a froth that dissolved in the mouth.

In biology, a phylum (; plural: phyla) is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. Traditionally, in botany the term division has been used instead of phylum, although the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants accepts the terms as equivalent. Depending on definitions, the animal kingdom Animalia or Metazoa contains approximately 35 phyla; the plant kingdom Plantae contains about 14, and the fungus kingdom Fungi contains about 8 phyla. Current research in phylogenetics is uncovering the relationships between phyla, which are contained in larger clades, like Ecdysozoa and Embryophyta.

'Major genes' that are responsible for economically important characteristics are frequent in the plant kingdom. Such characteristics include disease resistance, male sterility, self-incompatibility, and others related to shape, color, and architecture of whole plants and are often of mono- or oligogenic in nature. The marker loci that are tightly linked to major genes can be used for selection and are sometimes more efficient than direct selection for the target gene. Such advantages in efficiency may be due for example, to higher expression of the marker mRNA in such cases that the marker is itself a gene.

Within the fungi, it is prevalent in some mushrooms, such as shiitake (Lentinula edodes), oyster, king oyster, and golden needle. Even within the plant kingdom, Selaginella (sometimes called the resurrection plant), which grows in desert and mountainous areas, may be cracked and dried out, but will turn green again and revive after rain because of the function of trehalose. The two prevalent theories as to how trehalose works within the organism in the state of cryptobiosis are the vitrification theory, a state that prevents ice formation, or the water displacement theory, whereby water is replaced by trehalose.

All living things were traditionally placed into one of two groups, plants and animals. This classification may date from Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC), who made the distinction between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus (1707–1778) created the basis of the modern system of scientific classification, these two groups became the kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and Animalia (also called Metazoa). Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms.

Raffia palms (Raphia) are a genus of about twenty species of palms native to tropical regions of Africa, and especially Madagascar, with one species (R. taedigera) also occurring in Central and South America.Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families R. taedigera is the source of raffia fibers, which are the veins of the leaves, and this species produces a fruit called "brazilia pods", "uxi nuts" or "uxi pods". They grow up to 16 m (52.5 ft) tall and are remarkable for their compound pinnate leaves, the longest in the plant kingdom; leaves of R. regalis up to 25 m (82.38 ft) longHallé, F. 1977.

The nut of the coco de mer is very large (the largest seed in the plant kingdom) and is oddly shaped, being the shape and size of a woman's disembodied buttocks on one side, and a woman's belly and thighs on the other side. Not surprisingly, this nut was viewed by people in other parts of the world as a rare and fascinating object with mythological and even magical properties. The nature and origin of this extraordinary nut was mysterious, and the propagation of the tree was not understood. A number of legends arose both about the nuts, and about the trees that produce them.

Yunnan is located in the Yunnan-Guizhou plateau, with an extended range of mountains, plains, and lakes, forming a colorful scenery and three-dimensional climate of tropical, subtropical, temperate, and cold zones. This kind of diverse physiognomy and environment are incredibly beneficial to the growth of a variety of plants and animals, so that Yunnan vegetables have extensive materials, luxurious and unique, and most of them come from nature, with the characteristics of green, nutrition, ecology, and health care. Yunnan is known as the "fungus kingdom," "plant kingdom," and "animal kingdom." It is one of the regions with the most abundant edible wild fungus resources in China.

Leiden: Theodor Haak. The first edition was published in 1735 and in it he outlines his ideas for the hierarchical classification of the natural world (the “system of nature”) by dividing it into the animal kingdom (Regnum animale), the plant kingdom (Regnum vegetabile) and the "mineral kingdom" (Regnum lapideum) each of which he further divided into classes, orders, genera and species, with [generic] characters, [specific] differences, synonyms, and places of occurrence. The tenth edition of this book in 1758 has been adopted as the starting point for zoological nomenclature. The first edition of 1735 was just eleven pages long, but this expanded with further editions until the final thirteenth edition of 1767 had reached over 3000 pages.

Researchers have noted the relationship between psychedelics and ecology, particularly in relation to the altered states of consciousness (ASC) produced by psychedelic drugs and the perception of interconnectedness expressed through ecological ideas and themes produced by the psychedelic experience. This is felt through the direct experience of the unity of nature and the environment of which the individual is no longer perceived as separate but intimately connected and embedded inside. Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann, the first person to synthesize LSD, believed that the drug made one aware and sensitive to "the magnificence of nature and of the animal and plant kingdom" and the role of humanity in relation to nature.Smith, Craig S. (April 30, 2008).

