1000 Sentences With "diploid" | Random Sentence Generator

Will we ever see one of these new diploid potatoes?

Teams of researchers are now working to realize these diploid potatoes.

Dalle's criminally underrated solo LP Diploid Love came out in 2014.

So the first step was to change the triploid into a diploid.

But one issue is that these diploid potatoes would expose generations of inbreeding.

The diploid can reproduce because it can divide its genetic chromosome in half.

While most creatures (including human beings) are diploid (we have two chromosomes), Allen's invention has three.

At the moment, it's not an obligation to tell the buyer if they're getting a triploid or a diploid.

We had this hypothesis that if you made a normally diploid animal into a triploid, it would have reproductive issues.

One the left is a haploid cell with 23 chromosomes, and on the right is a diploid cell with 46 chromosomes.

Human cells are considered diploid because they inherit two sets of chromosomes, 23 from the mother and 23 from the father.

So, if you take a tetraploid and you cross it with a diploid (both of which can reproduce), all their progeny are triploid.

But isolating and understanding specific gene abnormalities is challenging with diploid cells because they typically have a copy that is normal and serves as a backup.

While the idea failed to take off at first, 14 years later, Allen created yet another creature, the tetraploid (four chromosomes) which, when mated with the diploid, produced the magic, tasty triploid.

A team of scientists meeting in 2016 at the University of Wisconsin-Madison proposed a new idea—reinventing the potato as a diploid crop, one with two, rather than four, sets of chromosomes.

"These ticks are parthenogenetic, which means that females create diploid eggs (with a full set of the mother's DNA) that develop into adults without needing the DNA of a male," she wrote in an email.

The researchers hope it will serve as a basis for designing these new diploid potato lines, and hopefully to understanding how years of clonal propagation can affect the overall fitness of a plant species more generally.

That is in part because humans are diploid, with two sets of chromosomes, whereas the chromosomes of bread wheat come in sets of six (which correspond to the three ancient wheats of which bread wheat is a hybrid).

If you truly believe that human life is sacred, right down to an invisible diploid cell, then you have no business letting the state put people to death in your name, even if those people have committed hideous crimes.

When diploid oysters are fully ripe, you can by far taste the difference: It's the difference between a sort of sweetish, full mouthfeel on the triploid versus a sort of mushier and more fatty-like mouthfeel to the ripe oyster.

They have sequenced and analyzed hundreds of genomes, and have published numerous important papers covering such areas as environmental genomics, the first complete diploid human genome, and the groundbreaking advance in creating the first self- replicating bacterial cell constructed entirely with synthetic DNA.

Unlike with most other fungi, diploid cells of different mating types fuse to create tetraploid cells which subsequently return to the diploid state by losing chromosomes.

Species that have both diploid and tetraploid populations include P. clusii, P. mairei and P. obovata. P. anomala was proven to be a hybrid of P. lactiflora and P. veitchii, although being a diploid with 10 chromosomes. P. emodi and P. sterniana are diploid hybrids of P. lactiflora and P. veitchii too, and radically different in appearance. P. russi is the tetraploid hybrid of diploid P. lactiflora and P. mairei, while P. cambedessedesii is the diploid hybrid of P. lactiflora, likely P. mairei, but possibly also P. obovata.

An oogonium (plural oogonia) is a small diploid cell which, upon maturation, forms a primordial follicle in a female fetus or the female (haploid or diploid) gametangium of certain thallophytes.

Occasionally, two haploid nuclei fuse to form a diploid nucleus—with two homologous copies of each chromosome. The mechanism is largely unknown, and it seems to be a relatively rare event, but once a diploid nucleus has been formed it can be very stable and divide to form further diploid nuclei, along with the normal haploid nuclei. Thus the heterokaryon consists of a mixture of the two original haploid nuclear types as well as diploid fusion nuclei.

At that time, Herb Wagner showed that sterile A. × ebenoides was diploid, while the fertile individuals had arisen from the diploid by allopolyploidy and were tetraploid. Wagner went on to sow a large number of spores from a Maryland population of A. × ebenoides on culture media. While the vast majority of these were sterile, a small number were unreduced, diploid, and fertile. When these diploid spores fertilized one another, they formed allotetraploid zygotes that grew into sporophytes.

Pueraria phaseoloides is a diploid species. Depending on the source, the cytological characteristics show different results. The diploid number is probably 20 or 22. Some authors found also 24 chromosomes, this results is disputable.

The remainder of the species belongs to the section Paeonia, which is characterised by a complicated reticulate evolution. Only about half of the (sub)species is diploid, the other half tetraploid, while some species both have diploid and tetraploid populations. In addition to the tetraploids, are some diploid species also likely the result of hybridisation, or nothospecies. Known diploid taxa in the Paeonia-section are P. anomala, P. lactiflora, P. veitchii, P. tenuifolia, P. emodi, P. broteri, P. cambedessedesii, P. clusii, P. rhodia, P. daurica subsps.

Acorus americanus was formerly classified as Acorus calamus var. americanus. It differs only in being a fertile diploid (2n = 24)], whereas most of the A. calamus of Europe and Asia is a sterile triploid species, that only spreads asexually. Diploid plants in northern Asia may be representatives of A. americanus. Also as a diploid it does not produce b-asarone.

154(3): 291–304. It is cultivated by grafting. Sorbus × thuringiaca is the diploid hybrid between S. aucuparia and diploid S. aria. It is rare in the wild, but occurs at scattered sites across much of Europe.

This subspecies is diploid with a chromosome number of 28 (2n = 28).

Paeonia mairei has both diploid and tetraploid populations (2n=10, 4n=20).

In South America and Australia the diploid variant S.madagascariensis is highly invasive.

Coccolithophorids are predominantly found as single, free-floating haploid or diploid cells.

Alternation of generations is defined as the alternation of multicellular diploid and haploid forms in the organism's life cycle, regardless of whether or not these forms are free- living. In some species, such as the alga Ulva lactuca, the diploid and haploid forms are indeed both free-living independent organisms, essentially identical in appearance and therefore said to be isomorphic. The free- swimming, haploid gametes form a diploid zygote which germinates into a multicellular diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte produces free-swimming haploid spores by meiosis that germinate into haploid gametophytes.

In this sense there are three types of life cycles that utilize sexual reproduction, differentiated by the location of the organism phase(s). In the diplontic life cycle (with pre-gametic meiosis), of which humans are a part, the organism is diploid, grown from a diploid cell called the zygote. The organism's diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to create haploid gametes (the spermatozoa for males and ova for females), which fertilize to form the zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by mitosis to grow into the organism.

B. muscorum, like many bees, exhibit haplodiploidy. The diploid queens produce diploid workers and new queens from fertilized eggs. Haploid males are produced from unfertilized eggs. Workers are also able to lay unfertilized eggs that develop into males.

There are, at any rate, very few clinical reports of fetuses/infants diagnosed with tetraploidy mosaicism. Mixoploidy is quite commonly observed in human preimplantation embryos and includes haploid/diploid as well as diploid/tetraploid mixed cell populations. It is unknown whether these embryos fail to implant and are therefore rarely detected in ongoing pregnancies or if there is simply a selective process favoring the diploid cells.

All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display polyploidy. Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the somatic number, 2n) and human haploid gametes (egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes (n). Retroviruses that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include human foamy virus, human T-lymphotropic virus, and HIV.

This nucleus is the only diploid nucleus in the entire life cycle of N. crassa. The diploid nucleus has 14 chromosomes formed from the two fused haploid nuclei that had 7 chromosomes each. Formation of the diploid nucleus is immediately followed by meiosis. The two sequential divisions of meiosis lead to four haploid nuclei, two of the A mating type and two of the a mating type.

Felicia filifolia is a diploid having nine sets of homologous chromosomes (2n=18).

While most are diploid or tetraploid, some species (e.g. A. shuttleworthianum) are octoploid.

Felicia amelloides is a diploid having nine sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=18).

In 2014, she released Diploid Love, her first album under her solo name.

It does reproduce sexually at times. Plants can be diploid, tetraploid, or hexaploid.

Type B spermatogonia undergo mitosis to produce diploid intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes.

Animals have life cycles with a single diploid multicellular phase that produces haploid gametes directly by meiosis. Male gametes are called sperm, and female gametes are called eggs or ova. In animals, fertilization of the ovum by a sperm results in the formation of a diploid zygote that develops by repeated mitotic divisions into a diploid adult. Plants have two multicellular life-cycle phases, resulting in an alternation of generations.

The life cycle of coccolithophores is characterized by an alternation of diploid and haploid phases. They alternate from the haploid to diploid phase through syngamy and from diploid to haploid through meiosis. In contrast with most organisms with alternating life cycles, asexual reproduction by mitosis is possible in both phases of the life cycle. Both abiotic and biotic factors may affect the frequency with which each phase occurs.

The species has a diploid chromosome number of 74 (80 in the common myna).

The latter is the highest diploid number of any species in the tribe Phyllotini.

Diploid-triploid mosaicism (DTM) is a chromosome disorder. Individuals with diploid-triploid syndrome have some cells with three copies of each chromosome for a total of 69 chromosomes (called triploid cells) and some cells with the usual 2 copies of each chromosome for a total of 46 chromosomes (called diploid cells). Having two or more different cell types is called mosaicism. Diploid-triploid mosaicism can be associated with truncal obesity, body/facial asymmetry, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), delays in growth, mild differences in facial features, fusion or webbing between some of the fingers and/or toes (syndactyly) and irregularities in the skin pigmentation.

Panicum miliaceum is a tetraploid species with a base chromosome number of 18, twice the base chromosome number of diploid species within the genome Panicum . The species appears to be an allotetraploid resulting from a wide hybrid between two different diploid ancestors. One of the two subgenomes within proso millet appears to have come from either Panicum capillare or a close relative of that species. The second subgenome does not show close homology to any known diploid Panicum species, but some unknown diploid ancestor apparently also contributed a copy of its genome to a separate allotetraploid species Panicum repens (torpedo grass).

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. Iris purpureobractea is a diploid, and has a count of 2n = 48, It is also recorded as 2n=24,48,49 and 72.

Their chromosomal diversity is so impressive because their diploid numbers range from 10 to 70.

The two pronuclei migrate toward each other and then fuse to form a diploid cell.

Like all cells, somatic cells contain DNA arranged in chromosomes. If a somatic cell contains chromosomes arranged in pairs, it is called diploid and the organism is called a diploid organism. (The gametes of diploid organisms contain only single unpaired chromosomes and are called haploid.) Each pair of chromosomes comprises one chromosome inherited from the father and one inherited from the mother. For example, in humans, somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes organized into 23 pairs.

Chromosomes duplicate prior to cell division when forming new skin cells for reproduction. After meiotic cell reproduction the four daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes that the parental cell originally had. This is the haploid amount of DNA, often symbolized as N. Meiosis is used by diploid organisms to produce haploid gametes. In a diploid organism such as the human organism, most cells of the body have the diploid amount of DNA, 2N.

Mixoploidy is the case where two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid, coexist within the same organism. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children. There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69, and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology.

In the first case, the sperm then reduplicates, forming a "complete" 46 chromosome set. The genotype is typically 46,XX (diploid) due to the subsequent mitosis of the fertilizing sperm but can also be 46,XY (diploid). 46,YY (diploid) is not observed. In contrast, a partial mole occurs when a normal egg is fertilized by one or two sperm which then reduplicates itself, yielding the genotypes of 69,XXY (triploid) or 92,XXXY (tetraploid).

These tetraploid roses interbreed readily with one another, but not with their diploid ancestors. Under the biological species concept, a new species name Rosa kordesii was created for the tetraploid hybrid roses and their descendants. Amphidiploid roses can also be created deliberately from diploid-diploid hybrids by using colchicine spray on the growing tips of the plants. That strategy gives few successes, however, because the plant tissue has various chromosome numbers in different cells.

Actual fusion to form diploid nuclei is called karyogamy, and may not occur until sporangia are formed. Karogamy produces a diploid zygote, which is a short-lived sporophyte that soon undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. When the spores germinate, they develop into new mycelia.

Alternation between a multicellular diploid and a multicellular haploid generation is never encountered in animals. In some animals, there is an alternation between parthenogenic and sexually reproductive phases (heterogamy). Both phases are diploid. This has sometimes been called "alternation of generations", but is quite different.

Spider mites, like hymenopterans and some scale insects, are arrhenotochous: females are diploid and males are haploid. When mated, females avoid the fecundation of some eggs to produce males. Fertilized eggs produce diploid females. Unmated, unfertilized females still lay eggs that originate exclusively haploid males.

Bombus ignitus, like many bees, exhibit Haplodiploidy. Diploid queens produce diploid workers and new queens from fertilized eggs. Haploid drones are produced from unfertilized eggs, laid by either the queen or workers. All sperm produced by a drone is identical, containing its exact haploid DNA.

Both diploids (2n = 10 + 0 − 2B) and tetraploids (2n = 20 + 0 − 2B) have been found in Paris polyphylla. The diploid variety has been reported in Simla and northern Thailand. P. formosana from Formosa which is considered as conspecific with P. polyphylla is also diploid.

This process also involves meiosis occurring in the diploid primary spermatocyte to produce the haploid spermatozoon.

The haploid number is n=8. There are diploid (2n=16) and triploid (3n=24) specimens.

Unlike many American species of Buddleja, which are often diploid, B. americana is tetraploid (2n = 76).

Sweet cherry, cerisier des oiseaux Prunus avium has a diploid set of sixteen chromosomes (2n = 16).Tavaud, M.; Zanetto, A.; David, J.L.; Laigret, F.; Dirlewanger, E. (2004). Genetic relationships between diploid and allotetraploid cherry species (Prunus avium, Prunus xgondouinii and Prunus cerasus). Heredity. 93(6): 631–638.

Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents. The process of sexual reproduction alternates between forms that contain single copies of the genome (haploid) and double copies (diploid). Haploid cells fuse and combine genetic material to create a diploid cell with paired chromosomes. Diploid organisms form haploids by dividing, without replicating their DNA, to create daughter cells that randomly inherit one of each pair of chromosomes.

In the most commonly used sense of the term, arrhenotoky is synonymous with haploid arrhenotoky or haplodiploidy: the production of haploid males from unfertilized eggs in insects having a haplodiploid sex-determination system. Males are produced parthenogenetically, while diploid females are usually produced biparentally from fertilized eggs. In a similar phenomenon, parthenogenetic diploid eggs develop into males by converting one set of their chromosomes to heterochromatin, thereby inactivating those chromosomes. This is referred to as diploid arrhenotoky or parahaploidy.

More genetic variation was found with respect to diploid (2n) to triploid (3n) ratio occurred among individuals than within individuals. Also, diploid cells exclusively participated in meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction for males, so balanced gametes and normal fertility occurred. This is a rare event because of the limited viable polyploid individuals that occur in natural vertebrate populations. The lizard genus Lacerta and fish genus Phoxinus are the only other known examples of diploid-triploid mosaicism.

Diploid males would be infertile, as their cells would not undergo meiosis to form sperm. Therefore, the sperm would be diploid, which means that their offspring would be triploid. Since hymenopteran mother and sons share the same genes, they may be especially sensitive to inbreeding: Inbreeding reduces the number of different sex alleles present in a population, hence increasing the occurrence of diploid males. After mating, each fertile hymenopteran female stores sperm in an internal sac called the spermatheca.

Without histones, the unwound DNA in chromosomes would be very long (a length to width ratio of more than 10 million to 1 in human DNA). For example, each human diploid cell (containing 23 pairs of chromosomes) has about 1.8 meters of DNA; wound on the histones, the diploid cell has about 90 micrometers (0.09 mm) of chromatin. When the diploid cells are duplicated and condensed during mitosis, the result is about 120 micrometers of chromosomes.

The species has been found in a polyploid series with diploid, tetraploid, hexaploid, octoploid and dodecaploid individuals.

The Greek peony is an autotetraploid (4n=20) of which the diploid parent must have gone extinct.

Cotton, peanut, or quinoa are allotetraploids with multiple origins. In Brassicaceous crops, the Triangle of U describes the relationships between the three common diploid Brassicas (B. oleracea, B. rapa, and B. nigra) and three allotetraploids (B. napus, B. juncea, and B. carinata) derived from hybridization among the diploid species.

The haploid chromosome number of E. nocturnum has been determined as n = 20\. The diploid chromosome number has been determined both as 2n = 40 and as 2n = 80. In 1984, the variety E. nocturnum var. guadeloupense was determined to have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 42—48.

In general, under high stress conditions like nutrient starvation, haploid cells will die; under the same conditions, however, diploid cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (meiosis) and produce a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate (conjugate) and reform the diploid.

The haploid nuclei of C. neoformans can undergo nuclear fusion (karyogamy) to become diploid. These diploid nuclei may then undergo meiosis, including recombination, resulting in the formation of haploid basidiospores that are able to disperse. Meiosis may facilitate repair of C. neoformans DNA in response to macrophage challenge.

Part of the difference in size is due to the amplification of retrotransposons (GORGE). After both diploid genomes are assembled, they would be used as models for sequencing the genomes of tetraploid cultivated species. Without knowing the diploid genomes, the euchromatic DNA sequences of AD genomes would co-assemble, and their repetitive elements would assemble independently into A and D sequences respectively. There would be no way to untangle the mess of AD sequences without comparing them to their diploid counterparts.

The genome of Brachypodium distachyon (diploid inbred line Bd21) has been sequenced and published in Nature in 2010.

There are 18 chromosomes found in 2 sets, which makes beets diploid. Using chromosome number notation, 2n = 18.

In each of these, the fundamental number is double the diploid number because no telocentric chromosomes were observed.

P. pastoris can undergo both asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction, by budding and ascospore. In this case, two types of cells of P. pastoris exist: haploid and diploid cells. In the asexual life cycle, haploid cells undergo mitosis for reproduction. In the sexual life cycle, diploid cells undergo sporulation and meiosis.

The genome of Salpingoeca rosetta is 55 megabases in size. Homologs of cell adhesion, neuropeptide and glycosphingolipid metabolism genes are present in the genome. S. rosetta has a sexual life cycle and transitions between haploid and diploid stages. In response to nutrient limitation, haploid cultures of S. rosetta become diploid.

Subspecies F. verna calthifolia and F. verna verna are diploid and hybrids between subspecies often create sterile triploid forms.

The subspecies grows in waste areas and sandy soils or dunes. The subspecies has a diploid number of 28.

It is diploid at n = 12. Together with Solanum perlongistylum, it might be an allopatric variant of S. caripense.

It is diploid at n = 12. Together with Solanum catilliflorum, it might be an allopatric variant of S. caripense.

John Murray, London the first stage is not necessarily Darwinian. In the special case of polyploidy it is known that the first stage is not Darwinian. Doubling the chromosome number of the sterile hybrid between two diploid cytodemes yields an allotetraploid which is both fertile within its bounds and essentially incompatible with all previous life forms. As yet no mechanism is known which could account for the origin of new diploid cytodemes - nor is there any proof that there are any diploid cytodemes of recent origin.

The words homozygous, heterozygous, and hemizygous are used to describe the genotype of a diploid organism at a single locus on the DNA. Homozygous describes a genotype consisting of two identical alleles at a given locus, heterozygous describes a genotype consisting of two different alleles at a locus, hemizygous describes a genotype consisting of only a single copy of a particular gene in an otherwise diploid organism, and nullizygous refers to an otherwise-diploid organism in which both copies of the gene are missing.

Once within the joined cell membrane, the nuclei are referred to as pronuclei. Once the cell membranes, cytoplasm, and pronuclei fuse together, the resulting single cell is diploid, containing two copies of the genome. This diploid cell, called a zygote or zygospore can then enter meiosis (a process of chromosome duplication, recombination, and division, to produce four new haploid cells), or continue to divide by mitosis. Mammalian fertilization uses a comparable process to combine haploid sperm and egg cells (gametes) to create a diploid fertilized egg.

In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced gametes, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling. The so-called Brassica triangle is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species. Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many somatic cells are polyploid due to a process called endoreduplication, where duplication of the genome occurs without mitosis (cell division).

Common structural elements are present in the embryonic part of the life cycle, which is the diploid multicellular phase. The embryo develops into the sporophyte, which at maturity produces haploid spores, which germinate to produce the gametophyte, the haploid multicellular phase. The haploid gametophyte then produces gametes, which may fuse to form a diploid zygote, and finally an embryo. This phenomenon of alternating diploid and haploid multicellular phases is common to the embryophytes (land plants) and is referred to as the alternation of generations.

Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee, and wasp species. Diploid biparental males are usually sterile but a few species that have fertile diploid males are known. One consequence of haplodiploidy is that females on average actually have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their own daughters. Because of this, cooperation among kindred females may be unusually advantageous, and has been hypothesized to contribute to the multiple origins of eusociality within this order.

Many fungi and many protozoa utilize the haplontic life cycle. Finally, in the haplodiplontic life cycle (with sporic or intermediate meiosis), the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states. Consequently, this cycle is also known as the alternation of generations. The diploid organism's germ-line cells undergo meiosis to produce spores.

