While publisher Microsoft Studios revealed nothing about the project, the animated concept art features Native Americans, British Redcoats, Roman legionary, Japanese Samurai, and others.
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Meanwhile, the country's aging intelligentsia continues to fetishize the intellectuals of the interwar years without scrutinizing their support for the Legionary movement and the inexcusable virulence of their anti-Semitism.
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Roland Clark, Cornell University Press, 2015, Holy Legionary Youth: Fascist Activism in Interwar Romania, p. 232 On 14 February 1941, the National Legionary State was formally abolished. Over 9,000 people implicated in the Legionary Rebellion were subsequently arrested, of which almost 2,000 (1,842, to be exact) were sentenced to various terms, ranging from a few months to life in prison.
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Antonescu again attended, and gave a speech.Gh. Buzatu, Editura Mica Valahie, A History of Romanian Oil Vol II, pp. 366-367 After the National Legionary State was proclaimed in 14 September, the Legion became the ruling party but had to share executive power with the Army. The new Legionary regime had a ritual basis based on the cult of the Guard's dead leader (Codreanu) and other Legionary martyrs.
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This story was blended with Asterix the Legionary for the animated movie Asterix Versus Caesar.
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Priscus, a Roman legionary officer, was put to death in 272 in France, under Aurelian.
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Tesserary pay was one and a half times (sesquiplicarii) that of the standard legionary pay.
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Since the average number of legions deployed was c. 30, imperial legionary cavalry numbered only c.
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Final Report, p.105; Deletant, p.225 At the other end of the political spectrum, after the Legionary Rebellion and the Iron Guard's decapitation, many Legionaries who opposed the regime, and whom Antonescu himself believed were "communists in [Legionary] green shirts", were killed or imprisoned.Final Report, pp.
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484 On 10 November 1940, the National Legionary State faced a massive earthquake which destroyed 65,000 homes.
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A prequel written after the other books in the series, Young Legionary follows Keill Randor through his childhood, from the age of 12 to 18 (within four distinct stories), as he struggles to meet the requirements of becoming a Legionary. The novel also introduces his close friend, Oni Wolda.
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In 1937 Cantacuzino was appointed head of the "Moța-Marin Legionary Corps", set up on orders of Codreanu shortly before the group of Legionnaires left for the Spanish front. This Legionary Corps was to serve as Codreanu's personal guard. It was later intended to be transformed into the elite defence corps of the Legionary movement, "a group of strictly and severely educational essence and heroic inspiration," consisting of 10,033 "fighters" under 30 years of age. The intended transformation of this organization was never realized, as the "Everything for the Country" Party, the electoral front of the Legionary movement, was disbanded with the establishment of a royal dictatorship and the prohibition of any form of political activity.
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He then was a director of the research office in the Ministry of Foreign Trade. As the National Legionary State was proclaimed in 1940, he was a member of the Romanian delegation to Moscow for economic negotiations. He returned after the National Legionary State was abolished (after January 1941).Popescu, p.
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The legionary camp was located in the city and the city wall (1700 × 450 meters) was renewed under Justinian.
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Genet found himself at front of the attack with only one other legionary. Realizing that the advance had been stopped, they decided to retreat back to their trench. The other legionary was wounded or possibly killed on the way back. Genet was one of the 31 men out of 500 who survived the battle unscathed.
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Plan of Novae showing the Legionary fortress headquarters and adjoining later Bishop's palace Legionary fortress headquarters (principia) Novae was initially one of the few great Roman legionary fortresses along the empire's border, forming part of the defences (limes Moesiae) along the Danube in northern Bulgaria. The settlement later expanded into a town in the Roman province of Moesia Inferior, later Moesia Secunda. It lies about 4 km east of the modern town of Svishtov. The fortress is one of the few along the limes to have been excavated and now open to the public.
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In this period the canabae, or civilian settlement, that had grown up around the legionary fort began turning it into a town. Archaeological research has found that an unfinished legionary bath house in the centre of the town eventually became the town's forum. A decade later a civic street grid was subsuming the plan of the old legionary fort. The colonnaded forum was started in the 120s covering the unfinished bath house, and with the impressive dedicatory inscription to Hadrian found in excavations dating the completion to 130.
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Roman Colchester (Colonia Victricensis or Camulodunum) A Roman legionary fortress or castrum, the first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain, was established within the confines of Camulodunon (which was Latinised as Camulodunum) following the successful invasion in 43AD, and was home to the Twentieth Legion. After the legion was withdrawn in c. 49 AD, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing. Its official name became Colonia Victricensis, and discharged Roman soldiers making up the population.
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Prince Alexandru Cantacuzino (1901 - 22 September 1939) was a Romanian lawyer and politician, a leading member of the Legionary Movement (popularly known as the Iron Guard), and a close collaborator of Legionary leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. He notably devised a plot to overthrow Carol II, King of Romania, a plan that would later be taken over by Legionary leader and later Co- Conducator Horia Sima. Cantacuzino was killed on September 22, 1939, at the prison in Râmnicu Sărat, during a retaliation operation ordered by Carol II following the assassination of Prime Minister Armand Călinescu.
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The largest castra were legionary fortresses built as bases for one or more whole legions.Roman Legionary Fortresses 27BC-378AD, D.B.Campbell, Osprey.M. C. Bishop, Handbook to Roman Legionary Fortresses, Pen & Sword, Hbk 208 pp From the time of Augustus more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from war- like tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra.
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Iuniores of the highest social classes (equites and the First Class of commoners) provided the legion's cavalry, the other classes the legionary infantry. The proletarii (the lowest and most numerous social class, assessed at under 400 drachmae wealth in ca. 216 BC) were until ca. 200 BC ineligible for legionary service and were assigned to the fleets as oarsmen.
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In July 1924, ultranationalist student and future Legionary, Constantin Buşila, led attacks against Jewish villages in Tutova County.Clark, Roland (2015) p.44 In April 1932, Ion Zelea Codreanu, the father of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, is elected to Parliament by the citizens of Tutova County, as a representative of the fascist Legionary movement lead by his son.
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Viaticum can also refer to the enlistment bonus received by a Roman legionary, auxiliary soldier or seaman in the Roman Imperial Navy.
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Unlike the cuzist's ideology and same of the Legionary one, ECP has not formally adopted anti- Semitism as a social goal or practice.
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Cantacuzino joined the Legionary Movement, also known as the Iron Guard or the Legion of the Archangel Michael, and became one of the closest collaborators of the "Căpitanul", Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, who awarded him the highest rank in the Legionary hierarchy, "Commander of the Good News" ("Comandant al Bunei Vestiri"). He came to the attention of the state authorities after participating in the organization of the Student Congresses in Craiova (April 1935) and in Târgu Mureș (April 1936), which culminated in demonstrations and serious disturbances of public order. The congress in Craiova focused dominantly on the “affirmation of the Legionary faith” on the part of students, and the subsequent congress in Târgu Mureș was much more aggressive, openly denouncing the so-called "occult forces" (supposedly Jews) that led Romanian politics and were responsible for the persecution of Legionary students. Elena Lupescu, the Jewish mistress and later wife of Carol II, was specifically targeted at this congress, alongside Virgil Madgearu, General Gabriel Marinescu, and later Prime Minister Armand Călinescu, whom Legionary students believed to be conspiring to assassinate Codreanu.
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239 and "prominent legionary ideologue",Roland Clark, "New Models, New Questions: Historiographical Approaches to the Romanian Holocaust", in the European Review of History, Vol. 19, Issue 2, 2012, p. 310 saluted the takeover in his articles for the Guardist paper Cuvântul. In December 1940, he paid homage to the Legionary Commandant, Horia Sima, without whom "the Movement would become an amorphous mass".
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Italians thus represented c. 4% of total army recruits under Hadrian, if one takes into account the auxilia, despite constituting c. 12% of the empire's population, and well over 50% of its citizen-body, in 164. However, it should be borne in mind that many legionary recruits born outside Italy were residents of Roman colonies originally established to settle legionary veterans.
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Bozgan, p. 333 Consequently, he was threatened by the rise of the fascist Iron Guard (with the late 1940 establishment of the National Legionary State); following the Legionary Rebellion and the Guard's defeat, he sent a congratulatory telegram to Conducător Ion Antonescu.Scurtu, p. 11 After the end of World War II, Gusti was approached by the new Communist government with offers of collaboration.
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358 (in Romanian) Though the census was conducted almost two months after the dissolution of the National Legionary State, Romania's borders were the same.
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The more flexible, streamlined legionary organization had exploited the weaknesses of the densely packed phalanx. Such triumphs secured Roman hegemony in Greece and adjoining lands.
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When asked why they did not attempt to prevent bloodshed, the Legionary ministers denied having any foreknowledge and tried to act as surprised as anyone else.All non- Legionary ministers believed that the massacre was not a spontaneous reaction to the exhumation of Codreanu and his 13 companions, as claimed by the Guard, but rather that its leadership had planned and approved the killings. Arhivele Naţionale ale României.
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In July 1941, Zăvoianu, along with the former Legionary police officers Gheorghe Creţu, Octavian Marcu, Constantin Savu and loan Tănăsescu, and the Legionary Dumitru Anghel, were condemned to death and shot for perpetrating the massacre. That month, Dumitru Grozea and thirteen of his accomplices, mainly former police officers and Iorga's assassins, were condemned to death in absentia.Ioanid, Radu. La Roumanie et la Shoah, p. 73.
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Following the rise to power of Ion Antonescu and Horia Sima on 14 September 1940 (a regime known as the National Legionary State), the 1938 arrest and trial was revised by Decision no. 4 of 21 November 1940 of the Commission for the Review of Political Processes, at which point 19 Legionary leaders, including Alexandru Cantacuzino (second on the list), were acquitted of their sentences.
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Ornea, p. 374 Brăileanu was still the inspiration behind Iconar, described in police records as "a camouflaged Legionary newspaper of the defunct Iron Guard".Bruja (2008), p.
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This accounts for an average monthly production of 1.5 pieces, meaning that around 6 were produced by the National Legionary State during its 4 months of existence.
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272 This accounts for an average monthly production of 4.5 aircraft, meaning that around 17 were produced by the National Legionary State during its 4 months of existence.
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"Normally, governors seem to have had no say in the appointment of legionary legates, but Hadrian may have been prepared to waive regulations in exceptional cases," Birley adds.
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All the possible transports off the island have been destroyed and everyone currently believes their lives to be in danger, as the Legionary and Wingman have been killed.
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For a legionary, time is a gift given by God which he wants to maximize to spread the Gospel and help bring the love of God to many souls.
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It fuses nationalist mythology with Christian Orthodox conservatism. Becali is a self-declared follower of the Legionary Movement. The Romanian National Council for Combating Discrimination has repeatedly charged Becali with homophobic, sexist and discriminatory statements against Romani and other ethnic minorities. The United States Department of State has described the New Generation Party as an "extreme nationalist party" and noted the party's use of a slogan of the 1930s anti-Semitic Legionary Movement.
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Baylor was exchanged in June 1782 and resumed command. When the companies of the 4th CLD were parceled out during the siege of Yorktown, the 1st and 3rd accepted its few remaining mounted troopers. The regiment was officially merged into the 1st Legionary Corps on November 2, 1782, with the consolidated unit of five troops designated the 1st Legionary Corps. A member of the 3rd Continental Dragoons was Maryland Congressman Philip Stuart.
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This find roughly equates to four years' pay for a Roman legionary, but the presence of later coin issues implies that the group was not deposited until after Carausius' death.
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As minister, he worked with Sima to create a well-armed Legionary police force, and actively supported arresting or even killing politicians who in the past had suppressed the Guard.
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He resigned from this post in early April.Stelian Neagoe, Istoria guvernelor României, p. 119. Editura Machiavelli, Bucharest, 1999. He died in Bucharest in November 1940, during the National Legionary State.
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Substantial physical remains have been excavated in York in the last two centuries including the city walls, the legionary bath-house and headquarters building, civilian houses, workshops, storehouses and cemeteries.
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The cornicines were also used as assistants to a centurion (like an optio). The cornicen was a duplicary or a soldier who got double the basic pay of the legionary.
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This was dissolved on October 3. In November, Marinescu was dismissed as prefect of police.Grigore and Șerbu, p. 269 In October 1940, during the National Legionary State, Marinescu was arrested.
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224-225 Harassed by the Iron Guard, which blacklisted him for assassination,Iacob, p.265; Petrovanu, p.22 Popa managed to survive its "National Legionary State" regime, proclaimed in September 1940.
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In the late 2nd century BC, the verutum was taken out of service along with the veles, but the javelin was taken back into the legionary arsenal during the Late Empire.
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Dumitru G. Danielopol, a fellow diplomat present in London during Eliade's stay in the city, later stated that the latter had identified himself as "a guiding light of [the Iron Guard] movement" and victim of Carol II's repression. In October 1940, as the National Legionary State came into existence, the British Foreign Office blacklisted Mircea Eliade, alongside five other Romanians, due to his Iron Guard connections and suspicions that he was prepared to spy in favor of Nazi Germany. According to various sources, while in Portugal, the diplomat was also preparing to disseminate propaganda in favor of the Iron Guard. In Jurnal portughez, Eliade defines himself as "a Legionary", and speaks of his own "Legionary climax" as a stage he had gone through during the early 1940s.
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Ornea, pp. 58–59 Leon Volovici concludes that Însemnări Sociologice "did not differ from Legionary propaganda", with its ample references to "the Internationale of the yids", anti-Masonic lore, and calls for racial segregation ("complete, biological and spiritual separation from the Jews").Volovici, pp. 162–163 Brăileanu himself proudly acknowledged that there was little difference between his Guardist credo and his sociological work, describing Însemnări Sociologice as providing "Legionary doctrine" with "all the support of social science".
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249 Most of the available evidence relates to legionary construction. The several construction-scenes on Trajan's Column show only legionaries working, with auxiliaries standing guard around them.Cichorius plates On Hadrian's Wall, legionary stamps only have been found on building-materials, with no evidence of auxiliary involvement. Birley suggests that auxiliaries may have been used to excavate the vallum, a large ditch which runs parallel to the Wall, and thus would not have left stamps on building-materials.
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In Detective Comics #215, Batman invites the Knight and Squire, the Musketeer, the Gaucho, the Ranger, and the Legionary. In World's Finest Comics #89, philanthropist John Mayhew invites Batman and Robin, Superman, the Legionary, the Musketeer, the Gaucho, and the Knight and the Squire to award them membership in his Club of Heroes. The Knight and Squire then joined the Ultramarine Corps in JLA #26 and had an adventure with them in JLA Classified #1-3.
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The Last Legionary series is a series of five books written by Canadian author Douglas Hill. The books are Young Legionary, Galactic Warlord, Deathwing Over Veynaa, Day of the Starwind and Planet of the Warlord. The series has been described as a simplified version of E. E. Smith's Lensman series. The books tell of the adventures of Keill Randor, the last survivor of his planet's population, who are annihilated at the beginning of the book Galactic Warlord.
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A reproduction of a Roman caliga Caligae (Latin; singular ) are heavy-soled hobnailed military sandal-boots known for being issued to Roman legionary soldiers and auxiliaries throughout the Roman Republic and Empire.
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Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 715.
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Castra (Latin, singular castrum) were military forts of various sizes used by the Roman army throughout the Empire in various places of Europe, Asia and Africa. The largest castra were permanent legionary fortresses.
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Before that time Shirva was described as having the best farm land in the parish. Several tombstones from a possible Roman Cemetery were found at Shirva House. A legionary slab was also discovered.
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The army's senior officers, including its commanders-in-chief, the Roman Consuls, were all elected annually at the People's Assembly. Only equites (members of the Roman knightly order) were eligible to serve as senior officers. Iuniores of the highest social classes (equites and the First Class of commoners) provided the legion's cavalry, the other classes the legionary infantry. The proletarii (those assessed at under 400 drachmae wealth) were ineligible for legionary service and were assigned to the fleets as oarsmen.
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The Numidian region where Theveste was found became a key part of Rome's development after the fall of the Byzantine city of Carthage. Economic policies implemented in the Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar created taxes on trade goods along Roman roads. When Roman legionary camp leader Legio III Augusta came to Theveste initially, he brought with him legionary forces and other travelers. His armies constructed roads throughout Northern Africa and established the first outposts for the Roman military in Theveste.
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On 19 December, another trade agreement was signed between Romania and Yugoslavia, another member of the Balkan Pact. During the last days of the National Legionary State, on 10 and 12 February, Britain and Belgium severed relations with Romania.Gh. Buzatu, Editura Mica Valahie, A History of Romanian Oil Vol II, pp. 366-368 Border skirmishes with the Soviet Union spanned across the duration of the National Legionary State. In the autumn of 1940, the Soviets occupied several Romanian islands in the Danube Delta.
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The Aquila was the eagle standard of a Roman legion, carried by a special grade legionary known as an Aquilifer, from the second consulship of Gaius Marius (104 BC) used as the only legionary standard. It was made of silver, or bronze, with outstretched wings. The eagle was not immediately retained as a symbol of the Roman Empire in general in the early medieval period. Neither the early Byzantine emperors nor the Carolingians used the eagle in their coins or seals.
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Duplicarius () was a pay grade in the Roman Army receiving double the basic pay. This grade could also be awarded to ordinary legionary soldiers, regardless of rank, as a reward for outstanding bravery or service.
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Asterix the Legionary is the tenth Asterix book in the Asterix comic book series by Rene Goscinny and Albert Uderzo. It was first published as a serial in Pilote magazine, issues 368–389, in 1966.
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The Roman legionary fortress of Burrium was founded on the River Usk by the military commander Aulus Didius Gallus, around AD 55. He moved his XX Valeria Victrix legion into the area from its earlier base at Glevum (Gloucester). It was the earliest legionary fortress in Wales and although the site was constricted by hills, subject to flooding, and not on a navigable river, it did offer good communications inland up the river. The fortress at Usk was surrounded by ramparts and covered a large area.
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CAH XI 326 The prefect's primary role was as the legion's quartermaster, in charge of legionary camps and supplies. It has been suggested that Augustus was responsible for establishing the small cavalry contingent of 120 horse attached to each legion.CAH X 379 The existence of this unit is attested in Josephus' Bellum Iudaicum written after AD 70, and on a number of tombstones.Fields (2009) 12 The attribution to Augustus is based on the (unproven) assumption that legionary cavalry had completely disappeared in the Caesarian army.
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Marius removed the legionary light infantry and the legionary cavalry altogether from the Roman army. He then incorporated foreign units provided by allies into the ranks. These included Balearic slingers, Numidian light cavalry, and Cretan archers ; these units were called upon as needed to replace those that were eliminated from the Roman army. Marius introduced a unique “soldier hard” ideology to the Roman legion which promoted the personal toughness displayed by each soldier and one's ability to endure being pressed nearly to his limits.
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However his two major projects were at the Hod HillHod Hill: Excavations carried out between 1951 and 1958 for the Trustees of the British Museum, British Museum Iron Age hillfort where he elucidated the Roman fort that was inserted into one corner, and then at InchtuthilL.F.Pitts, J.K.St Joseph. Inchtuthil, The Roman Legionary Fortresss, Britannnia Monograph series 6, 1985 near Perth in Scotland, the legionary fortress occupied during Agricola's advance into Scotland. He also wrote a highly successful book on Roman Britain for the Penguin series.
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Honesta missio issued under the emperor Claudius Honesta missio issued under the emperor Titus The honesta missio was the honorable discharge from the military service in the Roman Empire. The status conveyed particular privileges (praemia militiae). Among other things, an honorably discharged legionary was paid discharge money from a treasury established by Augustus, the Aerarium militare, which amounted to 12,000 sesterces until the Principate of Caracalla. The honorably discharged legionary also presumably received a certificate after a service of approximately 20 to 26 years.
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Some remains of the walls of the rectangular legionary fortress survive, though much ruined. Their line can be traced in part on all four sides of the fortress that encompassed an area of 15.7 ha (smaller than most legionary fortresses). These walls probably date from the 6th century AD when, according to Procopius, Satala's fortifications were extensively rebuilt by Justinian, but in places they reuse the foundations of earlier walls. Within the walls little remains, and ruined structures noted by Biliotti have been demolished.
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Plan of legionary fortress Carnuntum (Carnous, Καρνους, in Ancient Greek according to Ptolemy) was a Roman legionary fortress () and headquarters of the Pannonian fleet from 50 AD. After the 1st century, it was capital of the Pannonia Superior province. It also became a large city of 50,000 inhabitants. Its impressive remains are situated on the Danube in Lower Austria halfway between Vienna and Bratislava in the Carnuntum Archaeological Park extending over an area of 10 km2 near today's villages of Petronell-Carnuntum and Bad Deutsch-Altenburg.
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Rossa, pg.279 Henceforth,' wrote Luby to O'Leary "we denied that we were technically a secret body. We called ourselves a military organization; with, so to speak, a legionary oath like all soldiers."Ryan Desmond, pg.
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Despite this, a gravestone of a fallen legionary named Marcus Aurelius Alexys shows him lightly armed, with a pilos-like cap and a wooden club. The unit was presumably discharged in 217 after Caracalla was assassinated.
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Thus the total number of regimental equivalents was reduced to 61. This number included 50 infantry regiments, 4 legionary corps (which were partly dismounted light dragoons), 4 artillery regiments, 2 partisan corps, and 1 artificer regiment.
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Legionary centurions, the equivalent of mid-level commissioned officers, were organised in an elaborate hierarchy. Usually risen from the ranks, they commanded the legion's tactical sub-units of centuriae (c. 80 men) and cohorts (c. 480 men).
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Flamininus had about 25,500 men, thus subdivided: 16,000 legionary infantry, 8,400 light infantry, 1,800 cavalry and 20 war elephants; further it included soldiers from the allied Aetolian League, light infantry from Athamania, and mercenary archers from Crete.
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The senatorial legatus legionis was removed from the Roman army by Gallienus, who preferred to entrust the command of a legionary unit to a leader chosen from within the equestrian order who had a long military career.
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Scuta, as used by the Imperial Roman army's legions. Note the alae et fulgura ("wings-and-thunderbolts") emblem, painted exclusively on legionary shields and representing Jupiter, the highest Roman god The legionary scutum (plural form: scuta; derivation: It. scudo, Sp. escudo, Fr. écu; Rom. scut), a convex rectangular shield, appeared for the first time in the Augustan era, replacing the oval shield of the army of the Republic. Shields, from examples found at Dura and Nydam, were of vertical plank construction, the planks glued, and faced inside and out with painted leather.
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In the early Julio- Claudian period, the commanders of the auxiliary units (praefecti auxiliorum) were often senior centurions and so ranked below the legionary tribunes. The position changed under Claudius, who restricted command of auxiliary regiments to men of equestrian rank. Furthermore, an equestrian military cursus honorum became established, known as the tres militiae ("three commands"), each held for 3–4 years: command of an auxiliary cohort, followed by military tribune of a legion, followed by command of an ala. These reforms had the effect of elevating praefecti to the same rank as legionary tribunes.
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The National Legionary State was a totalitarian fascist regime which governed Romania for five months, from 14 September 1940 until its official dissolution on 14 February 1941. The regime was led by General Ion Antonescu in partnership with the Iron Guard, a Romanian ultranationalist, antisemitic, anti-communist, anti-capitalist and pro-Eastern Orthodox party. Though the Iron Guard had been in the Romanian Government since 28 June 1940, on 14 September it achieved dominance, leading to the proclamation of the National Legionary State. On 27 September 1940, Romania withdrew from the Balkan Pact.
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53 To maintain his grip at the helm of the country, while at the same time conceding the leading role to the Iron Guard, Antonescu had King Michael proclaim Romania a National Legionary State on 14 September. The Legionary Movement/Iron Guard became the "only movement recognized in the new state", making Romania a totalitarian country. Antonescu became the legion's honorary leader, with Sima becoming Deputy Prime Minister. Five other Guardists became ministers, among them Prince Mihai Sturza (Minister of Foreign Affairs) and General Constantin Petrovicescu (Minister of Interior).
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Sima then reorganized the movement, limiting the number of a "nest" (the term used for a local Legionary outpost or club) to 5 members and giving each nest greater autonomy and ability to launch actions. Thus, within a few months following the April 1938 wave of arrests, Legionary nests were able to organize under conditions of secrecy, launching a number of manifestos and publications against Armand Călinescu and Prime Minister Nicolae Iorga, who they saw as responsible for the conviction of Codreanu.DANIC, DGP fund, file no. 11/1938, pp. 224.
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In his later memoirs, Horia Sima noted that these manifestos received greater recognition as they were personally signed by Legionary leaders. During this time, Cantacuzino began to plot to overthrow Carol II, a plan later modified and realized by Horia Sima. On 28 October 1938, Cantacuzino was arrested while walking through Bucharest disguised as an officer. He was imprisoned in the Râmnicu Sărat prison along with the Legionary leaders convicted in the trial of 25 July 1938, namely Gheorghe Clime, Mihail Polihroniade, Traian Cotigă, and Șerban Milcoveanu, among others.
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After refusing to sign a declaration of submission and allegiance to the authorities, Cantacuzino was shot on the night of 21-22 September 1939. The remaining Legionary leaders imprisoned in Râmnicu Sărat were also shot, including Gheorghe Clime, Aurel Serafim, Nicolae Totu, Gheorghe Istrate, Sima Simulescu, Cristian Tell, Gheorghe Furdui, Mihail Polihroniade, Paul Craja, and Gheorghe Apostolescu. The list of those to be shot was reportedly drawn up by Armand Călinescu, alongside police prefect Gavrilă Marinescu and Mihail Moruzov, Romanian intelligence director. Alexandru Cantacuzino was buried in the Legionary Cemetery in Predeal.
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During the Roman kingdom and the first century of the Roman Republic, legionary cavalry was recruited exclusively from the ranks of the patricians, who were expected to provide six centuriae of cavalry (300 horses for each consular legion). Around 400BC, 12 more centuriae of cavalry were established and these included non-patricians (plebeians). Around 300 BC the Samnite Wars obliged Rome to double the normal annual military levy from two to four legions, doubling the cavalry levy from 600 to 1,200 horses. Legionary cavalry started to recruit wealthier citizens from outside the 18 centuriae.
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Antonescu nevertheless rose to political prominence during the political crisis of 1940, and established the National Legionary State, an uneasy partnership with the Iron Guard's leader Horia Sima. After entering Romania into an alliance with Nazi Germany and ensuring Adolf Hitler's confidence, he eliminated the Guard during the Legionary Rebellion of 1941. In addition to being Prime Minister, he served as his own Foreign Minister and Defense Minister. Soon after Romania joined the Axis in Operation Barbarossa, recovering Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, Antonescu also became Marshal of Romania.
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With its exceptionally long point and sharp, double edges, the gladius was used both as a slashing and stabbing weapon. The manufacturing and repair-work for legionary weapons and armor was completed through private companies known as publicans.
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Papuc; Scurtu, p.11 Anti-Semitic authorities began alluding to his Jewish origins, and several violent remarks were aimed at him. Following the Legionary Rebellion and the Guard's defeat, he sent a congratulatory telegram to Conducător Ion Antonescu.Scurtu, p.
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Feroemail Ploiești was excluded, being another victim of the regime's law of banning workers' teams. Maccabi București, sport club, representing the Jewish community was expelled from all the official competitions by the same legionary regime, which adopted antisemitic policies.
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17 However, according to various commentators, Codreanu won his most significant following in the rural environment, which in part reflected the fact that he and most other Legionary leaders were first-generation urban dwellers.Barbu, p.198-200; Benedict, p.
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Museum was found in 1996 for the purpose of presentation of artifacts from nearby archaeological site (Roman legionary fortress Tilurium). Along with archaeological artifacts in a part of the museum ethnographic collection from Trilj and surrounding area is presented.
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Early thrymsas were imitations of Merovingian tremisses or earlier Roman coins. They weighed between , and had a diameter of approximately .Page, p. 122 Later thrymsas feature various different designs, including busts, crosses, lyre-like objects and Roman legionary ensigns.
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Each of them led a file of ten troopers, for a grand total of 132 horsemen in each legion.. Their status was distinctly inferior to that of the legionary infantry: the centurions and principales of the legionary turmae were classed as supernumerarii and although their men were included in the legionary cohort lists, they camped separately from them. In the late Roman army, the turma and its structure were retained, with changes in titelature only: the turma was still headed by a decurio, who also led the first ten-strong file, while the other two files were led by subaltern catafractarii, in essence the successors of the early Empire's duplicarii and sesquiplicarii.. Traces of this structure also apparently survived in the 6th-century East Roman army: in the late-6th- century Strategikon of Maurice, the cavalry files are led by a dekarchos (, "leader of ten").
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Soon after the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43, a Roman legionary fortress was established,J. Nelson, ed., The Victoria History of the County of Essex, IX (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1994), pp. 7–10 the first in Britain.
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Mircea Eliade, Autobiography, Vol. 2. 1937–1960, Exile's Odyssey, p. 83. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. In December 1940, the Iron Guard's National Legionary government ordered his father's remains to be exhumed and reburied in a Jewish-only cemetery.
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Trends included the adoption of warmer clothing; the disappearance of distinctive legionary armour and weapons; the adoption by the infantry of equipment used by the cavalry in the earlier period; and the greater use of heavily armoured cavalry called cataphracts.
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Aileen Mary Fox, Lady Fox, FSA (née Henderson, 29 July 1907 – 21 November 2005), was an English archaeologist. She specialised in the archaeology of South West England, notably excavating the Roman legionary fortress in Exeter in Devon after World War II.
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For the cavalry, the abolition of the alae had the radical result of reducing the Roman cavalry to just a quarter of its previous size, since legions contained only a third as many horse as confederate alae. Legionary cavalry was thus reduced to a fraction of a Roman army's overall cavalry complement: a consular army of two legions now contained about 20% cavalry (i.e. ca. 4,000 horse), of which, at most, only 600 were Romans. Indeed, the Roman element may now have numbered just 240, as it is possible that around this time, the legionary cavalry contingent was reduced to 120.
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Kemmers undertook her undergraduate degree in archaeology in 1996 at the University of Amsterdam, and following her MA moved to Radboud University Nijmegen in 2000 to work on her PhD. Kemmers' doctoral work focused on Roman coins found at the legionary fortress of Nijmegen, examining the use and supply of coins in the Lower Rhine region in the first century AD. Kemmers completed her PhD in 2005 and the work was published as Coins for a legion. An analysis of the coin finds from the Augustan legionary fortress and Flavian canabae legionis at Nijmegen in 2006.
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Thinking another Legionary captured them and has gone for reinforcements, they decide to take the reward, and take the prisoners to the general's tent. When the captives are ungagged, however, the full story comes out, and the Romans promptly begin capturing each other left and right, believing each other to be Goths, much to the disappointment of the General. Asterix and Obelix, back in Gaulish clothing, are completely untouched, along with the Goths, who approach the border. The Goths cross the Roman Empire's border back into Germania, stunning a young legionary whose eagerness to report an invasion becomes a running gag.
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Ten years after its premiere, the play was reprinted by Legionary refugees in Argentina: on the occasion, the text was reviewed for publishing by Eliade himself. Reading Iphigenia was what partly sparked Culianu's investigation of his mentor's early political affiliations. A special debate was sparked by Un om mare. Culianu viewed it as a direct reference to Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and his rise in popularity, an interpretation partly based on the similarity between, on one hand, two monikers ascribed to the Legionary leader (by, respectively, his adversaries and his followers), and, on the other, the main character's name (Cucoanes).
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Bidwell, P.T. The Legionary Bathhouse and Basilica and Forum at Exeter, 43. 1979. The legion had formed part of the Claudian invasion of Britain in 43, under the command of the future emperor Vespasian. Vespasian led campaigns against both the Durotriges and Dumnonii. The presence of the legion at Exeter is supported by the discovery of a dolphin antefix (roof fitting) from levels within the military bathhouse dated to about 60\. The antefix appears to have been created from the same mould as an example from the legionary fortress at Caerleon—where the legion is known to have been stationed from around 75.
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In February 1941, weeks after the bloody Legionary Rebellion was crushed by Antonescu, Iphigenia was staged by the National Theater Bucharest—the play soon raised doubts that it owed inspiration to the Iron Guard's ideology, and even that its inclusion in the program was a Legionary attempt at subversion. In 1942, Eliade authored a volume in praise of the Estado Novo, established in Portugal by António de Oliveira Salazar,Eliade, Salazar, in "Eliade despre Salazar" ("Eliade on Salazar"), Evenimentul Zilei, October 13, 2002Ellwood, p.90 claiming that "The Salazarian state, a Christian and totalitarian one, is first and foremost based on love".
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Livy XLII.35 The consulship of Gaius Marius (107 BC) saw the supposed launch of the so-called "Marian reforms" of the army. More dated scholars have ascribed to this general many of the changes that had transformed the Republican army by the time of its next extant detailed description in the pages of Julius Caesar's De Bello Gallico (composed in 51 BC), namely: # Admission of proletarii to legionary service # Recruitment of large numbers of volunteers # Replacement of maniples with cohorts as the main legionary tactical unit # Abolition of legionary cavalry In reality, the sole documented reform by Marius was the establishment (in 104 BC) of the eagle (aquila) as the sole animal-symbol to be used on the legion's standard (previously there had been a choice of 5 different animals, including the eagle).Pliny X.16 The attribution to Marius of the other changes is purely speculative, and probably erroneous also.
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The first cohort carried the new legionary standard, a silver or gold eagle called the aquila. This cohort contained only 5 centuries, but each century had double the number of men in the normal centuries. Altogether, each legion contained approximately 4,800 men.
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110 ani de social- democrație, p.23, 24; Constantiniu; Tismăneanu, p.60 A potential target of Iron Guard reprisals during the National Legionary State, Flueraș survived the Legionnaires' Rebellion, and, upon the Guard's defeat, sent a congratulatory telegram to Conducător Ion Antonescu.Scurtu, p.
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464-465 Several antisemitic decrees were enacted by the National Legionary State. Jewish-owned rural property was expropriated on 4 October, followed by forests on 17 November, and finally by river transport on 4 December.Keith Hitchins, Clarendon Press, 1994, Romania 1866-1947, p.
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Assassination attempts on the lives of former Prime Ministers and Carol supporters Constantin Argetoianu, Guță Tătărescu and Ion Gigurtu were also carried out, but failed, as these politicians were freed from the hands of the Legionary police and put under military protection.
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The crest shows a heron with a pike in its beak. The dexter supporter is a Roman legionary which recalls the Roman settlements of the county. The sinister supporter is a poacher, recalling the song "The Lincolnshire Poacher", an unofficial anthem of Lincolnshire.
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See also Zarojanu, p. 19 This put an end to Carol's rule, bringing the country under an Iron Guard regime—the National Legionary State, with Antonescu as Conducător; though still neutral to 1941, Romania was now openly aligned with the Axis Powers.
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Osinski's Suwalki Group, the 1st Legionary Division, and the 1st Lithuanian-Byelorussian Division from Sejny, took Druskienniki on 23 Sept. and cut the Soviet 3rd Army's supply line at the Grodno-Wilno railway. The Polish cavalry reached Radun and then Lida. On 26 Sept.
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A precursor, the Teatru Evreiesc Baraşeum operated as a Jewish theater through most of World War II, although they were closed during the few months of the National Legionary State, and thereafter performed in Romanian rather than Yiddish through until the fall of Ion Antonescu.
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Zionist organizations were especially active in the mid-1920s. In 1930, there were 914 Jews, or 8.7% of the total. On 5 December 1940, during the National Legionary State, Jewish merchants were forced to give up their shops to members of the ruling Iron Guard.
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There was corruption among the officers: Victorinus had to ask for the resignation of a legionary legate who was taking bribes.Dio, lxxii. 11.3–4; Birley, Marcus Aurelius, p. 132, citing De nepote amisso ii (= Haines 2.222); Ad Verum Imperator ii. 9–10 (= Haines 2.232ff.).
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Widely seen as a German arrangement, the Legionary State was in fact a result of Maniu's refusal to follow Antonescu's ideological command; the Nazis had repeatedly called for a multiparty alliance.Deletant, pp. 50, 54–56, 68; Scurtu (2000a), pp. 6–7. See also Costăchescu, pp.
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Polybius VI.34 Within this precinct, a standard, elaborate plan was used to allocate space, in a pre-set pattern, for the tents of each of the various components of the army: officers, legionary infantry and legionary cavalry, auxiliary infantry and cavalry, and barbarian allies.Polybius VI.27-31 The idea was that the men of each unit would know exactly in which section of the camp to pitch its tents and corral its animals. The construction of a marching-camp would take an army just a couple of hours, since most soldiers would participate and were equipped with picks and shovels for the purpose.
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Between junior officers (principales) and senior officers (tribuni militum), the Roman army contained a class of officers called centurions (centuriones, singular form: centurio, literally "commanders of 100 men") in the infantry and decurions (decuriones, singular form decurio, literally "commanders of 10 men") in the auxiliary cavalry. These officers commanded the basic tactical units in the army: a centurion headed a centuria (company, 80 men-strong) in the infantry (both legionary and auxiliary) and a decurion led a turma (squadron, 30-men strong) in the auxiliary cavalry (in the small contingents of legionary cavalry, squadron- leaders were called centurions). Broadly speaking, centurions and decurions were considered to be of corresponding rank.
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Unlike other legionary fortresses in Britain, Inchtuthil was not later built over and its layout was still largely preserved when Sir Ian Richmond excavated it between 1952 and 1965.Roger J.A.Wilson "A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain" 2002 Constable, London pp596-598 It is therefore notable as the site which provides the only complete plan of a legionary fortress anywhere in the Roman empire. Its defences consisted of a turf rampart faced with stone, with an outside ditch and gatehouses on each side, following the standard Roman plan. The legion it accommodated would have numbered 5,400 at full strength, though there would have been additional specialist troops accompanying them.
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Serbian Queen Draga Obrenović visited the site and donated 100 gold ducats for further excavations, which is considered the first donation in Serbia given to the exploration of the Antiquity. It has intensified in the last ten years in the area of the Roman city of the Roman legionary camps and cemeteries. Many studies suggest that the military camp at Viminacium had a rectangular plan, measuring , and that is not far from its western wall of civilian settlement in an area of approximately . The Legionary camp in Viminacium is now in an area of arable land, so that Viminacium is easily accessible to researchers, but unfortunately also to robbers.
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Unlike the imperial escort-armies, these were close enough to the theatre of operations to succour the border troops. But their stationing may have differed little from the location of legions in the 2nd century, even though they apparently wintered inside cities, rather than in purpose-built legionary bases.Mann (1979) 181 For example, the two comitatus of Illyricum (East and West) are documented as wintering in Sirmium, which was the site of a major legionary base in the Principate.Elton (1996) 209 Furthermore, the late empire maintained a central feature of the forward defence of the Principate: a system of treaties of mutual assistance with tribes living on the imperial frontiers.
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U.S. Army dog tags from World War II The earliest mention of an identification tag for soldiers comes in Polyaenus (Stratagems 1.17) where the Spartans wrote their names on sticks tied to their left wrists. A type of dog tag ("signaculum") was given to the Roman legionary at the moment of enrollment. The legionary "signaculum" was a lead disk with a leather string, worn around the neck, with the name of the recruit and the indication of the legion of which the recruit was part. This procedure, together with enrollment in the list of recruits, was made at the beginning of a four-month probatory period ("probatio").
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359 he was tried for his role in the National Legionary administration,Bosomitu, p. 180; Săndulescu, p. 175 with Vianu showing up to defend him as a character witness. Ion Papuc, "Ceea ce știu" , in Convorbiri Literare, January 2006 Sentenced to four years in prison,Săndulescu, p.
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He did not join the anti-German resistance since he was too well-known a figure for his involvement to be anything other than a liability. However, he arranged the transfer of substantial sums from a Legionary relief fund to assist the resistance and people facing persecution.
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Zionist activity began in 1918, led by Ernő Marton. In 1940, the National Legionary State closed down all Jewish shops. In 1941, the town's 796 Jews were sent to Blaj. Ten days later, they returned, when Jewish refugees in the area began to gather in Târnăveni.
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Coroamă survived Antonescu's violent split with the Guard and the Legionary Rebellion of January 1941. As reported by diarist Mihail Sebastian, rumor spread that Coroamă and Corneliu Dragalina were marching on Bucharest to assist Sima against Antonescu.Mihail Sebastian, Journal, 1935–1944, p. 312. London: Random House, 2003.
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Ars Tactica, 17.3. suggesting a size of 32 men for each turma. As for the legions, during the Principate, each had a cavalry contingent organized in four turmae. A legionary turma was led by a centurion, assisted by an optio and a vexillarius as senior principales.
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Ion Antonescu The second cabinet of Ion Antonescu was the government of Romania from 14 September 1940 to 24 January 1941. On September 14, Romania was declared a "National-Legionary State". On 23 November 1940, Romania joined the Axis powers. The cabinet ended in a failed coup.
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The new regiments were larger, and for the first time they included a regimental depot. The quota of infantry regiments was fixed at 10 from Massachusetts, 8 from Virginia, 6 from Pennsylvania, 5 each from Connecticut and Maryland, 4 from North Carolina, 2 each from New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, and South Carolina, and 1 each from Rhode Island, Delaware, and Georgia. The few Additional Continental Regiments that had survived to this late date were either allotted to a state line or disbanded. The support of the Continental Army's cavalry and artillery regiments was also made the responsibility of a definite state for the first time, but they retained their status as separate branches of the Continental Army. As of January 1, 1781, the states were made responsible for regiments in other branches as follows: 1st and 3rd Legionary Corps (formerly 1st and 3d Light Dragoons): Virginia; 2d Legionary Corps (2nd Light Dragoons): Connecticut; and 4th Legionary Corps (4th Light Dragoons): Pennsylvania — 1st Artillery: Virginia; 2d Artillery: New York; 3d Artillery: Massachusetts; and 4th Artillery: Pennsylvania.
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It was possible for equestrians to be directly commissioned into the legionary centurionate if an opening could be found in one of the provincial garrisons.Dobson(1974:392–434) However, in the case of the Peregrini a prior posting as a legionary centurion in the provinces was usually a sine qua non. Bray suggests, tentatively, that Volusianus might have had an unrecorded posting as a legionary centurion before he went to the Castra Peregrina,Bray(1997:App C) a proposition also mooted by PflaumPflaum(1960:903) This hypothesis could explain the apparent anomaly, but neither authority seems particularly attached to it; #PRIMVS PILVS LEGIONIS XXX VLPIAE – Senior ranking centurion of this legion which was normally stationed at Castra Vetera (modern Xanten) in the province of Germania Inferior. Bray suggests that it was during this posting that Volusianus came to the attention of Gallienus when he campaigned against the Franci in Germania Inferior in the early years of his reign; #PRAEPOSITVS EQVITVM SINGVLIARORVM AVGG NN - Commander of a troop of the Emperor's mounted bodyguard - i.e.
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The new regiments were larger, and for the first time they included a regimental depot. The quota of infantry regiments was fixed at 10 from Massachusetts, 8 from Virginia, 6 from Pennsylvania, 5 each from Connecticut and Maryland, 4 from North Carolina, 2 each from New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, and South Carolina, and 1 each from Rhode Island, Delaware, and Georgia. The few Additional Continental Regiments that had survived to this late date were either allotted to a state line or disbanded. The support of the Continental Army’s cavalry and artillery regiments was also made the responsibility of a definite state for the first time, but they retained their status as separate branches of the Continental Army. As of January 1, 1781, the states were made responsible for regiments in other branches as follows: 1st and 3rd Legionary Corps (formerly 1st and 3d Light Dragoons): Virginia; 2d Legionary Corps (2nd Light Dragoons): Connecticut; and 4th Legionary Corps (4th Light Dragoons): Pennsylvania — 1st Artillery: Virginia; 2d Artillery: New York; 3d Artillery: Massachusetts; and 4th Artillery: Pennsylvania.
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Final Report, pp.118–119, 197–199, 201, 206, 291–292; Browning, p.211; Deletant, pp.103, 108–113, 120, 123–124, 159, 201, 207, 211, 310–311, 381; Kelso, pp.100–101 mixed Romanian-Jewish marriages were forbidden and many Jews, primarily those from strategic areas such as Ploiești, were confined to internment camps.Final Report, pp.118–119, 184, 199–201, 206, 292–293, 381; Deletant, pp.115–116, 310 The expulsion of Jewish professionals from all walks of life was also carried out in the National Legionary period, and enforced after the Legionary Rebellion.Final Report, pp.63, 183–214, 220–221, 238, 290–291, 381; Browning, p.211; Deletant, pp.103–106, 198–199, 308–314; Ioanid, p.232; Ornea, pp.393–394 After a post- Legionary hiatus, "Romanianization" commissions resumed their work under the supervision of a National Center, and their scope was extended.Final Report, pp.19–20, 63, 92, 117, 168–169, 181–182, 185–195, 202–203, 238, 250, 384–385; Deletant, pp.106–108, 123, 210–211; Kelso, pp.
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The importance of his new office was also evidence of Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop's conflict with Himmler, which had led him to seek support from former Sturmabteilung leaders.Jacobsen, p.62 His arrival in Bucharest coincided with the Legionary Rebellion, when the Romanian Army defeated the Guard.Ornea, p.
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He marched rapidly on Rome and captured it. Pompey, the optimates, and most of the Senate fled to Greece. Piso was sent to Hispania Ulterior (in modern Spain). There he served as a proquaestor, a type of military auditor, under Pompey's legates (legionary commanders) Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius.
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Lindum Colonia was the Latin name for the settlement which is now the City of Lincoln in Lincolnshire. It was founded as a Roman Legionary Fortress during the reign of the Emperor Nero (58–68 AD) or possibly later.Jones (2002). Roman Lincoln: Conquest, Colony and Capital, p. 34.
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Mozhgan Rahmani (, born December 31, 1989) is an Iranian Darts player. Since 2017, she has been a member of the Iranian National Darts Team. She is the first Iranian in Iran's Darts history to be inducted into Professional Darts Corporation. She is an Iranian legionary in Malaysia's DURY team.
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Aside from the rank and file legionary (who received the base wage of 10 assēs a day or 225 denarii a year), the following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the Marian reforms (104 BC) until the military reforms of Diocletian (c. 290).
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Final Report, p.46, 110; Ornea, p.339-341; Veiga, 292–295 The widespread disorder brought the first open clash between Antonescu and the Legion.Final Report, p.110-111; Ornea, p.333-334 During the events, Codreanu was posthumously exonerated of all charges by a Legionary tribunal.Ornea, p.
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It was repealed by King Carol II in 1938 and replaced with a corporatist/authoritarian document with the king's National Renaissance Front as the sole legal party. This document was, in turn, cancelled in 1940 by the National Legionary State government under Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard.
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Betthorus was a Roman legionary fortress on the Limes Arabicus. It is located in today's (from Legio), Karak Governorate, Jordan,Al Lajjun in Mapcarta: . north-east of Al Karak. The place is in proximity to the spring , in a wadi of the same name, that flows into Wadi Mujib.
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A collection of 33 silver Denarii dating from 30 AD to 170 AD found in nearby Hebden by two metal detectorists Colin Binns and Mick Wilson. It is believed the hoard may have been hidden by a legionary for when he left the army and settled in the area.
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Deletant, p. 51 During the National Legionary State period, earlier antisemitic legislation was upheld and strengthened, while the "Romanianization" of Jewish-owned enterprises became standard official practice.Final Report, pp. 19–20, 31, 103, 109–113, 181–183, 185–190, 202–208, 382–385; Achim, pp. 163, 167; Browning, p.
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Final Report, pp. 206–207 Antonescu did not reject the application of Legionary policies, but was offended by Sima's advocacy of paramilitarism and the Guard's frequent recourse to street violence.Final Report, pp. 46, 109–113, 117–118, 181–182, 186; Ancel (2005 a), pp. 32–33, 317; Deletant, pp.
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Ornea, pp. 334–335 By then, the Legionary press was routinely claiming that he was obstructing revolution and aiming to take control of the Iron Guard, and that he had been transformed into a tool of Freemasonry (see Anti-Masonry).Ornea, pp. 338–339, 341–343; Veiga, pp.
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The remains of a hypocaust under-floor heating system from the baths. Deva Victrix had a large legionary bath complex (thermae) for the soldiers to maintain good hygiene and to use for leisure time. The baths were sited near the south gate and measured by .Mason (2001), p. 66.
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As a high school student before and after the outbreak of World War II, Ion Negoiţescu also became interested in politics, and rallied with the Iron Guard, a revolutionary fascist movement which would establish the National Legionary regime (in existence between 1940 and 1941). As he himself later recalled, he contributed to the group's press and, wearing the green-colored paramilitary uniform of the Guardists, took part in National Legionary street parades. Bogdan Creţu, "Tînărul Ion Negoiţescu: devenirea unui mare critic (II)" , in Convorbiri Literare, January 2008 This choice intrigued his biographers and reviewers of his work, who generally agree that it clashed with the young man's tolerant nature and individualism.Manea, p.
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Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 718. It was only on 6 September 1940, when Antonescu learned of a plot to murder him headed by another member of the camarilla General Paul Teodorescu that Antonescu joined the chorus demanding Carol's abdication.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 714. With public opinion solidly against him and with the Army refusing to obey his orders, Carol was forced to abdicate.
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Scale armour Not all troops wore torso armor. Light infantry, especially in the early republic, wore little or no armor. This was both to allow swifter movement for light troops and also as a matter of cost. Legionary soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used a variety of armour types.
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80 online. The reverse shows a legionary aquila flanked by military standards. The one on the left is marked with an H (for Hastati, spearmen), the one on the right P (Principes, also a term for spearmen). Below is the abbreviation ex s(enatus) c(onsulto), "by decree of the senate".
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Bradley tells the story from both the British, female, druidic perspective, and the Roman, male, legionary perspective, and does so without apparent prejudice, in a style characteristic of her Avalon Series. The complexity of the plot and characters in this novel is somewhat less than that of The Mists of Avalon.
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He was appointed Ministry for Finance in the government of Antonín Švehla and introduced many measures against social benefits. He also criticized monetary compensations for legionary?. Amidst an economic crisis, Rašín stressed the politics of deflation (in 1922 prices dropped by 42%, salaries by 32%) and a strong currency.Koderová et al.
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But Nero was unpopular in the area, and when the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, Servius Sulpicius Galba, said he wished to overthrow Nero, the legion supported him and he was proclaimed Emperor in the VI Victrix legionary camp. Galba created VII Gemina and marched on Rome, where Nero killed himself.
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He was released in 1960 and exonerated by the Velvet Revolution in 1989. After November 1989, he was rehabilitated. He became the chairman of the Confederation of Political Prison Inspection Commission and the chairman of the Czechoslovak Legionary communities. He also worked in the Central Rehabilitation Commission of the MNO.
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In 1940–1941, the Iron Guard took over government and established the "National Legionary State". Promoted in that interval, Gane returned to radio journalism, producing propaganda for the Guard's social service, Ajutorul Legionar.Florin Müller, "Mișcarea legionară, noi perspective în cercetare", in Revista Istorică, Vol. XXII, Issues 1–2, 2011, p.
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Elton (1996) 107 Some evolution took place during the 3rd century. Trends included the adoption of warmer clothing; the disappearance of distinctive legionary armour and weapons; the adoption by the infantry of equipment used by the cavalry in the earlier period; and the greater use of heavily armoured cavalry called cataphracts.
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Ornea, pp. 248–249, 379 He also implied that, in all his previous texts, he had been deploring the Guard's methods, and that the "new generation" of fascists had proved a disappointment. Ornea claims that Crainic's was merely a last-minute attempt to dissuade censorship from investigating his Legionary connections.Ornea, pp.
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Starting October 1940, under the National Legionary State, Nistor taught at the University of Bucharest, becoming the target of Iron Guard persecutions for the support he had given to King Carol. Following the Guard's defeat during the Legionnaires' Rebellion of 1941, he sent a congratulatory telegram to Conducător Ion Antonescu.Scurtu, p.
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Volumul IX: 21 aprilie—31 decembrie 1941, p. 31. Bucharest: Editura Machiavelli, 2008. Like other Guardists, Coroamă was dissatisfied with Antonescu's regime, or "National Legionary State". Already on September 9, 1940, he was sent over as General Officer of the 4th Army Corps, stationed at Iași, which equated with a demotion.
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20–21 After a brief civil war in January 1941, the Guard was removed from power and again repressed. German reports identified PNȚ-ist generals as most active in destroying the National Legionary regime;Trașcă, pp. 14–15 armed PNȚ civilians, including Lupu, assisted the Army at various locations in Bucharest.
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This choice collapsed any republican norms about the use of force. In this first (he would invade again) march on Rome, he declared a number of his political opponents enemies of the state and ordered their murder. Marius would escape to his friendly legionary colonies in Africa. Sulpicius was killed.
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Clatchard was subsequently mentioned by Robert Sibbald in 1711 who attributed its construction to the Romans. Clatchard Craig lay close to the authentic Roman site of Carpow, a legionary fortress of the Severan era.Site record of Carpow at RCAHMS Clatchard Craig viewed from the North. Late 19th or early 20th century.
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Arbate urges the brothers to conceal their differences and greet their father. The brothers agree to hide their feelings for Aspasia. Farnace conspires with Marzio, Roman legionary officer, against Mitridate. Scene 3 Mitridate arrives on the shores of Nymphæaum with Princess Ismene, daughter of his ally the King of Parthia.
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Neagoe, p. 135 and under Ion Antonescu from September 4 to 14, until the establishment of the National Legionary State.Neagoe, p. 137 Arrested under the new communist regime, he was sent to Sighet prison in May 1950, dying there nearly two years later. He was buried in a mass grave.
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184–186 A special aspect of political repression and cultural hegemony was Antonescu's persecution of Evangelical or Restorationist Christian denominations, first outlawed under the National Legionary regime.Deletant, pp.58, 297, 302 Several thousand adherents of the Pentecostal Union and the Baptist Union were reportedly jailed in compliance with his orders.
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He was out of tournaments for 4–5 years and started body building. He has been playing in the Emirates World League since year 2016 and then the Spanish and Austrian matches. Currently, Heidarzad plays in the Emirates League at Al Nasr Club. He is the only Iranian Karate legionary in other countries.
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86 In his 1928 Politica, considered the first Romanian volume of political theory, he suggested the establishment of a military dictatorship to consolidate the Romanian monarchy.Clark, p. 143; Volovici, p. 162 Brăileanu most likely joined the Iron Guard (or "Legionary Movement"), a radical antisemitic and fascist group, upon its founding in 1927.
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In the latter case, it was not a rank. # vexillarius (standard-bearer).AE (1985) 721 This is the only one of the three positions which was certainly a military rank, a junior officer. In terms of pay, a legionary infantry vexillarius was probably a sesquiplicarius ("one-and-a-half pay man"), i.e.
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45–46, 71–72. During the early and middle Republican era, conscripted soldiers and their officers were expected to provide or pay for all their personal equipment. From the late republic onwards, they were salaried professionals, and bought their own clothing from legionary stores, quartermasters or civilian contractors. Military needs were prioritised.
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CAH XI 393 After Tiberius, the number of prefects in office simultaneously was normally two, but occasionally only one or even three. By AD 23, there were nine Praetorian cohorts in existence.Tacitus Ann. II.5 These were probably the same size as legionary cohorts (480 men each), for a total of 4,320 effectives.
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He was editor of Archaeologia Cambrensis from 1950 to 1955. His brother, Alvah Harry Nash-Williams, was a well-known author of school Latin textbooks, and his son, Crispin St. John Alvah Nash-Williams, a prominent mathematician. A monument to his efforts can be seen at the Roman Legionary Museum in Caerleon.
