Augmize automates actuarial reserving in commercial insurance with interpretable machine learning.
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There are generally two pathways toward making decisions made by neural networks interpretable.
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"We think data are objective, but they are actually as interpretable as Shakespeare"
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A team at OpenAI has developed approaches for interpretable communication among humans and computers.
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His anarchic "Macle" uses a graphic score, making it interpretable by amateurs and expert singers alike.
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Stuff like breast implants or the weird plastic pill—their meanings are so diffuse or interpretable anyway.
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This PET-based method is, "objective and computationally simple and provides easily interpretable results," the authors write.
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Small online behaviors are infinitely interpretable, making it impossible to understand where you and another person stand.
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Some of the best-performing algorithms, such as neural networks, are not easily interpretable, even to their programmers.
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Attorneys have a strange attitude toward the law sometimes, almost as if it's flexible, interpretable or even fundamentally flawed.
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That team showed that LSTMs can keep track of text attributes like quotes, line lengths and brackets in interpretable cells.
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Tapping into the data Beyond just listening into voice chatter, there's a lot of interpretable data that also flows over the airwaves.
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Sharad Goel, the head of the Stanford team behind the project, says a simpler, rules-based system is more predictable, consistent and interpretable.
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To arrive at this conclusion, Fox and his colleagues first demonstrated that the events observed by ANITA are not interpretable within the Standard Model.
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The first 20 seconds are a barely interpretable blur, the camera zooming in, seeking to make sense of the opaque commotion between its frames.
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"How to ensure that the algorithm is fair, how to make sure the algorithm is really interpretable and explainable - that's still quite far off," he said.
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"How to ensure that the algorithm is fair, how to make sure the algorithm is really interpretable and explainable — that's still quite far off," he said.
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During his work on applying deep learning to the banking sector, Fernandez's exploration of interpretable networks helped uncovered new insights on the characteristics of fraudulent transactions.
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In later stages, those probes try to replicate the observed behavior of the network on a decision tree, rule-based structure, or another model that is interpretable.
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BPM is measured in easily interpretable units, the number of points by which a player would improve an otherwise average team per 271 possessions (close to the length of a standard NBA game).
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"The ability of neural networks to learn interpretable word embeddings, say, does not remotely suggest that they are the right kind of tool for a human-level understanding of the world," Hewitt writes.
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Instead, we believe it is time for an entirely new approach that is inspired by human cognitive psychology and centered around reasoning and the challenge of creating machine-interpretable versions of common sense.
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Improving Simple Models with Confidence Profiles, another AI-explanation method Dhurandhar helped develop with other researchers at IBM, addresses this issue by trying to transfer the behavior of neural networks to interpretable software structures.
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"Because these circuits are small, they're more interpretable because we can quantify the contribution of neurons to the output much better than other systems that are out there," Hasani told me over the phone.
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When the scientists ultimately tested the roughly 800 casings they collected, swabbing half using the traditional method and soaking the other half, the lab got "interpretable" DNA samples off about 34 percent of the soaked samples.
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A big problem with neural networks right now is that the more complex they are—sometimes containing millions of nodes and even more connections between them—the less interpretable their decisions are to their human creators.
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Mark Mills, senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute, called it, "the perfect government report: a tutorial chock full of useful data, along with observations that provide something interpretable for everyone," yet as far as Democrats are concerned; the Government has launched a jihad against science.
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And on the face of it, the new Joker appears to lean into those events in a way that the previous Dark Knight trilogy did not, almost as if Phillips wants to move beyond an endlessly interpretable allegory about terrorism toward a more immediate kind of representation.
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"When you've got a system with a bunch of set rules and those rules are not widely interpretable and you've got a huge set of data that you can tell whether it's right or it's wrong, you can get a machine to automate in ways that seem really miraculous," Cohn said, referring to advancements in chess-playing artificial intelligence.
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That means that if I as an engineer look at this thing I have to contend with these millions or billions of numbers that have been set based on all of that data and maybe there is a kind of rhyme or reason to it but it's not obvious and there's some good theoretical arguments to think sometimes you're never really going to find an interpretable answer there.
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Coming from different perspectives, Marcus (cognitive science) and Brooks (robotics) have been writing for the last several years about the perils of deep learning, and why it had been overhyped; they also independently reached similar conclusions about the need for developing machine-interpretable common sense as a prerequisite for reaching the next level of AI. When Marcus decided to take the plunge into robotics, he says he realized immediately that Brooks, a legend in robotics, would be the perfect collaborator, and Marcus spent months recruiting him.
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Cindy Cohn: When you've got a system with a bunch of set rules and those rules are not widely interpretable and you've got a huge set of data that you can tell whether it's right or it's wrong, you can get a machine to automate in ways that seem really miraculous, but when you get beyond that relatively narrow scope of things where you're trying to do things where you really need context, where you really need things like that, when you don't have good data, right?
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The index ensures that the complexity of the topic can be interpretable and simplified.
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Subsequent literature tries to turn that interpretable concept into "operationalizable" concept for creating a sustainable food system.
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Cowper, Elizabeth. 2005a. The Geometry of Interpretable Features: INFL in English and Spanish. Language 81, 10–46. doi:10.1353/lan.2005.0012 Cowper, Elizabeth 2005b.
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However, when literally interpretable idioms (i.e., break the ice) were processed, the left medial frontal gyrus (MFQ) and superior frontal gyrus (SFG) were activated.Hillert, D. G., & Buracas, G. T. (2009).
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The optimal challenge point represents the degree of functional task difficulty an individual of a specific skill level would need to optimize learning (Guadagnoli and Lee 2004). However, this learning depends on the amount of interpretable information. Therefore, although increases in task difficulty may increase learning potential, only so much is interpretable, and task performance is expected to decrease. Thus, an optimal challenge point exists when learning is maximized and detriment to performance in practice is minimized.
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To measure that quality it is necessary to define requirements. This is preferably done in a computer interpretable way. These requirements and standard specifications have the nature of relations between kinds of things.
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In machine learning, kernel random forests establish the connection between random forests and kernel methods. By slightly modifying their definition, random forests can be rewritten as kernel methods, which are more interpretable and easier to analyze.
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In part because of heterogeneity of the samples tested, early fiber diffraction patterns were usually ambiguous and not readily interpretable. In 1955, Marianne Grunberg-Manago and colleagues published a paper describing the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase, which cleaved a phosphate group from nucleotide diphosphates to catalyze their polymerization. This discovery allowed researchers to synthesize homogenous nucleotide polymers, which they then combined to produce double stranded molecules. These samples yielded the most readily interpretable fiber diffraction patterns yet obtained, suggesting an ordered, helical structure for cognate, double stranded RNA that differed from that observed in DNA.
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The sub- theory of GP modelling the internal structure of segments is called Element Theory (ET). Like chemical elements, the melodic primes of ET are phonetically interpretable alone as well as in combinations - hence their name. They are assumed, depending on the version of ET, to correspond to either characteristic acoustic signatures in the signal, or articulatory gestures (or hot features, as previously referred to). Unlike the (binary) distinctive features of Structuralist Phonology and SPE, each element is a monovalent (unary, single-valued) and potentially interpretable phonological expression.
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In 2019, Rudin was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association, and of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics "for her contributions to interpretable machine learning algorithms, prediction in large scale medical databases, and theoretical properties of ranking algorithms".
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Pascual-Leone proposed the Theory of Constructive Operators (TCO) – an organismic cognitive- developmental theory that is neuropsychologically interpretable in terms of physiological brain processes.Pascual-Leone, J. (1995). "Learning and development as dialectical factors in cognitive growth". Human Development, 38, 338-348.
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Q is interpretable in a fragment of Zermelo's axiomatic set theory, consisting of extensionality, existence of the empty set, and the axiom of adjunction. This theory is S' in Tarski et al. (1953: 34) and ST in Burgess (2005: 90-91; 223).
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Doshi-Velez is interested in making her algorithms interpretable to physicians. Doshi-Velez has delivered many popular science talks, including two TED Talks The Possibility of Explanation and AI for Understanding Disease. She spoke about accountability in artificial intelligence at Google in 2017.
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Directly interpretable Z-contrast imaging makes STEM imaging with a high-angle detector an appealing technique in contrast to conventional high resolution electron microscopy, in which phase-contrast effects mean that atomic resolution images must be compared to simulations to aid interpretation.
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Hence, Wenzi is also interpretable as a nom de plume denoting "Master of Literature/Culture." Nothing can be said for certain about Wenzi, no matter how this name is interpreted. Although we do not know his true identity, various hypotheses have been proposed.
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However, his poems were at times censored by the Japanese, then occupying Indonesia. Living rebelliously, Anwar wrote extensively, often about death. He died in Jakarta of an unknown illness. His work dealt with various themes, including death, individualism, and existentialism, and were often multi-interpretable.
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Even subconsciously. Therefore it's multi-interpretable. The only questionable thing about the name that might raise some eyebrows instead of questions is when you pronounce the abbreviation of it; FAWK. Ah well, that's just a minor detail... Musically it's going to be heavy in the basics.
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The process of active thinking in human beings is a process of error by over-determination of images. The formation of symbols from fundamental feeling is the process of determination, but it can be carried out without full conceptualization. Symbols are fundamentally open and infinitely interpretable.
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The distinction between feature selection and feature extraction is that the resulting features after feature extraction has taken place are of a different sort than the original features and may not easily be interpretable, while the features left after feature selection are simply a subset of the original features.
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An additional 51 tumors were analyzed via direct sequence analysis, yielding 49 clearly interpretable results. Only the first exon was sequenced for stop codon mutations, but none were found. This indicates that point mutation is not a frequent method of inactivation of the SFRP1 gene in colorectal cancer.
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Papagno, C., Oliveri, M., Romero, L. (2002). Neural correlates of idiom comprehension. Cortex, 38, 895-898. Recent research with healthy adults using fMRI also found that, when processing idioms that were not literally interpretable (i.e., raining cats and dogs), the Broca’s area in the left prefronto-temporal network was activated.
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There are several different parameterizations of the distribution in use. The one shown here gives reasonably interpretable parameters and a simple form for the cumulative distribution function. The parameter \alpha>0 is a scale parameter and is also the median of the distribution. The parameter \beta>0 is a shape parameter.
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We say that these structures are interpretable. A key fact is that one can translate sentences from the language of the interpreted structures to the language of the original structure. Thus one can show that if a structure M interprets another whose theory is undecidable, then M itself is undecidable.
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Cynthia Diane Rudin (born 1976) is an American computer scientist and statistician specializing in machine learning and known for her work in interpretable machine learning. She is the director of the Prediction Analysis Lab at Duke University, where she is a professor of computer science, electrical and computer engineering, and statistical science.
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End-to-end training and prediction are common practice in computer vision. However, human interpretable explanations are required for critical systems such as a self-driving cars. With recent advances in visual salience, spatial and temporal attention, the most critical spatial regions/temporal instants could be visualized to justify the CNN predictions.