Each ascus contains 1–4 ascospores. The ploidy of K. marxianus was originally thought to be a haploid but recent research has shown that many strains used in research and industry are diploid. These conflicting findings suggest that K. marxianus can exist in vegetative form either as a haploid and a diploid.

D. polygama), D. metlesicsii, and some forms of D. smithii, are diploid with 2n = 14; hexaploids with 42 chromosomes also occur rarely.Míka, V., Kohoutek, A., & Odstrèilová, V. (2002). Characteristics of important diploid and tetraploid subspecies of Dactylis from point of view of the forage crop production. Rostlinná Výroba 48 (6): 243–248.

Ashmead's Kernel is a triploid cultivar of apple. Traditionally Ashmead's Kernel was thought to be diploid but a poor pollinator.

Artemia comprises sexually reproducing, diploid species and several obligate parthenogenetic Artemia populations consisting of different clones and ploidies (2n->5n).

Speothos has a diploid chromosome number of 74, and so it is unable to produce fertile hybrids with other canids.

CABI Publishing. . Einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) is diploid (AA, two complements of seven chromosomes, 2n=14). Most tetraploid wheats (e.g.

Two haploid gametes combine into one diploid cell known as a zygote in a process called fertilisation. The zygote incorporates genetic material from both gametes. Multiple cell divisions, without change of the number of chromosomes, then form a multicellular diploid phase or generation. In human reproduction, each cell contains 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs.

S. rosetta has a sexual cycle during which it transitions between haploid and diploid stages. When nutrients become limiting, haploid cultures of S. rosetta become diploid. This ploidy shift coincides with mating during which small, flagellated cells fuse with larger flagellated cells. Evidence has also been obtained for historical mating and recombination in S. rosetta.

At certain stages of the life cycle, germ cells produce gametes. Somatic cells make up the body of the organism and are not involved in gamete production. Cycling meiosis and fertilization events produces a series of transitions back and forth between alternating haploid and diploid states. The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (diplontic life cycle), during the haploid state (haplontic life cycle), or both (haplodiplontic life cycle, in which there are two distinct organism phases, one during the haploid state and the other during the diploid state).

That mating in N. crassa can only occur between strains of different mating type suggests that some degree of outcrossing is favored by natural selection. In haploid multicellular fungi, such as N. crassa, meiosis occurring in the brief diploid stage is one of their most complex processes. The haploid multicellular vegetative stage, although physically much larger than the diploid stage, characteristically has a simple modular construction with little differentiation. In N. crassa, recessive mutations affecting the diploid stage of the life cycle are quite frequent in natural populations.

Metaphase spread of the Transcaucasian Mole Vole female (Ellobius lutescens, 2n = 17, X0 in both sexes). The first step of the Human Genome Project took place when Tjio and Levan, in 1956, reported the accurate diploid number of human chromosomes as 2n = 46. During this phase, data on the karyotypes of hundreds of mammalian species (including information on diploid numbers, relative length and morphology of chromosomes, presence of B chromosomes) were described. Diploid numbers (2n) were found to vary from 2n = 6–7 in the Indian muntjac to over 100 in some rodents.

Bromus japonicus, the Japanese brome, is an annual brome grass native to Eurasia. The grass has a diploid number of 14.

In lower plants, woody parts may not be present above ground. Like all diploid peonies, it has ten chromosomes (2n=10).

The diploid number of chromosomes (2n) is 60.Sun, T. (1995). "Chromosomal studies in three land snails". Sinozoologia, 12: 154-162.

This is in great contrast to the explosively radiating Akodon which has diploid numbers ranging from 2n=14 to 2n=52.

The micronuclei of wild-type pairs provided a reliable diploid standard to quantify the macronuclear DNA content of exconjugants by cytophotometry.

Life cycle of Foraminifera showing alternation of generations. Some organisms currently classified in the clade Rhizaria and thus not plants in the sense used here, exhibit alternation of generations. Most Foraminifera undergo a heteromorphic alternation of generations between haploid gamont and diploid agamont forms. The single- celled haploid organism is typically much larger than the diploid organism.

Life cycle of moss. Through its life cycle, Pogonatum urnigerum alternates between a haploid and diploid life cycle. The haploid structures include: the spores, the protonema, the rhizoids, the leaves, the reproductive structures, the calyptra (developed from an archegonium) and the stem of the gametophyte. Diploid structures include: the foot, the seta, the sporangium, and the operculum.

During the haploid phase, the thallus forms male and female gametangia that release flagellated gametes. Gametes attract one another using pheromones and eventually fuse to form a Zygote. The germinated zygote produces a diploid thallus with two types of sporangia: thin-walled zoosporangia and thick walled resting spores (or sporangia). The thin walled sporangia release diploid zoospores.

It develops sex organs that produce gametes, haploid sex cells that participate in fertilization to form a diploid zygote which has a double set of chromosomes. Cell division of the zygote results in a new diploid multicellular organism, the second stage in the life cycle known as the sporophyte. The sporophyte can produce haploid spores by meiosis.

However, stocking triploids may damage wild stocks in other ways. Triploids certainly compete with diploid fish for food, space, and other resources. They could also be more aggressive than diploid fish and they may disturb spawning behaviour. Scottish and Irish sea trout populations in recent years have seriously declined, possibly due to infestation by sea lice from salmon farms.

He produced an artificial autotetraploid grass from the diploid species Ehrharta erecta through treatment with the chromosome doubling agent colchicine. He was able to establish the plant in the field, and after 39 years of field trials was able to show that the autopolyploid was not as successful as its diploid parent in an unchanging environment.

Haploid males produce identical haploid sperm while diploid females produce genetically variant haploid eggs through meiosis. Sex is determined under a single-locus complementary sex determination (sl-CSD) system, where multiple alleles at a single locus determine the sex of an individual. Sex locus heterozygotes develop as females, while hemizygous and homozygous eggs develop as haploid and diploid males.

The majority of C.neoformans are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting.

Two forms of yeast cells can survive and grow: haploid and diploid. The haploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth, and under conditions of high stress will, in general, die. This is the asexual form of the fungus. The diploid cells (the preferential 'form' of yeast) similarly undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth.

The rate at which the mitotic cell cycle progresses often differs substantially between haploid and diploid cells. Under conditions of stress, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering meiosis and producing four haploid spores, which can subsequently mate. This is the sexual form of the fungus. Under optimal conditions, yeast cells can double their population every 100 minutes.

It is a diploid species, with 26 chromosomes. Its fundamental number is 48. It is frugivorous. Little is known about its reproduction.

The width of the shell is 8 mm. The height of the shell is 11 mm. Diploid chromosome number is 2n = 36.

Fusion of haploid nuclei occurs within reproductive structures termed cleistothecia, in which the diploid zygote undergoes meiotic divisions to yield haploid ascospores.

Gynogenesis is like parthenogenesis in that diploid zygotes inheriting all chromosomes from their mother can develop without a genetic contribution from males.

V. faba has a diploid (2n) chromosome number of 12 (six homologous pairs). Five pairs are acrocentric chromosomes and one pair is metacentric.

The width of the shell is 9 mm. The height of the shell is 14 mm. The diploid chromosome number is 2n = 36.

The width of the shell is 12 mm. The height of the shell is 25 mm. The diploid chromosome number is 2n = 36.

Paeonia broteri is a perennial, herbaceous plant of 30–80 cm in height. It is a diploid species with ten chromosomes (2n=10).

In some extreme cases, workers have been reported to kill a queen producing diploid males, to help the future success of the colony.

584-585, Chromosome counts are known only from two species: Corsia cornuta and C. clypeata. Both have a diploid number (2n) of 18.

Within the macrocyst the diploid zygote undergoes meiosis followed by successive mitotic divisions. When the macrocyst germinates it releases many haploid amoeboid cells.

49, 825-832. # Suwińska et al. (2005) Experimentally produced diploid-triploid mouse chimaeras develop up to adulthood. Mol. Rep. Dev. 72, 362-376.

These eggs are then shipped to a land-based aquaculture facility at high altitude in Panama near a river that drains into the Pacific Ocean. If eggs were to escape this facility, they would be unable to survive in the high salinity water nearby. In order to make the fish sterile AquAdvantage salmon eggs are treated with pressure, to create batches of fish eggs with three copies of each chromosome (triploid) rather than to two copies (diploid). Any batch that contains 5 percent or more diploid fish, is destroyed because these diploid fish are capable of reproducing.

The close proximity of the antheridia and archegonia helps facilitate fertilization. The antheridia contain sperm that travel down the neck of an archegonium, which houses the egg, to fertilize it. When the egg is fertilized and becomes a diploid zygote, it then develops into the diploid sporangium. Note that the sporangium is attached to a haploid pseudopodium that was derived from gametophytic tissue.

C. tropicalis diploid cells of opposite mating type can mate to form tetraploid cells. These cells may then undergo chromosome loss during long-term propagation in rich medium resulting in the eventual regeneration of diploid cells.Seervai RN, Jones SK Jr, Hirakawa MP, Porman AM, Bennett RJ. Parasexuality and ploidy change in Candida tropicalis. Eukaryot Cell. 2013 Dec;12(12):1629-40.

Candida albicans growing on Sabouraud agar The genome of C. albicans is almost 16Mb for the haploid size (28Mb for the diploid stage) and consists of 8 sets of chromosome pairs called chr1A, chr2A, chr3A, chr4A, chr5A, chr6A, chr7A and chrRA. The second set (C. albicans is diploid) has similar names but with a B at the end. Chr1B, chr2B, ... and chrRB.

The eight spores are produced by meiosis followed by a mitotic division. Two meiotic divisions turn the original diploid zygote nucleus into four haploid ones. That is, the single original diploid cell from which the whole process begins contains two complete sets of chromosomes. In preparation for meiosis, all the DNA of both sets is duplicated, to make a total of four sets.

The human diploid cell rabies vaccine (H.D.C.V.) was started in 1967. Human diploid cell rabies vaccines are inactivated vaccines made using the attenuated Pitman-Moore L503 strain of the virus. In addition to these developments, newer and less expensive purified chicken embryo cell vaccines (CCEEV) and purified Vero cell rabies vaccines are now available and are recommended for use by the WHO.

Like other brown algae, there is an alternation of haploid and diploid generations. The haploid thalli form isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous gametes and the diploid thalli form zoospores by meiosis. Reproduction is seasonal, and receptacles start being formed in late autumn in response to short days. The gametes are of both sexes and when released, ova can survive and disperse for several days.

Studies conducted with representatives of some genera of Hypostominae showed that within this group, the diploid number ranges from 2n = 52 to 2n = 80. However, the supposed wide karyotypic diversity that the family Loricariidae or the subfamily Hypostominae would present is almost exclusively restricted to the genus Hypostomus and the species from the other genera had a conserved diploid number.

In the Hymenoptera, the sex-determination system involves haploid males and diploid females. In a eusocial colony, such as of honey bees, with a single queen, females are unusually closely related. Haplodiploidy is a sex- determination system in which males develop from unfertilized eggs and are haploid, and females develop from fertilized eggs and are diploid. Haplodiploidy is sometimes called arrhenotoky.

Illustration of a male Males are rare in hermaphroditic species of Icerya. Males are haploid while females are diploid. Females have an ovitestis that is capable of producing both sperm and oocytes which fertilize internally to produce diploid offspring (females) through a form of hermaphroditism. The cells of the ovitestis are haploid and are derived from excess sperm during matings with males.

The yeast cell's life cycle: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, brewer's and baker's yeast, is in the phylum Ascomycota. During vegetative growth that ordinarily occurs when nutrients are abundant, S. cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as either haploid or diploid cells. However, when starved, diploid cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type, MATa and MATα, come into contact.

Wheat harvest on the Palouse, Idaho, United States Sheaved and stooked wheat Traditional wheat sheafing machine Hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers' fields. Either domesticated emmer or durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass (Aegilops tauschii) to make the hexaploid wheats, spelt wheat and bread wheat. These have three sets of paired chromosomes, three times as many as in diploid wheat.

American groundnut is normally 2n=2x=22, diploid, but both diploid and triploid forms exist. Only diploids are capable of producing seeds; triploids will produce flowers but not seeds. Thus, triploids are entirely dependent on tuber division for propagation whereas diploids can be propagated through both seeds and tubers. Other than seed production, there are no easily identifiable differences between diploids and triploids.

The distinctiveness of P. coriacea and P. mascula from P. broteri is confirmed by their tetraploidy (2n=20), while P. broteri is a diploid.

South American Classification Committee. Retrieved on 15 October 2007 Like other New World vultures, the king vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80.

Initially the diploid S. madagascarensis and S. harveianus were assumed to be different species; however molecular analysis showed that they only differ in cytotype.

Paeonia clusii is a perennial, herbaceous plant of 25–50 cm high. Both diploid (2n=10) and tetraploid (2n=20) specimens have been found.

Photosynthetic characteristics and geographical distribution of diploid Fragaria species native in Japan. Acta Hort. 567: 381-384. Abstract.Hummer, K.E., Sabitov, A., & Davis, T. 2005.

It absorbs silicon from the soil, which is rare among herbs. It has a very high diploid number of 216 (108 pairs of chromosomes).

Moraxella lacunata is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative, nonmotile bacterium, generally present as diploid pairs. It causes one of the commonest forms of catarrhal conjunctivitis.

The diploid chromosome number for U. gibba is 2n = 28. Utricularia gibba is listed as a weed on the New Zealand National Pest Plant Accord.

Bromus pacificus, the Pacific brome, is a perennial grass native to the Pacific coast of North America. Bromus pacificus has a diploid number of 28.

Members of Hymenoptera, such as ants and bees, are determined by haplodiploidy, where most males are haploid and females and some sterile males are diploid.

Photosynthetic characteristics and geographical distribution of diploid Fragaria species native in Japan. Acta Hort. 567: 381-384. Abstract. Hummer, K.E., Sabitov, A., & Davis, T. 2005.

The radish is a diploid species, and has 18 chromosomes (2n=18). It is estimated that the radish genome contains between 526 and 574 Mb.

Przewalski's horse has the highest diploid chromosome number among all equine species. They can interbreed with the domestic horse and produce fertile offspring (65 chromosomes).

The base number of different chromosomes in all peonies is five. Both diploid (2n=10) and tetraploid (4n=20) populations of P. obovata are known.

The life-cycle is of the large diploid sporophyte alternating with the microscopic haploid stages producing female gametophytes which are fertilized by male gametophytes (sperm).

This image shows haploid (single), diploid (double), triploid (triple), and tetraploid (quadruple) sets of chromosomes. Triploid and tetraploid chromosomes are examples of polyploidy. Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than two paired (homologous) sets of chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes—one set inherited from each parent.

If the conditions in the leaf were unfavourable, the mould can undergo sexual reproduction and produce haploid antheridia and haploid oogonia through meiosis. These two structures are the only non-diploid stages of the Hyaloperonospora. The antheridia will fuse to the oogonia inducing plasmogamy followed by karyogamy to form diploid oospores. The oospores will then be dispersed through the wind to infect more plants.

Trifolium repens is a tetraploid (4n=32) with two diploid ancestors. In order to increase genetic diversity for breeding, research is focused on finding these ancestors. Proposed ancestors of Trifolium repens include Trifolium nigrescens, Trifolium occidentale, Trifolium pallescens, and Trifolium uniflorum. Additionally, it is possible that one of the diploid ancestors has yet to be analyzed, either because it has not been discovered or is extinct.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae tetrad The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is heterothallic. This means that each yeast cell is of a certain mating type and can only mate with a cell of the other mating type. During vegetative growth that ordinarily occurs when nutrients are abundant, S. cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as either haploid or diploid cells. However, when starved, diploid cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores.

The diploid nucleus has 14 chromosomes formed from the two fused haploid nuclei that had 7 chromosomes each. Formation of the diploid nucleus is immediately followed by meiosis. The two sequential divisions of meiosis lead to four haploid nuclei, two of the ‘A’ mating type and two of the ‘a’ mating type. One further mitotic division leads to four ‘A’ and four ‘a’ nuclei in each ascus.

The diploid nucleus has 14 chromosomes formed from the two fused haploid nuclei that had 7 chromosomes each. Formation of the diploid nucleus is immediately followed by meiosis. The two sequential divisions of meiosis lead to four haploid nuclei, two of the A mating type and two of the a mating type. One further mitotic division leads to four A and four a nucleus in each ascus.

Drosera regia shares other features with the robust Tasmanian form of D. arcturi, including the lack of stipules and petioles and the non-circinate growth of the scape. It has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 34, which is unusual for the genus Drosera and closer to the diploid chromosome number of the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula), another member of the Droseraceae.Behre, K. 1929.

Everything fitted in to the new framework, except "heretics" like Richard Goldschmidt who annoyed Mayr and Dobzhansky by insisting on the possibility of speciation by macromutation, creating "hopeful monsters". The result was "bitter controversy". Speciation via polyploidy: a diploid cell may fail to separate during meiosis, producing diploid gametes which self- fertilize to produce a fertile tetraploid zygote that cannot interbreed with its parent species.

The diploid chromosome number of M. umbrosus is 56 and the fundamental number is 60. Along with the species M. quasiater, they present the highest diploid chromosomal complement of the Mexican vole species. The karotype consists of three pairs of small to medium-sized metacentric chromosomes and 24 pairs of telocentric chromosomes. The X chromosome is a large metacentric chromosome and the Y a small telocentric.

Originating from the family Dryopteridaceae, or wood ferns, the Dryopteris shibipedis is thought to be a "hybridization between a sexual tetraploid providing a diploid egg and an apogamous diploid providing a diploid sperm." This meaning, the fern itself is considered a tetraploid—having four sets of chromosomes, develops from the mother providing an egg with two sets of chromosomes and the father providing two sets of chromosomes. The two parent plants would be D. kinkiensis (mother species) and D. pacifica (father species). The embryo of the D. shibipedis has been know, however, to develop without fertilization, and can reproduce asexually, therefore ensuring stability across multiple generations.

Diagram showing the alternation of generations between a diploid sporophyte (bottom) and a haploid gametophyte (top) Alternation of generations (also known as metagenesis) is the type of life cycle that occurs in those plants and algae in the Archaeplastida and the Heterokontophyta that have distinct haploid sexual and diploid asexual stages. In these groups, a multicellular haploid gametophyte with n chromosomes alternates with a multicellular diploid sporophyte with 2n chromosomes, made up of n pairs. A mature sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis, a process which reduces the number of chromosomes to half, from 2n to n. The haploid spores germinate and grow into a haploid gametophyte.

No haploid spores capable of dividing are produced, so generally there is no multicellular haploid phase. (Some insects have a sex- determining system whereby haploid males are produced from unfertilized eggs; however females produced from fertilized eggs are diploid.) Life cycles of plants and algae with alternating haploid and diploid multicellular stages are referred to as diplohaplontic (the equivalent terms haplodiplontic, diplobiontic or dibiontic are also in use). Life cycles, such as those of animals, in which there is only a diploid multicellular stage are referred to as diplontic. Life cycles in which there is only a haploid multicellular stage are referred to as haplontic.

In DH method only two types of genotypes occur for a pair of alleles, A and a, with the frequency of ½ AA and ½ aa, while in diploid method three genotypes occur with the frequency of ¼ AA, ½ Aa, ¼ aa. Thus, if AA is desirable genotype, the probability of obtaining this genotype is higher in haploid method than in diploid method. If n loci are segregating, the probability of getting the desirable genotype is (1/2)n by the haploid method and (1/4)n by the diploid method. Hence the efficiency of the haploid method is high when the number of genes concerned is large.

As of 2000, only 56 loricariid species have been cytogenically investigated. The basal diploid number of chromosomes is 2n = 54 in this family, but with a wide variation in the chromosome number in this fish group, ranging from 2n = 36 in the Loricariinae, Rineloricaria latirostris, to 2n = 96 in a species of Upsilodus (Hemipsilichthys). Most members of the Ancistrini and Pterygoplichthyini have 52 chromosomes. Karyotypic evolution by means of centric fusions and centric fissions seems to be a common feature among loricariids; this is demonstrated by a higher number of biarmed chromosomes in species with lower diploid number and many uniarmed chromosomes in species with higher diploid numbers.

Hypericum delphicum is a perennial herb in the St. John's wort family Hypericaceae, section Adenosepalum and the subsection Adenosepalum. It has a diploid number of 16.

Its diploid chromosome number is 2n = 12.Hoshi, Yoshikazu. 2002. Chromosome studies in Drosera (Droseraceae). Proceedings of the 4th International Carnivorous Plant Conference. pp. 31-38.

Polyploidization may lead to speciation because the reproductive isolation may develop between hexaploid and either tetraploid or diploid due to the mistake of alignment during meiosis.

The inflorescence is a compound cyme of tiny flowers. H. mutilum subsp. mutilum and subsp. boreale have a diploid number of 16, and H. mutilum subsp.

The Savage Garden: Cultivating Carnivorous Plants. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California. pp. 145-146. It has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 12.Hoshi, Yoshikazu. 2002.