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So when the improved Imperial helmet appeared, it replaced what remained of the very old Coolus type, which was largely superseded at the time by improved versions of the Montefortino helmet type which continued to serve alongside it for a time. This constituted the final evolutionary stage of the legionary helmet (galea).
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His other armour included armoured greaves, a protective belt above a loin cloth, and a helmet with a side plume, visor and high crest. He and the hoplomachus, with his Greek equipment, were usually pitted against the murmillo, armed like a legionary, mimicking the opposition between Roman soldiers and their various enemies.
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Sixty-four political detainees were killed by the Iron Guard (Legion), with further high-profile assassinations in the immediate aftermath. It came about halfway through the fascist National Legionary State and led to the first open clash between the Guard and conducător Ion Antonescu, who ousted the Legion from power in January 1941.
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In 1944 he fled to Austria where he held the title of minister of cults in the Vienna Legionary Exile Government. Vladimir Cristi was arrested by the NKVD when he tried to contact Constantin Argetoianu. He was deported to the USSR, and after that he was detained at Vacaresti Prison, where he died.
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Attracted by emerging far-right and fascist politics in Romania, Cantacuzino began contributing to the Bucharest-based Legionary newspaper, Axa, then edited by notable far-right figures such as Ion Moța, Vasile Cristescu, Alexandru Constant, Mihail Polihroniade, and Mircea Eliade. He also contributed writings to magazines Convorbiri literare, Cuvântul studențesc, Vestitorii, and Libertatea.
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Alexandru Cantacuzino and Vasile Cristescu, having escaped, were sentenced to 9 years in prison, whereas the other detainees received a sentence of only 7 years.DANIC, DGP fund, file no. 262/1940, pp. 86 Due to this wave of arrests, the Legionary movement lacked its entire senior leadership and was now unable to function.
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The Roman road between the legionary fortresses at Chester (Deva Victrix) and York (Eboracum) crosses Trafford, passing through Stretford, Sale, and Altrincham.Nevell (1997), pp. 17, 20, 75. The settlements in Trafford have been based largely around agriculture, although Altrincham was founded as a market town in the mid 13th century.Nevell (1997), p. 51.
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Goldsworthy (2000) 49 The cavalry role of equites dwindled after the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), as the number of equestrians became insufficient to provide the senior officers of the army and general cavalrymen as well. Equites became exclusively an officer-class, with the first class of commoners providing the legionary cavalry.
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They are famous Legionaries from decades ago. It quickly becomes apparent that they are clones. The group is led by Altern, an altered human clothed in a flexible gold-like metal exoskeleton. The strike team are eager to try their skills against a real Legionary, but when given the chance, Keill defeats them.
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Budișteanu was in government until the National Legionary State was established on September 14.Stelian Neagoe, Istoria guvernelor României, p. 137. Bucharest: Editura Machiavelli, 1999. He served as an attorney for Guard members arrested during the January 1941 Legionnaires' rebellion, but by December 1943 had shown a willingness to cooperate with Antonescu.
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Outline of the first 'elliptical' temple In 1939 some paving and the walls of two unusual elliptical buildings were discovered, one atop the other. These 'elliptical' buildings were partially uncovered behind Chester's market hall,Mason (2001), pp. 76–77. and no similar buildings have been found in other legionary fortresses.Mason (2002a), p. 40.
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Henri Zalis, "Din perspectiva unui dublu centenar: Mircea Eliade – Mihail Sebastian", in Ramuri, Nr. 04/2008 According to literary historian Ovidiu Morar, Perpessicius and novelist Zaharia Stancu were also the only literary men to speak out against the marginalization of Felix Aderca, who was also Jewish. Ovidiu Morar, "Scriitorii evrei și 'corectitudinea politică' din România" , in Convorbiri Literare, July 2007 These events were taking place in the first year of World War II, just months before Carol's regime lost credibility for the peaceful cession of Romanian territories to the Soviet Union and Hungary (see Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, Second Vienna Award). This was followed by the proclamation of a new Axis-aligned fascist regime, the National Legionary State, formed as an uneasy partnership between the Iron Guard and Conducător Ion Antonescu. Perpessicius left ironic notes on National Legionary propaganda, recording the Romanian Radio speakers' disjointed and unprofessional praise for the new government, the self-proclaimed purge of Romanian culture by the Guard's Legionary critics, or the rapid fascization of modernist poets such as Ion Barbu (who wrote a special poem for Adolf Hitler).
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Along the perimeter, a ditch (fossa) would be excavated, and the spoil used to build an earthen rampart (agger) on the inside of the ditch. On top of the rampart was erected a palisade (vallum) of cross-hatched wooden stakes with sharpened points. Within this precinct, a standard, elaborate plan was used to allocate space, in a pre-set pattern, for the tents of each of the various components of the army: officers, legionary infantry (split into hastati, principes and triarii) and legionary cavalry, Italian allied infantry and cavalry, extraordinarii and non-Italian allies.Polybius VI.27-31 The idea was that the men of each maniple would know exactly in which section of the camp to pitch its tents and corral its animals.
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He and Vasile Marin (another prominent Legionary) were killed on the Madrid Front on the same day of fighting (13 January 1937). Their funerals in Bucharest (13 February 1937) were an immense and orderly procession (see Funerals of Ion Moța and Vasile Marin), attended by the Ministers of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Francisco Franco's Spain, representatives of Portugal, Japan (at the time in the early Shōwa period), and delegates of the Polish Patriotic Youth. On the commemoration of the deaths of Moța and Marin on 13 January 1938, Codreanu created a special order in the ranks of the Legionary units: the Moța-Marin Corps under the direction of Alexandru Cantacuzino. The members of this elite corps had Ready to Die as their slogan.
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On the eve of the establishment of the Royal Dictatorship of Carol II, Armand Călinescu, then serving as Minister of the Interior, issued Order no. 746 of 6 March 1938, ordering all police prefectures and gendarmerie to keep files on Legionnaires and, if they did not comply with the new legislation prohibiting political activity, to arrest them. Theoretically, it was aimed at suppressing any form of political activity, but practically, according to Legionary historian Ilarion Țiu, this order was largely abused, mainly with traps set by the authorities (circulars, orders, and false communiqués issued by the Ministry of Interior in guise of official Legionary bulletins). This order would serve as justification of the later arrest and assassination of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu.
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Ion Antonescu and Horia Sima in October 1940 In September 1940, Carol II abdicated and the Iron Guard entered a tense political alliance with General Ion Antonescu, forming what was popularly known as the National Legionary State. At that point, Sima was able to officially return from exile and rise to power as deputy prime minister in the new government, as well as resume his activities as leader of the Iron Guard in Romania. Sima appointed five Legionnaires into ministerial positions within the National Legionary State, and Legionnaires assumed leadership roles as prefects in each of Romania's administrative districts. Romanian territorial cessions in the summer of 1940, secretly implemented by his Nazi protectors, offered him the pretext for sparking a wave of xenophobic and antisemitic attacks.
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Carol abdicated in September 1940, and the succeeding National Legionary State suspended parliament. The National Legionary State as such lasted less than five months, but it was succeeded by Ion Antonescu's military dictatorship, and parliament remained suspended. After 23 August 1944, under the pressure of Soviet and other communist forces, the parliament was re-organized as a single legislative body, the Assembly of Deputies, changed under the 1948 constitution, into the Great National Assembly, a merely formal body, totally subordinate to the power of the Romanian Communist Party. The Romanian Revolution of December 1989 opened the road for Romanians to restore authentic pluralistic electoral democracy, respecting human rights, and observing the separation of powers and the rulers' responsibility before representative bodies.
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243 According to historian Mihail Ionescu, the Conducător was not averse to the Iron Guard's "Legionary principles", but wanted antisemitism to be "applied in an orderly fashion", as opposed to Horia Sima's revolutionary ways. Historian Ioan Scurtu believes that, during the Legionary Rebellion, Antonescu deliberately waited before stepping in, in order for the Guard to be "profoundly discredited" and for himself to be perceived as a "savior". In April 1941, he let his ministers know that he was considering letting "the mob" deal with the Jews, "and after the slaughter, I will restore order." Lucian Boia notes that the Romanian leader was indeed motivated by antisemitic beliefs, but that these need to be contextualized in order to understand what separates Antonescu from Hitler in terms of radicalism.
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This line of defence extended from south of Damascus to Wadi al-Hasa. The region from Wadi Mujib to Wadi al- Hasa contained four castella and a legionary camp. The frontier south of Wadi al-Hasa, which extended to the Red Sea at Aila (Aqaba), may have been called the Limes Palaestina.Parker 1986, p.
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224 Co-opted on the Guard's executive committee, or "Legionary Forum",Ornea, p. 330 he was still particularly interested in the creation of a new Guardist elite. Unlike Sima, he saw in it a conservative rather than revolutionary force,Bruja (2009), pp. 299–300 lecturing on the topic and having his ideas reprinted in Universul.
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An ECyD member playing a variation of capture the flag at Camp River Ridge in Indiana. ECyD is affiliated with several youth organizations under the Regnum Christi, and the Legionary of Christ umbrella. This affiliation is usually listed as being "Powered by EcyD." For girls, these include Challenge, Pure Fashion, leading K4J and Mission Youth.
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Their offensive weapons included a spear (hasta), a cavalry sword (spatha), which was much longer than the infantry gladius to provide greater reach and a long dagger. The elite status of an alaris is shown by the fact that he received 20% greater pay than his counterpart in a cohort, and than a legionary infantryman.
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His law thesis, finished in 1932 at the University of Bucharest, was entitled "The Fascism". Marin married, with the approval of Legionary leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Ana Maria Ropala in February 1933. Ropala was the daughter of a Romanian army officer and a Jewish woman who had converted to Christianity. She was a medical doctor.
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Legionary Prefects were appointed in all of the fifty Romanian counties.D. Deletant, Springer, 2006, Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and his Regime, Romania 1940-1944, pp. 57-58 The Guard was awarded four portfolios: Interior, Education, Foreign Affairs, and Cults. In addition, most of the permanent secretaries and directors in the ministries were also Guardists.
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As the dominant political force, the Guard also controlled the press and propaganda services.Keith Hitchins, Cambridge University Press, 2014, A Concise History of Romania, p. 204 On 6 October 1940, Antonescu attended an Iron Guard rally dressed in Legionary uniform. On 8 October, German troops began crossing into Romania, and soon numbered over 500,000.
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Ditches and ramparts of Ardoch Roman Fort The principal forts of the Gask Ridge frontier system were (from south to north):Gazetteer at The Roman Gask Project Camelon, Drumquhassle, Malling, Doune, Glenbank (fortlet), Bochastle, Ardoch, Kaims Castle (fortlet), Strageath, Dalginross, Bertha, Fendoch, Cargill (fort and fortlet), Inchtuthil (Legionary fortress), Cardean, Inverquharity (fortlet) and Stracathro.
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The Carthaginian hero Sychaeus is slain. The Romans seek refuge in the trees where they are slaughtered and there is an earthquake. Ducarius slays Flamininus who is buried by a heap of Roman dead. Book 6 The book opens with a description of Bruttius' burial of the legionary eagle to save it from Hannibal.
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Collaborationist paramilitary and political organizations, such as the Milice and the Legionary Order Service, were also disbanded. The provisional government also took steps to replace local governments, including governments that had been suppressed by the Vichy regime, through new elections or by extending the terms of those who had been elected no later than 1939.
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Over the next few centuries, the province was periodically and increasingly attacked by migrating Germanic tribes. The reign of Justinian saw the construction of over 100 legionary fortresses to supplement the defence. Thracians in Moesia and Dacia were Romanized, while those within the Byzantine empire were their Hellenized descendants that had mingled with the Greeks.
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James Toovey (London), 1844. ("Fort" or "City of the Legion"); this later developed into ' and then the modern Welsh '. (The town's importance is noted by its taking the simpler form in each case, while Isca Augusta in Monmouthshire, another important legionary base, was known first as Caerleon on the Usk, and now as Caerleon).
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The edition was not reviewed by the mainstream German press. Other sections of the European far right also claim Eliade as an inspiration, and consider his contacts with the Iron Guard to be a merit—among their representatives are the Italian neofascist Claudio Mutti and Romanian groups who trace their origin to the Legionary Movement.
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Djuvara, p.179; Giurescu, p.271-272 In World War II, Jews were the target of widespread violence during the National Legionary State regime and, many were attacked and had their property looted, while others were eventually killed. During the Iron Guard Rebellion in January 1941 some 130 Jews were brutally tortured and murdered.
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On December 14, 2011, Senior Research Fellow Jeong Seong-jung of the Sejong Institute announced that Choi Kyung-sung had discovered that the commander of the army was a legionary. In 2020, members of the Corps were sent to the Sino-DPRK border area of Ryanggang Province to combat smuggling and other "anti-state" activities.
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I, 1974, pp. 229–230; Ion Mihalache, "Însemnări memorialistice (4)", in Forum Cultural, Vol. VII, Issue 3, September 2007, p. 17 Gomoiu kept his ministerial office during the first government of Ion Antonescu, from September 4 to 14, until the establishment of the National Legionary State and Carol's flight from the country.Neagoe, p. 137.
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320; Morgan, p.85; Ornea, p.326 As Prime Minister, Antonescu was a man acceptable to both the Iron Guard and the traditional elite.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 713.
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Some regiments were named after other people, for example ala Sulpicia after its first, or early, '. In the Augustan era, commanders of auxiliary units were often Roman legionary centurions, or native chieftains. For example, ' was probably once commanded by a Gallic chieftain named Atectorix. Later, emperor Claudius restricted auxiliary commands to the lower aristocratic class of ' only.
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There are other examples in the UK of Roman baths serving forts, for example the infrastructure at Caerleon, also a legionary fortress, where there was a frigidarium, tepidarium and caldarium, as well as an open-air swimming pool. The Six Bells in St Albans, is also built above a bath house, but the Roman remains are not on display.
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532 From his new home in Bucharest, Brăileanu was consulted by the FRN regime and Prime Minister Ion Gigurtu, helping them draft Romania's first set of antisemitic laws.Butaru, pp. 294–295 A month later, the FRN dictatorship crumbled, and Carol II abdicated; the Guard seized the opportunity and proclaimed its National Legionary State, with Ion Antonescu as the Conducător.
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Hibaldstow was founded as a Roman legionary 'roadside fort' on Ermine Street, the road from Lincoln to the Humber; later it became a posting station. The earliest evidence for occupation suggests a date in the late first century. Occupation continued into the late fourth century. There is no Iron Age settlement evidence from the Roman site itself.
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Csülök, Senki Alfonz and Tuskó Hopkins the three legionaries live at the fortress of Oasis Rakhmar. Legionary Tuskó Hopkins serves by the name of Herman Torze because of a stolen uniform and data. He receives a letter from a young lady named Yvonne Barre addressed to Torze. She is in search for her brother, Francis Barre.
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Taken together, around twenty professors emerged from under his tutelage at Cluj and Bucharest. During the National Legionary State, he was temporarily removed from his post of clinic director. After World War II, he showed increasing signs of Parkinson's disease and cardiac sclerosis. He asked to retire in 1947, and left the clinic for good in 1949.
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Haoussa derives from the Hausa tribe. ': :Lagos (1914 – December 12, 1991): "Lakes" in Portuguese. ': :Skopje: The name of Skopje derives from an ancient name that is attested in antiquity as Latin Scupi, the name of a classical era Greco-Roman frontier fortress town.Watkins, Thomas H., "Roman Legionary Fortresses and the Cities of Modern Europe", Military Affairs, Vol.
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The chief difference between the two units was citizenship. Whereas legionary soldiers were citizens of Rome, auxiliary soldiers came from provinces in the Empire. Auxiliary soldiers had the opportunity to obtain Roman citizenship only after their discharge. Tombstones served to distinguish Romans from non-romans, and to enforce the social-hierarchy that existed within military legions.
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Azali (Greek: Ἄζαλοι) was a tribe that inhabited Brigetio (now Szőny) in Noricum, transported there during the Roman conquest from southern Pannonia. They had been deported after the 6–9 AD rebellion. They, along with the Eravisci, inhabited the Fejér County during the Marcomannic Wars (166–180). The civitas azaliorum included the Brigetio legionary fortress and surrounding settlements.
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An armilla (plural armillae) was an armband awarded as a military decoration (donum militarium) to soldiers of ancient Rome for conspicuous gallantry. Legionary (citizen) soldiers and non-commissioned officers below the rank of centurion were eligible for this award, but non-citizen soldiers were not.Maxfield, Valerie A. (1981). The Military Decorations of the Roman Army, pp. 89-91.
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The gladius hispaniensis (adopted by the Romans from an Iberian design, probably during the First Punic War (260-41 BC), was a short (median length: 450 mm) stabbing-sword that was designed for close-quarters fighting. It was standard for the Principate infantry (both legionary and auxiliary). The cavalry used the spatha (It. spada, French épée, Sp. espada, Rom.
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More rarely, regiments appear to have been housed in the castra legionaria (legionary fortress) of the legion they were attached to. Although inscriptions, especially the regiment's tile- and brick-stamps, can attest which forts the regiment occupied, most are not datable and so it is rarely possible to reconstruct a precise sequence or chronology of forts occupied.
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More rarely, regiments appear to have been housed in the castra legionaria (legionary fortress) of the legion they were attached to. Although inscriptions, especially the regiment's tile- and brick- stamps, can attest which forts the regiment occupied, most are not datable and so it is rarely possible to reconstruct a precise sequence or chronology of forts occupied.
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Jaroslav Čihák Major general Jaroslav Čihák (24 July 1891 - 30 April 1944) was an Austro-Hungarian army officer from 1914 and Russian legionary from 1916 (command platoon and battalion). Čihák was born in Kratonohy. Between the wars he was battalion commander, second in regiment command and regiment commander. From 1936 he was commander of the infantry school in Milovice.
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He returned to the Bucharest Conservatory in 1930 and remained there until 1948, when he retired. During the Second World War, in the times of the National Legionary State, Cuclin was briefly the Director of the Conservatory, but he did not have the best relations with the Legion, a fact that got him relieved of that responsibility.
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The surrealist group survived clandestinely during the repressive fascist regimes of the National Legionary State and Ion Antonescu. Its leftist ideals and the Jewish origins of three of its affiliates made it impossible for the group to express itself openly: Trost, for instance, was explicitly banned by the authorities.Crohmălniceanu (2001), p. 164. See also Morar, p.
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Later he was called also tribunus liburnarum (tribune of warships). The crew consisted of the officers (trierarchus), the rowers (remiges) and a centuria Marines (manipulares/milites liburnarii). The team (classiari/classici) were divided into two groups, the technical staff and the Marines. The service was 26 years (as opposed to the 20 to 25 years for a legionary).
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On 10 December 1933, the Romanian Liberal Prime Minister Ion Duca banned the Iron Guard. After a brief period of arrests, beatings, torture and even killings (twelve members of the Legionary Movement were murdered by the police force), Iron Guard members retaliated on 29 December 1933, by assassinating Duca on the platform of Sinaia railway station.
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His men joined battle with the Romans and were utterly routed. Tacitus gives no details on how this was accomplished, but later events suggest that the Numidian line was probably broken by the legionary infantry charge.Tacitus IV.24 Tacfarinas fled into the desert with the shattered remnants of his army and Camillus was awarded triumphal honours.
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The classic legionary scutum, a convex rectangular shield, also disappeared during the 3rd century. All troops except archers adopted large, wide, usually dished, ovoid (or sometimes round) shields. These shields were still called Scuta or Clipei, despite the difference in shape.Elton (1996) 115The Strategikon book 1, sections 2 and 8, book 3, section 1, book 12B, section 5.
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The military discipline of the legions was quite harsh. Regulations were strictly enforced, and a broad array of punishments could be inflicted upon a legionary who broke them. Many legionaries became devotees in the cult of the minor goddess Disciplina, whose virtues of frugality, severity and loyalty were central to their code of conduct and way of life.
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In a unique engagement, one of the Legionary Air Force pilots scored an air-to-air victory when he encountered a lone twin-engine Tupolev SB bomber over Soria and shot it down."Breda Ba.65." comandosupremo.com. Retrieved: 9 August 2010. Of the 23 Ba.65s sent to Spain, 12 were lost in the course of the civil war.
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Boia, p.320 Other Legionary texts of the time drew a similar parallel between Codreanu, Eminescu, and the 18th century Transylvanian Romanian peasant leader Horea. Thus, in 1937, sociologist Ernest Bernea had authored Cartea căpitanilor ("The Book of Captains"), where the preferred comparison was between Codreanu, Horea, and Horea's 19th century counterparts Tudor Vladimirescu and Avram Iancu.Ornea, p.
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Interior of the assembly hall The cohort fort was occupied by the Cohors II Raetorum civium Romanorum equitata (2. partially mounted Raetian cohort with Roman citizenship), a partially equestrian 500-men infantry unit, probably under the command of the legionary headquarters at Mogontiacum (modern Mainz).Joachim von Elbe: Unser römisches Erbe. Umschau- Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1985.
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The Legionary Fortress Baths at Caerleon (2 vols). National Museums and Galleries of Wales. Launfal takes humble lodgings, spends all the money that King Arthur gave him before setting out, and soon descends into poverty and debt. One Trinity Sunday, the king holds a banquet in Caerleon to which Launfal, because of his poverty, is not invited.
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Southern theater commander General Nathanael Greene reorganized part of Lee's Legion and elements of the amalgamated 1st and 3rd Light Dragoons in Charlotte and dispatched them on a series of raids against Loyalist forces in western Carolina. The dragoons joined the "flying corps" commanded by General Daniel Morgan at the Battle of Cowpens, securing a crucial victory for the American forces in the early stages of the war. Later, the 3rd Legionary Corps participated in Greene's maneuvers across North Carolina and fought well against Cornwallis's army at Guilford Courthouse. In January 1781, the practice of the dragoons employing both mounted and dismounted troops resulted in their official reconfiguration as Legionary Corps, the mounted dragoons supported by dismounted dragoons armed as infantry, an organization that persisted until the war's end.
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42f Then a further surprise: the inscription from Pisidian Antioch records he was made legatus Augustus pro praetorus (or governor) of a series of districts – Galatia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia, Isauria, Paphlagonia, and other districts. Syme provides a possible solution to this puzzle: he notes that the governor of Cappadocia, Lucius Antistius Rusticus, died in office in AD 94; he proposes that on the death of Rusticus that the province was temporarily divided between the two legionary legates, with Sospes, legate of Legio XIII Gemina, assuming control of Galatia and the neighboring districts, while the other assumed responsibility for the parts of Cappadocia bordering Armenia and Parthia. When Rome was able to send a consular replacement – Titus Pomponius Bassus, who arrived the next year – the two legionary legates returned to their regular responsibilities.Syme, "Enigmatic Sospes", pp.
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On 2 September 1940, Valer Pop, a courtier and an important member of the camarilla first advised Carol to appoint General Ion Antonescu as Prime Minister as the solution to the crisis.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 711. Pop's reasons for advising Carol to have Antonescu as Prime Minister was partly because Antonescu - who was known to be friendly with the Iron Guard and had been imprisoned under Carol - was believed to have enough of an oppositional background to appease the public and partly because Pop knew that Antonescu for all his Legionary sympathies was a member of the elite and would never turn against it.
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A legionary camp may have also existed at Aila (modern Aqaba), which has been excavated by Parker since 1994. The city was located at the north end of the Gulf of Aqaba where it was a centre of sea traffic. Several land routes also intersected here. Legio X Fretensis, originally stationed in Jerusalem, was transferred here to the terminus of the Via Nova.
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He survived the "National Legionary" episode of Iron Guard rule, when he was reportedly marginalized as a "Freemason". According to one testimony, the general was never forgiven by the Guard for having supported Stelescu. During the putsch of January 1941, Iron Guard assassin squads were on the lookout for Rădescu, who went into hiding. Alexandru Șerbănescu, "Nicolae Rădescu 6 martie 1945", in Memoria.
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The main change in structure was the establishment of large armies that accompanied the emperors (comitatus praesentales) and were generally based away from the frontiers. Their primary function was to deter usurpations. The legions were split up into smaller units comparable in size to the auxiliary regiments of the Principate. In parallel, legionary armour and equipment were abandoned in favour of auxiliary equipment.
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Although by then a secondary figure, cut off from the major political centers,Heinen, p. 168 Brăileanu was deeply involved in its creation, in recruiting youth, and in organizing charity campaigns, his activities closely monitored by the Romanian Police.Bruja (2008), passim He was particularly enthusiastic about the Guard's work-camp network, deeming them the "formative school of the Legionary Romanian".
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639–641 Like Sima and painter Alexandru Bassarab, he also promoted the ideal of a new "Legionary art", which advertised itself as the true representative of Romanian values."Artă și ideologie: expoziția Munca legionară", in Studii și Cercetări de Istoria Artei, Vol. I, 2011, pp. 202–203 He described Codreanu as the national "educationist" and "great reformer of our times",Ornea, pp.
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The emergence of antisemitic and fascist regimes (see Romania in World War II, Holocaust in Romania) signified the beginning of Relgis' marginalization. During the short-lived National Legionary State, established by the Iron Guard fascists between 1940 and early 1941, the author lived in seclusion. His Biblioteca Cercului Libertatea was banned in 1940, but Relgis secretly moved the books into a stable.
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2 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library) Under the National Legionary State, some authors sympathetic to the ruling Iron Guard celebrated its enforcement of censorship as a revolution against modernist literature. In their magazine Gândirea, Dan was referred to as an exponent of "Judaic morbidity". S[eptimiu] B[ucur], "Cronica măruntă. Revista Fundațiilor Regale", in Gândirea, Nr. 7/1940, p.
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Immediately after the establishment of the Iron Guard's National Legionary State, Argeşanu himself was imprisoned without trial in the Jilava prison, and ultimately killed there during the Jilava Massacre by members of the Iron Guard on the same night together with 63 other political prisoners, in retaliation for the violence he had endorsed. Argeşanu was married to the pianist Manya Botez.
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The legionary base of Melitene controlled access to southern Armenia and the upper Tigris. It was the end point of the important highway running east from Caesarea (modern Kayseri). The camp attracted a civilian population and was probably granted city status by Trajan in the early 2nd century AD, with the rank of Municipium.Cambridge Ancient History 11 – The High Empire, p.
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On January 1, 1781, the regiment was reorganized by the dismounting of two of its six troops and re-designated the 2nd Legionary Corps. The regiment was furloughed June 9, 1783, at Newburgh, New York and discharged on November 20, 1783, by proclamation of General Washington. The 2nd Light Dragoons are prominent in Colonel John Trumbull's paintings of the American Revolution.
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Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, c. 122 BC. Most likely a tribunus militum (joint legionary commander). Note the plumed Attic helmet, engraved bronze cuirass, mantle, sash indicating equestrian rank, pteruges. The soldier on the left is wearing an Italian version of the Corinthian helmet, which has the face-guard permanently lifted back off the face, but retains its two eye-holes for decoration.
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If not possessing the specialist skills that could see a soldier chosen to become an immune, the legionary who wished to become one would have to undergo a period of specialist training, during which time they would be known as discens. The discens received the same basic pay and board as the non-specialists until he qualified for immune status.
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Brunt (1971) 418 This would have required the depleted ranks of equites to provide at least 252 senior officers (126 tribuni militum, 63 decuriones and 63 praefecti sociorum), plus the army commanders (Consuls, Praetors, Quaestors, Proconsuls, etc.). It was probably from this time that equites became largely an officer-class, while legionary cavalry was henceforth composed mainly of commoners of the first class.
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Goldsworthy (2003), p.92 Communications between forts, legionary fortresses and the provincial capital were critical. Despatch-riders (dispositi), normally equites cohortales, were stationed at mutationes (road- side stations where horses could be changed) to form relays to carry messages rapidly. Relays of fresh riders and horses, careering at full gallop, could maintain an average speed of 20 miles per hour (32 km/h).
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Rankov (1994) Plate F At the legionary level, the vexillarius had charge of the commander's vexillum, or banner, and accompanied the legatus in the field. The aquilifer bore the legion's aquila standard, and wore a lion's head. He accompanied the chief centurion, as did the legion's imaginifer, who bore a standard with the emperor's image. All these standard-bearers were duplicarii.
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Most of the surviving evidence concerns legionary centurions and it is uncertain whether their auxiliary counterparts shared their high status and non-military role. It appears that many auxiliary centuriones and decuriones were members of native provincial aristocracies who were directly commissioned.Goldsworthy (2003), p.73 Auxiliary centurions risen from the ranks were thus probably less predominant than in the legions.
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Fields (2009) 10 In addition, each legion contained a small cavalry contingent of 120 men. Unlike auxiliary cavalry, however, they do not appear to have been organised in separate cavalry squadrons (turmae) as were auxiliary cavalry, but to have been divided among specific centuriae. Legionary cavalry probably performed a non-combat role as messengers, scouts and escorts for senior officers.
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Constantinesco, p. 230. The court ordered the arrest of those to be investigated, had them imprisoned at Jilava, and entrusted them to the custody of special Legionary formations, described by Alexandru Creţianu as "nothing less than an improvised version of the SS strong-arm squads".Cretzianu, Alexander. Relapse Into Bondage, Political Memoirs of a Romanian Diplomat, 1918–1947, p. 218.
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Honorary name was awarded to 102nd Reconnaissance Battalion in 2006 and since then the full name of the battalion has been the 102nd Reconnaissance Battalion of General Karel Paleček. General Karel Paleček, the patron of the 102nd Reconnaissance Battalion, was a Czech legionary, active military member during World War I and World War II, and the founder of the first Czechoslovak parachute units.
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As the civil wars came to a close, there were a total of 28 Roman legions. Some assigned numbers were repeated since legionary allegiances became scattered among generals when military overcame politics. Thus, repetitions were allocated a name as well, such as Legio III Augusta and Legio III Gallica. The consuls were commanders in chief of the army as a whole.
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Under the National Legionary State, Bassarab returned to favor as one of the leading political iconographers, also urging others to contribute "epic" art in support of the regime. Arrested during the civil strife of early 1941, Bassarab was allowed to redeem himself on the Eastern Front. He died there, in mysterious circumstances, while his work continued to be censored at home.
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With the now standardized equipment, the uniformed and heavily trained legionary became the backbone of the Roman army. Marius re-organized the Roman legion from a system of maniples into cohorts, as follows. The total number of men in a full strength legion was about 4,800 soldiers. The internal organization of a legion consisted of 10 cohorts of 6 centuries each.
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After gaining support from the Roman Senate, by 101, Trajan was ready to advance on Dacia. The Roman offensive was spearheaded by two legionary columns, marching right to the heart of Dacia, burning towns and villages in the process. In 101, the Dacians led massive assaults on the Roman legions. In 102 Trajan moved his army down the Danube to Oescus.
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The Romans always relied on their allies to provide cavalry. These were known as the Foederati. A typical Consular army of the 2nd Punic War would have much more auxiliary cavalry. As the commoners gained citizenship by the time of Social War and the Legionary cavalry became less, most cavalry were provided by allied nations from Numidia, Greece, Thrace, Iberia, Gaul and Germania.
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On 20 January 1941, the Iron Guard attempted a coup, combined with a pogrom against the Jews of Bucharest. Within four days, Antonescu had successfully suppressed the coup, and the Iron Guard was forced out of the government. Sima and many other Legionnaires took refuge in Germany, while others were imprisoned. Antonescu formally abolished the National Legionary State on 14 February 1941.
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Following Order 746, a wave of arrests of Codreanu's collaborators was launched. On the night of 16-17 April 1938, Corneliu Codreanu and 44 other Legionary leaders were arrested. Cantacuzino was arrested but managed to escape together with Vasile Cristescu, jumping from the window of the train transporting them from the Miercurea Ciuc camp to Jilava prison.DANIC, fond DGP, dosar nr.
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Vexillationes of the XIII Gemina fought under Emperor Gallienus in northern Italy. The emperor issued a legionary antoninianus celebrating the legion, and showing the legion's lion (259–260).Cowan, p. 17. Another vexillatio was present in the army of the emperor of the Gallic Empire Victorinus: this emperor, in fact, issued a gold coin celebrating the legion and its emblem.
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The Castra Albana was a permanent legionary fortress of the Legio II Parthica, founded by the Emperor Septimius Severus (193-211) on the modern site of Albano Laziale. Today, the ruins of the structures inside the castra, such as the so-called Baths of Caracalla and the Amphitheatre represent one of the largest collections of Roman archaeological remains in Latium, outside of Rome.
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A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position"Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies, p. 25 within the state. The legions of the late Republic were almost entirely heavy infantry. The main legionary sub-unit was a cohort of approximately 480 infantrymen, further divided into six centuries of 80 men each.
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Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 122 BC. Probably a tribunus militum (joint legionary commander), the officer wears a decorated bronze cuirass, pteruges, mantle, and Attic-style helmet with horsehair plume. The sash around his cuirass probably denoted knightly rank. In the republican army, tribuni were elected by the comitia centuriata (main people's assembly) from the members of the equestrian order. Musée du Louvre, Paris.
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While Germanicus was administering the oath of fealty to Tiberius, a mutiny began among the forces on the Rhine. During the mutiny, Agrippina brought out their sixth child, Gaius, and made preparations to take him away to a safer town nearby. He was in a full army outfit including the legionary hobnailed boots (caligae). These military-booties earned Gaius the nickname "Caligula" (lit.
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He sought the counsel of the prominent lawyers Istrate Micescu and Grigore Iunian, but was refused by both, and, as a consequence, his defence team comprised Legionary activists with little experience. They were several times prevented by the authorities from preparing their pleas. The conditions of his imprisonment were initially harsh: his cell was damp and cold, which caused him health problems.
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Tismăneanu, p.255 As a result of it, Becali was argued to have broken the 2002 government ordinance banning the use of fascist discourse. However, the Central Electoral Bureau rejected complaints against Becali, ruling that the slogan was not "identical" to the Legionary one. During the same period, Becali, speaking live in front of Oglinda Television cameras, called for Codreanu to be canonized.
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It is probable that the dispute between the Arabio and Sextius centred around the former land of Sittius or at least that part of it which had belonged to Masinissa. The death of Arabio was convenient for the Sittians, since the land of Sittius was converted by Rome into the Respublica IIII Coloniarum Cirtensium, a special legionary autonomy within Africa Nova.
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In 1940, under the National Legionary State proclaimed by the Iron Guard, his killing served as the basis for violent retribution. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu's views influenced the modern far-right. Groups claiming him as a forerunner include Noua Dreaptă and other Romanian successors of the Iron Guard, the International Third Position, and various neofascist organizations in Italy and other parts of Europe.
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Horia Sima, Antonescu and King Michael I of Romania, 1940 The resulting regime, deemed the National Legionary State, was officially proclaimed on September 14. On that date, the Iron Guard was remodelled into the only legally permitted party in Romania. Antonescu continued as Premier and Conducător, and was named as the Guard's honorary commander. Sima became Deputy Premier and leader of the Guard.
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Pătrășcanu was imprisoned during World War II and, after August 1940, spent time at the Târgu Jiu internment camp with Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej and the "prison faction" of the Party (the communists inside Romania, virtually all imprisoned at various stages of the war, as opposed to those who had taken refuge inside the Soviet Union). Like his fellow activist Scarlat Callimachi, he was set free by the National Legionary Government while the fascist Iron Guard, which allied Romania with Nazi Germany, was trying to preserve good relations with the Soviet Union.Chiva & Șchiop He subsequently followed orders from Teohari Georgescu to re-create a defunct outlet of the party, the cultural society Amicii URSS ("Friends of the USSR").Betea, "Ambiția..." In 1941, following the Legionary Rebellion, he was again arrested by the regime of Conducător Ion Antonescu.
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Isca, variously specified as Isca Augusta or Isca Silurum, was the site of a Roman legionary fortress and settlement or vicus, the remains of which lie beneath parts of the present-day suburban village of Caerleon in the north of the city of Newport in South Wales. The site includes Caerleon Amphitheatre and is protected by Cadw. Headquarters of the Legion "II Augusta", which took part in the invasion under Emperor Claudius in 43, Isca is uniquely important for the study of the conquest, pacification and colonisation of Britannia by the Roman army. It was one of only three permanent legionary fortresses in later Roman Britain and, unlike the other sites at Chester and York, its archaeological remains lie relatively undisturbed beneath fields and the town of Caerleon and provide a unique opportunity to study the Roman legions in Britain.
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October 1999 p. 711 Pop's reasons for advising Carol to appoint Antonescu as Prime Minister were partly because Antonescu, who was known to be friendly with the Iron Guard and who had been imprisoned under Carol, was believed to have enough of an oppositional background to Carol's regime to appease the public and partly because Pop knew that Antonescu, for all his Legionary sympathies, was a member of the elite and believed he would never turn against it. When Carol proved reluctant to make Antonescu Prime Minister, Pop visited the German legation to meet with Fabricius on the night of 4 September 1940 to ask that the German minister phone Carol to tell him that the Reich wanted Antonescu as Prime Minister, and Fabricius's promptly did just that.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pp.
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Roman military units of the period were largely homogeneous and highly regulated. The army consisted of units of citizen infantry known as legions (Latin: legio) as well as non-legionary allied troops known as auxiliary. The latter were most commonly called upon to provide light infantry or cavalry support. Military service in the later empire continued to be salaried yearly and professionally for Rome's regular troops.
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528 having presented himself on Legionary lists for both Cernăuți and Câmpulung Moldovenesc.Săndulescu, p. 154 Nationally, the split vote resulted in minority rule by a LANC successor, the National Christian Party (PNC), with the king's endorsement. Writing in Însemnări Sociologice in January 1938, Brăileanu complained that the PNC's antisemitic program was incomplete, since it failed to target liberal democracy, "that which has made kikes all-powerful".
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534 The Guard and Antonescu still clashed over issues of political control, until, in January 1941, tensions exploded as the Legionary rebellion. During these events, the "Cross Brotherhoods" were activated in various schools, and some of their members took up arms against Antonescu's more conservative faction. The university student corps was also highly active during the events, and later organized an underground movement against Antonescu.
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The legionary battalion participated in the Russian campaign, fighting at Wagram, Smolensk, Moscow and Borodino. :1808–1814 - The regiment is reorganized in Vila Viçosa participating in the Peninsular War campaigns integrated into the Anglo-Portuguese Army commanded by Marshal Beresford first and later by Marshal Wellington. Under command of Colonel Baker, the regiment distinguishes itself in the battles of Badajoz, Victoria and San Sebastian.
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The theme of the two intervening stories is adultery, and the text appropriately follows with the adultery of the baker's wife and the subsequent murder of the baker. Lucius the ass is then auctioned off to a farmer. The Tale of the Oppressive Landlord is here told. The farmer duly assaults a legionary who makes advances on his ass, Lucius, but he is found out and jailed.
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Ornea, p.36, 69-70, 116-117 Throughout the interwar period, Vianu was an adversary of the fascist Iron Guard, and polemized with its press (becoming the target of attacks serialized in Cuvântul).Ornea, p.163, 453-454 His status as a professor was in peril during the (National Legionary State established by the Guard in 1940), and he felt the imminent danger of physical assaults.
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229 He was in a relationship with Medi Wechlser, a Jewish painter whom he had met ca. 1934. The racial laws prevented them from getting married,Geta Deleanu, "O conversație neconvențională cu pictorița Medi Wechsler Dinu", in Ex-Ponto, Nr. 4/2012, p. 10 and banned Medi from artistic life. During the National Legionary regime, Roll extended his protection to a hunted communist sympathizer, George Ivașcu.
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Some of the best leaders come from both eras, including Marius, Sulla, Scipio, Caesar, Trajan and others. Note should be taken here of a large number of junior officers the Romans typically used to assure coordination and guidance. The initiative of such men played a key part in Roman success. Effective leadership was also bound up with the famous Roman centurions, the backbone of the legionary organization.
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Tribunes could also be appointed by the consuls or by military commanders in the field as necessary. After the reforms of Gaius Marius in 107 BC, the six tribunes acted as staff officers for the legionary legatus and were appointed tasks and command of units of troops whenever the need arose. The subsequent steps of the cursus honorum were achieved by direct election every year.
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The Roman general Drusus, stepson of Augustus, founded the legionary camp of Mogontiacum opposite the mouth of the Main, no later than 13/12 BC. It was intended to serve as a strategic starting point for the conquest of Magna Germania.Marion Witteyer: Mogontiacum – Militärbasis und Verwaltungszentrum. Der archäologische Befund. In Franz Dumont (Eds.), Ferdinand Scherf and Friedrich Schütz: Mainz – Die Geschichte der Stadt. p. 1026.
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In 1940, Rațiu was named Counsellor at the Romanian Legation in London, under Minister Viorel V. Tilea. In September 1940, King Carol II fled Romania and this led to the formation of the National Legionary State. As a result, Rațiu resigned from the Foreign Service, and requested political asylum in the United Kingdom. In 1943, Rațiu earned an economics degree from the University of Cambridge.
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Uniform in nature, the consistent style of these tombstones reflected the orderly, systematic nature of the army itself. Each tombstone stood as a testament to the strength and persistence of the Roman army as well as the individual soldiers. In some unique cases, military tombstones were adorned with sculpture. These types of headstones typically belonged to members of the auxiliary units rather than legionary units.
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Paganism saturated Roman military institutions. Idols of the Greco-Roman gods appeared on the legionary standards. Military service involved oaths of loyalty that maight contradict Catholic teachings even if they did not invoke pagan gods. The duties of Roman military personnel included law enforcement as well as defense, and as such Roman soldiers were sometimes obliged to participate in the persecution of Christians themselves.
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The average number of years served was about ten. In 13 BC, Augustus decreed sixteen years as the standard term of service for legionary recruits, with a further four years as reservists (evocati). In AD 5, the standard term was increased to twenty years plus five years in the reserves.CAH IX 377 In the period following its introduction, the new term was deeply unpopular with the troops.
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Webster, p. 113. (the rank seems to have been held exclusively by primipilaresDobson, p. 415. ). They acted as third-in-command to the legionary commander, the Legatus legionis, and senior tribune and could assume command in their absence.Webster, p. 113. Their day-to-day duties included maintenance of the fortress and management of the food supplies, sanitation, munitions, equipment, etc.Webster, p. 113.Keppie (1998), p. 177.
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Revealing Cheshire's Past: From Farm to Fortress (accessed 25 March 2014) Querns have been discovered at the settlement at Saltney, near the legionary fortress of Deva (Chester); the site has been suggested to have grown cereals for the garrison, although the heavy clay soil makes this less likely.Thompson, p. 16 Corn-drying ovens were installed at Cheshire's only known Roman villa at Eaton by Tarporley.
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A map of the Roman roads in Britain (), including Ermin Way (in grey) Ermin Street or Ermin Way was a Roman road in Britain. It linked Glevum (Gloucester) and Corinium (Cirencester) to Calleva (Silchester). At Glevum, it connected to the road to Isca (Caerleon), the legionary base in southeast Wales. At Corinium, it connected to the Fosse Way between Isca (Exeter) and Lindum (Lincoln).
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Though greatly outnumbered and low on supplies, the legion soldiers managed to maintain control of the tactically critical hills. By the battle's end, the legionary force had suffered 119 deaths, of which 11 were officers. Col. Ferrier was among the dead. Bolívar later praised the Legion troops and called them the "Saviors of my Fatherland", noting that they had distinguished themselves among other armies.
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The last attested activity of the Ninth in Britain is during the rebuilding in stone of the legionary fortress at York (Eboracum) in 108. This is recorded in an inscribed stone tablet discovered in 1864, now displayed in the Yorkshire Museum in York.D. B. Campbell, "The Fate of the Ninth: the Curious Disappearance of the VIIII Legio Hispana", Ancient Warfare, IV-5, 2010, pp. 48–53.
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Gh. Buzatu, Editura Mica Valahie, A History of Romanian Oil Vol II, p. 367 The decree which established the National Legionary regime on 14 September placed Antonescu and Sima on an equal footing. On 28 October, Sima accused Antonescu of violating the decree by allowing democratic parties to function. He asserted that such political diversity was contrary to the principles of a totalitarian state.
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Between 1938 and June 1941, Romania produced over 5,000 ZB vz. 30 light machine guns.Mark Axworthy, London: Arms and Armour, 1995, Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941–1945, p. 29 This accounts for an average monthly production of over 120 machine guns, meaning that around 500 were produced by the National Legionary State during its 4 months of existence.
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Between the latter half of 1939 and March 1941, Romania produced 126 Malaxa armored tractors.Mark Axworthy, London: Arms and Armour, 1995, Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941–1945, p. 33 This accounts for an average monthly production of just over 6 tractors, meaning that around 25 were produced by the National Legionary State during its 4 months of existence.
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A rare record of an ordinary person who lived to be a centenarian is the tombstone of Roman British legionary veteran Julius Valens, inscribed "VIXIT ANNIS C".Funerary inscription for Julius Valens. Roman Inscriptions of Britain - RIB 363. In the medieval period, Albert Azzo II, Margrave of Milan (d. 1097) is reported by Bernold of Constance as having lived past 100 years (iam maior centenario).
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DANIC, DGP fund, file no. 15/1938, pp. 133. However, every one of the arrestees refused, believing that the European turn towards far-right and fascist leadership would cause them to be released earlier than anticipated. The trial of Legionary leaders began on 25 July 1938 at the Military Tribunal of the Second Army Corps, with the sentence being pronounced on 1 August 1938.
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Stranded in Soviet territory following the occupation of Bessarabia, Cecan was imprisoned by the NKVD. He was shot by his captors during the Soviet retreat of 1941. In late 1940, Carol II had been pushed to abdicate, upon which the Iron Guard set up a "National Legionary State". This lasted to the civil war of 1941, when Ion Antonescu became the unchallenged dictator, or Conducător.
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Trajan After gaining the Senate's blessing for war, by 101 Trajan was ready to advance on Dacia. This was a war in which the Roman military's ingenuity and engineering were well demonstrated. The Roman offensive was spearheaded by two legionary columns, marching straight to the heart of Dacia, burning towns and villages en route. Trajan defeated a Dacian army at the Second Battle of Tapae.
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The Romans built the fort on a naturally defensible sandstone bluff that overlooked a nearby crossing over the River Medlock.Gregory (2007), p. 1. The area became an important junction for at least two major military roads through this part of the country. One highway ran east to west between the legionary fortresses of Deva Victrix (Chester) and Eboracum (York) the other ran north to Bremetennacum (Ribchester).
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As a consequence, military service at the lower (non-salaried) levels became progressively longer-term. Roman military units of the period were largely homogeneous and highly regulated. The army consisted of units of citizen infantry known as legions (Latin: legiones) as well as non-legionary allied troops known as auxilia. The latter were most commonly called upon to provide light infantry, logistical, or cavalry support.
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He served until the Continental Army was disbanded on November 3, 1783. In 1786, Allen was appointed by Congress, senior officer of the legionary corps raised in Rhode Island. In the year 1799, he was appointed by the Rhode Island General Assembly a brigadier general of militia. The mother of William Henry Allen, was the sister of William Jones, who served as Governor of Rhode Island.
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Bust of Septimius Severus wearing a paludamentum In Republican and Imperial Rome, the paludamentum was a cloak or cape fastened at one shoulder, worn by military commanders (e.g. the legionary Legatus) and rather less often by their troops. As supreme commander of the whole Roman army, Roman emperors were often portrayed wearing it in their statues (e.g. the Prima Porta Augustus) and on their coinage.
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The political standstill propelled the Iron Guard, which was Nazi-aligned, into government, and forced Carol into permanent exile. The emerging "National Legionary State" banned reviews such as Viața Românească,Crohmălniceanu, p. 115 and moved to prosecute all former FRN dignitaries. The country's new Conducător, General Ion Antonescu, announced early on that he would audit Ralea's estate—news of which were warmly received by the PNȚ.
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City walls, Exeter. Some of the stonework is medieval. Isca Dumnoniorum, also known simply as Isca, was originally a Roman legionary fortress for the Second Augustan Legion (established ) in the Roman province of Britannia at the site of present-day Exeter in Devon. The town grew up around this fortress and served as the tribal capital of the Dumnonians under and after the Romans.
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The statue was presented to the museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society (latterly the Yorkshire Museum) in 1823 by James Atkinson, who had acquired the artefact following the excavation of ‘a drain in Stonegate’. Stonegate is a medieval street in York which overlays the via praetoria of the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and it is possible that the complete statue originally stood within this area.
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Davies, p.969 It was soon followed by the Romanian branch of the ITP and its Timișoara-based mouthpiece, the journal Gazeta de Vest, as well as by other groups claiming to represent the Legionary legacy.Final Report, p.365 Among the latter is Noua Dreaptă, which depicts him as a spiritual figure and often with attributes equivalent to those of a Romanian Orthodox saint.
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A synagogue was built in 1840, with a Sephardic one following in 1874. Most local Jews in the 19th century worked in viticulture and bought land for growing vines; in the 20th century, they were mainly artisans. By 1930, the 1558 Jews of Alba Iulia represented nearly 13% of the town’s population. In October 1940, during the National Legionary State, the Iron Guard terrorized local Jews.
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Lev Prchala Lev Prchala (23 March 1892 in Slezská Ostrava - 11 June 1963 in Feldbach) was a Czech military officer, legionary commander during the World War I, general of the Czechoslovak Army, minister of the Voloshyn's autonomous government of Carpathian Ruthenia in 1939, commander of the Czechoslovak Legion in Poland during the German invasion of Poland and anti-communist politician in exile during the Cold War.
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Each province of the empire was divided into three types of local authority: coloniae (Roman colonies, founded by retired legionary veterans), municipia (cities with "Latin Rights", a sort of half- citizenship) and civitates peregrinae, the local authorities of the peregrini. Civitates peregrinae were based on the territories of pre-Roman city-states (in the Mediterranean) or indigenous tribes (in the northwestern European and Danubian provinces), minus lands confiscated by the Romans after the conquest of the province to provide land for legionary veterans or to become imperial estates. These civitates were grouped into three categories, according to their status: civitates foederatae, civitates liberae, and civitates stipendariae. Although the provincial governor had absolute power to intervene in civitas affairs, in practice civitates were largely autonomous, in part because the governor operated with a minimal bureaucracy and simply did not have the resources for detailed micro-management of the civitates.
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Although derived from a Celtic original, the Imperial helmet had more advanced features, such as a sloped neck guard with ribbing at the nape, projecting ear guards, brass trim, and decorative bosses. The Roman combat experience of the Dacian wars produced further developments in helmet design, particularly the two iron bars riveted crosswise across the helmet skull (alternatively, two thick bronze strips might be riveted to the top of a bronze legionary or auxiliary helmet); it has been suggested that this form of reinforcement was added as protection against the falx. This started as a field modification, as seen on several Imperial Gallic helmets with the crossbars hastily riveted right over the decorative eyebrows (crossbars are seen on some, though not all, of the legionary helmets on Trajan's Column), but quickly became a standard feature, found on all helmets produced from ca. AD 125 through the latter 3rd century AD.
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Trașcă, p.353 According to his own testimonies, Lecca focused his attention on Kurt Geißler, the Schutzstaffels liaison with the Guard. Lecca watched on as the Guard made preparations to oust Antonescu. He maintained that, on Geißler's request, the Guard's Legionary Police was armed with some 5,000 Walther PPs (surplus from the Berlin Police), and suggested that the Bucharest regular police chief, Guardist Ștefan Zăvoianu, had influenced Geißler into mistrusting Antonescu.Trașcă, p.337, 343-344 Lecca also claimed that the Jilava Massacre, during which the Guard purged its political enemies, was instigated by Geißler. This account contradicts other reports, according to which the Guard was voluntarily avenging its murdered founder, Captain Corneliu Zelea Codreanu.Trașcă, p.344 These intrigues were a preamble to the Guard's Legionary Rebellion, of January 1941. The attempted coup was crushed by the Conducător, who acted with authorization from Adolf Hitler.Deletant, p.313; Hausleitner, p.
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This Roman vicus was to the north of the Baden gorge on the Haselfeld, founded to support the legionary camp at Vindonissa. There was a pool complex on the left bank of the Limmat fed by a system of springs with water. The main axis of the vicus was the Vindonissa road, which ran parallel to the slope. It was flanked by porticos, beyond which lay commercial and residential buildings.
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Gheorghe I. Florescu, "Alexandru Averescu, omul politic (IX)", in Convorbiri Literare, January 2010 In 1940, aged 70, Negulescu was forced to retire by the Iron Guard's National Legionary State regime, the onset of a political purge.Boia (2012), p. 170; Nastasă (2010), p. 414 Partly recovered by the regime of Ion Antonescu, in March 1941 he worked with Gusti, Mihai Ciucă, Radu R. Rosetti, and Liviu Rebreanu on an Academy reform project.
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Carolingian cavalrymen with a draco standard from the 9th century The ' ("dragon" or "serpent", plural ) was a military standard of the Roman cavalry. Carried by the , the was the standard of the cohort as the eagle () was that of the legion. The may have been introduced to the Roman cavalry by Sarmatian units in the 2nd century. According to Vegetius, in the 4th century a was carried by each legionary cohort.
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In 2002–2003, an archaeological survey was conducted in the Legio region by Yotam Tepper as part of his master's thesis. The survey located the legionary camp on the northern slope of El-Manach hill, the village of Ceparcotani on the adjacent hill, and the city of Maximianopolis on the site of the contemporary Kibbutz Megiddo.Tepper, Y. 2003. Survey of the Legio Area near Megiddo: Historical and Geographical Research.
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Frenz führt diese Charakterisierung auf das antike Wahrnehmungsbild des Drusus bei Velleius Paterculus 2, 97, 2-4 und Tacitus: Annalen 2,41; 6,51 zurück. with a memorial ceremony. During this time the apparently spontaneous wish arose among the soldiers to erect a monument to permanently honour Drusus in Mogontiacum. Appropriate construction activities were probably already ongoing in the immediate vicinity of the legionary camp, as Augustus approved the project retroactively.
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Remnants of one of several legionary camps at Masada in Israel, just outside the circumvallation wall at the bottom of the image. During the spring of 71, Titus set sail for Rome. A new military governor was then appointed from Rome, Sextus Lucilius Bassus, whose assigned task was to undertake the "mopping-up" operations in Judea. He used X Fretensis to besiege and capture the few remaining fortresses that still resisted.
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The wall ditch at this point was not completed when first cut. At a point due north of the trig point, only a small amount of topsoil has been removed. A short distance west of this point, significant whinstone blocks remain in the ditch, with others deposited on its northern lip. One large rock provides clues to the methods used by the Legionary engineers to cut the rock.
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Quintus Petilius Secundus Quintus Petilius Secundus was a Roman legionary. He was born around 40 AD, probably in Milan and died 25 years later in Bonn. Quintus Petilius Secundus, son of Quintus Petilius came from Milan and was part of the voting district (Tribus) Oufentina. Petilius was a soldier of the Legio XV Primigenia and was noted for his early construction work in the Bonn area of modern-day Germany.
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Legionary cavalry underwent a transformation during this period, from the light, unarmoured horsemen of the early period to the Greek-style armoured cuirassiers described by Polybius. It appears that until c. 200 BC, Roman cavalrymen wore bronze breastplates, but after that time, mail became standard, with only officers retaining a breastplate. Most cavalrymen carried a spear (hasta) and the cavalry version of the small, round shield (parma equestris).