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Integrating simple models which perform better on individual tasks to form a Hybrid model is an approach that can be looked into.Yuan, Y., Alabdulkareem, A. & Pentland, A.S. An interpretable approach for social network formation among heterogeneous agents. Nat Commun 9, 4704 (2018). These models can offer better performance and understanding of the data.
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The emitted fluorescence light was collected using a long-working-distance objective and focused via a tube lens onto a CCD camera. Specimens are submerged in exogenous dye for 10 seconds and then briefly washed in water or phosphated buffered saline (PBS) . The resulting stained specimens generated bright enough signals for direct and interpretable visualization through microscope eyepiece.
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With its simple axioms, GST is also immune to the three great antinomies of naïve set theory: Russell's, Burali-Forti's, and Cantor's. GST is Interpretable in relation algebra because no part of any GST axiom lies in the scope of more than three quantifiers. This is the necessary and sufficient condition given in Tarski and Givant (1987).
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33-41, January 1967, doi: 10.1109/TIT.1967.1053955.Pawula, R. F. (1967). Approximation of the linear Boltzmann equation by the Fokker-Planck equation. Physical review, 162(1), 186.. If the expansion continues past the second term it must contain an infinite number of terms, in order that the solution to the equation be interpretable as a probability density function.
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This technique is called electron crystallography. One of the difficulties with HRTEM is that image formation relies on phase contrast. In phase-contrast imaging, contrast is not necessarily intuitively interpretable, as the image is influenced by aberrations of the imaging lenses in the microscope. The largest contributions for uncorrected instruments typically come from defocus and astigmatism.
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MAE is not identical to RMSE (root-mean square error), but some researchers report and interpret RMSE as if RMSE reflects the measurement that MAE gives. MAE is conceptually simpler and more interpretable than RMSE. MAE does not require the use of squares or square roots. The use of squared distances hinders the interpretation of RMSE.
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For example, the Gellish Modeling Method enables to model it in a system- independent and computer-interpretable way. This means that the model can be imported and managed in any system that is able to read Gellish English expressions. A facility information model is in principle system independent and only deals with data and document content.
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Most micromachines act as transducers; in other words, they are either sensors or actuators. Sensors convert information from the environment into interpretable electrical signals. One example of a micromachine sensor is a resonant chemical sensor. A lightly damped mechanical object vibrates much more at one frequency than any other, and this frequency is called its resonance frequency.
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Bäuml, Franz H. "Varieties and Consequences of Medieval Literacy and Illiteracy", Speculum, Vol. 55, No. 2 (1980), pp. 243–44. Finally, in the view of Ursula Schaefer, the question of whether the poem was "oral" or "literate" becomes something of a red herring. In this model, the poem is created, and is interpretable, within both noetic horizons.
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William Gooch, uncle of Sir William Gooch, 1st Baronet, was buried within the church walls. His armorial slab is one of the oldest interpretable tombstones in Virginia. The village was abandoned by the end of the 18th century. The site is located on the U.S. Coast Guard Reserve Training Center and marked by a small park.
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Automated processing of information not interpretable by software agents can be improved by adding rich semantics to the corresponding resources, such as video files. One of the approaches for the formal conceptualization of represented knowledge domains is the use of machine-interpretable ontologies, which provide structured data in, or based on, RDF, RDFS, and OWL. Ontology engineering is the design and creation of such ontologies, which can contain more than just the list of terms (controlled vocabulary); they contain terminological, assertional, and relational axioms to define concepts (classes), individuals, and roles (properties) (TBox, ABox, and RBox, respectively). Ontology engineering is a relatively new field of study concerning the ontology development process, the ontology life cycle, the methods and methodologies for building ontologies,Asunción Gómez-Pérez, Mariano Fernández-López, Oscar Corcho (2004).
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The AM uses a one-dimensional smoother to build a restricted class of nonparametric regression models. Because of this, it is less affected by the curse of dimensionality than e.g. a p-dimensional smoother. Furthermore, the AM is more flexible than a standard linear model, while being more interpretable than a general regression surface at the cost of approximation errors.
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Scientific evidence is evidence that serves to either support or counter a scientific theory or hypothesis. Such evidence is expected to be empirical evidence and interpretable in accordance with scientific method. Standards for scientific evidence vary according to the field of inquiry, but the strength of scientific evidence is generally based on the results of statistical analysis and the strength of scientific controls.
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Written in the manner of fables, but lacking any directly interpretable message, Urmuz's "The Chroniclers" referenced Aristotle, Galileo Galilei and the turn-of-the-century Balkan insurgent Boris Sarafov (Sarafoff). Its opening lines suggest that the eponymous chroniclers, for lack of baggy pants, approach someone with the surname "Rapaport" and demand to be issued passports.Ciprian, p.62; Deligiorgis edition, p.
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Today's performance is among the best for solid-state materials and for biomacromolecules, whereby biomacromolecules were the primary focus of force fields from the 1970s to the early 2000s. Force fields range from relatively simple and interpretable fixed-bond models (e.g. Interface force field, CHARMM, and COMPASS) to explicitly reactive models with many adjustable fit parameters (e.g. ReaxFF) and machine learning models.
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Conversely, if this block is given to subjects in a format where KR is available, transient and persistent effects of KR are convoluted and it is argued not interpretable for learning effects. After a rest period, the change in the capability for responding (i.e. effects) are argued to be those attributed to learning, and the group with the most effective performance has learned the most.
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Who is afraid of Photography, 2014. Print on alu-dibond, three pieces, each 230 x 150 cm Heyne is a practitioner of a new approach to photographic abstraction in Germany. With his usually large-format works, Heyne departs from traditional photographic conventions. There exists neither an interpretable object nor a contour on which the in-focus or the out-of-focus can be fixed.
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Between these extremes are additional types: verbs that can incorporate only a restricted set of nouns; verb and noun combinations that are highly idiomatic—these often denote conventionalized activities (e.g., English 'he information-gathered)—so that separating the noun, though interpretable, is perceived as inappropriate. The use of noun incorporation is governed by various discourse factors. It is often used as a way of backgrounding information.
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The interpretable geologic history of the Michelangelo quadrangle begins with the formation of the four ancient, multiring basins. From oldest to youngest, they are: Barma-Vincente, Bartok-Ives, Hawthorne-Riemenschneider, and Eitoku-Milton. These basins presumably formed during the period of heavy bombardment inferred from lunar history (Wilhelms, in press). Contemporaneous with their formation and shortly afterward, was the deposition of the intercrater plains material.
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John Bayliss grew experimental crops and was first to experiment with lighter soils. The Merembra Homestead was initially constructed as a rural Inn which is reflected in the planning of the building. The construction techniques are reflective of late Colonial / Early Victorian period, remaining intact and interpretable. The site specific 19th century site specific early water supply system includes a well and a reservoir tank stand which still remains intact.
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Manhattan: Gridiron plan 1807 and 2007, structure and infill, rule-based and interpretable 145px The anthropologist, Claude Lévi-Strauss, remarked: "I do not believe that we can still speak of one structuralism. There were a lot of movements that claimed to be structuralist." This diversity can also be found in architecture. However, architectural structuralism has an autonomy that does not comply with all the principles of structuralism in human sciences.
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Beaney p. 10 – the completeness of Frege's system was eventually proved by Jan Łukasiewicz in 1934 The most significant innovation, however, was his explanation of the quantifier in terms of mathematical functions. Traditional logic regards the sentence "Caesar is a man" as of fundamentally the same form as "all men are mortal." Sentences with a proper name subject were regarded as universal in character, interpretable as "every Caesar is a man".
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SEOP has successfully been used and is fairly well developed for 3He, 129Xe, and 83Kr for biomedical applications. Additionally, several improvements are under way to get enhanced and interpretable imaging of cancer cells in biomedical science. Studies involving hyperpolarization of 131Xe are underway, peaking the interest of physicists. There are also improvements being made to allow not only rubidium to be utilized in the spin transfer, but also cesium.
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The language of ILM extends that of classical propositional logic by adding the unary modal operator \Box and the binary modal operator \triangleright (as always, \Diamond p is defined as eg \Box eg p). The arithmetical interpretation of \Box p is “p is provable in Peano Arithmetic PA”, and p \triangleright q is understood as “PA+q is interpretable in PA+p”. Axiom schemata: 1\. All classical tautologies 2\.
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Another keyphrase extraction algorithm is TextRank. While supervised methods have some nice properties, like being able to produce interpretable rules for what features characterize a keyphrase, they also require a large amount of training data. Many documents with known keyphrases are needed. Furthermore, training on a specific domain tends to customize the extraction process to that domain, so the resulting classifier is not necessarily portable, as some of Turney's results demonstrate.
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The examiner utilizes the user interface to investigate the content of the phone's memory. Therefore, the device is used as normal, with the examiner taking pictures of each screen's contents. This method has an advantage in that the operating system makes it unnecessary to use specialized tools or equipment to transform raw data into human interpretable information. In practice this method is applied to cell phones, PDAs and navigation systems.
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IFF is primarily a classical potential with limited applicability to chemical reactions. Quantitative simulations of reactions is, however, a natural extension due to an interpretable representation of chemical bonding and electronic structure. Simulations of the relative activity of Pd nanoparticle catalysts in C-C Stille coupling, hydration reactions, and cis-trans isomerization reactions of azobenzene have been reported. A general pathway to simulate reactions are QM/MM simulations.
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One arguably more interpretable approach is to look at the percentage of test takers in each test score quintile who meet some agreed-upon standard of success. For example, if the correlation between test scores and performance is .30, the expectation is that 67 percent of those in the top quintile will be above-average performers, compared to 33 percent of those in the bottom quintile.Sackett et al.
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Individual LCS rules are typically human readable IF:THEN expression. Rules that constitute the LCS prediction model can be ranked by different rule parameters and manually inspected. Global strategies to guide knowledge discovery using statistical and graphical have also been proposed. With respect to other advanced machine learning approaches, such as artificial neural networks, random forests, or genetic programming, learning classifier systems are particularly well suited to problems that require interpretable solutions.
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They claim that the subscales produce easily interpretable data that describe the extent to which substitutes for leadership are present or absent in a given work situation. They went on to test their subscales in a field setting using police officers and concluded that the subscales met acceptable standards of reliability, and can be used to assess the validity of the substitutes for leadership construct in future studies.
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Mass spectrometry provides information about the structure and composition of the complexes. Spectra for metal polycarbonyls are often easily interpretable, because the dominant fragmentation process is the loss of carbonyl ligands (m/z = 28). : → + CO Electron ionization is the most common technique for characterizing the neutral metal carbonyls. Neutral metal carbonyls can be converted to charged species by derivatization, which enables the use of electrospray ionization (ESI), instrumentation for which is often widely available.