Dawley, RM & Goddard, KA. 1988. Diploid-triploid Mosaics among Unisexual Hybrids of the Minnows Phoxinus-Eos and Phoxinus- Neogaeus. Copeia, 3: 650-660.Kupritanova, L. 2009.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has not been counted.

Sexual selection is much more crucial in the diploid phase as the product of the phase immediately undergoes meiosis and can no longer be fertilized again.

South American Classification Committee. Retrieved on 2007-10-15 Like other New World vultures, the lesser yellow-headed vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80.

A study by Shoshani et al. suggests that H19 is continued to be expressed in high amounts in the liver after birth, specifically in diploid hepatocytes.

All strawberries have a base haploid count of 7 chromosomes. Fragaria nilgerrensis is diploid, having 2 pairs of these chromosomes for a total of 14 chromosomes.

All strawberries have a base haploid count of 7 chromosomes. Fragaria nubicola is diploid, having 2 pairs of these chromosomes for a total of 14 chromosomes.

If the conditions are so that the individual is hemizygous or homozygous for the csd gene, they will develop into males. The instances where the individual is homozygous at this gene are the instances of diploid males.Weinstock, George M.; Robinson, Gene E., & the Honeybee Genome Sequencing Consortium Insights into social insects from the genome of the honeybee Apis mellifera Nature, volume "'443'" (2006), pages 931-949 Diploid males do not survive to adulthood, as the nurse worker bees will cannibalize the diploid males upon hatching.Santomauro, Giulia; Oldham, Neil J.; Boland, Wilhelm; Engels Wolf; Cannibalism of Diploid Drone Larvae in the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) is Released by Odd Pattern of Circular Substance Journal of Apiculture Research, volume "'43'" (2004), pages 69-74 While workers can lay unfertilized eggs that become their sons, haplodiploid sex-determination system increases the individual's fitness due to indirect selection.

Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p.317. Dihaploid plants derived from tetraploid crop plants may be important for breeding programs that involve diploid wild relatives of the crops.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has had its chromosome counted.

Virtual karyotype log2ratio plot of a chronic lymphocytic leukemia sample using a SNP array. Yellow = copy number of 2 (normal/diploid), aqua = 1 (deletion), pink = 3 (trisomy).

In recent years, diploid males have come to represent a considerable proportion of males within populations in the British Isles, suggesting an increase in inbreeding among populations.

In some plants, the diploid tissue of the nucellus can give rise to the embryo within the seed through a mechanism of asexual reproduction called nucellar embryony.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It was counted as 2n=20.

Lady Finger bananas (also known as sugar bananas, sucrier, fig bananas, or date bananas) are diploid cultivars of Musa acuminata. They are small, thin skinned, and sweet.

The seed contains no perisperm (feeding tissue). The basic chromosome number is x=9. The species are diploid (18 chromosomes), tetraploid (36), hexaploid (54), or octoploid (72).

In both families, the second fertilization event produces an additional diploid embryo. This supernumerary embryo is later aborted, leading to the synthesis of only one mature embryo. The additional fertilization product in Ephedra does not nourish the primary embryo, as the female gametophyte is responsible for nutrient provision. The more primitive process of double fertilization in gymnosperms results in two diploid nuclei enclosed in the same egg cell.

Irish moss undergoes an alternation of generation lifecycle common in many species of algae (see figure below). The two distinct stages are the sexual haploid gametophyte stage and the asexual diploid sporophyte stage. In addition, a third stage - the carposporophyte - is formed on the female gametophyte after fertilization. The male and female gametophytes produce gametes which fuse to form a diploid carposporophyte, which forms carpospores, which develops into the sporophyte.

Z. perennis is the sole tetraploid in the genus and fertile hybrids with diploid Zea species are rare. Ribosomal ITS evidence suggested introgression between Z. perennis and Z. mays that must have come from either crossing the ploidy barrier or been from the diploid ancestral pool. Z. perennis is generally considered to be an autotetraploid from some ancestral population of Z. diploperennis.Buckler, E. S., & Holtsford, T. P. (1996).

If two cells of the same type meet in this phase, they cross- fertilise to a diploid zygote through the fusion of protoplasms and nuclei. The conditions which trigger this are not known. The diploid zygote becomes a multinucleated plasmodium through multiple nuclear divisions without further cell division. If the resulting cells were peritrichous, they change their shape before the fusion from the peritrichous form to the myxamoeba.

Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare "humanoid", "human-shaped"). Polish botanist Eduard Strasburger coined the terms haploid and diploid in 1905. Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on August Weismann's conception of the id (or germ plasm), hence haplo-id and diplo-id. The two terms were brought into the English language from German through William Henry Lang's 1908 translation of a 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues.

The diploid chromosome number of C. walkeriana has been twice determined as 2n = 40; the diploid chromosome number of the variety C. walkeriana var. princeps L.C.Menzes has been determined as 2n = 80.page 251 of L. P. Felix and M. Guerra: "Variation in chromosome number and the basic number of subfamily Epidendroideae (Orchidaceae)" Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 163(2010)234—278. The Linnean Society of London.

These mutations, when homozygous in the diploid stage, often cause spores to have maturation defects or to produce barren fruiting bodies with few ascospores (sexual spores). The majority of these homozygous mutations cause abnormal meiosis (e.g. disturbed chromosome pairing or disturbed pachytene or diplotene). The number of genes affecting the diploid stage was estimated to be at least 435 (about 4% of the total number of 9,730 genes).

C-value is the amount, in picograms, of DNA contained within a haploid nucleus (e.g. a gamete) or one half the amount in a diploid somatic cell of a eukaryotic organism. In some cases (notably among diploid organisms), the terms C-value and genome size are used interchangeably; however, in polyploids the C-value may represent two or more genomes contained within the same nucleus. Greilhuber et al.

Studies conducted with representatives of some genera of Hypostominae showed, within this group, the diploid number ranges from 2n = 52 to 2n = 80. However, the supposed wide karyotypic diversity the family Loricariidae or the subfamily Hypostominae would present is almost exclusively restricted to the genus Hypostomus, and the species from the other genera had a conserved diploid number. In some species, there is a ZZ/ZW sex- determination system.

Most brown algae, with the exception of the Fucales, perform sexual reproduction through sporic meiosis. Between generations, the algae go through separate sporophyte (diploid) and gametophyte (haploid) phases. The sporophyte stage is often the more visible of the two, though some species of brown algae have similar diploid and haploid phases. Free floating forms of brown algae often do not undergo sexual reproduction until they attach themselves to substrate.

About 70% of angiosperm species have endosperm cells that are polyploid. These are typically triploid (containing three sets of chromosomes), but can vary widely from diploid (2n) to 15n. One species of flowering plant, Nuphar polysepala, has been shown to have endosperm that is diploid, resulting from the fusion of a pollen nucleus with one, rather than two, maternal nuclei. The same is supposed for some other basal angiosperms.

Speciation via polyploidy: A diploid cell undergoes failed meiosis, producing diploid gametes, which self- fertilize to produce a tetraploid zygote. Polyploidy is pervasive in plants and some estimates suggest that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy (paleopolyploidy) in their genomes. Huge explosions in angiosperm species diversity appear to have coincided with ancient genome duplications shared by many species.de Bodt et al.

These mutations, when homozygous in the diploid stage, often cause spores to have maturation defects or to produce barren fruiting bodies with few ascospores (sexual spores). The majority of these homozygous mutations cause abnormal meiosis (e.g. disturbed chromosome pairing or disturbed pachytene or diplotene). The number of genes affecting the diploid stage was estimated to be at least 435 (about 4% of the total number of 9,730 genes).

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=14.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=38.

In some other animals, such as hymenopterans, males are haploid and females diploid, but this is always the case rather than there being an alternation between distinct generations.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=32.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=20.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=40.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=24.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=22.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=72.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=40.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=32.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=44.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=22.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=14.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a count of 2n = 20.

Another reason why there is such a high diploid male population is because diploid male larva live within thick, closed off resinous cells which are not readily eliminated by the females. Diploid males are therefore seen as a ‘waste’ in energy and resources, and have no adaptive value to other bees. For the second main factor, genetic polymorphism, it is theorized that Euglossini bees have not reached a point where the threshold of genetic homogeneity permitting colony fitness has crossed the expected individual fitness. Therefore, euglossine genetic polymorphism levels appear to be higher than those of ordinary solitary bees, and much higher than social bees, since low polymorphism levels is seen as a foundation for advanced social evolution.

In 1953, Herb Wagner showed that the fertile population in Havana Glen was tetraploid, while ordinary Asplenium ebenoides was diploid. Wagner and Robert S. Whitmire followed up in 1957 and induced chromosome doubling in diploid A. ebenoides collected in Maryland, and produced fertile, allotetraploid offspring, the first allopolyploid ferns to be artificially produced in culture. There were significant morphological differences between these artificially produced ferns and those from Havana Glen. Wagner and Whitmire attributed this to the fact that the presumed ancestral diploid at Havana Glen and those in Maryland had originated in separate hybridization events between A. platyneuron and A. rhizophyllum and that alloploidy might magnify genetic differences between the parental species.

Brood sex ratio is skewed in G. batrachiensis. In a sample of 234 females, 205 of 296 embryos in thick- shelled eggs were diploid and would develop as females.

Flowering season ranges from late March until late June. From a chromosomal standpoint, the species is diploid, (contains one set of chromosomes from each parent), and has 2n=18.

As most irises are diploid, meaning having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It's chromosomes have not yet been counted.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count of 2n=20.

Cyclamen hederifolium var 'confusum', now known as C. confusum, Osaka Prefectural Flowers Garden, Osaka, Japan In chromosome count, var. confusum is tetraploid, while var. hederifolium is diploid. Recently var.

The diploid organisms can produce zoosporangia ZS when conditions are good and the resistant or resting sporangia RS when they are unfavourable. The RS can survive desiccation for years.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count of 2n=24.

In 1957, Herb Wagner and Robert S. Whitmire experimentally converted sterile diploid A. × ebenoides to the fertile tetraploid form, the first creation of an allopolyploid fern in the laboratory.

Catananche lutea is a low to medium height (usually 8–40 cm) annual herbaceous plant, with a leaf rosette. This species is diploid and has eighteen chromosomes (2n = 18).

Some individuals of this species are diploid and reproduce sexually, while some are triploid or tetraploid and reproduce by apogamy (growth of a plant from a gamete without fertilization).

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count of 2n=26.

Diploid cultivars of crested wheatgrasses were compared to tetraploid cultivars of Agropyron desertorum. The varying ploidy numbers of the plants resulted in inherent differences between the plants and subsequently, specific grazing preferences for the cattle. The study showed that the cattle significantly preferred the tetraploid cultivars for grazing, as opposed to the diploid cultivars. Thus, Agropyron desertorum can be used to better raise beef cattle and increase pasture utilization on the cattle farms.

To generate mutants of essential genes, the CORE cassette can be inserted downstream of the gene of interest, however this limits the regions of the gene available for mutation. Alternatively, diploid cells can be used. However, using a diploid decreases the efficiency of oligonucleotide targeting due to the presence of two suitable chromosomal locations for the oligonucleotides to recombine. To address this drawback, the DSB-mediated delitto perfetto method can be used.

The diploid phase is formed by fusion of two haploid gametes to form a zygote, which may divide by mitosis or undergo chromosome reduction by meiosis. There is considerable variation in this pattern. Animals have no multicellular haploid phase, but each plant generation can consist of haploid and diploid multicellular phases. Eukaryotes have a smaller surface area to volume ratio than prokaryotes, and thus have lower metabolic rates and longer generation times.

However, modern phylogenetic studies demonstrate that Acorus is sister to all other monocots. Common names include calamus and sweet flag. The genus is native to North America and northern and eastern Asia, and naturalised in southern Asia and Europe from ancient cultivation. The known wild populations are diploid except for some tetraploids in eastern Asia, while the cultivated plants are sterile triploids, probably of hybrid origin between the diploid and tetraploid forms.

The common name spotted knapweed most often refers to Centaurea maculosa; however, inconsistencies exist in the scientific community. Two cytotypes of the plant exist which have been named as either different species or subspecies. Centaurea maculosa has been used to describe the diploid and tetraploid form, however the diploid form has been called Centaurea stoebe which, having been published before C. maculosa, is the correct name for the species and the tetraploid form Centaurea biebersteinii.

The female gametophyte produces an egg in the oogonium, and the male gametophyte releases motile sperm that fertilize the egg. The fertilized zygote then grows into the mature diploid sporophyte. In the order Fucales, sexual reproduction is oogamous, and the mature diploid is the only form for each generation. Gametes are formed in specialized conceptacles that occur scattered on both surfaces of the receptacle, the outer portion of the blades of the parent plant.

McGraw-Hill Book Company In Oomycota and some other organisms, the female oogonia, and the male equivalent antheridia, are a result of sexual sporulation, i.e. the development of structures within which meiosis will occur. The haploid nuclei (gametes) are formed by meiosis within the antheridia and oogonia, and when fertilization occurs, a diploid oospore is produced which will eventually germinate into the diploid somatic stage of the thallophyte life cycle. In many algae (e.g.

Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee, and wasp species. Diploid biparental males are usually sterile. One consequence of haplodiploidy is that females have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their own daughters. Because of this, cooperation among kindred females may be unusually advantageous, and has been hypothesized to contribute to the multiple origins of eusociality within bumblebees and other hymenopterans.

This initially led to the first 'human-edible' banana diploid clones (modern AA cultivars). Diploid clones are still able to produce viable seeds when pollinated by wild species. This resulted in the development of triploid clones which were conserved for their larger fruit. M. acuminata was later introduced into mainland Indochina into the range of another ancestral wild banana species - Musa balbisiana, a hardier species of lesser genetic diversity than M. acuminata.

Puccinellia fasciculata, or Borrer's saltmarsh grass, is an annual grass native to coasts of Europe and introduced to the northern east coast of North America. Its diploid number is 28.

Cattleya dowiana is a species of orchid. The diploid chromosome number of C. dowiana has been determined as 2n = 40; the haploid chromosome number has been determined as n = 20.

Because of protandrous production, orphaned workers are selected to produce female offspring, since they are reproducing so late in the season. They mate in order to make diploid female offspring.

Photo of F. daltoniana All strawberries have a base haploid count of 7 chromosomes. Fragaria daltoniana is diploid, having 2 pairs of these chromosomes for a total of 14 chromosomes.

Hypericum majus, the greater Canadian St. John's wort, is a perennial herb native to North America. The specific epithet majus means "larger". The plant has a diploid number of 16.

Broad-leaved taxa are mainly tetraploid, with 2n = 52 (e.g. P. alpinus, P. praelongus), but a few species are diploid (e.g. P. coloratus or octaploid (2n = 104)(e.g. P. illinoensis).

The compatible nuclei of the dikaryon merge forming a diploid nucleus that then undergoes meiosis and ultimately internal ascospore formation. Members of the Taphrinomycotina and Saccharomycotina do not form croziers.

The larger tetraploid "race", as Peter Taylor called it, can be up to twice as large as the regular diploid species. Populations of this race have been located in Florida.

As most irises are diploid, meaning having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. Iris paradoxa has been counted as 2n=20 .

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=34, Mao & Xue, 1986.

Intra- and interspecific phylogenetic relationships among diploid Triticum-Aegilops species (Poaceae) based on base-pair substitutions, indels, and microsatellites in chloroplast noncoding sequences. American Journal of Botany 92(11), 1887-98.

Glyceria melicaria, the melic mannagrass or northeastern mannagrass, is a perennial grass found in the eastern United States. Its specific epithet melicaria means "similar to Melica". Its diploid number is 40.

Its diploid number is 2n=40 and its fundamental number is FN=72. C. fulvescens contains an autapomorphic allele for the gene RAG1 distinguishing it from C. perotensis and C. merriami.

Given that close relative Andalgalomys pearsoni has the highest known diploid number (78) of the tribe, it appears that major chromosome restructuring occurred during the evolution of the Andalgalomys-Salinomys clade.

Debates about alternation of generations in the early twentieth century can be confusing because various ways of classifying "generations" co-exist (sexual vs. asexual, gametophyte vs. sporophyte, haploid vs. diploid, etc.).

As most irises are diploid, (including I. timofejewii,) having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=24.

The term autosomal trisomy means that a chromosome other than the sex chromosomes X and Y is present in 3 copies instead of the normal number of 2 in diploid cells.

Each pollen grain contains two sperm cells for double fertilization of the egg. One fertilization event forms a diploid zygote and the other fertilization event forms the endosperm of the seed.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It was counted as 4n=48 (making it a tetraploid).

The species originated as a hybrid between two species and is diploid but not hermaphroditic. It can have triploid and tetraploid forms, including all- female forms that reproduce mainly through hybridogenesis.

In the first stage of sexual reproduction, "meiosis", the number of chromosomes is reduced from a diploid number (2n) to a haploid number (n). During "fertilisation", haploid gametes come together to form a diploid zygote, and the original number of chromosomes is restored. Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves a complex life cycle in which a gamete (such as a sperm or egg cell) with a single set of chromosomes (haploid) combines with another to produce an organism composed of cells with two sets of chromosomes (diploid).John Maynard Smith & Eörz Szathmáry, The Major Transitions in Evolution, W. H. Freeman and Company, 1995, p 149 Sexual reproduction is the most common life cycle in multicellular eukaryotes, such as animals, fungi and plants.

In The American Species of Crepis, Babcock and Stebbins described the concept of the polyploid complex, and its role in plant evolution. Some genera, such as Crepis, have a complex of reproductive forms that center on sexually diploid populations that have also given rise to polyploid ones. Babcock and Stebbins also observed that allopolyploid types formed from the hybridization of two different species always have a wider distribution than diploid or autotetraploid species, and proposed that polyploids formed through hybridization have a greater potential to exploit varied environments, because they inherit all traits from both parents. They also showed that hybridization in the polyploid complex could provide a mechanism for genetic exchange between diploid species that were otherwise unable to breed.

Allopolyploids or amphipolyploids or heteropolyploids are polyploids with chromosomes derived from two or more diverged taxa. As in autopolyploidy, this primarily occurs through the fusion of unreduced (2n) gametes, which can take place before or after hybridization. In the former case, unreduced gametes from each diploid taxa – or reduced gametes from two autotetraploid taxa – combine to form allopolyploid offspring. In the latter case, one or more diploid F1 hybrids produce unreduced gametes that fuse to form allopolyploid progeny.

These different, discrete versions of the same gene are called alleles. In the case of the pea, which is a diploid species, each individual plant has two copies of each gene, one copy inherited from each parent. Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance. Diploid organisms with two copies of the same allele of a given gene are called homozygous at that gene locus, while organisms with two different alleles of a given gene are called heterozygous.

The latter is formed when diploid C. albicans cells mate when they are in the opaque form. The diploid genome size is approximately 29 Mb, and up to 70% of the protein coding genes have not yet been characterized. C. albicans is easily cultured in the lab and can be studied both in vivo and in vitro. Depending on the media different studies can be done as the media influences the morphological state of C. albicans.

For example, experimental haploidisation may be used to recover a strain of haploid Dictyostelium from a diploid strain. It sometimes occurs naturally in plants when meiotically reduced cells (usually egg cells) develop by parthenogenesis. Haploidisation was one of the procedures used by Japanese researchers to produce Kaguya, a fatherless mouse; two haploids were then combined to make the diploid mouse. Haploidisation commitment is a checkpoint in meiosis which follows the successful completion of premeiotic DNA replication and recombination commitment.

In 2012, a study was carried out on 4 diploid and 7 allopolyploid bearded Iris species. Their leaf flavonoid, isoflavonoid and xanthone constituents were investigated. It also found that Iris bicapitata had a chromosome number of 2n=40, and was a parent species of Iris germanica and Iris albicans (who are counted as 2n=44). As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

Here, the widespread progenitor was the diploid L. glandulosa, while the more restricted was the diploid L. discoidea. Both are obligate outcrossers, though the former has ray flowers while the latter only has disc flowers. Further, both are completely interfertile, while L. discoidea is restricted to serpentine habitats. As with the former species pairs, Gottlieb applied the electrophoretic test to these species and found that they had a very high genetic identity for the isozymes studied.

In the tree wasp, as in other Hymenoptera species, males are produced from unfertilised haploid eggs, while females are from fertilised diploid eggs. This is a method of sex determination known as haplodiploidy. This leads to sisters having a relatedness of 0.75 because all sperm produced are identical and they receive half of their mother’s genes while brothers have a relatedness of 0.5. However, the diploid mother is related by 0.5 to both sons and daughters.

Apomixis mainly occurs in two forms: In gametophytic apomixis, the embryo arises from an unfertilized egg within a diploid embryo sac that was formed without completing meiosis. In nucellar embryony, the embryo is formed from the diploid nucellus tissue surrounding the embryo sac. Nucellar embryony occurs in some citrus seeds. Male apomixis can occur in rare cases, such as the Saharan Cypress Cupressus dupreziana, where the genetic material of the embryo are derived entirely from pollen.