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Brunt (1971) 422 Thus, if one assumes that fresh recruits reaching military age were cancelled out by campaign losses, fully two-thirds of Roman iuniores were under arms continuously during the war. This barely left enough to tend the fields and produce the food supply. Even then, emergency measures were often needed to find enough recruits. Livy implies that, after Cannae, the minimum property qualification for legionary service was largely ignored.
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Nero was hailed vigorously in public for this initial victoryTacitus, Annals, 13.56 and Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward.Tacitus, Annals, 14.36 This was a very prestigious appointment. Not only was Syria a wealthy province, it was also one of the largest. A guard of 1000 legionary soldiers, three auxiliary cohorts and two wings of horses were allotted to Tigranes in order to defend the country.
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Mattingly (2006) The frontier legions' recruitment problems have led some historians to suggest that the rule limiting legionary recruitment to citizens was largely ignored in practice. But the evidence is that the rule was strictly enforced e.g. the recorded case of two recruits who were sentenced to be flogged and then expelled from a legion when it was discovered that they had lied about their status.Goldsworthy (2003), pp.
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Arminio and Trasone do believe that the legendary Spartacus is still alive and has organized a group of armed men to destroy the Romans . Valerio, Roman legionary, he discovers the deception and attempts to warn those who believe in the false news. The attempt is unsuccessful . After killing the two Spartacists, Valerio and his followers fought against the remaining forces of Arminius, defeating them after a bitter battle.
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She attacked one steamer, but a failure of the echo sounder and the hydrophones forced Onice to return to Cagliari for repairs. During January 31 through February 4, 1938 she carried out her third and last mission, under command of captain Manlio Petroni, off Tarragona but without any results. On February 5, 1938, she left Soller and returned to Italy and assumed her old name of Onice ending her "legionary" career.
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150–151 Troubled by the inaccuracies of his earlier predictions, Vinea was reading and reviewing "great" Trotsky's anti-Stalinist texts. Later that year, the Nazi–Soviet dissolution of Greater Romania also resulted in FRN downfall and the inauguration of Iron Guard rule: a "National Legionary State", aligned with the Axis powers and having Ion Antonescu as Conducător. This signaled the end of Facla, forcefully shut down in September 1940.
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After that, she leaves with Batty and the others. ; : :A humanoid turtle and strong soldier, dubbing himself a magic warrior instead of a magician. He dresses up like a Roman legionary and seeks fights like with the Precure mainly to test his strength. He stole the Linkle Stone Garnet and uses a secret magic to make himself very tall and more nimble, bursting his shell in the process.
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The 20-strong execution team, armed with semi-automatic Mauser pistols, was commanded by Dumitru Grozea, head of the Legionary Workers' Corps. Its members were aged between 18 and 25. Gheorghe Crețu, who killed 14 inmates, testified at his trial that Grozea gave the order to shoot at around 11:45 p.m., whereupon each executioner was sent to a particular cell, ordered the prisoners to stand and shot them.
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He is probably best known for his The Last Legionary quartet of novels, supposedly produced as the result of a challenge by a publisher to Hill's complaints about the lack of good science fiction for younger readers. Hill and his wife had one child, a son. They were divorced in 1978. He lived in Wood Green, London, and died in London after being struck by a bus at a zebra crossing.
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In AD 97, the city was designated a colonia by the Emperor Nerva. A colonia was the residence of retired legionaries and enjoyed the highest status of city in the Empire. The legionaries were given farmland in the surrounding district, and could be called upon as a Roman auxiliary armed force. The city was built within the legionary fortress and used the same rectilinear street plan and ramparts.
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It also enabled much more flexibility through independent and rapid detached operations. The cohort could vary in size depending on the time and place. For example, at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C., Pompey's cohorts numbered 409 men while Caesar's cohorts contained just 275 legionaries. Following the conclusion of the Social War, soldiers in the Roman army began to acquire a specialized expertise alongside their regular legionary duty.
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This gave the Lusitanians access to what is today's Spanish territory, modern Granada and Murcia. The results of Viriatus's efforts as well as those of the Numantine War caused many problems in Rome, the most notable being a drop in legionary recruitment rates. Learning of these events, Rome sent one of its best generals, Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, to Iberia. Near Sierra Morena, the Romans fell into a Lusitanian ambush.
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Brunt (1971) 422 Thus, if one assumes that fresh recruits reaching military age were cancelled out by campaign losses, about 60% of the confederation's available manpower was under arms continuously. This barely left enough to tend the fields and produce the food supply. Even then, emergency measures were often needed to find enough recruits. Livy implies that, after Cannae, the minimum property qualification for legionary service was largely ignored.
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Zonaras, 12:16 Maximinus, wintering at Sirmium, immediately assembled his army and advanced on Rome, the Pannonian legions leading the way. Meanwhile, in Africa, the revolt had not gone as planned. The province of Africa was bordered on the west by the province of Numidia, whose governor, Capelianus, nursed a long-standing grudge against the Gordians and controlled the only legionary unit (III Augusta) in the area.Potter, pg.
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He appointed Antigonus, an exiled Greek legionary, as the commander of his army. Antigonus fell in love with Seleucus’s daughter Helena, who was already in love with Chandragupta, and was refused by both her and Seleucus, mentioning Antigonus was an illegitimate child. Antigonus went back to Greece and upon questioning his mother, learnt that he was a legal son of none but Seleucus himself. Later, Seleucus attacked Magadha but was defeated.
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For a few weeks, only 55 artillerymen at West Point and 25 men at Fort Pitt were to remain. In August 1784, the 700 men strong First American Regiment (including two companies of artillery) was organized as kind of an army substitute. In October 1786 by approval of Congress this force should expand to a Legionary Corps of additional infantry, rifle troops, artillery and dragoons. But this project never materialised.
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Roman soldiers come to the house but capture only Asterix, as Obelix is out hunting boar. When Obelix discovers the ruse, he knocks out a legionary to get imprisoned too and rescues Asterix. After beating up the Romans at the prison, Asterix declares it is too late to buy any of Divodurum's specialties and decides to buy some in Lugdunum. As they leave, the Gauls commandeer a Roman postal cart.
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The inner courtyards of the museum mimic the layout of the ancient villa. Sepulcher of Poblicius, 40 ADIn addition to the Dionysus mosaic, which dates from around A.D. 220/230, there is the reconstructed sepulcher of legionary Poblicius (about A.D. 40). There is also an extensive collection of Roman glassware as well as an array of Roman and medieval jewellery. Many artifacts of everyday life in Roman Cologne — including portraits (e.g.
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The Iron Guard was forced out of the government. Sima and many other legionnaires took refuge in Germany, while others were imprisoned. Antonescu abolished the National Legionary State, in its stead declaring Romania a "National and Social State." The suppression of the Rebellion also provided some data on the military equipment used by the Iron Guard, amounting to 5,000 firearms (revolvers, rifles and machine guns) and numerous grenades in Bucharest alone.
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During the National Legionary State, between October and December 1940, 20 IAR 39 light bombers were delivered.Mark Axworthy, London: Arms and Armour, 1995, Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941–1945, p. 245 Between April 1939 and March 1943, Romania produced 210 Fleet 10G trainers.Mark Axworthy, London: Arms and Armour, 1995, Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941–1945, p.
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A German soldier and legionary, Rolf is extremely loyal to Germanicus, fighting alongside him in Anatolia, against the Aztecs, and finally in his name against Nepos' empire. He finds himself torn between his German heritage and his Roman training. He admires Germanicus, and sees Roman soldiers as being courageous, unlike many other Goths but has contempt for the Roman patricians. Rolf's fate at the closing of the series is likewise unknown.
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9 Janco was still undecided. He was still in Romania when the Iron Guard established its National Legionary State. He was receiving and helping Jewish refugees from Nazi-occupied Europe, and hearing from them about the concentration camp system, but refused offers to emigrate into a neutral or Allied country. His mind was made up in January 1941, when the Iron Guard's struggle for maintaining power resulted in the Bucharest Pogrom.
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Reconstructed Legionary Eagle Legio septima decima ("Seventeenth Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was founded by Augustus around 41 BC. The legion was destroyed in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (September 9, 9). The legion's symbol and cognomen are unknown. This legion was probably created to deal with Sextus Pompey, the last opponent of the second triumvirate, garrisoned in Sicily and threatening Rome's grain supply.
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"Such close links between governors and legionary legates were abnormal," notes Birley, "but they could be interpreted as a sign of favour from Hadrian."Birley, The Fasti, p. 250 His next post was prefect of the aerarium Saturni or Senate treasury, which he held for three years; Mireille Corbier dates his tenure from the year 141 to 143 with Lucius Coelius Festus as his colleague.Corbier, L'aerarium saturni et l'aerarium militare.
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However, with the exception of the Legion, the other parties at least wanted to maintain the appearance of parliamentary rule. The Legion, in contrast, fully supported Antonescu's vision of an ultranationalst and authoritarian regime. With this in mind, Antonescu formed an alliance with the Legion on 15 September. As part of the deal, Romania was proclaimed a "National Legionary State," with the Legion as the country's only legal party.
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Once in power, Sima and Antonescu quarreled bitterly. According to historian Stanley G. Payne, Antonescu intended to create a situation analogous to that of Francisco Franco's regime in Spain, in which the Legion would be subordinated to the state. He demanded that Sima cede overall leadership of the Legion to him, but Sima refused. Sima demanded that the government follow the 'legionary spirit', and all major offices be held by legionaries.
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In the aftermath of the coup, Coroamă was mistrusted and marginalized by Conducător Ion Antonescu. Given command of the 4th Army Corps in Iași, he witnessed the clashes between Antonescu and his Guard colleagues, peaking during the Legionary Rebellion of 1941. Coroamă took a moderate stance, and his mediation helped Antonescu to restore order in Iași without bloodshed. However, Coroamă remained isolated by government, and had to resign.
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Isca Dumnoniorum originated with a settlement that developed around the Roman fortress of the Legio II Augusta and is one of the four poleis (cities) attributed to the tribe by Ptolemy. It is also listed in two routes of the late 2nd century Antonine Itinerary. A legionary bath-house was built inside the fortress sometime between 55 and 60 and underwent renovation shortly afterwards (c. 60-65) but by c.
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The Silures were not subdued, however, and waged effective guerrilla warfare against the Roman forces. Ostorius had announced that they posed such a danger that they should be either exterminated or transplanted. His threats only increased the Silures' determination to resist. They surrounded and attacked a large legionary force occupied in building Roman forts in their territory; it was rescued by others only with difficulty and considerable loss.
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Viroconium at Wroxeter The tribal civitas capital was Viroconium Cornoviorum (or simply "Viroconium"), the fourth largest town in Roman Britain. It started life as a legionary fortress in the mid-1st century, possibly garrisoned by the XIV Legion then the XX Legion. The main section of Watling Street runs from Dubrium (Dover) to Viroconium (Wroxeter). The place-name itself is suggestive of the Wrekin hillfort, overlooking the site from the east.
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Gabba, Republican Rome, The Army And the Allies, p. 1 The distinction among the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.
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20 captured twenty oppida (towns, or more probably hill forts, including Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset). He also invaded Vectis (now the Isle of Wight), finally setting up a fortress and legionary headquarters at Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter). During this time he injured himself and had not fully recovered until he went to Egypt. These successes earned him triumphal regalia (ornamenta triumphalia) on his return to Rome.
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Breda Ba.65 The Ba.65 debuted during the Spanish Civil War. Thirteen Series I aircraft, powered by the Gnôme-Rhône engine, equipped the 65a Squadriglia of the Aviazione Legionaria (Legionary Air Force). The unit took part in operations at Santander in August 1937, then at the battles of Teruel and the Ebro. The aircraft proved effective and was compared positively with the German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka.
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The commander's headquarters stood at the centre; he took the auspices on a dais in front. A small building behind housed the legionary standards, the divine images used in religious rites and in the Imperial era, the image of the ruling emperor. In one camp, this shrine is even called Capitolium. The most important camp-offering appears to have been the suovetaurilia performed before a major, set battle.
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With the pressure of events in April 1945, the samples still being completed at Viberti workshops, with covered top version and not, were requisitioned by the various factions. At least three were taken by Republicans of the Social Republic. Two vehicle was captured by the partisans, one was destroyed by a Panzerfaust from a legionary of the 29th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (italienische Nr. 1) (the Italian SS division).
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Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 19, 35–37, 57. The limitanei and palatini both included legionary units alongside auxiliary units.Treadgold 1995, pp. 44–59. The nature of the limitanei changed considerably between their introduction in the 3rd or 4th century and their disappearance in the 6th or 7th century. In the 4th century, the limitanei were professional soldiers,Treadgold 1995, p. 161.Strobel 2011, p. 268.Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 57.
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These were formed into a unit known as the Peregrini. When the Emperors were in Rome the Peregrini were quartered at the Castra Peregrina on the Caelian Hill. The centurio deputatus postings ranked high in the centurionate and were highly political and had the rank of primi ordines, the most senior legionary centurions. It seems surprising, therefore, that Volusianus should have been given this job as his first recorded military appointment.
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Marcus Calventius Viator was a soldier and commander of Roman Emperor Hadrian's horse guards, the equites singulares Augusti, during the early 2nd century. Viator served as a centurion in Legio IV Flavia Felix and was training officer (exercitator) of Gaius Avidius Nigrinus' horse guards (equites singulares). He made a dedication at the legionary base in northern Dacia at Apulum sometime between 110 and 118.Anthony Birley, Hadrian the Restless Emperor, p.
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Map of the Danubeian Limes.Reconstruction of the camp and adjoining oppidium.Lauriacum was an important legionary Roman town on the Danube Limes in Austria.Lothar Eckhart: Die Stadtpfarrkirche und Friedhofskirche St. Laurentius von Enns-Lorch-Lauriacum in Oberösterreich. In: Forschungen in Lauriacum 11/1-3, Linz 1981Roman Igl: Die Basilika St. Laurentius in Enns, OÖ. In: Beiträge zur Mittelalterarchäologie in Österreich 21, 2005, p141-152 Otto Winkler, St.Laurenz-Basilika zu Enns-Lorch.
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Achim (2005), p. 147 The ICS returned to prominence in late 1940: following the Award and the political turmoil it generated, Romania became a National Legionary State, ruled over by Ion Antonescu. Manuilă and his staff were directly subordinated to the Conducător, "substantiating governmental policy decisions" and, after Romania's entry into the conflict as a Nazi ally, making demographic projects in view of a future peace.Achim (2001), pp.
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The tombstone of Marcus Caelius, at Xanten, in Germany, is a particularly well-known and ornate example of a legionary tombstone. He is shown in a deep-set relief, flanked by busts of his freedmen, beneath a classical colonnade and pediment. He holds the vitis, the cane held by a centurion, and wears a crown of oak – a symbol that he had saved another's life at some point.
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Neagoe, p. 134 When Gigurtu ascended to the post of Prime Minister on July 4, Macovei remained in his cabinet.Neagoe, p. 135 The final phase of his ministerial service lasted from September 4 to 14, from the time Ion Antonescu assumed power to the establishment of the National Legionary State.Neagoe, p. 137 Arrested by the communist regime in May 1950, he died at Sighet prison five months later.
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During the later period of the Phoney War after waging a campaign of bloody repression against the Iron Guard, which reached its peak after Călinescu's assassination, Carol began a policy of reaching out to the surviving Iron Guard leaders.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 pages 707-708.
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Cioroianu, p.435 His personality cult was reflected into Legionary art, and a stylized image of him was displayed at major rallies, including the notorious and large-scale Bucharest ceremony of October 6, 1940. Although Codreanu was officially condemned by the communist regime a generation later, it is possible that, in its final stage under Nicolae Ceaușescu, it came to use the Captain's personality cult as a source of inspiration.Cioroianu, p.435; Tismăneanu, p.255 The post-communist Noua Dreaptă, which publicizes portraits of Codreanu in the form of Orthodox icons, often makes use of such representation in its public rallies, usually associating it with its own symbol, the Celtic cross. In November 1940, the Legionary journalist Ovid Țopa, publishing in the Guard's newspaper Buna Vestire, claimed that Codreanu stood alongside the mythical Dacian prophet and "precursor of Christ" Zalmoxis, the 15th century Moldavian Prince Stephen the Great, and Romania's national poet Mihai Eminescu, as an essential figure of Romanian history and Romanian spirituality.
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In the course of Augustus’ reign (27 BC – 14 AD), Roman dominance became more concrete. Some of the traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, or relocated. While the exact date of the founding of Aventicum is not exact, it was likely established during or shortly after Augustus' reign. By 5 AD there was a dock on the shore of Lake Murten, which is the first evidence of a settlement at Aventicum.
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The novel tells of the harsh realities of life in Ancient Rome, not only for the nobilitas but also for the slave population, who revolt and kill Gaius's father during a siege of the Caesar estate. As the two boys begin their careers (Gaius as a senator and Brutus as a legionary), a political war is being played out in the senate between two powerful Generals: Cornelius Sulla and Gaius's uncle, Gaius Marius.
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The bottle was discovered during an excavation in a 4th-century AD Roman nobleman's tomb. The tomb contained two sarcophagi, one holding the body of a man and one a woman. One source says the man was a Roman legionary and the wine was a provision for his celestial journey. Of the six glass bottles in the woman's sarcophagus and the ten vessels in the man's sarcophagus, only one still contained a liquid.
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Shapur I then invaded the defenseless Syrian provinces, capturing all of their legionary posts and ravaging their cities, including Antioch, without any response.Potter (2004), pp. 248–249. Persian invasions were repeated in the following year, but now Uranius Antoninus (a priest originally called Sampsiceramus), a descendant of the royal house of Emesa, confronted Shapur and forced him to retreat. Uranius proclaimed himself emperor, however, and minted coins with his image upon them.
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While strong cities/forts and elaborate sieges to capture them were common throughout the ancient world, the Romans were unique among ancient armies in their extensive use of field fortifications. In campaign after campaign, enormous effort was expended to dig—a job done by the ordinary legionary. His field pack included a shovel, a dolabra or pickaxe, and a wicker basket for hauling dirt. Some soldiers also carried a type of turf cutter.
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Moravec returned to a newly independent Czechoslovakia at the end of World War I with the legionary rank of captain. He was accepted into Prague's War School and, upon graduation, commissioned as a major in the Czechoslovak Army. He ultimately came to command the 1st Field Battalion of the 21st Infantry Regiment in Znojmo. Simultaneous with his military career, Moravec contributed to newspapers and magazines, including Lidové noviny, on political and military matters.
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As it leaves Caernarfon it passes the site of the Roman legionary fort Segontium and later crosses the Afon Seiont and the course of the Caernarfon-to-Llanberis railway. After 1.5 miles it crosses a roundabout at Caeathro. The road as far as Waunfawr is reputed to be a Roman road and is fairly straight. After Waunfawr the road joins the Gwyrfai Valley, a glaciated U-shaped valley along the west side of Snowdon.
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It appears that in a set- piece battle-line, auxiliary infantry would normally be stationed on the flanks, with legionary infantry holding the centre e.g. as in the Battle of Watling Street (AD 60), the final defeat of the rebel Britons under queen Boudicca.Goldsworthy (2003), pp.52-53 This was a tradition inherited from the Republic, when the precursors of auxiliary cohortes, the Latin alae, occupied the same position in the line.
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Site of 'Bovium' Roman Tileworks for Legionary Chester The district has been occupied since at least the Roman period. A brickworks (possibly called Bovium) supplied clay tiles and pottery to the Roman fort of Deva Victrix, eight miles away (modern Chester). The works was located just downstream from the modern town. In the early 20th century, six kilns, a bath house, sheds and barracks were found there on the banks of the River Dee.
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In September 1940, following public outrage over the Second Vienna Award, Carol was deposed and exiled, alongside his mistress; the "National Legionary State" was established as a partnership between the Iron Guard and General Ion Antonescu. The Guard opened up Lupescu's residence, reportedly showing that she still kept Livia Auschnitt's portrait.I. M., "Casa Elenei Lupescu", in Ardealul, October 20, 1940, p. 1 Antonescu was lenient toward her husband, dispatching him to a sanitarium,Wallersteiner, p.
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AMEF Arad was excluded from Divizia A and substituted with Gloria Arad. The team also did not start the 1940–41 Divizia B season after being dissolved by the legionary regime.Una dintre primele echipe de fotbal din Arad, la care a jucat Duckadam, a fost dizolvată de legionari. adevarul.ro CAM Timișoara was abusively excluded from the Divizia A and was forced to play in the Divizia B, because was a workers' football club.
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He dates this to the time of Diocletian, based on John Malalas's quoting one of Lactantius's works.The Notitia DignitatumSouthern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 89-91. The introduction of the centralized fabricae, where earlier armies had relied on legionary workshops, may reflect the needs of the field armies. The basic equipment of a 4th-century foot soldier was essentially the same as in the 2nd century: metal armour cuirass, metal helmet, shield and sword.
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As noted by political scientist Gabriel Andreescu, this is one of several strictly online projects of pro-Legionary activists trying to gain exposure in the mainstream media—in this case, the publisher is a "George Manu Foundation".Andreescu, pp. 16–17 Similarly, educationist Ștefan Popenici suggested that, against anti- defamation legislation, the deregulated web could still foster "hatefilled" sites, from sfarma-piatra.com and Noua Dreaptă's homepage to a Romanian electronic version of NSDAP/AO (1972).
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Cenad was known until the 13th century as Morisena. The legionary camp of the Legio XIII Gemina was located there. In the Middle Ages, the site was a temporary capital for Huns and then for Avars. It was subsequently ruled by the First Bulgarian Empire, prior to the Hungarian conquest. In 1028 or 1030, Chanadinus, a local pretender to Ahtum's duchy, rebelled against Ahtum and conquered the duchy with the help of Magyars.
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On 1 March 1956, the Arab Legion was renamed as the Arab Army (now Jordanian Armed Forces) as part of the Arabization of its command, under which King Hussein of Jordan dismissed the Legion's British commander "Glubb Pasha" and other senior British officers. In Israel, the Hebrew term "Ligioner" (ליגיונר), i.e. "Legionary" was still informally used for Jordanian soldiers for many years afterwards, also at the time of the 1967 war and its aftermath.
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According to some views, one of the crucial battles of the war took place near Tel Shalem in the Beit She'an valley, near what is now identified as the legionary camp of Legio VI Ferrata. Next to the camp, archaeologists have unearthed the remnants of a triumphal arch, which featured a dedication to Emperor Hadrian, which most likely refers to the defeat of Bar Kokhba's army.Mohr Siebek et al. Edited by Peter Schäfer.
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This was the main reason for the following Roman attack under emperor Trajan. In 101 Trajan (reigned 98–117), after gaining the approval of the Roman Senate, began advancing on Dacia. A stone bridge later known as Trajan's bridge was constructed over the Danube to assist the legionaries' advance. The Roman offensive was spearheaded by two legionary columns, marching right to the heart of Dacia, burning towns and villages in the process.
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British Listed Buildings, "British Listed Buildings - Caerleon, Newport", britishlistedbuildings.co.uk, 27 February 2019 The historic remains of the Roman Legionary Fortress Isca Augusta is popular with tourists and school parties and there is a marked heritage trail in the town. The Millennium Wildlife Garden is a small nature garden on the banks of the River Usk. The hilltop vantage point at Christchurch provides panoramic views of the Vale of Usk and Bristol Channel.
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For "greenshirts" see, for example, R.G. Waldeck, Athene Palace, University of Chicago Press eBook (2013), , p. 182. Originally published 1942. When Marshal Ion Antonescu came to power in September 1940, he brought the Iron Guard into the government, creating the National Legionary State. In January 1941, however, following the Legionnaires' rebellion, Antonescu used the army to suppress the movement, destroying the organization, but its then commander, Horia Sima, and some other leaders escaped to Germany.
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During the Principate, it appears that most recruits, both legionary and auxiliary, were volunteers (voluntarii). Compulsory conscription (dilectus) was never wholly abandoned, but was generally only used in emergencies or before major campaigns when large numbers of additional troops were required.Goldsworthy (2003) 77 In marked contrast, the late army relied mainly on compulsion for its recruitment of Roman citizens. Firstly, the sons of serving soldiers or veterans were required by law to enlist.
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Map of the Roman empire in AD 125, under emperor Hadrian, showing the Legio IIII Scythica, stationed on the river Euphrates at Zeugma (nr. Gaziantep, Turkey), in Syria province, from AD 68 until the early 5th century Coin issued by Philip the Arab for his wife Otacilia Severa. On the reverse in the exergue, a capricorn, in reference to IIII Scythica, beneath a tetrastyle temple; mint of Zeugma, Roman Syria, a legionary camp. BMC 34.
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The concept of reserve forces dates at least to early Roman legionary formations. In the early Roman legion, the soldiers were divided by wealth and age, with the poorer and younger Hastati forming the first line, followed by the Principes, and the wealthier and older Triarii. The first two lines were expected to do the majority of the fighting, with the third line held in reserve, both as a last resort and to deter routing.
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94 For almost three years he took courses at the University of Iași Faculty of Law, becoming a member of the local Communist organization's politburo and being sent to Bucharest to pursue a career in diplomacy. However, his past was uncovered and he was arrested on 25 June 1948. Through sentence nr. 137, handed down on 5 February 1949 by the Iași Military Tribunal, he was sentenced to seven years' correctional imprisonment for Legionary activity.
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Sometimes the horrea were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates the legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the Latera was the Armamentarium, a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall. Onager) The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the Scamnum Legatorum, the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders (Legati).
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The Italian tankettes and armoured cars were organized as the "Tank and Armoured Cars Group" (Agrupación de carros de asalto y autos blindados). The Italian aircraft were organized into the "Legionary Air Force" (Aviazione Legionaria). The Republican presence in the Guadalajara region consisted only of the 12th Division of the People's Republican Army under Colonel Lacalle. He had under his command 10,000 soldiers with only 5,900 rifles, 85 machine guns, and 15 artillery pieces.
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103 Following the Nazi-mediated Second Vienna Award, a large area, defined as "Northern Transylvania", was re-annexed by Hungary. The political crisis originating from this event also had the unlikely consequence of bringing the Iron Guard to power, producing the "National Legionary State". Slightly earlier, in August 1940, Pușcariu had proposed the founding of the Berlin-headquartered Romanian Institute in Germany, becoming its first president and serving until 1943.Olărescu, p.
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Within days of joining, Moța and Vasile Marin, another prominent Legionary, were killed on the Madrid Front at Majadahonda. After the extravagant and widely-publicised funerals of Ion Moța and Vasile Marin, they became a prominent part of the Legion's mythology. The Norwegian writer Per Imerslund fought with the Falange militia in the war in 1937. The British journalist Peter Kemp served as an officer with a Carlist battalion for the Nationalists and was wounded.
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In 1932 she excavated at Hembury hillfort, Devon and Meon Hill, Hampshire. In 1933 she married Cyril Fox, the director of the National Museum of Wales, with whom she had three sons. The Foxes excavated prehistoric and Roman sites throughout the UK, although Fox continued to lead her own excavations, such as at the Roman legionary fortress at Isca Augusta (Caerleon, Wales) in 1939. Fox lectured at the University College, Cardiff, from 1940 to 1945.
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Anne Osborn in the School Library Journal did not have much good to say about Young Legionary. She says that "Hill's trademark, non-stop action is at its best; the pages go by in a blur. The pace slows down only when the author attempts to deal with a complex relationship; he has no feelings for emotional subtleties; sentence fragments grate. Discerning readers may be disappointed by the comic book plot and hackneyed prose".
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Reenactment of a second century Roman legionary wearing a manica over his right arm A manica ( , "sleeve"Article by James Yates, M.A., F.R.S., on p. 729 of William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875. ) was a type of iron or bronze arm guard, with curved and overlapping metal segments or plates, fastened to leather straps, worn by Roman gladiators called crupellarii, and later optionally by soldiers.
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Although it banned all Romani organizations, the National Legionary State, established by the Iron Guard that September, remained generally tolerant of the Romanies as a group. However, the influence of Nazi Germany and scientific racism began seeping into its official propaganda.Achim (2004), pp. 166–167 The subsequent period saw the emergence of a strong anti-Romanyism in Romanian society, and the degeneration of relations between Romani activists and the Romanian far-right.
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Claudius Tiberianus first appears as a speculator legionis, a legionary soldier on detachment as a special agent to the provincial governor. He holds this title at the time his son Terentianus enrolled in the fleet at Alexandria, around 110 AD. Shortly thereafter, he retired, and is subsequently referred to as a veteran. Terentianus writes to Tiberianus requesting both military equipment as well as contacts to help him transfer from the fleet to a legion.
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Chester was a strategic site for a fortress, commanding access to the sea via the River Dee and dividing the Brigantes from the Ordovices.Mason (2001), p. 42. Legio II Adiutrix was sent to Chester and began the construction of a legionary fortress in the mid AD 70s. The fortress was built on a sandstone bluff, overlooking the bridge crossing the river and close to the natural harbour which is today occupied by the Chester Racecourse.
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Surviving sources give no firm indication of its numbers, but it was amongst the largest forces of its kind. The invaders initially landed in East Anglia, where the king provided them with horses for their campaign in return for peace. They spent the winter of 865–66 at Thetford, before marching north to capture York in November 866. York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and revived as the Anglo-Saxon trading port of Eoforwic.
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The governor in turn reported direct to the emperor in Rome. There was no army general staff in Rome, but the leading praefectus praetorio (commander of the Praetorian Guard) often acted as the emperor's de facto military chief-of-staff. Legionary rankers were relatively well-paid, compared to contemporary common labourers. Compared with their subsistence-level peasant families, they enjoyed considerable disposable income, enhanced by periodic cash bonuses on special occasions such as the accession of a new emperor.
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They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies. Carthaginian citizens only served in their army if there was a direct threat to the city.
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83 These incidents came shortly before the Iron Guard's own ouster from power (the Legionary Rebellion). Cioculescu maintained a low profile during the following period, when the country was placed under an authoritarian regime presided upon by the Guard's former ally, Conducător Ion Antonescu. The period saw Cioculescu focusing on his activities as a literary historian, publisher and editor. In 1940, he published his synthesis Viața lui I. L. Caragiale ("The Life of I. L. Caragiale").
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In the 2004 legislative elections, PNG won 2.2% of the popular vote but no seats in the Chamber of Deputies and Senate. For the 2009 European Parliament election, the PNGCD forged an electoral alliance with the far-right Greater Romania Party (PRM). PNGCD leader Becali was elected member of the European Parliament on the PRM list. The party's ideology under Becali's leadership is close to the one of the pre-war fascist Iron Guard (or "Legionary Movement").
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208-209 Manfred von Killinger's office as Ambassador was eventually taken on by Hanns Ludin. He was appointed as Germany's Ambassador to Romania in December 1940, and took office in January,Doerries, p.370 replacing Wilhelm Fabricius and maintaining links with the fascist regime of Conducător Ion Antonescu (see Romania during World War II). This came as Hitler decided to endorse Antonescu in his conflict with the Iron Guard, which had until then formed the National Legionary Government.
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There are numerous Greco-Roman-era buildings located in al-Qaryatayn, including an extensive sanitarium known as Hamaam Balkis ("Bath of Sheba"). During Roman rule, it served as a popular health resort,Leary, 1913, p. 129 and a base for the legionary cavalry unit "Equites Promoti Indigenae". There are also a number of Corinthian columns and marble ornaments that date from this era, when nearby Palmyra was a major city in the region;Addison, p. 236.
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During the Principate, the tactical organization of the Army continued to evolve. The auxilia remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new versatile type of unit—the cohortes equitatae—combined cavalry and legionaries in a single formation. They could be stationed at garrisons or outposts and could fight on their own as balanced small forces or combine with other similar units as a larger legion-sized force.
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These speculations cannot be proven, but as a governor Odaenathus would have been the highest authority in the province, above legionary commanders and provincial officials; this would make him commander of the Roman forces in the province. Whatever the case may be, starting from 258 Odaenathus strengthened his position and extended his political influence in the region. By 260, Odaenathus held the rank, credibility and power to pacify the Roman East following the Battle of Edessa.
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As foundations for a new building were being dug, a long architrave beam, with an inscription in Latin dedicated to Hecate, was discovered at the depth of . The inscription was written by Valerius Crescentio, a legionary of the Legio IV Flavia Felix, in the service of the emperor Maximinus Thrax. It is roughly dated at c.235 AD. It disappeared after it was discovered, but was found decades later and handed over to the National Museum in Belgrade.
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Auxiliaries were paid much less in the early 1st century, but by 100 AD, the differential had virtually disappeared. Similarly, in the earlier period, auxiliaries appear not to have received cash and discharge bonuses, but probably did so from the reign of Hadrian onwards. Junior officers (principales), the equivalent of non-commissioned officers in modern armies, could expect to earn up to twice basic pay. Legionary centurions, the equivalent of senior warrant officers, were organised in an elaborate hierarchy.
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Roman ornament with an aquila (100–200 AD) from the Cleveland Museum of Art A modern reconstruction of an aquila An aquila (Latin for "eagle") was a prominent symbol used in ancient Rome, especially as the standard of a Roman legion. A legionary known as an aquilifer, the "eagle-bearer", carried this standard. Each legion carried one eagle. The eagle had quasi-religious importance to the Roman soldier, far beyond being merely a symbol of his legion.
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Under the National Legionary State (September 1940-January 1941), he was the University of Bucharest's rector as well as editor of Cuvântul newspaper, which was replete with historical-mythological constructs. The sole full professor in the literature faculty who belonged to the Guard, he had kept his position and perhaps his life during the National Renaissance Front regime's wave of repression against the movement in 1938-1939 thanks to the intervention of Giurescu, Mihai Ralea and Alexandru Rosetti.
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The original and main action figures of the Atlantic Galaxy series were "Sky-Man" (a human "space legionary"), his companion robot "Humbot", his opponent the evil alien "Zephton" and Zepthon's robot, "Dynatlon". All these were made in plastic and composed of several pieces; random permutations of 10 base colours were available. Each figure had a few items such as laser gun, rocket-thrower, helmet, and so on. A second generation of action figures was marketed later and more limitedly.
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This formed part of the movement's strategy of gaining control over government offices and using them for repressive purposes under the National Legionary State regime. Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum site, p.119 In 1949, early in the Communist regime, the prefecture was transformed into a "provisional committee". The following September, when the counties were abolished, the office of prefect was done away with.
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The eagle standard was the most important possession of the legion, and its loss was a terrible disgrace. The aquila emblem generally had up-raised wings surrounded by a laurel wreath. It was mounted on a narrow trapezoidal base and mounted on a pole that was held aloft. The aquilifer's position was accordingly one of enormous prestige, and he was ranked immediately below the centurions and above the optiones, receiving twice the pay of an ordinary legionary .
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Between 1938 and May 1941, Romania produced 102 Rheinmetall 37 mm anti-aircraft guns.Mark Axworthy, London: Arms and Armour, 1995, Third Axis, Fourth Ally: Romanian Armed Forces in the European War, 1941–1945, p. 30 This accounts for an average monthly production of 2.5 pieces, meaning that around 10 were produced by the National Legionary State during its 4 months of existence. Between 1936 and July 1941, Romania produced 100 Vickers 75 mm anti-aircraft guns.
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By the time of Julius Caesar in 54 BC, regular legionary units were supplemented by exploratores, a body of scouts, and speculatores, spies who infiltrated enemy camps.Santosuosso, Storming the Heavens, p. 67 Due to the demands of the civil war, the extraordinary measure of recruiting legions from non-citizens was taken by Caesar in Transalpine Gaul (Latin: Gallia Transalpina), by Brutus in Macedonia, and by Pompey in Pharsalus.Smith, Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army, p.
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Historians have generally identified Caerleon as the location of the pair's martyrdom. There is some evidence to suggest that the martyrdom may have occurred not in Caerleon but in Chester. When Gildas first mentions Julius and Aaron, he says that they were martyred in the "City of Legions", or legionum urbis. That could have referred to a number of legionary fortresses, including Chester and York, both of which carry the name in a number of sources.
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According to his own account, Horia shared Crainic's rejection of the Iron Guard, and, after Carol was ousted by the latter's National Legionary State government, he was recalled from office.Rotaru He later left for Vienna. With Romania's siding with the Allies in August 1944 (see Romania during World War II), Horia was taken prisoner by the Nazi authorities, and interned in the concentration camps at Karpacz and Maria Pfarr. He was liberated a year later by the British Army.
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Elgin Street during the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs. The fans of the Senators are known as the Sens Army. Like most hockey fanatics, they are known to dress up for games; some in Roman legionary clothing. For the 2006–2007 playoff run, more fans than ever before would wear red, and fan activities included 'Red Rallies' of decorated cars, fan rallies at Ottawa City Hall Plaza and the 'Sens Mile' along Elgin Street where fans would congregate.
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To aid the Roman administration in keeping down local opposition, a legionary fortress (Isca, later Caerleon) was planted in the midst of tribal territory. The town of Venta Silurum (Caerwent, six miles west of Chepstow) was established in AD 75. It became a Romanized town, not unlike Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester), but smaller. An inscription shows that, under the Roman Empire, it was the capital of the Silures, whose ordo (local council) provided local government for the district.
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Around the same time, Phraates IV's throne was usurped by Tiridates II, but he quickly managed to reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads. Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates IV's sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates IV arranged for the release of his kidnapped son. In return, the Romans received the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war.
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The Commander of the 1st Legionary Division Stanislav Čeček gave an order: > ...Our detachment – a vanguard of Allied Forces, our only goal – to rebuild > anti-Germany front in Russia in collaboration with Russians and our > allies... In July, White Russian troops commanded by Vladimir Kappel took Syzran, while Czechoslovak troops took Kuznetsk. Anti-Bolshevik forces advanced towards Saratov and Kazan. In Western Siberia, Jan Syrový took Tyumen, in Eastern Siberia Radola Gajda took Irkutsk and later Chita.
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The movement was eventually toppled from power by Antonescu as a consequence of the Legionary Rebellion. The events associated with Sima's term in office resulted in the conflicted tendencies within the Legion and its contemporary successors: many "Codrenist" Legionaries claim to obey Codreanu and his father Ion Zelea, but not Sima, while, at the same time, the "Simist" faction claims to have followed Codreanu's guidance and inspiration in carrying out violent acts.Ornea, p.329-330, 346–348; Veiga, p.
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The balance were equipped as heavy infantry, with body armour, a large shield and short thrusting swords. They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year, known as consuls, to each lead an army.
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However, findings that would prove a late-antique settlement continuity of Partiscum have not yet come to light. In the beginning the assumed fort might have been occupied by a legionary exile. Since the peace treaty of 175 dictated by Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180), Roman officials have also been on the territory of the always restless and rebellious Iazyges. As security for the Romans, the Iazyges had to place hostages according to the contract conditions at that time.
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Keill begins to search for any fellow Legionnaires who may have survived, relying on his extreme physical conditioning and iron will to fight the course of the disease. His search is fruitless, as it appears he truly is the last Legionary. As Keill begins to lose hope, he is contacted by an unknown agency, but he ignores the contact to pursue some rumors of apparent survivors of Moros. Shortly afterwards, he is attacked outside his ship, and loses consciousness.
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The most valuable finding is the statue of the goddess Minerva with a pedestal, was found in 1967 at the entrance to the temple. Minerva wears a legionary helmet, wields a copper spear and shield, and instead of hair has snakes (the pharmacy). This statue was built in the 2nd century in Poetovio, and had him make a councilor as a votive gift of healing. More recent research in the Forum has discovered the ancient spring-fed Roman pool.
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On temple roofs, maenads and satyrs were often alternated. The frightening features of the Gorgon, with its petrifying eyes and sharp teeth was also a popular motif to ward off evil. A Roman example from the Augustan period features the butting heads of two billy goats. It may have had special significance in imperial Rome since the constellation Capricorn was adopted by the emperor Augustus as his own lucky star sign and appeared on coins and legionary standards.
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Final Report, pp. 46, 110–111; Deletant, pp. 60–61, 297–298, 302; Ornea, pp. 335–341, 347; Veiga, pp. 291–294, 311–312 As retaliation for this insubordination, Antonescu ordered the Army to resume control of the streets,Final Report, pp. 110–111; Veiga, pp. 293–295 unsuccessfully pressured Sima to have the assassins detained, ousted the Iron Guardist prefect of Bucharest Police Ștefan Zăvoianu, and ordered Legionary ministers to swear an oath to the Conducător.
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Deva Victrix, or simply Deva, was a legionary fortress and town in the Roman province of Britannia on the site of the modern city of Chester.Rankov, Hassall, & Tomlin (1980), p. 352. The fortress was built by the Legio II Adiutrix in the AD 70s as the Roman army advanced north against the Brigantes, and rebuilt completely over the next few decades by the Legio XX Valeria Victrix. In the early 3rd century the fortress was again rebuilt.
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423: A bust of Hannibal, 17th century, Museum of Antiquities (Saskatoon) Count Alfred von Schlieffen developed his eponymously titled "Schlieffen Plan" (1905/1906) from his military studies, with a particularly heavy emphasis on the envelopment technique which Hannibal employed to surround and destroy the Roman army in the Battle of Cannae., p. x, p. 134 George S. Patton believed himself a reincarnation of Hannibal – as well as of many other people, including a Roman legionary and a Napoleonic soldier.
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Cioculescu's stances resulted in his marginalization early during World War II, when, after the fall of King Carol II's National Renaissance Front, the fascist and antisemitic Iron Guard took over (see Romania during World War II). Dumitru Caracostea, appointed by the National Legionary government as head of Revista Fundațiilor Regale suspended the contributions of critics whom he considered supporters of Jewish literature: Perpessicius, Cioculescu and Streinu. Nicoleta Sălcudeanu, "Generație prin lustrație", in Viața Românească, Nr. 12/2008 The measure raised angry comments from the anti- fascist Lovinescu, who deemed it "idiotic". Instead, Cioculescu made his living teaching French language at Bucharest's Saint Sava National College. He had among his students G. Brătescu, the future physician and medical historian, also known as a Communist Party militant after the war (before being marginalized and excluded by the group in the late 1950s). In his 2003 autobiography, Brătescu recalled that Cioculescu's method went beyond the Romanian curriculum and parallel to the National Legionary requirements, introducing his students to innovative French 19th- and 20th-century authors, from Arthur Rimbaud to Marcel Proust.
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Bozgan, p.324-325, 326 When the Guard came to power in 1940 (see National Legionary State), Iordan was subject to an inquiry, which decided in favor of his early retirement; he was reinstated in 1941, when the government was replaced at the end of the Legionary Rebellion,Bozgan, p.323-325 and, despite later claims that he was an active opponent, kept a low profile during Ion Antonescu's dictatorship (see Romania during World War II).Bozgan, p.325, 327 After Romania's withdrawal from the Axis camp and the start of Soviet occupation in late 1944, he joined the Romanian Social Democratic Party (PSD), which was falling under PCR control.Bozgan, p.324, 327, 328 He supported the eventual merger of the PSD and the PCR, and was a member of the latter after 1947,Bozgan, p.327 and affiliated with the Romanian Society for Friendship with the Soviet Union. Iordan was appointed ambassador to the Soviet Union in August 1945 — during a period when left-leaning intellectuals became the predilect candidates for the diplomatic corps.
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In the summer of 1937, Carol paid an extended visit to Paris, during which he predicated to the French Foreign Minister Yvon Delbos that Romanian democracy would soon end.Lungu, Dov "The French and British Attitudes towards the Goga-Cuza Government in Romania, December 1937-February 1938" pages 323-341 from Canadian Slavonic Papers /Revue Canadienne des Slavistes Volume 30, Issue # 3 September 1988 page 325. In November 1937 in a campaign speech for the general elections due that December, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu of the Legion of the Archangel Michael gave a speech in which called for an end to the alliance with France and stated: " I am for a Romanian foreign policy with Rome and Berlin. I am with the states of the National Revolution against Bolshevism...Within forty-eight hours of a Legionary movement victory, Romania will have an alliance with Rome and Berlin".Haynes, Rebbecca "Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4.
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The original development is assumed to be military in nature and dates from the period when Roman legionaries built the road through the area, backed by the discovery of material dating from the reign of Nero. One building from this period has been identified, an apparently short-lived construction showing signs of iron working or blacksmithing, perhaps indicative of a mutatio (horse station). The name suggests the presence of a legionary fort. The modern day name of the site reinforces the idea.
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The Prime Minister of the time, Constantin Argetoianu, later referred to the Service as a "bad memory". Stelian Neagoe, Constantin Argetoianu, "Din însemnările zilnice ale lui Constantin Argetoianu (41)" , in Jurnalul Național, January 14, 2011 On September 6, 1940, the Iron Guard took power in Romania, proclaiming the National Legionary State, with General Ion Antonescu as the Conducător. Herseni, emerging as a "major propagandist"Daniel Chirot, Modern Tyrants: The Power and Prevalence of Evil in Our Age. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1995, , p.
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He joined the Iron Guard fascist movement, becoming in time a local commander. During the National Legionary Government he was appointed General Manager of the Romanian Theaters. Under his administration the Barașeum Jewish Theater (later State Jewish Theater) was founded. The creation of the Jewish Theatre was accompanied with an interdiction for Jewish actors to play anywhere else in Romania, as such the creation of the theatre being a purge of all Jewish people from all theatres across the country.
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A unique program available to ECyD members is the Mission Corps, formerly known as the ECyD coworker program. Participating members can travel to other Regnum Christi or Legionary of Christ sites in different cities around the world. These summer-long programs usually involve working in children's camps, teaching English, conducting missions, working in ECyD conventions, or working in the local Challenge or Conquest clubs or their international equivalents. Participants live with consecrated members of Regnum Christi and experience community spiritual life.
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Reconstruction of a pugio: a Roman soldier from a northern province A pugio was a dagger used by Roman soldiers, likely as a sidearm. Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger underwent some changes during the 1st century. Generally, it had a large, leaf-shaped blade 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more in width. A raised midrib ran the length of each side, either simply standing out from the face or defined by grooves on either side.
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On New Year's Eve, 1858 near Weston Underwood, Milton Keynes, an earthenware vessel was found in Whites Close. It contained 166 denarii from the 1st and 2nd century AD, 4 legionary coins, 1 brass coin, an Augustus from 42 BC and 4 of Mark Antony from 30 BC. Also found was a complete 2nd century Samian bowl and other pieces of pottery, including many broken sherds, and even human and horse bones. The Samian bowl now resides at Buckinghamshire County Museum.
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When the National Legionary State came to power that autumn and examined whether university professors should be retained, the resulting report found fault with his meager scientific activity and affiliation with the previous regime. He was nevertheless kept on the faculty, with the condition that his research output demonstrate commitment to the new order during the next two years.Boia, p. 181 He was a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, as well as of the Parisian Société des Études Latines.
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Tactics define how soldiers are armed and trained. Thus technology and society influence the development of types of soldiers or warriors through history: Greek Hoplite, Roman Legionary, Medieval Knight, Turk-Mongol Horse Archer, Chinese Crossbowman, or an Air Cavalry trooper. Each constrained by his weaponry, logistics and social conditioning would use a battlefield differently, but would usually seek the same outcomes from their use of tactics. The First World War forced great changes in tactics as advances in technology rendered prior tactics useless.
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Maximus served in the emperor Trajan's Dacian Wars (101–2 and 105–6).AE (1985) 721 It was probably during these that Maximus was promoted by Trajan out of the legionary cavalry, whose role was limited to escort and communications, into the alae, the elite combat cavalry of the Auxilia corps. Maximus was gazetted as a duplicarius ("double-pay man"), a junior officer in the regiment Ala II Pannoniorum. This move probably resulted in a significant pay-rise for Maximus.
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When in 74 the consul Lucullus took over Cilicia, Mithridates faced Roman commanders on two fronts. The Cilician pirates had not been completely defeated, and Mithridates signed an alliance with them. He was also allied with the government of Quintus Sertorius in Spain and with his help reorganized some of his troops in the Roman legionary pattern with short stabbing swords. The Third Mithridatic war broke out when NicomedesIV of Bithynia died without heirs in 75 and left his kingdom to Rome.
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Neagoe, p. 571 Two years later, following Carol's abdication and the assumption of power by General Ion Antonescu and the Guard (together ruling a National Legionary State, with Antonescu as Conducător and Prime Minister), the new ruling party recommended Petrovicescu as Interior Minister, and he assumed that post. In October 1940, upon the recommendation of vice premier and new Legion head Horia Sima, Antonescu promoted Petrovicescu to the rank of divisional general retroactive to June 1, 1938, and returned him to active duty.
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The museum presents an overview of the human habitat in the region beginning with the earliest traces of Human dwelling and settling. A special focus is put on Argentoratum and its outposts along the Rhine like Seltz (Saliso). One of the museums most famous objects is the much studied stele of the legionary Caius Largennius. The museum also displays findings from the Gallo-Roman sanctuaries on the Mont Donon and in Mackwiller, as well as Merovingian findings made around Erstein.
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Patton had a preoccupation with bravery, wearing his rank insignia conspicuously in combat, and at one point during World War II, he rode atop a tank into a German-controlled village seeking to inspire courage in his men. Patton was a staunch fatalist, and he believed in reincarnation. He believed that he might have been a military leader killed in action in Napoleon's army or a Roman legionary in a previous life. Patton developed an ability to deliver charismatic speeches.
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Roth The most recent analysis of archaeological data on the layout of successive army camps at Numantia in Spain suggests that cohorts were introduced gradually in the period from c. 140 BC and the process was probably complete by the time Marius was elected Consul.Dobson (2008) 409 (4) Roman cavalry is attested under Marius himself at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC).Plutarch Marius 25-7 McCall argues that legionary cavalry was probably abolished during the Social War (91–88 BC).
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Each Polybian legion contained a cavalry contingent of 300 horse, which does not appear to have been officered by an overall commander. The cavalry contingent was divided into 10 turmae (squadrons) of 30 men each. The squadron members would elect as their officers 3 decurions, of whom the first to be chosen would act as the squadron's commander and the other two as his deputies.Polybius VI.25 In addition, each allied ala contained 900 horse, three times the size of the legionary contingent.
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Józef Haller von Hallenburg (13 August 1873 - 4 June 1960) was a lieutenant general of the Polish Army, a legionary in the Polish Legions, harcmistrz (the highest Scouting instructor rank in Poland), the president of the Polish Scouting and Guiding Association (ZHP), and a political and social activist. He was the cousin of Stanisław Haller. Haller was born in Jurczyce. He studied at Vienna's Technical Military Academy and subsequently (1895–1906) served with the Austrian Army, resigning after reaching the rank of captain.
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As with much of the imperial army's organisation, it was Augustus who, drawing on the evolved but ad hoc practices of the Republican army, established systematic medical services for the army, with a formal medical hierarchy and the construction of large, fully staffed and well-supplied military hospitals (valetudinaria) in legionary bases e.g. the fully excavated hospital at Castra Vetera (Xanten, Rhineland).Davies (1989) 220 In overall charge of the legion's medical staff and services was the legion's executive officer, the praefectus castrorum.
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Historical re- enactor showing a replica Pompeii-Type Gladius. He is also wearing replica equipment of late 1st-century legionary, although his lorica hamata is inaccurate. The basic equipment of an imperial foot-soldier was essentially the same as in the manipular Roman army of the Republic: metal armour cuirass, metal helmet, shield and sword.Elton (1996) 107 However, new equipment – the lorica segmentata and the rectangular version of the scutum – was developed for legionaries, although apparently not made available to auxiliaries.
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In the 2nd century, there is evidence of fabricae (arms factories) inside legionary bases and even in the much smaller auxiliary forts, staffed mainly by the soldiers themselves.Goldsworthy (2003) 88, 149 But, unlike for the Late Roman army of the 4th century onwards, there is no evidence, literary or archaeological, of fabricae outside military bases and staffed by civilians during the Principate (although their existence cannot be excluded, as no archaeological evidence has been found for the late fabricae either).
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Legionary inscription: "VEXILLA TIO LEG VI FERR" ("Detachment of Legion VI Ferrata"), Hecht Museum, Haifa, Israel Legio sexta ferrata ("Sixth Ironclad Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. In 30 BC it became part of the emperor Augustus's standing army. It continued in existence into the 4th century. A Legio VI fought in the Roman Republican civil wars of the 40s and 30s BC. Sent to garrison the province of Judaea, it remained there for the next two centuries.
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His affair with the Iron Guard muse Marta Rădulescu was at the center of a literary scandal, and was fictionalized by Crevedia in one of his novels. Fluent in Bulgarian, Crevedia became press attaché in the Kingdom of Bulgaria under the National Legionary State, serving to 1946. He was sidelined by the Romanian communist regime in the late 1940s and early '50s, when he was employed as a minor clerk. With his mentor Crainic, Crevedia contributed to the propaganda review Glasul Patriei.
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The reforms revolutionized the Roman military machine, introducing the standardized legionary, the cohort unit and drastically altered the property and weaponry requirements for recruitment. As a consequence these reforms had a significant impact on the military supremacy of Rome, as well as unintentionally contributing to the social and political disruption of the Late Republic. These changes remained principally intact until the downfall of the Roman Empire, but there were structural and administrative adjustments, notably by Augustus and later by Diocletian.
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After World War II the renewal of the Monument commenced. Works also began on the new building, to be used as a tribute to the resistance against Nazism. However, the events of February 1948 led to the monument being used in new ways. Vigorous oppression of the legionary tradition commenced in 1950, and following a decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the Monument of Liberation was converted into a proletariat pantheon, thus changing its ideological function.
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103, 106, 175 The FR's former leadership took different paths during the later stages of World War II. In late 1940, the FRN regime was replaced by the Iron Guard's National Legionary State, which was aligned with Nazism. Tilea refused to return home, and organized a pro-Allied Romanian lobby in London, also reaching out to the PNȚ opposition.Dennis Deletant, "Iuliu Maniu și Marea Britanie", in Magazin Istoric, October 2018, pp. 15–18; Nicolae C. Rațiu, "Prefață", in Ion Rațiu, Jurnal.
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Ion Antonescu and Horia Sima, the leaders of the National Legionary State King Carol II was forced to abdicate on 6 September 1940, and was replaced by his 19-year-old son, Michael. The first act of the new king was to grant General Ion Antonescu unlimited power as Conducător (leader) of Romania, relegating himself to a ceremonial role. A decree of 8 September further defined Antonescu's powers.D. Deletant, Springer, 2006, Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and his Regime, Romania 1940-1944, p.
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Ivașcu's mugshot, taken in or around 1940 Although described in Siguranța reports as "one of the principal communists in Moldavia region",Boia, p.215 Ivașcu was released on parole following the intervention of Călinescu, Iordan, Mihai Ralea and Petre Andrei. In September 1940, the National Renaissance Front crumbled and the Iron Guard came to power, establishing its own "National Legionary State"—in fact an unbalanced partnership with an authoritarian Premier, Ion Antonescu. The regime immediately stripped Ivașcu of his teaching post.
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The Photike inscription is in Greek and it identifies an 'Aelius Aelianus' as the chief financial officer (Lat. Procurator) of the province of Epirus sometime in the period 275-80 AD who had previously taken part in the census of the frontier province of Noricum. It is unlikely that the Aelianus who was a legionary prefect before 266 could have held these offices at a later date as the posts were lower in the equestrian career structure.Nagy, 1965, Op. cit.
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In 1985 in connection with the 2000 year celebration of the city of Augsburg he organized a large experimental reenactment of the life and work conditions of Roman legionaries. The experiment consisted of a month-long march from Verona to Augsburg including a crossing of the Alps. For the complete trip the original Roman army gear and equipment was used and the typical legionary tasks were performed. Later Junkelmann went on to perform a similar experiments for the Roman cavalry.