Last but not least bones and other proof that Cuban indigenous people lived in the area prior to the Spanish conquest. But the most important species ever re-discovered belongs to the plant kingdom; the forgotten Palmitas de Jumagua (literally Jumagua's little palms) Hemithrinax ekmaniana a thrinax endemic to these hills and unique in the world. As results of these investigations not only the first maps of its caverns were produced, also the first flora and fauna catalog was made by Sabaneque Speleological group of the whole forest in the mogotes and after claiming one of the most important archaeological sites of the region this little mountains were turn into a Natural Park and saved for future generations.

The word comes from the Greek allazein, which means to exchange. The biological process was first discovered in hydra by Abraham Trembley, who was considered the father of environmental zoology. Abraham Trembley was doing a research on a sample pond water and examined the lifestyle of hydra. He couldn’t decide if they belong to the animal or plant kingdom, so he cut them in half and planned to see whether they die, like animals would, or re-pattern, as plants. Even though the halves and smaller pieces gave rise to new individuals, he still believed that hydra is an animal, since all their features, like movements or feeding behavior matched with animals’.

Leiden: Theodor Haak. The first edition was published in 1735 and in it he outlines his ideas for the hierarchical classification of the natural world (the “system of nature”) by dividing it into the animal kingdom (Regnum animale), the plant kingdom (Regnum vegetabile) and the "mineral kingdom" (Regnum lapideum) each of which he further divided into classes, orders, genera and species, with [generic] characters, [specific] differences, synonyms, and places of occurrence. The tenth edition of this book in 1758 has been adopted as the starting point for zoological nomenclature. The first edition of 1735 was just eleven pages long, but this expanded with further editions until the final thirteenth edition of 1767 had reached over 3000 pages.

The plant produces these pigments mainly in the leaves and skin of the berries to protect the pulp and seeds from constant exposure to ultraviolet radiation and production of free radicals. By absorbing UV rays in the blue-purple spectrum, leaf and skin pigments filter intense sunlight, serve antioxidant functions and thereby have a role assuring regeneration of the species. Brightly colorful pigmentation also attracts birds and other animals to consume the fruit and disperse the seeds in their droppings. Analysis of polyphenols in chokeberries has identified the following individual chemicals (among hundreds known to exist in the plant kingdom): cyanidin-3-galactoside, cyanidin-3-arabinoside, quercetin-3-glycoside, epicatechin, caffeic acid, delphinidin, petunidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, and malvidin.

August Engelhardt is the author of an 1898 pamphlet entitled A Carefree Future, where he describes a utopian society founded on nudism and a diet of coconuts, so- called cocovorism. An ardent vegetarian, Engelhardt argues that just as man is God's embodiment in the animal kingdom, so too is the coconut God's embodiment in the plant kingdom; cocovorism, he concludes, is therefore the path to divinity. Fleeing the persecution he endured for his peculiarities, Engelhardt travels from Germany to the Bismarck Archipelago in German New Guinea to realize his ideas on a coconut plantation. During a stop in Ceylon, however, he meets a Tamil named Govindarajan, who also claims to be a fruitarian, in order to gain Engelhardt's trust, before robbing him of his savings.

Chemical structure of colneleic acid Divinylether fatty acids contain a fatty acid chemically combined with a doubly unsaturated carbon chain linked by an oxygen atom (ether). Fatty acid hydroperoxides generated by plant lipoxygenases from linoleic and linolenic acids are known to serve as substrates for a divinyl ether synthase which produces divinyl ether fatty acids. Up to date divinyl ethers were detected only within the plant kingdom. The discovery of that class of compounds dates back to 1972, when the structures of two ether C18 fatty acids generated by homogenates of the potato tuber were described. These compounds, named colneleic acid (from linoleic acid) and colnelenicacid (from linolenic acid), could be also produced in potato leaves and tomato roots by rearrangement of 9-hydroperoxides.

In 1996 David Kehoe and Arthur Grossman at the Carnegie Institution at Stanford University identified the proteins, in the filamentous cyanobacterium Fremyella diplosiphon called RcaE with similarly to plant phytochrome that controlled a red-green photoreversible response called chromatic acclimation and identified a gene in the sequenced, published genome of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis with closer similarity to those of plant phytochrome. This was the first evidence of phytochromes outside the plant kingdom. Jon Hughes in Berlin and Clark Lagarias at UC Davis subsequently showed that this Synechocystis gene indeed encoded a bona fide phytochrome (named Cph1) in the sense that it is a red/far-red reversible chromoprotein. Presumably plant phytochromes are derived from an ancestral cyanobacterial phytochrome, perhaps by gene migration from the chloroplast to the nucleus.