The diplobiontic forms, which evolved from haplobiontic ancestors, have both a multicellular haploid generation and a multicellular diploid generation. Here the zygote divides repeatedly by mitosis and grows into a multicellular diploid sporophyte. The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis that germinate to produce a multicellular gametophyte. All land plants have a diplobiontic common ancestor, and diplobiontic forms have also evolved independently within Ulvophyceae more than once (as has also occurred in the red and brown algae).

A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. The more general term for such organisms is haploid.

Females reach sexual maturity at 9–12 months of age and males reach sexual maturity at 12–18 months. Cephalophus zebra is the only duiker species with the diploid number 2n=58.

Bromus squarrosus, the rough brome, is a brome grass native to Russia and Europe. The specific epithet squarrosus is Latin, meaning "with spreading tips". The grass has a diploid number of 14.

However, there are numerous intermediate forms between the two varieties and distinguishing between them can be very difficult. The diploid chromosome number (2n) of Thapsia villosa is 22, 33, 44, or 66.

On the other hand, hybrids of tomato and diploid potato can be created in the lab by somatic fusion, and are partially fertile, providing evidence of the close relationship between these species.

During this process a diploid cell is formed that contains the full genetic repertoire of both parental cells, and genetic recombination is facilitated. Subsequently, the cells separate, giving rise to recombinant cells.

All close relatives of the crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) are extinct. It is the only living representative at present of the genus Cerdocyon. Genetically, there are 74 diploid chromosomes (36 pairs).

Some Myxogastria species may produce asexually. These are continuously diploid. There is no meiosis before the germination of the spores and the production of the plasmodium proceeds without germination of two cells.

Most Capsicum species are 2n=2x=24. A few of the non-domesticated species are 2n=2x=32. All are diploid. The Capsicum annuum and Capsicum chinense genomes were completed in 2014.

About four seeds develop per follicle, which are yellowish-brown to black, round to oval and 6–11 mm in diameter. As all diploid peonies, Paeonia brownii has ten chromosomes (2n=10).

H. Veenman & Zonen, Wageningen, Nederland. . Ploidy 2n = 38 (diploid).Chen, G, Sun, W-B, & Sun, H. (2007). Ploidy variation in Buddleja L. (Buddlejaceae) in the Sino - Himalayan region and its biogeographical implications.

Oogonia are the cells that turn into primary oocytes in oogenesis.answers.com They are diploid, i.e. Oogonia are created in early embryonic life. All have turned into primary oocytes at late fetal age.

The Noctilucales are an order of marine dinoflagellates. They differ from most others in that the mature cell is diploid and its nucleus does not show a dinokaryotic organization. They show gametic meiosis.

During meiosis, diploid cells divide twice to produce haploid germ cells. During this process, recombination results in a reshuffling of the genetic material from homologous chromosomes so each gamete has a unique genome.

This subspecies is diploid with a chromosome number of 28 (2n = 28). This subspecies has a greater distribution than the other two subspecies. It has a more erect growth habit than subspecies sylvestris.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. Which can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=84 (found by Simonet in 1934).

1996),Iris illyrica Tomm. (2n = 24) and Iris reichenbachii Heuff. (2n = 24). As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

A cytological study of the genus Nepenthes L. (Nepenthaceae). Sendtnera 4: 169–174. and this is now accepted as the diploid number of all species in the genus.Cheek, M.R. & M.H.P. Jebb 2001. Nepenthaceae.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has not been revealed what is the count of the iris.

Tree has a biennial tendency, is diploid, with average vigor. Flowering at mid-late season. Like other domesticated apples, it is self-sterile and needs cross pollination. 'Pristine' flowers are pollinated by bees.

Long-term growth of diploid human fibroblasts in low serum media. Experimental gerontology 25, 97-105.Wistrom, C., and Villeponteau, B. (1992). Cloning and expression of SAG: a novel marker of cellular senescence.

As most iries are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=22, (Dobeš et al.) in 1997.

After approximately 30 hours from the time of fertilization, fusion of the pronuclei and immediate mitotic division produce two 2n diploid daughter cells called blastomeres.Blastomere Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20, similar to other Oncocyclus irises.

Some Plateau Indian tribes used the roots to treat toothache. The Navajo used a decoction of this plant as an emetic.Peter Goldblatt. 1980. Uneven Diploid Chromosome Numbers and Complex Heterozygosity in Homeria (Iridaceae).

It usually has 32 spores per sporangium, but many with only 16 have been observed, produced from eight 2n mother cells. It is diploid and has 60 chromosomes in its root tip cells.

At maturity, the gametophyte produces gametes by mitosis, which does not alter the number of chromosomes. Two gametes (originating from different organisms of the same species or from the same organism) fuse to produce a diploid zygote, which develops into a diploid sporophyte. This cycle, from gametophyte to sporophyte (or equally from sporophyte to gametophyte), is the way in which all land plants and many algae undergo sexual reproduction. The relationship between the sporophyte and gametophyte varies among different groups of plants.

For example, diploid human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes (46 total), half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin. Meiosis produces haploid gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of 23 chromosomes. When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes. This same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms that utilize meiosis.

Others later carried out direct crosses between blackcurrant and gooseberry, however the diploid seedlings created were sterile and did not produce much fruit, although some fruit was set without fertilization (parthenocarpy). Jostaberry is frequently mistakenly termed Ribes × culverwelli as a result of this early F1 diploid hybrid. However, Jostaberry is a F2 fertile amphipolyploid hybrid of complex parentage, not a direct cross, and was created later in Germany. Paul Lorenz started the process in the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin in 1926.

Pollination and fruit formation depend on meiosis. Meiosis is central to the processes by which diploid microspore mother cells within the anther give rise to haploid pollen grains, and megaspore mother cells in ovules that are contained within the ovary give rise to haploid nuclei. Union of haploid nuclei from pollen and ovule (fertilization) can occur either by self- or cross-pollination. Fertilization leads to the formation of a diploid zygote that can then develop into an embryo within the emerging seed.

The turkey has a diploid number of 80 (2n = 80) chromosomes. The karyotype contains an additional chromosomal pair relative to the chicken due to the presence of at least two fission/fusion differences (GGA2 = MGA3 and MGA6 and GGA4 = MGA4 and MGA9). Given these differences involving the macrochromosomes, an additional fission/fusion must also exist between the species involving the microchromosomes if the diploid numbers are valid. Other rearrangements have been identified through comparative genetic maps, physical maps and whole genome sequencing.

The life cycle of A. gallica includes two diploidization–haploidization events. The first of these is the usual process of cell fusion (forming a diploid) followed by meiosis during the formation of haploid basidiospores. The second event is more cryptic and occurs before fruit body formation. In most basidiomycetous fungi, the hyphae of compatible mating types will fuse to form a two-nucleate, or dikaryotic stage; this stage is not observed in Armillaria species, which have cells that are mostly monokaryotic and diploid.

The genus was named after the Scottish-Canadian botanist William Fraser Tolmie, while the species name refers to Archibald Menzies, the Scottish naturalist for the Vancouver Expedition (1791-1795). The plant was formerly considered to be the only member of a monotypic genus until diploid populations (due to autopolyploidy) were split off as a separate species T. diplomenziesii from the tetraploid populations.Soltis, D. E. and B. A. Bohm. (1986). Flavonoid chemistry of diploid and tetraploid cytotypes of Tolmiea menziesii (Saxifragaceae).

These seeds are produced by crossing diploid and tetraploid lines of watermelon, with the resulting seeds producing sterile triploid plants. Fruit development is triggered by pollination, so these plants must be grown alongside a diploid strain to provide pollen. Triploid plants with seedless fruits can also be produced using endosperm culture for the regeneration of triploid plantlets from endosperm tissue via somatic embryogenesis. One disadvantage of most seedless crops is a significant reduction in the amount of genetic diversity in the species.

Termites are often compared with the social Hymenoptera (ants and various species of bees and wasps), but their differing evolutionary origins result in major differences in life cycle. In the eusocial Hymenoptera, the workers are exclusively female. Males (drones) are haploid and develop from unfertilised eggs, while females (both workers and the queen) are diploid and develop from fertilised eggs. In contrast, worker termites, which constitute the majority in a colony, are diploid individuals of both sexes and develop from fertilised eggs.

In a common mode of fertilization found in certain species of Thallophytes, the antheridia will bind with the oogonia. The antheridia will then form fertilization tubes connecting the antheridial cytoplasm with each oosphere within the oogonia. A haploid nucleus (gamete) from the antheridium will then be transferred through the fertilization tube into the oosphere, and fuse with the oosphere’s haploid nucleus forming a diploid oospore. The oospore is then ready to germinate and develop into an adult diploid somatic stage.

It is also found in some mites. Genetically this system is equivalent both to haplodiploid arrhenotoky where the males are haploid and develop from unfertilized eggs and to certain cases of diploid arrhenotoky where the males get a diploid set chromosome set from their mother but inactivate and fail to pass on half of them. Pseudo-arrhenotoky causes a female's genetic contribution to her son's children to double. This intragenomic conflict between maternal and paternal genes can lead to pseudo- arrhenotoky arising.

Microarray profiling is then used to compare the fitness of these single and double mutants. In the case of SGA, the double mutants examined are haploid and collected after mating with a mutant strain followed by several rounds of selection. dSLAM strains of both single and double mutants originate from the same diploid heterozygote strain (indicated by “diploid” of “dSLAM”). In the case of dSLAM analysis the fitness of single and double mutants is assessed by microarray analysis of a growth competition assay.

Normal egg cells form after meiosis and are haploid, with half as many chromosomes as their mother's body cells. Haploid individuals, however, are usually non-viable, and parthenogenetic offspring usually have the diploid chromosome number. Depending on the mechanism involved in restoring the diploid number of chromosomes, parthenogenetic offspring may have anywhere between all and half of the mother's alleles. The offspring having all of the mother's genetic material are called full clones and those having only half are called half clones.

Musa bauensis is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Sarawak, Malaysia. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Musa azizii is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Sarawak, Malaysia. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Musa barioensis is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Sarawak, Malaysia. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Since most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=18, carried out by Zakharyeva in 1985.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count : 2n=86, 88, (found by Simonet in 1932).

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=50, and 2n=44, Mao & Xue, 1986.

Musa bukensis is a species of wild banana (genus Musa) from the Solomon Islands. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

The apex of the ovary is pubescent. This subspecies is primarily a forage plant, and occurs in waste places and roadsides. The subspecies has a diploid number of 14 or 28. Bromus hordeaceus subsp.

Federal Register November 29, 1991. all of the species of Conradina are diploid and have a haploid chromosome number of 12. Conradina has been the subject of genetic research.Home Page of Christine E. Edwards.

In the literature of the 60's this plant was considered a form of C. willisii but see the Cryptocoryne page for a discussion of the name change and the 'diploid and 'triploid' forms.

Cells that can unite may then undergo conjugation. Sexual reproduction involving interaction of opposite mating types promotes outcrossing and the masking of deleterious recessive mutations in the diploid stage of the sexual life cycle.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. As of 15 October 2015, it has not yet had its chromosome counted.

The Fissidens adianthoides sporophytes. The peristomal teeth of Fissidens adianthoides. A sporophyte is the diploid multicellular stage in the life cycle of a moss which produces spores. They are commonly observed in this species.

Its appressed leaves are long and wide. Its sepals are long and wide. Its diploid number is 24 or 48. It can be found in moist ditches, pine barrens, and prairies at elevations between .

His Ph.D. work concerned diploid and tetraploid Californian species of Delphinium. WWII interrupted his studies, and he completed his thesis in 1946. Lewis became a faculty member at UCLA in that same year, 1946.

Its life history is of one diploid plant and gametes. Each individual plant is either male or female. The gametes are produced in the spring in conceptacles embedded in yellowish receptacles on short branches.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20, counted by Johnson & Brandham in 1997.

Bromus nottowayanus, the Nottoway Valley brome or satin brome, is a brome grass native to North America. The specific epithet nottowayanus refers to the Nottoway Valley. The grass has a diploid number of 14.

Glyceria acutiflora, the creeping mannagrass, is a perennial grass found in the north-eastern United States and in north-eastern Asia. Its specific epithet acutiflora means "acute-flowered". It has a diploid number of 40.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=18, which was discovered by Zakharyeva in 1985.

However, the supposed wide karyotypic diversity the family Loricariidae or the subfamily Hypostominae would present is almost exclusively restricted to the genus Hypostomus, and the species from the other genera had a conserved diploid number.

Musa johnsii is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to western New Guinea. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

The cheetah has small round spots without any rosettes. Like most cat species, the leopard has a diploid chromosome number of 38. The chromosomes include four acrocentric, five metacentric, seven submetacentric and two telocentric pairs.

It found a new iridal called 'Hoogianal'. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n = 44.

There are two types of spermatocytes, primary and secondary spermatocytes. Primary and secondary spermatocytes are formed through the process of spermatocytogenesis. Primary spermatocytes are diploid (2N) cells. After meiosis I, two secondary spermatocytes are formed.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=44 (Riley, 1942). and 2n=44 (Snoad 1952).

The species is diploid with a base chromosome number of 9 (2n=18). It is found on sand dunes and along road verges. The flowers appear in the Southern Hemisphere spring, from August to October.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It was counted by Marc Simonet in 1934. It has twenty chromosomes (2n=20).

Aegilops tauschii is part of the tribe Triticeae, along with wheat and some other cereals. It is a diploid (2n = 2x = 14, DD) goat grass species which has contributed the D genome in common wheat.

Rosa × alba is hexaploid, with six sets of chromosomes in each cell, which means that it interbreeds only rarely with the more common diploid, tetraploid, and pentaploid roses. Maskew and Primavesi concluded in 2005 that a 1993 suggestion by Graham and Primavesi that it was derived by chromosome duplication from a triploid offspring of R. arvensis (diploid) and R. gallica (tetraploid) had been mistaken. R. alba shares some nuclear DNA sequences with R. canina and may be derived from hybridization between that species and R. gallica.

Most animals and many plants are diploid for most of their lifespan, with the haploid form reduced to single cell gametes such as sperm or eggs. Although they do not use the haploid/diploid method of sexual reproduction, bacteria have many methods of acquiring new genetic information. Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium. Bacteria can also take up raw DNA fragments found in the environment and integrate them into their genomes, a phenomenon known as transformation.

In contrast to a gamete, the diploid somatic cells of an individual contain one copy of the chromosome set from the sperm and one copy of the chromosome set from the egg cell; that is, the cells of the offspring have genes expressing characteristics of both the father and the mother. A gamete's chromosomes are not exact duplicates of either of the sets of chromosomes carried in the diploid chromosomes, and may undergo random mutations resulting in modified DNA and subsequently, new proteins and phenotypes.

Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: How many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain? In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination mechanism. Painter in 1922 was not certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46. He revised his opinion later from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an XX/XY system.

Crosses between diploid and tetraploid species of Paspalum provide evidence of a post-fertilization mechanism preventing hybrid formation when pollen from tetraploid species was used to fertilize a female of a diploid species. There were signs of fertilization and even endosperm formation but subsequently this endosperm collapsed. This demonstrates evidence of an early post-fertilization isolating mechanism, in which the hybrid early embryo is detected and selectively aborted. This process can also occur later during development in which developed, hybrid seeds are selectively aborted.

D. verna possesses the characteristic of polyploidy, having more than two sets of chromosomes. When there is a meiotic or mitotic error, and there are multiple copies of the genome. Polyploids form at reasonably high frequency in flowering plants, suggesting that plants have a remarkably high tendency for polyploidy. There are several advantages to polyploidy, such as, observation of hybrid vigor, or heterosis, which is the polyploid offspring of two diploid parents is more vigorous and healthy than either of the two diploid parents.

Now, however, it is known through a mix of observations on field samples and laboratory cultures, that the two coccolith types are produced by the same species but at different life cycle phases. Heterococcoliths are produced in the diploid life-cycle phase and holococcoliths in the haploid phase. Both in field samples and laboratory cultures, there is the possibility of observing a cell covered by a combination of heterococcoliths and holococcoliths. This indicates the transition from the diploid to the haploid phase of the species.

In sporophytic self-incompatibility (SSI), the SI phenotype of the pollen is determined by the diploid genotype of the anther (the sporophyte) in which it was created. This form of SI was identified in the families: Brassicaceae, Asteraceae, Convolvulaceae, Betulaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Sterculiaceae and Polemoniaceae. Up to this day, only one mechanism of SSI has been described in detail at the molecular level, in Brassica (Brassicaceae). Since SSI is determined by a diploid genotype, the pollen and pistil each express the translation products of two different alleles, i.e.

The workers tend to be the progeny of a singly mated queen. The colonies are predominantly haploid males which arose from queen-laid eggs. Mating frequency is a central factor in kin selection arguments. Some cases are seen of diploid males, which are generally sterile and are considered to have a very low fitness. Diploid males tend to have a cost to the colony because diploidy can result in a reduced proportion of workers able to perform their tasks, which is pivotal to the colony’s survival.

The haploid number (n) refers to the total number of chromosomes found in a gamete (a sperm or egg cell produced by meiosis in preparation for sexual reproduction). Under normal conditions, the haploid number is exactly half the total number of chromosomes present in the organism's somatic cells. For diploid organisms, the monoploid number and haploid number are equal; in humans, both are equal to 23. When a human germ cell undergoes meiosis, the diploid 46-chromosome complement is split in half to form haploid gametes.

Diploid cells have two homologous copies of each chromosome, usually one from the mother and one from the father. All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat (Tympanoctomys barrerae) and golden viscacha rat (Pipanacoctomys aureus) have been regarded as the only known exceptions (as of 2004). However, some genetic studies have rejected any polyploidism in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents.

Next the two uninucleate cells on either side of the first ascus-forming cell fuse with each other to form a binucleate cell that can grow to form a further crozier that can then form its own ascus-initial cell. This process can then be repeated multiple times. After formation of the ascus-initial cell, the A and a nucleus fuse with each other to form a diploid nucleus (see Figure). This nucleus is the only diploid nucleus in the entire life cycle of N. crassa.

The female gametes while still on the thallus are fertilized by the released male gametes, which are non-motile. The fertilized, now diploid, carposporangia after mitosis produce spores (carpospores) which settle, then bore into shells, germinate and form a filamentous stage. This stage was originally thought to be a different species of alga, and was referred to as Conchocelis rosea. That Conchocelis was the diploid stage of Porphyra was discovered by the British phycologist Kathleen Mary Drew-Baker in 1949 for the European species Porphyra umbilicalis.

Since E. imperialis is a euglossine species, they are a non-social bee, and therefore lack the formation of colonies. Studies have shown that significant barriers to establish stable perennial colonies arise from two main factors: high diploid male production and genetic polymorphism. There could be no supply of truly altruistic workers (or drones), since the supply would be inconsistent, with up to 50% of the intended diploid females actually being males. Therefore, with no drone class, colonies would not be able to adequately form.

Green algae conjugating Green algae are a group of photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms that include species with haplobiontic and diplobiontic life cycles. The diplobiontic species, such as Ulva, follow a reproductive cycle called alternation of generations in which two multicellular forms, haploid and diploid, alternate, and these may or may not be isomorphic (having the same morphology). In haplobiontic species only the haploid generation, the gametophyte is multicellular. The fertilized egg cell, the diploid zygote, undergoes meiosis, giving rise to haploid cells which will become new gametophytes.

Cytogenetic analysis has shown the haploid chromosome number (n) is variable and varies across species in the genus: A. thaliana is n=5 and the DNA sequencing of this species was completed in 2001. A. lyrata has n=8 but some subspecies or populations are tetraploid. Various subspecies A. arenosa have n=8 but can be either 2n (diploid) or 4n (tetraploid). A. suecica is n=13 (5+8) and is an amphidiploid species originated through hybridization between A. thaliana and diploid A. arenosa.

Hordeum brachyantherum belongs to grass family, Poaceae, genus Hordeum. There are two common cytotypes of Hordeum brachyantherum. The diploid mainly grow in California, the tetraploid grow widely over the world. Polyploidy is very common in plants.

Avena barbata is a species of wild oat known by the common name slender wild oat. It has edible seeds. It is a diploidized autotetraploid grass (2n=4x=28). Its diploid ancestors are A. hirtula Lag.

Cumin is a diploid species with 14 chromosomes (i.e. 2n = 14). The chromosomes of the different varieties have morphological similarities with no distinct variation in length and volume. Most of the varieties available today are selections.

Liatris bracteata might be a variety of Liatris punctata, with the morphological differences primarily in the number of florets per flower head. It is genetically a hexaploid, while populations of L. punctata are diploid and tetraploid.

Iturup and Sakhalin Island strawberries. HortScience 40(4): 1127. Abstract. All strawberries have a base haploid count of 7 chromosomes. Fragaria nipponica is diploid, having 2 pairs of these chromosomes for a total of 14 chromosomes.

Iturup And Sakhalin Island Strawberries. HortScience 40(4): 1127. Abstract. All strawberries have a base haploid count of 7 chromosomes. Fragaria yezoensis is diploid, having 2 pairs of these chromosomes for a total of 14 chromosomes.