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Late in his life, Iorga opposed the radically fascist Iron Guard, and, after much oscillation, came to endorse its rival King Carol II. Involved in a personal dispute with the Guard's leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, and indirectly contributing to his killing, Iorga was also a prominent figure in Carol's corporatist and authoritarian party, the National Renaissance Front. He remained an independent voice of opposition after the Guard inaugurated its own National Legionary dictatorship, but was ultimately assassinated by a Guardist commando.
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Presumed structure superimposed on present ruins Located nearly 900 meters south of the urban core of Carnuntum, a former Roman city with a population of around 50,000, counting legionary forces stationed around it. It was a four-sided structure, presumably of four arches, and estimated to have been erected during the reign of Emperor Constantius II (351–361 AD). These tetrapylons were often built to celebrate some victory by the local army. Each facade of the structure was likely 14.5 meters wide.
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Roman legionary standard (replica) :See also Gaius Valerius Flaccus (consul): Role in civil war and Lucius Valerius Flaccus (princeps senatus 86 BC): Role in civil war. At the time of his murder, Lucius's brother Gaius was governor of Gallia Transalpina and most likely of Cisalpina. He was also a recent, and possibly still current, governor of one or both of the Spanish provinces. He would thus have commanded the largest number of troops in the western half of the Republic.
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During the Siege of Alesia in 52 BC, Centurion Lucius Vorenus of the 13th Legion commands his men as Gallic warriors fall on his line. In contrast to the Gauls' chaotic charge, the Roman files fight with precision, until one drunk legionary, Titus Pullo, breaks ranks and charges into the crowd of Gauls. Vorenus angrily orders him back into formation, but Pullo hits him. Later, the assembled soldiers watch as Pullo is flogged and condemned to death for his disorderly conduct.
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Ileana-Stanca Desa, Elena Ioana Mălușanu, Cornelia Luminița Radu, Iliana Sulică, Publicațiile periodice românești (ziare, gazete, reviste). Vol. V, 1: Catalog alfabetic 1931–1935, Editura Academiei, Bucharest, 2009, p.316. Although funded by the Nazis, Radu Lecca also contacted the SSI, making himself available as a double agent. He was therefore in permanent contact with the German Embassy in Bucharest. His position there was to prove important in 1940-1941, when the Iron Guard produced a fascist-style National Legionary government.
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They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year, known as consuls, to each lead an army. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies.
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The elephants were deployed in a single line in front of the centre of the infantry. The Romans placed their legionary infantry in their centre, arranged in a deeper and denser formation than usual. Polybius considered this to be an effective anti- elephant formation, but points out that it shortened the frontage of the Roman infantry and made them liable to being out-flanked. Light infantry skirmishers were positioned in front of the legions, and the 500 cavalry were divided between the flanks.
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Graves' writing career began in 1949 with the publication of Thanks for the Ride. His second book, The Lost Eagles, was published in 1955. This is a historical novel in which a fictional Roman, Severus Varus, searches for the legionary emblems lost by his kinsman, Quinctilius Varus, at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. After a long break from writing books during his time at Life magazine, Graves resumed his literary career with the publication of August People in 1985.
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207 In Romania, the outbreak of World War II saw the generalization of antisemitic laws, followed in 1940 the ascendancy of hardliner Ion Gigurtu. As reported by Sebastian, news of his ascendancy struck his "millionaire friends" Blank and A. L. Zissu, who were "terrified and cracking up", but who still pestered him with "abstract conversations."Sebastian, p. 293 Such radicalization was followed in September by Carol's ouster, and afterward by the establishment of an Iron Guard-led "National Legionary State".
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At the top of the hill of Gardun, just 1 km south of Trilj, remains of a legionary fortress at Tilurium can be found. Tilurium guarded the entrance to the Cetina valley from the south and the approach to the provincial capital at Salona.Smith, D., Gaffney, V., Grossman, D., Howard, A.J., Milosevic, A., Ostir, K., Podobnikar, T., Smith, W., Tetlow, E., Tingle, M., and Tinsley, H. 2006. Assessing the later prehistoric environmental archaeology and landscape development of the Cetina Valley, Croatia.
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The clipeus was used by Romans during Roman Kingdom and early Republic but was replaced by the legionary scutum, a convex rectangular shield, in the later Roman Republic. However, the scutum disappeared during the Crisis of the Third Century. All troops adopted the auxiliary oval (and sometimes round or hexagonal) shield (parma or clipeus).Elton (1996) 115 Shields, from examples found at Dura-Europos and Nydam Mose, were of vertical plank construction, the planks glued, and faced inside and out with painted leather.
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In this oath, they swore that they are "ready for death at any time".Săndulescu, p. 265 The procession marched toward Saint Ilie-Gorgani Church in central Bucharest, where the bodies were to be kept until their burial. The funeral procession was led by some Iron Guard members who carried the crosses of the two fighters, followed by students, representatives of Hitler, Mussolini and Franco, a large number of priests and a Legionary formation in the shape of a cross.
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When the Warlord gained access to Keill's mind, they learned about Glr, her abilities, the Overseers asteroids, the nature of his unbreakable bones, and every other secret. A long time goes by, until one time while trying hunt down Glr, Keill's Arachnis link is torn from his head, by Glr. Normally this would result in mind death, but the iron hard will power of the Legionary, determined to survive, keeps him alive. Glr psychically helps him heal from the mental trauma.
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On 4 July 1940, Carol sworn in a new government headed by Ion Gigurtu with Sima Minister of Arts and Culture.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 703. Gigurtu had been a leading figure in the anti-Semitic National Christian Party in the 1930s, was a millionaire businessman with many connections to Germany and was a well-known Germanophile.
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Jürgen Oldenstein: 2009, S. 12, Wolfgang Diehl, 1981, S. 15. With the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar the border of the Roman Empire was advanced to the Rhine. Legionary camps were built in Bingen, Mainz and Worms during the Augustan Age. The Celtic settlements were followed by the Roman Vicus Altiaia, which was founded around the middle of the first century BC. In addition to the limes road, which ran along the Rhine, there was another road connection which led from Worms to Bonn via Alzey.
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The Romans enabled the road to cross the marshy terrain without subsidence by laying down substrates of one to three layers of oak logs.Merrifield, pp. 32–33. This route, now known as Watling Street, then passed through the town from the bridgehead in a straight line to reconnect with its northern extension towards Viroconium (Wroxeter) and the legionary base at Deva Victrix (Chester). The Great Road ran northeast across Old Ford to Camulodunum (Colchester) and thence northeast along Pye Road to Venta Icenorum (Caistor St Edmund).
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The Ninth Legion, commanded by Quintus Petillius Cerialis, attempted to relieve the siege. It is unlikely that the entire legionary strength of some 5,000 men was involved in the battle. Detachments of the legion were spread out across a network of small forts; on short notice, Cerialis was likely able to call on only the first cohort, possibly two others, auxiliary infantry, and a unit of some 500 cavalry - a total of perhaps 2,500 men. Cerialis set out from his base in Lindum Colonia (Lincoln).
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He had received a difficult brief as the Claudian lowlands were economically unspectacular and Britain's mineral wealth lay in the barbarian lands instead. Capture of these would have to wait until later years. In the meantime, Caratacus, whose tribe, the Catuvellauni, had been defeated in the first phase of the conquest, had re-emerged as a leader of the Silures of south east Wales and Gloucestershire. Their rising was controlled by a programme of legionary fortress construction, driving Caratacus north into the lands of the Ordovices.
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A legionary typically carried around 27 kilograms (60 pounds) of armour, weapons, and equipment. This load consisted of armour, a sword, called a gladius, a shield, two pila (one heavy, one light) and 15 days' food rations. There were also tools for digging and constructing a castrum, the legions' fortified base camp. One writer recreates the following as to Caesar's army in Gaul:Colleen McCullough, (2003) Caesar, p 303-417 Each soldier arranged his heavy pack on a T or Y-shaped rod, borne on his left shoulder.
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The National Legionary State was proclaimed on 14 September, with the Iron Guard ruling together with Antonescu as the sole legal political movement in Romania. Under King Michael I and the military government of Antonescu, Romania signed the Tripartite Pact on November 23, 1940. German troops entered the country on 10 October 1941, officially to train the Romanian Army. Hitler's directive to the troops on 10 October had stated that "it is necessary to avoid even the slightest semblance of military occupation of Romania".
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Having created a method of traveling back to the 20th century, leading to the Legion's rescue of Valor, Brainiac 5 was arrested for unauthorized time-travel. He was later pardoned when R.J. Brande became President of the United Planets. In addition to having a crush on Andromeda, Brainiac 5 had a secret stash of lustful holo-collection featuring Andromeda herself, Dreamer (Nura Nal), Spark (Ayla Ranzz) and another fellow legionary whose alias begins with "In-" (obviously Invisible Kid (Lyle Norg)), and probably others.Legion (vol.
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The new strategy which relied on ad hoc mobile expeditionary forces brought about a great expansion of the command-opportunities for officers of equestrian as opposed to senatorial rank. These were for the most part professional soldiers who had achieved their equestrian status by rising through the ranks of the legionary centurionate.For a discussion of the significance of the equestrian officials with military backgrounds kn the Third Century see B. Dobson , Op. Cit and also B. Malcus, passim. Aper is also identifiedAgain, see Malcus, op.
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War broke out in Dacia: few details are available, but it appears two future contenders for the throne, Clodius Albinus and Pescennius Niger, both distinguished themselves in the campaign. Also, in Britain in 184, the governor Ulpius Marcellus re-advanced the Roman frontier northward to the Antonine Wall, but the legionaries revolted against his harsh discipline and acclaimed another legate, Priscus, as emperor.Dio Cassius 73.10.2, Loeb edition translated E. Cary Priscus refused to accept their acclamations, and Perennis had all the legionary legates in Britain cashiered.
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The PP's agony and disestablishment preceded the end of Greater Romania and the shock of World War II (see Romania in World War II). In 1940, after ceding Bessarabia to the Soviets and Northern Transylvania to the Hungarian Regency, Carol II was pushed into exile, and the Iron Guard took over. This bloody interregnum, known as National Legionary State, was ended from within by Ion Antonescu, the appointed Conducător. Antonescu's Romania was also aligned with international fascism, and joined Nazi Germany in carrying out Operation Barbarossa.
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During the early stages of World War II, when government in Romania was taken over by the Iron Guard fascist and pro-Nazi Germany movement (see National Legionary State), PCR leaders Teohari Georgescu and Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu worked together to reactivate the society, profiting from friendly relations between the new authorities and the Soviet Union;Betea their attempt came to an abrupt end in 1941, when Ion Antonescu's triumph against the Guard provoked a collateral move against communist activists (see Legionnaires' Rebellion and Bucharest Pogrom).
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Dedication stone with inscriptions mentioning the Legio XIII Gemina Over 3,000 stamped bricks, several stone monuments and written sources prove that several legions, cavalry units and marines were stationed in Vindobona. Around 97 AD, Legio XIII Gemina was responsible for construction of the legionary camps. Because of the wars in Dacia, they were pulled out and redeployed in 101 AD. A decade later, Legio XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix followed. Legio X Gemina from Aquincum arrived in 114 AD and remained in Vindobona until the 5th century.
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Thus an urgent despatch from the legionary base at Eboracum (York) to the provincial governor's headquarters in London, a distance of 200 miles (300 km), a journey of about ten days for a single rider and mount, could be delivered in just ten hours.Using average speeds achieved by the Pony Express in the American West, 19th century When messages were even more urgent, visual signals were used. Strings of signal-stations in prominent locations would transmit messages using parabolic mirrors during the day and fire by night.
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The legion's basic sub- unit was the centuria (plural: centuriae), which literally means "a hundred men", but in practice numbered 80 men in the principate, equivalent in numbers to half of a modern company. The legion's main tactical sub-unit was the cohors (plural: cohortes, or cohort), which contained six centuriae for a total of 480 men, roughly the same size as a modern battalion. There were 10 cohorts to each legion, or 4,800 men (c. 5,000 including the small legionary cavalry of 120 horse and officers).
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Gardun, CroatiaTilurium remains Cemetery, detail Gardun is a village at the top of the hill of Gardun, just 1 km south of Trilj. In the 1997, excavations of the remains of legionary fortress of Tilurium started on the southern outskirts of the village. Tilurium guarded the entrance to the Cetina valley from the south and the approach to the provincial capital at Salona.Smith, D., Gaffney, V., Grossman, D., Howard, A.J., Milosevic, A., Ostir, K., Podobnikar, T., Smith, W., Tetlow, E., Tingle, M., and Tinsley, H. 2006.
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The name 'Lajjun', associated with the location of the legionary camp, derived from 'Legion'.Matthew J. Adams, Jonathan David and Yotam Tepper, "Legio: Excavations at the Camp of the Roman Sixth Ferrata Legion in Israel", Bible History Daily, Biblical Archaeology Society, 2013. In Ottoman times a Khan erected in that location was known as "Khan al-Lajun", and a Palestinian village of that name existed there until the Arab-Israeli war of 1947-49, when it was depopulated. Popular Russian song dedicated to the Legion.
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Pseudo-Marius, calling himself Gaius Marius, first appeared in Rome in 45 BC, where he presented himself as the patron of the towns founded by Marius's grandfather and populated by the descendants of the legionary veterans who were established there. Taking advantage of the Roman Dictator Julius Caesar's absence in Spain, he cultivated the support of the various plebeian collegia, and became enormously popular in the process.Meijer, pg. 112 He was apparently wealthy enough to open up his gardens in order to entertain the people of Rome.
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This syndrome is often referred to as "legionary behaviour", and may be an example of convergent evolution. Most New World army ants belong to the subfamily Ecitoninae, which contains two tribes: Cheliomyrmecini and Ecitonini. The former contains only the genus Cheliomyrmex, whereas the latter contains four genera: Neivamyrmex, Nomamyrmex, Labidus, and Eciton. The largest genus is Neivamyrmex, which contains more than 120 species; the most predominant species is Eciton burchellii; its common name "army ant" is considered to be the archetype of the species.
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The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil. In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.Tacitus, Agricola 29 Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.
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After Rădulescu-Motru was forced to retire in October 1940, during the National Legionary State, Bagdasar became assistant to Ion Petrovici, who had recently transferred to Bucharest from Iași University. In December 1941, he was named administrator of Casa Școalelor, the Culture Ministry's publishing house. In the summer of 1942, he became a professor at Iași, in the history of modern and contemporary philosophy, epistemology and metaphysics department, within the literature and philosophy faculty. The move was facilitated by Petrovici, by then Education Minister.
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This view was popularised by the 1954 novel The Eagle of the Ninth in which the legion is said to have marched into Caledonia (modern day Scotland), after which it was "never heard of again". This theory fell out of favour among modern scholars as successive inscriptions of IX Hispana were found in the site of the legionary base at Nijmegen (Netherlands), suggesting the Ninth may have been based there from c. 120, later than the legion's supposed annihilation in Britain.Campbell, Fate of the Ninth, ch.
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The 136th Armoured Division Centauro II was an Armoured Division of the Italian Army during World War II. The division had a number of different titles before settling on 136th Armoured Division Centauro II. It was formed in 1942 and started as the 1 Blackshirt Armoured Division M was re designated 136th Armoured Division M then 136th Legionary Armoured Division Centauro and finally Centauro II. In September 1943 it was in training near Rome and fought the Germans as part of the Corpo d'Armata Motocorazzato before surrendering.
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His later pieces called Hitler a "Great European", more constructive a figure than Napoleon, and a driving force of Europe's progress—claims included by researcher Laszlo Alexandru among "the most egregious" homages to the German dictator.Laszlo, p. 10 At the time when war erupted, Alexandru Gregorian was in Rome, attached to the Romanian diplomatic corps. According to Manolescu, he may have been the author of a much debated article in Vremea, where, in "Legionary language", he welcomes the anti-Soviet war as a modern-day "Crusade".
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Following arrangements made by his in-laws, Ivașcu relocated to Bucharest, the national capital. Reportedly, he was in contact with the PCdR and its Social Democratic Party allies, who provided for Ivașcu with means to join the antifascist underground. This clandestine interval ended in November, when he was arrested by the National Legionary authorities, and interrogated for at least a month. Upon his release, protected and housed by his brother-in-law, Colonel Zlotescu, Ivașcu requested to be integrated as a civil servant in the Propaganda Ministry.
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On her blog and website, Caroline Lawrence has said the content was deemed "too edgy" for the Roman Mysteries brand and as a result has been put on hold indefinitely. In April 2010, author Caroline Lawrence announced that she is planning a spinoff for younger readers. The main character will be Threptus, an 8-year-old Ostian beggar boy who makes appearances in the final Roman Mystery, The Man from Pomegranate Street and the final short story in The Legionary from Londinium and other mini-mysteries.
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Most male Roman citizens were eligible for military service and would serve as infantry, with a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 of the infantry, poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary, served as javelin-armed skirmishers, known as velites. They carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, a short sword, and a shield.
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The balance were equipped as heavy infantry, with body armour, a large shield and short thrusting swords. They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year, known as consuls, as senior magistrates, who at time of war would each lead an army.
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Cantacuzino was, according to Horia Sima's later recollection, one of the most virulent speakers to appear before the congress. In 1936, Cantacuzino left with the legionary team led by General Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul to fight in the Spanish Civil War on the side of the Franco-led Nationalist faction. He was later decorated with the "Red Cross" by Franco for his participation. On 17 May 1937, Cantacuzino was sentenced to one year in prison due to his role at the Târgu Mures Student Congress.
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DANIC, fond DGP, dosar nr. 252/1939, f. 56 the two split up, Cristescu hiding in Brașov and Cantacuzino in Bucharest, where the latter had numerous relatives holding high positions in Romanian public society, preventing authorities from searching their residences.DANIC, fond DGP, dosar nr. 15/1938, f. 184 Codreanu was sentenced to 10 years of forced labor, and the trial of the other Legionary leaders followed. Initially, they were promised to be released in exchange for a pledge of allegiance to Carol II's leadership.
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St Nicholas's Church and the Jewry Wall. It is believed that the Romans arrived in the Leicester area around AD 47, during their conquest of southern Britain. The Corieltauvian settlement lay near a bridge on the Fosse Way, a Roman road between the legionary camps at Isca (Exeter) and Lindum (Lincoln). It remains unclear whether the Romans fortified and garrisoned the location, but it slowly developed from around the year 50 onwards as the tribal capital of the Corieltauvians under the name Ratae Corieltauvorum.
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One of the qualities of this new man was to be selflessness, Codreanu wrote "When a politician enters a party the first question that he puts is 'what can I gain from this?...when a legionary enters the Legion he says 'For myself I want nothing'". As for economics, there was no straightforward program, but the Legion generally promoted the idea of a communal or national economy, rejecting capitalism as overly materialistic. The movement considered its main enemies to be the present political leadership and the Jews.
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Iorga's murder, like other acts of violence ordered by the Iron Guard, alarmed Ion Antonescu, who found that it contradicted his resolutions on public order—the first clash in a dispute which, early in 1941, erupted as the Legionary Rebellion and saw the Guard's ouster from power.Deletant, p. 61sqq; Veiga, p. 292sqq Reportedly, Iorga's murder instantly repelled some known supporters of the Guard, such as Radu Gyr Ioana Diaconescu, "Deținut politic sub trei dictaturi: Radu Gyr", in România Literară, Nr. 50/2006 and Mircea Eliade.
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The "soothsayer" later drugs and hypnotises Asterix to create a diversion while he recaptures the tax money; but news of the theft reaches Caesar, who comes to the garrison himself, demanding the legion attack. Upon witnessing the defeat of his army, he demands Detritus subdue the village or be fed to the lions. Detritus disguises himself and some men as Druids and kidnaps Panoramix (Getafix) at a Druid conference. Asterix disguises Obelix as a legionary, and they enter the garrison to rescue the Druid, but are separated.
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In English, the terms 'Roman fort', 'Roman camp' and 'Roman fortress' are commonly used for castrum. However, scholastic convention tends toward the use of the words 'fort', 'camp', 'marching camp' and 'fortress' as a translation of castrum.. Included is a discussion about the typologies of Roman fortifications. Castrum was the term used for different sizes of camps including a large legionary fortress, smaller forts for Cohorts or Auxiliaries, temporary encampments, and "marching" forts. The diminutive form castellum was used for fortlets,See Vegetius, Epitoma rei militaris, 3.8.
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Codreanu, in Ornea, p.315 Codreanu was referring to the historian's charge that Legionary commerce was financing rebellion, and repeated his claim that the enterprising solution had originated with Iorga's own arguments. Nicolae Iorga replied by filing a complaint with the Military Tribunal (as the new law required in cases of insult to a minister in office),Ornea, p.316 and by writing Codreanu a letter which advised him to "descend in [his] conscience to find remorse" for "the amount of blood spilled over him".
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The legionary base had a civilian settlement to the north of the north wall, but no traces of any substantial buildings survive. A ruinous structure consisting of a row of arches stands at some distance to the southeast of the fortress. Biliotti described it as a basilica, but since then it was frequently regarded as the remains of an aqueduct leading to an as yet unidentified lower city. This theory is now considered obsolete and the ruin has been reconfirmed as that of a basilica church.
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Most male Roman citizens were eligible for military service and would serve as infantry, a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 of the infantry, poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary, served as javelin-armed skirmishers, known as velites. They carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, a short sword, and a shield.
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War scene of the Tropaeum Traiani (c. 109 AD): a Roman legionary fighting with a Dacian warrior, while a Germanic warrior (Bastarnae?), who has a suede knot, is wounded on the ground. It appears that in the final years of Augustus' rule, the Bastarnae made their peace with Rome. The Res Gestae Divi Augusti ("Acts of the divine Augustus", 14 AD), an inscription commissioned by Augustus to list his achievements, states that he received an embassy from the Bastarnae seeking a treaty of friendship.
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During the latter half of the year 1940, Leon held several ministerial posts. From July 4 until September 14, a period that spanned the Ion Gigurtu ministry and the first ten days of Ion Antonescu's rule, he was Minister of National Economy and interim Minister of Finance and of Agriculture and Domains. Additionally, from July 4 to 10, he was interim Foreign Trade Minister. After the founding of the National Legionary State on September 14, he remained as National Economy Minister until November 10.
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Aponianus does not appear to have been aligned with any of the four emperors for most of the conflict, aside from being under Vitellius at the time. He asked the governor of Moesia—his relative Marcus Aponius Saturninus—for assistance. Saturninus informed Vitellius of the legion's refusal, but not that their allegiance was aligned with Vespasian. Legio III Gallica went on to be instrumental in inflaming legionary sentiment against Vitellius (and for Vespasian), and in the Second Battle of Bedriacum, where they fought for Vespasian.
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On 1 July 1940, Carol in a radio speech renounced both the 1926 alliance with France and the 1939 Anglo-French "guarantee" of Romania, saying that henceforth Romania would seek in its place in the German-dominated "New Order" in Europe.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 702. The next day, Carol invited a German military mission to train the Romanian Army.
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The buildings were located near the centre of the fortress and they had their own bath buildings and a range of store rooms around the outside. The presence of a second bath building is unusual because legionary fortresses generally had just one set of internal baths.Mason (2002a), pp. 34, 43. Construction on the site began around AD 77 and this was confirmed by a length of lead piping, which served a central water feature or fountain, which was stamped with the name of Emperor Vespasian.
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While interned at Buchenwald, Sima was faced with the dissent of several groups of Legionnaires who distanced themselves from his policies, stating that they did not approve of the way in which he had run the country and the movement, and who began to appeal to the German supervisors for distinctions to be made in their case. Constantin Papanace, a leading Legionary figure who had served as the secretary of the State Department of Finance under the National Legionary State, would later describe Sima as a "terrorist", noting that he "[took] advantage of and abused... his connections", and that Sima possessed "non-discipline... a dangerous dilettantism, not to mention infantilism." Legionnaires increasingly began to blame Sima's leadership of the Iron Guard for the death of Codreanu, citing his previous actions as commander in 1938 as "terroristic" and "tumultuous". This controversy was to enforce the split which is still present in the political legacy of the Iron Guard. By 1943, the Iron Guard - now in exile in Rostock, Germany - had split into at least three distinct groups with separate leadership, not including the Legionnaires who considered Sima their legitimate leader.
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Reenactment of an early imperial legionary shield array According to Polybius, the scutum gave Roman soldiers an edge over their Carthaginian enemies during the Punic Wars: "Their arms also give the men both protection and confidence, which they owed to the size of the shield." The Roman writer Suetonius recorded anecdotes of the heroic centurion Cassius Scaeva and legionary Gaius Acilius who fought under Caesar in the Battle of Dyrrachium and the battle of Massilia, respectively: The Roman writer Cassius Dio in his Roman History described Roman against Roman in the Battle of Philippi: "For a long time there was pushing of shield against shield and thrusting with the sword, as they were at first cautiously looking for a chance to wound others without being wounded themselves." The shape of the scutum allowed packed formations of legionaries to overlap their shields to provide an effective barrier against projectiles. The most novel (and specialised, for it afforded negligible protection against other attacks) use was the testudo (Latin for "tortoise"), which added legionaries holding shields from above to protect against descending projectiles (such as arrows, spears, or objects thrown by defenders on walls).
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Roman fortress walls, Isca Augusta A partially intact Roman tower at Caerleon, drawn in 1783 Isca was founded in 74 or 75 during the final campaigns by Governor Sextus Julius Frontinus against the fierce native tribes of western Britain, notably the Silures in South Wales who had resisted the Romans’ advance for over a generation. Isca became the headquarters of the Legion II Augusta based in the large fortress of typical legionary "playing- card" shape and built initially with an earth bank and timber palisade. It remained their headquarters until at least 300 AD. The interior was fitted out with the usual array of military buildings: a headquarters building, legate's residence, tribunes' houses, hospital, large bath house, workshops, barrack blocks, granaries and, unusually, a large amphitheatre.. At this time there were four legions in Britain out of a total of about 30 legions in the Empire, making Britain one of the most heavily militarised provinces due to its frontier status and hostile neighbours.Roman Legionary Fortresses 27BC-AD378: Duncan Campbell, Osprey Publishing Each legion consisted of over 5,000 heavily armed and highly disciplined professional soldiers who enlisted in the army for at least 20 years.
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Webster was born at Stamford, Lincolnshire. He developed an interest in Roman Britain while still at school, but opted for a career as a civil engineer. During World War II he served with the Air Ministry, building airfields, and during this period became engaged in archaeological excavations, most notably in the cities of Canterbury and Lincoln. In Lincoln in 1945 he joined the City Engineer's Department and directed excavations on the Westgate School site which were to reveal the earliest evidence for the Roman Legionary defences of Lincoln.
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The massive earthen ramp at Masada, designed by the Roman army to breach the fortress' walls. The military engineering of Ancient Rome's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries. Indeed, military engineering was in many ways institutionally endemic in Roman military culture, as demonstrated by the fact that each Roman legionary had as part of his equipment a shovel, alongside his gladius (sword) and pila (spears). Heather writes that "Learning to build, and build quickly, was a standard element of training".
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The Ludi Vulcanalici, were held just once on August 23, 20 BC, within the temple precinct of Vulcan, and used by Augustus to mark the treaty with Parthia and the return of the legionary standards that had been lost at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. A flamen, one of the flamines minors, named flamen Vulcanalis was in charge of the cult of the god. The flamen Vulcanalis officiated at a sacrifice to the goddess Maia, held every year at the Kalendae of May.Macrobius Saturnalia I 12,18; Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae XIII 23, 2.
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But the amounts minted are insufficient to represent regular taxation or legionary pay. Widely varying levels of production suggest that the reasons each town minted were diverse. Some coins seem tightly related to particular extractive or productive actitivites, such as mining camps in the south or fish-salting industries along the south coast. As the decision to mint was taken by local communities, and many elements of the legends and iconography seem locally significant, there may have been a strong element of local pride and identity at stake.
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Roads built in the first phase of Roman occupation (43-68 AD) connected London with the ports used in the invasion (Chichester and Richborough), and with the earlier legionary bases at Colchester (Camulodunum), Lincoln (Lindum), Wroxeter (Viroconium), Gloucester and Exeter. As Roman influence expanded, so did the network, until around 180 AD when the known network was complete. Few Roman roads extended into Scotland due to their inability to subjugate the local population. Part of the Scottish Lowlands came under Roman control in 142, and the Antonine Wall was constructed on the northern boundary.
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A vexillatio (plural vexillationes) was a detachment of a Roman legion formed as a temporary task force created by the Roman army of the Principate. It was named from the standard carried by legionary detachments, the vexillum (plural vexilla), which bore the emblem and name of the parent legion. Although commonly associated with legions, it is likely that vexillationes included auxiliaries. The term is found in the singular, referring to a single detachment, but is usually used in the plural to refer to an army made up of picked detachments.
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In 1940, Carol II was forced to step down, and Romania became the National Legionary State, a fascist government led by a coalition between Ion Antonescu and Horia Sima, the leader of the Iron Guard;D. Deletant, Springer, 2006, Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and his Regime, Romania 1940–1944, p. 53 Romania consequently joined the Axis powers in 1940. This power sharing agreement was unstable, and the Iron Guard staged a coup in 1941, which included an anti-Jewish pogrom in Bucharest, and which was crushed by Antonescu with German support.
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On the nationalist side, the inexperience of the volunteers was solved by framing the Falange troops and the civil guard in secondary units, the weight being carried by the legionary or regular troops who were experienced soldiers, commanded by professional, military personnel, experienced in wartime situations. However, the Republic could not count on an experienced army, since it could not even trust its officers. The war experience had to be practically done from scratch. It took several months for the militiamen to gain enough experience to face the other side.
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Legionary priest celebrating the Eucharist at an ECyD camp at Camp Otyokwah in Ohio. ECyD has a Christ-centered spirituality, together with the spirituality of the Legionaries of Christ and Regnum Christi. The purpose of Regnum Christi, the Legionaries of Christ, and ECyD is to spread the kingdom of God on earth through personal love of Jesus Christ and the Catholic Church lived out through apostolate. ECyD members share in this spirituality by making commitments to guide them in their relationship with Christ and to help them become authentic Christians.
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A large legionary force occupied in building forts in Silurian territory was surrounded and attacked and only rescued with difficulty and considerable loss. This violent desperation on the part of the Silures can be attributed to their reaction to what Peter Salway calls Ostorius' lack of political judgment. The Silures had been galvanised by Ostorius' ill-thought out threats to destroy them and began taking Roman prisoners as hostages and distributing them amongst their neighbouring tribes. This had the effect of binding them all together and creating a new resistance movement.
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Hannibal's cavalry contingent would have consisted almost entirely of these three types, but the numbers of each are not known. Most male Roman citizens were eligible for military service and would serve as infantry, with a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 of the infantry, poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary, served as javelin-armed skirmishers, known as velites.
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Caesar's 46 BC ludi were mere entertainment for political gain, a waste of lives and of money that would have been better doled out to his legionary veterans.Cassius Dio, 43.24. Yet for Seneca, and for Marcus Aurelius – both professed Stoics – the degradation of gladiators in the munus highlighted their Stoic virtues: their unconditional obedience to their master and to fate, and equanimity in the face of death. Having "neither hope nor illusions", the gladiator could transcend his own debased nature, and disempower death itself by meeting it face to face.
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He held that office until AD 11, and was elected consul for the first time in AD 12. The year after, he was made proconsul of Germania Inferior, Germania Superior, and all of Gaul. From there he commanded eight legions, about one-third of the entire Roman army, which he led against the Germanic tribes in his campaigns from AD 14 to 16. He avenged the Roman Empire's defeat in the Teutoburg Forest and retrieved two of the three legionary eagles that had been lost during the battle.
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Shields were protected on the march with a hide cover. Each legionary carried about 5 days' worth of wheat, pulses or chickpeas, a flask of oil, and a mess kit with a dish, cup, and utensil. Personal items might include a dyed horsehair crest for the helmet, a semi-water-resistant oiled woollen cloak, socks and breeches for cold weather and a blanket. Entrenchment equipment included a shallow wicker basket for moving earth, a spade and/or pick-axe like dolabra or turf cutter, and two wooden staves to construct the next camp palisade.
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Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an adsiduus) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,Between 343 BC and 241 BC, the Roman army fought every year except for five. and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of equites, his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BC, the average rural farmer (who survived) might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen and slaves (wherever resident) and urban citizens did not serve except in rare emergencies.
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Each Roman legion had a military legionary fort as its permanent base. However, when on the march, particularly in enemy territory, the legion would, after a day's marching, construct a fortified camp or castra, requiring as raw materials only earth, turf and timber. Camp construction was the responsibility of special engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti (engineers), from a class of troops known as immunes since they were excused from or, literally, immune from, regular duties. These engineers would requisition manual labor from the soldiers at large as required.
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Immediately following the Second World War, very little attention was paid to the Battle of Vimy Ridge or the Vimy Memorial. The Winnipeg Free Press and The Legionary, the magazine of the Royal Canadian Legion, were the only publications to note the 35th anniversary of the battle in 1952. The 40th anniversary in 1957 received even less notice, with only the Halifax Herald making any mention. Interest in commemoration remained low in the early 1960s but increased in 1967 with the 50th anniversary of the battle, paired with the Canadian Centennial.
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A composition that had its own father as its hero, chosen to be published in the school magazine, remained unpublished, the expected magazine no longer appeared due to the dramatic events that had followed. The three years of Transylvanian life will be evoked in "Life as a prey" and in "The Most Beloved of Earthlings". In 1940, following the Vienna Dictate, the student Preda Marin received an assignment for a similar school in Bucharest. In January 1941 he witnessed the turbulent events of the legionary rebellion and its repression by Ion Antonescu.
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The battle was a major military, cultural, and economic blow to the Romano-British because they lost the three cities of , a provincial capital in the Roman period (Cirencester); , a former legionary fortress (Gloucester); and , a renowned spa and pagan religious centre (Bath). Archaeological research has found that many of the villas in the post-Roman era were still occupied around these cities. This suggests the area was controlled by relatively sophisticated and wealthy Britons. However they were eventually abandoned or destroyed as the territory came under the control of Wessex.
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In 272, the Roman Emperor Aurelian finally restored Roman control and Palmyra was besieged and sacked, never to recover her former glory. Aurelian captured Zenobia, bringing her back to Rome. He paraded her in golden chains in the presence of the senator Marcellus Petrus Nutenus, but allowed her to retire to a villa in Tibur, where she took an active part in society for years. A legionary fortress was established in Palmyra and although no longer an important trade center, it nevertheless remained an important junction of Roman roads in the Syrian desert.
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209–212 Faced with a shortage of legionary recruits from Italy and other Romanised provinces, Hadrian systematised the use of less costly numeri – ethnic non-citizen troops with special weapons, such as Eastern mounted archers – in low-intensity, mobile defensive tasks such as dealing with border infiltrators and skirmishers.Luttvak, Edward N. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, , p. 123Christol & Nony, p. 180 Hadrian is also credited with introducing units of heavy cavalry (cataphracts) into the Roman army.
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In 1984, the site of an alleged Roman fort was identified at Easter Galcantray, south west of Cawdor, by aerial photography.G.D.B. Jones & I. Keillor, "Easter Galcantray", Discovery & Excavation Scotland 1984 (1984), p. 14: "On south bank of river Nairn, straight cropmark with gap in middle and suggestion of two more sides, truncated by river, at right angles to main mark." The site was excavated between 1985 and 1990 with a single fragment of pottery being discovered which was assumed to be Roman because it looked similar to a fragment found at Inchtuthil legionary fortress.
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The legionary cavalry during this period was drawn exclusively from the two wealthiest classes, the equites and the first property class of commoners. The latter had started to be admitted to cavalry service when the equites were no longer sufficiently numerous to satisfy the needs of the cavalry. This may have occurred as early as 400 BC, and certainly by the time of the Samnite Wars, when the normal levy of Roman cavalry was doubled to 1,200 (4 legions' contingent). According to Mommsen, First Class iuniores were all eventually required to join the cavalry.
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As such, over time the torc and also the armilla were adopted as official awards for valour, taking on the role of symbolic war trophies. Armillae were made in a substantial masculine style and produced in a variety of designs: a solid, hinged cuff, sometimes inscribed with legionary emblems or decorated with incised patterns; an open-ended spiral; a chunky, rounded bracelet with open or overlapping ends; or a torc in miniature. Armillae which were open-ended or had overlapping ends often featured knobs or snake-heads as terminals.Maxfield, Valerie A. (1981).
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As had been the case during the Republic, the legions of the Principate era recruited Roman citizens exclusively. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, these represented a minority of the empire's inhabitants (about 10–20%). From the time of Augustus, legionary recruitment was largely voluntary. Republican-style conscription of citizens was only resorted to during emergencies which demanded exceptionally heavy recruitment, such as the Illyrian revolt (AD 6-9). Once the borders of the empire stabilised in the mid-1st century, most legions were based in particular provinces long-term.
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The legion's third officer was the praefectus castrorum ("prefect of the camp"), a post mostly filled by former chief centurions. These would typically be in their 50s, having earned their equestrian status by a lifetime of experience at the sharp end of legionary activity. Officially, the role of the praefectus was, as the title implies, that of camp quartermaster, in charge of the legion's headquarters and supplies. But with their enormous experience, the praefectus role extended much further, to acting as executive officer to the legatus, advising on all manner of military operations.
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The governor in turn reported directly to the Emperor in Rome. There was no general staff in Rome, but the leading praefectus praetorio (commander of the Praetorian Guard) often acted as the Emperor's de facto military chief-of-staff. Compared to the subsistence-level peasant families from which they mostly originated, legionary rankers enjoyed considerable disposable income, enhanced by periodical cash bonuses on special occasions such as the accession of a new emperor. In addition, on completion of their term of service, they were given a generous discharge bonus equivalent to 13 years' salary.
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In those provinces that contained military forces, the governor's immediate subordinates were the commanders (legati legionis) in command of the legions stationed in the province (e.g. in Britain, three legati reported to the governor). In turn, the legionary commander was reported to by the combat-unit commanders: the centuriones pili priores in command of the legion's cohorts and the praefecti, in command of the auxiliary regiments attached to the legion. The empire's high command structure was thus remarkably flat, with only four reporting levels between combat-unit commanders and the emperor.
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He was vice-president of the Iron Guard political creation, the Everything for the Country Party. From 1934 through 1936, he served as a correspondent forWelt-Dienst / World-Service, an anti-Jewish publication founded by Ulrich Fleischhauer in Erfurt, Germany. Fleischhauer was a staunch believer in the veracity of the antisemitic propaganda pamphlet, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and appeared as an "expert witness" for the pro-Nazis at the famous Berne Trial. In late 1936, Moța formed a Legionary unit to fight against the Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War.
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The Roman Army did not remain static and, whilst sometimes demonstrating these changes in displays of the evolving equipment and appearance of the legionary, most groups also focus on a particular time period. The most popular period is probably the 1st-2nd century, with legionaries wearing the characteristic segmented armour illustrated on Trajan's Column. However, some groups portray the Late Roman legion, after the army reforms of Diocletian. A minority of groups depict the eastern continuance of the empire after the fall of Rome in the west, known popularly as the Byzantine Empire.
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He continued to rely on rented housing, but purchased himself residential land in Băneasa, where, in 1940, he still hoped to build himself a family villa. Under the Iron Guard's National Legionary State regime of late 1940, he directed Crainic's own fascist newspaper, Sfarmă-Piatră. In mid 1940 the Ion Antonescu government sent him as a press attaché in Sofia.Boia, p. 221 Serving there to 1946, he put together an edition on Romanian culture for Serdika and published Cultura românească și centrul ei: Bucureștii ("Romanian Culture and Its Center: Bucharest", 1943).
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African Dorylus raid The name army ant (or legionary ant or marabunta) is applied to over 200 ant species in different lineages. Due to their aggressive predatory foraging groups, known as "raids", a huge number of ants forage simultaneously over a certain area. Another shared feature is that, unlike most ant species, army ants do not construct permanent nests; an army ant colony moves almost incessantly over the time it exists. All species are members of the true ant family, Formicidae, but several groups have independently evolved the same basic behavioural and ecological syndrome.
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Caesar sent forward experienced scouts to choose the next campsite. He learnt from prisoners taken later that sympathisers in the ragtag of surrendered Belgae and other Gauls travelling with the army had gone to the Nervii and reported the dispositionion of his column. They reported that the individual legionary baggage trains were interspersed between the legions and that it would be easy to cut off the leading legion from the rest and destroy it before any support could reach it. It was believed this would intimidate the Romans into withdrawing.
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He began a collaboration with the newspaper Universul, where, as later recounted by his colleague Ștefan Baciu, he was one of the three staff writers who showed up for work wearing the Guard's green-colored shirts."Centenar Radu Gyr", in Biblioteca Bucureștilor, Nr. 3/2005, p. 13 Starting in August 1940, a full month before the Guard proclaimed its National Legionary regime, Murgescu published a series of political musings in Universul. These were soon after collected as a brochure, Note pentru Statul Totalitar ("Notes on the Totalitarian State").
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The portal over the main door resembles the Renaissance style of the portals of Churches and Palaces in Rome from the mid-16th century. The original 17th-century main door, which was beautifully carved in wood by a local artisan, has been moved indoors for conservation and replaced by plain wooden doors. There is a restoration project underway to clean the facade of the church which has become stained and darkened with time. The Chiesa Madre is the sanctuary of the relics of San Crescenzo, a Roman Legionary who converted to Christianity.
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A typical cavalrymen of the Ala would be paid 20 percent more than a typical citizen legionary. Roman Auxilia cavalry were usually heavily armored in mail and armed with a short lance, javelins, the Spatha long sword, and sometimes bows for specialist Horse archer units. These men primarily served as Medium missile cavalry for flanking, scouting, skirmish, and pursuit. As opposed to more modern cavalry units where the horses were kept in stables separate from the riders, Roman cavalry housed the riders and horses in the same barracks.
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By the 1st century BC, the settlement was controlled by Ancient Rome as part of the Pannonian province. In 69 AD, Vespasian was elected Roman Emperor by the Danubian legions in Ptuj, and the first written mention of the city of Ptuj is from the same year. Poetovium was the base-camp of Legio XIII Gemina where it had its legionary fortress or castrum. The name originated in the times of Emperor Trajan, who granted the settlement city status and named it Colonia Ulpia Traiana Poetovio in 103.
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The late 1930s attracted Gane into fascist politics, leading him to join the Iron Guard. This in turn led to his marginalization and internment by the National Renaissance Front government. Returning to prominence during World War II, when the Guard produced its National Legionary State, Gane served as Romanian ambassador to the Kingdom of Greece, then retired from politics and resumed his work in literature. Again repressed following the establishment of a Romanian communist regime, he spent 13 years in confinement, ultimately dying at Aiud prison in 1962.
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Initially adverse to King Carol II and attempting a rapprochement with the fascist Iron Guard, it came to support Carol's National Renaissance Front after 1938. During World War II, it switched its position, offering backing to the Guard's National Legionary regime and finally to that of Conducător Ion Antonescu. The 1941 edition of Sfarmă-Piatră is remembered for welcoming Operation Barbarossa and the Iași pogrom, and for circulating antisemitic canards. The paper was ultimately shut down after Antonescu's fall in 1944, and its staff either went into hiding or was prosecuted for various political crimes.
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The territory of the National Legionary State amounted to roughly 195,000 square km (or just over 75,000 square miles). It had the same territory as modern day Romania, with the exception of Northern Transylvania, which had been ceded to Hungary in the aftermath of the Second Vienna Award.Marina Cattaruzza, Stefan Dyroff, Dieter Langewiesche, Berghahn Books, 2012, Territorial Revisionism and the Allies of Germany in the Second World War: Goals, Expectations, Practices, p. 98 It also possessed several islands in the Danube Delta, as well as Snake Island in the Black Sea.
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Sima also wanted to apply Nazi principles to Romania's economy in order to bring all of it under centralized control. He addressed a letter to Antonescu in this sense on 16 October, but the latter rejected the idea. Relations between Antonescu and the Guard reached breaking point after the Jilava Massacre. Despite the mounting tension, the two parties achieved a truce for the moment, which allowed a Legionary to keep the post of Bucharest Police Chief but provided for the public condemnation of the Jilava murders.Keith Hitchins, Clarendon Press, 1994, Rumania 1866-1947, pp.
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Denarius of Marcus Antonius (32 BC) depicting a legionary eagle (aquila) on the reverse Guide animals from the ver sacrum and their legends may explain the use of animal insignia by the Roman army.R. Merkelbach "Spechtfahne und Stammessage der Picenter" in Studi in onore di Ugo Enrico Paoli 1955, pp.513-520 Gaius Marius was the first to adopt the eagle in all the signa militaria; previously the eagle had been the first and highest of the signa. Others in use were the wolf, the Minotaur, the horse and the boar.
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In 1936 he arrived in the Soviet Union, and spent some time working with the city teams Zaporizhia and Dnipropetrovsk including Stal Dnipropetrovsk,The tragedy of the first legionary then the order of the All-Union Committee for Physical Culture and Sports of the USSR it was sent to Tbilisi. Limbeck stayed there until March 1937French Coach and worked as chief coach of Dinamo Tbilisi, which reached the finals of the USSR, then he organized a children's football school. In 1937 he was head coach of Lokomotiv Moscow.
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According to Dio, Macrinus had ordered the Praetorian Guard to set aside their scale armour breastplates and grooved shields in favour of lighter oval shields prior to the battle. This made them lighter and more manoeuvrable and negated any advantage the legionary lanciarii (javelin-armed light infantry) had. The Praetorian Guards broke through the lines of Gannys' force, which turned to flee. During the retreat, however, Julia Maesa and Soaemias Bassiana (Elagabalus' mother) joined the fray to rally the forces while Gannys charged on horseback headlong into the enemy.
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The area of the Civitas Taunensium was initially occupied with the Germanic campaigns of Emperor Augustus during the Roman expansion to create the Roman province of Germania. Here, the Rhine river area in the shape of the "Wetterau range" extended extensively into German territory. From the legionary camp of Mogontiacum (modern-day Mainz) a series of fortresses were created, which made it safer for Roman units to march from the Rhine into the inner German territories. These castra were located in Rödgen, Friedberg, Bad Nauheim, and possibly Nida.
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Caerleon (; ) is a town and community on the River Usk situated northeast of the city of Newport, Wales and southeast of Cwmbran. Caerleon is of archaeological importance, being the site of a notable Roman legionary fortress, Isca Augusta, and an Iron Age hillfort. Close to the remains of Isca Augusta are the National Roman Legion Museum and the Roman Baths Museum. The town also has strong historical and literary associations: Geoffrey of Monmouth elevated the significance of Caerleon as a major centre of British history in his Historia Regum Britanniae (c.
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39 Sima was close to SS Volksgruppenführer Andreas Schmidt, a volksdeutsch (ethnic German) from Romania, and through him become close to Schmidt's father-in-law, the powerful Gottlob Berger who headed the SS Main Office in Berlin.Haynes, Rebecca "German Historians and the Romanian National Legionary State 1940-41" pp. 676–683 from The Slavonic and East European Review Volume 71, Issue # 4, October 1993 p. 681. The British historian Rebecca Haynes has argued that financial and organizational support from the SS was an important factor in Sima's rise.
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The main centres of Roman Dardania were Scupi (Skopje), Naissus (Niš) and Ulpiana (Lipljan). At the time of Moesia Superior, the towns in Dardania included Scupi, Naissus, Ulpiana, Therranda, Vicianum, Vindenis, Velanis, Dardapara, Quemedava and Damastion. The Romans occupied Naissos () in the period of the "Dardanian War" (75–73 BC), and set up a legionary camp. The city (called refugia and vici in pre-Roman relation), because of its strategic position (Thracians were based to the south) developed as an important garrison and market town of Moesia Superior.
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One of Romano's last works was from a competition for a large commission which he won at the end of the decade for the Monument to the Legionary (1938–39). Stylistically this piece is very similar to his other works of the period, emitting great strength and force. The work honors the soldiers who died in Italy's colonial conquests, including a tomb for an unknown soldier. It was intended for Addis Ababa, Ethiopia however with the outbreak of the Second World War the shipment was interrupted and the piece remained in storage.
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Later that year Septimius Severus marched into Rome, disbanded the Guard and started a new formation from his own Pannonian legions. Unruly mobs in Rome often fought with the Praetorians in Maximinus Thrax's reign in vicious street battles. In 271, Aurelian sailed east to destroy the power of Palmyra, Syria, with a force of legionary detachments, Praetorian cohorts, and other cavalry units, and easily defeated the Palmyrenes. This led to the orthodox view that Diocletian and his colleagues evolved the sacer comitatus (the field escort of the emperors).
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Gobannium was a Roman fort guarding the road along the valley of the River Usk, which linked the legionary fortress of Burrium (Usk) and later Isca Augusta or Isca Silurum (Caerleon) in the south with Y Gaer, Brecon and Mid Wales. It was also built to keep the peace among the local British Iron Age tribe, the Silures. Remains of the walls of this fort were discovered west of the castle when excavating the foundations for a new post office and telephone exchange building in the late 1960s.
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Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil. In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius.Tacitus, Agricola 29 Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two- thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.
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Emperor Claudius sent them back to Pannonia around 45 and the legion built its legionary fortress at Poetovium (modern Ptuj, Slovenia). In the year of the four emperors (69), XIII Gemina supported first Otho and then Vespasian against Vitellius, fighting in the two Battles of Bedriacum. Stamped brick found at Alba Iulia, Romania Under Trajan the legion took part in both Dacian wars (101–102, 105–106), and it was transferred by Trajan in 106 to the newly conquered province of Dacia (in Apulum, modern Alba Iulia, Romania) to garrison it.
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In 1935 he was promoted to the position of Legionary commander of the Timișoara region. Sima became commander of the Iron Guard in late 1938 after its founder and leader, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, was imprisoned and later murdered. The Iron Guard had initially formed an interim leadership including Sima, Ion Belgae, Iordache Nicoara, Ion Antoniu, and Radu Mironovici in April 1938, but by August, Sima remained the only leader not imprisoned by the Romanian government, eventually allowing him to bypass the hierarchy of leadership previously established and become leader of the Iron Guard.
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Barons kvartāls was an integral part of Latvia's recent basketball history, as it (under the name Princips) was one of the foundation teams of the Latvian Basketball League (LBL) in 1992. In the first season Princips carried off bronze in the LBL. After two seasons Princips was renamed the LainERS, making their way into Latvia's basketball history with its first American legionary Mikki Jackson, with a cheerleader show and first ever game programmes in the Latvian league. LainERS achieved LBL bronze in 1994, and in the next two seasons finished in 4th place.
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Tacitus describes him as "rich and advanced in years",Tacitus, Histories, II.86 which was likely what Galba wanted: a complacent non-entity overseeing an important province. However, he proved pliable by the legionary legate Lucius Annius Bassus, who encouraged him to support Vespasian at the critical moment.Gwyn Morgan, 69 A.D. The Year of Four Emperors (Oxford:University Press, 2006), p. 228 In reward for his loyalty, Flavianus was appointed to a second consulship for the nundinium of either March-April or May-June 76 as the colleague of Lucius Tampius Flavianus.
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In 1999 one of the last inner-city areas with buildings from the 1950s was to be upgraded. In order to build a shopping arcade, the existing buildings were demolished and a correspondingly large excavation pit was dug for the foundations. The construction project was accompanied by the General Directorate for Cultural Heritage Rhineland-Palatinate. Since the Roman road in this area ran from the legionary camp towards the Rhine bridge (parts of which were uncovered during the excavations), the archaeologists involved reckoned with a typical strip house development and smaller workshops from Roman times.
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Much of the Roman wall survives as the lower courses or inner core of the medieval city walls, 70% of which still exist, largely built on the orders of Alfred the Great to protect the far west of his kingdom following the Viking occupation of 876. The legionary bath complex was excavated in the 1970s, but because of its proximity to the cathedral it was not practicable to retain the excavation for public view. Artifacts from the excavation, however, are displayed with other discoveries at the city's Royal Albert Memorial Museum.
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On the occasion of the Spanish Civil War, were built more than 25 shelters throughout the city of Alcoy to protect them from bombing raids carried out by aircraft Savoia SM 79 from the italian Legionary Air Force, that bombarded Alcoy on seven occasions since the September 20th 1938 until January 11th, 1939. The underground shelter has a capacity of 1,166 people and more than 100 meters in length. It is composed of eight galleries, where the population was communicated by two aisles. Its surface area is 292 m2.
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Around the inside periphery of the vallum was a clear space, the intervallum, which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the vallum and as a storage space for cattle (capita) and plunder (praeda). Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the intervallum, which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the vallum. Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the Via Sagularis, probably a type of "service road", as the sagum, a kind of cloak, was the garment of soldiers.
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The garrison city of Oescus received the status of Roman colony after its legionary garrison was redeployed. The fact that these former Danubian outposts had ceased to be frontier bases and were now in the deep rear acted as an inducement to their urbanization and development. Not all of Dacia was permanently occupied. What was permanently included in the province, after the post-Trajanic evacuation of some land across the lower Danube, were the lands extending from the Danube to the inner arch of the Carpathian Mountains, including Transylvania, the Metaliferi Mountains and Oltenia.
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Maximus is presumably the figure seen on Trajan's column reaching out to Decebalus from his horse. Decebalus' head and right hand were then taken to Trajan in "Ranisstorum" (an unidentified Dacian village, perhaps Piatra Craivii) by Maximus, who was decorated by the emperor. The trophy was sent to Rome where it was thrown down the Gemonian stairs.M Spiedel - JRS 60 page 142-153 Tiberius Claudius Maximus' tomb cites two occasions where the legionary was decorated for his part in the Dacian wars, one of which being the acquisition of Decebalus' head.
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They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies; allied legions usually had a larger attached complement of cavalry than Roman ones. At Lake Trasimene the Romans fielded four legionstwo Roman and two made up of alliesfor a total of approximately 25,000 men.
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The date of his activity in Germania Superior depends on the interpretation of this inscription. If Acilius Strabo was a legionary commander, then the altar dates to the time before his consulate, likely the late 70s. If he was governor, it would date to the time after; in the latest compilation of governors of this province, there is a gap between the years 83 and 87,Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", Chiron, 12 (1982), pp. 281-362 and Strabo's term of office could have fallen then.
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Gobannium was first recorded in the Antonine Itinerary of the late 2nd century AD as 'Gobannio' sited some 12 miles from Burrium, (modern Usk) and 22 miles south of Magnis (now Kenchester, Herefordshire). Gobannium is also mentioned in the Ravenna Cosmography as 'Bannio', sited between Isca Augusta the major legionary fortress covering South Wales (Caerleon) further down the River Usk, and Bremia (Llanio, Ceredigion). The name is thought to have a Celtic or Brythonic language origin and linked to Gobannus and Gofannon and may mean 'the place of the blacksmiths'.
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Plate from: "The Castles & Abbeys of Monmouth" J.S. Prout. 1838 Usk castle and town was probably laid out and established in 1120, after some of the other Norman settlements and castles of the region, such as Monmouth Castle and Abergavenny Castle. However, the site had a history of previous military, strategic, and local significance, for it was here that the Romans had established their early Legionary fortress before relocating it south to Caerleon. Usk is first mentioned in 1138 in the context of it being captured by the Welsh.
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457-458; De Felice, p.101 American historian of fascism Stanley G. Payne, who noted that the Legion benefited from the 400% increase in university enrollment ("proportionately more than anywhere else in Europe"), has described the Captain and his network of disciples as "a revolutionary alliance of students and poor peasants", which centered on the "new underemployed intelligentsia prone to radical nationalism".Payne, p.116 Thus, a characteristic trait of the newly founded movement was the young age of its leaders: later records show that the average age of the Legionary elite was 27.4.