Solomon and Fryhles organic chemistry, Ed 10, Wiley (Students edition), Chapter 5 (Stereochemistry), section 5.11(chiral drugs) In some cases the less therapeutically active enantiomer can cause side effects. For example, (S-naproxen is an analgesic but the (R-isomer causes renal problems. The naturally occurring plant form of alpha-tocopherol (vitamin E) is RRR-α-tocopherol whereas the synthetic form (all-racemic vitamin E, or dl-tocopherol) is equal parts of the stereoisomers RRR, RRS, RSS, SSS, RSR, SRS, SRR and SSR with progressively decreasing biological equivalency, so that 1.36 mg of dl-tocopherol is considered equivalent to 1.0 mg of d-tocopherol. A natural left-handed helix, made by a certain climber plant's 171x171px Macroscopic examples of chirality are found in the plant kingdom, the animal kingdom and all other groups of organism.

In 1909 the Russian lichenologist Konstantin Mereschkowski presented a research paper "The Theory of two Plasms as the basis of Symbiogenesis, A new study on the Origin of Organisms", which aims to explain a new theory of Symbiogenesis by lichens and other organisms as evidenced by his earlier work "Nature and Origin of Chromatophores in the Plant Kingdom". These new ideas can be studied today under the title of the Theory of Endosymbiosis. Despite the above studies the dual nature of lichens remained no more than a theory until in 1939 the Swiss researcher Eugen A ThomasSpecies:Eugen A. Thomas was able to reproduce in the laboratory the phenotype of the lichen Cladonia pyxidata by combining its two identified components. During the 20th century botany and mycology were still attempting to solve the two main problems surrounding lichens.

The endocannabinoid system is by molecular phylogenetic distribution of apparently ancient lipids in the plant kingdom, indicative of biosynthetic plasticity and potential physiological roles of endocannabinoid-like lipids in plants, and detection of arachidonic acid (AA) indicates chemotaxonomic connections between monophyletic groups with common ancestor dates to around 500 million years ago (Silurian; Devonian). The phylogenetic distribution of these lipids may be a consequence of interactions/adaptations to the surrounding conditions such as chemical plant-pollinator interactions, communication and defense mechanisms. The two novel EC-like molecules derived from the eicosatetraenoic acid juniperonic acid, an omega-3 structural isomer of AA, namely juniperoyl ethanolamide and 2-juniperoyl glycerol (1/2-AG) in gymnosperms, lycophytes and few monilophytes, show AA is an evolutionarily conserved signalling molecule that acts in plants in response to stress similar to that in animal systems.

While tree worship is not uncommon in Hinduism, the Tulsi plant is regarded as the holiest of all plants. The Tulsi plant is regarded as a threshold point between heaven and earth. A traditional prayer narrates that the creator-god Brahma resides in its branches, all Hindu pilgrimage centres reside in its roots, the Ganges flows within its roots, all deities are in its stem and its leaves, and that the most sacred Hindu texts, the Vedas are found in the upper part of the holy basil's branches. The Tulsi herb is a centre of household religious devotion particularly among women and is referred to as the "women's deity" and "a symbol of wifehood and motherhood", it is also called "the central sectarian symbol of Hinduism" and Vaishnavites consider it as "the manifestation of god in the plant kingdom".

He was succeeded by Paul Henri Lecomte. Bureau was one of the founders of the Société botanique de France (French Botanical Society) and was the chairman in 1875, 1883, 1902 and 1905. In 1895 he was elected to the French Academy of Medicine. From 1895 to 1917, he was a member of the Comité travaux of the historiques et scientifiques (French Committee for Historical and Scientific Endeavors). Bureau was a significant contributor to Baillon’s Dictionnaire de Botanique (Botanical Dictionary). He wrote the chapters on the Moraceae, including the Artocarpeae (the breadfruit tribe), for volume XVII (1873) of Candolle’s Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis (A preliminary natural system for the plant kingdom). Together with Karl Moritz Schumann, he wrote the Bignoniaceae section of Volume VIII of Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius’s Flora brasiliensis (Flora of Brazil). Bureau was particularly interested in paleobotany and significantly increased the museum's paleontological holdings.