The tree has been described as possibly having triploid chromosome levels (unusual for an American Elm), suggesting it may be a hybrid between the tetraploid and rarer diploid forms of American Elm, like the cultivar 'Jefferson'.

Most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It was counted in 1980 by Awishai & Zohary. It has a chromosome count of 2n=20.

He was able to establish the plant in the field, and after 39 years of field trials was able to show that the autopolyploid was not as successful as its diploid parent in an unchanging environment.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. Specimens from Primorskii Krai in Russia, were found to have a chromosome count of 2n=28.

By contrast, gametes of diploid organisms contain only half as many chromosomes. In humans, this is 23 unpaired chromosomes. When two gametes (i.e. a spermatozoon and an ovum) meet during conception, they fuse together, creating a zygote.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. Nothing has been reported currently as of August 2015, about a chromosome count of the iris.

Musa violascens is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Peninsular Malaysia. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Musa viridis is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to northern Vietnam. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

When the cells get two Yeast cells are close enough their fungal hyphae merge to form a diploid zygote. Other examples of Chemotropism The addition of atmospheric nitrogen, also called nitrogen fixation, is an example of chemotropism.

"Avian sex determination: what, when and where?". Cytogenet. Genome Res. 117 (1-4): 165–73 contrarily to what happens in humans, where the male is the heterogametic sex, as occurs in most diploid species.Strickberger, M. W. Genetics.

The diploid chromosome number of Margarya melanioides is 2n=18.Chen Y. X., Zhang N. G., Zhang W. & Li J. K. (1996). "The karyotype study of Margarya yaungtsunghaiensis and M. melanioides (Viviparidae)". Zoological Research 17: 94-96.

The diploid chromosome number of Tchangmargarya yangtsunghaiensis is 2n=24. Chen Y. X., Zhang N. G., Zhang W. & Li J. K. (1996). "The karyotype study of Margarya yaungtsunghaiensis and M. melanioides (Viviparidae)". Zoological Research 17: 94-96.

The calyx is bell-shaped. They are usually very fragrant. The fruits of jasmines are berries that turn black when ripe. The basic chromosome number of the genus is 13, and most species are diploid (2n=26).

In 1966 argued that diploids and their autopolyploid derivatives should be considered as belonging to one species. He used examples to support this from the diploid and tetraploid races of D. hanseni, D. gypsophilum, and D. variegatum.

Leiolepis triploida measure in snout–vent length. It is a triploid species and reproduces asexually. Its likely maternal ancestor is Leiolepis boehmei, an asexual but diploid species; the two are morphologically similar but L. triploida is larger.

Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium is a flowering plant within the family Asteraceae and the genus Chrysanthemum. It is a perennial flowering plant that is often noted because of its yellow flowers. It has 18 chromosomes at the diploid stage.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. Nothing has been reported currently as of August 2015, about a chromosome count of the iris.

As the coccolithophores sink to the seafloor they contribute to the vertical carbon dioxide gradient in the water column. Coccolithophores produce calcite plates termed coccoliths which together cover the entire cell surface forming the coccosphere. The coccoliths are formed using the intracellular strategy where the plates are formed in a coccoliths vesicle, but the product forming within the vesicle varies between the haploid and diploid phases. A coccolithophore in the haploid phase will produce what is called a holococcolith, while one in the diploid phase will produce heterococcoliths.

In the figure of the P. polycephalum life cycle, the typical haploid-diploid sexual cycle is depicted in the outer circuit and the apogamic cycle in the inner circuit. Note that an apogamic amoeba retains its matA1 mating type specificity and can still fuse sexually with an amoeba of a different mating type to form a diploid heterozygous plasmodium—another characteristic that facilitates genetic analysis. P. polycephalum amoebae growing on lawns of live E. coli. The bacterial cells are approx 1 micron in diameter, amoebae are approx 10 microns in diameter.

Speciation via polyploidy: A diploid cell undergoes failed meiosis, producing diploid gametes, which self-fertilize to produce a tetraploid zygote. Polyploidy is frequent in plants, some estimates suggesting that 30–80% of living plant species are polyploid, and many lineages show evidence of ancient polyploidy (paleopolyploidy) in their genomes. Huge explosions in angiosperm species diversity appear to have coincided with the timing of ancient genome duplications shared by many species. It has been established that 15% of angiosperm and 31% of fern speciation events are accompanied by ploidy increase.

Homoeologous chromosomes are those brought together following inter-species hybridization and allopolyploidization, and whose relationship was completely homologous in an ancestral species. For example, durum wheat is the result of the inter-species hybridization of two diploid grass species Triticum urartu and Aegilops speltoides. Both diploid ancestors had two sets of 7 chromosomes, which were similar in terms of size and genes contained on them. Durum wheat contains a hybrid genome with two sets of chromosomes derived from Triticum urartu and two sets of chromosomes derived from Aegilops speltoides.

Next the two uninucleate cells on either side of the first ascus-forming cell fuse with each other to form a binucleate cell that can grow to form a further crozier that can then form its own ascus- initial cell. This process can then be repeated multiple times. After formation of the ascus-initial cell, the ‘A’ and ‘a’ nucleus fuse with each other to form a diploid nucleus (see figure, top of §). This nucleus is the only diploid nucleus in the entire life cycle of N. crassa.

Specifically, in the case of C. bertholletiae, heterothallic mating occurs when hyphae of opposite mating types are stimulated by mutually-secreted pheromones to grow toward each other and differentiate into gametangia. When they meet, these gametangia fuse (plasmogamy) and form a multinucleate, dikaryotic zygosporangium flanked by suspensor cells derived from the contributing hyphae. Each zygosporangium produces one zygospore, which, after a dormant period of weeks to months, undergoes nuclear fusion (karyogamy) to produce a diploid nucleus. The diploid nucleus then undergoes meiosis and chromosomes recombine to produce recombinant progeny genomes.

The generic term polyploid is often used to describe cells with three or more chromosome sets. Virtually all sexually reproducing organisms are made up of somatic cells that are diploid or greater, but ploidy level may vary widely between different organisms, between different tissues within the same organism, and at different stages in an organism's life cycle. Half of all known plant genera contain polyploid species, and about two-thirds of all grasses are polyploid. Many animals are uniformly diploid, though polyploidy is common in invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians.

The sterile diploid hybrid of A. montanum and A. platyneuron, which resembles A. bradleyi except for its abortive spores and smaller sori, was not collected until 1972, at Crowder's Mountain, Georgia. Even though the diploid hybrid is rarely collected, allozyme studies show that A. bradleyi has multiple origins; that is, different populations of A. bradleyi have originated from the chromosome doubling of independently formed diploids. Despite their independent origins, these populations are probably interfertile and not reproductively isolated from one another. In addition to its parental species, A. bradleyi hybridizes with several other spleenworts.

Durum wheat is a tetraploid wheat, having 4 sets of chromosomes for a total of 28, unlike hard red winter and hard red spring wheats, which are hexaploid (6 sets of chromosomes) for a total of 42 chromosomes each. Durum wheat originated through intergeneric hybridization and polyploidization involving two diploid (having 2 sets of chromosomes) grass species: T. urartu (2n=2x=14, AA genome) and a B-genome diploid related to Aegilops speltoides (2n=2x=14, SS genome). and is thus an allotetraploid (having 4 sets of chromosomes, from unlike parents) species.

Colchicine is widely used in plant breeding by inducing polyploidy in plant cells to produce new or improved varieties, strains and cultivars. Since chromosome segregation is driven by microtubules, colchicine is used in plant cells during cellular division by inhibiting chromosome segregation during meiosis; half the resulting gametes, therefore, contain no chromosomes, while the other half contains double the usual number of chromosomes (i.e., diploid instead of haploid, as gametes usually are), and lead to embryos with double the usual number of chromosomes (i.e., tetraploid instead of diploid).

436–448 A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with these reproducers apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible. The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring. An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in Wasmannia auropunctata, where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process whereby a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males who are clones of the father.

Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: how many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain? In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination mechanism. Painter in 1922 was not certain whether the diploid of humans was 46 or 48, at first favoring 46, but revised his opinion from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an XX/XY system. Considering the techniques of the time, these results were remarkable.

Starting in the late 1990s, several reviews have been published and the number of recognised species has slowly increased as a result of revalidation of earlier described species and the description of new; most of these were formerly considered part of B. viridis. A few populations, especially those on Crete and certain Cyclades Islands, still require further study to clarify their taxonomic position. While the European, northern African and western Asian species all are diploid, central Asia has species that are diploid (B. latastii, B. perrini, B. sitibundus and B. turanensis), triploid (B.

Some populations (in Piemonte) were re-classified as Iris perrieri and plants labelled as Iris benacensis were not either Iris perrieri or Iris aphylla. In 2012, a study was carried out on the flora of Italy, using Ellenberg's Indicator values (relating to moisture, light, climate and salinity) for Iris benacensis and Iris perrieri. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It is a diploid, and has a chromosome count of 2n=24, counted in 1956, by Mitra.

This behavior is believed to have evolved to allow a doomed colony to produce drones which may mate with a virgin queen and thus preserve the colony's genetic progeny. A few ants and bees are capable of producing diploid female offspring parthenogenetically. These include a honey bee subspecies from South Africa, Apis mellifera capensis, where workers are capable of producing diploid eggs parthenogenetically, and replacing the queen if she dies; other examples include some species of small carpenter bee, (genus Ceratina). Many parasitic wasps are known to be parthenogenetic, sometimes due to infections by Wolbachia.

Musa monticola is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Sabah on the island of Borneo. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Musa lokok is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Sarawak, on the island of Borneo. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

The dikaryon is long lasting but ultimately gives rise to either fruitbodies with basidia or directly to basidia without fruitbodies. The paired dikaryon in the basidium fuse (i.e. karyogamy takes place). The diploid basidium begins the cycle again.

Genetic evidence for the hybrid origin of the diploid plant Stephanomeria diegensis. Evolution 36:6 1158-67. Furthermore, it is thought to be the result of homoploid hybrid speciation, which is uncommon.Sherman, N. A. & J. M. Burke. (2009).

When two haploid cells of opposite mating type come into contact they can mate to form a diploid cell, a zygote, that may then undergo meiosis. Meiosis tends to occur under nutritionally limiting conditions associated with DNA damage.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count of 2n=28. This places it with Iris sibirica and Iris sanguinea.

Festuca saximontana, the rocky mountain fescue or the mountain fescue, is a perennial grass native to North America. The specific epithet saximontana is Latin and means "of the Rocky Mountains". The grass has a diploid number of 42.

The reproductive bodies form rounded swollen tips on the branches, usually in pairs. In the conceptacles oögonia and antheridia are produced after meiosis and then released. Fertilisation follows and the zygote develops directly into the diploid sporophyte plant.

The life cycle of Physarum polycephalum. The outer circuit illustrates the natural cycle alternating between the haploid amoebal stage and diploid plasmodial stage. The inner circuit illustrates the fully haploid "apogamic" life cycle. Both cycles exhibit all developmental stages.

Yinshania, (, meaning Yinshan shepherd's purse), is a genus of flowering plants in the crucifer family Brassicaceae, native to China (including Taiwan) and northern Vietnam. Species in Yinshania are diploid, and species in a proposed related genus, Hilliella, are polyploid.

When environmental condition deteriorate (e.g. crowding), some of the asexually produced offspring develop into males. The females start producing haploid sexual eggs, which the males fertilise. In species without males, resting eggs are also produced asexually and are diploid.

It found that the chromosome number of Iris tigridia was 2n=18. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted several times.

Hypericum harperi, the sharplobe St. Johnswort or Harper's St. John's wort, is a perennial flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae. It is an aquatic herb native to southeast North America. H. harperi has a diploid chromosome number of 24.

The life cycle is of the large diploid sporophytes and microscopic gametophytes. Spores develop in sori which occur over the central part of the blade.Bunker, F.StP.D., Maggs, C.A., Brodie, J.A. and Bunker A.R. 2017, Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20, it was counted in 1977, (published in 1980), by Avishai & Zohary.

The corolla is lilac, with an orange throat.A. Mehra et al., Occurrence of Chilli veinal mottle virus in Himalayan butterfly bush (Buddleja crispa) accessed 21 November 2007 Ploidy 2n = 38 (diploid).Chen, G, Sun, W-B, & Sun, H. (2007).

A drawing of Bromus aleutensis found in Manual of the Grasses of the United States. Bromus aleutensis, commonly known as the Aleutian brome, is a perennial grass found in North America. B. aleutensis has a diploid number of 56.

This phase is presumed to involve formation of a diploid zygote, followed by meiosis, and then production of an ascus containing the products of meiosis, eight haploid ascospores. The ascospores may be disseminated by airborne transmission to new hosts.

Buddleja 'Asian Moon' is a sterile hybrid cultivar raised in 2001 by researchers at the University of Arkansas by crossing the tetraploid davidii cultivar 'Moonshadow' (female parent) with the diploid B. asiatica Lour. to create a seed-sterile triploid.

Nuclear DNA is diploid, ordinarily inheriting the DNA from two parents, while mitochondrial DNA is haploid, coming only from the mother. The mutation rate for nuclear DNA is less than 0.3% while that of mitochondrial DNA is generally higher.

Guarianthe aurantiaca is a species of orchid. It is widespread across much of Mexico, south to Costa Rica.Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families The diploid chromosome number of G. aurantiaca has been determined as 2n = 40.page 252.

This family has diploid hexacosichoric symmetry, [5,3,3], of order 120×120=24×600=14400: 120 for each of the 120 dodecahedra, or 24 for each of the 600 tetrahedra. There is one small index subgroups [5,3,3]+, all order 7200.

While Xenopus laevis is the most commonly used species for developmental biology studies, genetic studies, especially forward genetic studies, can be complicated by their pseudotetraploid genome. Xenopus tropicalis provides a simpler model for genetic studies, having a diploid genome.

While at Agnes Scott, MacDougall studied protozoology and cytology. She studied the polyploid and diploid of chilodonella uncinata, as well as mutation inheritances found in them. MacDougall also researched the chromosomes of plasmodium, avian malaria and neuromotors of chlamydodon.

In 1980 Roose and Gottlieb showed that in the recent (less than 100 years old) allotetraploid T. miscellus the genes for alcohol dehydrogenase reflected their expression in the diploid parents—there was no gene silencing, changes in tissue expression, or other effect on the catalytic properties of the enzyme. In 1999 Ford and Gottlieb found that the tetraploid Clarkia gracilis expressed the same genes for cytosolic phosphoglucose isomerase as the diploid parents; in this case gene silencing was identified in C. gracilis but they concluded that it probably occurred in one of the diploid parents, which was extinct. This was not the case when Gottlieb and Ford looked at the recent allotetraploids Clarkia delicata and C. similis. In C. similis a gene producing phosphoglucose isomerase (called PgiC2) was silenced after the polyploidization event, while in C. delicata it was polymorphic for a normal gene and a silenced gene.

In 2014, several plant species seed were studied including Iris stocksii (Baker), Iris aitchisonii (Baker) Boiss. and Iris songarica Shrenk. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

Musa voonii is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Sarawak on the island of Borneo. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Opuntia arenaria was considered a variety of O. polyacantha by many botanists, and is still treated that way in the Flora of North America. However, O. arenaria is diploid and O. polyacantha is tetraploid. It was described by Engelmann in 1856.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. Iris junonia was found to be tetraploid, based on material from specimens collected, and had a count of 2n=48.

In genetics, a gametic phase represents the original allelic combinations that a diploid individual inherits from both parents. It is therefore a particular association of alleles at different loci on the same chromosome. Gametic phase is influenced by genetic linkage.

Auxospore formation by the silica-sinking, oceanic diatom Fragilariopsis kerguelensis (Bacillariophyceae). J. Phycol. 42, 1002-1006. Auxospores can also play a role in sexual reproduction in diatoms, and may be formed after haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote.

The Searls’ prairie clover is a diploid organism with 14 chromosomes (2n = 14). Both genetic drift and gene flow are determinants of the local population structures of Searls’ prairie clover. The species shows significant population-dependent variability in phenotypic characteristics.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It was counted in 1952 by Simonet and in 1980 by Avishai & Zohary. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20.

It is considered "medium sized" for its genus, with a head to tail length of . It is a diploid organism with two sets of each chromosome (2n=34). It has a dental formula of for a total of 30 teeth.

For example, no individual weighing more than has been caught in Cambodia since 1994. Today, the maximum length is about . This fish is a tetraploid, meaning it has four of each chromosome (as opposed to diploid, the normal number in animals).

The Corsican peony is a diploid species (2n=10). It is a perennial herbaceous photosynthesising plant, which dies down in the autumn and reappears above the surface in spring. It flowers in April and May. Fruits may open from August onwards.

Tetraspores are red algae spores produced by the tetrasporophytic (diploid) phase in the life history of algae in the Rhodophyta as a result of meiosis.Jones, W.E. Revised and reprinted 1964. A Key to the genera of the British seaweeds.Field Studies.

According to chromosome counts,Rollins, R. C. 1941. A monographic study of Arabis in western North America. Rhodora 43:289-325, 347-411, 425-481. this species is diploid (n=7 as in all Boechera species) which probably reproduces sexually.

In the germ-line (the sex cells) the chromosome number is n (humans: n = 23).p28 Thus, in humans 2n = 46. So, in normal diploid organisms, autosomal chromosomes are present in two copies. There may, or may not, be sex chromosomes.

Algae and Fungi. Second edition, Volume 1, McGraw-Hill Bok Company, Inc. The diploid plants produce male (antheridia) and female (oogonia) gametangia by meiosis. The gametes are released into the surrounding water; after fusion, the zygote settles and begins growth.

An example is the chimera built off of ES cells and tetraploid embryos, which are artificially made by electrofusion of two two-cell diploid embryos. The tetraploid embryo will exclusively give rise to the trophectoderm and primitive endoderm in the chimera.

The sunflower, Helianthus annuus, genome is diploid with a base chromosome number of 17 and an estimated genome size of 2871–3189 Mbp. Some sources claim its true size is around 3.5 billion base pairs (slightly larger than the human genome).

In 2000, the seeds of Iris clarkei were studied by liquid chromatography. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=40.

The sori lie along the veins, in the portions closest to the edge of the leaf. The leaf edges are not modified into false indusia. Each sporangium bears 64 spores. The plants are diploid, with a chromosome number of 2n = 54.

Pachyphytum bracteosum, the large-bracted pachyphytum, is a perennial succulent native to Mexico, occurring on rocks at altitudes between . The succulent has a diploid number of 66 or 132. The closest relatives of the plant are Pachyphytum oviferum and Pachyphytum longifolium.

For example, Drosophila containing only one copy of the wild type Notch gene has visible wing abnormalities but otherwise seems to function normally. For some rare genes, the normal diploid level of gene expression is essential to individual survival; fewer than two copies of such a gene results in lethality. In Drosophila, a single dose of the locus known as Triplolethal is in an otherwise diploid individual. Although a single dose of any gene may not cause substantial harm to the individual, the genetic imbalance resulting from a single dose of many genes at the same time can be lethal.

This character is shared with some individuals of Tradescantia hirsuticaulis and Tradescantia virginiana, two closely related species, although both typically have obvious stems. Regardless, Tradescantia longipes can be distinguished from the former with its longer pedicels and bracts without fine hairs, and from the latter by the presence of at least some glandular hairs on the sepals. Furthermore, Tradescantia longipes is a tetraploid, meaning it has four sets of chromosomes, while Tradescantia hirsuticaulis is diploid with only two sets. Tradescantia virginiana occurs in both diploid and tetraploid forms, although it is consistently tetraploid where its range overlaps with Trandescantia longipes.

There are two distinct reproductive strategies within the species Trichoniscus pusillus. Many populations are, like most metazoans, bisexual and reproduce sexually; in other cases, females reproduce parthenogenetically, creating clones of themselves. The sexually reproducing form is diploid while the parthenogenetic form is triploid; since parthenogenesis always produces females, males are always diploid and can only be produced by sexual reproduction. The frequency of males in the population decreases from south to north (a latitudinal cline) and in increasingly open habitats, with no males observed in most of Scotland and Scandinavia, but more than 15% males in the Iberian and Apennine Peninsulas.

Haploidisation is the process of halving the chromosomal content of a cell, creating a haploid cell. Within the normal reproductive cycle, haploidisation is one of the major functional consequences of meiosis, the other being a process of chromosomal crossover that mingles the genetic content of the parental chromosomes. Usually, haploidisation creates a monoploid cell from a diploid progenitor, or it can involve halving of a polyploid cell, for example to make a diploid potato plant from a tetraploid lineage of potato plants. If haploidisation is not followed by fertilisation, the result is a haploid lineage of cells.

In addition, virtual karyotypes generate a relative copy number normalized against a diploid genome, so tetraploid genomes will be condensed into a diploid space unless renormalization is performed. Renormalization requires an ancillary cell-based assay, such as FISH, if one is using arrayCGH. For karyotypes obtained from SNP-based arrays, tetraploidy can often be inferred from the maintenance of heterozygosity within a region of apparent copy number loss. Low-level mosaicism or small subclones may not be detected by virtual karyotypes because the presence of normal cells in the sample will dampen the signal from the abnormal clone.