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Sometimes these groups were allowed to live within the Empire. Barbarians could also be settled within the Empire as dediticii or laeti. The Romans could henceforth rely on these groups for military support or even as legionary recruits.Halsall (2007: 52-53) One such group were the Burgundians, whom the Roman Emperor Honorius in 406 had invited to join the Roman Empire as foederati with a capital at Worms .Drew (1972:1) The Burgundians were soon defeated by the Huns, but once again given land near Lake Geneva for Gundioc (r.
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Carol's abdication and the establishment of a National Legionary State in September 1940 had dramatic consequences for Andrei. The incoming Education Minister, Traian Brăileanu, ordered his dismissal from higher education, while the new dictator Ion Antonescu had him put under investigation. In early October, after Iron Guard members searched his home and due to be arrested, he committed suicide, swallowing potassium cyanide.Stelian Neagoe, Triumful rațiunii împotriva violenței, p. 510. Iași: Editura Junimea, 1977 His political testament is contained in two letters: one to his wife, the other to his four sons.
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They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies. It is not clear how the 15,000 infantry at the Bagradas River were constituted, but they possibly represented four slightly under-strength legions: two Roman and two allied.
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The sudden surprise attack briefly threw the allies into a state of confusion, but the Spartans retreated back to the city when the main body of legionary cohorts arrived. As the Romans marched past Sparta on their way to Mount Menelaus, Nabis' mercenaries attacked the allies' rear. Appius Claudius, commander of the rearguard, rallied his troops and forced the mercenaries to retreat behind the city's walls, inflicting heavy casualties on them in the process. The coalition army then proceeded to Amyclae, from whence they plundered the surrounding countryside.
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Bogdan Popa, Straja Țării în Enciclopedia României, at Cooperativa Gusti, March 2, 2015; Teofil Sidorovici, "Străjerii sunt economi, cumpătați, păstrători", in De Strajă, Nr. 9/1938, p. 5 In June 1938, they formed part of the Romanian delegation at the Strength Through Joy festival in Hamburg."Congresul 'Muncă și recreație' dela Hamburg", in De Strajă, Nr. 9/1938, p. 24 Arcași groups disappeared under the Iron Guard's National Legionary State but were again revived by Doboș in 1943, this time as subgroups of the Society for Romanian Culture and Literature.
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Segontium was founded by Agricola in 77 or 78 after he had conquered the Ordovices in North Wales. It was the main Roman fort in the north of Roman Wales and was designed to hold about a thousand auxiliary infantry. It was connected by a Roman road to the Roman legionary base at Chester, Deva Victrix. Unlike the medieval Caernarfon Castle that was built alongside the Seiont estuary more than a thousand years later, Segontium was situated on higher ground to the east giving a good view of the Menai Straits.
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The mint mark is on the obverse, to the right of the date. Swiatek and Breen suggested that the caduceus (in modern usage a symbol of medicine) is "said to represent the medical breakthroughs of Col. William C. Gorgas's successful campaign" to control malaria and yellow fever at the canal site. They wrote that on the reverse, the "defiant eagle probably alludes to the necessity of keeping the Canal open during World War I; the whole composition is meant to suggest a Roman legionary standard, which was a pole surmounted by some such device".
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The Rhodians may not have known the difference, or Sulla did not choose to make it known. Dessau's sources speculate that he was nominally the governor of Cilicia, but none of these governorships were ever occupied. Subsequently, Lentulus vanishes from history, perhaps, Dessau's sources suggest, by death. In the current war he would have been the equivalent of a lieutenant general, sitting with Sulla in the early morning in the headquarters (praetorium) to give the orders of the day to the legionary officers (centurions and legates) as they reported to receive them.
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While these negotiations were carried out, the monarch himself was being advised by his entourage to recover legitimacy by governing in tandem with the increasingly popular Antonescu, while creating a new political majority from the existing forces. On 2 September 1940, Valer Pop, a courtier and an important member of the camarilla, first advised Carol to appoint Antonescu as Prime Minister as the solution to the crisis.Haynes, Rebbecca "Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pp. 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4.
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When, in December, Legionary Foreign Minister Mihail R. Sturdza obtained the replacement of Fabricius with Manfred Freiherr von Killinger, perceived as more sympathetic to the Iron Guard, Antonescu promptly took over leadership of the ministry, with the compliant diplomat Constantin Greceanu as his right hand.Deletant, pp. 63, 301 In Germany, such leaders of the Nazi Party as Heinrich Himmler, Baldur von Schirach and Joseph Goebbels threw their support behind the Legionaries,Final Report, pp. 62–63; Veiga, pp. 280, 296 whereas Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and the Wehrmacht stood by Antonescu.
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The acceptance of the Second Vienna Award completely discredited Carol with his people, and in early September 1940 enormous demonstrations broke out all over Romania demanding that Carol abdicate. On 1 September 1940, Sima who had resigned from the government gave a speech calling upon Carol to abdicate, and the Iron Guard began to organize demonstrations all over Romania to press for king's abdication.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 710.
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65 at the Empire's territorial peak in the time of the Roman Emperor Hadrian (117 − 138CE). This estimate probably included only legionary and auxiliary troops of the Roman army. However, Gibbon states that it is "not... easy to define the size of the Roman military with any tolerable accuracy." In the late Imperial period, when vast numbers of foederati were employed by the Romans, Antonio Santosuosso estimated the combined number of men in arms of the two Roman empires numbered closer to 700,000 in total (not all members of a standing army), drawing on data from the Notitia Dignitatum.
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In January 1941, the Guard and Antonescu went to war with each other, in what was termed the "Legionary Rebellion"; Antonescu emerged victorious. Herseni, perceived as a "moderate" or "decent" Guardist, was able to escape the subsequent purge, and made his peace with the new military regime. Reportedly, he resumed his contacts with Ralea, assuring him that Sima, by then disgraced and in exile, had tried to curb his own party's violence. In May of that year, Revista de Studii Sociologice și Muncitorești hosted Herseni's homage piece to the economist Virgil Madgearu, who had been murdered by the Guard a year before.
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99 Historian of medicine Marius Turda writes that Romanian communist social science was folding back on racial science, a "national biology involving notions of racial differentiation, cycles of growth and decay, genetic genealogies, the interconnectedness of nurture and nature". The changing political climate allowed anthropologists "to reposition autochthonous ideas within their discipline"; Herseni, "an important Legionary sociologist", "provides an exemplary case of post-war re-adaptation, professionally and theoretically."Turda (2010), pp. 6–7 Bucur also argues that Herseni stands as a prime example of an "openly racist" eugenicist whom the communist regime was able to recover for its own propaganda purposes.
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Mogontiacum owed its significance to its location at the meeting point of the Main and the Rhine. The city provided a convenient base for the defense of the nearby border of the Roman empire, the limes, and for the organisation of military campaigns against the Germanii. As a result, a double legionary camp was built on the site in 13/12 BC, which remained in place until some time after AD 350. Over time a civilian settlement (Latin vicus) also developed on the site, which became the provincial capital of the newly created province of Germania Superior around AD 80.
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He was elected to the Romanian Senate in 1937, and reached the apex of his political career during the short- lived National Legionary State of 1940–1941. He served as Education and Arts Minister under this regime, targeting the country's Jewish community and his various political opponents. In the wake of the Legionnaires' rebellion, he was arrested, tried and acquitted, but later arrested again and interned. Freed yet again in 1944, he was placed under house arrest following the King Michael Coup that August, and, increasingly ill with ulcers, was tried before one of the Romanian People's Tribunals in 1946.
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From the time of the Roman invasion Alchester was in a strategic position in the border region of the Catuvellauni and Dobunni tribes, and in an ideal position to exercise control over wide areas. During the first few years after the invasion, a large legionary fortress of the Legio II Augusta commanded by Vespasian was built here. Alchester was situated behind the early military front line of the Fosse Way in an ideal position as a supply base. After the conquest of most of the rest of Roman Britain, the legion moved to Exeter before AD 68 and abandoned the fortress.
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The number of citizens steadily increased, as people inherited citizenship and more grants were made. Eventually in 212, everybody except slaves and freed slaves were granted citizenship by the Constitutio Antoniniana. The other inhabitants of Britain, who did not enjoy citizenship, the Peregrini, continued to live under the laws of their ancestors. The principal handicaps were that they could not own land with a Latin title, serve as a legionary in the army (although they could serve in an auxiliary unit, and become a Roman citizen upon discharge), or, in general, inherit from a Roman citizen.
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Tacitus, Annals 12:36 Power struggles within the Brigantes made the Romans wary, and they were conquered in a war beginning in the 70s under the governorship of Quintus Petillius Cerialis. The Romans created the province of "Britannia Inferior" (Lower Britain) in the North, and it was ruled from the city of Eboracum (modern York). Eboracum and Deva Victrix (modern Chester) were the main legionary bases in the region, with other smaller forts including Mamucium (Manchester) and Cataractonium (Catterick). Britannia Inferior extended as far north as Hadrian's Wall, which was the northernmost border of the Roman Empire.
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After the Roman conquest of Britain led in person by the Emperor Claudius in 43 CE, a legionary fortress was established at Camulodunon, the Iron Age capital of the Trinovantes and Catuvellauni tribes. This fortress was later converted into a town for retired soldiers in 49 CE,Crummy, Philip (1984) Colchester Archaeological Report 3: Excavations at Lion Walk, Balkerne Lane, and Middleborough, Colchester, Essex. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () and was renamed Camulodunum, a Latin rendition of the Celtic name of the site. The town was the capital of the new province of Britannia, and had several public building befitting its status.
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Tombstone of Gaius Valerius, a standard bearer of the Ninth Legion. Found on the South Common, Lincoln (RIB 257) The Romans conquered this part of Britain in AD 48 and shortly afterwards built a legionary fortress, possibly south of the River Witham. This was soon replaced, around the year 60, by a second fort for the Ninth Legion, high on a hill overlooking the natural lake formed by the widening of the River Witham (the modern day Brayford Pool) and at the northern end of the Fosse Way Roman road. That pool is very likely to have given Lincoln its name.
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90 In a military camp this connected the Porta Praetoria (closest to the enemy) to the Porta Decumana (away from the enemy). This name comes from the fact that the via decumana or decimana (the tenth) separated the Tenth Cohort from the Ninth in the legionary encampment, in the same way as the via quintana separated the Fifth Cohort from the Sixth. In the middle, or groma, the Decumanus Maximus crosses the perpendicular Cardo Maximus, the primary north–south road that was the usual main street. The Forum is normally located close to this intersection of the Decumanus Maximus and the Cardo Maximus.
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The area was maintained by the Roman military, who also maintained large legionary camps at Brigantium (Austria), near Lake Constance, and at Magia (Swiss). A Roman road which ran through the territory was also created and maintained by these groups. In c.260, Brigantium was destroyed by the Alemanni, a Germanic people who settled in the area in around 450 AD. In the Early Middle Ages, the Alemanni settled the eastern Swiss plateau by the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps by the end of the 8th century, with Liechtenstein located at the eastern edge of Alemannia.
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Their story was idealized in Jan Drda's fiction Vyšší princip (). General Richard Tesařík,Richard Tesařík in the Czech Radio web article (in Czech) the Hero of the Soviet Union, or legionary Alois Laub, leader of the military resistance group Oliver, executed in Brandenburg in 1945, were born in Příbram. At the beginning of May 1945, Příbram spontaneously rose up against the occupiers, the Czech authority took formally the power, but the Wehrmacht unit threatened with declaration of martial law. After negotiations, the town was liberated by the Soviet partisan brigade Death of Fascism (, ) led by Captain Yevgeny Antonovich Olesinsky.
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These northern fortifications are sometimes styled the Limes Britannicus. The average garrison of the wall fortifications is thought to have been around 10,000 men. Along with a continuous wall (except in the case of Gask Ridge), there existed a metaled road immediately behind the wall for transport of troops. Along the wall there existed a few large forts for legions or vexillations, as well as a series of milecastles - effectively watchtowers that were unable to defend a stretch of wall against anything but low-scale raiding but were able to signal attack to legionary forts by means of fire signals atop the towers.
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Cenotaph stone dedicated to the legionary centurio primi ordinis (senior centurion) of the 18th legion (Legio XVIII), Marcus Caelius. Note Caelius' multiple decorations for valour: on his head, the highest military honour, the corona civica (crown of oak-leaves), for saving the life of a fellow-Roman citizen in battle; on his wrist, armilla (silver bracelet); on the cuirass, phalerae (medallions, usually of silver) and torcs. In his right hand, the centurion carries the vitis (vine-stick), his badge of rank. The legend states that Caelius was from Bononia (Bologna, N. Italy, a Roman colony founded in 189 BC).
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Germanicus campaigns had resulted in recovery of two of three Aquila lost in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest defeat;the third legionary standard was recovered in AD 41 by Publius Gabinius from the Chauci during the reign of Claudius, brother of Germanicus.Cassius Dio, Roman History Book LX, Chapter 8 A parenthetical note concerns the Ampsivarii. They had not supported the German cause led by Arminius in 9 AD and had been ostracized as a result. The Chauci had suffered no such disaffection from the other Germanic tribes in the aftermath of Teutoburg Forest, nor had they alienated the Romans.
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After his son sees a vision of a legionary, he realizes that this has to do with the upcoming millennium, he sets out for Hub, the capital of the Impire, to speak with his friend the Imperor. Thaïle, a Gifted pixie in mysterious Thume, stands Death Watch over a neighbor, and receives her first Word of power. This earns her interest from the College, and Jain arrives at her parents' house to talk to Thaïle. He informs her she will be going to the College next year, and there is nothing she can do about it.
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The burh at Lincoln guarded the route between Wessex and York, and was protected from much of the Anglo-Danish fighting due to its isolated location. The Lincoln Danes settled the area formerly occupied by the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Lindsey, where the Vikings had previously overwintered in the nearby fortress of Torksey in Lindsey from 873 to 874. Lincoln probably surrendered in 918 following the capitulation of all the Danish territories on the border of Mercia and Wessex. As a former Roman legionary town, the burh probably based its walls on the old fortress of 41 acresRoman-Britain.
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Iaşi: The Center for Romanian Studies, 1998. The investigation underway, the court, wishing to obtain testimony from the detainees in order to prepare for their trials, ordered several of them to be transferred to another jail, where their depositions would be taken. However, Ștefan Zăvoianu, the Bucharest Prefect of Police in charge of the Legionary squads guarding the prisoners, believed Antonescu had changed his mind about executing those responsible for Codreanu's death and refused to comply with the order. This alerted the military authorities, who decided to replace the squads with regular military guards and move the prisoners themselves.
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In the late Republican and early Imperial era, the armament of a provocator ("challenger") mirrored legionary armature. In the later Imperial period, their armament ceased to reflect its military origins, and changes in armament followed changes in arena fashion only. Provocatores have been shown wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a manica on the lower right arm, and a visored helmet without brim or crest, but with a feather on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a breastplate (cardiophylax) which is usually rectangular, later often crescent- shaped.
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Asterix and Obelix receive a surprise birthday visit from their mothers, who have come from Condatum, bringing a Roman sword and helmet as presents. The mothers soon fuss over why their sons are still unmarried. Their efforts to find matrimonial matches for them go unappreciated. Meanwhile, Asterix and Obelix's fathers, who run a "modernities" store in Condatum, are arrested because an alcoholic veteran legionary, Tremensdelirius from Asterix and Caesar's Gift, had sold them the sword and helmet of Caesar's rival Pompey, who now wants them back, but the two items were gifted to Asterix and Obelix.
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Barkai was born in Bucharest, the capital of Romania, as a first born for Moshe and Rachel Borsok. As a boy, he experienced the persecution and violence directed against the local Jewish community by the National Legionary State and the Ion Antonescu regime. In December 1947, his family tried to make aliyah to Palestine, but their ship was caught by the British and they were sent to the Cyprus internment camps (the British prohibited Jews emigration to Palestine, see White Paper of 1939). When Israel was declared its independence, his family finally arrived in Israel and settled in Bat Yam.
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In provinces, the governor would be given command of the army units within his territory. Beneath him were the legionary legates, a laticlavian tribune who was a senatorial officer working for 1–2 years toward becoming a senator at the age of 25, five angusticlavian tribunes, and lastly, equestrians who supported the legate and were a class below the senators in society. Under Julius Caesar, officers all came from aristocratic families that contained senators of the highest standings. Common soldiers, however, whether Roman or not, could rise through the ranks if they displayed outstanding ability and loyalty.
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Once the pilum struck a hard surface, the unhardened iron shank would buckle under the weight of the shaft; this prevented the enemy from throwing it back. The pilum's narrow point, long shank, and heavy weight meant that a hit on an enemy shield would often pierce through and strike the defender. Even if the opponent was not struck, the pilum's weight would then render the shield useless to its owner and the barbed head made it difficult to withdraw. The gladius, or the “Iberian sword,” continued to be the primary weapon of the late Republican legionary.
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In September 1940, Carol abdicated and the Guard took over, establishing a "National Legionary State"; Bassarab, Olinescu, and Gheorghe Ceglokoff reformed Grupul Grafic, which was now openly associated with the Guard, and exhibited at Sala Dalles.Ion Frunzetti, "Grupul Grafic (Sala Dalles)", in Universul Literar, Nr. 40/1940, p. 6 Bassarab exhibited work that was highly political, including portraits of folk heroes such as Horia alongside Guard commanders such as Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Ion Moța and Gheorghe Clime. Ion Frunzetti, a Guard supporter and art critic, praised him as "the chronicler of a destiny", with "a certain Thracian toughness".
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Teacă, p.201 In December 1940, Bassarab organized an exhibit, Munca legionară ("Legionary Labor"), also at Sala Dalles, which represented a fusion of art with Guardist ideology.Scăiceanu, p.384; Teacă, passim It was attended by Traian Brăileanu, the Arts Minister, and Guard Commander Horia Sima.Teacă, p.202 Soon afterwards, the Guard fell from power, and Bassarab was arrested on orders from Conducător Ion Antonescu. When Romania entered World War II in June 1941 as part of Operation Barbarossa, Bassarab was placed into a frontline unit with a high risk of casualties, participating in the recovery of Bessarabia. He vanished outside Țiganca.
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The name of the legion is related to Constantius Chlorus, who was one of the four emperors at the time of the tetrarchs. II Flavia Constantia had its headquarters in Cusas (Not. Or. XXXI) until the time of the Notitia Dignitatum. In the course of time, probably under Constantine I, when the troops of the Egyptian provinces were united under the command of a dux (CIL II 12073), the legionary troops of the province were increased with units from both legions of Aegyptus I Iovia, II Traiana, and III Diocletiana, the latter gradually being divided into three garrisons (Not. or.
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Every legion had a baggage train of 500–550 mules, or about 1 mule for every 10 legionaries. To keep these baggage trains from becoming too large, Marius had each man carry as much of his own equipment as he could, including his own armor, weapons and 15 days' rations or about 50–60 pounds (22.5–27 kg) of load total. To make this easier, he issued each legionary a forked stick to carry his load on his shoulders. The soldiers were nicknamed Marius' Mules (muli mariani in Latin) due to the amount of gear they had to carry themselves.
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He is known for playing the character of legionary Titus Pullo in the BBC/HBO television series Rome. He shares the lead starring role in the series with Kevin McKidd. Other television work includes guest appearances in popular series including Waking the Dead and Murphy's Law as well as lead roles in City Central and At Home with the Braithwaites. He has also appeared in several TV films such as Some Kind of Life in 1995, in which he co-starred with Jane Horrocks, and The Return of the Native, which also featured Catherine Zeta-Jones.
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Cassius tried to reinforce the soldiers' loyalty both with strong speeches ("Let it give no one any concern that he has been one of Caesar's soldiers. We were not his soldiers then, but our country's") and with a gift of 1,500 denarii for each legionary and 7,500 for each centurion. Although ancient sources do not report the total numbers of men of the two armies, it seems that they had a similar strength. Adrian Goldsworthy suggests that at full strength the 19 Triumvir legions may have amounted to 95,000 men and the 17 Liberators' legions to 85,000.
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In 88 AD, the Emperor Domitian had ordered the Legio XX abandon the fort they had been building in Scotland at Inchtuthil and redeploy to garrison the legionary fortress Deva Victrix (Chester). But the fort is estimated to have been built later than the other forts on Dere Street, around 150 AD. There is evidence it was rebuilt around 230/240 AD and again in the early 4th century. The fort is listed both in the Notitia Dignitatum and in the Ravenna Cosmography.Longovicivm The rectangular fort, which had rounded not square corners, had four gates and was surrounded by a ditch.
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Back on the road, Asterix and Obelix get past another patrol by posing as breakdown men, towing a legionary, Spongefingus, in his damaged chariot, only to then cast him aside on the road. Rheims (Reims): Asterix and Obelix abandon the breakdown chariot and buy some wines. They are found by Spongefingus, who has recovered from his "accident," but Asterix knocks him down by using a cork exploding from an amphora. Divodurum (Metz): Leaving Rheims, the pair detours into a forest, where the scent of roast boar leads them to the house of Unpatriotix, who feeds and then betrays them.
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Batzaria was nevertheless marginalized for the larger part of World War II, when Romania came under successive fascist regimes (the Iron Guard's National Legionary State and the authoritarian system of Conducător Ion Antonescu). He was still featured and reviewed in an issue of Familia magazine, where he discussed the loss of Northern Transylvania, and compared the plight of its inhabitants with that of the Aromanians. N. Batzaria, "Ardeleni și Macedoneni", in Familia, Nr. 1/1941, pp. 19–23 His 50th book of stories also saw print, as Regina din Insula Piticilor ("The Queen of Dwarf Island"), set to coincide with Christmas 1940.
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Castle There used to be a district court in Mladá Vožice, a forestry administration office, a tax office, a gendarme office, a financial pension control, a chemist, two physicians, two veterinarians and a gelder, a notary, two lawyers, two taxis, two hotels, six pubs with three skittles, and three cartmen. There also was an almshouse, a poor hospital, an orphanage, a post office and the cinema Legie (Legion) of the Czech Legionary club. There were four small savings banks and representatives of 4 insurance companies. Mladá Vožice held annual markets, monthly markets and cattle markets, and Thursday piglet markets.
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Robert Steven Caron translated five volumes into American English. These are Asterix and the Great Crossing in 1984, Asterix the Legionary and Asterix at the Olympic Games in 1992, and Asterix in Britain and Asterix and Cleopatra in 1995. For copyright purposes, most of the names of the characters names were changed. With Asterix never achieving great popularity in the United States, this series of re-translations was halted after these albums, leading to some confusion among the few American fans of the series (the other volumes were issued with the British translation in the same market).
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After the Marian reforms of 107 BC (subsequently further formalised by the emperor Claudius) created a professionalized military system, legions were commanded by a legionary legate (legatus). Six tribunes were still posted to a legion, but their duties and responsibilities had changed, becoming more a political position than a military rank. The second-in-command to the legate was the tribunus laticlavius or 'broad-stripe' tribune (named after the width of the stripe used to demarcate him on his tunic and toga), usually a young man of Senatorial rank. He was given this position to learn and watch the actions of the legate.
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Publications such as "The Truth About the Trial of Corneliu Z. Codreanu, May 1938" and manifestos against the Royal Dictatorship were also printed, with Sima's Persecution Command directly addressing letters to the authorities. On 13 October 1938, Alexandru Cantacuzino released a circular declaring that "the Legionary Movement is determined to put an end to Mr. Călinescu's fearlessness." A pamphlet, entitled "Look at These Three" ("Priviți pe acești trei") followed, directly attacking Carol II, Elena Lupescu, and her father. Another manifesto followed, commanding Carol II to "reconcile with the Romanian Nation", lest the Legionaries "find another solution to the open problem".
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In the aftermath of Carol's decision to crush the Iron Guard, many members of the Legion fled into exile in Germany, where they received both material and financial support from the NSDAP, especially from the SS and Alfred Rosenberg's Foreign Political Office.Haynes, Rebecca "German Historians and the Romanian National Legionary State 1940–41" pp. 676–683 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 71, Issue # 4, October 1993 p. 681. For much of the interwar period, Romania was in the French sphere of influence, and in 1926 Romania signed a treaty of alliance with France.
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Elton (1996) 120–1 The documented income of 2 solidi was only a quarter of the disposable income of a 2nd-century legionary (which was the equivalent of c. 8 solidi).Goldsworthy (2003) 94 The late soldier's discharge package (which included a small plot of land) was also minuscule compared with a 2nd-century legionary's, worth just a tenth of the latter's.Jones (1964) 31Duncan-Jones (1990) 35 Despite the disparity with the Principate, Jones and Elton argue that 4th-century remuneration was attractive compared to the hard reality of existence at subsistence level that most recruits' peasant families had to endure.
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Cáceres. Q(uintus) Pomponius Potentinus / Ser(gia) h(ic) s(itus) e(st) / C(aius) Pomponius Potentinus / mil(es) c(o)hor(tis) IIII praet(oriae) / test(amento) fieri iussit. Originally, the Praetorian Guard was recruited from the populations of central Italy (Etruria, Umbria and Latium according to Tacitus). Recruits were between 15 and 32 years of age, compared to legionary recruits who ranged from 18 to 23 years of age. According to Cassius Dio, during the first two centuries AD and before the reform of Septimius Severus, the Praetorians were exclusively limited to Italy, Spain (Roman province), Macedonia and Noricum (current Austria).
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They were distinct from the Imperial German Bodyguard which provided close personal protection for the early Western Roman emperors. They benefited from several advantages due to their close proximity with the emperor: the Praetorians were the only ones admitted while bearing arms in the center of sacred Rome – the Pomerium. Their mandatory service was shorter in duration, for instance : 12 years with the Praetorians instead of 16 years in the legions starting year 13 BC, then carried to, respectively, 16 to 20 years in year 5 BC according to Tacitus. Their pay was higher than that of a legionary.
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The first documentary evidence pointing to a cult devoted to Chiaffredo dates from 1387, when Avignon Pope Clement VII granted indulgences to those who visited the church at Crissolo and helped in its repair. A late 16th century legend written down by Guglielmo Baldesano states that Chiaffredo or Teofredo, soldier of the Theban Legion, escaped to Piedmont to avoid sacrificing to pagan idols and was martyred at Crissolo around 270. Fabio Arduino believes this story to have no historical foundation, as it would have been unlikely for a Roman legionary of the 3rd century to bear such a clearly Germanic name.
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Most male Roman citizens were eligible for military service and would serve as infantry, a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 of the infantry, poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary, served as javelin-armed skirmishers, known as ; they carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, a short sword, and a shield. The balance were equipped as heavy infantry, with body armour, a large shield and short thrusting swords.
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The Battle of Marston Moor The drier land in the Vale of York, away from the river valleys, would have been extensively cleared for pastoral farming and small scale cropping before the Roman era. The area around York was significantly influenced by the Romans who established their legionary fortress of Eboracum there. There is evidence of villas, forts, signal stations and roads constructed by them.English Heritage The vale suffered badly from the Harrying of the North when King William I devastated the northern counties of England to punish the population for their resistance to his conquest.
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Meanwhile, Asterix and Obelix also stun the young legionary and enter the Gothic lands. While running into a Gothic border patrol, Obelix stupidly uses the cover up names he and Asterix used for their Roman disguises, making the patrol think the Gauls are Romans. After Asterix and Obelix beat up the patrol, they disguise themselves as Goths by attacking two of them, infiltrating their barracks as members of the army. They escape from the Gothic army, but are soon captured again by the Goths and thrown in jail along with Rhetoric, who was also trying to flee.
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The stance taken by Eliade resulted in his arrest on July 14, 1938 after a crackdown on the Iron Guard authorized by King Carol II. At the time of his arrest, he had just interrupted a column on Provincia și legionarismul ("The Province and Legionary Ideology") in Vremea, having been singled out by Prime Minister Armand Călinescu as an author of Iron Guard propaganda.Ornea, p.208–209 Eliade was kept for three weeks in a cell at the Siguranța Statului Headquarters, in an attempt to have him sign a "declaration of dissociation" with the Iron Guard, but he refused to do so.Ornea, p.
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After leaving London he was assigned the office of Counsel and Press Officer (later Cultural Attaché) to the Romanian Embassy in Portugal,Biografie, in Handoca; Nastasă, p.442Cătălin Avramescu, "Citim una, înţelegem alta" ("We Read One Thing and Understand Another") , in Dilema Veche, Vol. III, August 2006; retrieved January 28, 2008 Michael Löwy, Review of Daniel Dubuisson, Impostures et pseudo-science. L'œuvre de Mircea Eliade, in Archives de Science Sociale et Religion, 132 (2005) ; retrieved January 22, 2008 where he was kept on as diplomat by the National Legionary State (the Iron Guard government) and, ultimately, by Ion Antonescu's regime.
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A re-enactor, portraying a legionary at the end of the 3rd century Map of Roman legions by 212 AD. In the Later Roman Empire, the number of legions was increased and the Roman Army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the Tetrarchy, although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with the elite legiones palatinae created by Diocletian and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old Legions.
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Slaves could also be claimed from the prisoners of war and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in a sizeable supplement to their regular pay. All legionary soldiers would also receive a praemia (veterans' benefits) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000 denarii from the time of Augustus) and/or a plot of good farmland (good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious provinces. Later, under Caracalla, the praemia increased to 5,000 denarii.
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The Republican forces under Líster's command redeployed in the morning and launched a counterattack at noon. Close to one-hundred "Chato" and "Rata" fighter planes and two squadrons of Katiuska bombers of the Spanish Republican Air Force had been made available at the Albacete airfield. While the aircraft of the Italian Legionary Air Force were grounded on water-logged airports, the Republicans did not have this problem since the Albacete airfield had a concrete strip. After an air bombardment of the Italian positions, the Republican infantry supported by T-26 and BT-5 light tanks attacked the Italian lines.
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A group of Roman soldiers are on the run from the army, the local tribes and anybody else who might threaten them. They are led by Logan, their former cohort leader, who reminds them constantly that they are "the Ninth", possibly meaning the lost Ninth Legion. Logan also complains that they are "soldiers, not bricklayers"; the last testified activity for the Ninth Legion in Britain is during the rebuilding in stone of the legionary fortress at York (Eboracum) in AD 107-8. Initially the other soldiers are Face, Magoo and Buzzard, along with Macey, who is subject to fits and berserker rages.
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Most male Roman citizens were eligible for military service and would serve as infantry, a better-off minority providing a cavalry component. Traditionally, when at war the Romans would raise two legions, each of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. Approximately 1,200 of the infantry, poorer or younger men unable to afford the armour and equipment of a standard legionary, served as javelin- armed skirmishers, known as ; they carried several javelins, which would be thrown from a distance, a short sword, and a shield. The balance were equipped as heavy infantry, with body armour, a large shield and short thrusting swords.
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Panel from Trajan's Column depicting the lustral procession of the suovetaurilia victims under military standards Each camp had its own religious personnel; standard bearers, priestly officers and their assistants, including a haruspex, and housekeepers of shrines and images. A senior magistrate-commander (sometimes even a consul) headed it, his chain of subordinates ran it and a ferocious system of training and discipline ensured that every citizen-soldier knew his duty. As in Rome, whatever gods he served in his own time seem to have been his own business; legionary forts and vici included shrines to household gods, personal deities and deities otherwise unknown.
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They celebrated Rome's official festivals in absentia, and had the official triads appropriate to their function – in the Empire, Jupiter, Victoria and Concordia were typical. By the early Severan era, the military also offered cult to the Imperial divi, the current emperor's numen, genius and domus (or familia), and special cult to the Empress as "mother of the camp". The near ubiquitous legionary shrines to Mithras of the later Imperial era were not part of official cult until Mithras was absorbed into Solar and Stoic Monism as a focus of military concordia and Imperial loyalty.Brent, 268-9.Books.Google.co.
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Paul Rehak, Imperium and Cosmos: Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius (University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), pp. 7–8. Augustus chose the Campus Martius as the site of his new Temple to Mars Ultor, a manifestation of Mars he cultivated as the avenger (ultor) of the murder of Julius Caesar and of the military disaster suffered at the Battle of Carrhae. When the legionary standards lost to the Parthians were recovered, they were housed in the new temple. The date of the temple's dedication on May 12 was aligned with the heliacal setting of the constellation Scorpio, the sign of war.
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They advanced on the Roman camp, waited two days for a Roman attack and then launched their own attack on the Roman position simultaneously from all sides. Two legions attempted to sortie out the main gates, but were pushed back by the Boii. The fighting dragged on in the confined space and weapons were little used, both sides preferring their shields and bodies for pushing and shoving instead.Livy, 34.46 A centurion from the second legion, Quintus Victorius, and a military tribune from the fourth legion, Gaius Atilius, threw the legionary standards in the midst of the Boii.
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The British ambassador in Washington had sent the news urgently to Britain and Canada, and the military commanders in Canada had, in turn, hastened to inform all their outposts of the state of war. On 2 July, the unsuspecting Cayahoga was captured by , a Canadian-manned armed brig of the Provincial Marine, under the command of Lieutenant Frédéric Rolette, near the British post at Amherstburg, Ontario at the foot of the Detroit River. Hull reached Detroit on 5 July, where he was reinforced by detachments of Michigan militia, including the 140 men of the Michigan Legionary Corps, which Hull had established in 1805.
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The Empire's legionary soldiers were heavily trained and prided themselves on their disciplinary skills. This probably carried over to their training with weaponry, but we have no Roman manuals of swordsmanship. One translation of Juvenal's poetry by Barten Holyday in 1661 makes note that the Roman trainees learned to fight with the wooden wasters before moving on to the use of sharpened steel. In fact, it is also found that Roman gladiators trained with a wooden sword, which was weighted with lead, against a straw man or a wooden pole known as a palus (an early relative of the later wooden pell).
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263 The train stopped at the major railway stations and in each of them, a religious service was performed, with huge crowds watching and then, the Iron Guard leaders urged the audience to join their "Legionary faith". In Pașcani, over 5000 peasants gathered to see the mortuary wagon, while in Bacău, a group of 30 priests performed the services in front of a crowd.Săndulescu, p. 264 In Transylvania, the most important stop was in Cluj, where many local politicians and intellectuals participated at the commemoration, including Alexandru Vaida-Voievod, Sextil Pușcariu, Emil Hațiegan and Ioan Lupaș.
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Xanthippus placed the Carthaginian citizen-militia in the centre of his formation; with the Sicilian veterans and the freshly hired infantry divided on either side of them; and with the cavalry equally divided on either side of these. The elephants were deployed in a single line in front of the centre of the infantry. The Romans placed their legionary infantry in their centre, arranged in a deeper and denser formation than usual. Polybius considered this to be an effective anti- elephant formation, but points out that it shortened the frontage of the Roman infantry and made them liable to being out-flanked.
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But the strength of the two parallel walls, found at a depth of 5.70 to 7.60 metres, is extraordinarily strong at three metres for a Principate fort. In addition, a fort 300 metres wide that would almost reach the dimensions of a legionary camp would not be adjustable at this location. What these walls belonged to remains unknown without modern excavations. Rather, archaeologists such as Dénes Gabler suspect the Roman military station in the area of a castle palace of the Árpád period, which was located there before the construction of the great fortress at its southern fortification.
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Naissus was first mentioned in Roman documents near the beginning of the 2nd century CE, and was considered a place worthy of note in the Geography of Ptolemy of Alexandria. The Romans occupied the town during the Dardanian campaign (75-73 BC), and set up a legionary camp in the city. The city, called refugia and vici in pre- Roman relation, as a result of its strategic position (the Thracians were based to the south) developed as an important garrison and market town in the province of Moesia Superior. In 272 AD, the future Emperor Constantine the Great was born in Naissus.
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Whereas Augustus and Nero had chosen a cautious military policy when confronting Parthia, later Roman emperors invaded and attempted to conquer the eastern Fertile Crescent, the heart of the Parthian Empire along the Tigris and Euphrates. The heightened aggression can be explained in part by Rome's military reforms. To match Parthia's strength in missile troops and mounted warriors, the Romans at first used foreign allies (especially Nabataeans), but later established a permanent auxilia force to complement their heavy legionary infantry. The Romans eventually maintained regiments of horse archers (sagittarii) and even mail-armored cataphracts in their eastern provinces.
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Neagoe, p. 135 and under Ion Antonescu from September 4 to 14, until the establishment of the National Legionary State.Neagoe, p. 137 While minister, Gruia helped introduce an anti-Jewish law. Taking up a discourse articulated by eugenicist Petru Râmneanțu in 1935, he declared in a statement published on August 9, "We consider Romanian blood as a fundamental element in the founding of the Nation."Marius Turda, "Controlling the National Body: Ideas of Racial Purification in Romania, 1918-1944", in Christian Promitzer, Sevastē Troumpeta, Marius Turda (eds.), Health, Hygiene, and Eugenics in Southeastern Europe to 1945, p. 348.
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Final Report, pp.116, 181 Like other far right Romanians, he saw a Jewish presence behind liberal democracy, and believed in the existence of Judeo-Masonry.Final Report, pp.246–247, 248, 322–323 His earliest thoughts on Codreanu's ideology criticize the Legionary leader for advocating "brutal measures" in dealing with the "invasion of Jews", and instead propose "the organization of Romanian classes" as a method for reaching the same objective. Politician Aureliu Weiss, who met General Antonescu during that interval, recalled that, although antisemitic "to the core", he was capable of restraint in public.Final Report, p.
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Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 pages 705-706. Carol only stopped contributing to the Legion after Codreanu started calling Lupescu a "Jewish whore". Carol's image was always that of the "playboy king"; a hedonistic monarch more interested in womanizing, drinking, gambling and partying than in affairs of state, and to the extent that he cared about politics, Carol was viewed as a scheming, dishonest man only interested in wrecking the democratic system to seize power for himself.
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Carol's personality cult had by 1940 reached such extreme heights that the withdrawal without any resistance from Bessarabia and northern Bukovina revealed that Carol was a mere man after all, and so badly dented his prestige more than would have been the case if Carol had maintained a more modest image. On 28 June 1940, Sima entered the cabinet as Under-secretary of State at the Ministry of Education .Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 709.
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21 rue de l'Odéon (red point) from Coasta Boacii to the Rue de l'Odéon After returning from Berlin in 1936, Cioran taught philosophy at the Andrei Șaguna High School in Brașov for a year. In 1937, he left for Paris with a scholarship from the French Institute branch in Bucharest, which was then prolonged until 1944. After a short stay in his home country (November 1940 – February 1941), Cioran never returned again. This last period in Romania was the one in which he exhibited a closer relationship with the Iron Guard, which by then had taken power (see National Legionary State).
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After the Romans invaded Britain in the 1st century, they quickly established control over the southeast corner of the island, but for at least a couple of decades they did not advance north and west in an attempt to subdue the rest of the island. Two legionary fortresses were established; one at Isca (Exeter) in the southwest corner of the territory and the other at Lindum (Lincoln) in the northeast. A road, now known as the Fosse Way, was then established between the two to help control the border. The Fosse Way crossed the Soar close to the site of the British settlement.
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In 1934, he took his license diploma from the Law and Literature School of the University of Bucharest. Under the pseudonym Antisthius, one of La Bruyères Caractères, he published his first volume, the parodic novel ("In the Manner of Cioran, Noica, Eliade..."). In 1936, he took his PhD in Constitutional Law, and between 1937 and 1938, he travelled to Switzerland, Austria, France and England. In 1939, Steinhardt worked as an editor for Revista Fundaţiilor Regale (a government-sponsored literary magazine), losing his job between 1940 and 1944, during the ethnic cleansing under the Iron Guard regime (the National Legionary State) and the one led by Ion Antonescu.
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There were castra every with the purpose to create a line of protection and control:Purpose of Roman castra in Arabia in the south there was the legionary fortress at Adrou (Udruh), just east of Petra. It probably housed the Legio VI Ferrata, which was moved from Lajjun (in modern-day Israel) by Diocletian. It is similar to Betthorus (al-Lajjun in modern-day Jordan) in size () and design, and is in the plain of Moab, south of Wadi Mujib . Alistair Killick, who excavated the site, dates it to the early 2nd century, but Parker suggests a date in the late 3rd or early 4th century.
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Born in Nucet, Dâmbovița County, went to school in Pitești, and then at the Saint Sava National College in Bucharest. From 1922 to 1926 he attended the Faculty of Law of the University of Bucharest. Antonescu made his living as an attorney before becoming the Minister of Foreign Affairs to Prime Minister Ion Antonescu (to whom he was not closely related) in 1940. Antonescu was initially not an extremist or supporter of the Iron Guard, whose leaders held prominent positions in Ion Antonescu's government in 1940-1941 (see National Legionary State); in the 1930s, he was a member of the National Liberal Party-Brătianu.
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Purged during the Night of the Long Knives, he was able to recover his status, and served as Nazi Germany's Consul in San Francisco between 1936 and 1939. As Ambassador to the Slovak Republic in 1940, he played a part in enforcing antisemitic legislation in that country. In early 1941, Killinger was appointed to a similar position in Romania, where he first became noted for supporting Ion Antonescu during the Legionary Rebellion. Together with his aide Gustav Richter, he attempted to gain Romania's participation in the German-led Final Solution, thus pressuring Romanian authorities to divert focus from their own mass murder of Jews.
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Investigation of the gate of the annex revealed two wooden gateposts preserved in waterlogged conditions for which Dendrochronology gives both of them felling dates of between October AD 44 and March AD 45. The main fortress must have been built earlier and probably in the year of invasion, 43 AD. The smaller enclosure, with its U-shaped ditch and square corners was atypical for Roman forts, and was interpreted as a parade ground. Parallels for this have been found associated with legionary fortress of Lambaesis (Algeria), as well as at Tomen y Mur (Gwynedd). The presence of this would also support the idea of a fairly permanent military base.
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This account is supported by that of another British survivor Pte Bickley, who mentions Coghill reporting to Melvill that Pulleine 'had been shot.' This version of events would explain why Durnford was apparently unable to locate Pulleine once his force returned to the camp as the rout began. Furthermore, in his memoir A Lost Legionary in South Africa, Commandant George Hamilton Browne describes coming across and saluting Pulleine's corpse on his way back from visiting his tent on the morning of the 23rd. Hamilton-Browne's 1st/3rd NNC had their tents on the extreme left of the camp, so the account would be consistent with Pulleine having died here.
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The Aventine Hill is portrayed as a rough working-class area of ancient Rome in the popular Falco series of historical novels written by Lindsey Davis about Marcus Didius Falco, a 'private informer' who occasionally works for the Emperor Vespasian and lives in the Aventine. The same image is portrayed in much of the series Rome, in which the Aventine is the home of Lucius Vorenus. In season two, Vorenus and his friend legionary Titus Pullo seek to maintain order over the various collegia competing there for power. The Vesta-class of starships in the Star Trek novels are named for Rome's seven hills.
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It survives in only one manuscript, the Red Book of Hergest, and has been associated with the Mabinogion since its publication by Lady Charlotte Guest in the 19th century. The bulk of the narrative describes a dream vision experienced by its central character, Rhonabwy, a retainer of Madog, in which he visits the time of King Arthur. Also in Welsh history, the tale 'The Dream of Macsen Wledig' is a romanticised story about the Roman emperor Magnus Maximus, called Macsen Wledig in Welsh. Born in Hispania, he became a legionary commander in Britain, assembled a Celtic army and assumed the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 383.
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Remains from the Roman army were also found, including a collection of Roman armour (with ornate cavalry parade helmets), and horse fittings (with bronze saddleplates and studded leather chamfrons). Agricola is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the "River Taus" (usually assumed to be the River Tay) and established forts there, including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil.Although "Taus" is usually interpreted as referring to the Rivert Tay/Firth of Tay, it has been suggested it was the Solway Firth. It cannot be the latter if Agricola was already campaigning much further north and Cerialis had previously reached the Gask Ridge.
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The context was exceptionally difficult for the Jewish ghetto, as the radically fascist Iron Guard set up its National Legionary government. Aderca's mission was aggravated by other issues: Marcel Janco, in charge of renovation, escaped to Palestine before the inauguration; in parallel, a conflict over the repertoire took place between lead actresses Leny Caler and Beate Fredanov, while Aderca's friend Sebastian declined interest in helping him manage the theater. Geo Șerban, "Constructorul Marcel Iancu", in Observator Cultural, Nr. 573, May 2011 The January 1941 Rebellion, when Romania's authoritarian leader Ion Antonescu was confronted by a violent rising of his Iron Guard partners, made Aderca a victim of the parallel Bucharest pogrom.
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Zeugma has been on the UNESCO World Heritage Site tentative list since 2012. Extant archaeological remains at the site include "the Hellenistic Agora, the Roman Agora, two sanctuaries, the stadium, the theatre, two bathhouses, the Roman legionary base, administrative structures of the Roman legion, the majority of the residential quarters, Hellenistic and Roman city walls, and the East, South and West necropoles." Three large glass mosaics were discovered at Zeugma in 2014, including one depicting the nine muses. In February 2020, it was reported that the Zeugma Mosaic Museum attracted a record 340,569 visitors in 2019, according to the Turkish Culture and Tourism Ministry.
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Beyond marching- and training-camps, the imperial army constructed various types of permanent fortifications: the legionary fortress (castra legionaria), designed to accommodate an entire legion of 5,000–6,000 men; the auxiliary fort (castellum), which normally held an auxiliary regiment of c. 500 men; smaller forts for detachments; watch-towers and signal- stations; border barriers ditches or ramparts; city walls; infrastructure, such as bridges, grain and arms depots, etc. In the 1st century, army fortifications predominantly consisted of earthen ramparts, topped by wooden parapets. Using commonly available materials, these were cheap and quick to construct and provided effective protection, especially from tribal enemies with no artillery or siegecraft skills.
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Under the late Republic, a proconsul on campaign often formed a small personal guard, selected from the troops under his command, known as a cohors praetoria ("commander's cohort"), from praetorium meaning the commander's tent at the centre of a Roman marching-camp (or commander's residence in a legionary fortress). At the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Augustus had five such cohorts around him. After the battle, he retained them in being as a permanent brigade in and around Rome, known as the praetoriani ("soldiers of the imperial palace"). Inscription evidence suggests that Augustus increased the Praetorian establishment to nine cohorts, each under the command of a tribunus militum (military tribune).
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In 58, the Roman emperor Nero crowned Tigranes as King of Armenia in Rome. Nero had given to Tigranes a guard of 1000 legionary soldiers, three auxiliary cohorts and two wings of horses were allotted to him in order to defend and protect Armenia. At the same time, his son Alexander married Julia Iotapa a Commagenean Princess and the daughter of King Antiochus IV of Commagene in Rome. Nero crowned Alexander and Iotapa as Roman Client Monarchs of Cetis, a small region in Cilicia, which was previously ruled by Antiochus IV. Tigranes invaded a neighbouring small vassal state of the Parthians called Adiabene and deposed their King Monobazes.
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Under the National Legionary State (the Iron Guard's government), Marinescu and Argeşanu, alongside other politicians, were executed in Jilava prison, in the Jilava massacre of September 1940. Also at that time, the Călinescu family crypt in Curtea de Argeş was dynamited,"Rumania Tries Arms Maker in Guard Revolt", in The Washington Post, 29 January 1941. while a bronze bust of him which awaited unveiling was chained and dragged through the streets of Piteşti. Călinescu's wife Adela was required to hand all of her husband's personal documents, and, in a letter to Conducător Ion Antonescu, claimed to have been repeatedly harassed by agents of Siguranţa Statului.
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Victims of the Iași pogrom Memorial for the Jewish martyrs of Fălticeni Between the establishment of the National Legionary State and 1942, 80 anti-Jewish regulations were passed. Starting at the end of October, 1940, the Iron Guard began a massive antisemitic campaign, torturing and beating Jews and looting their shops (see Dorohoi Pogrom), culminating in the failed coup and a pogrom in Bucharest, in which 120 Jews were killed. Antonescu eventually stopped the violence and chaos created by the Iron Guard by brutally suppressing the rebellion, but continued the policy of oppression and massacre of Jews, and, to a lesser extent, of Roma.
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Colchester Archaeological Trust () Later, under the Celtic warlords Cunobelin and Caratacus in the first century AD, it became the most powerful Celtic kingdom in Britain. In 43 AD, the settlement was conquered by the Roman Empire under Emperor Claudius, who led the attack in person,Todd, Malcolm. (1981) Roman Britain; 55 BC - 400 AD. Fontana Paperbacks () building a legionary fortress on the site, the first in Britain. This was converted into the town of Colonia Victricensis in 49 AD, becoming the provincial capital and the only pre-Boudican town to have the honour of Roman citizenship.Wilson, Roger J. A. (2002) A Guide to the Roman Remains in Britain (Fourth Edition).
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1950, stated that the PCdR protested Northern Transylvania's cession to Hungary later in the same year (the Second Vienna Arbitration), but evidence is inconclusiveFrunză, p.72, 105–107, 127 (party documents attesting the policy are dated after Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union).Frunză, p.106-107 As the border changes sparked a political crisis leading to an Iron Guard takeover—the National Legionary State—the interior wing's confusion intensified: the upper echelon faced investigation from Georgi Dimitrov (as well as other Comintern officials) on charges of "Trotskyism", and, since the FRN had crumbled, several low-ranking party officials actually began collaborating with the new regime.
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It appears Maximianus enjoyed Marcus Aurelius's confidence, for he was then successively procurator of Moesia Superior and Dacia Porolissensis, after which he was adlected into the Senate with praetorian rank. He commanded as legatus legionis first Legio I Adiutrix, then Legio II Adiutrix, Legio V Macedonica, Legio XIII Gemina and Legio III Augusta – an almost unprecedented series of legionary commands. He was in charge of the winter quarters at Laugaricio (modern Trenčín, in Slovakia), where the final battle of the Second Marcommanic War was fought, and was afterwards decorated for his services in the Sarmatian War by the Emperor Commodus. After this he governed Numidia.
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Extensive mound fields are recorded on the lower valley slopes at several locations around Cetina, Vrlika and Bajagić. As in other parts of Europe, the river appears to have been the focus of the intentional deposition of artifacts throughout prehistory. This is particularly true at the confluence of the Cetina and Ruda rivers at Trilj. The area is intimately associated with the heartland of the Delmatae and the area's strategic importance is emphasised by the citing of the legionary fortress at Tilurium (Gardun), just above today's city of Trilj, which guards the entrance to the valley from the south and the approach to the provincial capital at Salona.
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Getafix realizes that the baby was left in the village for its protection. While in the village, the baby twice drinks the magic potion, first by accident when Obelix uses a half-full potion gourd as a feeding bottle; later, he falls into a nearly-empty cauldron of potion. The baby smashes the doors of several houses and harms the Roman spies sent to capture him, including a legionary disguised as a rattle peddler, and the Prefect of Gaul, Crismus Cactus, who is disguised as a nursemaid. Finally, Brutus takes matters into his own hands, attacking the village with his own legions and burning it to the ground.
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Further rumours lead to the belief by many in the village that Asterix, who is close to Getafix the druid, has revealed the secret of the druid's Magic Potion to the Romans. Suspicion and paranoia increase, until the banquet to celebrate the Chief's birthday is held in sullen silence. Leading this distrust are Fulliautomatix the blacksmith, Geriatrix the elder, and their wives. When Fullautomatix and Unhygienix spy on the Romans, they see a mock 'potion' being given to Roman soldiers; and when their presence is noted, Convolvulus has a small legionary pretend to knock out his huge comrade Magnumopus, causing the two Gauls to flee back to the village.
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According to Zigu Ornea, Vulcănescu considered himself a sympathizer of the Iron Guard. Other scholars considered him to be "a supporter of discrimination based on ethnicity", who, according to the director of the Elie Wiesel National Institute for Studying the Holocaust in Romania, "supported spiritually and morally the antisemitism of the government." Despite these claims, in one of his works, Vulcănescu reportedly considered the Iron Guard as a terrorist movement controlled by the Nazi Germany. For these reasons, he refused to join the government led by the Legionary Movement in 1940.Mircea Vulcănescu, ”Nae Ionescu așa cum l-am cunoscut”, Ed. Humanitas, 1993, p.
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The seeress Veleda as painted by Jules Eugène Lenepveu In the first and second centuries CE, Greek and Roman authors—such as Greek historian Strabo, Roman senator Tacitus, and Roman historian Cassius Dio—wrote about the ancient Germanic peoples, and made note of the role of seeresses in Germanic society. Tacitus mentions Germanic seeresses in book 4 of his first century CE Histories. > :The legionary commander Munius Lupercus was sent along with other presents > to Veleda, an unmarried woman who enjoyed wide influence over the tribe of > the Bructeri. The Germans traditionally regard many of the female sex as > prophetic, and indeed, by an excess of superstition, as divine.
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256 It was first published in Sibiu, as it was not allowed to pass censorship in Bucharest.Ilarion Țiu, The legionary movement after Corneliu Codreanu: from the dictatorship of King Carol II to the communist regime (February 1938-August 1944), East European Monographs, 2010, p.43 The book is a first-person narrative describing Codreanu's leadership role in a series of political movements, "The Guard of the National Conscience", "League of National Christian Defence", "the Legion of the Archangel Michael", and finally, the Iron Guard. His goal within these movements was to defend the newly established Greater Romania against a set of demonised enemies, particularly, the Soviet Union.
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Despite more recent construction on the site, a few legionary building stones and small altars have been recovered, enabling archaeologists to identify which units garrisoned the fort. It is postulated there might be a road from Vindomora to Washing Wells Roman Fort (Whickham, Tyne and Wear), but this remains to be discovered. Also, recent discoveries at Bywell by Raymond Selkirk seem to suggest that Dere Street carried on to Bywell, and not to Corstopitum (Corbridge) as previously thought. Another road left to Whittonstall to the north-west and then possibly either to Corbridge (the path previously assumed to be Dere Street) or Hexham (which possibly contained a fort).
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During his reign as emperor, Caracalla raised the annual pay of an average legionary from 2000 sesterces (500 denarii) to 2700–3000 sesterces (675–750 denarii). He lavished many benefits on the army, which he both feared and admired, in accordance with the advice given by his father on his deathbed always to heed the welfare of the soldiers and ignore everyone else. Caracalla needed to gain and keep the trust of the military, and he did so with generous pay raises and popular gestures. He spent much of his time with the soldiers, so much so that he began to imitate their dress and adopt their manners.
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Archaeological research has established there has been human habitation in the area since the Mesolithic period (8,000 B.C.). In the Sub-Roman Britain period, Iron Age roundhouse ditches, Briquetage and animal bones have also been found suggesting the area was once an important site for the processing and preserving of meat for trading. Roman finds include ditches, domestic ceramics and building materials relating to the Legio XX Valeria Victrix that was garrisoned at the nearby legionary fortress of Deva Victrix (Chester). During the medieval period, Poulton Chapel was an important monastic site that was founded by the Cistercian monks of Poulton Abbey in the mid 12th century.
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Fruit vendor Niccolo Franchetti is conversing with a policeman when something goes "ping" inside his head and he becomes Decimus Agricola, an ancient Roman legionary who a moment before, as he believes, has been involved in a battle with the Parthians. Confused at the change in scene, he reacts in panic. The victims are referred to the psychiatric department of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, headed by Bill Jenkens, but their condition baffles the staff. At Jenkins's request, investigating psychiatrist Pierre Lamarque calls in outside aid—his father-in-law Arthur Lindsley, a professor of biology, and some of his academic colleagues in linguistics.