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Further, pulse trainings are not easily interpretable. But pulse training increases the ability to process spatiotemporal data (or real-world sensory data). Space refers to the fact that neurons connect only to nearby neurons so that they can process input blocks separately (similar to CNN using filters). Time refers to the fact that pulse training occurs over time so that the information lost in binary coding can be retrieved from the time information.
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Its expansion towards the north and south would have been due to broad population movements in times not long before the first written documents, from the 11th to the 10th century BC, given that the Iberian language appears homogeneous in Iberian texts and, if it was of greater antiquity, dialectalization should be evident. The presence of non-interpretable elements such as Iberian anthroponyms amongst inscriptions in this area is not considered statistically significant.
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His original works, unlike poems by earlier writers, used everyday language in an unusual manner in his poetry, mixing in words from foreign languages. Anwar's poems were also multi- interpretable. As such, the criticism of his plagiarism – although extensive at the time of discovery – has not affected his legacy. The Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw described Anwar as "the perfect poet", while Raffel describes him as "Indonesia's greatest literary figure".
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The Axiom schema of Continuity plays a role similar to Hilbert's two axioms of Continuity. This schema is indispensable; Euclidean geometry in Tarski's (or equivalent) language cannot be finitely axiomatized as a first-order theory. Hilbert's axioms do not constitute a first-order theory because his continuity axioms require second-order logic. The first four groups of axioms of Hilbert's axioms for plane geometry are bi-interpretable with Tarski's axioms minus continuity.
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Pittsburgh-Style LCSs are characterized by a population of variable length rule-sets where each rule-set is a potential solution. The genetic algorithm typically operates at the level of an entire rule-set. Pittsburgh- style systems can also uniquely evolve ordered rule lists, as well as employ a default rule. These systems have the natural advantage of identifying smaller rule sets, making these systems more interpretable with regards to manual rule inspection.
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Instead of an angel, the picture places a swan-like bird, perhaps interpretable as the hero's fylgja (a protecting spirit, and shapeshifter). Austrian artist Gottfried Helnwein depicted a more controversial tableau in his painting, Epiphany I: Adoration of the Magi (1996). Intended to represent the "many connections between the Third Reich and the Christian churches in Austria and Germany", Nazi officers in uniform stand around an Aryan Madonna. The Christ toddler who stands on Mary's lap resembles Adolf Hitler.
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In model theory, interpretation of a structure M in another structure N (typically of a different signature) is a technical notion that approximates the idea of representing M inside N. For example every reduct or definitional expansion of a structure N has an interpretation in N. Many model-theoretic properties are preserved under interpretability. For example if the theory of N is stable and M is interpretable in N, then the theory of M is also stable.
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In 1998, three oncologists were enlisted by the weekly Washington newsletter The Cancer Letter to conduct independent reviews of Burzynski's clinical trial research on antineoplastons. They concluded that the studies were poorly designed, not interpretable, and "so flawed that it cannot be determined whether it really works". One of them characterized the research as "scientific nonsense". In addition to questioning Burzynski's research methods, the oncologists found significant and possibly life- threatening toxicity in some patients treated with antineoplastons.
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Using a model that is not constrained to be interpretable, a more accurate model can be produced. Being able to predict gene expressions more accurately provides a way to explore how drugs affect a system of genes as well as for finding which genes are interrelated in a process. This has been encouraged by the DREAM competition which promotes a competition for the best prediction algorithms. Some other recent work has used artificial neural networks with a hidden layer.
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The calculated effect partitions are called effect estimates. Because even the effect estimates are multivariate, interpretation of these effects estimates is not intuitive. By applying SCA on the effect estimates one gets a simple interpretable result.Smilde, Age K.; Jansen, Jeroen J.; Hoefsloot, Huub C. J.; Lamers, Robert-Jan A. N.; van der Greef, Jan; Timmerman, Marieke E. (2005) "ANOVA- simultaneous component analysis (ASCA): a new tool for analyzing designed metabolomics data", Bioinformatics, 21 (13), 3043-3048.
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38–39 In articulating this notion in the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, Nāgārjuna drew on an early source in the Kaccānagotta Sutta, which distinguishes definitive meaning (nītārtha) from interpretable meaning (neyārtha): The version linked to is the one found in the nikayas, and is slightly different from the one found in the Samyuktagama. Both contain the concept of teaching via the middle between the extremes of existence and non-existence.A.K. Warder, A Course in Indian Philosophy. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
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A mathematical markup language is a computer notation for representing mathematical formulae, based on mathematical notation. Specialized markup languages are necessary because computers normally deal with linear text and more limited character sets (although increasing support for Unicode is obsoleting very simple uses). A formally standardized syntax also allows a computer to interpret otherwise ambiguous content, for rendering or even evaluating. For computer-interpretable syntaxes, the most popular are TeX/LaTeX and MathML (Mathematical Markup Language).
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Any natural language variant, such as Gellish Formal English is a controlled natural language. Information and knowledge can be expressed in such a way that it is computer- interpretable, as well as system-independent and natural language independent. Each natural language variant is a structured subset of that natural language and is suitable for information modeling and knowledge representation in that particular language. All expressions, concepts and individual things are represented in Gellish by (numeric) unique identifiers (Gellish UID's).
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Since the interatomic potentials are approximations, they by necessity all involve parameters that need to be adjusted to some reference values. In simple potentials such as the Lennard-Jones and Morse ones, the parameters are interpretable and can be set to match e.g. the equilibrium bond length and bond strength of a dimer molecule or the surface energy of a solid . Lennard-Jones potential can typically describe the lattice parameters, surface energies, and approximate mechanical properties.
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Karkas was born in Deviant Lemuria, too monstrous in appearance even by Deviant standards. He was made a slave, pitted in gladiatorial contests against others considered grotesque. Another gladiator was Ransak the Reject, who was considered hideous by the Deviants due to his normal human appearance (also interpretable as because he looked too much like an Eternal). Karkas and the Reject were pitted against each other, in a bout viewed by the Eternal Thena, in which Ransak bested Karkas.
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The music video for "Please Don't Leave Me" was shot in late 2008, leaked to the internet on January 23, 2009, and officially premiered on Pink's YouTube channel on January 27, 2009. It was directed by Dave Meyers. The video draws influences from the 1990 Stephen King based film Misery, as well as other similar thrillers, including Cujo, The Shining and What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?. It utilizes both the horror/thriller genre, while also being interpretable as a dark comedy.
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The underlying image data that is used to characterize tumors is provided by medical scanning technology. Instead of taking a picture like a camera, the scans produce raw volumes of data which must be further processed to be usable in medical investigations. To get actual images that are interpretable, a reconstruction tool must be used. There are a variety of reconstruction algorithms, so consideration must be taken to determine the most suitable one for each case, as the resultant images will differ.
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Dixit–Stiglitz model is a model of monopolistic competition developed by Avinash Dixit and Joseph Stiglitz (1977). It has been used in many sub-fields of economics including macroeconomics, economic geography and international trade theory. The model seeks to formalise consumers' preference for product variety by using a typical CES function. Previous attempts to provide a model which accounted for variety preference (such as Harold Hotelling's Location model) were indirect and failed to provide an easily interpretable and usable form for further study.
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STEM tomography allows the complete three-dimensional internal and external structure of a specimen to be reconstructed from a tilt-series of 2D projection images of the specimen acquired at incremental tilts. High angle ADF STEM is a particularly useful imaging mode for electron tomography because the intensity of high angle ADF-STEM images varies only with the projected mass-thickness of the sample, and the atomic number of atoms in the sample. This yields highly interpretable three dimensional reconstructions.
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Library searchable mass spectra are generated. Gas-phase EI has many applications for the detection of HPLC amenable compounds showing minimal adverse matrix effects. The direct-EI LC-MS interface provides access to well-characterized electron ionization data for a variety of LC applications and readily interpretable spectra from electronic libraries for environmental, food safety, pharmaceutical, biomedical, and other applications.A. Cappiello, G. Famiglini, E. Pierini, P. Palma, H. Trufelli Advanced Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Interface Based on Electron Ionization. Anal. Chem.
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Using block cluster analysis, the researchers identified patterns of multiple themes within essays, which were interpreted to indicate the presence of function(s). Block cluster analysis resulted in five interpretable clusters of themes which were then refined per the theoretical perspectives of Smith et al. (1956) and Katz (1960). This refinement resulted in two patterns of themes containing positive attitudes (experiential-schematic: positive, self-expressive: positive), and three patterns containing negative attitudes (experiential-schematic: negative, self-expressive: negative, and defensive).
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From this, Bense developed a perspective to see the mathematical spirit in works of literary art, especially in metrics and rhythm. Bense's thoughts assumed the correlation of a mathematical and linguistic consciousness, which have a common origin and have grown into complementary modes of thought. He considered the atomistic structures of the linguistic modes to be equivalent. By using non-interpretable basic elements (characters) and rules or operators, these forms give meaning, impart information and make stylistically formed language possible.
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Note that the roles of the scale parameter \sigma and the shape parameter \xi under Y \sim exGPD(\sigma, \xi) are separably interpretable, which may lead to a robust efficient estimation for the \xi than using the X \sim GPD(\sigma, \xi) . The roles of the two parameters are associated each other under X \sim GPD(\mu=0,\sigma, \xi) (at least up to the second central moment); see the formula of variance Var(X) wherein both parameters are participated.
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New York: McGraw-Hill Using microscopic analysis, Marshack suggested that seemingly random or meaningless notches on bone were sometimes interpretable as structured series of numbers. For instance, Marshack hypothesized that notches on the bone plaque from the Grotte de Thaïs in southern France (which dates to approximately 12,000 BP) were structured in subsets of 29 notches, thus suggesting that they were used to mark the duration between two lunations.Marshack, A. 1991. The Taï plaque and calendrical notation in the Upper Paleolithic.
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The Roasting Pits are nationally significant as a rare example of the application of a common design for lime burning being adapted for the roasting of quartz. They reflect the period prior to the development of specialised quartz roasting kilns. The Battery is nationally significant as a purpose-built structure to house a boiler, beam engine and stamper battery. It represents the oldest surviving stamper battery building erected for gold mining in Australia, being substantially intact and interpretable as a working structure.
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These are likely to have been used to access garderobes (latrines). On the east face of the tower there are three carved crests under a hood mould. Although they are not clearly interpretable, the upper two are almost certainly those of the king of France and the Abbey of Saint-André. The third crest, which has what appears to be an oblique row of three roses, is probably that of Pope Clement VI who purchased the town of Avignon from Joanna I of Naples in 1348.
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Individual images of stained or unstained particles are very noisy, and so hard to interpret. Combining several digitized images of similar particles together gives an image with stronger and more easily interpretable features. An extension of this technique uses single particle methods to build up a three-dimensional reconstruction of the particle. Using cryo-electron microscopy it has become possible to generate reconstructions with sub- nanometer resolution and near-atomic resolution first in the case of highly symmetric viruses, and now in smaller, asymmetric proteins as well.