Based on the most current evidence, salmonids diverged from the rest of teleost fish no later than 88 million years ago, during the late Cretaceous. This divergence was marked by a whole-genome duplication event in the ancestral salmonid, where the diploid ancestor became tetraploid. This duplication is the fourth of its kind to happen in the evolutionary lineage of the salmonids, with two having occurred commonly to all bony vertebrates, and another specifically in the teleost fishes. Extant salmonids all show evidence of partial tetraploidy, as studies show the genome has undergone selection to regain a diploid state.

Birds and many insects have a similar system of sex determination (ZW sex-determination system), in which it is the females that are heterogametic (ZW), while males are homogametic (ZZ). Many insects of the order Hymenoptera instead have a haplo-diploid system, where the males are haploid (having just one chromosome of each type) while the females are diploid (with chromosomes appearing in pairs). Some other insects have the X0 sex-determination system, where just one chromosome type appears in pairs for the female but alone in the males, while all other chromosomes appear in pairs in both sexes.

In some species, ploidy varies between individuals of the same species (as in the social insects), and in others entire tissues and organ systems may be polyploid despite the rest of the body being diploid (as in the mammalian liver). For many organisms, especially plants and fungi, changes in ploidy level between generations are major drivers of speciation. In mammals and birds, ploidy changes are typically fatal. There is, however, evidence of polyploidy in organisms now considered to be diploid, suggesting that polyploidy has contributed to evolutionary diversification in plants and animals through successive rounds of polyploidization and rediploidization.

There are two forms at which yeast cells exist in – haploid and diploid – each of which are a part of the reproductive cycle of the organism. These labels have to do with the number of copies of chromosomes the cell hold, diploids having 2n, haploids having 1n. Haploid cells are those that have the ability to mate to haploids of the opposite mating type to form diploids. They have also been found to be hardier when exposed to varying and extreme conditions, so diploid yeast can go through meiosis, a cellular reproduction process, when exposed to these conditions to produce four haploid spores.

When the pollen mother cells (PMCs) go through the last premeiotic mitosis, the tapetal cells have one diploid nucleus which divides while the cell remains undivided. The two diploid nuclei may undergo an endomitosis and the resulting tetraploid nuclei a second endomitosis. An alternative pathway is an ordinary mitosis-again without cell division instead of one of the endomitotic cycles. The cytological picture in the tapetum is further complicated by restitution in anaphase and fusion of metaphase and anaphase groups during mitosis, processes which could give rise to cells with one, two, or three nuclei, instead of the expected two or four.

The purpose of the cell membrane was to protect the DNA from the acidic vaginal fluid, and the purpose of the tail of the sperm was to help move the sperm cell to the egg cell. The formation of the female egg is asymmetrical, while the formation of the male sperm is symmetrical. Typically in a female mammal, meiosis starts with one diploid cell and becomes one haploid ovum and typically two polar bodies, however one may later divide to form a third polar body. In a male, meiosis starts with one diploid cell and ends with four sperm.

The daughter cell produced during the budding process is generally smaller than the mother cell. Some yeasts, including Schizosaccharomyces pombe, reproduce by fission instead of budding, and thereby creating two identically sized daughter cells. In general, under high-stress conditions such as nutrient starvation, haploid cells will die; under the same conditions, however, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (meiosis) and producing a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate (conjugate), reforming the diploid. The haploid fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is a facultative sexual microorganism that can undergo mating when nutrients are limiting.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=38. It was counted as 2n=38, by O.I. Zakharyeva and L.M. Makushenko in 1969.

The basic chromosome number is five. About half of the species of the section Paeonia however is tetraploid (4n=20), particularly many of those in the Mediterranean region. Both allotetraploids and autotetraploids are known, and some diploid species are also of hybrid origin.

A similar relationship exists between three diploid species of Tragopogon (T. dubius, T. pratensis, and T. porrifolius) and two allotetraploid species (T. mirus and T. miscellus). Complex patterns of allopolyploid evolution have also been observed in animals, as in the frog genus Xenopus.

Musa lawitiensis is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to the island of Borneo (both the Indonesian and Malaysian portions). It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

1994; 2n=28 to 60 and Yen, Yang, & Waddick, 1995. It is a triploid plant (3n chromosomes) that does not produce seed and therefore can not be propagated by vegetative means (seed or division) while in China, it can also be diploid.

Due to its high drought and salt tolerance, it would be useful or interesting in plant breeding programmes. As a diploid iris, it is unlikely to produce fertile offspring in crosses to other types of iris. So it has not been used.

It has a diploid number of 38 chromosomes and a fundamental number of 54 chromosomes. It has the fewest chromosomes of any member of Eumops (E. ferox also has 38). Additionally, it is the only described free-tailed bat with this karyotype.

However, it has several different morphological phenotypes. C. albicans was for a long time considered an obligate diploid organism without a haploid stage. This is, however, not the case. Next to a haploid stage C. albicans can also exist in a tetraploid stage.

The full genome of C. albicans has been sequenced and made publicly available in a Candida database. The heterozygous diploid strain used for this full genome sequence project is the laboratory strain SC5314. The sequencing was done using a whole-genome shotgun approach.

The life-cycle of T. delbrueckii remains unclear. Some authors consider T. delbrueckii to be a haploid species, while more recent findings suggest T. delbrueckii have a mostly diploid homothallic life. To date, the life-cycle of the species is not formally elucidated.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It was counted in 1959 by Randolph & Mitra as 2n=27, then in 1997 by Johnson & Brandham as 2n=18 and 27.

The capsule has persistent styles measuring about 0.5 mm long. The light brown and cylindrical seeds have conical or rounded ends, measuring 0.6 mm long. The herb flowers and fruits from late July to early September. It has a diploid number of 16.

The basic diploid number is 48, while some are tetraploid with 96, and others hexaploid with 144 and octaploid with 192 chromosomes.Ackerfield, J, & Wen, J. (2002). A morphometric analysis of Hedera L. (the ivy genus, Araliaceae) and its taxonomic implications. Adansonia sér.

After the spores' development, they first receive a diploid nucleus, and the meiosis takes place in the spore. At the germination, the spore shells open either alongside special germinal pores or chinks, or rip irregularly and then release one to four haploid protoplasts.

Lolium rigidum is a diploid grass with a chromosome number of n=7 (2n=14). It exhibits much genetic variability and grows readily in a variety of situations and habitats. It can hybridise with both perennial (L. perenne) and Italian ryegrass (L.

Haplodiploidy is found in insects belonging to Hymenoptera, such as ants and bees. Unfertilized eggs develop into haploid individuals, which are the males. Diploid individuals are generally female but may be sterile males. Males have no fathers and produce no sons, only daughters.

Ploidy levels are different between these two groups; Phytophthora species have diploid (paired) chromosomes in the vegetative (growing, nonreproductive) stage of life, whereas fungi are almost always haploid in this stage. Biochemical pathways also differ, notably the highly conserved lysine synthesis path.

Norderhaug, KM., Christie, H. 2009. Sea urchin grazing and kelp re-vegetation in the NE Atlantic. Marine Biology Research 5: 515-528. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 95: 135-144 The kelp life cycle involves a diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte stage.

The dromedary has 74 diploid chromosomes, the same as other camelids. The autosomes consist of five pairs of small to medium-sized metacentrics and submetacentrics. The X chromosome is the largest in the metacentric and submetacentric group. There are 31 pairs of acrocentrics.

Another unusual feature of the liverwort life cycle is that sporophytes (i.e. the diploid body) are very short-lived, withering away not long after releasing spores.Hicks, Marie L. Guide to the Liverworts of North Carolina, p. 10. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1992). .

As the red-tailed bumblebee is a member of the Hymenoptera order, the bee displays interesting sex allocation tactics. Studies have suggested that workers control sex allocation, not the queen. As such, Hymenoptera are known for having haploid males and diploid females.

All species tested so far are diploid, with the total number of chromosomes being 24. This Lauraceae genus comprises more than 270 trees and shrubs and most are aromatic. Some trees produce sprouts. The thick, leathery leaves are dark green, lauroid type.

There are several subspecies; one subspecies is diploid and reproduces sexually and the others are polyploid and display apomixis.Chmielewski, J. G. (1997). A taxonomic revision of the Antennaria media (Asteraceae: Inuleae) polyploid species complex in western North America. Brittonia 49:3 309-27.

It has 4 throat appendages, the upper two of which are white, wing-like, and around 4 mm long. It has a diploid chromosome number of 2n=14. Stylidium affine flowers in October.Lowrie, A., D. J. Coates, and K. F. Kenneally. 1998.

MacIntyre, Ross J.; Clegg, Michael, T (Eds.), Springer. Alternatively, recessive deleterious mutations accumulate during the diploid expansion phase, and are purged during selfing: this purging has been termed "genome renewal" and provides an advantage of sex that does not depend on outcrossing.

Nearly all vertebrates undergo sexual reproduction. They produce haploid gametes by meiosis. The smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are ova. These fuse by the process of fertilisation to form diploid zygotes, which develop into new individuals.

This results in most yeast populations being diploid for most part of their life cycle. In Saccharomycotina there are two mating types present. The mating types specify peptide hormones called pheromones and corresponding receptors for each type. These pheromones organize the mating.

In fungi, the sexual fusion of haploid cells is called karyogamy. The result of karyogamy is the formation of a diploid cell called the zygote or zygospore. This cell may then enter meiosis or mitosis depending on the life cycle of the species.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been count several times. Including 2n=28, Yasui 1939, ex Randolph & Mitra, AIS 140, 57. 1956, 2n=35, Chimphamba, 1973.

Festuca brachyphylla, the alpine fescue, is a grass native to Eurasia, North America, and the Arctic. The grass is used for erosion control and revegetation. The specific epithet brachyphylla means "short-leaved". The grass has a diploid number of 28, 42, or 44.

The blackbuck shows variation in its diploid chromosome number. Males have 31-33, while females have 30-32. Males have an XY1Y2 sex chromosome. Unusually large sex chromosomes had earlier been described only in a few species, all of which belonged to Rodentia.

The smallest and darkest moles are those found in the Miami area. In Pennsylvania, specimens range in weight from 40 to 64 grams. The tooth count numbers 36 (I3/2; C1/0; P3/3; M3/3), and the chromosome diploid number is 34.

The tropical pocket gopher has a diploid number of 38. This is low compared to similar species. This could help them adapt to their restricted habitat. Since their numbers are low there is a high risk of them losing too much genetic variability to survive.

Crataegus suksdorfii, (Suksdorf's hawthorn), formerly Crataegus douglasii var. suksdorfii, is a species of hawthorn found in the Pacific Northwest. It is diploid versus tetraploid for Crataegus douglasii. The most significant morphological difference from C. douglasii is that it has 20 stamens rather than 10.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. In 1977, 47 species of the irises in the Oncocyclus section were analysed, and found to have a chromosome count of 2n=20.

Agronomy N.Z. 33, pp 41- 47. Ullucus tuberosus has a subspecies, Ullucus tuberosus subsp. aborigineus, which is considered a wild type. While the domesticated varieties are generally erect and have a diploid genome, the subspecies is generally a trailing vine and has a triploid genome.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20, which was first counted by Marc Simonet in 1954, and then by Avishai & Zohary in 1977.

Musa campestris is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to the island of Borneo, in the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

They can shorten telomeres, repetitive nucleotide sequences at the end of chromosomes, which accelerates cell destruction. Gerontogens can also accelerate the rate of cellular senescence, where normal diploid cells cease to divide. This can be measured using the body's levels of the protein p16.

Eucomis vandermerwei was first described by Inez Verdoorn in 1944. The species was first collected in 1937 by the amateur botanist Frederick Ziervogel van der Merwe in western Mpumalanga. It is one of a group of mainly short, diploid species with 2n = 2x = 30 chromosomes.

Capsicum cardenasii is a plant species in the genus Capsicum and the family Solanaceae. It is a diploid with 2n=2x=24. It is a member within the C. pubescens complex, a group of closely related Capsicum species. It is closely related to C. eximium.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted many times; 2n=44, 66, Lenz & Day, 1963; 2n=20, Lungeanu, 1970. 2n=44, is the accepted count number.

Wild emmer grows wild in the Near East. It is a tetraploid wheat formed by the hybridization of two diploid wild grasses, Triticum urartu, closely related to wild einkorn (T. boeoticum), and an as yet unidentified Aegilops species related to A. searsii or A. speltoides.

In 2012, a study was carried out on the flora of Italy, using Ellenberg's Indicator values. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=40.

Tetraploidy (four sets of chromosomes, 2n = 4x) is common in many plant species, and also occurs in amphibians, reptiles, and insects. For example, species of Xenopus (African toads) form a ploidy series, featuring diploid (X. tropicalis, 2n=20), tetraploid (X. laevis, 4n=36), octaploid (X.

P. pecten-aboriginum is a diploid plant. Its floral biology differs across its range. In Tehuacán, it is pollinated at night by nectar-feeding bats. In the Sonoran desert, the flowers stay open longer in the day to attract both nocturnal and diurnal pollinators.

Pleurophycus gardneri reproduces in the same way as all other kelp. It has diploid sporophytes and a microscopic haploid gametophyte stage. Mature algal blades have a thick mid-rib which contain sori for reproduction. A sorus is able to produce gametes for the kelp.

In 2012, a study was carried out 2 Siberian based irises, Iris glaucescens and Iris bloudowii. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count of 2n=24.

Señorita bananas (also known as Monkoy, Cariñosa, or Cuarenta Dias) are diploid cultivars of the banana Musa acuminata originating from the Philippines. They are very small stout bananas which, like all bananas belonging to the AA cultivar group, are known for being extraordinarily sweet.

Cannabis, like many organisms, is diploid, having a chromosome complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced. The first genome sequence of Cannabis, which is estimated to be 820 Mb in size, was published in 2011 by a team of Canadian scientists.

This is known in some hymenopteran parasitoids and in Strepsiptera. In automictic species the offspring can be haploid or diploid. Diploids are produced by doubling or fusion of gametes after meiosis. Fusion is seen in the Phasmatodea, Hemiptera (Aleurodids and Coccidae), Diptera, and some Hymenoptera.

This occurs as sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes (the egg and sperm) to produce a zygote and a new organism, in which every cell has two sets of chromosomes (diploid). During gametogenesis the normal complement of 46 chromosomes needs to be halved to 23 to ensure that the resulting haploid gamete can join with another haploid gamete to produce a diploid organism. In independent assortment, the chromosomes that result are randomly sorted from all possible maternal and paternal chromosomes. Because zygotes end up with a mix instead of a pre-defined "set" from either parent, chromosomes are therefore considered assorted independently.

In laboratory strains carrying a mutation at the matA mating type locus, the differentiation of P. polycephalum plasmodia can occur without the fusion of amoebae, resulting in haploid plasmodia that are morphologically indistinguishable from the more typical diploid form. This enables facile genetic analysis of plasmodial traits that would otherwise require backcrossing to achieve homozygosity for analysis of recessive mutations in diploids. Sporangia from haploid plasmodia generate spores with low fertility, and it is assumed that viable spores develop from meiosis of rare diploid nuclei in the otherwise haploid P. polycephalum plasmodia. Apogamic development can also occur in nature in various species of myxomycetes.

Both hatchlings were males. Komodo dragons have the ZW chromosomal sex-determination system, as opposed to the mammalian XY system. Male progeny prove Flora's unfertilized eggs were haploid (n) and doubled their chromosomes later to become diploid (2n) (by being fertilized by a polar body, or by chromosome duplication without cell division), rather than by her laying diploid eggs by one of the meiosis reduction-divisions in her ovaries failing. When a female Komodo dragon (with ZW sex chromosomes) reproduces in this manner, she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes, including only one of her two sex chromosomes.

Asplenium onopteris is known as the Irish spleenwort or western black spleenwort. It is difficult to identify compared with the black spleenwort, Asplenium adiantum-nigrum. The main difference is that A. onopteris is diploid and is one of the two parents of the tetraploid A. adiantum-nigrum (the other being the diploid A. cuneifolium). Armed with a microscope, the most consistent observable difference between A. onopteris and A. adiantum-nigrum is that A. onopteris spores have a mean diameter of 28 μm and are almost all smaller than 31 μm, whereas those of A. adiantum-nigrum have a mean diameter of 34 μm and are almost all larger than 31 μm.

Homozygous and heterozygous Zygosity (the noun, zygote, is from the Greek zygotos "yoked," from zygon "yoke") () is the degree to which both copies of a chromosome or gene have the same genetic sequence. In other words, it is the degree of similarity of the alleles in an organism. Most eukaryotes have two matching sets of chromosomes; that is, they are diploid. Diploid organisms have the same loci on each of their two sets of homologous chromosomes except that the sequences at these loci may differ between the two chromosomes in a matching pair and that a few chromosomes may be mismatched as part of a chromosomal sex-determination system.

Young sporophytes of the common moss Tortula muralis. In mosses, the gametophyte is the dominant generation, while the sporophytes consist of sporangium-bearing stalks growing from the tips of the gametophytes Sporophytes of moss during spring A sporophyte () is the diploid multicellular stage in the life cycle of a plant or alga. It develops from the zygote produced when a haploid egg cell is fertilized by a haploid sperm and each sporophyte cell therefore has a double set of chromosomes, one set from each parent. All land plants, and most multicellular algae, have life cycles in which a multicellular diploid sporophyte phase alternates with a multicellular haploid gametophyte phase.

The next progenitor-derived pair of species Gottlieb examined were diploid Clarkia biloba and diploid Clarkia lingulata. C. biloba is geographically widespread, while C. lingulata is known from only two populations on the southern periphery of C. biloba; both are highly outcrossing, and there is no evidence that C. lingulata is better adapted to its habitat than C. biloba. They differ from each other by chromosomal structural differences, and hybrids between them are sterile. Lewis and Roberts proposed in 1956 that C. lingulata arose from C. biloba rapidly and in close proximity; in 1962 Lewis coined the term "catastrophic selection" to define its mode of origin.

In large multicellular organisms, variations in ploidy level between different tissues, organs, or cell lineages are common. Because the chromosome number is generally reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the zygote by mitosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of endoreduplication as an aspect of cellular differentiation. For example, the hearts of two-year-old human children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age the proportions become approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and 2% octaploid nuclei.

The Inner Cell Mass of a diploid blastocyst, for example, can be used to make a chimera with another blastocyst of eight-cell diploid embryo; the cells taken from the inner cell mass will give rise to the primitive endoderm and to the epiblast in the chimera mouse. From this knowledge, ES cell contributions to chimeras have been developed. ES cells can be used in combination with eight-cell-and two-cell-stage embryos to make chimeras and exclusively give rise to the embryo proper. Embryos that are to be used in chimeras can be further genetically altered in order to specifically contribute to only one part of chimera.

Distinctions between gophers in this particular model are based on differing diploid number and chromosomal morphology. In particular, the geographic distribution of the northern G. texensis subspecies have 2n=70-72, but with altering morphology. Additionally, the southern-dwelling specimens have 2n=70, 71, 72, or 74.

The alga is monoecious, that is both male and female parts to be found on the same plant. The spermatangia, the male gametes, and carposporophytes, the diploid phase, grouped together in sori. Tetrasporangia occur scattered towards the tips of the filaments of separate plants.Newton, L. 1931.

Aphis spiraecola is a species of aphid described in 1914 by Edith Marion Patch. Its common names include green citrus aphid, Spirea aphid, and apple aphid. is distributed worldwide, and is most abundant in the United States. It has a diploid chromosome number of 2n=8.

Griffiths AJF, Gelbart WM, Miller JH, et al. 1999. Modern Genetic Analysis New York: W. H. Freeman; extract available A biotechnology timeline from Biotechnology Industry Organization, a trade association. Wang, Y., Scarth, R. and Campbell, C. 2005. Interspecific hybridization between diploid Fagopyrum esculentum and tetraploid F. homotropicum.

The chemical composition of the iris was studied and it was found that it contains starch and fat oil. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It was counted as 2n=22.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has several chromosome counts including 2n=30, Simonet, 1934, 2n=30, Lenz, 1959 and 2n=30, Chimphamba, 1973. It is normally published as 2n=30.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. Iris mesopotamica is a tetraploid iris, which have developed from an autoploid.J. Schulz-Schaeffer It was counted by Sturtevant and Randolph, in 1945, as 2n=45.

In diploid organisms, one allele is inherited from the male parent and one from the female parent. Zygosity is a description of whether those two alleles have identical or different DNA sequences. In some cases the term "zygosity" is used in the context of a single chromosome.

P. carolina, like many eusocial insects, follows a haplodiploidy sex determination system, meaning males are haploid and develop from unfertilized eggs, while females are diploid and develop from fertilized eggs.King R.C; Stansfield W.D. and Mulligan P.K. 2006. A dictionary of genetics. 7th ed, Oxford University Press, p194.

After fertilization of the carpogonium, carpospores are formed on the female frond. These produce a second diploid generation, giving rise to a tetrasporophyte form that often encrusts pebbles. This produces tetraspores which develop into new gametophyte plants. The encrusting tetrasporophyte form is known as Porphyrodiscus simulans.