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After returning to Romania, he became a professor at the Bucharest Polytechnic. Lucian Nastasă, Itinerarii spre lumea savantă. Tineri din spațiul românesc la studii în străinătate, 1864-1944, p.318. Editura Limes, Cluj-Napoca, 2006, He was elected corresponding member of the Romanian Academy of Sciences (Chemistry section) on 21 December 1935, and became titular member on 3 June 1941. A prominent member of the Iron Guard, "Directorii și rectorii", at the Politehnica University of Bucharest Physics Department site his term as rector of the Polytechnic roughly coincided with the time the Guard spent in power under the National Legionary State: October 9, 1940 to January 27, 1941.
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According to British historian Dennis Deletant: "Thus ended a unique chapter in the history of Fascism in Europe. The Guard had been the only radical movement of the Right in Europe to come to power without the assistance of Germany or Italy, and the only one to be toppled during Nazi Germany's domination of continental Europe.".Dennis Deletant, Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and his Regime, Romania 1940-1944, Springer, Apr 12, 2006, p. 66 The National Legionary State ushered in Romania's Axis membership, first de facto by welcoming the German Army into the country, and soon afterwards, de jure through the signing of the Tripartite and Anti-Comintern Pacts.
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Diplomas were not normally issued to discharged legionaries, as the legions recruited Roman citizens only. However, legionary diplomas were exceptionally issued after the Civil War of 68/69 AD. As an emergency measure, 2 new legions, the I and II Classica (later reconstituted and renamed as I and II Adiutrix, respectively) were formed mainly from naval marines, many of whom did not hold citizenship. At the end of the crisis, these were all awarded Roman citizenship.Diplomas for Italian Units In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana, issued by the emperor Caracalla, granted Roman citizenship to all the inhabitants of the empire, thus ending the second-class peregrini status.
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They may alternatively have lodged in the city while the "camp" may have functioned as legionary headquarters. The area also enveloped the pre–existing Temple of Allat. The overall design of the site is similar to that of a contemporary camp at Luxor in Egypt and also has similarities with the palace at Antioch and Diocletian's Palace in Split – a sign of how militarised Roman architecture had become in the unsettled climate of the late 3rd century. The "camp" was designed and built between 293 and 305 CE. An inscription discovered at the temple of the standards proclaims: :[Reparato]res orbi sui et propagatores generis humani dd. pp.
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Musa was an Italian slave-girl who was given to the Parthian monarch Phraates IV () as a gift by the Roman Emperor Augustus (). Phraates IV received her around the time a treaty was made in 20 BC, whereby he received his kidnapped son in exchange for several Roman legionary standards captured at Carrhae in 53 BC, and the surviving Roman prisoners of war.; see also The Parthians viewed this as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Emma Strugnell (2008) has suggested that Augustus may have sent Musa in an attempt to obtain information or influence the Parthian king to the advantage of the Romans.
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The gladius, a short (median length: 460 mm/18 inches) stabbing-sword that was designed for close-quarters fighting, and was standard for the infantry of the Principate (both legionary and auxiliary), also was phased out during the 3rd century. The infantry adopted the spatha, a longer (median length: 760 mm/30 in) sword that during the earlier centuries was used by the cavalry only. In addition, Vegetius mentions the use of a shorter-bladed sword termed a semispatha.Bishop & Coulston (2006) 202 At the same time, infantry acquired a thrusting-spear ('hasta') which became the main close order combat weapon to replace the gladius.
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His new project was a cultural version of the Polish–Romanian Alliance, working together with poet-diplomat Aron Cotruș to increase awareness of his country, and publishing his own work in the Polish press. Nicolae Mareș, "Aron Cotruș – scriitor și diplomat - 120 de ani de la naștere", in Luceafărul, Nr. 1/2011 Early in 1934, Iorga issued a condemnation of the Iron Guard, following the assassination of National Liberal Premier Ion G. Duca by a Legionary death squad.Ornea (1995), p. 299 However, during the subsequent police round-ups of Guardist activists, Iorga intervened for the release of fascist philosopher Nae Ionescu,Ornea (1995), p.
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The mutiny in Germania was repressed by the nephew and designated heir of Tiberius, Germanicus, who later led legions and detachments of the Guard in a two-year campaign in Germania, and succeeded in recovering two of the three legionary eagles which had been lost at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. It was under Tiberius that Lucius Aelius Seianus (Sejanus) rose in power and was among the first prefects to exploit his position to pursue his own ambitions. He concentrated under his command all the Praetorian cohorts in the new camp. Sejanus held the title of prefect jointly with his father, under Augustus, but became sole prefect in AD 15.
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In Asterix and the Cauldron, however, it is clearly stated that neither he nor Obelix have ever done anything of the sort to 'earn' money. Asterix is most often simply described as a warrior, which makes sense in light of the fact that most of the adventures he undertakes at some point require engaging an enemy. Although no romantic interest has been introduced for Asterix yet, it seems obvious that Asterix is more susceptible than his best friend Obelix to the charms of women. Asterix seems 'lovestruck' after receiving a kiss from Panacea towards the end of Asterix the Legionary and remains so till the last strip.
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They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies; allied legions usually had a larger attached complement of cavalry than Roman ones. The combined force which Sempronius led into battle included four Roman legions. At full strength these should have mustered 16,800 men, including 4,800 ; at least one of the legions is known to have been significantly understrength.
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Interior ground plan of the temple. The discovery in a chink of the masonry of a brass finger from a statue, suggested that the O'on was primarily a triumphal monument, or tropaeum, erected to commemorate a victory. The quality of the structure bears the stamp of legionary workmanship, being too elaborate for a purely local masons and it appears to have been deliberately sited to be visible from the Antonine Wall. The building was, it seems, unique in Britain and, as suggested, most likely a temple as it was located too far from a fort or road to have been a bathhouse or mausoleum.
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By then, numerous disputes were taking place between Crainic's supporters and former Gândirea collaborators such as literary critic Tudor Vianu and poet Tudor Arghezi. Additional debates were carried between Crainic and the centrist political figures Nicolae Iorga and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru over the nature of nationalism and religion in Romania. The magazine often identified its secularist adversaries with materialism, and occasionally accused modernist figures in Romanian literature of writing pornography. Gândirea was briefly closed down over suspicions that it was supporting the fascist Iron Guard, and, between 1938 and 1944, endorsed the successive dictatorial regimes of the National Renaissance Front, the National Legionary State, and Conducător Ion Antonescu.
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220px The Romans occupied the whole of the area now known as Wales, where they built Roman roads and castra, mined gold at Luentinum and conducted commerce, but their interest in the area was limited because of the difficult geography and shortage of flat agricultural land. Most of the Roman remains in Wales are military in nature. Sarn Helen, a major highway, linked the North with South Wales. The area was controlled by Roman legionary bases at Deva Victrix (modern Chester) and Isca Augusta (Caerleon), two of the three such bases in Roman Britain, with roads linking these bases to auxiliaries' forts such as Segontium (Caernarfon) and Moridunum (Carmarthen).
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The task complete, the detachment begins to make their way from the city, but when Durio tells the driver that he's going the wrong way from the Appian gate, the man tells him they're not going to the Appian gate and proceeds to stab Durio and throw him from the ox cart. Later, as the soldiers with the stolen gold are making their way from the city, we are introduced to Eirene. She is walking down the road as the soldiers are passing and before she knows it, a legionary unceremoniously whisks her up onto the back of his horse, to inevitably become his slave. Brutus and Servilia discuss their predicament.
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The Legionnaire sculpture was interpreted by the critic Salazar as a response to the Hermannsdenkmal, then a recently erected monument in Germany to Arminius, the Germanic general that vanquished the Roman Varro in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Germanicus was viewed by later historians as Augustus' response to the defeat as well as the loss of the legionary eagles, and called the Avenger of Varro. One soldier blows a horn, the other raises a flag, and the third inscribes on stone the defeated Germania; about them is the booty of war.The Art Journal, Volume 61, An Eminent Italian Sculptor Francesco Jerace, by Lorenzo Salazar, pages 107.
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Eliade's articles before and after his adherence to the principles of the Iron Guard (or, as it was usually known at the time, the Legionary Movement), beginning with his Itinerar spiritual ("Spiritual Itinerary", serialized in Cuvântul in 1927), center on several political ideals advocated by the far right. They displayed his rejection of liberalism and the modernizing goals of the 1848 Wallachian revolution (perceived as "an abstract apology of Mankind"Eliade, 1933, in Ornea, p. 32. and "ape-like imitation of [Western] Europe"),Eliade, 1936, in Ornea, p. 32. as well as for democracy itself (accusing it of "managing to crush all attempts at national renaissance",Eliade, 1937, in Ornea, p.
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Gladius ( , ) was one Latin word for sword, and is used to represent the primary sword of Ancient Roman foot soldiers. Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those of the Greeks, called xiphos. From the 3rd century BC, however, the Romans adopted a sword similar to the one used by the Celtiberians and others during the early part of the conquest of Hispania, known in Latin as the gladius hispaniensis, or "Hispanic sword". A fully equipped Roman legionary after the reforms of Gaius Marius was armed with a shield (scutum), one or two javelins (pila), a sword (gladius), often a dagger (pugio), and, perhaps in the later empire period, darts (plumbatae).
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From the time of Gaius Marius onwards, legionaries received 225 denarii a year (equal to 900 Sestertii); this basic rate remained unchanged until Domitian, who increased it to 300 denarii. In spite of the steady inflation during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time of Septimius Severus, who increased it to 500 denarii a year. However, the soldiers did not receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as plunder from enemy settlements.
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Incidentally, the hastati were originally armed with this weapon, which gave them their name, but the hasta were eventually abandoned except by the triarii. The triarii were usually called in to end the battle and break the lines of the enemy. Rome's use of heavy infantry and a general lack of major cavalry forces meant they were stronger in pitched battle but more vulnerable to ambushes. After the Marian reforms of the late 2nd century BCE, property requirements were dropped and the three-lined maniples were replaced in favor of a single type of heavy infantry, the legionary, all equipped in nearly identical fashion to hastati and principes.
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To get away from the occasionally crowded city, Jackson often departed to their countryside estate in Craiova, where Barbu spent much of his time running his business, probably more now since the Ford-Romania Company began providing military-grade vehicles for the Germans. On September 4, the Iron Guard and General Ion Antonescu united to form a "National Legionary State" government, which forced the abdication of King Carol II in favor of his 19-year-old son Michael. On October 8, German troops began crossing into Romania and soon numbered over 500,000. Although Jackson herself encountered no real trouble, she found it expedient to stay away from public places.
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Reportedly, the queen complained to her foreign contacts that the Antonescus were "inconsiderate". Mihai Dim. Sturdza, "Rușii, masonii, Mareșalul și alte răspîntii ale istoriografiei", Nr. 675, May 2013 Nevertheless, at the very start of 1941, Maria Antonescu joined the board of Regina Elisabeta Society, a welfare organization chaired by Queen Helen."Mesaje regale și comunicate ale Casei M. S. Regelui", in Monitorul Oficial, Nr. 66/1941 (online copy available through Wikimedia Commons) She also took over a new state-run charity, Sprijinul ("The Support"), which reputedly made her a contender in the conflict opposing her husband to the Guard, before the Legionary Rebellion of early 1941 brought the Guard's downfall.
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Water from the melting ice and the North York Moors formed a lake in the Vale of Pickering which expanded and deepened until eventually the water escaped by overflowing at the lowest point at Kirkham. The water cut a gorge through the Howardian Hills as it drained away southwards, breaching the Escrick moraine just east of Wheldrake, and joining the Humber glacial lake. The unusual upstream facing outfall of the Derwent is man made. It is believed to have been cut during the Roman occupation of Britain to reduce the distance between the Derwent mouth and the Roman legionary headquarters at York by 9 miles.
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A statue of the Roman God Mars is prominently displayed, and there is an interactive display describing the lives of some of the Romans whose remains have been found in York. The final record of the famous lost Roman legion, the Ninth Legion, is on display as part of the Roman gallery. The stone inscription, which has been dated to Trajan's twelfth year as emperor, between 10 December 107 and 9 December 108, commemorates the legion's rebuilding in stone of the south-eastern wall of Eboracum's legionary fortress. The BBC reports that "Experts have described it the finest example of Romano British inscription in existence".
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He was assigned by the Iron Guard's "National Legionary State" to direct the Romanian Propaganda Office in Rome, together with writers Aron Cotruș and Vintilă Horia, Carmen Burcea, "L'immagine della Romania sulla stampa del Ventennio (II)" , in The Romanian Review of Political Sciences and International Relations, No. 2/2010, p.31 and, in May 1941, became its president. In old age, Bacaloglu witnessed the August 1944 Coup, Soviet occupation, and the transition from fascism to democracy, then to communism. In 1947 she sold the letters she had received from Italian literati to the publicist I. E. Torouțiu, who passed them on to the Romanian Academy Library.
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The course of the Antonine Wall, at Bar Hill The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 AD. In the summer of AD 78 Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain to take up his appointment as the new governor and began a series of expeditions to Scotland. Two years later his legions constructed a substantial fort at Trimontium near Melrose. He is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the "River Taus" (usually assumed to be the River Tay) and established forts there, including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil. Agricola's successors were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north.
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A legionary barracks and important Roman town were constructed in York, which was for several years the home of the Roman Imperial Court and effectively the centre of administration for the Roman Empire, but Pocklington likely remained a Roman-influenced but little altered Iron Age settlement. There is archaeological evidence for some signs of Romanization (cultural) in Pocklington, including a Roman-style bath-house. The Roman name for Pocklington is not known but it is thought that Pocklington might be the presently unlocated Delgovicia, meaning "out of the way place" or, literally, backwater. However, Millington and Malton are competing candidates for this place-name also.
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In Payne's view, however, he was virtually unparalleled in demanding "self- destructiveness" from his followers. Mayall, who admits the Legion "was inspired in large measure by National Socialism and fascism", argues that Corneliu Zelea Codreanu's vision of omul nou, although akin to the "new man" of Nazi and Italian doctrines, is characterized by an unparalleled focus on mysticism. Historian Renzo De Felice, who dismisses the notion that Nazism and fascism are connected, also argues that, due to Legionary attack on "bourgeois values and institutions", which the fascist ideology wanted instead to "purify and perfect", Codreanu "was not, strictly speaking, a fascist."De Felice, p.
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68 Despite his earlier confrontation with the Iron Guard, the leftist poet Tudor Arghezi is thought by some to have deplored Codreanu's killing, and to have alluded to it in his poem version of the Făt-Frumos stories.Pop, p.47 Eliade, whose early Legionary sympathies became a notorious topic of outrage, was indicated by his disciple Ioan Petru Culianu to have based Eugen Cucoanes, the main character in his novella Un om mare ("A Big Man"), on Codreanu. This hypothesis was commented upon by literary critics Matei Călinescu and Mircea Iorgulescu, the latter of whom argued that there was too little evidence to support it.
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The German military administration cooperated closely with the Gestapo, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), the intelligence service of the SS, and the Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo), its security police. It also drew support from the French authorities and police, who had to cooperate under the armistice, to round up Jews, anti- fascists and other dissidents, and from collaborationist auxiliaries like the Milice, the Franc-Gardes and the Legionary Order Service. The Milice helped Klaus Barbie seize members of the resistance and minorities including Jews for detention. The two main collaborationist political parties, the French Popular Party (PPF) and the National Popular Rally (RNP), each had 20,000 to 30,000 members.
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Sam gladly accepts the deal and the Head Devil sends him back to the world of the living. Back on Earth, Sam discovers from a poster that Bugs is to star in a stage play titled "Ben Hare," and dresses up as a Roman Centurion. During the shooting, Bugs, dressed up as a legionary, realizes his cue is up next, but Sam comes up and tells Bugs that he has a long overdue date with the Head Devil down in Hell and tries to slice him with a sword, only to miss him. Commenting that Sam has flipped his lid, Bugs runs into the Coliseum set and Sam gives chase.
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Many of the right-wing politicians, whether members of the Iron Guard or other rival parties, paid their respects to the death of the two fighters. Nicolae Iorga wrote a laudative article called "Two brave boys" in which the two were praised for fighting for the Christian faith, although weeks later, he condemned the rituals of the Legion, including the usage of a pagan symbol, the swastika. Gheorghe I. Brătianu, the leader of National Liberal Party-Brătianu, a splinter group of the National Liberal Party, also paid respects to the two Iron Guard members, calling Moța one of the "most capable and honest fighters from the Legionary ranks".
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It was only much later that they were given the anachronistic addition of "with consular power", in an attempt to distinguish them from the Military tribunes who were the legionary officers of the middle and late Republic.Bringmann, Hans; Smyth, W. J. (trans) A History of the Roman Republic (2007), p. 15 The tribunes, like their consular predecessors, exercised consular potestas,T.Corey Brennan, « The Praetorship in the Roman Republic-Vol 1 Origins to 122BC- §2.4 The Consular Tribunate», Oxford University Press, 2001 indicating they must have been elected by the comitia centuriata, and that the current needs of the state could not be served by the previous consular system.
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As the increasingly large crowds started to assemble outside of the royal palace demanding the king's abdication, Carol considered Pop's advice, but was reluctant to have Antonescu as Prime Minister.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 712. As more and more people started to join the protests, Pop feared that Romania was on the verge of a revolution that might not only sweep away the king's regime, but also the elite who had dominated the country since the 19th century.
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Cato and Macro were sent to Syria by Narcissus to gather proof that the governor of Syria, Longinus was planning to use the Syrian legions to usurp the Emperor Claudius. During their time in Antioch, Crisups, a Roman legionary, murders an auxiliary leading to Crispus' execution, much to the chagrin of the legionaries. A Parthian convoy arrives, delivering the head of Centurion Castor, the soldier who commanded the Euphrates fort, and warns of Parthian intervention, should Rome continue to be seen to be annexing Palmyra. Shortly thereafter, a Roman soldier arrives at the behest of Lucius Sempronius, a Roman ambassador to Palmyra, informing Longinus that Palmyra has descended into civil war.
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The River Usk near Abergavenny with the Blorenge in the background The River Usk (; ) rises on the northern slopes of the Black Mountain (y Mynydd Du), Wales, in the westernmost part of the Brecon Beacons National Park. Initially forming the boundary between Carmarthenshire and Powys, it flows north into Usk Reservoir, then east by Sennybridge to Brecon before turning southeast to flow by Talybont-on-Usk, Crickhowell and Abergavenny after which it takes a more southerly course. Beyond the eponymous town of Usk it passes the Roman legionary fortress of Caerleon to flow through the heart of the city of Newport and into the Severn estuary at Uskmouth beyond Newport at Newport Wetlands. The river is about long.
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The people of the area were first identified as Numidians by Polybius around the 2nd century BC, although they were often referred to as the Nodidians. Eastern Numidia was annexed in 46 BC to create a new Roman province, Africa Nova. Western Numidia was also annexed after the death of its last king, Arabio, in 40 BC, and the two provinces were united with Tripolitana by Emperor Augustus, to create Africa Proconsularis. In AD 40, the western portion of Africa Proconsularis, including its legionary garrison, was placed under an imperial legatus, and in effect became a separate province of Numidia, though the legatus of Numidia remained nominally subordinate to the proconsul of Africa until AD 203.
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Elders, vagrants, freedmen, slaves and convicts were excluded from the military levy, save in emergencies. Bronze bust of a Young Commander recovered from the Villa dei Papyri in Herculaneum 1st century BCE-1st century CE The legionary cavalry also changed, probably around 300 BC onwards from the light, unarmoured horse of the early army to a heavy force with metal armour (bronze cuirasses and, later, chain-mail shirts). Contrary to a long-held view, the cavalry of the mid-Republic was a highly effective force that generally prevailed against strong enemy cavalry forces (both Gallic and Greek) until it was decisively beaten by the Carthaginian general Hannibal's horsemen during the second Punic War.
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His beliefs were a major influence on the Iron Guard legionary movement, although Crainic viewed himself as a supporter of the legionnaires' rival King Carol II. In a 1938 essay, he theoretised the "ethnocratic state" as applied to Romania:Crainic, Programul statului etnocratic apud A fulfillment of ethnocracy was to be achieved through the means of a monarch-led corporatist system: In 1940 he was elected a member of the Romanian Academy. He studied theology at the Seminary in Bucharest, and received his Ph.D. diploma from the University of Vienna. He was appointed Minister of Propaganda for the Ion Antonescu regime. After the Soviet army defeated the Germans and occupied Romania, Crainic went into hiding.
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Veiga, p. 267. Just after Carol fell from power in 1940, Malaxa was briefly imprisoned on charges that he had resorted to extortion in previous years. Probably sympathizing with Nazi ideology, he had financed the activities of the Romanian far right Iron Guard organization as early as the mid-1930s,Veiga, p. 222. and especially throughout the National Legionary State the latter established.Veiga, p. 306. During the Rebellion and Pogrom it provoked in January 1941, the Guard made use of arms manufactured by Malaxa, as well of his house (turned into a citadel and attacked by the Romanian Army)"Rumania Tries Arms Maker in Guard Revolt", in The Washington Post, January 29, 1941.
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While combat results were mixed in the open field, the Romans did comparatively well when besieging Iberian cities, systematically eliminating enemy leaders, supply bases and centres of resistance. Destruction of Iberian resources by burning grain fields or demolishing villages also put the native resistance under greater pressure. The operations of Scipio during the Numantine War illustrate these methods, including a crackdown on lax practices and tightening of legionary discipline.History of Rome: The Spanish Wars, by Appian, circa 165 A.D. Other Roman tactics touched on the political sphere such as the "pacification" treaties of Gracchus, and treachery and trickery, as in the massacres of tribal leaders by Lucullus and Galba under guise of negotiation.
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On 25 February 1935, Vaida- Voevod created his own movement, the Romanian Front, which survived through the increasingly authoritarian regime of King Carol II, the National Legionary State, Ion Antonescu's regime and most of World War II. It was dissolved after King Michael's Coup of August 1944, when the Romanian Communist Party started gaining influence with Soviet backing. Nevertheless, the party never eluded obscurity in front of competition from the Legionaries, and its members were victims of the repression carried out by the communist regime after 1948. Vaida-Voevod was arrested on 24 March 1945. In 1946, he was put under house arrest in Sibiu, where he spent the remainder of his life.
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Dedication made to the Deus Invictus by a Roman legionary in Brigetio, PannoniaCIL 03, 11008"A soldier of the Legio I Adiutrix [dedicated this] to the Unconquered God" (Deo Invicto / Ulpius Sabinus / miles legio/nis primae / (A)diutricis). Invictus ("Unconquered, Invincible") was in use as a divine epithet by the early 3rd century BC. In the Imperial period, it expressed the invincibility of deities embraced officially, such as Jupiter, Mars, Hercules, and Sol. On coins, calendars, and other inscriptions, Mercury, Saturn, Silvanus, Fons, Serapis, Sabazius, Apollo, and the Genius are also found as Invictus. Cicero considers it a normal epithet for Jupiter, in regard to whom it is probably a synonym for Omnipotens.
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Early emperors maintained an ala of Batavian cavalry as their personal bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by Galba after the Batavian Rebellion. For the most part, Roman cavalry during the early Republic functioned as an adjunct to the legionary infantry and formed only one-fifth of the standing force comprising a consular army. Except in times of major mobilisation about 1,800 horsemen were maintained, with three hundred attached to each legion. The relatively low ratio of horsemen to infantry does not mean that the utility of cavalry should be underestimated, as its strategic role in scouting, skirmishing, and outpost duties was crucial to the Romans' capability to conduct operations over long distances in hostile or unfamiliar territory.
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Isaac (1992) 198ff Indeed, such material as can be dated to Diocletian suggests that his reorganisation resulted in a massive reinforcement of linear defence along his newly built desert highway, the Strata Diocletiana. In Britain, the configuration of a large number of fourth- century units stationed between Hadrian's Wall and the legionary fortresses at Deva (Chester) and Eboracum (York), superficially resembles defence-in-depth. But the same configuration existed in the second century, and was due to the short length of the frontier, forcing a "vertical" rather than horizontal deployment, as well as the need to protect the coastlines from seaborne attack. It was not defence-in-depth in the Luttwak sense.
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Constantin Petrovicescu Constantin Petrovicescu (; October 22, 1883 - September 8, 1949) was a Romanian soldier and politician, who served as Interior Minister from September 14, 1940 to January 21, 1941 during the National Legionary State. A sympathizer and secret member of the fascist Iron Guard movement, he was also the royal commissioner involved in the 1934 acquittal of Guard leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. Petrovicescu was assigned his ministerial position by Codreanu's successor Horia Sima, serving as one of the main Iron Guardists in the conflicted cabinet headed by Ion Antonescu. In this capacity, he helped Sima obtain control of an armed structure, and, taking the party's side during the Legionnaires' rebellion of 1941, helped organize it in combat against Antonescu.
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The last two of Nour's scholarly works were published posthumously, in 1941, with a Romanian Orthodox Church publishing house, at a time when Romania was ruled by the fascist National Legionary regime. One was specifically dedicated to, and named after, the little-known "cult of Zalmoxis" (Cultul lui Zalmoxis). University of Turin academic Roberto Merlo notes that it formed part of a Zamolxian "fascination" among Romanian men of letters, also found in the research and essays of various others, from Mircea Eliade, Lucian Blaga and Dan Botta to Henric Sanielevici and Theodor Speranția. Roberto Merlo, "Dal mediterraneo alla Tracia: spirito europeo e tradizione autoctona nella saggistica di Dan Botta" , in the Romanian Academy Philologica Jassyensia, Nr. 2/2006, p.
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Davies (1989) 214 Directly under him was the optio valetudinarii, or director of the hospital in the legionary fortress, who would have overall charge of its administration and staff.Holder (1982) 78 However, the clinical head of the legion's medical service was the chief physician, called simply the Medicus (the capital "M" here is used to distinguish from several other ranks of medicus). Most often an ethnic-Greek from the eastern part of the Empire, the Medicus was generally a highly qualified practitioner, occasionally even a published academic. The most notable example is Pedanius Dioscorides, an army surgeon in the time of Nero, who published Materia Medica, which remained for centuries the standard textbook on medicine.
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As descendants of the latter, such recruits were, at least partially, of Italian blood; e.g. the emperor Hadrian, who was born in the Roman colony of Italica in Spain and whose father was of Italian descent while his mother is thought to have been of local Iberian origin. However, the proportion of legionaries of Italian blood dropped still further as the progeny of auxiliary veterans, who were granted citizenship on discharge, became a major source of legionary recruits. It was probably to redress this shortfall that Marcus Aurelius, faced with a major war against the Marcomanni, raised two new legions in 165, II Italica and III Italica, apparently from Italian recruits (and presumably by conscription).
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Over 800 diplomas have been recovered, although most in a fragmentary state. (Even these, however, represent an infinitesimal fraction of the hundreds of thousands of diplomas which must have been issued. Apart from natural corrosion, the main reason for this low recovery rate is that, prior due to the late 19th century, when their historical value was recognised, diplomas were almost invariably melted down when found in order to recover their copper content – indeed most were probably melted down in the period following 212). Finally, a mass of information has been uncovered by archaeological excavation of imperial military sites: legionary fortresses, auxiliary forts, marching- camps and other facilities such as signal-stations.
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Marcus Cornelius Fronto described the large gaping wounds that a falx inflicted, and experiments have shown that a blow from a falx easily penetrated the Romans' lorica segmentata, incapacitating the majority of victims. These experiments also show that the falx was most efficient when targeting the head, shoulders, legs and especially the right (sword) arm, which was generally exposed. A legionary who had lost the use of his right arm became a serious liability to his unit in battle. The time of the conquest of Dacia by Trajan is the only known instance of the Roman army adapting personal equipment while on campaign, and it seems likely that this was a response to this deadly weapon.
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After Carol established his personal dictatorship, he continued to side with the PNȚ, which was active in semi-clandestinity. According to the PNȚ activist Ioan Hudiţă, Madgearu, with Ion Mihalache and Mihai Popovici, continued to support the king, and, after 1938, considered joining the National Renaissance Front.Hudiță An adversary of the fascist Iron Guard, he staunchly opposed its rise and the National Legionary State established in September 1940. Later in that year, after the remains of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu were discovered at Jilava (and the conclusion was drawn that he had been murdered on the orders of King Carol), Madgearu and Nicolae Iorga were among the victims of a wave of assassinations carried out in reprisal.
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The emigration of Romanian Jews on a larger scale commenced soon after 1878. By 1900 there were 250,000 Romanian Jews: 3.3% of the population, 14.6% of the city dwellers, 32% of the Moldavian urban population and 42% of Iași.A History of the Balkans 1804-1945, p.129 Between the establishment of the National Legionary State (September 1940) and 1942, 80 anti-Jewish regulations were passed. Starting at the end of October, 1940, the Romanian fascist movement known as the Iron Guard began a massive antisemitic campaign, torturing and beating Jews and looting their shops (see Dorohoi Pogrom), culminating in the failed coup accompanied by a pogrom in Bucharest, in which 125 Jews were killed.
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Robinson considered this the "typical mid-first century legionary helmet" (although the Coolus/Montefortino was probably more common) and it seems to have continued in use on into the early 2nd century AD. The best example was found in the Rhine River at Mainz-Weisenau and is now exhibited in Worms. Fragments of helmets of this style were found in rubbish pits at Colchester (now reassembled and displayed at the Colchester Castle Museum) and so can definitely be dated to the Boudican revolt of AD 61, though they lack the Weisenau example's carrying handle, which probably makes the Weisenau one later. The Weisenau example's brass rosettes resemble those found on the lorica segmentata in the Corbridge hoard.
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Many priests were active members in the Iron Guard, publishing articles supporting it and being involved in its public processions, such during the Funerals of Ion Moța and Vasile Marin, when the funeral procession of the two Iron Guard members killed in Spain was led by over 200 Orthodox priests.Valentin Săndulescu, "Sacralised Politics in Action: the February 1937 Burial of the Romanian Legionary Leaders Ion Moța and Vasile Marin", Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, Vol. 8, No. 2, ISSN 1469-0764, pp. 259–269, June 2007 After the Communist Party gained power, some priests who were members of the Iron Guard were imprisoned for their collaboration with the fascists, while others became informers of the Securitate.
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Floor plan of Diocletian's palace The ground plan of the palace is an irregular rectangle measuring east: 214.97 m, north: 174.74 m, south: 181.65 m (adjusting for the terrain), with sixteen towers projecting from the western, northern, and eastern facades on the facades facing the mainland and four towers on the corners of the square are ground floor gives the palace a characteristic of the legionary forts similar to those on the Danube.Dixon, Karen R. and Southern, Pat. The Late Roman Army p. 143 Two of the six octagonal ground-floor towers were framed by three landing entrances, the six rectangular ground floors of the rectangular floor being between the corner and the octagonal.
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Inchtuthil is the site of a Roman legionary fortress situated on a natural platform overlooking the north bank of the River Tay southwest of Blairgowrie, Perth and Kinross, Scotland (Roman Caledonia). It was built in AD 82 or 83 as the advance headquarters for the forces of governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola in his campaign against the Caledonian tribes. Positioned at the head of one of the main routes in and out of the Scottish Highlands, it was occupied by Legion XX Valeria Victrix and covered a total area of . Construction of the large fortress would have taken two or three seasons and a temporary camp was built nearby to house and protect the soldiers over the winter.
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Flavius Vegetius Renatus, N. P. Milner, Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, 1996, Liverpool University Press, 161 pages View from the ground Facilities included a hospital (valetudinarium) that covered 5,000 square metres, a workshop covering 3,500 square metres and 64 barrack buildings. The timber walls of these buildings have been calculated to have had a total perimeter of seven miles (10 km). A headquarters building containing an aedes where the legion's colours and images of the emperor would have been kept has also been identified in the insula in the centre of the fortress. However, it was much smaller than would be expected for a legionary fortress, and must have been of a temporary nature.
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The fall of Carol's rule and the establishment of the Iron Guard's National Legionary State saw Galaction's retreat from public life, prolonged after the Legionnaires' Rebellion and the onset of Ion Antonescu's dictatorship. In 1944, as the August 23 coup overthrew Antonescu, taking Romania out of the Axis camp and opening the country to Soviet influence, Galaction expressed his enthusiasm: > "The long-awaited hour has arrived during a night when our hearts were being > estinguished with fear and our houses were falling apart... It has arrived > after traveling a long way, passing among ruins, tombs, and smoke-covered > towers... It is here!... Become an epoch, become a century, you long-awaited > hour!"Galaction, in Vianu, p.
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Romanian Jewish labor conscripts, performing menial work in Brăila (spring 1944) At an early stage in World War II, under successive fascist regimes, Romania sealed its alliance with Nazi Germany and the Axis Powers, and made antisemitism an official policy. When the Iron Guard imposed its National Legionary State, Streitman found himself included on lists of "Judaic writers" or "Hebrew thistles", who had "nothing in common with the spiritual structure of the Romanian peasant". Ladmiss Andreescu, "Iudeii în literatura noastră", in Universul Literar, Issue 29/1940, p. 2 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library) The Guardists were eventually thrown out by Conducător Ion Antonescu, but this turn of events only increased pressures on the Jewish community.
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Legionary stones recovered identify a Fifth Cohort as building the fort, but unfortunately give no clue as to the parent legion. This however cannot be taken as evidence of occupation because all Roman auxiliary forts were actually built by the highly trained legionaries, and not entrusted to the peregrine auxiliary soldiers who were to garrison the completed camp. The stones also identify the names of Centurions responsible for the construction work, and later restoration work done by auxiliary regiments at the time of the Scottish campaigns by emperor Severus. The first unit proven to garrison Ebchester is the Cohors Quartae Breucorum Antoninianae (The Fourth Cohort of the Breuci: Antonine's Own), identified from an early 3rd century altar.
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Boia, pp. 127, 131, 133–134, 141–143, 146, 148, 176, 189, 259 In this capacity, he organized the Muncă și Voe Bună leisure service, directly modeled on fascist precedents such as Dopolavoro, and converted the staples of socialist propaganda in support of the FRN.Boia, pp. 141–143, 146 In 1940, the FRN regime was unable to secure Romania against Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union: the country ceded Bessarabia and Northern Transylvania, after which the regime crumbled. It was replaced by the Nazi-aligned National Legionary State, an uneasy partnership between Antonescu and the Iron Guard. The latter made efforts to prosecute figures associated with the FRN, and Ralea was consequently stripped of his academic postings.
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Antenociticus appears at only one site in Britain, the fort of Condercum, on Hadrian's Wall, where three altars to the god were found within the ruins of a small temple. This god is not mentioned on any known Roman altarstones from the continent, and is therefore thought to be a native British deity. The fact that the god is revered at Benwell (1327 [et Num Aug], 1328, 1329 [c.AD175-7]) by a legionary legate, the tribune of an auxiliary infantry cohort and the prefect of an auxiliary cavalry ala, lends credence to this assumption, and perhaps proves that the god was not transferred here as the patron deity of an auxiliary regiment.
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Lugdunum (Lyon): The two Gauls abandon the postal cart and, after crashing through a Roman blockade, meet Jellibabix, head of the resistance movement. He pretends to betray the Gauls to Prefect Poisonous Fungus, but lures the Romans into a maze of back alleys, where the legionaries become hopelessly lost (the prefect's plan to leave behind a trail of pebbles to find his way out backfires when a legionary picks up the pebbles). Jellibabix gives the duo a parcel of sausages and meatballs, and arranges a chariot for them. Nicae (Nice): En route to Nicae, Asterix and Obelix become stuck in holiday traffic bound for the Gaulish Riviera and stop at an inn for lunch.
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Several inscriptions attesting IX Hispana have been found in the site of the legionary fortress on the lower Rhine river at Noviomagus Batavorum (Nijmegen, Netherlands). These include some tile-stamps (dated 104–120); and a silver-plated bronze pendant, found in the 1990s, that was part of a phalera (military medal), with "LEG HISP IX" inscribed on the reverse.AE (1996) 1107 In addition, an altar to Apollo, dating from this period, was found at nearby Aquae Granni (Aachen, Germany), erected in fulfillment of a vow, by Lucius Latinius Macer, who describes himself as primus pilus (chief centurion) and as praefectus castrorum ("prefect of the camp", i.e. third-in-command) of IX Hispana.
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The Communists never forgave him for his interventions in parliament, as well as the meetings he had with Adolf Hitler. At the elections of December 1937, the last free elections in interwar Romania, he signed the non-electoral pact with Iuliu Maniu (NPP) and Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, who represented the Legionary Movement, against the government led by Gheorghe Tătărescu, NLP prime minister, but without the support of the elders of the party led by Dinu Brătianu. The electoral score of the party led by Gheorghe I. Brătianu was 3.89% (119,361 votes). In these conditions, Gheorghe Brătianu decided to return to the NLP, and on January 10 the merger between the two formations took place.
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Beneš was also an official of the Czechoslovak legionary community and of the union of Czechoslovak teachers. With the conclusion of the Munich Agreement in 1938 and the subsequent Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia, Beneš escaped to the U.S., where he began campaigning again for Czechoslovak freedom after nearly twenty- five years. After the liberation of Czechoslovakia by Allied forces in 1945, Vojta Beneš returned to public life in his country, serving from 1946 to 1948 in the Constituent National Assembly. Following the Communist Party coup in 1948, Beneš, with the support of his daughter in Illinois, returned for the third and final time to North America with the help of the U.S. State Department.
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The broch was first cleared out by James Curle in 1891 at which time much Roman pottery and glass, together with a 1st-century AD coin were found inside it. It was systematically excavated in 1950 by Stuart Piggott. More Roman pottery and glass was found beneath the wall of the broch. The broch appears to have been built soon after the Romans withdrew from Scotland in about 100 AD, and was thrown down again shortly afterwards, perhaps by a Roman expedition preparing for the reoccupation of 140 AD. The many fragments of Roman material found in the broch might be explained as loot from the nearby legionary fort at Newstead (Trimontium).
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In the 4th century, the production of weapons and equipment was highly centralised (and presumably standardised) in a number of major state-run arms factories, or fabricae, documented in the Notitia. It is unknown when these were first established, but they certainly existed by the time of Diocletian.Jones (1964) 834 In the 2nd century, there is evidence of fabricae inside legionary bases and even in the much smaller auxiliary forts, staffed by the soldiers themselves.Goldsworthy (2003) 88, 149 But there is no evidence, literary or archaeological, of fabricae outside military bases and staffed by civilians during the Principate (although their existence cannot be excluded, as no archaeological evidence has been found for the late fabricae either).
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Later Roman fortifications, both new and upgraded old ones, contained much stronger defensive features than their earlier counterparts. In addition, the late 3rd/4th centuries saw the fortification of many towns and cities including the City of Rome itself and its eastern sister, Constantinople.Elton (1996) 161–71 According to Luttwak, Roman forts of the 1st/2nd centuries, whether castra legionaria (inaccurately translated as legionary "fortresses") or auxiliary forts, were clearly residential bases that were not designed to withstand assault. The typical rectangular "playing-card" shape, the long, thin and low walls and shallow ditch and the unfortified gates were not defensible features and their purpose was delimitation and keeping out individual intruders.
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Later, the German- Italian-mediated Second Vienna Award made Northern Transylvania a part of Hungary. This loss sparked a political and moral crisis, eventually leading to the establishment of a National Legionary State with Ion Antonescu as Conducător and the Iron Guard as a governing political force. In the wake of this reshuffling, Iorga decided to close down his Neamul Românesc, explaining: "When a defeat is registered, the flag is not surrendered, but its fabric is wrapped around the heart. The heart of our struggle was the national cultural idea." Perceived as Codreanu's murderer, he received renewed threats from the Iron Guard, including hate mail, attacks in the movement's press (Buna Vestire and Porunca Vremii)Ornea (1995), p. 335.
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By now, the Romans were experienced at shipbuilding and with a proven vessel as a model produced high-quality quinqueremes. Importantly, the was abandoned, which improved the ships' speed and handling but forced a change in tactics on the Romans; they would need to be superior sailors, rather than superior soldiers, to beat the Carthaginians. The new Roman fleet was completed in 242 BC and the consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus, assisted by the praetor Quintus Valerius Falto, led it to Sicily. Arriving with the 200 quinqueremes and 700 transports laden with supplies and legionary reinforcements, Catulus seized the harbour of Drepana and the anchorages off Lilybaeum uncontested, as there were no Carthaginian ships to counter the Roman fleet.
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Diorama of the Roman Legionary fortress Deva Victrix in Grosvenor Museum, Chester The Roman Legio II Adiutrix during the reign of the Emperor Vespasian founded Chester in AD 79, as a "castrum" or Roman fort with the name Deva Victrix. It was established in the land of the Celtic Cornovii, according to ancient cartographer Ptolemy, as a fortress during the Roman expansion northward, and was named Deva either after the goddess of the Dee,Salway, P. (1993) The Oxford Illustrated History of Roman Britain. ISBN CN 1634 or directly from the British name for the river. The 'victrix' part of the name was taken from the title of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix which was based at Deva.
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Various critics have traced links between Eliade's fiction works and his political views, or Romanian politics in general. Early on, George Călinescu argued that the totalitarian model outlined in Huliganii was: "An allusion to certain bygone political movements [...], sublimated in the ever so abstruse philosophy of death as a path to knowledge." By contrast, Întoarcerea din rai partly focuses on a failed communist rebellion, which enlists the participation of its main characters. Iphigenia's story of self- sacrifice, turned voluntary in Eliade's version, was taken by various commentators, beginning with Mihail Sebastian, as a favorable allusion to the Iron Guard's beliefs on commitment and death, as well as to the bloody outcome of the 1941 Legionary Rebellion.
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The book begins with Vercingetorix conceding defeat to Julius Caesar. His surrendered weapons remain at Caesar's chair for several hours, until a Roman archer steals Vercingetorix's famous shield, which he loses in a game of dice to another legionary, who then loses it to a drunken centurion, in return for the centurion not reporting him for a military offence. The centurion himself uses the shield to pay for a jar of wine at a nearby Gaulish inn; later, the shield is given by the innkeeper to a survivor of the Battle of Alesia. Following this prologue, Chief Vitalstatistix is made helpless by a sore liver, a consequence of overeating and drinking at his last banquet.
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Along the way, the Gauls are offended by Roman envoy Noxius Vapus, and vanquish his guards. In the aftermath, Asterix, Obelix, and Dogmatix befriend the local tavern-keeper Winesanspirix, who retains them thereafter as guests. When Noxius Vapus makes his report to Caesar in Rome, Caesar plans a triumph on Vercingetorix's shield to "show them who's boss", and orders Vapus to search Arverne for it. When the initial investigations fail, the Romans send a spy, Legionary Pusillanimus; but on drinking too much wine at Winesanspirix's tavern, the latter discloses Caesar's plan and reveals his own knowledge of the shield's history, whereupon Asterix, Obelix, and Dogmatix set off in search of the shield themselves.
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Vitalstatistix reveals he had the shield the whole time and it is the very one he is always carried upon. Upon Caesar's arrival at Gergovia, Asterix and the locals organize a triumph in which Vitalstatistix is carried on Vercingetorix's shield. Caesar then deports Vapus and his troops to Numidia, and Caesar promotes Centurion Crapulus to command of the garrison of Gergovia, and Legionary Pusillanimus to Centurion, on the grounds that they are the only "clean" legionaries present (despite both being visibly drunk). The Gauls return to their village (Vitalstatistix regaining his customary weight at the inns visited earlier in the story) to celebrate; but Vitalstatistix is forced into abstinence from the latter by his wife Impedimenta.
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They were divided into three ranks, of which the front rank also carried two javelins, while the second and third ranks had a thrusting spear instead. Both legionary sub-units and individual legionaries fought in relatively open order, or relatively well spaced from each other compared with the more tightly packed close order formations common at the time. An army was usually formed by combining a Roman legion with a similarly sized and equipped legion provided by their Latin allies. It is not clear how the 15,000 infantry at Adys were constituted, but the modern historian John Lazenby suggests that they may have represented four slightly under-strength legions: two Roman and two allied.
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These new recruits came from the first class of commoners in the Centuriate Assembly organisation, and were not granted the same privileges. By the time of the Second Punic War (218–202 BC), all the members of the first class of commoners were required to serve as cavalrymen. The presence of equites in the Roman cavalry diminished steadily in the period 200–88 BC as only equites could serve as the army's senior officers; as the number of legions proliferated fewer were available for ordinary cavalry service. After 88 BC, equites were no longer drafted into the legionary cavalry, although they remained technically liable to such service throughout the principate era (to AD 284).
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Bridle ornament inscribed Plinio Praefecto ("Property of the prefect Pliny"), found at Castra Vetera legionary base (Xanten, Germany), believed to have belonged to the classical author Pliny the Elder when he was a praefectus alae (commander of an auxiliary cavalry regiment) in Germania Inferior. Pliny was a hereditary Roman knight of the imperial era who became celebrated for his writings on geography and natural history. He also had a distinguished career as a public servant, in a series of posts reserved for equestrians. He served as a military officer in 44–54, as equestrian governor (procurator Augusti) of two minor provinces in the period 70–77 and then as a secretary of state in Rome to the emperor Vespasian.
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Because Carol II lost so much territory through failed diplomacy, the army supported seizure of power by General Ion Antonescu. For four months—the period of the National Legionary State—he shared power with the Iron Guard but the latter overplayed its hand in January 1941 and was suppressed. Romania entered World War II under the command of the German Wehrmacht in June 1941, declaring war on the Soviet Union to recover Bessarabia and northern Bukovina. Romania continued to participate in the invasion after recovering the territories and was also awarded the territory between Dniester and the Southern Bug by Germany to administer under the name of Transnistria, where Romanians built a concentration camp for the extermination of Jews.
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185 while their follower Claudio Mutti was noted for his pro-Legionary rhetoric. Mircea Iorgulescu, "L'Affaire, după Matei (II)" , in 22, Nr.636, May–June 2002 In parallel, Codreanu is seen as a hero by representatives of the maverick Neo-Nazi movement known as Strasserism,Peter Chroust, "Neo-Nazis and Taliban On-Line: Anti-Modern Political Movements and Modern Media", in Peter Ferdinand (ed.), The Internet, Democracy and Democratization, Routledge, London, 2000, p.113. and in particular by the British-based Strasserist International Third Position (ITP), which uses one of Codreanu's statements as its motto.Denise Roman, Fragmented Identities: Popular Culture, Sex, and Everyday Life in Postcommunist Romania, Lexington Books, Lanham, 2007, p.83.
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Upon the arrival of the consular army of Gaius Aurelius Cotta to their aid, the 5,000 soldiers were moved to Etruria. On the following day, the Gallic army of 35,000, led by a Carthaginian general, Hamilcar, began the battle by attempting to overwhelm the right flank of the Roman army with speed and numbers. Having failed in this task, they then failed to flank both wings of the Romans, for Purpureo had lengthened his flanks and called up legionary support. Now counter-attacking on all sides, Purpureo's men suppressed the Gallic flanks and broke their centre ranks, soon routing the enemy completely and killing or capturing over 35,000, including the commander, Hamilcar.
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20 The fascist National Legionary regime continued to keep track on Cocea's movements during 1940, alarmed by rumors that he had been operating a clandestine printing press, but was unable to determine whether he was still a communist. Cocea's actress sister Alice, who was living in Nazi-occupied France, was taking a different path: she and her manager, Robert Capgras, had a friendly relationship with the Germans and were later deemed collaborators with the enemy.Kenneth Krauss, The Drama of Fallen France: Reading La comédie sans Tickets, State University of New York Press, Albany, 2004, p. 8. From 1941, the Nazi-aligned regime of Conducător Ion Antonescu ordered Romania's participation in the war against the Soviet Union.
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Randor's people were hardened over generations by their inhospitable planet, which (combined with rigorous combat and martial arts training) resulted in them exhibiting speed, reflexes, strength, and fighting abilities all at the very upper limit of human ability and Randor himself is one of the most skilled amongst them, twice winner of the planetwide martial arts contest, a feat bettered by only one other legionary in the history of the contest. The people of Moros acted effectively as mercenaries; however, they were careful to only offer their services to clients fighting in self-defense. After they are all killed by a mysterious villain known only as the Warlord, Randor vows to avenge them.
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Following the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named Augustus by the Roman Senate, becoming the first Roman emperor.; Around this time, Tiridates II of Parthia briefly overthrew Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads. Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates arranged for the release of his kidnapped son. In return, the Romans received the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war.
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Asterix Versus Caesar (also known in France as Astérix et la surprise de César) is a 1985 French–Belgian animated adventure comedy film written by René Goscinny, Albert Uderzo and Pierre Tchernia, and directed by Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi, and is the fourth film adaptation of the Asterix comic book series. The story, an adaptation that combines the plots of Asterix the Legionary and Asterix the Gladiator, sees Asterix and his friend Obelix set off to rescue two lovers from their village that had been kidnapped by the Romans. The film's theme song, Astérix est là, was composed and performed by Plastic Bertrand. A book was released containing the story and stills from the film.
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Between 1931 and 1935, he studied theology at the University of Chişinău, graduating magna cum laude. He then studied philosophy at the University of Bucharest and, in 1939, history and journalism at the University of Berlin. Trifa's first employment was with Oastea Domnului, being charged with managing its publishing house: he issued the movement's eponymous magazine, its other journal Lumina Satelor, and the books of his uncle Iosif. While a student, Trifa joined the Iron Guard, and was a contributor to its Orăştie-based Libertatea newspaper; in 1940, during the National Legionary State (the period when the Iron Guard was in power), he was elected president of the National Union of Romanian Christian Students, a Legionnaire organization.
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In 2010 for the first time in the history of "Ayat", having become the third in draw of the XV Cup on a futsal, I continued a "Bronze" series and in the XIII Championship of the Republic of Kazakhstan on a futsal among teams of the Premier League. Aleksandr Metelkin the legionary from Russia "Ayat" playing in structure is recognized as the top scorer of the Cup and the Republic of Kazakhstan Championship. Five players of club were a part of a national team of Kazakhstan on a futsal: Grigory Shamro, Nikolay Kazakov, Timur Murzabayev, Daniyar Kenzhegulov, Aleksandr Yakimenko. In a season 2011-12 team takes the 7th place, and in 2013 enters the five of the best.
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Aquilae on display in the Temple of Mars the Avenger in Rome The third legionary standard was recovered in 41 CE by Publius Gabinius from the Chauci during the reign of Claudius, brother of Germanicus.Cassius Dio, Roman History Book LX, Chapter 8 Possibly the recovered aquilae were placed within the Temple of Mars Ultor ("Mars the Avenger"), the ruins of which stand today in the Forum of Augustus by the Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome. The last chapter was recounted by the historian Tacitus. Around 50 CE, bands of Chatti invaded Roman territory in Germania Superior, possibly an area in Hesse east of the Rhine that the Romans appear to have still held, and began to plunder.
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He joined the Romanian Armed Forces and was stationed in Ploiești under the Iron Guard's National Legionary government. Following the establishment of Ion Antonescu's dictatorship and the start of Operation Barbarossa (see Romania during World War II), as an officer cadet, he fought on the Eastern Front, saw action in Bassarabia and Transnistria, before being wounded in the arm during the Battle of Odessa (1941). Dan Giju, "Neagu Djuvara – Curierul de Stockholm" ("Neagu Djuvara -the Stockholm Courier") , interview with Djuvara at the Romanian Defense Ministry site, retrieved June 13, 2007 He stated that he gave up his interest in the far right after a 1943 dialog with fellow diplomat Victor Rădulescu-Pogoneanu, who convinced Djuvara to become "a supporter of parliamentary democracy".
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Loyalty was to the Roman state but pride was based in the soldier's unit, to which was attached a military standard − in the case of the legions a legionary eagle. Successful units were awarded accolades that became part of their official name, such as the 20th legion, which became the XX Valeria Victrix (the "Valiant and Victorious 20th"). Of the martial culture of less valued units such as sailors, and light infantry, less is known, but it is doubtful that its training was as intense or its esprit de corps as strong as in the legions. Literacy was highly valued in the Roman military, and literacy rates in the military far exceeded that of the Roman society as a whole.
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Competing with Anton Golopenția for the role of Gusti's leading disciple, Herseni emerged as the winner in 1937; from 1932, he also held a teaching position at the University of Bucharest. Herseni became a committed eugenicist and racial scientist, who discarded a moderate left-wing stance to embrace fascism, and parted ways with Gusti over his support for the Iron Guard. He was nevertheless protected during the anti-Guard backlash of 1938, when Gusti made him a clerk within the Social Service, part of the National Renaissance Front apparatus. A leading functionary and ideologue of the fascist National Legionary State, and a figure of cultural and political importance under dictator Ion Antonescu, he proposed the compulsory sterilization of "inferior races", and wrote praises of Nazi racial policy.
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The term first appears in the late 1st century BC in the Hellenistic Near East. Its origin is unclear, but it is used as a translation, in some inscriptions, for the contemporary Roman legionary post of praefectus castrorum ("camp prefect"). Josephus (De Bello Judaico, VI.238) uses the term to refer to the quartermaster-general of all camps, while Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Roman Antiquities, X.36.6) used it to refer to the role of a primus pilus in a legion that had lost its commander. It also occurs in the Bible (), where it has been interpreted as referring to the praetorian prefect, the commander of the camp and garrison of the Praetorian Guard in Rome, or the subordinate officials praefectus peregrinorum and princeps castrorum.
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The main catalogue for these coins is Volume I of the Roman Provincial Coinage (RPC). A handful of mints in eastern Iberia did attempt to retain the jinete coins with bilingual Iberian and Latin legends, but this did not become popular. The peak of these provincial emissions was under Augustus and Tiberius, and the last 'local' coins were emitted under the emperor Caligula, in the mid-first century AD. This cessation of local coinage in the mid-first century AD was not unique to Hispania but occurred throughout the western Provinces. From that point on the only emissions in Roman Hispania were emissions from a few Imperial mints controlled by the emperor and used for purposes such as legionary pay.
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The contubernium was, at least very late in the period (though it is possible the title existed in the late republic and early principate) led by a Decanus, who might crudely be described as the equivalent of a junior non-commissioned officer, however there is no evidence of a decanus exercising any kind of battlefield command role, regardless of any responsibilities they may have had in garrison or camp. They were presumably appointed from within the contubernium and were most likely the longest serving legionary. Their duties would likely have included organising the erection of the marching tent and ensuring their tent- mates kept things tidy. Two auxiliary “servants”, vaguely equivalent to modern logistical support troops, were assigned to each contubernium.
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Potra, p. 162 Around that time, the fascist National Legionary State resumed the attacks on the "cremationist" movement: by 1941, Education Minister Traian Brăileanu was proposing to disestablish the Bucharest Crematorium, describing it as anti-Christian.Valentin Săndulescu, "Convertiri și reconvertiri: elite academice și culturale și schimbare politică în România anilor 1930–1960", in Cristian Vasile (ed.), "Ne trebuie oameni!". Elite intelectuale și transformări istorice în România modernă și contemporană, p. 161. Târgoviște: Nicolae Iorga Institute of History & Editura Cetatea de Scaun, 2017. In 1942, Editura Cugetarea issued a final volume of Rosetti's recollections, Odinioară ("Once"). It features chapters on the more picturesque figures who had crossed the author's path, for instance Macedonski, Claymoor, Nicolae Fleva, Alceu Urechia, and Alexandru Bogdan- Pitești.