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Syntactic interoperability, provided by for instance XML or the SQL standards, is a pre-requisite to semantic. It involves a common data format and common protocol to structure any data so that the manner of processing the information will be interpretable from the structure. It also allows detection of syntactic errors, thus allowing receiving systems to request resending of any message that appears to be garbled or incomplete. No semantic communication is possible if the syntax is garbled or unable to represent the data.
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In linguistics, boundedness is a semantic feature that relates to an understanding of the referential limits of a lexical item. Fundamentally, words that specify a spatio-temporal demarcation of their reference are considered bounded, while words that allow for a fluidly interpretable referent are considered unbounded. This distinction also relies on the divisibility of the lexical item's referent into distinct segments, or strata. Though this feature most often distinguishes countability in nouns and aspect in verbs, it applies more generally to any syntactic category.
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One tool that has already been put into action is the EarthScope Education and Outreach Bulletin. The bulletin, targeted for grades 5-8, summarizes a volcanic or tectonic event documented by EarthScope and puts it into an easily interpretable format, complete with diagrams and 3D models. They follow specific content standards based on what a child should be learning at those grade levels. Another is the EarthScope Voyager, Jr. which allows students to explore and visualize the various types of data that are being collected.
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In the early 1970s, WRJR moved from its purpose-built studio in the basement of Pettigrew to its present quarters in the basement of The Office of Career Services at 31 Frye Street. The new basement location offered multiple studios which have since converted to office space. The station's transmitting antenna was also moved to its present location behind its current studios. Though the call letters WRJR had been with the station for many years, they were not immediately interpretable as being related to Bates College.
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Issue 2595, 17 March 2007. In The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "Blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory." Dawkins writes that racial prejudice, while not evolutionarily adaptive, "could be interpreted as an irrational generalization of a kin-selected tendency to identify with individuals physically resembling oneself, and to be nasty to individuals different in appearance." Simulation-based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.
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ISO 11784 and ISO 11785 are international standards that regulate the radio- frequency identification (RFID) of animals, which is usually accomplished by implanting, introducing or attaching a transponder containing a microchip to an animal. RF identification of animals requires that the bits transmitted by a transponder are interpretable by a transceiver. Usually, the bit stream contains data bits, defining the identification code and a number of bits to ensure correct reception of the data bits. ISO 11784 specifies the structure of the identification code.
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The interpretable geologic history of the Kuiper quadrangle is primarily a record of decreasing meteoroid flux during which large craters and basins formed and plains materials were deposited. A decreasing rate of crater production is indicated by progressively fewer craters in each successively younger crater class. Approximately half of the mapped area contains a high density of craters and multiringed basins formed by the intense early bombardment. It is doubtful that any primary crustal material has been preserved without brecciation and redistribution by repeated impacts.
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In parallel to these single-cell methods, other approaches have been developed to reconstruct genetic pathways using whole- organism RNA-sequencing. These methods use a single aggregate statistic, called the transcriptome-wide epistasis coefficient, to guide pathway reconstruction. In contrast with the statistical framework of the methods described above, this coefficient may be more robust to noise and is intuitively interpretable in terms of Batesonian epistasis. This approach was used to identify a new state in the life cycle of the nematode C. elegans.
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A Semantic Service Oriented Architecture (SSOA) is an architecture that allows for scalable and controlled Enterprise Application Integration solutions.Exposing Semantic Web Service principles in SOA to solve EAI scenarios SSOA describes a sophisticated approach to enterprise-scale IT infrastructure. It leverages rich, machine-interpretable descriptions of data, services, and processes to enable software agents to autonomously interact to perform critical mission functions. SSOA is technically founded on three notions: # The principles of Service-oriented architecture (SOA); # Standards Based Design (SBD); and # Semantics-based computing.
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Bruce Herschensohn; Bill Clinton; Sexologists in San Diego; Future Sex 2 by Bruce Herschensohn. Later, at the World Pornography Conference in 1998, he reported a similar conclusion, namely that "no pornographic image is interpretable outside of its historical and social context. Harm or degradation does not reside in the image itself." Cindy Patton, activist and scholar on human sexuality, argues that, in western culture, male sexual fulfillment is synonymous with orgasm and that the male orgasm is an essential punctuation of the sexual narrative.
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For example: a user might first instruct the operating system to load a word processor program from one file, and then edit a document stored in another file with the word processor program. In this example, the document would be considered data. If the word processor also features a spell checker, then the dictionary (word list) for the spell checker would also be considered data. The algorithms used by the spell checker to suggest corrections would be either machine code data or text in some interpretable programming language.
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Many beam HREM images of extremely thin samples are only directly interpretable in terms of a projected crystal structure if they have been recorded under special conditions, i.e. the so- called Scherzer defocus. In that case the positions of the atom columns appear as black blobs in the image (when the spherical aberration coefficient of the objective lens is positive - as always the case for uncorrected TEMs). Difficulties for interpretation of HREM images arise for other defocus values because the transfer properties of the objective lens alter the image contrast as function of the defocus.
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The amount of information that a person can extract from imagery, in general, is not easily and repeatedly reduced to quantifiable and interpretable values (but see Pech et al. 2004; Tkachenko 2005). Sulston and Ferry (2002) wrote about this difficulty in relation to the study of the human genome. Electron microscope images of their model organism (Caenorhabditis elegans) carried a lot of information but were ignored by many scientists because they were not readily quantified, yet that pictorial information ultimately resulted in a deep, and quantifiable, understanding of underlying principles and mechanisms.
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Many audio compression codecs such as MP3 and Opus use a psychoacoustic model to increase compression ratios. The success of conventional audio systems for the reproduction of music in theatres and homes can be attributed to psychoacoustics and psychoacoustic considerations gave rise to novel audio systems, such as psychoacoustic sound field synthesis. Furthermore, scientists have experimented with limited success in creating new acoustic weapons, which emit frequencies that may impair, harm, or kill. Psychoacoustics are also leveraged in sonification to make multiple independent data dimensions audible and easily interpretable.
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Most of the early trials used study designs which would now be considered inadequate to provide a definitive answer on study outcome. For example, before-and-after comparisons were used frequently. Such comparisons are especially unreliable for vector-borne diseases which may show marked variations in incidence from season to season as well as from year to year. Furthermore, in several studies only a single intervention and control area or group were compared despite the fact a single control group cannot provide statistically interpretable results (see n = 1 fallacy).
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Kohlberg's stages of moral development have been read as creating a hierarchy of increasing moral complexity,Society and the Highest Stage of Moral Development ranging from the premoral at the bottom, through the midrange of conventionalism, up to the apex of self- selected morality.Jane Loevinger, Ego Development (1976) p. 119-20 In similar fashion, Robin Skynner viewed moral ideas (such as the 'myths' of Charis Katakis) as being interpretable at different levels, depending on the degree of mental health attained;R. Skynner/J. Cleese, Life and how to survive it (1994) p.
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Later, on The World Pornography Conference in 1998, he reported a similar conclusion, namely that "no pornographic image is interpretable outside of its historical and social context. Harm or degradation does not reside in the image itself".Excerpt from "Among the Pornographers", Matt Labash's coverage of the 1998 World Pornography Conference for The Weekly Standard. Cindy Patton, activist and scholar on human sexuality, claims that in western culture male sexual fulfillment is synonymous with orgasm and that the male orgasm is an essential punctuation of the sexual narrative.
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The title Wenzi 文子 "Master Wen", suffixed with -zi 子 "child; person; master (title of respect)", is analogous with other Hundred Schools of Thought texts like Mozi, Zhuangzi, Guiguzi, and Baopuzi. Wen 文 "written character; literature; refinement; culture" is an infrequent Chinese surname, and hence Wenzi is interpretable as "Master Wen." Wen is also frequently used in given names, posthumous names, et cetera, due to its positive connotations. For example, King Wen of Zhou 周文王 or Kong Wenzi 孔文子 (Analects 5.15, tr. Ames and Rosemont 1998:98-99).
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Visual spatial attention is a form of visual attention that involves directing attention to a location in space. Similar to its temporal counterpart visual temporal attention, these attention modules have been widely implemented in video analytics in computer vision to provide enhanced performance and human interpretable explanation of deep learning models. Spatial attention allows humans to selectively process visual information through prioritization of an area within the visual field. A region of space within the visual field is selected for attention and the information within this region then receives further processing.
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Other work has focused on predicting the gene expression levels in a gene regulatory network. The approaches used to model gene regulatory networks have been constrained to be interpretable and, as a result, are generally simplified versions of the network. For example, Boolean networks have been used due to their simplicity and ability to handle noisy data but lose data information by having a binary representation of the genes. Also, artificial neural networks omit using a hidden layer so that they can be interpreted, losing the ability to model higher order correlations in the data.
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Time of day is also continuously transmitted using a digital time code, interpretable by radio-controlled clocks. The time code uses a 100 Hz subcarrier of the main signal. That is, it is an additional low-level 100 Hz tone added to the other AM audio signals. This code is similar to, and has the same framework as, the IRIG H time code and the time code that WWVB transmits, except the individual fields of the code are rearranged and are transmitted with the least significant bit sent first.
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In the field of biology, bright-field transmission electron microscopy (BF-TEM) and high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) are the primary imaging methods for tomography tilt series acquisition. However, there are two issues associated with BF-TEM and HRTEM. First, acquiring an interpretable 3-D tomogram requires that the projected image intensities vary monotonically with material thickness. This condition is difficult to guarantee in BF/HRTEM, where image intensities are dominated by phase-contrast with the potential for multiple contrast reversals with thickness, making it difficult to distinguish voids from high-density inclusions.
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But the N=1 study can also be executed in an AB quasi experimental way; this means that causality cannot be definitively demonstrated. Another variation is non-concurrent experimental design where different points in time are compared with one another. This experimental design also has a problem with causality, whereby statistical significance under a frequentist paradigm may be un-interpretable but other methods, such as clinical significance or Bayesian methods should be considered. Many consider this framework to be a proof of concept or hypothesis generating process to inform subsequent, larger clinical trials.
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It was in 1975 that, due to a major drought,Jacques Dassié stated: "Our first aerial survey photographs date back to 1962. They revealed nothing decisive or interpretable as Gallo-Roman other than existing structures. It was not until the end of June 1975 due to the combination of cultural conditions and very favourable weather that dramatic results were achieved. In early summer the yellowing grain was particularly revealing and all major areas of a city appeared" that Jacques Dassié took aerial photographs unveiling a more important site than was previously suspected.
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That is, the scores which represent the factor based scales these tests provide do not have enough specific variance to be considered interpretable. In fact, a recent reanalysis of Carroll’s survey of factor-analytic studies by Benson, Beaujean, McGill, and Dombrowski (2018) concluded that nearly all of the specified abilities presented by Carroll “have little-to-no interpretive relevance above and beyond that of general intelligence (p. 1028).” The only exception to these finding is research reported by Canivez (2011) regarding the Cognitive Assessment System (Naglieri & Das, 1997).