These are mostly diploid; a tetraploid group largely restricted to southern Africa is very close to Pseudobarbus and might even be included therein. In particular, the group called "redfins" may well be monophyletic and belong in Pseudobarbus entirely, instead of being split between Pseudobarbus and Barbus.

Musa muluensis is a plant in the banana and plantain family. It is native to tropical Asia; found only in Sarawak in Malaysia. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

It comprises at least eight chromosomal races with diploid numbers from 2n=11 (XO) to 2n=23 (XO). There are hybrid zones where some of the chromosomal races meet. Phylogenetically, it is most closely related to the other North Island species (H. crassidens and H. trewicki).

This species may be closest to a group that might include such North American species as V. lasiostachys or V. menthifolia, and the common vervain (V. officinalis) from Europe. Like these, it is diploid with a total of 14 chromosomes. The relationship of the swamp verbena (V.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=40, discovered by Sim 1932. This places it within the sub-group of the series, called the Sino-siberians.

The presumed original form of Lycoris radiata, known as L. radiata var. pumila, occurs only in China. It is a diploid, with 11 pairs of chromosomes (2N = 22), and is able to reproduce by seed. Triploid forms, with 33 chromosomes, are known as L. radiata var. radiata.

This species has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 18 for the most common form and 2n = 36 for the larger tetraploid populations.Lewis, W.H., Stripling, H.L., and Ross, R.G. (1962). Chromosome numbers for some angiosperms of the southern United States and Mexico. Rhodora, 64: 147-161.

The western clawed frog (Xenopus tropicalis) is a species of frog in the family Pipidae, also known as tropical clawed frog. It is the only species in the genus Xenopus to have a diploid genome.Harland, R. M. and Grainger, R. M. 2011. Trends in Genetics vol.

Cystopteris protrusa was originally considered only a variety of Cystopteris fragilis. However, it is now known that this is a diploid species, while C. fragilis (ss) is a polyploid species of hybrid origin. C. protrusa is a parent of the hybrid species Cystopteris tennesseensis and Cystopteris tenuis.

Like all other members of its genus, it is diploid with 50 chromosomes and a fundamental number of 48. It is insectivorous. During the day, it is thought to roost in trees within gallery forests. It is infrequently encountered, therefore little is known about its reproduction.

The reproductive bodies form in conceptacles sunken in receptacles towards the tips on the branches. In these conceptacles oogonia and antheridia are produced and after meiosis the oogonia and antheridia are released. Fertilisation follows and the zygote develops, settles and grows directly into the diploid sporophyte plant.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. In 1977, 47 species of the irises in the Oncocyclus section were analysed, and it was found to have a chromosome count of 2n=20.

A female infected with Wolbachia produces only diploid eggs, when in the cells of the ovaries presumably cause the fusion of the pronuclei, which leads to entirely female progeny. When the females were treated with antibiotics, they were then able to produce normal male and female eggs.

In 2009, a karyotype analysis was carried out on 10 irises found in China, it found the chromosome counts. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=26.

Black marsh turtles have a diploid karyotype of 52 chromosomes. They are also notable for being the first turtle shown to exhibit an XX/XY system of chromosomal sex determination, specifically with macrochromosomes. Very rare in turtles where the gender of developing embryos are usually determined by environmental temperatures.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. In 1948, an analysis was carried out by Tarnavschi, and published as 2n=10. Which does not match with other spuria irises. Other published counts are 2n=20.

Due to the fusion of the two gametes, a human zygote contains 46 chromosomes (i.e. 23 pairs). However, a large number of species have the chromosomes in their somatic cells arranged in fours ("tetraploid") or even sixes ("hexaploid"). Thus, they can have diploid or even triploid germline cells.

However, overall, most individuals are female, which are produced by fertilization. The males are haploid and the females are diploid. More rarely, some insects display hermaphroditism, in which a given individual has both male and female reproductive organs. Insect life-histories show adaptations to withstand cold and dry conditions.

Ceratiomyxa plasmodia is diploid and can often be found emerging from rotting wood and spreading into a thin layer. The plasmodium then fruits to form sporangia: erect pillar or wall-like structures. The sporangia mature in about six hours. Many small stalks emerge from the sporangia to form protospores.

Male elands have 31 diploid chromosomes and females have 32. The male (Y) chromosome has been translocated to the short arm of an autosome. Both the X and Y replicate late; they do not match well and are variable. The chromosomes resemble those of the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros).

Chemotropism seen in Yeast. Haploid Yeast cells release a- and α-factors that bind to the receptors of another haploid Yeast cell. The two Yeast cells fuse together to form an a/α diploid zygote. Fungal chemotropism was first reported over 100 years ago by Anton de Bary.

A Senecio and a diploid, Senecio vernalis is part of a species group along with S. flavus, S. gallicus, S. squalidus and S. glaucus who are widespread geographically and interesting for the study of genecology (the study of genetic differences in relation to the environment) and plant evolution.

This subspecies is diploid with a chromosome number of 56 or 58 (2n = 56, 58). This subspecies does not grow near the coast. It is found in cold and wet environments which differs from the other two species. It has a denser indumentum when compared with the subspecies zygis.

The alleles of genes can either be dominant or recessive. A dominant allele needs only one copy to be expressed while a recessive allele needs two copies (homozygous) in a diploid organism to be expressed. Dominant and recessive alleles help to determine the offspring's genotypes, and therefore phenotypes.

Blue grama has a large genome relative to other grama grasses. It can be diploid or tetraploid. Among the Zuni people, the grass bunches are tied together and the severed end is used as a hairbrush, the other as a broom. Bunches are also used to strain goat's milk.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has been examined several times to find its chromosome count: 2n=48, Scolovskaya; 2n=42, Doronkin 1984; 2n=16, Sok & Prob. 1986; 2n=42, Zakharjeva, 1990.

Unlike a sexual cycle, the process lacks coordination and is exclusively mitotic. The parasexual cycle resembles sexual reproduction. In both cases, unlike hyphae (or modifications thereof) may fuse (plasmogamy) and their nuclei will occupy the same cell. The unlike nuclei fuse (karyogamy) to form a diploid (zygote) nucleus.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted twice, as 2n=22, by Gustafsson & Wendelbo, in 1975 and 2n=22, by Johnson & Brandham in 1997. It is commonly published as 2n=22.

Sugandha Kokila Oil. The evergreen, Cinnamomum glaucescens (syn. Cinnamomum cecidodaphne), part of the family Lauraceae, is native to Nepal and grows wild in the districts of Dang, Rolpa and Sallyan in the Rapti Zone. This species is a diploid and can grow to an altitude of 1300 meters.

Carposporangia are formed through direct division of the zygote. Carpospores germinate to form the diploid filamentous conchocelis phase, which produces conchosporangial branches bearing conchosporangia, each containing a single conchospore. These conchospores then germinate to form gametophytes. During the "conchocelis stage", the plants can also self-replicate using monospores.

The pygmy slow loris has a diploid chromosome number of 2n=50. Although the banding patterns on the chromosomes of all slow lorises are similar, this species may be distinguished from the Bengal slow loris (N. bengalensis) by distinct differences in the number and location of nucleolus organizer regions.

Candida albicans is a diploid fungus that grows both as a yeast and as a filament. C. albicans is the most common fungal pathogen in humans. It causes both debilitating mucosal infections and potentially life-threatening systemic infections. C. albicans has maintained an elaborate, but largely hidden, mating apparatus.

There are basically two distinct types of sexual reproduction among fungi. The first is outcrossing (in heterothallic fungi). In this case, mating occurs between two different haploid individuals to form a diploid zygote, that can then undergo meiosis. The second type is self-fertilization or selfing (in homothallic fungi).

In diploid organisms, which contain two alleles for most genes, and may as well contain several related genes that collaborate in the same role, additional rounds of transformation and selection are performed until every targeted gene is knocked out. Selective breeding may be required to produce homozygous knockout animals.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=38. In 2003, a study was carried out on the chromosome sequencing of various Irises from the Siberian region of central Asia.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=44. In 1979, a study was carried out the seeds of Iris sogdiana, to find various chemical compounds including, alkali-soluble polysaccharides.

Musa paracoccinea is a tropical and subtropical Asian species of plant in the banana family native to both China (southeastern Yunnan province) and Indochina (northern Vietnam). It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Musa insularimontana is a species of plant in the banana family native to Taiwan (coastal Lan Yü), where it is known by the name lan yu ba jiao. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

Black Katy chitons are primarily dioecious, diploid organisms. They reach sexual maturity at about 35mm in length. The decrease in temperature experienced around fall will trigger within a newly settled organism the growth of the gonads. Around springtime, the increase in temperatures will trigger the actual production of gametes.

Like most culicine species, the genome is diploid with six chromosomes. The only known fossils of this genus are those of Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) dominicanus Zavortink & Poinar contained in Dominican amber from the Late Eocene ( to ) and Anopheles rottensis Statz contained in German amber from the Late Oligocene ( to ).

The sperm binds through the corona radiata, a layer of follicle cells on the outside of the secondary oocyte. Fertilization occurs when the nucleus of both a sperm and an egg fuse to form a diploid cell, known as zygote. The successful fusion of gametes forms a new organism.

The other goes into the pond and after mineralization, provides food for phytoplankton, which in turn feeds the oyster. To prevent spawning, sterile oysters are now cultured by crossbreeding tetraploid and diploid oysters. The resulting triploid oyster cannot propagate, which prevents introduced oysters from spreading into unwanted habitats.

The tree onion is a species of perennial onion. It is a diploid hybrid between the bunching onion and the shallot. Also known as turfed stone leek, it may be cultivated commercially and for foliage. It is described as a shallot which can be grown in tropical conditions.

Triploid block is a phenomenon describing the formation of nonviable progeny after hybridization of flowering plants that differ in ploidy. The barrier is established in the endosperm, a nutritive tissue supporting embryo growth. This phenomenon usually happens when autopolyploidy occurs in diploid plants. Triploid blocks lead to reproductive isolation.

Candida albicans is a diploid fungus that grows both as a yeast and as a filament. C. albicans is the most common fungal pathogen in humans. It causes both debilitating mucosal infections and potentially life-threatening systemic infections. C. albicans has maintained an elaborate, but largely hidden, mating apparatus.

They are medium in height. The ploidy level for the species range from diploid (2n), tetraploid (4n), to hexaploid (6n). Fonio is labor intensive to harvest and process. Men and boys use sickles to cut down the fonio, which women then gather into sheaves and set out to dry.

Sexual reproduction is not known for all species of Saccharomycotina, but may happen in certain species if environmental conditions favour it (e.g. deficiency in nitrogen and carbohydrate). Sexual reproduction is well known in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here, the life cycle involves alternation between a haploid and a diploid phase.

A carpospore is a diploid spore produced by red algae. After fertilization, the alga's carpogonium subdivides into carpospores, and generally the largest type of spore (larger than bispores, which are larger again than tetraspores). The wall of the carposporangium then breaks down, releasing the spores into the environment.

Pseudodiploid or pseudoploid refers to one of the essential components in viral reproduction. It means having two RNA genomes per virion but giving rise to only one DNA copy in infected cells. The term is also used to refer to cells that are diploid, but have chromosomal translocations.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count of 2n=20 or 2n=40. Specimens from Chitinskaya Oblast in Russia, were found to have a chromosome count of 2n=20.

There are ten species under the genus Eleusine Gaertn, seven diploid (2n=16, 18 and 20) and three tetraploid taxa (2n=36 or 38). Eleusine africana (Kenn.-O'Bryne), Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn, Eleusine floccifolia (Spreng), Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn, Eleusine intermedia (Chiov.) (S.M.Phillips), Eleusine jaegeri (Pilg.), Eleusine kigeziensis (S.

Meiosis in the parents' gonads produces gametes that each contain only 23 chromosomes that are genetic recombinants of the DNA sequences contained in the parental chromosomes. When the nuclei of the gametes come together to form a fertilized egg or zygote, each cell of the resulting child will have 23 chromosomes from each parent, or 46 in total. In plants only, the diploid phase, known as the sporophyte, produces spores by meiosis that germinate and then divide by mitosis to form a haploid multicellular phase, the gametophyte, that produces gametes directly by mitosis. This type of life cycle, involving alternation between two multicellular phases, the sexual haploid gametophyte and asexual diploid sporophyte, is known as alternation of generations.

Giant DNA-containing viruses are known to lytically infect coccolithophores, particularly E. huxleyi. These viruses, known as E. huxleyi viruses (EhVs), appear to infect the coccosphere coated diploid phase of the life cycle almost exclusively. It has been proposed that as the haploid organism is not infected and therefore not affected by the virus, the co- evolutionary “arms race” between coccolithophores and these viruses does not follow the classic Red Queen evolutionary framework, but instead a “Cheshire Cat” ecological dynamic. More recent work has suggested that viral synthesis of sphingolipids and induction of programmed cell death provides a more direct link to study a Red Queen-like coevolutionary arms race at least between the coccolithoviruses and diploid organism.

A haploid set that consists of a single complete set of chromosomes (equal to the monoploid set), as shown in the picture above, must belong to a diploid species. If a haploid set consists of two sets, it must be of a tetraploid (four sets) species. Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Somatic cells, tissues, and individual organisms can be described according to the number of sets of chromosomes present (the "ploidy level"): monoploid (1 set), diploid (2 sets), triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid or septaploid (7 sets), etc.

Asplenium bradleyi, commonly known as Bradley's spleenwort or cliff spleenwort, is a rare epipetric fern of east-central North America. Named after Professor Frank Howe Bradley, who first collected it in Tennessee, it may be found infrequently throughout much of the Appalachian Mountains, the Ozarks, and the Ouachita Mountains, growing in small crevices on exposed sandstone cliffs. The species originated as a hybrid between mountain spleenwort (Asplenium montanum) and ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron); A. bradleyi originated when that sterile diploid hybrid underwent chromosome doubling to become a fertile tetraploid, a phenomenon known as allopolyploidy. Studies indicate that the present population of Bradley's spleenwort arose from several independent doublings of sterile diploid hybrids.

The myxoedemae of Polysphondylium pallidum were found to exist in two separate mating types in an early (1975) study on the species, but a more recent morphological study left the question of the number of identifiable and separate mating types undecided. Under favourable damp conditions, a haploid cell with a single set of chromosomes will unite with another cell of opposite mating type to form a diploid cell, with a double complement of chromosomes. Other nearby amoeboid cells are absorbed into this diploid cell by phagocytosis to form a giant cell. This undergoes meiosis and becomes a large cyst in which spores are formed and later released to be dispersed by air movements.

The tree is well suited to intense heat and sunlight and its dense network of lateral roots and its thick, long taproot make it drought-tolerant. The dense shade it provides slows the evaporation of surface water and its root nodules promote nitrogen fixation, a symbiotic process by which gaseous nitrogen (N2) from the air is converted into ammonium (NH4+, a form of nitrogen available to the plant). M. pinnata is also a fresh water flooded forest species as it can survive total submergence in sweet water for few months continuously. M. pinnata tree is common in Tonlesap lake swamp forests in Cambodia Millettia pinnata is an outbreeding diploid legume tree, with a diploid chromosome number of 22.

Polyploidy occurs in some tissues of animals that are otherwise diploid, such as human muscle tissues. This is known as endopolyploidy. Species whose cells do not have nuclei, that is, prokaryotes, may be polyploid, as seen in the large bacterium Epulopiscium fishelsoni. Hence ploidy is defined with respect to a cell.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has had its chromosome count several times, 2n=44, Snoad in 1952; 2n=44, Lenz in 1959, 2n=44, Chimphamba in 1973; 2n=44, Mao & Xue in 1986.

Musa lolodensis is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), occurring naturally from the Moluccas through to New Guinea. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20. It is one of the possible parents of the cultivated Fe'i bananas.

Society of American Foresters. The Swedish Forest Tree Breeding Association at Källstorp produced triploid and tetraploid forms of the tree, but these proved no more resistant to Dutch elm disease than the normal diploid form.Went, J. (1954). The Dutch Elm Disease - Summary of fifteen years' hybridization and selection work (1937-1952).

Diplontic life cycle Haplontic life cycle. Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic life cycles involving sexual reproduction, consisting of the constant cyclical process of meiosis and fertilization. This takes place alongside normal mitotic cell division. In multicellular organisms, there is an intermediary step between the diploid and haploid transition where the organism grows.

I. confusa is diploid, with 15 pairs of chromosomes. In 2009, a study was carried out on ten Iris species from China. Including Iris confusa, Iris japonica and Iris wattii. It was found that Iris japonica and Iris wattii, were more closely related to each other than to Iris confusa.

Brassica rapa species are diploid and have 10 chromosomes. A challenge for breeding of napa cabbage is the variable self-incompatibility. The self-incompatibility activity was reported to change by temperature and humidity. In vitro pollination with 98% relative humidity proved to be the most reliable as compared to greenhouse pollination.

Birkedal, E. J., Iwaasa, A. D., Jefferson, P. G. (2014). Beef cattle grazing behavior differs among diploid and tetraploid crested wheatgrasses (Agropyron cristatum and Agropyron desertorum). Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 94, 851-855. A study was performed to test the specific cattle grazing preferences for different types of crested wheatgrass.

It has two subspecies: one diploid, which is actually the original fern, Asplenium petrarchae ssp. bivalens with a chromosome number of 2n = 72 and one autotetraploid by spontaneous doubling of their genome, Asplenium petrarchae ssp. petrarchae, very more abundant than the subspecies bivalens. Its genomic dotation is 2n = 144 chromosomes.

Megaspores are structures that are part of the alternation of generations in many seedless vascular cryptogams, all gymnosperms and all angiosperms. Plants with heterosporous life cycles using microspores and megaspores arose independently in several plant groups during the Devonian period. Microspores are haploid, and are produced from diploid microsporocytes by meiosis.

The phylum Basidiomycota can be divided into three major lineages: mushrooms, rusts and smuts. Fusion of haploid nuclei (karyogamy) occurs in the basidia, club-shaped end cells. Shortly after formation of the diploid cell, meiosis occurs and the resulting four haploid nuclei migrate into four, usually external cells called basidiospores.

Considered one of the easier cryptocorynes to grow in an aquarium, it will grow well partially and fully submersed and flowers relatively easily. It prefers bright light and a temperature range of 72-82 degrees F (22-28 degrees C). The 'diploid' form forms runners. Common in the aquarium trade.

According to the Flora of North America ploidy is rather variable. The western colonies tend to be diploid whilst the eastern ones are mostly tetraploid. Sterile triploids have also been recorded. It has been hypothesized that most of the populations of V. boschiana are genetically identical clones of great age.

A. viride is a native species of northern and western North America and northern Europe and Asia. It is a small rock fern, growing on calcareous rock. It is a diploid species, with n = 36, and hybridizes with Asplenium trichomanes to produce Asplenium × adulterinum, found on Vancouver Island, British Columbia.

It used somatic embryogenesis. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=24, (published by Mitić, B. 1991. Karioloska analiza nekih populacija vrsta Iris pallida, I. illyrica i I. pseudopallida (Iridaceae).

Triticum urartu, also known as red wild einkorn wheat, and a form of einkorn wheat, is a grass species related to wheat, and native to western Asia. It is a diploid species whose genome is the A genome of the allopolyploid hexaploid bread wheat Triticum aestivum, which has genomes AABBDD.

This is due to haplodiploidy in Hymenopteran social insects in which males (drones) are haploid and females (workers and queens) are diploid. This confers greater genetic similarity between sister workers (relatedness of 0.75) than between mother and offspring (relatedness of 0.5), making the relatedness component of kin selection higher between sisters.

Musa salaccensis, commonly called Javanese wild banana, is a Malesian tropical species of plant in the banana family native to the islands of Sumatra and Java, in Indonesia. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It was counted in 1955 as Iris lutescens subsp. subbiflora (Brot.) D. A. Webb & Chater in Flora Iberica (Chromosome atlas of flowering plants). Darlintong, C. D. & A. P. Wylie.

The plant is native to Eurasia and is found widely from the UK to China. In North America, both native and introduced genotypes, and both diploid and polyploid plants are found. It is found in every habitat throughout California except the Colorado and Mojave Deserts.Jepson Manual treatment for ACHILLEA millefolium .

When coccolithophores are diploid, they are r-selected. In this phase they tolerate a wider range of nutrient compositions. When they are haploid they are K- selected and are often more competitive in stable low nutrient environments. Most coccolithophores are K strategist and are usually found on nutrient-poor surface waters.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted several times, 2n=39–40, Simonet in 1932 and 2n-40 by Lenz in 1963. It has been listed as 2n=39, or 2n=40.

Honeybees produce haploid males from unfertilized eggs (arrhenotoky). Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies) have a haplodiploid sex-determination system. They produce haploid males from unfertilized eggs (arrhenotoky), a form of parthenogenesis. However, in a few social hymenopterans, queens or workers are capable of producing diploid female offspring by thelytoky.