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Urbicus may have campaigned against several British tribes (possibly including factions of the northern Brigantes), certainly against the lowland tribes of Scotland; the Votadini and the Selgovae of the Scottish Borders region, also the Damnonii of Strathclyde and the Novantae of Dumfries and Galloway. All three of the legions of Britain would have taken part (Legio II Augusta based at Caerleon, the Sixth Victrix based at York and the Twentieth Valeria Victrix based at Chester), as they are all mentioned on the inscriptions recording building work undertaken along the Antonine Wall. This legionary core was, no doubt, backed up by a substantial contingent of auxiliary units, of which we have record of around nine regiments (e.g. RIB 1276, 2140, 2142, 2149, 2155, 3509).
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In the summer of 1940, following the cession of Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia to the Soviet Union (see Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina), it was employed in an offering help to the many refugees in various parts of Romania. The Romanian Radio engaged in a propaganda campaign, praising Straja Țării as Armata Albă a Regelui ("the King's White Army"), while hiding the fact that theirs had been the only form of aid for the displaced. Later that year, when the National Legionary State government replaced Carol's regime, after the crisis provoked by the Second Vienna Award (the cession of Northern Transylvania to Hungary), the organization was disbanded and all its assets were taken over by the Iron Guard.
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I. Brătianu, in Otu, "Ianuarie-august..." Gheorghe I. Brătianu signed his name to a protest regarding the German-enforced Arbitration,Gruber, Cap.VIII; Otu, "Ianuarie- august..."; Scurtu, p.18 and later stated that he had "preferred Germany's hostility to its scorn". In September 1940, the newly created Iron Guard regime (the National Legionary State) offered the PNL places in the government, upon the pressures of Ion Antonescu (who had become Conducător, sharing power with the Guard) and of his assistant, the former Georgist Mihai Antonescu; talks failed due to Brătianu's excessive ambitions, amounting to virtual Liberal control over the executive (according to Z. Ornea, his demand was merely a procedure through which he intended to politely avoid all association with the Guard).
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Archaeological investigations around Navenby indicate the area has been occupied since at least the British Bronze Age, about 600 BC. The remains of British Iron Age farms have been found at Chapel Lane, a site now protected as a public open space by the district and parish councils and supported by Navenby Archaeology Group. Ermine Street in Navenby today The remains of Navenby's market cross Significant Roman finds include parts of shops and houses that would have fronted onto Ermine Street, down which Roman armies marched to and from the Legionary Fortress at Lincoln. The city of Lincoln was very important at that time, probably the capital of the late Roman Province of Flavia Caesariensis. Evidence suggests that Navenby was a significant staging point along Ermine Street.
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In this change of Imperial formula Constantine acknowledged his responsibility to an earthly realm whose discord and conflict might arouse the ira deorum; he also recognised the power of the new Christian priestly hierarchy in determining what was auspicious or orthodox. Though unbaptised, Constantine had triumphed under the signum of the Christ (probably some form of Labarum as an adapted or re-interpreted legionary standard). He may have officially ended – or attempted to end – blood sacrifices to the genius of living emperors but his Imperial iconography and court ceremonial elevated him to superhuman status. Constantine's permission for a new cult temple to himself and his family in Umbria is extant: the cult "should not be polluted by the deception of any contagious superstition".Momigliano, 104.
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Elders, vagrants, freedmen, slaves and convicts were excluded from the military levy, save in emergencies. During a prolonged such emergency, the Second Punic War, severe manpower shortages necessitated that the property requirement be ignored and large numbers of proletarii conscripted into the legions. After the end of this war, it appears that proletarii were admitted to the legions as volunteers (as opposed to conscripts) and at the same time the property requirement was reduced to a nominal level by 150 BC, and finally scrapped in the consulship of Gaius Marius (107 BC). The legionary cavalry also changed, probably around 300 BC onwards from the light, unarmoured horse of the early army to a heavy force with metal armour (bronze cuirasses and, later, mail coats).
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The construction of the walls was by far the largest building project that had taken place in Rome for many decades, and their construction was a concrete statement of the continued strength of Rome. The construction project was unusually left to the citizens themselves to complete as Aurelian could not afford to spare a single legionary for the project. The root of this unorthodox practice was due to the imminent barbarian threat coupled with the wavering strength of the military as a whole due to being subject to years of bloody civil war, famine and the Plague of Cyprian. The walls were built in the short time of only five years, though Aurelian himself died before the completion of the project.
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Churchill entered the 8th Connecticut Regiment as a private on 7 July 1775. On 7 May 1777, he re- enlisted for the duration of the war as a corporal in the 2nd Continental Light Dragoons, later the 2nd Legionary Corps, and was promoted to sergeant on 2 October 1780. He was cited for gallantry in action at Fort St. George near Brookhaven, New York on Long Island, in November 1780, at Tarrytown, New York, in July 1781, and at Fort Slongo (now known as Fort Salonga, also on Long Island) on October 2, 1781. He was awarded the Badge of Military Merit for his actions, one of only three soldiers to receive the award that later became the Purple Heart.
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The parish certainly did witness human activity well before the 11th century AD. The Historic Environment Record (HER) for Essex records several cropmark features in the civil parish that are almost certainly prehistoric. These include a circular monument some 30 metres in diameter that may have been either a late Neolithic henge, or more likely, a Bronze Age round barrow. Without excavation it is not possible to say what exactly the cropmark indicates. The HER also records that the Roman road that linked Colchester (Camulodunum) the capital of the Trinivantes, the original capital of the Roman province of Britannia, and the site of a legionary fortress, with Caistor St Edmonds (Venta Icenorum) the capital of the Iceni, runs through the village.
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Romania was unaware that Berlin had already secretly split Eastern Europe with Moscow in a secret protocol of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In summer 1940 a series of territorial disputes were diplomatically resolved unfavorably to Romania, resulting in the loss of most of the territory gained in the wake of World War I. This caused the popularity of Romania's government to plummet, further reinforcing the fascist and military factions, who eventually staged a coup that turned the country into a dictatorship under Mareșal Ion Antonescu. The new regime, the National Legionary State, officially joined the Axis powers on 23 November 1940. Romania sent troops into the invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, sold equipment and oil to Germany.
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Butnaru, p.70; Chehabi & Linz, p.14; Cioroianu, p.416; Kligman, p.291 Nominally, Antonescu was Prime Minister and the role of head of state was filled by King Michael, but all real power rested with Antonescu.Butnaru, p.70; Jelavich, p.227 According to historian Adrian Cioroianu, through the use of the term, Antonescu meant to highlight connections with Germany, and after the fall of the Iron Guard from shared government (the National Legionary State), his own personal regime. The term was occasionally used in official discourse as a reference to Nicolae Ceaușescu, leader of the Socialist Republic of Romania, starting in the period after 1971, at a time when the Romanian Communist Party grew in membership but decreased in importance due to Ceaușescu's increasing personality cult.
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His most well-known series for younger children appears to have been The Last Legionary quintet. Starting with Galactic Warlord the quartet (the fifth book was a prequel anthology) told the story of Keill Randor, last survivor of a murdered world, seeking revenge for the genocide, aided by a secretive group of advisers known as The Overseers and a winged, telepathic alien named Glr. The series contained the tropes of 'well-intentioned' Science perverted by ego and over-confidence into evil, and the 'good' science being used as the servant not master of humanity. The series also had the trope that elderly people are not irrelevant and worthless, but the smartest, wisest people around and the ones who really know what is going on.
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The light-armed troops, the velites, disappeared from the records after Sallust's account of Metellus’ campaign in 109-108 B.C. Their elimination has traditionally been linked to Marius, to whom several other changes in organization and equipment have also been ascribed; however, no concrete proof of such a reform has ever been found. This led some historians to suggest that the lowering of the property qualifications may have been the cause behind their disappearance. By the first century, Marius and his predecessors had lowered the property qualifications for serving as a legionary in the legions. As a result, the citizens who originally made up the velites – the poorest and youngest of the men eligible for service – now could join the legions as legionaries instead.
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Ornea (1995), pp.196, 209–210, 226, 235, 243, 264–265, 296, 299, 314–317, 335–341, 347, 357; Stanomir, pp.176–189, 224–234; Veiga, pp.130, 137–138, 141, 149, 156, 200, 215, 235, 248, 250, 253, 263, 271, 292–293 His publicized criticism of Codreanu's methods and the Iron Guard leader's answer played a part in escalating the entire conflict, and, after Codreanu's killing on Carol's orders, made Iorga a potential target for the movement's violent retribution.Ornea (1995), pp.314–317, 335–341, 347, 357; Veiga, p.271, 292–294, 309–310 In November 1940, during the interval when the Guard set up the National Legionary regime (see Romania during World War II), Iorga became a victim of its assassins.Veiga, pp.
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The survivors asked Constantine to be allowed into Roman territory, got permission and settled in Pannonia Inferior, where they remained in peace for around forty years, "obeying the laws of the Empire like the other inhabitants of the region."Jordanes, De origine actibusque Getarum, 22. ;336: Emperor Constantine achieved new successes beyond the Danube in the territories which had once been the Roman province of Dacia (abandoned by Aurelian), receiving the honorific title "Dacicus Maximus". It cannot be coincidental that an inscription found near the former legionary fortress of Apulum (modern Alba Iulia) mentions a woman named Ulpia Constantia (reflecting connections to Trajan and Constantine).. This could give serious support to Emperor Julian's claim that Constantine reconquered all the territories controlled by Trajan – which included Dacia.
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Pompeianus was a novus homo ("new man") as he was the first member of his family to be appointed as a senator. Much of Pompeianus' early life has been lost to history. He participated in the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 under the command of Emperor Lucius Verus, likely as a legionary commander. Sometime prior to the Parthian campaign, he was elevated to the rank of senator. He served with distinction during the war, earning him appointment as suffect consul for the remainder of the year 162 AD. W. Eck, A. Pangerl, "Eine neue Bürgerrechtskonstitution für die Truppen von Pannonia inferior aus dem Jahr 162 mit einem neuen Konsulnpaar", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 173 (2010), pp. 223–236.
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Frunză, p. 115 In 1937, as the fascist Iron Guard was gaining unprecedented momentum and the secondary fascist movement around the National Christian Party was ascending to power, Callimachi decided to leave Romania and settled in France, but returned a year later, after King Carol II acted against the Iron Guard and established a dictatorship around the National Renaissance Front. In August 1940, as Carol engineered a crackdown on the left-wing opposition, he was interned in Miercurea-Ciuc. Like Pătrăşcanu, Callimachi was set free by Siguranţa Statului under the National Legionary State, established by the Iron Guard later in the year (the regime, which had aligned itself with Nazi Germany, was attempting to preserve a good relationship with the Soviet Union).
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It also appears that from this time onwards, Roman knights were no longer levied for cavalry service, which was now recruited from commoners.Keppie (1996) 272 By the time of Gaius Julius Caesar's Gallic War (58-51 BC), it appears that legionary cavalry may have disappeared altogether, and that Caesar was entirely dependent on allied Gallic contingents for his cavalry operations.Goldsworthy (2000) This is deduced from an incident in 58 BC when Caesar was invited to a parley with the German king Ariovistus and needed a cavalry escort. Since he didn't yet trust the allied Gallic cavalry under his command, he instructed them to lend their horses to some members of the Tenth Legion, which thereafter acquired the nickname equestris ("mounted legion").
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Wenham, L. P. 1965 'The South-West defences of the Fortress of Eboracum' in Jarrett, M. G. and Dobson, B. (eds.) Britain and Rome. pp. 1–26 The layout of the fortress also followed the standard for a legionary fortress with wooden buildings inside a square defensive boundary. These defences originally consisting of turf ramparts on a green wood foundation, were built by the Ninth Legion between 71 and 74 AD. Later these were replaced by a clay mound with a turf front on a new oak foundation, and eventually, wooden battlements were added which were then replaced by limestone walls and towers. The original wooden camp was refurbished by Agricola in 81, before being completely rebuilt in stone between 107 and 108.
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More important, perhaps, the inscription indicates that he was praefectus legionis agens vice legati – i.e. 'Prefect of the Legion acting on behalf of the (senatorial) legate' who we know was never to be appointed. However, the use of this terminology - presumably a formula to ensure that the prefect had the legal authority of a legate - seems to throw doubt on the proposition advanced by many historians See, for example, that Gallienus had always intended the removal of senators from legionary commands as a permanent reform as opposed to an expedient resorted to in the crisis following the captivity of Valerian that was never reversed. In other words, it suggests Aurelius Victor was mistaken when he said that Gallienus had issued an edict incorporating the change in law.
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They often found themselves leading their unit in the absence of a legate, and some legions were permanently commanded by a broad-stripe tribune, such as those stationed in Egypt, as an Augustan law required that no member of the Senatorial Order ever enter Egypt. In contrast to the broad-stripe tribune, the other five 'thin stripe' tribunes were lower in rank, and were called the tribuni angusticlavii. These 'officer cadets' were men of equestrian rank who had military experience, and yet had no authority: they were allowed to sit on a court martial but they held no power in battle. Most thin-stripe tribunes served the legionary legate, yet a lucky few (such as Agricola) were selected to serve on the staff of the provincial governor.
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On 21 November 1940, during the National Legionary State, when many thousands of German troops were on Romanian soil, the Ethnic German Group of Romania (GEGR, Grupul Etnic German din România) was founded and declared a "Romanian juridical person of public right". All Romanian citizens of German origin were officially inducted into the organisation; the representative of the "national will of the Ethnic German Group of Romania" was the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP). After the Legionnaires' Rebellion was crushed in January 1941, NSDAP remained the sole legal political organisation in Romania until the King Michael Coup of 23 August 1944. The head of the GEGR and of the local NSDAP was Andreas Schmidt, named directly by Berlin, whose interests he represented.
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In a similar manner as Hitler with his Third Reich re-armament, Joseph Stalin saw the acquisition of first-hand combat experience in Spain by Soviet pilots and technicians as essential for his plans regarding the capability and combat readiness of the Soviet Air Forces. Therefore, much emphasis was placed on detailed reporting of the results of the testing of the new Russian military equipment and air-warfare techniques.Soviet Pilots in the Spanish Civil War The first planes that came to Spain were Tupolev SB bombers; the fighters would arrive later. Their first action was a morale-lifting bombing raid on the Talavera de la Reina military airfield used by the Legionary Nazi and Italian planes that dropped their bombs over Madrid every day.
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Every governor had at his disposal a diversity of advisors and staff, who were known as his comites (Latin for "companions"); the number of these depended on the governor's social standing and rank. These comites would serve as the governor's executive council, with each supervising a different aspect of the province, and assisting the governor in decision making. In the provinces with a significant legionary presence, the governor's second-in-command was usually a quaestor, a man elected in Rome and sent to the province to serve a mainly financial role, but who could command the military with the governor's approval. In other provinces, governors themselves appointed non-magistrate prefects or procurators to govern a small part of the province and act as their second-in-command.
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Leptanilla japonica is an uncommon highly migratory, subterranean ant found in Japan. They are tiny insects, with workers measuring about 1.2 mm and queens reaching to about 1.8 mm, and live in very small colonies of only a few hundred individuals at a time (as compared to the 60,000 to 20,000,000 individuals of legionary ant colonies.) Its sexual development follows a seasonal cycle that affects the colony's migration and feeding habits, and vice versa. L. japonica exhibits specialized predation, with prey consisting mainly of geophilomorph centipedes, a less reliable food source that also contributes to their high rate of nest migration. Like ants of genera Amblyopone and Proceratium, the genus Leptanilla engages in larval hemolymph feeding (LHF), with the queen using no other form of sustenance.
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Caracostea was elected a titular member of the Romanian Academy in 1938, Membrii Academiei Române din 1866 până în prezent at the Romanian Academy site and presided over the forum's literary section for a time. During the summer of 1940, he served as Minister of National Education in two successive cabinets: under Ion Gigurtu from July 4 to September 4,Neagoe, p. 135 and under Ion Antonescu from September 4 to 14, until the establishment of the National Legionary State.Neagoe, p. 137 That autumn, the new regime appointed him head of Revista Fundațiilor Regale; as such, he suspended contributions from critics whom he deemed sympathetic toward Jewish literature. Nicoleta Sălcudeanu, "Generație prin lustrație", in Viața Românească, Nr. 12/2008 From April 1941 to May 1944.
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321 Beginning with the late 1920s several groups left the party dissatisfied with what they perceived as the turn of the PSDR leadership to right-wing politics. Such groups included the Socialist Workers Party of Romania, founded in 1928 by a group around Leon Ghelerter (joined in 1931 by former communist leader Gheorghe Cristescu), and the Socialist Party (Partidul Socialist) created in 1933 by a group around Constantin Popovici. Shortly after the latter's creation, the factions joined to form the Unitary Socialist Party, only to split again in 1935. Banned in 1938 by the personal dictatorship of King Carol II, the PSD remained active in clandestinity, peacefully resisting to the rise of Fascism, condemning the Iron Guard and the National Legionary State proclaimed in 1940.
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In September 1940, a coalition of Horia Sima, leader of the Iron Guard, and General (later Marshal) Ion Antonescu had formed a National Legionary State in Romania, forcing King Carol II to abdicate in favour of his 19-year-old son Michael, who became a figurehead to the new fascist regime. DIning that period, Tilea was recalled from his post in the Romanian embassy in London, but he decided to stay in England, requesting political asylum. Resigning his post, he co-founded the Free Romanian Movement. In the meantime, Carol II fled to exile in Mexico, where he wrote to his distant cousin, George VI, hoping for British support for an overthrowing of the new government to return it to a monarchy.
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Under Nero, the pay of a Praetorian was three and a half times that of a legionary, augmented by prime additions of donativum, granted by each new emperor. This additional pay was the equivalent of several years of pay, and was often repeated at important events of the empire, or events that touched the imperial family: birthdays, births and marriages. Major monetary distributions or food subsidies renewed and compensated the fidelity of the Praetorians following each failed particular attempted plot (such as that of Messalina against Claudius in AD 48 or Piso against Nero in AD 65). The Praetorians received substantially higher pay than other Roman soldiers in any of the legions, on a system known as sesquiplex stipendum, or by pay-and-a-half.
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The responsibility for the Transylvanian compromise weighed heavily on him later in the following year, when the Iron Guard, revived by the leadership of Horia Sima, came to government and proclaimed the National Legionary State; it refused to appoint Manoilescu to any leadership position.Ornea, p.280 He did however continue to serve as Foreign Minister during the short-lived First Antonescu cabinet, bringing the overall duration of his 1940 term to 70 days (July 4 to September 14).National Commission of the Socialist Republic of Romania for UNESCO, 1972, Chronological history of Romania, p. 426 After the Iron Guard's 1941 Rebellion, he remained present on the political stage as a supporter of Ion Antonescu's dictatorship (see Romania during World War II).
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It seems likely that such an obvious strategic location would have been settled in some way from an early date. The scores of Iron Age and Roman coinage and artefact discoveries, and excavations by the Dyfed Archaeological Trust under the direction of Heather James at Carmarthen (Moridunum) in the 1980s, point to significant Roman penetration to this westernmost part of Wales. The strategic position of Haverfordwest with its defensive bluff overlooking the lowest fordable point on the western Cleddau and accessible to sea traffic would have required a Roman presence, probably modest in scale, from the 1st century AD to protect supplies to and from the coast, e.g. the Roman legionary headquarters at Caerleon were roofed with slates from the lower slopes of the Preseli Hills.
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To that end, they interrogate the archer, Lucius Circumbendibus, who now owns a wheel manufacturing business; the second legionary, Marcus Carniverus, who worked at a health resort before opening a restaurant; and the drunken Centurion Crapulus. Vapus and his men in turn search in vain for both the shield and Asterix and Obelix, as a running gag dirtying themselves with charcoal dust while searching the coal heaps belonging to Winesanspirix and their neighbors. The search eventually leads the two Gauls back to Winesanspirix, to whom Crapulus had given the shield in the prologue. Upon the protagonists' reunion with him, Winesanspirix confesses having given the shield to a dispirited Gaulish warrior, who is thereupon identified with the arrival of a newly cured and much slimmer Vitalstatistix.
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The son of Lucius and a member of the Roman tribe Camilia, Carus' career began with his appointment to the decemviri stlitibus judicandis, one of the four boards of the vigintiviri; membership in one of these four boards was a preliminary and required first step toward gaining entry into the Roman Senate. This was followed by serving as a military tribune, firstly of the Legio VIII Augusta, at the time stationed at Argentoratum (Strasbourg), then of the Legio IX Hispana, sometime after AD 122.Cowan, R. Roman Legionary AD 69-161 (2013), p. 10 Returning to Rome, Carus began his climb up the series of Republican magistracies: first appointed quaestor to the Emperor, then Plebeian Tribune before achieving the Praetorship.
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A close-up view of the breastplate on the statue of Augustus of Prima Porta, showing a Parthian man returning to Augustus the legionary standards lost by Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhae Following the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named Augustus by the Roman Senate, becoming the first Roman emperor.; Around this time, Tiridates II of Parthia briefly overthrew Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads. Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates IV's sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates IV arranged for the release of his kidnapped son.
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In the course of the Second Dacian War (105-106 AD) Trajan also occupied the areas north of Mureș and incorporated them into the new province of Dacia Superior. On the territory of today's Cetate, the Roman army built a fort, which at first was probably occupied by a legionary exile. A civil settlement (vicus or canabae) soon developed in the vicinity of the fort, whose ancient name was passed down as Morisena ("Castrum iuxta Morisium" = fort on the Mures). The fort and settlement probably existed until the early 3rd century AD. The auxiliary cohort, probably stationed here later, was responsible for monitoring and securing the road connection from Micia to Partiscum, which ran northwest along the southern bank of the river Mureș.
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Typical of the band, the concerts were extremely theatrical. An average show lasted for 1 hour and 40 minutes and the sets were designed with Cold War, religious and "Celebritarian" imagery in mind. Manson has several costume changes throughout the sets ranging from a Bishop's dalmatic and mitre (often confused for Papal regalia), a costume made from taxidermied animal anatomies (i.e. an epaulette made from a horse's tail, a shirt made from skinned goat heads and ostrich spines), an elaborate Roman legionary-style Imperial galea, an Allgemeine SS-style peaked police cap, his signature black leather corset, g-string and garter stocking ensemble, a black-and-white fur coat and a giant rising conical skirt that lifts the singer 12 meters (40 feet) into the air.
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1940 stamp issued by the National Legionary State and showing Codreanu. The caption reads: "Captain, may you give the country the likeness of the Holy Sun [that shines] up in the sky" According to Adrian Cioroianu, Codreanu was "the most successful political and at the same time anti-political model of interwar Romania". The Legion was described by British researcher Norman Davies as "one of Europe's more violent fascist movements." Stanley G. Payne also argued that the Iron Guard was "probably the most unusual mass movement of interwar Europe", and noted that part of this was owed to Codreanu being "a sort of religious mystic", while British historian James Mayall sees the Legion as "the most singular of the lesser fascist movements".
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Cell at the abandoned Fort 13 Jilava Jilava was the location of a fort built by King Carol I of Romania, as part of the capital's defense system. At a later date, the fort was converted into a prison. It is now a historical monument. This prison is the site where, on November 26–27, 1940, the Iron Guard authorities of the National Legionary State killed 64 political prisoners as revenge for the previous killing of their leader Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (see Jilava Massacre); it was also here that Ion Antonescu, dictator (Conducător) of Romania during World War II, was executed for war crimes in 1946 and where on 23 October 1971 the serial killer, Ion Rîmaru was executed by firing squad.
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All four regiments evolved from light dragoons units to legions that combined mounted and foot units. The 1st, 3rd and 4th eventually merged and fought together in one unit of four troops under the command of Colonel William Washington (cousin of the General), and officially named the 1st Legionary Corps on January 1, 1781. The First, as Dragoon and Legion, fought in Northern New Jersey, protected Philadelphia, survived the siege of Charleston 1780, fought with Lafayette in Virginia and at Yorktown, and defended the Carolinas in Nathaniel Greene's Campaign.Burt Garfield Loescher: "Bland's Virginia Horse: The Story of the First Continental Light Dragoons", in Journal of the Company of Military Collectors & Historians, Washington D.C., March 1954, vol VI no 1 pp 1-6.
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Before the deaths, the ideology of "self-sacrifice" of the Iron Guard was often seen as mere rhetoric, but now, the Legionary movement was able to argue that it has created the "new man" that was able to give one's life for the ideological goals. The funerals made the cause of the Iron Guard better known and from January 1937 to the end of the year, the number of members of the Legion grew from 96,000 to 272,000. The popularity of the Iron Guard was shown in the December 1937 elections, when it was able to gain 15.5% of the votes, becoming the third largest party in the Romanian Parliament. The movement was eventually repressed by Carol II's royal dictatorship regime and its revolutionary fascist project failed.
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The original church called Niedermünster, which was built west of where the current cathedral stands, was built around the year 700. Where it was positioned was some distance away from the Porta Praetoria which was a northern gate of Regensburg's old legionary fortress called Castra Regina. Although it was a tomb for Erhard of Regensburg, it was at first a chapel for a royal family (more specifically a ducal family). Niedermünster burned down in 1273, and because of the good economic status of Regensburg at the time a new cathedral was able to be constructed. The architect that took over supervision over the new cathedral in 1280 was trained in France, and because of this there was an incorporation of French Gothic architectural themes.
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On 5 September 1940, King Carol signed a decree, titled “For the investment with full powers of the president of the Council of Ministers and the restriction of royal prerogatives”, which transferred his authoritarian powers to General Ion Antonescu. The 1938 Constitution was suspended and parliament dissolved. Antonescu formed the National Legionary State in alliance with the Iron Guard. He did not convene a parliament and ruled the country by decree even after breaking his alliance with the Guard in 1941. King Michael ousted Antonescu on 23 August 1944, and a constitutional and transitional regime was established until a Constituent Assembly could meet to draft a new constitution, until which time a few provisions of the cancelled 1866 and 1923 constitutions were applied.
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In some representations (Roman coinage) Tranquillitas is depicted holding a hasta pura, a ceremonial lance (spear), the forerunner of the standard pilum issued to Roman soldiers, a reference to tranquility enforced/provided by the Roman military machine; or perhaps suggest a tranquil period for the Roman Armies which had been involved in frequent civil wars. In the other hand Tranquillitas holds some sort of animal in her outstretched hand. Most experts believe to be a Roman Dragon ("draco"), a symbol associated with the military ensigns (banners) all of the Roman Legionary Armies during the period of the Empire, as well as by the Dacians and the Parthians. Again, this would be a reference to the tranquility afforded by the protection, fidelity, and valor of the Roman army.
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Pompey the Great in middle age. Pompey brought himself to Sulla's attention at the beginning of Sulla's second civil war when, as a 23-year old civilian, without any authority whatever, he raised three legions in Picenum (Adriatic coast) and marched them to the relief of Sulla in southern Italy. Such was the magnetism of his personality that he compelled the cooperation of all military officers and magistrates required to perform that feat, passing edicts without any right to do so, setting up drafts in each city of the province, selecting the legionary officers himself, and raising the money to arm, equip, and supply them. He regarded that as a superior course of action to just showing up as a refugee like all the rest.
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Carol felt that a "tamed" Iron Guard could be used as a source of popular support. In April 1940, Carol had reached an agreement with Vasile Noveanu, the leader of the underground Iron Guard in Romania, but it was not until early May 1940 that Horia Sima, the leader of the Iron Guards in exile in Germany could be persuaded to support the government.Haynes, Rebbecca " Germany and the Establishment of the Romanian National Legionary State, September 1940" pages 700-725 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 77, Issue # 4. October 1999 page 708. On 26 May 1940 Sima returned to Romania from Germany to begin talks with General Mihail Moruzov of the secret service about the Iron Guard joining the government.
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Caesar had initially four veteran legions under his direct command: Legio VII, Legio VIII, Legio IX Hispana, and Legio X. As he had been governor of Hispania Ulterior in 61 BC and had campaigned successfully with them against the Lusitanians, Caesar knew personally most, perhaps even all, of the legions. Caesar also had the legal authority to levy additional legions and auxiliary units as he saw fit. The assignment of the provinces that comprise what is now Northern Italy was also helpful to his ambitions: the Po Valley and the adjoining regions had large numbers of Roman citizens, who could be enticed to sign up for legionary service. His ambition was to conquer and plunder some territories to get himself out of debt, and it is possible that Gaul was not his initial target.
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Necropolis at Republic Square contained a well- shaped graves from the 1st century AD. In general, the largest section of the civilian settlement was situated between the modern Simina Street in Dorćol, the Brankova Street in Savamala and Zeleni Venac, and the Republic Square. Map of Roman Singidunum, showing the old river bank On the crossroad of the Gospodar Jevremova and Kneginje Ljubice streets, a house of worship dedicated to the Greek goddess Hecate, a sort of "descent to Hades", was discovered in 1935. As foundations for a new building were being dug, a long architrave beam, with an inscription in Latin dedicated to Hecate, was discovered at the depth of . The inscription was written by Valerius Crescentio, a legionary of the Legio IV Flavia Felix, in the service of the emperor Maximinus Thrax.
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The first was as procurator or overseer of the imperial mint with a salary of 100,000 sesterces; he was then promoted to procurator of the imperial properties in Baetica, with a salary of 200,000 sesterces. This was followed by his appointment as procurator XX hereditatum or overseer of the 5% estate tax at Rome. The latest appointment was as procurator with the powers of a legatus of the province of Mauretania Tingitana; having the powers of a legatus implies Betuinianus was given command of legionary troops stationed in that province. J.E.H. Spaul dates his tenure in that province before 114, most likely from 112 to 114; Spaul further believes, based on the nature of the inscription and that it was set up by his staff, that Besius Betuinianus died while in office.
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The military engineering of Ancient Rome's armed forces was of a scale and frequency far beyond that of any of its contemporaries'. Indeed, military engineering was in many ways institutionally endemic in Roman military culture, as demonstrated by the fact that each Roman legionary had as part of his equipment a shovel, alongside his gladius (sword) and pila (spears). Fabri were workers, craftsmen or artisans in Roman society and descriptions of early Roman army structure (Phalanx, the Legion came around the conquest of Greece) attributed to king Servius Tullius describe there being two centuriae of fabri under an officer, the praefectus fabrum. Roman military engineering took both routine and extraordinary forms, the former a proactive part of standard military procedure, and the latter of an extraordinary or reactionary nature.
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At that time this military tribune was usually the commander of a legionary cohort or an ala of auxiliary cavalry. For Claudius to have been demoted to this level from the heights he had previous occupied (Hipparchos of the Cavalry and Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Armies) would suggest a serious rift between himself and Gallienus. It is possible, but there is no evidence for it in any of the ancient sources; even Zosimus, who is notably cool towards Claudius, gives no hint of it. The most likely explanation for the suggestion is that the author of the Historia Augusta, writing in the Fourth Century AD after the Constantinian reform of the army, had no notion what the term 'tribune' denoted in the seventh decade of the previous century.
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29 plane, supported by smaller fighter planes, of Italian Legionary Air Force, allied to Francisco Franco's Nationalists, bombs Madrid during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) The two major global ideologies, monarchism and democracy, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due to the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The Great Powers (defined in the 1815 Congress of Vienna as the United Kingdom, Habsburg Austria, Prussia, France, and Russia) would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government.
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They gave cult to Jupiter for the emperor's well-being and regular cult to State, local and personal divinities. Cult to the Imperial person and familia was generally offered on Imperial accessions, anniversaries and renewal of annual vows: a bust of the ruling emperor was kept in the legionary insignia shrine for the purpose, attended by a designated military imaginifer. By the time of the early Severans, the legions offered cult to the state gods, the Imperial divi, the current emperor's numen, genius and domus (or familia), and special cult to the Empress as "mother of the camp." At around this time, Mithraic cults became very popular with the military, and provided a basis for syncretic Imperial cult which absorbed Mithras into Solar and Stoic Monism as a focus of military concordia and loyalty.
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Head of a genius found during excavations of Vindobona Silver plate, part of a larger find found around Kärntner Straße in 1945 Early references to Vindobona are made by the geographer Ptolemy in his Geographica and the historian Aurelius Victor, who recounts that emperor Marcus Aurelius died in Vindobona on 17 March 180 from an unknown illness while on a military campaign against invading Germanic tribes. Today, there is a Marc-Aurelstraße (English: Marcus Aurelius street) near the Hoher Markt in Vienna. It is possible that Vindobona as a legionary fortress was built around the year of 100, because from the archeological records there are no building inscriptions dating earlier than the year of 103. Vindobona was part of the Roman province Pannonia, of which the regional administrative centre was Carnuntum.
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This position probably continued after the war, at least as regards volunteers. Iuniores infantrymen (aged 16–46) were liable to call- up for a maximum of 16 campaigns (but no more than 6 years in succession) until age 46, although this could be extend to 20 years in emergencies (men over 46 years of age, known as seniores, were not liable to call-up save in emergencies). At the time of Polybius, pay was set at 2 obols, or a third of a drachma (denarius after 211 BC) per day, for the period that they were held under arms. (For comparison, an imperial-era legionary of the 1st century AD was paid around twice as much per day until around AD 85, and nearly 1 denarius per day thereafter, year-round, as they were professionals).
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It was apparently revived briefly by his successor Tiberius, whose nephews, the generals Germanicus and Drusus, launched major and successful operations in Germania in AD 14–17, during which the main tribes responsible for Varus' defeat were crushed and the three lost legionary aquilae (eagle-standards) were recovered.Tacitus Annales II.22 But if Tiberius ever contemplated advancing the border to the Elbe, by AD 16 he had clearly abandoned the idea and decided to keep the border at the Rhine.Tacitus Annales II.26 Most likely, he assessed the Germanic tribes as too powerful and rebellious to incorporate successfully into the empire. After this, plans to annex western Germania were never seriously revived by Augustus' successors. Under the Flavian emperors (69-96), the Romans annexed the trans-Rhenane region they called the Agri Decumates i.e.
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True Devotion to Mary.Grignion de Montfort, St. Louis- Marie. True Devotion to Mary. translated by Mark L. Jacobson, Aventine Press, 2007 Saint Louis de Montfort's approach of "total dedication" to Christ through devotion to the Virgin Mary also influenced popes such as John Paul II. The essential aim of the Legion of Mary is the sanctification of its members through prayer, the sacraments and devotion to Mary and the Trinity, and of the whole world through the apostolate of the Legion.Legion of Mary Handbook Along with attending a weekly meeting, members of the Legion of Mary promise to perform two hours of substantial active legionary work. The weekly work assignments are done in pairs and the results of the work and reported back on at the following meeting.
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Francis Bedford and digitally restored Wroxeter was first established in the early years of the Roman conquest of Britain as a frontier post for a cohort of Thracian Auxilia who were taking part in the campaigns of the governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula. The site is strategically located near the end of Watling Street, the primary Roman trunk road that ran across Britannia from Dubris (Dover). The post was a key frontier position because it defended the River Severn valley as it come out of Cambria (Wales) as well as protecting the route to the south that lead to the Wye valley. In the mid 1st century Legio XIV Gemina took over the site from the Thracian Auxilia in preparation for the invasion of Wales and replaced the fort with a legionary fortress.
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Remains of the thermae (bathhouse) of the legionary fortress at Vindonissa (Windisch, Canton Aargau, Switz.). Vindonissa (in or just outside Raetia) was the base of at least one Roman legion in the period 15 - 100 AD During the early Julio-Claudian period (Augustus/Tiberius, 30 BC to AD 37), the available evidence suggests that auxiliary regiments were predominantly recruited from their original home province, maintaining the ethnic identity of the unit. In the later Julio-Claudian period (37-68), regimental recruitment appears to become more mixed, with home recruits balanced by an increase in local recruits from the province in which the unit was stationed and also levies from the main recruiting areas of Gallia Belgica, Pannonia and Thrace. Finally, after AD 70, recruitment in loco generally becomes predominant.
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175 The company wanted to rent the Roxy Theater in the central Lipscani district, but were told that they would only be allowed to perform in the Jewish ghetto; the Baraşeum in the Văcăreşti neighborhood met this requirement.[Bercovici 1998] p. 176 Over the next six months, the company would struggle with the authorities over the conditions under which they could open, while awaiting the elusive permission from the Military Commander. A January 17, 1941 document from the Minister of Culture and from Director General of Theaters and Operas Liviu Rebreanu added new requirements: each individual artist would need approval from the Director General of Theaters; no plays could be performed on major Christian holidays, nor on the three "legionary holidays"; they could use only the front door of the Baraşeum on str.
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A parallel case is recorded in the passion of Julius the Veteran. The text is unusual for a passio because it dedicates about one third of its content to a description of the Saturnalia festival celebrated by the pagan legionaries stationed in Durostorum. Each year, a legionary was chosen by lot to be the "king" of the festival for one month, which gave him unusual privileges and licence, but at the end of the month this "king" would be sacrificed before the altar of Saturn. In the year in question, the lot fell on Dasius, for whom, as a Christian, this was doubly condemning, as not only would he have to spend a month worshipping pagan idols, he would also then lose his life as a sacrifice to a pagan deity and damn his soul.
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Tacitus, Annales, XII.40 The defeat in Britain likely set back his career, for Manlius Valens does not appear in the historical record until towards the end of the reign of Nero, when he became legate of the newly formed Legio I Italica at Lugdunum; this fact caused Birley to comment that "at sixty-two or sixty-three he is by far the oldest known legionary legate." During the Year of the Four Emperors, Valens and the legion sided with Lucius Vitellius;Tacitus, Histories I.59 however, this did not gain him any favor from Vitellius due to Fabius Valens defaming him behind his back.Tacitus, Histories, I.64 Since Legio I Italica was present at the two battles of Bedriacum, it is likely Valens was also a participant in one or both battles.
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Northern Africa under Roman rule After the death of Arabio, Numidia became the Roman province of Africa Nova except for a brief period when Augustus restored Juba II (son of Juba I) as a client king (29–27 BC). Eastern Numidia was annexed in 46 BC to create a new Roman province, Africa Nova. Western Numidia was also annexed after the death of its last king, Arabio, in 40 BC, and the two provinces were united with Tripolitana by Emperor Augustus, to create Africa Proconsularis. In AD 40, the western portion of Africa Proconsularis, including its legionary garrison, was placed under an imperial legatus, and in effect became a separate province of Numidia, though the legatus of Numidia remained nominally subordinate to the proconsul of Africa until AD 203.
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Under Septimius Severus (193 AD), Numidia was separated from Africa Proconsularis, and governed by an imperial procurator. Under the new organization of the empire by Diocletian, Numidia was divided in two provinces: the north became Numidia Cirtensis, with capital at Cirta, while the south, which included the Aurès Mountains and was threatened by raids, became Numidia Militiana, "Military Numidia", with capital at the legionary base of Lambaesis. Subsequently, however, Emperor Constantine the Great reunited the two provinces in a single one, administered from Cirta, which was now renamed Constantina (modern Constantine) in his honour. Its governor was raised to the rank of consularis in 320, and the province remained one of the six provinces of the Diocese of Africa until the invasion of the Vandals in 428, which began its slow decay, accompanied by desertification.
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Cound has been occupied since the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age and small artefacts from these periods have been discovered in considerable numbers. Early Iron Age bivillate hill forts survive nearby at Bayston Hill, Caer Caradoc in the Stretton Hills and on The Wrekin. The 1st century Roman legionary fortress at Uriconium, only a mile and half distant, was one of the largest towns in Roman Britain and the Romans exploited silver-bearing lead ores and outcrop coal on the Shropshire plains. During the warmer and milder weather of the Iron Age, the Roman period and into the early medieval period Cound remained important as a busy crossing point for the River Severn, as the lower rainfalls meant that the river flow was much less than it is today.
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2848 Capito's only known office was as governor of the imperial province of Germania Inferior.Tacitus, Histories, I.7, 52 He assisted in the suppression of the revolt of Vindex, as well as having the Batavian king Julius Paullus Civilis executed and his brother Julius Civilis arrested and sent to Rome.Tacitus, Histories IV.13 Soon after Nero took his life and Galba became emperor, Capito was executed by the orders of the legionary commanders Cornelius Aquinus and Fabius Valens, allegedly because he was plotting against Galba. Tacitus records some believed that although Capito was "foully stained with avarice and profligacy", he was otherwise loyal to Galba and instead Aquinus and Valens were the ones intriguing against Galba; to hide their treason they accused Capito, who, once dead, could not respond to these accusations.
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He was often and openly criticized and fiercely denounced by Vlajka members for being a former legionary, an officer of the Czechoslovak Army and an alleged Freemason. At the end of 1942, Vlajka was disbanded and some of its leaders, including Jan Rys-Rozsévač, were held in the Dachau concentration camp as privileged prisoners. Though the party no longer existed, its former members continued to collaborate with the Gestapo and SD. Towards the end of the war they even formed the so called Voluntary Company of St. Wenceslaus, the only Waffen-SS unit composed of volunteers of Czech ethnicity (which nevertheless was never involved in the fight). After the war, the leaders of Vlajka were subject to punishment of 5-20 years of imprisonment according to Beneš decree No. 16/1945 Coll.
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Falco and Helena adopted Flavia Albia, a British child, whom they rescued in London in The Jupiter Myth. At the age of 28, in AD 89, she is a widowed informer and the central character of Davis's book The Ides of April, in the series Falco: The New Generation. In the sequel, Enemies at Home, Albia reveals the identity of her deceased husband, who is none other than Lentullus, an ex-legionary formerly under the leadership of her uncle Quintus when he was tribune. Several novels suggest that Falco survived quite a few years after the cliffhanger ending of Nemesis, in 77 AD. The first Flavia Albia novel, The Ides of April, is set in 89 AD. While Falco does not actually appear as a character, he is alluded to at several points.
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During the Middle Ages, Caerleon or nearby Venta Silurum (now Caerwent) was the administrative centre of the Kingdom of Gwent. The parish church, St Cadoc's was founded on the site of the legionary headquarters building probably sometime in the 6th century. A Norman-style motte and bailey castle was built outside the eastern corner of the old Roman fort, possibly by the Welsh Lord of Caerleon, Caradog ap Gruffydd. The Domesday Book of 1086 recorded that a small colony of eight carucates of land (about 1.5 square miles) in the jurisdiction of Caerleon, seemingly just within the Welsh Lordship of Gwynllwg, was held by Turstin FitzRolf, standard bearer to William the Conqueror at Hastings, subject to William d'Ecouis, a magnate of unknown antecedents with lands in Hereford, Norfolk and other counties.
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According to a secret report filed by the Hungarian political secretary in Bucharest in late 1940, three main factions existed: the group gathered around Sima, a dynamic local leader from the Banat, which was the most pragmatic and least Orthodox in its orientation; the group composed of Codreanu's father, Ion Zelea Codreanu, and his brothers (who despised Sima); and the Moţa-Marin group, which wanted to strengthen the movement's religious character. After a long period of confusion, Sima, representing the Legion's less radical wing, overcame all competition and assumed leadership, being recognised as such on 6 September 1940 by the Legionary Forum, a body created at his initiative. On 28 September the elder Codreanu stormed the Legion headquarters in Bucharest (the Green House) in an unsuccessful attempt to install himself as leader.Iordachi, p.
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Horia Sima (3 July 1907 - 25 May 1993) was a Romanian fascist politician, best known as the second and last leader of the fascist paramilitary movement known as the Iron Guard (also known as the Legion of the Archangel Michael). Sima was also the vice president of the council of ministers in Ion Antonescu's National Legionary State, and a short-lived minister in the government of Ion Gigurtu. In January 1941, Sima initiated and led the Legionnaires' Rebellion against Conducător Ion Antonescu and the Romanian Army, for which he was sentenced to death, as well as the Bucharest pogrom, the largest and most violent pogrom against Jews in the history of Muntenia. Following the rebellion, Sima escaped to Germany, and later to Spain, where he lived until his death.
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To keep these baggage trains from becoming too large and slow, Marius had each infantryman carry as much of his own equipment as he could, including his own armour, weapons and 15 days' rations, for about 25–30 kg (50–60 pounds) of load total. To make this easier, he issued each legionary a cross stick to carry their loads on their shoulders. The soldiers were nicknamed Marius' Mules because of the amount of gear they had to carry themselves. This arrangement allowed for the possibility for the supply train to become temporarily detached from the main body of the legion, thus greatly increasing the army's speed when needed. A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves.
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Vexillatioes of Legio XIII Gemina and Numerus Peditum Singularium Britannicianorum, both of which are documented by numerous brick stamps and inscriptions, are mentioned as the ancestral units of the fort Cigmău. Legio XIII Gemina had already taken part in the first Dacian war of Trajan and then moved into its headquarters in the legionary camp Apulum (modern Alba Iulia), from where it detached to various other locations. The Numerus Peditum Singularium Britannicianorum, which was first stationed in the province Moesia Superior, is documented from the year 110 in Dacia, where it probably remained until the end of the Roman occupation of the country. Possibly in the middle of the first century he replaced the troops of Legio XIII Gemina, which was detached to the province of Dalmatia around this time.
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Remains of a Roman aqueduct at Mainz Under Domitian, if not before, the Romans administratively separated the area of Treveran territory on the left bank of the Rhine from the civitas Treverorum and the province of Gallia Belgica, attaching the Rhenish Hesse region to the newly organized province of Germania Superior. The Aresaces were likely to have been organized as a separate civitas from the Treveri at this stage, if not earlier, as were their neighbours the Cairacates. Meanwhile, the city of Mainz—known in Latin as Mogontiacum—flourished as a legionary headquarters for a number of Roman legionsThese included, at various times, the Legio XIIII Gemina, Legio XVI Gallica, Legio XXII Primigenia, Legio IIII Macedonica, Legio I Adiutrix, and Legio XXI Rapax. and also the capital of the province of Germania Superior.
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Between April, 1946 and March, 1948 Eugen Dobrogeanu worked as assistant chief commander of the gendarmerie officer school where he lectured on forensic science as well as methods of scientific police and fight against criminal economic activities. Afterwards he was recalled in the security of the capital city where he performed extensive work, not only by disclosure of the legionary organizations but also in the fight against the criminal economic activities. From September, 1948 to January, 1949 – after the dissolution of the gendarmerie – Eugen Dobrogeanu acted as a member of the Organizing committee of the Romanian militia. Then he was appointed as manager to the department of public security and maintenance of order, as well as head of the committee's office, and advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel.
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After the assassination of Prime Minister Ion G. Duca by the Iron Guard (December 1933), he became head of the PNL. During the inter-war period, he became active in opposing the authoritarian regime of King Carol II and his Prime Minister Gheorghe Tătărescu. After Carol's abdication and the fascist regime known as the National Legionary State, Brătianu offered his support to dictator Ion Antonescu, given that the latter's close relation with Nazi Germany had helped Romania win back territories it had lost to the Soviet Union (Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertza region), taken back through World War II's Operation Barbarossa. The heavy losses inflicted on the Romanian troops and the successful offensives of the Red Army made Brătianu favor King Michael's plan to align Romania with the Allies.
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The country moved towards an authoritarian regime formed around Carol and prompted by the rapid growth of the fascist Iron Guard. In 1937, Maniu agreed to sign an electoral pact with the Iron Guard's Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, in the hope that this would block the monarch's maneuvers. The king instead sought an agreement with other members of the political class, including the National Liberal Ion Duca and the former PNȚ politician Armand Călinescu, while clamping down on the Iron Guard—leading to a wave of similar actions in reprisal. With the loss of Northern Transylvania, Bessarabia, and Southern Dobruja in 1940, Carol conceded power and exiled himself, leading to the creation of the National Legionary State around the Iron Guard and General Ion Antonescu, a regime which aligned Romania with Nazi Germany and the Axis.
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In 52 BC the Atrebates joined the pan-Gaulish revolt led by Vercingetorix, and Commius was one of the leaders of the army that attempted to relieve Vercingetorix at the Siege of Alesia.Caesar, De Bello Gallico 7.75-76, 79; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40:42 After Vercingetorix was defeated Commius joined a revolt by the Bellovaci and persuaded some 500 Germans to support them, but this too was defeated and Commius sought refuge with his German allies.Hirtius, De Bello Gallico 8.6-7, 10, 21 In 51 BC he returned to his homeland with a small mounted war-band for a campaign of agitation and guerrilla warfare. That winter Mark Antony, a legionary legate at the time, ordered Volusenus to pursue him with cavalry, something Volusenus was more than happy to do.
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Significant Romanisation occurred when the town was selected as the garrison of the Legio XV before 14 AD. A few years later, it became the centre of the Roman fortifications along the Danube from Vindobona (now Vienna) to Brigetio (Ó-Szőny). According to Tacitus,Tacitus, Annals, XII, 29.2 the emperor Claudius ordered the governor of Pannonia "to have a legion with an auxiliary on the bank of the Danube" to protect the losers of a dispute between Germanic tribes (the Quadi and Marcomanni) and deter the victors from the temptation to invade Pannonia. To this period (about 50 AD) belongs the auxiliary of a cavalry 1.5 km south-west of the legionary fortress. In 71 AD, after several campaigns, the Legio X returned to Carnuntum and rebuilt its fortress.
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During the second century, the province was Christianized, but in the fourth century, it adhered to the Donatist heresy, despite giving rise to men of Orthodox faith as illustrious as Saint Augustine, bishop of Hippo Regius (present Annaba). After 193, under Septimius Severus, Numidia was officially detached from the province of Africa and constituted a province in its own right, governed by an imperial Legatus. Under Diocletian, it constituted a simple province in the tetrarchic reorganization, then was divided in two: Numidia Cirtensis, with capital at Cirta, and Numidia Militiana ("Military Numidia"), with capital at the legionary base of Lambaesis. However, after decades, Emperor Constantine the Great reunited the two provinces in a single one, administered from Cirta, which was now renamed Constantina (modern Constantine) In 428, the Vandals began their incursions in the African provinces.
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Found at èmegara, dating from 100 to 130 AD. Relief scene of Roman legionaries marching, from the Column of Marcus Aurelius, Rome, Italy, 2nd century AD Under the founder–emperor Augustus (ruled 30 BC – 14 AD), the legions, c. 5,000-strong all-heavy infantry formations recruited from Roman citizens only, were transformed from a mixed conscript and volunteer corps serving an average of 10 years, to all-volunteer units of long-term professionals serving a standard 25-year term (conscription was only decreed in emergencies). In the later 1st century, the size of a legion's First Cohort was doubled, increasing legionary personnel to c. 5,500. Alongside the legions, Augustus established the auxilia, a regular corps of similar numbers to the legions, recruited from the peregrini (non-citizen inhabitants of the empire – about 90% of the empire's population in the 1st century).
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Newport Arch, a 3rd- century Roman gate The Romans conquered this part of Britain in AD 48 and shortly afterwards built a legionary fortress high on a hill overlooking the natural lake formed by the widening of the River Witham (the modern day Brayford Pool) and at the northern end of the Fosse Way Roman road (A46). The Celtic name Lindon was subsequently Latinised to Lindum and given the title Colonia when it was converted into a settlement for army veterans. The conversion to a colonia was made when the legion moved on to York (Eboracum) in AD 71\. Lindum colonia or more fully, Colonia Domitiana Lindensium, after the Emperor Domitian who ruled at the time, was established within the walls of the hilltop fortress with the addition of an extension of about equal area, down the hillside to the waterside below.
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Tower blocks in Pitești, photographed in 1970, shortly after their completion Pitești was affected in various ways by World War II and its successive regimes. After a fascist National Legionary State was proclaimed by the Iron Guard in late 1940, a bronze bust of former Premier Armand Călinescu (whom the Guard had assassinated in September 1939), was chained and dragged through the city streets.Nicolae Ciobanu, "Armand Călinescu: Jertfă pentru liniștea și independența țării. «Omul de oțel» împotriva Gărzii de Fier", in Dosarele Istoriei, 6/IV (1999), p.60 In December 1943, under the dictatorship of Conducător Ion Antonescu (a Pitești native), it saw the final chapter in a chain of deportations of Romani people to Transnistria (see Holocaust in Romania).Dennis Deletant, Hitler's Forgotten Ally: Ion Antonescu and His Regime, Romania, 1940-1944, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2006, p.191.
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The first unit mentioned on Castus's inscription is the legio III Gallica – for most of the 2nd and 3rd centuries the unit was stationed in Syria. He held the rank of centurion in this legion – most Roman soldiers only achieved the rank of centurion after about 15–20 years of service, but it was not unknown for some politically connected civilians of the equestrian class to be directly commissioned as centurions upon entering the Army, though these equestrian centurions (known as "ex equite Romano") were in the minority.Keppie (1998), p. 179. We cannot tell whether or not Castus had a lengthy career as a legionary soldier before attaining the centurionate, or whether he was directly commissioned at this rank, as the vast majority of career centurions' inscriptions do not mention any ranks that they might have held below the centurionate.
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The Cleaven Dyke The area around Blairgowrie has been occupied continuously since the Neolithic, as evidenced from the Cleaven Dyke, a cursus monument south-southwest of the town, as well as a Neolithic long mortuary enclosure west-southwest at Inchtuthil. Several stone circles of this age can also be found in the area, notably the circle bisected by the road at Leys of Marlee, west of Blairgowrie. Numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age artifacts have been found in the immediate area, including a number of flint arrowheads, spearheads, knives and scrapers found at Carsie, south of Blairgowrie, and which are now displayed at Perth Museum, and bronze axes, and a bronze sword now in Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow. The remains of a Roman legionary fort can be found west-southwest of Blairgowrie at Inchtuthil, dating from the decade 80-90.
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Flavius Anastasius (consul in 517) in consular garb, holding an eagle-topped sceptre The single-headed Roman imperial eagle continued to be used in Byzantium, although far more rarely. Thus "eagle- bearers" (), descendants of the aquilifers of the Roman legions, are still attested in the 6th century military manual known as the Strategikon of Maurice, although it is unknown whether the standards they carried bore any resemblance to the legionary aquilae. Eagle-topped scepters were a frequent feature of consular diptychs, and appear on coins until the reign of Philippikos Bardanes ().. It continued in use in bas-reliefs in churches and funerary monuments until well into the 11th century, however. In the last centuries of the Empire it is recorded as being sewn on imperial garments, and shown in illuminated manuscripts as decorating the cushions (suppedia) on which the emperors stood.
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Their value as a block to invasion is doubtful, as their situation would have allowed supervision but they lacked the manpower to deter anything but cattle rustling. Only the legionary fortress at Inchtuthil, conveniently situated for access into Braemar and its hinterland, is large enough to have functioned as a defensive fortification or a jumping-off point for an invasion. The Gask Road and the towers alongside it in this hypothesis guarded the strategically important link to the harbours at the Firths of Tay and Forth and the southern part of the province.Woolliscroft & Hoffmann 2007 Site of a Roman signal tower at Kirkhill Tacitus writes in De vita Iulii Agricolae that Agricola was fighting in the area in around 80 AD; the latest coinage dates from 86 AD. This would suggest that the forts were occupied for six years at most.
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The original hill fort hillfort capital of the tribe was located on the Wrekin hill and one theory for the origins of the name 'Wrexham' is that it developed as a description of a settlement of men from the neighbourhood of the Wrekin: the 'Wrocansaetan' or 'Wreocensaetan'. In 48 A.D the Roman Legions reached Wroxeter and then proceeded to attack a tribe called the Deceangli who were based in what is now Flintshire. Around 70 – 75 A.D the Legionary fortress of Deva was constructed (modern-day Chester) and for the next 300 years was the home of the Twentieth Legion. Evidence of Roman occupations can be found at nearby Holt, where a tile and pottery works were constructed on the banks of the River Dee and at Ffrith where the remains of buildings have been located.