Richard Evans Schultes, Ph.D., F.L.S. who was the Curator of Economic Botany and Executive Director, Harvard Botanical Museum wrote in The plant kingdom and hallucinogens (1970): > :In 1855, Ernst Freiherr von Bibra published the first book of its kind, Die > narkotischen Genussmittel und der Mensch, in which he considered some 17 > plant narcotics and stimulants and urged chemists to study assiduously a > field so promising for research and so fraught with enigmas. :A review of > the scientific literature of the last half of the past century indicates > that von Bibra's suggestions were followed, and an interdisciplinary > interest in narcotics began to take hold and grow. It proved to be the spark > that eventually engendered today's extraordinarily extensive and complex > literature in many fields on narcotic substances. :Half a century later, in > 1911, another outstanding book - in reality, a much expanded and modernized > successor of von Bibra's work - appeared in C. Hartwich's Die menschlichen > Genussmittel.

There have been efforts to determine the evolutionary relationships between the known plant species, but phylogenies (or phylogenetic trees) created solely using morphological data, cellular structures, single enzymes, or on only a few sequences (like rRNA) can be prone to error; morphological features are especially vulnerable when two species look physically similar though they are not closely related (as a result of convergent evolution for example) or homology, or when two species closely related look very different because, for example, they are able to change in response to their environment very well. These situations are very common in the plant kingdom. An alternative method for constructing evolutionary relationships is through changes in DNA sequence of many genes between the different species which is often more robust to problems of similar-appearing species. With the amount of genomic sequence produced by this project, many predicted evolutionary relationships could be better tested by sequence alignment to improve their certainty.

This initiated the new field of comparative morphology which, largely through the combined work of William Farlow (1844–1919), Nathanael Pringsheim (1823–1894), Frederick Bower, Eduard Strasburger and others, established that an "alternation of generations" occurs throughout the plant kingdom. Some time later the German academic and natural historian Joseph Kölreuter (1733–1806) extended this work by noting the function of nectar in attracting pollinators and the role of wind and insects in pollination. He also produced deliberate hybrids, observed the microscopic structure of pollen grains and how the transfer of matter from the pollen to the ovary inducing the formation of the embryo. Angiosperm (flowering plant) life cycle showing alternation of generationsOne hundred years after Camerarius, in 1793, Christian Sprengel (1750–1816) broadened the understanding of flowers by describing the role of nectar guides in pollination, the adaptive floral mechanisms used for pollination, and the prevalence of cross-pollination, even though male and female parts are usually together on the same flower.

Note that when referring to the scientific name of a genus, the author abbreviation can optionally be added afterwards. The founding nomenclaturist Carl Linnaeus included fungi in his "binomial" naming system of 1753, where each type of organism has a two-word name consisting of the "genus" and the "species" (whereas up to then organisms were often designated with Latin phrases containing many words). He originated the scientific names, still used today, of numerous well-known mushroom taxa, such as Boletus L. and Agaricus L.. At that period fungi were considered to belong to the plant kingdom, and so they find their place in his magnum opus Species Plantarum, but he was much more interested in higher plants and for instance he grouped together as genus Agaricus all gilled mushrooms which have a stem. There are many thousands of such gilled species, which later were divided into dozens of diverse genera and in its modern usage the genus Agaricus only refers to mushrooms closely related to the common shop mushroom, Agaricus bisporus (J.

Contrary to the wishes of his father, who wanted him to study law,Hermann Th. Schneider, Streets and Squares in Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, no year, p.253 Friedrich Welwitsch studied medicine and botany in Vienna and worked as a physician in the Austrian provinces of Carniola and Moravia, but his interest in the plant kingdom, where he discovered a number of plants hitherto unknown, was so great that in 1839 he abandoned the medical profession altogether. With the financial aid of a Württemberg botanical association Welwitsch travelled to Portugal where he became the director of the botanical gardens. His claim to fame came when with the further support of the Portuguese agent of the Württemberg botanical society Schneider, p. 253 he did research on the Canary Islands, on Madeira, and, in the interest of the Portuguese government, from 1853 in Angola, then a Portuguese colony. There, in 1859, in the Namib Desert in the southern part of Angola he discovered Welwitschia mirabilis, a unique member of the Gnetophyta, also known as Tumboa,Brockhaus Encyclopedia vol. 20, Leipzig 1935, p.219 and vol. 19, Leipzig 1934, pp. 170f.