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Yu's work leverages computational developments to solve scientific problems by combining statistical machine learning approaches with the domain expertise of many collaborators, spanning many fields including statistics, machine learning, neuroscience, genomics, and remote sensing. Her recent work has focused on solidifying a vision for data science, including a framework for veridical data science and a framework for interpretable machine learning. Yu has received recent news coverage regarding her veridical data science framework, investigations into the theoretical foundations of deep learning, and work forecasting COVID-19 severity in the US.
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Critics (such as R. D. Laing) have argued that this leads to the diagnosis of delusions being based on the subjective understanding of a particular psychiatrist, who may not have access to all the information that might make a belief otherwise interpretable. Another difficulty with the diagnosis of delusions is that almost all of these features can be found in "normal" beliefs. Many religious beliefs hold exactly the same features, yet are not universally considered delusional. For instance, if a person was holding a true belief then they will of course persist with it.
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Typically, post-rock pieces are lengthy and instrumental, containing repetitive build-ups of timbre, dynamics and texture. Vocals are often omitted from post-rock; however, this does not necessarily mean they are absent entirely. When vocals are included, the use is typically non-traditional: some post-rock bands employ vocals as purely instrumental efforts and incidental to the sound, rather than a more traditional use where "clean", easily interpretable vocals are important for poetic and lyrical meaning. When present, post-rock vocals are often soft or droning and are typically infrequent or present in irregular intervals.
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Research scientists at IBM Research published a paper "Towards Automating the AI Operations Lifecycle", which describes the advantages and available technologies for automating more of the process, with the goal of limiting the human involvement required to build, test, and maintain a machine learning application. However, some HCI researchers argue that the machine learning application and its recommendations are inevitably taken by human decision makers, thus it is impossible to eliminate human involvement in the process. Rather, a more transparent and interpretable AutoAI design is the key to gain trust from human users, but such design itself is quite a challenge.
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In 1400 Sadayo was once again questioned by the Bakufu, this time in relation to the Imagawa's province of Tōtōmi's failure to respond to a levy issued by the Bakufu—a negligence interpretable as treason and rebellion. This charge saw Sadayo stripped of his post as constable of Suruga and Tōtōmi provinces, and gave him reason to believe he might be assassinated. With this in mind he fled the capital for a time, though was later pardoned and returned to the capital, spending the rest of his days pursuing religious devotions and poetry until his death in 1420.
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Number 3 further supports this analysis of number 2, because while reading through a printed paper list by hand might be feasible in a theoretical sense, it is not time and cost-efficient in comparison with computer-based searching. Apart from increasing the reuse potential of the services, discoverability is also required to avoid development of solution logic that is already contained in an existing service. To design services that are not only discoverable but also provide interpretable information about their capabilities, the service discoverability principle provides guidelines that could be applied during the service-oriented analysis phase of the service delivery process.
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Assume T and S are formal theories. Slightly simplified, T is said to be interpretable in S if and only if the language of T can be translated into the language of S in such a way that S proves the translation of every theorem of T. Of course, there are some natural conditions on admissible translations here, such as the necessity for a translation to preserve the logical structure of formulas. This concept, together with weak interpretability, was introduced by Alfred Tarski in 1953. Three other related concepts are cointerpretability, logical tolerance, and cotolerance, introduced by Giorgi Japaridze in 1992–93.
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The more fuller the explanation of the task within the statement, the less likely it will be that the experts will resort to making individual guesses about the tasks. The statement should also ensure that any assumptions are clearly stated in an interpretable format for all experts to understand. The optimal level of detail will be governed by the nature of the task under consideration and the required use of the final HEP estimation. 3\. Prepare response booklet These booklets detail the task statement and design of the scale to use in assessing error probability and by which experts can indicate their judgements.
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According to The Einar Jónsson Museum in Reykjavik, after residing in Rome: "Jónsson completely rejected naturalistic depiction and publicly criticized the classical art tradition, which he felt had weighed artists down. He emphasized the need for artists to forge their own path and cultivate their originality and imagination instead of following the footsteps of others. His ideas were related to German symbolism, and he developed a figurative language composed of interpretable symbols, personification and allegory."The Einar Jónsson Museum Brochure, Eiriksgata 3, 101 Reykjavik, IcelandOlafur Kvaran, "Sculptor Einar Jónsson: The Quest for Originality," The Einar Jónsson Museum, 2003.
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The Business Process Simulation (BPSim) framework is a standardized specification that allows business process models captured in either BPMN or XPDL to be augmented with information in support of rigorous methods of analysis. It defines the parameterization and interchange of process analysis data allowing structural and capacity analysis of process models. BPSim is meant to support both pre-execution and post-execution optimization of said process models. The BPSim specification consists of an underlying computer-interpretable representation (meta-model) and an accompanying electronic file format to ease the safeguard and transfer of this data between different tools (interchange format).
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There are several legible and partly interpretable inscription that date from the 1st half of the 5th century such as a Silver neck ring found near Aalen with "noru" inscribed in runic alphabets on its inner edge. others discoveries were unearthed around Germany, Denmark, Norway, Hungary, Belgium, England and Bosnia. The oldest known runestones date to the early 5th century (Einang stone, Kylver Stone). The longest known inscription in the Elder Futhark, and one of the youngest, consists of some 200 characters and is found on the early 8th-century Eggjum stone, and may even contain a stanza of Old Norse poetry.
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In July 2016, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that COMPAS risk scores can be considered by judges during sentencing, but there must be warnings given to the scores to represent the tool's "limitations and cautions." A general critique of the use of proprietary software such COMPAS is that since the algorithms it uses are trade secrets, they cannot be examined by the public and affected parties which may be a violation of due process. Additionally, simple, transparent and more interpretable algorithms (such as linear regression) have been shown to perform predictions approximately as well as the COMPAS algorithm.Robin A. Smith.
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The interpretable geologic history within the Tolstoj quadrangle begins with the period of formation of the intercrater plains, which persisted until shortly after impact of the asteroid that created the Tolstoj Basin. After this event was a period of only slightly less intense bombardment. This period was followed by impact of the asteroid that created the Caloris Basin and deposits of the Caloris Group. Although the intermediate plains were resurfaced at the time of the Caloris impact, their formation actually extended from the end of the intercrater plains-forming period through the end of formation of c3 craters.
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Mên-an-Tol, Cornwall, UK It has been stated that many of the signs or symbols which accompany maze or geometric patterns from sites such as Newgrange in Ireland are identifiable or interpretable as human, the womb (lens symbol), the pubic area (lozenge symbol), fallopian horns (ram's horns), the female form (hour-glass symbol), breasts (w or omega symbol), etc. The vesica piscis shape as found on the lid of the Chalice Well at Glastonbury includes an almond- or lozenge-shaped central area that is seen as a possible representation of the female genitals. MeehanMeehan, Aidan (1996). Celtic design.
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When sphericity has been established, the F-ratio is valid and therefore interpretable. However, if Mauchly's test is significant then the F-ratios produced must be interpreted with caution as the violations of this assumption can result in an increase in the Type I error rate, and influence the conclusions drawn from your analysis. In instances where Mauchly's test is significant, modifications need to be made to the degrees of freedom so that a valid F-ratio can be obtained. In SPSS, three corrections are generated: the Greenhouse–Geisser correction (1959), the Huynh–Feldt correction (1976), and the lower-bound.
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One set of \left( W_Q, W_K, W_V \right) matrices is called an attention head, and each layer in a Transformer model has multiple attention heads. While one attention head attends to the tokens that are relevant to each token, with multiple attention heads the model can learn to do this for different definitions of "relevance". Research has shown that many attention heads in Transformers encode relevance relations that are interpretable by humans. For example there are attention heads that, for every token, attend mostly to the next word, or attention heads that mainly attend from verbs to their direct objects.
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It leveraged the power of the subscriber's PC to maintain session state, handle the user interface, and process applications formed from data and interpretative program objects which were largely pulled from the network when needed. At a time when in the state of the art, distributed objects were handled by RPC equivalents (remote function calls to well known servers in which final results were returned to the caller), Prodigy pioneered the concept of actually returning interpretable, "platform independent" objects to the caller for subsequent processing. U.S. Patent 5,347,632 This approach anticipated such things as Java applets and JavaScript. U.S. Patent 6,199,100Riordan, Teresa.
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Like many commonly used statistics, the sample statistic r is not robust, so its value can be misleading if outliers are present. Specifically, the PMCC is neither distributionally robust, nor outlier resistant (see Robust statistics#Definition). Inspection of the scatterplot between X and Y will typically reveal a situation where lack of robustness might be an issue, and in such cases it may be advisable to use a robust measure of association. Note however that while most robust estimators of association measure statistical dependence in some way, they are generally not interpretable on the same scale as the Pearson correlation coefficient.
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This ring-like spatial representation of neural activity has been shown in flies to underlie head direction, and now, by Fiete, has been shown to represent head direction in mice - like an internal compass. The ring-like shape that the neural activity creates is known as a manifold in computational analyses, a shape represented in multiple dimensions to depict multidimensional data. Its shape and dimensionality represent the data in a more interpretable way. The approach that Fiete describes, using a manifold to depict neural activity, enables blind (unsupervised) discovery and decoding of specific variables using only neural activity as an input.
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Knowledge extraction is the creation of knowledge from structured (relational databases, XML) and unstructured (text, documents, images) sources. The resulting knowledge needs to be in a machine-readable and machine- interpretable format and must represent knowledge in a manner that facilitates inferencing. Although it is methodically similar to information extraction (NLP) and ETL (data warehouse), the main criteria is that the extraction result goes beyond the creation of structured information or the transformation into a relational schema. It requires either the reuse of existing formal knowledge (reusing identifiers or ontologies) or the generation of a schema based on the source data.
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Although return-oriented programming attacks can be performed on a variety of architectures, Shacham's paper and the majority of follow-up work focus on the Intel x86 architecture. The x86 architecture is a variable-length CISC instruction set. Return-oriented programming on the x86 takes advantage of the fact that the instruction set is very "dense", that is, any random sequence of bytes is likely to be interpretable as some valid set of x86 instructions. It is therefore possible to search for an opcode that alters control flow, most notably the return instruction (0xC3) and then look backwards in the binary for preceding bytes that form possibly useful instructions.
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The earliest traces of the commune are attested in the hamlet of Lac where recent archaeological excavations have revealed a Roman villa dating to the beginning of the Empire, as well as a medieval burying-ground. Moulds for counterfeiting coinage found in the 19th century on the slopes of Mont-Toulon had not been interpretable as signifying a local centre of population. Privas possibly comes from the old Gallic word briva meaning thoroughfare, or more specifically a wooden causeway over a ravine or water. This may refer to a river crossing now spanned by the Pont Louis XIII, just to the south of the town centre.