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Though officially a cowboy, Freleng put Sam in a different costume in almost every film: a knight, a Roman legionary, a pirate, a royal cook, a prison guard, a duke (Duke of Yosemite, no less), a Hessian mercenary, a Confederate soldier, a mountain climber (climbing the 'Shmadderhorn' mountain in Switzerland), a hen-pecked househusband and even a space alien. The humor of the cartoons inevitably springs from the odd miscasting of the hot-tempered cowboy. However, some countries seem to prefer his pirate incarnation, as "Sam the Pirate" is his official name in France and a frequent alternative name in Italy. While Sam's basic character is that of a cowboy, he wears a black Domino mask (or actually, just a wide black outline on the outer sides of his eyes) to show that he is an outlaw.
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The site of the fortress at Inchtuthil The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 CE. In 78 CE Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain to take up his appointment as the new governor and began a series of major incursions. Two years later his legions constructed a substantial fort at Trimontium near Melrose. He is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the "River Taus" (usually assumed to be the River Tay) and established forts there, including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil. After his victory over the northern tribes at Mons Graupius in 84 CE, a series of forts and towers were established along the Gask Ridge, which marked the boundary between the Lowland and Highland zones, probably forming the first Roman limes or frontier in Scotland.
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Coin of Phraates V's father, Phraates IV () Phraates V was the son of the Phraates IV () and his Roman wife Musa, who was originally an Italian slave-girl given to him by the Roman emperor Augustus () after a treaty in 20 BC in which the Romans returned Phraates IV his kidnapped son in return for the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war.; see also The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Musa quickly became queen and a favourite of Phraates IV, giving birth to Phraataces (Phraates V) in .; ; ; It was reportedly under her influence, that Phraates IV in 10/9 BC sent his four first-born sons to Rome in order to prevent conflict over his succession.
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141 In time, the term "liburnian" came to mean "warship" in a generic sense. In addition, there were smaller oared vessels, such as the navis actuaria, with 30 oars (15 on each bank), a ship primarily used for transport in coastal and fluvial operations, for which its shallow draught and flat keel were ideal. In late antiquity, it was succeeded in this role by the navis lusoria ("playful ship"), which was extensively used for patrols and raids by the legionary flotillas in the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Roman ships were commonly named after gods (Mars, Iuppiter, Minerva, Isis), mythological heroes (Hercules), geographical maritime features such as Rhenus or Oceanus, concepts such as Harmony, Peace, Loyalty, Victory (Concordia, Pax, Fides, Victoria) or after important events (Dacicus for the Trajan's Dacian Wars or Salamina for the Battle of Salamis).
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It is believed that the Romans copied the manipular structure from their enemies the Samnites, learning through hard experience its greater flexibility and effectiveness in the mountainous terrain of central Italy.Cornell (1995) 354 It is also from this period that every Roman army that took the field was regularly accompanied by at least as many troops supplied by the socii (Rome's Italian military confederates, often referred to as "Latin allies").Cornell (1995) 366 Each legion would be matched by a confederate ala (literally: "wing"), a formation that contained roughly the same number of infantry as a legion, but three times the number of horses (900).Polybius VI.26 Legionary cavalry also probably underwent a transformation during this period, from the light, unarmoured horsemen of the early period to the Greek-style armoured cuirassiers described by Polybius.
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As the backbone of the army, legionaries were the conquerors and builders of the Roman Empire who brought with them foreign ideas, practices and traditions that would change the society and culture of Britain forever. Legionary fortresses in 80AD An inscription of Trajan gives a date of AD99/100 for the replacement of the fortress walls, when the original earth and timber ramparts of the fortress were strengthened by the addition of a stone revetment at the front. This "composite" rampart consisted of a stone wall 5 to 5½ feet thick, backed by a clay bank and fronted by a single ditch By 120 AD, detachments or vexillations of the legion were needed elsewhere in the province and Isca became more of a military base than a garrison. However, it is thought that each cohort still maintained a presence at the fortress.
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Reconstruction of a Roman cavalryman of the Principate, Nijmegen With the reorganization of the army under Emperor Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD) and his successors, the turma became the basic sub-unit of the cavalry, the rough equivalent of the infantry centuria, both in the auxiliaries, who formed the bulk of the Roman cavalry, and in the legionary cavalry detachments. The auxiliary cohors equitata was a mixed unit combining infantry and cavalry, and existed in two types: the cohors equitata quingenaria, with an infantry cohort of 480 men and 4 turmae of cavalry, and the reinforced cohors equitata milliaria, with 800 infantry and 8 turmae. Likewise, the purely cavalry alae contained either 16 (ala quingenaria) or 24 turmae (ala milliaria)... Individual turmae of camel-riders (dromedarii) also appear among cohortes equitatae in the Middle East, and Emperor Trajan (r.
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Rodeleros ("shield bearers"), also called espadachines ("swordsmen") and colloquially known as "Sword and Buckler Men", were Spanish troops in the early 16th (and again briefly in the 17th) century, equipped with steel shields known as rodela and swords (usually of the side-sword type). Originally conceived as an Italian attempt to revive the legionary swordsman, they were adopted by the Spanish and used with great efficiency in the Italian Wars during the 1510s and 1520s, but discontinued in the 1530s. The majority of Hernán Cortés's troops during his campaigns in the New World were rodeleros: in 1520, over 1000 of his 1300 men were so equipped, and in 1521 he had 700 rodeleros, but only 118 arquebusiers and crossbowmen. Bernal Díaz, the author of an account of Cortés' conquest of the Aztecs, served as a rodelero under Cortés.
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The other three Italian submarines transferred to Tercio were (Aguilar Tablada), (General Mola II) and (General Sanjurjo II). All four were based at Soller. During her "legionary" career Iride carried out two missions, one in October 1937, leaving on 24 October and returning eight days later, and another one in January 1938, leaving on 14 January 1938 and finishing nine days later.Greene, pp. 21–23 During her second mission, Iride again patrolled along the Spanish coast, and attempted an attack twice, on 19 January and 22 January 1938, by launching four torpedoes, but both attacks were unsuccessful. In February 1938 she returned home, as Italy withdrew their submarines from Spanish service due to international pressure. Iride was assigned to 14th Squadron (I Submarine Group) based at La Spezia. In 1938 and 1939 she spent time at the Red Sea base of Massawa together with and .
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Remnants of Camp F, one of several legionary camps just outside the circumvallation wall around Masada In 72 CE, the Roman governor of Judaea, Lucius Flavius Silva, led Roman legion X Fretensis, a number of auxiliary units and Jewish prisoners of war, totaling some 15,000 men and women (of whom an estimated 8,000 to 9,000 were fighting men) to lay siege to the 960 people in Masada. The Roman legion surrounded Masada and built a circumvallation wall, before commencing construction of a siege ramp against the western face of the plateau, moving thousands of tons of stones and beaten earth to do so. Josephus does not record any attempts by the Sicarii to counterattack the besiegers during this process, a significant difference from his accounts of other sieges of the revolt. The ramp was completed in the spring of 73, after probably two to three months of siege.
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Roman north wall of Lindum Colonia The Ninth Legion, Hispana was probably moved from Lincoln to found the fortress at York around 71 AD Then, after a probable short occupation by the Second Legion, who had moved to Chester by 77-78 AD"Jones" (2002) pg 31 the Legionary fort would have been left on a care and maintenance basis. The exact date that it was converted into a colonia is unknown, but a generally favoured date is 86 AD."Jones" (2002) pg. 51 This was an important settlement for retired legionaries, established by the emperor Domitian within the walls and using the street grid of the hilltop fortress, with the addition of an extension of about equal area, down the hillside to the waterside below. The town became a major flourishing settlement, accessible from the sea both through the River Trent and through the River Witham.
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Joining the four commandoes is young Valerius; a boy who ran away from a wealthy Roman home to become a Legionary but only became a Gunga Din type labourer. The party is captured where they are placed next to Livilla, a captured Roman patrician noblewoman and her last surviving member of her Roman Army escort Drusus who has lost his courage and military discipline through constant torture. Called before Vercingetorix, Claudius Marcellus the leader of the group is threatened with torture by heated iron bars but he astounds Vercingetorix by grabbing a hot piece of iron and laying it on his own chest telling the Grand Druid not to waste his time. Taken back to his cell as Vercingetorix schemes better torture, strongman Germanicus is able to bend the bars of the cell so the party can enter the adjoining cell of Livilla and Drusus that makes an escape possible.
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Before becoming a disciple of Lovinescu, the adolescent Negoiţescu viewed nationalism as a neutral quality, and even rated works he reviewed in accordance with their patriotic discourse. His articles of the time produced comparisons between the defunct Iron Guard founder Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and Christ, or state claims that the movement had symbolic roots in ancient history, with the Dacians and Thracians. After the National Legionary State was replaced with Ion Antonescu's regime, the critic expressed his support for the country's alliance with Nazi Germany, for Operation Barbarossa and war on the Eastern Front, describing the promise of a "great future". Manea stresses that, in later decades, the transformed Negoiţescu was able to use his youthful affiliation to fascism ("the traps set by exultation") as insight into other forms of political experimentation: "The experience of gregarious jubilation [prepared] the easily charmed novice to accumulate mistrust of the multitude".
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Tactics of combined or joint operations were a particular focus. Close air support for Nationalist troops, attack bombing of Republican troop concentrations, and strafing became features of the war. The Legion worked closely in missions which maximized the fighting ability of the Nationalist air force and troops, the Italian CTV, and pilots from the Aviazione Legionaria (Legionary Air Force). German Air ace Adolf Galland was to claim after World War II that although there was a focus on taking lessons from the conflict in Spain, he believed the wrong conclusions were drawn by the German High Command with particular respect to the Luftwaffe: > Whatever may have been the importance of the tests of German arms in the > Spanish Civil War from tactical, technical and operational points of view, > they did not provide the experience that was needed nor lead to the > formulation of sound strategic concepts.
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The theater was named in honor of Dr. Iuliu Barasch, as was an adjoining clinic. (The street it is on, the former str. Ionescu de la Brad, is now str. Dr. Iuliu Barasch.) On the verge of World War II, it was home of the Thalia company, one of four professional Yiddish theater companies in Bucharest at that time.[Bercovici 1998] p. 172, 185 As war broke out in Europe and the antisemitic right-wing politics that had long been a factor in Romania came to the fore, resources for Yiddish theater in Bucharest dried up. In the summer of 1940, all four Bucharest-based Yiddish theater companies, including Thalia, set out on tours of the country rather than attempt summer theater in Bucharest. Thalia were on the road when King Carol II abdicated on September 6, 1940, the start of the National Legionary State under General (later Marshal) Ion Antonescu.
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Thus the three different types of heavy infantry (the Hastati, the Principes and the Triarii, which composed the pre-Marian Roman armies) were replaced by a single, standard type of legionary based on the Principes. The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied/auxiliary troops, called Auxilia. Each legion had a same size or near same size Auxilia (auxiliary), which contained specialist units, engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and siege craftsmen, service and support units plus units made up of non-citizens (who were granted Roman citizenship upon discharge) and undesirables. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry, light infantry or velites, and laborers. There was also a reconnaissance squad of 10 or more light, mounted infantry called speculatores who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form of military intelligence service.
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Excavations of the west gate show it was flanked by two towers and possibly possessed a set of iron-gates similar to a portcullis, because grooves were found in the remains of the towers' footings. Archaeological examinations of the site do not reveal why Cunetio deserved so much expenditure on upgrading its defences, an act that was a very rare occurrence for inland Britannia at the time when most Roman military engineering projects were focused on the Saxon Shore forts. Two theories have been suggested: first that the town was being converted into a Legionary fortress to reestablish Roman authority in this part of the province of Britannia. Second, that the improvement work was being orchestrated by an ambitious local British governor – the type of man who would, within a generation or so, be setting himself up as a war-lord or regional chieftain.
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However, Fitz believed that they were one and the same person). Fitz also suggests that the inscription should be dated to the period 262-4 AD - i.e. he was put in post in 262 after the expulsion of the Roxolani who had ravaged Illyricum after they had defeated and killed the usurper Regalianus and removed when he was made Praefectus legionis at Aquincum in 264. Fitz's supposition that the Aelianus referred to was the P. Aelius Aelianus identified in the later inscriptions seems plausible, partly because: (i) it seems highly unlikely that there would have been two very senior officers of that name commissioning lapidary inscriptions in Pannonia within a very short period yet making no attempt to differentiate themselves from each other; and (ii) the Poetovio posting seems a highly probable career move for a man who was soon to be re-manifested as one of Gallienus's legionary prefects.
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Until his misdeeds became public, Maciel was well-regarded at the Vatican. He accompanied Pope John Paul II on his visits to Mexico in 1979, 1990, and 1993, and was appointed by the Pope to the Ordinary Assembly of the Synod of Bishops on the Formation of Priests in Circumstances of the Present Day (1990). He was a member of the Interdicasterial Commission for a Just Distribution of Clergy (1991), the IV General Conference of Latin American Bishops (CELAM) (1992), the Ordinary Assembly of the Synod of Bishops on the Consecrated Life and Its Role in the Church and in the World (1994), the Synod of Bishops' Special Assembly for America (1997) and (since 1994) as a permanent consultant to the Congregation for the Clergy. The golden anniversary of his priestly ordination was celebrated on 26 November 1994, with 57 legionary priests ordained on the anniversary's eve.
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In return, the Romans received the lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war.; see also The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Augustus hailed the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia; this propaganda was celebrated in the minting of new coins, the building of a new temple to house the standards, and even in fine art such as the breastplate scene on his statue Augustus of Prima Porta.; ; Along with the prince, Augustus gave Phraates IV an Italian slave-girl named Musa, who quickly became queen and a favourite of Phraates IV, giving birth to Phraataces (Phraates V).; Emma Strugnell (2008) has suggested that Augustus' choice to send Musa may have been an attempt to obtain information or influence the Parthian king to the advantage of the Romans.
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The large Dacian settlement, located on the southern edge of the present-day city of Arad, was burned down by the Roman army during the first Dacian war, between 101 - 102 AD. During the Second Dacian War (105-106 AD) Trajan also occupied the lands north of Marisus and incorporated them into the province of Dacia Superior. The Roman army built a fort on the territory of the present-day urban district of Aradul Nou ("New Arad"), which was initially probably occupied by legionary exillations. The auxiliary cohort, possibly stationed later in this fort, was responsible among other things for monitoring and securing the road connection from Micia to Partiscum, which followed the southern bank of the river Mureș towards the northwest. Four found brick stamps of Legio XIII Gemina and Legio IIII Flavia Felix seem to at least confirm the identification of the site as a Roman military complex.
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View across the meadows beneath where Gobannium once stood, on the northern side of the River Usk Gobannium lies in the broad valley of the River Usk surrounded by hills and mountains, such as the Sugar Loaf Mountain, Wales, the Skirrid and the Blorenge, just before the valley narrows and the site has some archaeological evidence of human activity dating from the British Iron Age and earlier British Bronze Age. The valley was certainly used as a major prehistoric route through the land of the Silures between the coastal plain of the Caldicot and Wentloog Levels and the Brecon Beacons. The invading Romans, under Publius Ostorius Scapula, needed a suitable staging post at this site between their major legionary bases and a string of forts in the interior, such as Y Gaer, Brecon and with links northwards to Watling Street, eastwards to Blestium (Monmouth) and Glevum (Gloucester).
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The design has been attributed to Pirro Ligorio, a well known architect and antiquarian of the time. The park of Bomarzo was intended not to please, but to astonish, and like many Mannerist works of art, its symbolism is arcane; for example, one large sculpture is of one of Hannibal's war elephants, which mangles a Roman legionary, and another is a statue of Ceres lounging on the bare ground, with a vase of "fruits of the earth" perched on her head. The many monstrous statues appear to be unconnected to any rational plan and appear to have been strewn almost randomly about the area, sol per sfogare il Core ("just to set the heart free") as one inscription on an obelisk says. Enigmatic verses in Italian by Annibale Caro, Bitussi and Cristoforo Madruzzo, some of them now eroded, were inscribed onto stone beside the sculptures.
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An evocatus (plural evocati) was a soldier in the Ancient Roman army who had served out his time and obtained an honorable discharge (honesta missio) but had voluntarily enlisted again at the invitation of the consul or other commander. 45.12 There always existed a considerable number of evocati in every army of importance, and when the general was a favorite among the soldiers, the number of veterans who joined his standard naturally increased. The evocati were officially released, like the vexillarii, from common military duties such as fortifying the camp and making roads. Evocati held a higher rank in the army than common legionary soldiers and are sometimes written of in conjunction with the equites Romani, and sometimes classed with the centurions. 1.17 1.17 Evocati appear to have been frequently promoted to the rank of centurion and were customarily entitled to bear the vine staff and discipline fellow soldiers.
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Raptor is an historical novel set in the late fifth and early sixth centuries. It purports to be the memoirs of an Ostrogoth, Thorn, who has a secret: he is a hermaphrodite and takes on the name, "Thorn the Mannamavi", "a being uninhibited by conscience, compassion, remorse- a being as implacably amoral as the juika-bloth and every other raptor on this earth." Thorn discovers his sexuality rather unorthodoxly during his early teens. After he is banished from both a monastery and, later, a convent, he travels throughout the dying Roman Empire on a quest to meet his fellow Ostrogoths (even though it was never confirmed that Thorn was an Ostrogoth; he simply assumed it by reaching several logical conclusions), meeting several characters; among the most crucial to the storyline: Theodoric and the retired Roman legionary-turned- woodsman Wyrd, with whom he forms close friendships.
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92; Ornea (1995), p.402 According to one story, the palatial office formerly belonging to Adevărul was still at the center of a conflict between underground communists and the Guard: during the Legionary Rebellion of January 1941, the PCR attempted to set it on fire and then blame the arson on the fascists, but this plan was thwarted by press photographer Nicolae Ionescu. Both Adevărul and Dimineața were restored on April 13, 1946, two years since the August 1944 Coup ended Romania's alliance with Nazi Germany by bringing down Antonescu. The new editorial staff was led by the aging newspaperman Brănișteanu and the new collective owner was the joint stock company Sărindar S. A. The daily did not have its headquarters in Sărindar (which was allocated to the Luceafărul Printing House), but remained in the same general area, on Matei Millo Street and later on Brezoianu Street.
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Some buildings also featured antefixes, vertical ornaments of triangular or rounded shape that were placed along the edge of the roof. They, too, were often made of terracotta, and could be decorated with pictorial motifs intended to avert ill-luck, or with inscriptions: those made in military tileries attached to legionary forts bore the number and symbol of the relevant legion. A flue-tile with surface decoration that would have been hidden in use Roman hypocaust heating systems made extensive use of fired clay elements: The space beneath the floor of a room to be heated was supported on robust pillars (pilae), usually made of small, square bricks mortared together, so that the heat from the adjacent furnace could circulate freely. In public and private bath-houses (essential to the Roman way of life), heat was also carried up through the walls in flues made of interlocking box-tiles.
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On April 9, 1943, Irimescu wrote a letter to The New York Times responding to criticism that Carol Davila, former Romanian Minister to the United States, had levelled against him in that newspaper. Irimescu denied having represented the National Legionary State, claiming that as the King abdicated, he heard a Romanian Radio broadcast from Bucharest that Ion Antonescu had dismissed him; he wrote that he received a telegram from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Romania the next day informing him of his dismissal and giving him until October 15, 1940 to pass on his account books to his successor. He stated that at the same time as his dismissal, all his property in Romania, "including bank accounts, securities, real estate" and furniture was confiscated, and that "Antonescu and his Iron Guard cronies have persecuted me relentlessly." As evidence of his "democratic ideals" he presented the fact that he became an American citizen in November 1941.
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The park of Bomarzo was intended not to please, but to astonish, and like many Mannerist works of art, its symbolism is arcane: examples are a large sculpture of one of Hannibal's war elephants, which mangles a Roman legionary, or the statue of Ceres lounging on the bare ground, with a vase of verdure perched on her head. The many monstrous statues appear to be unconnected to any rational plan, and appear to have been strewn almost randomly about the area, sol per sfogare il Core ("just to set the heart free") as one inscription in the obelisks says. Allusive verses in Italian by Annibal Caro (the first one is of him, in 1564), Bitussi, and Cristoforo Madruzzo, some of them now eroded, were inscribed beside the sculptures. The reason for the layout and design of the garden is largely unknown; Liane Lefaivre thinks they are illustrations of the romance novel Hypnertomachia Poliphili.
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Greater Romania with Northern Transylvania highlighted in yellow After the Second Vienna Award (when Northern Transylvania was lost to Hungary), confirming Carol's failure to preserve both the country's neutrality and its territorial integrity, Romania was taken over by an Iron Guard dictatorial government (the National Legionary State). Speaking five years later, Dinu Brătianu placed the blame for the serious developments on Tătărescu's own actions, addressing him directly: > "I remind you: [...] you have contributed directly, in 1940, in steering the > country towards a foreign policy that, as one could tell even then, was to > prove ill-fated and which led us to the loathsome Vienna settlement, one > which you have supported inside the Crown Council [...]."Brătianu, in > Țurlea, p.29 On 26 November 1940, the Iron Guard began a bloody retaliation against various political figures who had served under Carol (following a late investigation into the 1938 killing of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, the movement's founder and early leader, by Carol's authorities).
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Very little is known about the organization of the Roman fleets of late Antiquity, from the gradual break-up of the large provincial fleets into smaller squadrons in the 3rd century to the formation of a new navy at the onset of the Muslim conquests. Despite the evidence of considerable naval activity in this period, earlier scholars believed that the Roman navy had all but vanished by the 4th century, but more recent work has altered this picture towards a transformation into a mainly fluvial and coastal force, designed for close co- operation with the army. Under Emperor Diocletian (284–305), the navy's strength reportedly increased from 46,000 men to 64,000 men, a figure that represents the numerical peak of the late Roman navy. The Danube Fleet (Classis Histrica) with its attendant legionary flotillas is still well attested in the Notitia Dignitatum, and its increased activity is commented upon by Vegetius (De Re Militari, IV.46).
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A final moment of preeminence in Tzigara's career occurred during World War II. Initially, with war looming, Chief of the Romanian General Staff Florea Țenescu tasked Tzigara with drafting an Ex-ante International Convention Project for the Protection of Monuments and Works of Art, which was never put into motion. In summer 1940, during a period when Carol II was trying to calm tensions between Romania and Nazi Germany, Tzigara, Ion Nistor, Grigore Antipa, Ion Sân-Giorgiu and other academics greeted a Nazi visitor, scholar Herbert Cysarz.Frank-Rutger Hausmann, »Auch im Krieg schweigen die Musen nicht«: die Deutschen Wissenschaftlichen Institute im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 2001, p.75-76. After 1940, Romania ousted Carol II's National Renaissance Front government, replacing it with an openly fascist, pro-Axis regime, the National Legionary State. In parallel, Tzigara managed to gather political support for terminating Nicolae Ghica-Budești's contract and, in 1941, hired architect Gheorghe Ionescu to finalize the Museum's construction.
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After the National Legionary State came to power that September, the committee aligned itself with regime policy, and in early October decided to expel eleven Jewish writers: Felix Aderca, Camil Baltazar, Dan, A. Dominic, Scarlat Froda, Virgil Monda, I. Peltz, Mihail Sebastian, Leopold Stern, A. Toma and Voronca. The project for a Writers' Palace was temporarily abandoned, with its fund loaned for the benefit of the army. (The promissory notes probably became invalid after the nationalization of the banks in June 1948.) Due to a fall in subsidies and other revenue and a rise in aid and loans disbursed, the number of prizes awarded fell. Thus, the only honorees were Nicolae Ottescu, Ruxanda Levente, George Lesnea, Pompiliu Constantinescu, Gheorghiu, George Ionescu and Bascovici in 1940; Stahl, Demetrius, Alexandru Busuioceanu, Eugen Bălan, Radu Tudoran, Dumitru Almaș, Dragoș Protopopescu, Otilia Cazimir, Ion Buzdugan and Stelian Constantin- Stelian, in 1941; Alexandru Al. Philippide, Mihail Șerban, Cotruș, Ovidiu Papadima, Boureanu, Octav Sargețiu, Mircea Mărcoiu and Laura Dragomirescu in 1942.
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Though Plato did recognise a fundamental division into rich and poor – "Any city, however small, is in fact divided into two, one the city of the poor, the other of the rich; these two cities are at war." – The Republic (Plato), Part I, book IV. The early organisation of Ancient Athens was something of an exception with certain official roles like archons, magistrates and treasurers being reserved for only the wealthiest citizens – these class-like divisions were weakened by the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes who created new vertical social divisions in contrasting fashion to the horizontal ones thought to have been created by Tullius. Both the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire used the Latin term Senatus Populusque Romanus, (the Senate and People of Rome). This term was fixed to Roman legionary standards, and even after the Roman Emperors achieved a state of total personal autocracy, they continued to wield their power in the name of the Senate and People of Rome.
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A new chapter of the clash between modernists and Sămănătorists was played out in the post-National Legionary era, following the Guard's clash with its nominal partner, Conducător Ion Antonescu, who set up a new authoritarian and Axis-aligned regime (see Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom). Braving the censorship imposed on modernism by Antonescu's rule, and holding Lovinescu as their example, the Sibiu Literary Circle publicized its own critique of Sămănătorist ideals. Bogdan Crețu, "Tînărul Ion Negoițescu: devenirea unui mare critic (I)", in Convorbiri Literare, December 2007 Formulated as part of a manifesto drafted by young essayist Ion Negoițescu, it popularized the disparaging term pășunism (from pășune, "pasture") to define neo-Sămănătorist literature, and alleged that its exponents were demagogues who glorified peasant values without themselves leaving "the comfortable armchairs of the city". Shortly after the Royal Coup of 1944, which brought Romania under Allied supervision, voices condemning Sămănătorism again made themselves heard publicly.
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On the northern flank, however, the Italians had more success: cavalry squadrons reconnoitred the approaches to Mount Koziakas, finding that the partisans held only the area up to the villages of Dousikos and Lepenitsa. In the afternoon, two battalions launched an attack on the northern flank of the Porta position, captured the villages of Gorgyri and Xylopariko, and pushed on the heights of Lepenitsa, from where the Italians and their Legionary auxiliaries could flank the ELAS forces at Dousikos, who were forced to withdraw higher up the mountain. After the squad defending the area ran out of ammunition, the Italians entered the village of Dousikos in the afternoon and set it on fire, threatening the defenders of Petra, who were also running low on ammunition; only 2–5 bullets per rifle remained, while the mortar had no more shells. At the same time, on the southern flank the Italians applied renewed pressure on the Sklataina–Vatsinia axis, threatening the Porta position with outflanking.
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Unirea Tricolor București was the champion of Romania at the end of the 1940–41 season, but restarted the championship in the Divizia B. Venus București (4th, Divizia A), Mica Brad (5th, Divizia A), Sportul Studențesc (6th, Divizia A), FC Ploiești (10th, Divizia A), Gloria CFR Galați (12th, Divizia A) restarted the championship in the Divizia B. Gloria Arad (8th, Divizia A), promoted in 1940, was relegated back to the second league. AMEF Arad and Feroemail Ploiești were re-enrolled in the Romanian football league system after the abusively exclusion commanded by the legionary regime in 1940.Una dintre primele echipe de fotbal din Arad, la care a jucat Duckadam, a fost dizolvată de legionari. adevarul.ro CFR Târgu Mureș, Crișana Oradea, Dermata Cluj, Oltul Sfântu Gheorghe, Phoenix Baia Mare, Stăruința Satu Mare and Victoria Cluj moved in the Romanian football league system due to the Paris Peace Treaties, territory of Northern Transylvania being assigned from Hungary back to Romania.
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Grigore & Șerbu, pp. 219–220 His status threatened by the coronation in 1930 of a hostile Carol II, Știrbey lived in exile in France, where he survived an assassination attempt. He returned to his country during World War II. At the time, his nephew George Cretzianu was serving as Minister of Finance of the National Legionary State. Ionuț Butoi, "O corespondență inedită din timpul guvernării antonesciene. Mircea Vulcănescu și Alexandru Neagu", in Sfera Politicii, Nr. 175, May–June 2013 In 1944, together with his other nephew Alexandru Cretzianu, the "White Prince" arranged negotiations with the Allied Powers from Egypt.Grigore & Șerbu, pp. 220–221 His final work was as an opponent of the Romanian Communist Party, failing in his bid to return as Prime Minister in 1945, before dying, in mysterious circumstances, the following year. Eliza survived to 1957, dying in poverty and seclusion under the communist regime, but finding posthumous fame as a memoirist.
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Amazonian warrior (armed with a labrys) by her Phrygian cap; Roman mosaic emblema (marble and limestone), 2nd half of the 4th century AD; from Daphne, a suburb of Antioch-on-the-Orontes (now Antakya in Turkey) The Jugurthine War is the last war in which Roman confederate cavalry is attested as having played a significant part. After that references to the citizen cavalry become rare and the Roman army seems to have become largely dependent on non-citizen cavalry, either recruited in the subject provinces or supplied by allied kings. As part of the army reforms of Gaius Marius around 107 BC, citizen legionary cavalry was abolished and entirely replaced by native allied cavalry.Sidnell (2006) 205-6 This process may have happened gradually as a result of the grant of Roman citizenship to all of Rome's allied confederates after the Social War (91-88 BC), which led to the abolition of the old allied confederate alae and the recruitment of all allies into the legions.
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Lukacs, John The Hitler of History, Alfred Knopf: New York, 1997 page 149. In response to Broszat, Hillgruber wrote: "In reality, Hitler's decision for a war in the East came in July 1940 at a time when he was convinced of the possibility of reaching an arrangement with Britain".Lukacs, John The Hitler of History, Alfred Knopf: New York, 1997 page 150. Later on, Broszat was to attack the book that first made Hillgruber's reputation as a historian, Hitler, König Carol und Marschall Antonescu dealing with relations between Germany and Romania from 1938 to 1944.,Haynes, Rebecca "German Historians and the Romanian National Legionary State 1940-41" pages 676-683 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 71, Issue #4 October 1993 pages 678-679 Broszat offered up harsh criticism of Hillgruber's book on German-Romanian relations, arguing that Hillgruber had seriously misunderstood the Reich's relations with Romania by focusing only on the Auswärtiges Amt and upon Hitler.
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After defeating Carthage the Romans went on to become the Mediterranean's dominant power, successfully campaigning in Greece, (Aemilius Paulus decisive victory over Macedonia at the Battle of Pydna), in the Middle East (Lucius Licinius Lucullus, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus), in Gaul (Gaius Julius Caesar) and defeating several Germanic tribes (Gaius Marius, Germanicus). While Roman armies suffered several major losses, their large population and ability (and will) to replace battlefield casualties, their training, organization, tactical and technical superiority enabled Rome to stay a predominant military force for several centuries, utilizing well trained and maneuverable armies to routinely overcome the much larger "tribal" armies of their foes (see Battles of Aquae Sextiae, Vercellae, Tigranocerta, Alesia). In 54 BC the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus took the offensive against the Parthian Empire in the east. In a decisive battle at Carrhae Romans were defeated and the golden Aquilae (legionary battle standards) were taken as trophies to Ctesiphon.
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Vulcănescu Toward the end of the 1930s, Rădulescu-Motru was involved in a dispute with the far right philosopher Nae Ionescu, who, although appointed his assistant at the Philosophy department, had begun to criticize his views in the pro-Iron Guard journal Cuvântul; writing to Mircea Eliade in 1938, he accused Ionescu of various unacademic practices, including using lectures on Logic to promote "a sort of dilettante mysticism".Rădulescu-Motru, in Handoca The President of the Academy at the moment when Carol II assumed dictatorial powers, he chose to support the new National Renaissance Front (FRN) regime, and moved away from party politics.Ţurlea He remained in office after Carol's fall from power of and the establishment of the Iron Guard's National Legionary State government; in the autumn of 1940, as Madgearu and Nicolae Iorga, who had been assassinated by the Guard's armed groups, were being buried, he led the delegation of Academy members who defied the policies of Horia Sima by attending the funeral.Ornea 1995, p.
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Like other items of legionary equipment, the dagger underwent some changes during the 1st century AD. At some time in the first half of the 1st century AD a rod tang was introduced, and the hilt was no longer riveted through the tang and was instead secured only at the shoulders of the blade. This in itself caused no great change to the pugio's appearance, although the archaeological evidence strongly suggests that the rod tang was less secure and that handles attached in this way could become detached, a possibility that may be proved by the existence of two surviving pugiones from different sites which both retain replacement handles, one of which is a recycled sword grip. Some of the blades associated with rod tangs were narrower (under 4.5 cm (1.75 in) wide), with little or no waisting, or reduced or virtually non- existent midribs (type 'C' blades). Throughout the period the outline of the hilt remained essentially the same.
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Dumitru Coroamă (July 19, 1885, Hangu, Neamț County – 1956, Moreni) was a Romanian soldier and fascist activist, who held the rank of major-general of the Romanian Army during World War II. He was especially known for his contribution to the 1940 establishment of the National Legionary State by the far-right Iron Guard, with which he had been secretly involved for a decade. After beginnings as a schoolteacher in his native Neamț County, Coroamă had become an officer of the 15th Dorobanți Regiment, first earning distinction during World War I. Coroamă helped organize the defense of Western Moldavia, then participated in the Hungarian–Romanian War, establishing Romanian control in Bistrița and Baia Mare. He received the Order of the Star of Romania and the Order of Michael the Brave. While stationed in Piatra Neamț during the interwar, Coroamă took up various political and cultural activities, overseeing the Romanian Scouts and setting up a Military Club.
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Luttwak (1976) 134–5 This view is too extreme, as all the evidence suggests that such forts, even the more rudimentary earlier type based on the design of marching-camps (ditch, earth rampart and wooden palisade), afforded a significant level of protection. The latter is exemplified by the siege of the legionary camp at Castra Vetera (Xanten) during the revolt of the Batavi in 69–70 AD. 5,000 legionaries succeeded in holding out for several months against vastly superior numbers of rebel Batavi and their allies under the renegade auxiliary officer Civilis, despite the latter disposing of c. 8,000 Roman-trained and equipped auxiliary troops and deploying Roman-style siege engines. (The Romans were eventually forced to surrender the fort by starvation).Tacitus Historiae IV.22, 23, 29, 30, 60 Nevertheless, later forts were undoubtedly built to much higher defensive specifications than their 2nd-century predecessors, including the following features: #Deeper (average: 3 m) and much wider (av.
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Asterix and Obelix vs. Caesar () is a 1999 feature film directed by Claude Zidi, the first of what went on to become a series of live-action films based on Goscinny and Uderzo's Astérix comics. The film combines plots of several Astérix stories, mostly Asterix the Gaul (Getafix's abduction), Asterix and the Soothsayer, Asterix and the Goths (the Druid conference), Asterix the Legionary (Obelix becoming smitten with Panacea) and Asterix the Gladiator (the characters fighting in the circus) but jokes and references from many other albums abound, including a humorous exchange between Caesar and Brutus taken from Asterix and Cleopatra, and the villain Lucius Detritus is based on Tullius Detritus, the main antagonist of Asterix and the Roman Agent (known as Tortuous Convolvulus in the English translation of the comic). At the time of its release, the film was the most expensive production in French cinema of all time, making it the most expensive production in France for the twentieth century.
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Other scholars, like Bryan S. Rennie, have claimed that there is, to date, no evidence of Eliade's membership, active services rendered, or of any real involvement with any fascist or totalitarian movements or membership organizations, nor that there is any evidence of his continued support for nationalist ideals after their inherently violent nature was revealed. They further assert that there is no imprint of overt political beliefs in Eliade's scholarship, and also claim that Eliade's critics are following political agendas.Bryan S. Rennie, Reconstructing Eliade: Making Sense of Religion, State University of New York Press, Albany, 1996, p.149–177. Romanian scholar Mircea Handoca, editor of Eliade's writings, argues that the controversy surrounding Eliade was encouraged by a group of exiled writers, of whom Manea was a main representative, and believes that Eliade's association with the Guard was a conjectural one, determined by the young author's Christian values and conservative stance, as well as by his belief that a Legionary Romania could mirror Portugal's Estado Novo.
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While naval operations were taking place in the waters of the Veneti, Publius Crassus was sent south to Aquitania, this time with a force consisting of twelve Roman legionary cohorts, allied Celtic cavalry and volunteers from Gallia Narbonensis. Ten cohorts is the standard complement of the Caesarian legion, and the twelve cohorts are not identified by any unit number. Caesar relates Publius's challenges and successes at some length and without any ambiguity about their military nature. Cassius Dio provides a synopsis, which does not accord in every detail with the account of Caesar: Caesar regards the victories of Publius Crassus as impressive for several reasons. Crassus was only about 25 at the time.Syme, "The Sons of Crassus," reprint p. 1223. He was greatly outnumbered, but he recruited both new Celtic allies and called up provincial forces from southern Gaul;Caesar, Bellum Gallicum 3.20.2. a thousand of his Celtic cavalry remain under his command and loyal to him till his death.Plutarch, Crassus 25.7–10.
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In late 1940, as a result of a major social crisis, the National Legionary State was set up in Romania, and Carol relinquished the throne in favor of the junior king Michael I. Antonescu took over with dictatorial powers, as Conducător, and struck a partnership in government with the fascist Iron Guard. At around this time, Maria became good friends with Veturia Goga, widow of antisemitic Premier Octavian Goga. Their friendship slowly turned into a political lobby, which also involved Veturia (or Sanda) Manuilă, wife of the sociologist Sabin Manuilă, Veturia Barbul, wife of diplomat Gheorghe Barbul, writer Georgeta Cancicov (wife of bureaucrat Mircea Cancicov) and, for a while, Elvira Sima, married to Iron Guard commander Horia Sima. The political wives' circle was in some ways Maria Antonescu's "court", rivaling that of Queen Mother Helen, just as Antonescu's had come to rival the kingly court; for this and other reasons, Queen Helen became especially distrustful of Maria Antonescu's political initiatives.
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Romanian troops marching through Mihail Kogălniceanu Square in 1941 Red Army in Bucharest near Boulevard of Carol I. Bucharest witnessed the birth of three consecutive fascist regimes: after the one established by Carol II and his National Renaissance Front, the outbreak of World War II brought the National Legionary State and, after the bloody Iron Guard Rebellion of January 21–23 (which was accompanied by a major pogrom in the capital), the Ion Antonescu government. In the spring of 1944, it was the target of heavy RAF and USAF bombings (see Bombing of Bucharest in World War II). The city was also the center of King Mihai I's August 23 coup, which took the country out of the Axis and into the ranks of the Allies; consequently, it became the target of German reprisals – on August 23–24, a large-scale bombing by the Luftwaffe destroyed the National Theater and damaged other buildings, while the Wehrmacht engaged in street- fighting with the Romanian Army.Giurescu, p.
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By this time, asses outnumbered their fractions, perhaps because legionary pay was increased to the point where the as could become the principal component.Crawford 1985:60 In gold, there were three pieces worth 60 asses (RRC 44/2, marked ↆX), 40 asses (RRC 44/3, marked XXXX) and 20 asses (RRC 44/4, marked XX). All featured a head of Mars on the obverse and an eagle with outspread wings standing on a thunderbolt on the reverse.Crawford 1974:154 The eagle is somewhat reminiscent of the eagle that had consistently been a symbol on Ptolemaic coinage since the very beginning of the century, and it has been suggested that Ptolemy IV Philopator may have provided gold for this issue to act as a counterweight to the involvement of Philip V of Macedon on the side of Carthage.Meadows 1998 The victoriatus, another silver coin (RRC 44/1), was also introduced in large quantity at the same time.
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Where only a small Roman settlement was located at a ford over the Enns, the Legio II Italica built a legion camp around 200AD, after the abandonment of an older site in Albing, during the subsequent 400 years of its occupation as headquarters and next to Virunum (In the area of today's Zollfeld at Maria Saal) and Ovilava (Wels) as administrative center for the Roman province of Noricum. The legionary camp was subsequently also part of the fortifications of the limes and probably from the 3rd to the 5th century continuously occupied with Roman troops. In the north and south-west was an extensive civilian settlement, which was probably raised to the municipality in the early third century and rose to the bishop's seat of the northern Noricum in the 5th century, which was until now only historically demonstrable. Grave fields could also be found at numerous places inside and outside the settlement area.
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Roman provinces in AD 14 The Helvetii and Rauraci most likely lost their status as foederati only six years after the battle of Bibracte, when they supported Vercingetorix in 52 BC with 8,000 and 2,000 men, respectively. Sometime between 50 and 45 BC, the Romans founded the Colonia Iulia Equestris at the site of the Helvetian settlement Noviodunum (modern Nyon), and around 44 BC the Colonia Raurica on Rauracan territory. These colonies were probably established as a means of controlling the two most important military access routes between the Helvetian territory and the rest of Gaul, blocking the passage through the Rhône valley and Sundgau. In the course of Augustus' reign, Roman dominance became more concrete. Some of the traditional Celtic oppida were now used as legionary garrisons, such as Vindonissa or Basilea (modern Basel); others were relocated, such as the hill-fort on the Bois de Châtel, whose inhabitants founded the new “capital” of the civitas at nearby Aventicum.
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Imperial Roman legionaries in tight formation, a relief from Glanum, a Roman town in what is now southern France that was inhabited from 27 BC to 260 AD (when it was sacked by invading Alemanni) The Roman army of the late Republic (88–30 BC) marks the continued transition between the conscription-based citizen levy of the mid-Republic and the mainly volunteer, professional standing forces of the imperial era. The main literary sources for the army's organisation and tactics in this phase are the works of Julius Caesar, the most notable of a series of warlords who contested for power in this period. As a result of the Social War (91–88 BC), all Italians were granted Roman citizenship, the old allied alae were abolished and their members integrated into the legions. Regular annual conscription remained in force and continued to provide the core of legionary recruitment, but an ever- increasing proportion of recruits were volunteers, who signed up for 16-year terms as opposed to the maximum 6 years for conscripts.
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Marie Joseph L. Adolphe Thiers: History of the Consulate and the Empire of France under Napoleon, Volume XI, London 1851, p.79 King Joseph and Marshal Jourdan were harshly criticized by Napoleon for not having employed their reserves and therefore making a victory impossible.Marie Joseph L. Adolphe Thiers: History of the Consulate and the Empire of France under Napoleon, Volume XI, London 1851, p.80 On 30 August 1809, King Joseph wrote to Napoleon: > (...) General Strolz, my aide-de-camp had the good fortune to command the > brigade which captured the 23d regiment of English cavalry. I pray your > majesty to create him officer of the Legion of honour, he is already a > legionary; this is a reward which he will value more highly than any other > that could be given him. He is the same officer whom your Majesty entrusted > to reconnoitre on arriving at Vittoria and who, on giving account to your > Majesty at Burgos deserved that you should say of him to me: "There is an > officer of the right sort".
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'from the ranks of those who wear hobnailed sandals' (the footwear of legionary rankers). However, given that patronage and influence were major determinants (often the major determinants) of advancement in the Roman Army, it is not unreasonable to suppose that, as the son of a principalis, Aelianus would have enjoyed some advantages vis-à-vis his fellow-recruits that would have helped promote his career. Nevertheless, the inscriptions cited make it clear beyond all doubt that Aelianus showed himself a highly capable soldier and probably a lucky one as well who prospered in the conditions of crisis that prevailed on Rome's northern frontiers in the middle years of the Third Century AD. Although he probably enlisted in Legio II and certainly commanded it at a high point of his career, he is unlikely to have served solely with that legion. Like many of the soldiers who rose to prominence in his era, it seems safer to postulate that he rose through the centurionate receiving progressively more senior postings in different legions before he achieved primipilaris status (i.e.
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The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from the Byzantine Philadelphion palace in 1204, Treasury of St. Marks, Venice Carmagnola, an imperial porphyry head in Venice thought to represent Justinian Pliny's Natural History affirmed that the "Imperial Porphyry" had been discovered at an isolated site in Egypt in AD 18, by a Roman legionary named Caius Cominius Leugas. Ancient Egyptians used other decorative porphyritic stones of a very close composition and appearance, but apparently remained unaware of the presence of the Roman grade although it was located in their own country. This particular Imperial grade of porphyry all came from the Gabal Abu Dukhan quarry in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, from 600 million-year-old andesite of the Arabian-Nubian Shield. The road from the quarry westward to Qena (Roman Maximianopolis) on the Nile, which Ptolemy put on his second-century map, was first described by Strabo, and it is to this day known as the Via Porphyrites, the Porphyry Road, its track marked by the hydreumata, or watering wells that made it viable in this utterly dry landscape.
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Flavia Domitilla, wife of Vespasian and mother of Titus and Domitian. It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different. Classical historians often say that in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire () the daily wage for an unskilled laborer and common soldier was 1 denarius (with no tax deductions) or about US$20 in bread.Buying Power of Ancient Coins (amount has been adjusted for inflation) During the republic (509 BC–27 BC), legionary pay was 112.5 denarii per year (0.3 per day), later doubled by Julius Caesar to 225 denarii (0.6 per day), with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms. Centurions received considerably higher pay: under Augustus, the lowest rank of centurion was paid 3,750 denarii per year, and the highest rank, 15,000 denarii. The silver content of the denarius under the Roman Empire (after Nero) was about 50 grains, 3.24 grams, or (0.105ozt) troy ounce.
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Prior to his ascension to leadership, tension had built significantly both within the organization and country-wide following a series of assassinations of Iron Guard members, including of Codreanu (who was killed by order of King Carol II). In early 1939, Sima fled to Nazi Germany through Yugoslavia, wherein he and a number of Romanian exiles attempted to plan a coup in early 1939; this plot was discovered by German police and a number of Legionnaires were arrested. In the summer of the same year, he was sent back to prepare for and conduct the assassination of the Romanian Prime Minister, Armand Călinescu, on 21 September 1939 — following Călinescu's murder, a group of Legionnaires led by Sima assumed control of Romania's national radio broadcaster. After a power struggle for Legionary leadership between Sima and a splinter group led by Vasile Noveanu that had formed while in exile, Sima was brought in by the short-lived Gheorghe Tătărescu government to serve as state secretary within the Ministry of Education.
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Living in Paris, in Italy, and finally in Spain, he was sentenced to death in Romania in 1946. During his exile, the question of leadership within the Iron Guard was still a salient issue, and the now-disjointed organization was fraught with infighting and factionalism. In January 1954, Sima was formally and publicly "disowned" by the Legionnaire movement through a 13-page document published in Vastra magazine after controversy arose regarding aspects of his private life over the alleged existence of an illegitimate child: on 6 November 1948, Mardarie Popinciuc, a Romanian living in exile in Argentina, forwarded a letter to Legionary leaders alleging that Sima had illegitimately fathered the child of a fellow Legionnaire identified only as "B" while in France, a claim supported by the mother of the child and a number of other Legionnaires. This allegation caused the resignation of a number of members of the Guard, as well as the foundation of a new faction named "Moţa-Marin" under the leadership of Ovidiu Găină.
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As the two Chieftains had the same magic potion in them, a direct fight proves futile and each storms off, promising to raise an army. The Gauls wander around the town, giving potions to any Goth who looks browbeaten and who would be glad of a chance of power (their first two candidates being Electric, who is poor and has to sweep up streets, and Euphoric, who is being bossed about by his dictator-like wife). The would-be Chieftains each raise an army, and a confusing set of conflicts begins, known as the "Asterixian Wars", thus successfully sowing so much discord in Germania that the tribes be more occupied with fighting each other rather than trying to invade other countries. Although their peace-keeping mission probably created more casualties than a Gothic invasion of Rome would, the three Gauls make it back to Gaul, again running into the over-eager young legionary at the border, return home confident and are welcomed with open arms by the village, who throw their usual banquet in celebration.
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Paul Cernat, who stressed that it was the only one of Eliade's autobiographical works not to have been reworked by its author, concluded that the book documented Eliade's own efforts to "camouflage" his political sympathies without rejecting them altogether. Oișteanu argued that, in old age, Eliade moved away from his earlier stances and even came to sympathize with the non- Marxist Left and the hippie youth movement. He noted that Eliade initially felt apprehensive about the consequences of hippie activism, but that the interests they shared, as well as their advocacy of communalism and free love had made him argue that hippies were "a quasi-religious movement" that was "rediscovering the sacrality of Life".Eliade, in Oişteanu, "Mircea Eliade şi mişcarea hippie" Andrei Oișteanu, who proposed that Eliade's critics were divided into a "maximalist" and a "minimalist" camp (trying to, respectively, enhance or shadow the impact Legionary ideas had on Eliade), argued in favor of moderation, and indicated that Eliade's fascism needed to be correlated to the political choices of his generation.
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In addition to standardizing drill, weapon caliber, pike length, and so on, Maurice turned to his readings in classical military doctrine to establish smaller, more flexible combat formations than the ponderous regiments and tercios which then presided over open battle. Each Dutch battalion was to be 550 men strong, similar to the size of the ancient Roman legionary 480-man cohort described by Vegetius. Although inspired by the Romans, Maurice's soldiers carried the weapons of their day—250 were pikemen and the remaining 300 were arquebusiers and musketeers, 60 of the shot serving as a skirmish screen in front of the battalion, the rest forming up in two equal bodies, one on either side of the pikemen. Two or more of these battalions were to form the regiment, which was thus theoretically 1,100 men or stronger, but unlike the tercio, the regiment had the battalions as fully functional sub-units, each of mixed pike and shot which could, and generally did, operate independently, or could support each other closely.
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A map of the routes taken by the Great Heathen Army from 865 to 878 York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and revived as the Anglo-Saxon trading port of Eoforwic. It was first captured in November 866 by Ivar the Boneless, leading a large army of Danish Vikings, called the "Great Heathen Army" by Anglo-Saxon chroniclers, which had landed in East Anglia and made their way north, aided by a supply of horses with which King Edmund of East Anglia bought them off and by civil in-fighting between royal candidates in the Anglian Kingdom of Northumbria between the leaders of its two sub-kingdoms; Bernicia and Deira. Declaring a truce, the rivals for the throne of Northumbria joined forces but failed to retake the city in March 867, and with their deaths Deira came under Danish control as the Kingdom of Northumbria and the Northumbrian royal court fled north to refuge in Bernicia. A Viking attempt against Mercia the same season failed, and in 869 their efforts against Wessex were fruitless in the face of opposition from Kings Ethelred and Alfred the Great.
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View over the Teutoburg Forest After the battle, the Germans quickly annihilated every trace of Roman presence east of the Rhine. Roman settlements such as the Waldgirmes Forum were abandoned. The vastly outnumbered Roman garrison of Aliso (present-day Haltern am See), under the command of the prefect Lucius Cedicius, inflicted heavy losses on the Germans before retreating into Gaul, resisting long enough for Lucius Nonius Asprenas to organize the Roman defense on the Rhine and Tiberius to arrive with a new army. This prevented Arminius from crossing the Rhine and invading Gaul.Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History II, 120, 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History LVI, 22, 2a-2b Between AD 14 and 16, Germanicus led punitive operations into Germany, fighting Arminius to a draw in the Battle at Pontes Longi and twice defeating him (according to Tacitus): first in the Battle of Idistaviso and later at the Battle of the Angrivarian Wall. In AD 15, Roman troops managed to recapture one of the three legionary eagles lost in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. In AD 16, a second eagle was retrieved.Tac. Ann. 1.60.4, 2.25.
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As the Praefectus Legionis II Adiutricis referred to on the Aquincum sarcophagus of Martialis and his wife Fl. Agathe(a), Aelianus is likely to have been one of the earliest beneficiaries of Gallienus's policy of excluding senators from army commands in favour of professional equestrian officers who would, more often than not, have risen from the ranks. Nagy argues that, as a non-senator, Aelianus would not have been given this posting prior to the Persian captivity in 260 AD of Gallienus's father and senior Augustus, the Emperor Valerian. The measures that opened the legionary commands to equestrian officers were taken by Gallienus during his sole reign - possibly in 261 AD. Nor could Aelianus have been given the command after 267 in which year Valerius Marcellinus was in command of Legio II. Nagy is inclined to ascribe Aelianus's promotion to the earlier part of this five year ’window’. The Ulcisia altar describes the dedicator, P. Aelius Aelianus, as prefect of the Second legion, thus confirming that he was the same man as the one who had commissioned the sarcophagus of Martialis and Fl. Agathe.
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There is also little unequivocal archaeological and literary evidence to support defence-in-depth. Luttwak's defence-in-depth hypothesis appears to rely on two basic features: (a) deepened fortified border zones: "It became necessary to build forts capable of sustained resistance, and these fortifications had to be built in depth, in order to protect internal lines of communication. Instead of a thin perimeter line on the edges of provincial territory, broad zones of military control had to be created..." Luttwak (1976) 159 "The thin line of auxiliary 'forts' and legionary 'fortresses' was gradually replaced by a much broader network of small fortified hard-points (in the hands of) scattered groups of static limitanei..."Luttwak (1976) 171 The hypothesis thus predicts the establishment of fortifications well into the interior of border provinces, rather than just a string of bases right on the border line; (b) the use of the comitatus praesentales (imperial escort armies) as interception forces to deal with incursions. Luttwak terminates his analysis in 350, before the establishment of the regional comitatus. The interception forces were thus the single large comitatus of Constantine, and, later, the 3 comitatus known from Ammianus to exist in 350 of Gaul, Illyricum and the East.Goldsworthy (2000) 172 But there are serious difficulties with both propositions.
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At the same time, the traditional grant of land to retiring veterans was made replaceable by a cash discharge bonus, as there was no longer sufficient state-owned land (ager publicus) in Italy to distribute. Unlike the Republic, which had relied primarily on conscription (i.e. compulsory levy), Augustus and Agrippa preferred volunteers for their professional legions.CAH X 378 Given the onerous new term of service, it was necessary to offer a substantial bonus to attract sufficient citizen-recruits. In AD 5, the discharge bonus was set at 3,000 denarii.Dio LV.23.1 This was a generous sum equivalent to about 13 years' gross salary for a legionary of the time. To finance this major outlay, Augustus decreed a 5% tax on inheritances and 1% on auction-sales, to be paid into a dedicated aerarium militare (military treasury).CAH IX 378 However, veterans continued to be offered land instead of cash in Roman colonies established in the newly annexed frontier provinces, where public land was plentiful (as a result of confiscations from defeated indigenous tribes).Duncan-Jones (1994) 37 This was another grievance behind the mutinies of 14 AD, as it effectively forced Italian veterans to settle far from their own country (or lose their bonus).
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Thus the total number of regimental equivalents was reduced to 61. This number included 50 infantry regiments, 4 legionary corps (which were partly dismounted light dragoons), 4 artillery regiments, 2 partisan corps, and 1 artificer regiment.Wright, Continental Army, 157. Finally, on August 7, 1782, the Continental Congress resolved that the Continental Army should be so reduced that, if possible, all its units should contain at least 500 rank and file. This reorganization was to become effective on January 1, 1783. Under this resolve, the infantry of the Continental Army was reorganized to consist of 1 regiment and 1 battalion (4 companies) from New Hampshire (effected March 1, 1783), 8 regiments from Massachusetts, 1 battalion (6 companies) from Rhode Island, 3 regiments from Connecticut, 2 regiments from New York, 1 regiment and 1 battalion (4 companies) from New Jersey (effected March 1, 1783), 3 regiments from Pennsylvania, 1 regiment (2 companies) from Delaware, 2 regiments from Maryland, 2 regiments from Virginia, 1 regiment and 1 battalion from North Carolina, 2 regiments from South Carolina, and 1 regiment (3 companies) from Georgia. In this instance, with some exceptions, the term "battalion" was used to designate a unit with less than the regulation nine companies.
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