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The first questions about assignment were raised in the early 1980s when Money and others reported an unexpectedly high rate of failure to achieve normal adult sexual relationships (i.e., heterosexual orientation, marriage, and children) in grown women with CAH (though all had female gender identities). However, the sample was small, and results seemed interpretable in many ways: selection bias, early hormone effects on orientation, or sexual dysfunction created by residual body abnormalities or by the genital surgery itself. From a perspective two decades later, the report was one of the first pieces of evidence that the standard management paradigm was not always producing hoped-for outcomes.
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Revenue management strives to determine the value of a product to a very narrow micro-market at a specific moment in time and then chart customer behavior at the margin to determine the maximum obtainable revenue from those micro-markets. Micro-markets can be derived qualitatively by conducting a dimensional analysis. Business customers and leisure customers are two segments, but business customers could be further segmented by the time they fly (those who book late and fly in the morning etc.). Useful tools such as Cluster Analysis allow Revenue Managers to create a set of data-driven partitioning techniques that gather interpretable groups of objects together for consideration.
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In geophysics, geology, civil engineering, and related disciplines, seismic noise is a generic name for a relatively persistent vibration of the ground, due to a multitude of causes, that is often a non-interpretable or unwanted component of signals recorded by seismometers. Physically, seismic noise arises primarily due to surface or near surface sources and thus consists mostly of elastic surface waves. Low frequency waves (below 1 Hz) are commonly called microseisms and high frequency waves (above 1 Hz) are called microtremors. Primary sources of seismic waves include human activities (such as transportation or industrial activities), winds and other atmospheric phenomena, rivers, and ocean waves.
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Male "la la la" vocals complement "Hot", which according to Paul Lester of The Guardian sound "as though a hunky waiter from the local beach cafe wandered into shot". BBC's Fraser McAlpine noticed that the singer "is clearly using the words to this song as a kind of percussion to break up the music", which contains "ticky" synthesizer sounds similar to German band Boney M.'s "Ma Baker" (1977), and "trancey, hypnotic" beats. The word "hot" is never mentioned throughout the single. According to Inna, its verses and refrain are interpretable, with her stating that the "Do it like a woman" lines were not meant to have a pornographic connotation.
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Although visual stimuli are fundamentally multi-interpretable, the human visual system usually has a clear preference for only one interpretation. To explain this preference, SIT introduced a formal coding model starting from the assumption that the perceptually preferred interpretation of a stimulus is the one with the simplest code. A simplest code is a code with minimum information load, that is, a code that enables a reconstruction of the stimulus using a minimum number of descriptive parameters. Such a code is obtained by capturing a maximum amount of visual regularity and yields a hierarchical organization of the stimulus in terms of wholes and parts.
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One of the main tools used for connectomics research at the macroscale level is diffusion MRI. The main tool for connectomics research at the microscale level is chemical brain preservation followed by 3D electron microscopy, used for neural circuit reconstruction. Correlative microscopy, which combines fluorescence with 3D electron microscopy, results in more interpretable data as is it able to automatically detect specific neuron types and can trace them in their entirety using fluorescent markers. To see one of the first micro- connectomes at full-resolution, visit the Open Connectome Project, which is hosting several connectome datasets, including the 12TB dataset from Bock et al. (2011).
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Richard Evans (born 23 October 1969) is an artificial intelligence (AI) research scientist at DeepMind. His research focuses on integrating declarative interpretable logic-based systems with neural networksLearning Explanatory Rules from Noisy DataThe deepest problem with deep learningCan Neural Networks Understand Logical Entailment, and on formal models of Kant's Critique of Pure ReasonFormalizing Kant's RulesHigh-level Perception and Program Synthesis, FLoC, Oxford, 2018 Previously, he designed the AI for a number of computer games. He was the co-founder, along with Emily Short, of Little Text People, developing real-time multiplayer interactive fiction. Little Text People was acquired by Linden Lab in January 2012 for an undisclosed sum.
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The Spanish Inquisition (Inquisición Española) is interpretable as a response to the multi-religious nature of Spanish society following the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslim Moors. After invading in 711, large areas of the Iberian Peninsula were ruled by Muslims until 1250, afterwards they were restricted to Granada, which fell in 1492. However, the Reconquista did not result in the total expulsion of Muslims from Spain, since they, along with Jews, were tolerated by the ruling Christian elite. Large cities, especially Seville, Valladolid and Barcelona, had significant Jewish populations centered on Juderia, but in the coming years the Muslims became increasingly alienated and relegated from power centers.
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In mathematical logic, weak interpretability is a notion of translation of logical theories, introduced together with interpretability by Alfred Tarski in 1953. Let T and S be formal theories. Slightly simplified, T is said to be weakly interpretable in S if, and only if, the language of T can be translated into the language of S in such a way that the translation of every theorem of T is consistent with S. Of course, there are some natural conditions on admissible translations here, such as the necessity for a translation to preserve the logical structure of formulas. A generalization of weak interpretability, tolerance, was introduced by Giorgi Japaridze in 1992.
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The act of formulating speech and reaching the initial coordination is where the conversation co-exists between the two parties. The "actions of each person affect and are mutually affected by those of the other person in a coevolving conversation. The unfolding of action is reflexively interpretable within various levels of nested narrative or meaning of contexts". This in some cases is similar to relational transformation, which is "thought to be and emerge out of this combination of increased awareness and strength regarding ones own needs, together with increased appreciation and compassion toward the needs of the other party" and where this understanding is taking place in coordination.
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Similar to its spatial counterpart visual spatial attention, these attention modules have been widely implemented in video analytics in computer vision to provide enhanced performance and human interpretable explanation of deep learning models. As visual spatial attention mechanism allows human and/or computer vision systems to focus more on semantically more substantial regions in space, visual temporal attention modules enable machine learning algorithms to emphasize more on critical video frames in video analytics tasks, such as human action recognition. In convolutional neural network-based systems, the prioritization introduced by the attention mechanism is regularly implemented as a linear weighting layer with parameters determined by labeled training data.
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Levels of LH/FSH may be suppressed by a raised prolactin level, and are therefore not interpretable unless prolactin is low or normal. In men, the combination of low LH and FSH in combination with a low testosterone confirms LH/FSH deficiency; a high testosterone would indicate a source elsewhere in the body (such as a testosterone-secreting tumor). In women, the diagnosis of LH/FSH deficiency depends on whether the woman has been through the menopause. Before the menopause, abnormal menstrual periods together with low estradiol and LH/FSH levels confirm a pituitary problem; after the menopause (when LH/FSH levels are normally elevated and the ovaries produce less estradiol), inappropriately low LH/FSH alone is sufficient.
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Hershel Parker agrees that "masterpiece" is an appropriate description of the book, but he adds a proviso. > Examining the history and reputation of Billy Budd has left me more > convinced than before that it deserves high stature (although not precisely > the high stature it holds, whatever that stature is) and more convinced that > it is a wonderfully teachable story—as long as it is not taught as a > finished, complete, coherent, and totally interpretable work of art. Given this unfinished quality and Melville's reluctance to present clear lessons, the range of critical response is not surprising. Some critics have interpreted Billy Budd as a historical novel that attempts to evaluate man's relation to the past.
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The in-fiction etymology, according to the essay The Istari in Unfinished Tales, is that the name Radagast means "tender of beasts" in Adûnaic, another of Tolkien's fictional languages. However, Christopher Tolkien says that his father intended to change this derivation and bring Radagast in line with the other wizard-names, Gandalf and Saruman, by associating it with the old language of the Men of the Vales of Anduin. No alternative meaning is provided with this new association; indeed, Tolkien stated that the name was "not now clearly interpretable". His title The Brown is simply a reference to his earth-brown robes; each of the wizards had a cloak of a different colour.
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GTS is mutually interpretable with Peano arithmetic (thus it has the same proof-theoretic strength as PA); The most remarkable fact about ST (and hence GST), is that these tiny fragments of set theory give rise to such rich metamathematics. While ST is a small fragment of the well-known canonical set theories ZFC and NBG, ST interprets Robinson arithmetic (Q), so that ST inherits the nontrivial metamathematics of Q. For example, ST is essentially undecidable because Q is, and every consistent theory whose theorems include the ST axioms is also essentially undecidable.Burgess (2005), 2.2, p. 91. This includes GST and every axiomatic set theory worth thinking about, assuming these are consistent.
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Considering the multiple competing demands on your attention (the simultaneous observation, processing, and recording of rich qualitative data in an unfamiliar environment), perfecting a system that you can automatically use and know will be interpretable later allows you to allocate your full attention to observation. The ability to distinguish notes about events themselves from notes to yourself is a key feature of your personal language. Prior to engaging in qualitative research for the first time, practicing a transcribing format beforehand can improve the likelihood of successful observation. Convert field notes to full notes daily: prior to discussion of your observations with anyone else, you should set aside time each day to convert your field notes.
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Her work specializes in the interface between syntax and semantics, and has worked on the interpretable features of both the nominal and the clausal domains. She has written about the features of tense and aspect in English and Spanish, arguing that the tense and aspect features are arranged in a hierarchical feature geometry (Cowper 2005a). She has also claimed, in Cowper (2005b) that plural number is more marked than dual number, in other words that plural can be more complex than dual. She is the author of A Concise Introduction to Syntactic Theory: The Government-Binding Approach (University of Chicago Press), which is still in print after 22 years, and which has been translated into Korean.
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Revelle and Rocklin's (1979) VSS criterion operationalizes this tendency by assessing the extent to which the original correlation matrix is reproduced by a simplified pattern matrix, in which only the highest loading for each item is retained, all other loadings being set to zero. The VSS criterion for assessing the extent of replication can take values between 0 and 1, and is a measure of the goodness-of-fit of the factor solution. The VSS criterion is gathered from factor solutions that involve one factor (k = 1) to a user-specified theoretical maximum number of factors. Thereafter, the factor solution that provides the highest VSS criterion determines the optimal number of interpretable factors in the matrix.
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Similar factors have led to criticisms of Jaspers' definition of true delusions as being ultimately 'un-understandable'. Critics (such as R. D. Laing) have argued that this leads to the diagnosis of delusions being based on the subjective understanding of a particular psychiatrist, who may not have access to all the information that might make a belief otherwise interpretable. R. D. Laing's hypothesis has been applied to some forms of projective therapy to "fix" a delusional system so that it cannot be altered by the patient. Psychiatric researchers at Yale University, Ohio State University and the Community Mental Health Center of Middle Georgia have used novels and motion picture films as the focus.
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The C#3.0 specification defines a Query Expression Pattern along with translation rules from a LINQ expression to an expression in a subset of C# 3.0 without LINQ expressions. The translation thus defined is actually un-typed, which, in addition to lambda expressions being interpretable as either delegates or expression trees, allows for a great degree of flexibility for libraries wishing to expose parts of their interface as LINQ expression clauses. For example, LINQ to Objects works on `IEnumerable`s and with delegates, whereas LINQ to SQL makes use of the expression trees. The expression trees are at the core of the LINQ extensibility mechanism, by which LINQ can be adapted for many data sources.
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The formative list, sometimes called the lexicon (this term will be avoided here) in Distributed Morphology includes all the bundles of semantic and sometimes syntactic features that can enter the syntactic computation. These are interpretable or uninterpretable features (such as [+/- animate], [+/- count], etc.) which are manipulated in syntax through the traditional syntactic operations (such as Merge, Move or Agree in the Minimalist framework). These bundles of features do not have any phonological content; phonological content is assigned to them only at spell-out, that is after all syntactic operations are over. The Formative List in Distributed Morphology differs, thus, from the Lexicon in traditional generative grammar, which includes the lexical items (such as words and morphemes) in a language.
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He said "Billman should be congratulated for his willingness to take on what is clearly an extraordinarily complex problem area" and praised him for "[encouraging] blue sky thinking" is his contributions to the book. He also congratulated the chapter authors for making "complex discussions not only interpretable, but topical". Kowey concluded "I would recommend this book to my colleagues and fellows, not only as a reference source, but as a compendium of information that summarizes where we are, and most importantly, the path we must take." In a review for ChemMedChem, medicinal chemistry professor Ahmed S. Mehanna agreed that Novel Therapeutic Targets for Antiarrhythmic Drugs did not adequately cover clinical aspects of drug development.
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Often the mechanism by which an immunoassay is able to overcome this low level activity is to dilute the serum so that the low level microbial reactive antibodies are not seen, and only high-level specific antibodies result in an interpretable result. In contrast, FSL Kode constructs usually use specifically selected peptide fragments (up to 40 amino acids), thereby overcoming cross-reactivity with microbial sequences, and allowing for the use of undiluted serum (which increases sensitivity). The F component can be further enhanced by presentation of it in multimeric formats and with specific spacing. The four types of multimeric format include linear repeating units, linear repeating units with spacing, clusters, and branching (Fig. 4).
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Structuralist ideas kept up to inform the work of important architects during and after the postmodern era, which is estimated to have ended by 1995. Nakagin Capsule Tower in Tokyo, Primary structure: two towers, secondary elements: capsules, 1972 (Kisho Kurokawa) Yamanashi Culture Chamber in Kofu, Prototype of an interpretable, adaptable and expandable architecture, 1967 (Kenzo Tange) Tokyo Bay, in 1960 Kenzo Tange designed the structuralist Tokyo Bay Plan (ill. see Metabolism) The theoretical concepts of structuralism in architecture were developed mainly in Europe and Japan, with important contributions of the United States and Canada. Contributions in architectural magazines by and his compilation of structuralist projects published in 1980 (Structuralism in Architecture and Urban Planning) introduced structuralism to a wider audience.
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Therefore, the two theories are, in one sense, incomparable. That said, there are other, more powerful ways to compare the strength of theories, the most important of which is defined in terms of the notion of interpretability. It can be shown that, if one theory T is interpretable in another B, then T is consistent if B is. (Indeed, this is a large point of the notion of interpretability.) And, assuming that T is not extremely weak, T itself will be able to prove this very conditional: If B is consistent, then so is T. Hence, T cannot prove that B is consistent, by the second incompleteness theorem, whereas B may well be able to prove that T is consistent.
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In the later part of his career, he worked on mathematical logic and the foundations of mathematics. One of his goals was to extend IST (Internal Set Theory—a version of a portion of Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis) in a natural manner that includes external functions and sets, in a way that provides an external function with specified properties unless there is a finitary obstacle to its existence. Other work centered on fragments of arithmetic, studying the divide between those theories interpretable in Raphael Robinson's Arithmetic and those that are not; computational complexity, including the problem of whether P is equal to NP or not; and automated proof checking. In September 2011, Nelson announced that he had proved that Peano arithmetic was logically inconsistent.
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Similar is the situation in the case of charged- particle optics. Let us recall that in relativistic quantum mechanics too one has a similar problem of understanding the relativistic wave equations as the nonrelativistic approximation plus the relativistic correction terms in the quasi-relativistic regime. For the Dirac equation (which is first-order in time) this is done most conveniently using the Foldy–Wouthuysen transformation leading to an iterative diagonalization technique. The main framework of the newly developed formalisms of optics (both light optics and charged-particle optics) is based on the transformation technique of Foldy–Wouthuysen theory which casts the Dirac equation in a form displaying the different interaction terms between the Dirac particle and an applied electromagnetic field in a nonrelativistic and easily interpretable form.
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It replaced this for its own businesses with a revitalised version of its late 1960s "Co-op" logo in 2016. The business has long established itself as an ethical retailer, allowing women the same democratic rights within the society as men since its founding and was the first major UK retailer to champion Fairtrade. The Co-operative Group has also pioneered a number of other initiatives which are now commonplace, including providing easily interpretable nutritional information on its own brand food, raising animal welfare standards, installing their own renewable energy generation and investing significantly in community projects (1% of members' own-brand spend goes to a local cause of their choice). It has held the Fair Tax Mark since 2015.
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For example, lay one's cards on the table meaning to reveal previously unknown intentions, or to reveal a secret. Transparency is a matter of degree; spill the beans (to let secret information become known) and leave no stone unturned (to do everything possible in order to achieve or find something) are not entirely literally interpretable, but only involve a slight metaphorical broadening. Another category of idioms is a word having several meanings, sometimes simultaneously, sometimes discerned from the context of its usage. This is seen in the (mostly uninflected) English language in polysemes, the common use of the same word for an activity, for those engaged in it, for the product used, for the place or time of an activity, and sometimes for a verb.
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In statistics, the principle of marginality is the fact that the average (or main) effects, of variables in an analysis are marginal to their interaction effect—that is, the main effect of one explanatory variable captures the effect of that variable averaged over all values of a second explanatory variable whose value influences the first variable's effect. The principle of marginality implies that, in general, it is wrong to test, estimate, or interpret main effects of explanatory variables where the variables interact or, similarly, to model interaction effects but delete main effects that are marginal to them.Fox, J. Regression Notes. While such models are interpretable, they lack applicability, as they ignore the dependence of a variable's effect upon another variable's value.
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Five periods were postulated by Murray and others (1975) to constitute the history of Mercury’s surface: (1) accretion and differentiation; (2) terminal bombardment; (3) formation of the Caloris Basin; (4) flooding of that basin and other areas; and (5) light cratering on the smooth plains. Only the periods following accretion are directly interpretable within the Borealis region. Intercrater plains material, which may be a reworked and mixed aggregate of impact and volcanic deposits, was emplaced over a long period that extended past the creation of the Goethe Basin and many smaller basins and craters. The scarps and troughs that trend across intercrater plains material may indicate an early compressional episode that followed even earlier expansion and differentiation of the crust.
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However, this theoretical approach has been continually disproved because the two cognitive functions for color-perception and word-forming are operating separately and simultaneously, not parallel of each other. The field of cognition may have benefitted from the use of connectionist network but setting up the neural network models can be quite a tedious task and the results may be less interpretable than the system they are trying to model. Therefore, the results may be used as evidence for a broad theory of cognition without explaining the particular process happening within the cognitive function. Other disadvantages of connectionism lie in the research methods it employs or hypothesis it tests as they have been proven inaccurate or ineffective often, taking connectionist models away from an accurate representation of how the brain functions.
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In general, a test statistic is selected or defined in such a way as to quantify, within observed data, behaviours that would distinguish the null from the alternative hypothesis, where such an alternative is prescribed, or that would characterize the null hypothesis if there is no explicitly stated alternative hypothesis. An important property of a test statistic is that its sampling distribution under the null hypothesis must be calculable, either exactly or approximately, which allows p-values to be calculated. A test statistic shares some of the same qualities of a descriptive statistic, and many statistics can be used as both test statistics and descriptive statistics. However, a test statistic is specifically intended for use in statistical testing, whereas the main quality of a descriptive statistic is that it is easily interpretable.
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His works are, indeed, dialogues; Plato's choice of this, the medium of Sophocles, Euripides, and the fictions of theatre, may reflect the ever-interpretable nature of his writings, as he has been called a "dramatist of reason". What is more, the first word of nearly all Plato's works is a significant term for that respective dialogue, and is used with its many connotations in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and the Symposium each allude to Socrates's coy delivery of philosophic truths in conversation; the Socrates of the Phaedrus goes so far as to demand such dissembling and mystery in all writing. The covertness we often find in Plato, appearing here and there couched in some enigmatic use of symbol and/or irony, may be at odds with the mysticism Plato's Socrates expounds in some other dialogues.
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In linguistics, the aspect of a verb is a grammatical category that defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in a given action, event, or state. As its name suggests, the habitual aspect' (abbreviated '), not to be confused with iterative aspect or frequentative aspect, specifies an action as occurring habitually: the subject performs the action usually, ordinarily, or customarily. As such, the habitual aspect provides structural information on the nature of the subject referent, "John smokes" being interpretable as "John is a smoker", "Enjoh habitually gets up early in the morning" as "Enjoh is an early bird". The habitual aspect is a type of imperfective aspect, which does not depict an event as a single entity viewed only as a whole but instead specifies something about its internal temporal structure.
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Other considerations of the possibility of avoiding unwieldy large numbers can be based on computational complexity theory, as in Andras Kornai's work on explicit finitism (which does not deny the existence of large numbers)"Relation to foundations" and Vladimir Sazonov's notion of feasible number. There has also been considerable formal development on versions of ultrafinitism that are based on complexity theory, like Samuel Buss's Bounded Arithmetic theories, which capture mathematics associated with various complexity classes like P and PSPACE. Buss's work can be considered the continuation of Edward Nelson's work on predicative arithmetic as bounded arithmetic theories like S12 are interpretable in Raphael Robinson's theory Q and therefore are predicative in Nelson's sense. The power of these theories for developing mathematics is studied in Bounded reverse mathematics as can be found in the works of Stephen A. Cook and Phuong The Nguyen.
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If L, M and N are three structures, L is interpreted in M, and M is interpreted in N, then one can naturally construct a composite interpretation of L in N. If two structures M and N are interpreted in each other, then by combining the interpretations in two possible ways, one obtains an interpretation of each of the two structures in itself. This observation permits one to define an equivalence relation among structures, reminiscent of the homotopy equivalence among topological spaces. Two structures M and N are bi-interpretable if there exists an interpretation of M in N and an interpretation of N in M such that the composite interpretations of M in itself and of N in itself are definable in M and in N, respectively (the composite interpretations being viewed as operations on M and on N).
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The construction of the bridge at the end of the nineteenth century was a major and technically challenging undertaking incorporating sophisticated structural engineering for its time. The early suspension bridge form is well suited to the site, with its deep, sheer sided ravine, and the necessity for a single long span was exemplified by loss of the previous two spanned, timber truss bridge to a major flood. Notwithstanding, the loss of some original fabric over time necessitated by maintenance and structural reasons, the defining components of the bridge (towers and suspension system) are readily visible and interpretable from deck level and from public spaces provided to each side of the bridge, its context and setting and in the gully below. The movement of the deck and cables as heavy traffic passes across the bridge is a distinctive experience for drivers, pedestrians and observers.
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In 1995 in the Human Development Report commissioned by the United Nations Development Program set-out to create two new measurement indices for measuring development. Their aim was to add to the Human Development Index by way of including a gender dimension in the measure. They were created in order to rival the traditional income-focused measures of development such as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the Gross National Product (GNP). Mahbub ul Haq, the first director of the Human Development Report Office, established several principles for the newly emerging measure including provisions that it had to be simple, had to be represented as a single number, had to be easily calculated, had to yield numbers that were internationally comparable, had to use numbers available on a yearly basis and had to use numbers that were easily interpretable.
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This is a phenomenon that Alicke and Govorun have described as "the nature of the judgement dimension" and refers to how subjective (abstract) or objective (concrete) the ability or characteristic being evaluated is. Research by Sedikides & Strube (1997) has found that people are more self-serving (the effect of illusory superiority is stronger) when the event in question is more open to interpretation, for example social constructs such as popularity and attractiveness are more interpretable than characteristics such as intelligence and physical ability. This has been partly attributed also to the need for a believable self-view. The idea that ambiguity moderates illusory superiority has empirical research support from a study involving two conditions: in one, participants were given criteria for assessing a trait as ambiguous or unambiguous, and in the other participants were free to assess the traits according to their own criteria.
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Advantages include low fragmentation – only a small amount of energy is transferred during the ionization process (compared to e.g. electron ionization), therefore fragmentation is suppressed and the obtained mass spectra are easily interpretable, no sample preparation is necessary – VOC containing air and liquids' headspaces can be analyzed directly, real-time measurements – with a typical response time of 100 ms VOCs can be monitored on-line, real-time quantification – absolute concentrations are obtained directly without previous calibration measurements, compact and robust setup – due to the simple design and the low number of parts needed for a PTR-MS instrument, it can be built in into space saving and even mobile housings, easy to operate – for the operation of a PTR-MS only electric power and a small amount of distilled water are needed. Unlike other techniques no gas cylinders are needed for buffer gas or calibration standards.
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Also, at the time, ridge regression was the most popular technique for improving prediction accuracy. Ridge regression improves prediction error by shrinking large regression coefficients in order to reduce overfitting, but it does not perform covariate selection and therefore does not help to make the model more interpretable. Lasso is able to achieve both of these goals by forcing the sum of the absolute value of the regression coefficients to be less than a fixed value, which forces certain coefficients to be set to zero, effectively choosing a simpler model that does not include those coefficients. This idea is similar to ridge regression, in which the sum of the squares of the coefficients is forced to be less than a fixed value, though in the case of ridge regression, this only shrinks the size of the coefficients, it does not set any of them to zero.
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This is easier to use on a keyboard, and the familiarity of graphemes used for Spanish reduces the possibility of confusion. For example, to represent the palatal nasal /ɲ/ in the word meaning 'nothing', Italian norms require a digraph, thus gnent, whereas the Spanish system provides a uniquely interpretable single grapheme familiar to Chipileños schooled in Mexico: ñent. Some considerations: a) the grave accent is used with è and ò to indicate that the pronunciation of the vowel is open, e.g. [ɛ] spècho (mirror) and [ɔ] stòrder (twist); b) the acute accent is used to indicate an undetermined tonic accent c) ‘zh’ is used to indicate the voiceless dental fricative (θ) e.g. giazh (ice) d) ‘ch’ is used to represent the voiceless postalveolar affricate (t͡ʃ) e.g., (converse), ranch (spider) or (cheese) e) ‘ge’ or ‘gi’ is used for the voiced postalveolar affricate (ʤ) which does not exist in Spanish orthography.
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Obermiller, describing the curriculum of Drepung's (’Bras spungs) Go mang college, reports that the monks studied the AA in a four-year sequence (after certain preliminary subjects); and that each class also studied a prescribed "secondary subject" (zur-bkol) for that year: :First class: Introduction to the AA as well as the special topic, the "Twenty Sangha." :Second class: Finished through the seventh topic of the first AA chapter; the supplementary topic was dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) :Third class: Finished the first AA chapter and continued; also studied the Yogacara theory of the storehouse consciousness (ālāyavijñāna), and the difference between definitive and interpretable scripture as taught by Mādhyamaka and Yogācāra. :Fourth class: Focused on the fourth chapter of the AA ("which is regarded as the most difficult"), supplemented with "the teaching about the four degrees of trance in the sphere of Etherial Bodies...and the four degrees of mystic absorption in the Immaterial Sphere." The fourth-year students would conclude with a celebratory feast.
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For Peirce's definitions of semiosis, sign, representamen, object, interpretant, see the Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms. Even when a sign represents by a resemblance or factual connection independent of interpretation, the sign is a sign because it is at least potentially interpretable. A sign depends on its object in a way that enables (and, in a sense, determines) interpretation, forming an interpretant which, in turn, depends on the sign and on the object as the sign depends on the object and is thus a further sign, enabling and determining still further interpretation, further interpretants. That essentially triadic process is logically structured to perpetuate itself and is what defines sign, object, and interpretant. An object either (1) is immediate to a sign, and that is the object as represented in the sign, or (2) is a dynamic object, which is the object as it really is, on which the immediate object is founded.
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On the two highest terraces of the hill so far three settlement phases were detected archaeologically. (I) The earliest settlement dates from the period 1300 - 970 BC (14C data); previously no associated architectural remains were found, but layers and a wide variety of finds. At least one predecessor of the fortified wall that surrounds Terrace I and II is contemporary to this earliest phase. The carved lime rock ashlars that were embedded in the later architecture (II-III) as building material could originate from a cult or representative building of this earliest phase or a little later from the period 900-700 BC. The three largest and most interpretable fragments that were found so far show (a) the head of a decorated lion, (b) a woman or child with a goat, and (c) with a (a-b) stylistically similar illustration of two (seated?) beardless persons, each are holding an instrument in front of them that surmount their heads considerably, maybe a harp.
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Justification for TT has been sought in two fields: Martha E. Rogers' contemporal "Science of Unitary Human Beings", and quantum mechanics, in particular Fritjof Capra's mystical interpretation of the latter. A 2002 review found that neither justification was tenable: Rogers' theories were found to be inconsistent with the tenets of TT, while the overlap in terminology between the two could be ascribed to a lack of precision in Rogers' works, making them multi-interpretable. The quantum physics justification holds that the possibility to heal at a distance is possible due to a "global interconnectivity" of the universe, which is connected by TT adherents to an interpretation of Bell's theorem and the possibility of quantum nonlocality; this interpretation is not supported by experimental evidence. The 2002 study concluded that "the theory TT possesses is deprived of explanatory power" and "evidence that supports the current picture of physical energy should be regarded as evidence against the theory of TT".
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This development of a Celtic legal terminology seems to have taken place some time in later prehistory, with the conventional date given as roughly 1000 BC, even though this may be several centuries off. While based on generally similar principles, legal evolution took place locally or at the most regionally, to suit the requirements of any given society. Interaction between these different societies then must have resulted in useful innovations being adopted and adapted for their own respective needs by many societies, and less useful practices being abandoned as a result. It thus is quite likely that both the early medieval Irish and Welsh laws, the two that have survived for posterity in sufficient detail to be reasonable interpretable, are local developments, having originated where they are documented, but constantly subject to outside influence and internal innovation, and thus not particularly dissimilar to other laws practised in their vicinity at the time they were recorded.
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The east side of the yard, as well as the brickworks which were in the west side of the yard itself, have been fully removed over the time, probably when, in recent times, the area has been terraced with agricultural aims and wide earth movings have been carried out. On the north side of the yard, there are four adjoining spaces, with floor made of ground, used perhaps in the past as service areas, or as shelter for the tools. The southern part of the yard, today covered, is, on the contrary, fully occupied by one area only, rather narrow and elongated, interpretable as a stable. Some tiles, cemented along the wall limiting the inner side of the yard, slightly sloping towards the external, seem actually canalizations for the discharge of sewage, while in the near small basin, whose bottom covered with mortar and pottery fragments is still kept, it is possible to see a drinking trough.
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Teeuw notes that it is difficult, if not impossible, to identify a single theme which unites all of Anwar's work, as his poems reflect his state of mind at the time of writing. Teeuw writes that the only feature common to all of Anwar's work is an intensity and joie de vivre that reflects Anwar's radicalism, which permeated all aspects of his life. Individual poems, though at times full of excitement, generally reflect a fear of death or depression, to the point that it is impossible to identify "the true Chairil [Anwar]". Aside from that, Anwar's works are multi-interpretable, with every reader able to take what they want from his poems; Teeuw notes that the Japanese overlords read "Diponegoro" as a challenge to white colonialists, Indonesia's Christians read "Doa" ("Prayer") and "Isa" ("Jesus") as proof that Anwar had a positive view of Christianity, and Indonesia's Muslims read "Dimesjid" ("At the Mosque") as proof that Anwar "met with Allah in a mosque and fought with Him".
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Linguists have also posited that the demise of both Brittonic and Latin in what is now England suggest that the traditional view of the migration of the Angles and Saxons is correct in that it was far more substantial than those of the Franks, Lombards, and Visigoths, for whom the notion of a "warrior elite" is more applicable. There are, however, isolated indications of Latin's survival in the Celtic population. Pockets of spoken Latin may have survived as isolates in regions otherwise dominated by Anglo- Saxon Germanic. As late as the 8th century, the Saxon inhabitants of St Albans, near the Roman city of Verulamium, were aware of their ancient neighbour, which they knew alternatively as Verulamacæstir (or, under what H. R. Loyn terms "their own hybrid", Vaeclingscæstir, "the fortress of the followers of Wæcla") interpretable as a pocket of Romano-Britons that remained within the Anglo-Saxon countryside, probably speaking their own local neo- Latin idiom.
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The central question proposed by Wonderful Life is that if life initially proliferated into a greater variety of phyla than currently exist and were subsequently decimated by the stochastic grim reaper of extinction, what then can be said about the inevitability of human intelligence and superiority? Additionally, Gould asks what role historical contingencies play in the evolution of life on Earth. It is these central ideas which prompt Gould to propose a thought experiment called “replaying the tape of life.” Its central essence is this: if we rewind the clock and replay the history of life on Earth numerous times, will we consistently see the same outcome that is the reality we experience today? The outcome of this thought experiment has two possible interpretations, elaborated by Gould, Gould’s opinion, and the central argument of Wonderful Life, is that “any replay of the tape of life would lead evolution down a pathway radically different from the road actually taken.” Additionally, Gould argues, no outcome can be predicated from the start, but the resulting pattern that emerges after replaying the tape of life would be just as interpretable and logical as our current situation.
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