Tolmiea is a genus of flowering plants containing two species native to western North America. The genus was formerly considered to be monotypic until diploid populations were split off as T. diplomenziesii from the tetraploid populations of T. menziesii. The genus was named after the Scottish-Canadian botanist William Fraser Tolmie.

Unusually among vertebrates, the ginbuna species has two different reproductive modes. The diploid form practices the usual sexual reproduction. However, the triploid and rare tetraploid forms practice a type of asexual reproduction known as gynogenesis, in which the sperm contributes no genetic material, but its presence is required for egg development.

Candida albicans is a kind of diploid yeast that commonly occurs among the human gut microflora. C. albicans is an opportunistic pathogen in humans. Abnormal over-growth of this fungus can occur, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. C. albicans has a parasexual cycle that appears to be stimulated by environmental stress.

Microbial eukaryotes can be either haploid or diploid, and some organisms have multiple cell nuclei.See coenocyte. Unicellular eukaryotes usually reproduce asexually by mitosis under favorable conditions. However, under stressful conditions such as nutrient limitations and other conditions associated with DNA damage, they tend to reproduce sexually by meiosis and syngamy.

The fruits are spheroidal and green to brown, usually 1–3 mm in diameter, with a noticeable 'beak'. Their pollen is inaperturate, monad, apolar and spherical. Most fine- leaved pondweeds are diploid, with 2n = 26 (such as P. pusillus or P. trichoides) or less commonly 28 (P. compressus, P. acutifolius).

Females only mate once, usually with closely related males. Further, females can determine the sex ratio of their offspring based on their body size, where larger females will invest more in diploid females eggs than small bees. These bees also have trichromatic color vision and are important pollinators in agriculture.

Another hypothesis is that endoreplication buffers against DNA damage and mutation because it provides extra copies of important genes. However, this notion is purely speculative and there is limited evidence to the contrary. For example, analysis of polyploid yeast strains suggests that they are more sensitive to radiation than diploid strains.

Bunker, F.StP.D., Brodie, J.A., Maggs, C.A. and Bunker A.R. 2017. Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland Second Edition, Wild Nature press, Plymouth, UK Tetraspores occur in scattered patches sori (spores) on the mature blade, diploid blade. Spermatial sori occur scattered over most of the frond of the haploid (single cell) male plant.

Bromus secalinus is a species of bromegrass known as rye brome. The specific epithet secalinus is Latin, meaning "rye-like". The fruits are hard, rounded glumes that appear superficially similar to the rye grain, which gives the brome its common and scientific name. The grass has a diploid number of 28.

Those with diploid triploid mosaicism have some cells which are triploid, meaning that they have three copies of chromosomes, or a total of 69 chromosomes. Triploidy is distinct from trisomy, in which only one chromosome exists in three pairs. A well-known example of trisomy is trisomy 21 or Down syndrome.

Male progeny are haploid and female progeny are diploid. Female bees are provided more pollen as larvae, which is associated with female bees having a larger stature as compared to males. Nests under distress will predominantly have male progeny. Female progeny are more costly and require consistent resources for proper development.

The hybrid received no further attention until 1961, when it was described and named in Wherry's honor as Wherry's spleenwort (A. × wherryi). The sterile diploid A. montanum × platyneuron, precursor to A. bradleyi, was collected in 1972 at Crowder's Mountain, Georgia; A. montanum × rhizophyllum, precursor to A. pinnatifidum, has never been found.

It roosts in tree hollows during the day. It is therefore dependent on large trees with hollows, and is not found in habitats where they aren't any. It is a diploid species, with two copies each of 22 chromosomes, for a total of 44 chromosomes.Harada, M., & Uchida, T. A. (1982).

The eventually dark brown, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypsellae are inverted egg-shaped, about long and wide, with a prominent ridge along the margin, with some scales on its surface and short, forked hairs. Felicia amoena subsp. latifolia is a diploid having eight sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=16).

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count of 2n=20. Two closely related iris species, Iris atrofusca and Iris mariae, were found to be clearly divergent genetically and phenotypically from each other.

The fruit is a poricidal capsule containing numerous seeds. It opens on the side, thanks to the 3-5 holes, and the top of the fruit remains closed. The seeds are about 1 mm in length and about 0.3 mm wide. The diploid chromosome of these bellflowers is 2n = 24.

Jacquiniella (tufted orchid) is a genus of flowering plants from the orchid family, Orchidaceae. It is native to Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and South America.Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families The diploid chromosome number of one species, J. globosa, has been determined as 2n = 38.page 252.

The stems have evenly distributed leaves. The leaves are triangular, with tapered ends, hence the name. The flowers have a prominent central dome, with ray florets around 8 cm wide. As some plants are diploid, meaning having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

The oil content and methyl esters of fatty acids of the seed were also examined. They contained linoleic acid (40%) and oleic acid (30%). As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count: 2n=44.

Tetrahymena conjugation. When nutrients are scarce, two individuals (A) pair with each other and begin sexual reproduction (conjugation). (B) The diploid micronucleus in each individual undergoes meiosis to form four haploid nuclei, and three of these are degraded. (C) The remaining haploid nucleus divides mitotically to form two pronuclei in each cell.

The spores proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism. The haploid organism's gamete then combines with another haploid organism's gamete, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to become a diploid organism again. The haplodiplontic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the diplontic and haplontic life cycles.

The Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea glomerata, has been farmed in New South Wales, Australia for over 100 years.Troup, A. J., Cairns, S. C. and Simpson, R. D. (2005). Growth and mortality of sibling triploid and diploid Sydney rock oysters Saccostrea glomerata (Gould), in the Camden Haven River. Aquaculture Research, 36(11), 1093–1103.

It is diploid but the chromosome number has been found to vary among the species. The size of the chromosomes are typically between 1-2 μm. Thymus zygis is a gynodioecious species. As a result, there is a wide range of female frequency (17 – 87%) and a female frequency mean of 51%.

In 2002, a genetic analysis study was carried out on I. haynei and Iris atrofusca in Israel. To find the DNA markers and phenotypic variation. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20.

At the base of classical genetics is the concept of a gene, the hereditary factor tied to a particular simple feature (or character). The set of genes for one or more characters possessed by an individual is the genotype. A diploid individual often has two alleles for the determination of a character.

Cnemidophorus neomexicanus is unusual in being a diploid parthenote, produced as a result of hybridization between C. inornatus (left) and C. tigris (right)Lowe, Charles H., and John W. Wright. "Evolution of parthenogenetic species of Cnemidophorus (whiptail lizards) in western North America." Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science (1966): 81-87.

They are also usually more sparsely haired, with some prothalli rarely having multicellular hair. They mature after six to nine months, and finish their life cycle at around a year. The gametophytes produce male (antheridium), and female (archegonium) gametes. The gametes fuse, forming the diploid sporophyte, the 'fern' part of the life cycle.

Asplenium majoricum is a tiny fern endemic to Mallorca (Serra de Tramuntana) and some locations in Valencia and south of Catalonia. It belongs to the family Aspleniaceae. This allotetraploid hybrid (2n = 144 chromosomes) is the result of crossbreeding between the diploid ferns Asplenium fontanum subsp. fontanum (2n = 72 chromosomes) and Asplenium petrarchae subsp.

In the presence of water, sperm from the antheridia swim to the archegonia and fertilisation occurs, leading to the production of a diploid sporophyte. The sperm of mosses is biflagellate, i.e. they have two flagellae that aid in propulsion. Since the sperm must swim to the archegonium, fertilisation cannot occur without water.

Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 66 (5): 327-329. Pseudoroegneria spicata is most commonly found as a diploid (2n = 14), although autotetraploid forms (4n = 28) have been found in eastern Washington and northern Idaho.Hartung ME (1946) Chromosome numbers in Poa, Agopyron, and Elymus. American Journal of Botany 33 (6): 516-532.

Lutzner cells are bigger than normal lymphocytes and contain extensive folding in their membrane. They are described at being cerebriform in shape, and can be diploid or tetraploid. It also contains a large nucleus with a minimum cytoplasm. Lutzner cells are more predominant in Mycosis Fungoides, but are also found in Sézary Syndrome.

Zootermopsis angusticollis are hemimetabolous, diploid insects. Once a male and female have selected one another during their mating flights, they proceed to occupy a hole which they will then seal. Mating takes place within two weeks. After a mated queen lays her eggs, about 15–20 days later, a colony is established.

Mitosis and meiosis are sometimes called the two "nuclear division" processes. Binary fission is similar to eukaryote cell reproduction that involves mitosis. Both lead to the production of two daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes as the parental cell. Meiosis is used for a special cell reproduction process of diploid organisms.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a yeast of the phylum Ascomycota. During vegetative growth that ordinarily occurs when nutrients are abundant, S. cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells. However, when starved, these cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating types MATa and MATα come into contact.

R. oryzae has abundant, root-shaped rhizoids. Zygospores are produced by diploid cells when sexual reproduction occurs under nutrient poor conditions. They have colors that range from red to brown, they are spherical or laterally flattened, and ranges from 60-140μm in size. In high nutrient levels, R. oryzae reproduces asexually, producing azygospores.

The seed cones are ovoid in shape and typically measure in length and in width. The scales are ovate to cuneate in shape and measure in length by in width. The apex is more or less rounded and is often projected outward. Twenty-four diploid chromosomes are present within the trees' DNA.

It flowers between January and October. Diplospory, a type of Agamospermy, occurs during the development of female gametophyte in the ovule and hence reduction division does not take place in the Megaspore mother cell. The diploid egg is unfertilized and forms the embryo. Hence daughter plants are exactly clones of the mother.

It is a medium-sized member of the genus Micronycteris. Unlike some species of the genus, its belly fur is dark. The only known individual of this species had a forearm length of and weighed . It is a diploid organism with a karyotype of 2n = 40 and a fundamental number (FN) of 68.

The leaf edges are not modified into false indusia, and may be flat or curled under to cover the sori. Each sporangium bears 64 spores. The plants are diploid, with a chromosome number of 2n = 54. The zig-zag rachis and axes generally serve to distinguish it from other members of the genus.

A queen builds a mass of pollen at the nesting site, then lays her first batch of diploid eggs. Workers emerge from this first batch of eggs. These workers start to forage two to three days after emerging. With the emergence of workers, the queen is able to spend more time on oviposition.

The haploid phase begins when the mature organism releases many spores, which then germinate to become male or female gametophytes. Sexual reproduction then results in the beginning of the diploid sporophyte stage, which will develop into a mature individual. The parenchymatous thalli are generally covered with a mucilage layer, rather than cuticle.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted twice, 2n=48 (as Iris aphylla subsp. hungarica) in 1983, by Murín A. & Májovský J., Karyological study of Slovakian flora IV. – Acta Fac. Rerum Nat. Univ. Comen.

Heterokaryons are found in the life cycle of yeasts, for example Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a genetic model organism. The heterokaryon stage is produced from the fusion of two haploid cells. This transient heterokaryon can produce further haploid buds, or cell nuclei can fuse and produce a diploid cell, which can then undergo mitosis.

Diploids do not produce the carcinogenic β-asarone. Diploids are known to grow naturally in Eastern Asia (Mongolia and C Siberia) and North America. The triploid cytotype probably originated in the Himalayan region, as a hybrid between the diploid and tetraploid cytotypes. The North American Calamus is known as Acorus calamus var.

Odontophrynus cordobae (in Spanish: escuercito) is a species of frog in the family Odontophrynidae. It is endemic to northern Argentina and known from Córdoba and Santiago del Estero Provinces. This diploid species was separated from the tetraploid Odontophrynus americanus in 2002. It inhabits montane grasslands and forests and can be found under rocks.

Its sepals are long and wide. Its petals tend to be more yellow and less orange than the other subspecies. It has a diploid number of 24. The subspecies occurs in dry roadsides, fields, and woodlands at elevations up to or possibly higher, with a less coastal distribution than the other subspecies.

A video from an open-access article co- authored by Gurdon: Animal view of different embryos developing in Xenopus laevis eggs: a diploid laevis x laevis is shown on the top, cleaving and entering gastrulation about 50 min earlier than haploid [laevis] x laevis (middle) and [laevis] x tropicalis cybrid (bottom) embryos.

Utricularia tricolor is a medium to large sized perennial carnivorous plant that belongs to the genus Utricularia. U. tricolor, a terrestrial species, is endemic to South America, where it is found in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela. It has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 28.Taylor, Peter. (1989).

Also, diploid mesenchymal stem cells express high levels of H19 compared to polyploid mesenchymal stem cells. Knock-down of H19 lead to increased polyploidization of mesenchymal stem cells, and induced polyploidy resulted in reduced expression of H19, providing a direct link between H19 expression and the amount of DNA within the cell.

However, workers are not always laying eggs. Thus, male production is limited to certain periods of time (see Male Production). While the workers of S. postica produce approximately 95% of all males, the queen still produces that remaining 5% of males. The queen will release some haploid eggs among her main diploid eggs.

The carrot is a diploid species, and has nine relatively short, uniform-length chromosomes (2n=18). The genome size is estimated to be 473 mega base pairs, which is four times larger than Arabidopsis thaliana, one-fifth the size of the maize genome, and about the same size as the rice genome.

Sequencing is emerging as an important tool in medicine, for example in cancer research. Here, the ability to detect heterozygous mutations is important and this can only be done if the sequence of the diploid genome is obtained. In the pioneering efforts to sequence individuals, Levy et al. and Wheeler et al.

The Afghan vole has a small, stocky body, a blunt, rounded muzzle and rounded ears. The colour varies across its range from pale-yellow-ochre to grayish-yellow. The short tail is a similar colour and the underparts are creamy gray. A diploid set of chromosomes (2n=58) is characteristic of this species.

The only known defense to TR4 is genetic resistance. This is conferred either by RGA2, a gene isolated from a TR4-resistant diploid banana, or by the nematode-derived Ced9. Experts state the need to enrich banana biodiversity by producing diverse new banana varieties, not just having a focus on the Cavendish.

Hypericum punctatum, the spotted St. John's wort, is a perennial herb native to North America. The yellow-flowered herb occurs throughout eastern North America into southern Canada. The process of microsporogenesis carried out by this plant is prone to errors in chromosomal segregation. It has a diploid number of 14 or 16.

Another mechanism typically observed in facultative parthenote reptiles is terminal fusion, in which a haploid polar body produced as a byproduct of normal female meiosis fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid nucleus, much as a haploid sperm cell fuses its nucleus with that of an egg cell to form a diploid genome during sexual reproduction. This method of parthenogenesis produces offspring that are homozygous at nearly all genetic loci, and inherit approximately half of their mother's genetic diversity. This form of parthenogenesis can produce male as well as WW- genotype females. Because the meiosis process proceeds normally in species employing this mechanism, they are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction, as in the Komodo dragon and several species of snakes.

In a simplified sense, the sex of each bee depends on the number of chromosomes it receives. Female bees have two sets of chromosomes (diploid)—one set from the queen and another from one of the male bees or drones. Drones have only one set of chromosomes (haploid), and are the result of unfertilized eggs, though inbreeding can result in diploid drones. Unlike true honey bees, whose female bees may become workers or queens strictly depending on what kind of food they receive as larvae (queens are fed royal jelly and workers are fed pollen), the caste system in meliponines is variable, and commonly based simply on the amount of pollen consumed; larger amounts of pollen yield queens in the genus Melipona.

In fact Gottlieb's first publication on "sympatric speciation" in Stephanomeria', published in 1971, was summarised by him in the above 2003 paper on "quantum speciation." Gottlieb did not believe that sympatric speciation required disruptive selection to form a reproductive isolating barrier, as defined by Grant, and in fact Gottlieb stated that requiring disruptive selection was "unnecessarily restrictive" in identifying cases of sympatric speciation. In terminology used by Gottlieb, "progenitor species " would be the parental or "ancestral" species and the newly formed daughter species was "derived." In his first study of progenitor-derivative pairs of species, Gottlieb examined the diploid, geographically limited, self-pollinating derived species Stephanomeria malheurensis with the diploid, geographically widespread obligate outcrossing ancestral species Stephanomeria exicua ssp. coronaria.

For instance, naturally occurring polyploid placental cells have been shown capable of producing nuclei with diploid or near-diploid complements of DNA. Furthermore, Zybina and her colleagues have demonstrated that such nuclei, derived from polyploid placental cells, receive one or more than onr copies of a microscopically identifiable region of the chromatin, demonstrating that even without the reassuring iconography of identical chromosomes being distributed into "identical" daughter cells, this particular amitotic process results in representative transmission of chromatin. Studying rat polyploid trophoblasts, this research group has shown that the nuclear envelope of the giant nucleus is involved in this subdivision of a highly polyploid nucleus into low-ploidy nuclei. Polyploid cells are also at the heart of experiments to determine how some cells may survive chemotherapy.

While this would be fatal in most higher animal cells, in plant cells it is not only usually well tolerated, but also frequently results in larger, hardier, faster- growing, and in general more desirable plants than the normally diploid parents. For this reason, this type of genetic manipulation is frequently used in breeding plants commercially. When such a tetraploid plant is crossed with a diploid plant, the triploid offspring are usually sterile (unable to produce fertile seeds or spores), although many triploids can be propagated vegetatively. Growers of annual triploid plants not readily propagated cannot produce a second-generation crop from the seeds (if any) of the triploid crop, and need to buy triploid seed from a supplier each year.

Chen Wen-yu was particularly interested in the theory of seedless watermelons proposed by the Japanese researcher Hitoshi Kihara in 1951, according to which crossing a female tetraploid plant (itself the product of genetic manipulation) with diploid pollen creates a triploid plant that is sterile, but can produce seedless fruit if pollenized by a diploid plant. Sound as the theory was, in practice none of the seed companies in Japan could successfully cultivate the seedless variety on a commercial scale. After incessant experimentation, in 1962 Chen succeeded in the first seedless watermelon in the world. The subsequent boom for Taiwan's seedless watermelons generated an annual export value of more than NT$100 million, and led to a new era of hybridity and crossbreeding in fruit and vegetables.

Although it is unclear when the AMY1 gene copy number began to increase, it is known and confirmed that the AMY1 gene existed in early primates. Chimpanzees, the closest evolutionary relatives to humans, were found to have 2 diploid copies of the AMY1 gene that is identical in length to the human AMY1 gene, which is significantly less than that of humans. On the other hand, bonobos, also a close relative of modern humans, was found to have more than 2 diploid copies of the AMY1 gene. Nonetheless, the bonobo AMY1 genes were sequenced and analyzed, and it was found that the coding sequences of the AMY1 genes were disrupting, which may lead to the production of dysfunctional salivary amylase.

Allomyces macrogynus features defined by Emerson and Emerson and Wilson were of immediate interest for research and teaching because the organism had such clear and interesting structures. The vegetative growth showed the formation of rhizoids, hyphae and branching and then in the diploid cultures two kinds of fruiting body, zoosporangia ZS that reproduced the diploid organisms and resting or resistant sporangia RS that led to the haploid organism. Then on the haploid hyphae gametangia were produced with small terminal male gametangia containing carotene and larger female gametangia below. Olson reviewed studies to 1984 that included chemotaxis of male gametes to female gametes, the identification of the hormone sirenin, studies of the chemistry of walls and discharge plugs and methods for classroom demonstrations.

Karyogamy then occurs in the ascus to form a diploid nucleus, followed by meiosis and mitosis to form eight haploid nuclei in the ascospores. In 1895, the botanist R.A. Harper reported the observation of a second karyogamy event in the ascogonium prior to ascogeny. This would imply the creation of a tetraploid nucleus in the ascus, rather than a diploid one; in order to produce the observed haploid ascospores, a second meiotic reduction in chromosome count would then be necessary. The second reduction was hypothesized to occur during the second or third mitotic division in the ascus, even though chromosome reduction does not typically occur during mitosis. This supposed form of meiosis was termed “brachymeiosis” in 1908 by H. C. I. Fraser.

Main articles: Development of the human body, Human fertilization In human fertilization, a released ovum (a haploid secondary oocyte with replicate chromosome copies) and a haploid sperm cell (male gamete)—combine to form a single 2n diploid cell called the zygote. Once the single sperm enters the oocyte, it completes the division of the second meiosis forming a haploid daughter with only 23 chromosomes, almost all of the cytoplasm, and the sperm in its own pronucleus. The other product of meiosis is the second polar body with only chromosomes but no ability to replicate or survive. In the fertilized daughter, DNA is then replicated in the two separate pronuclei derived from the sperm and ovum, making the zygote's chromosome number temporarily 4n diploid.

In 1951, Herb Wagner, while reviewing Irene Manton's Problems of Cytology and Evolution in the Pteridophyta, suggested in passing that A. pinnatifidum itself might represent a hybrid between A. montanum and A. rhizophyllum. In 1953, he made chromosome counts of A. × trudellii, which had been classified by some simply as a variety of A. pinnatifidum. As A. pinnatifidum proved to be a tetraploid while A. montanum was a diploid, a hybrid between them would be a triploid, and Wagner showed that this was in fact the case for A. × trudellii. His further experiments, published the following year, strongly suggested that A. pinnatifidum is an allotetraploid, the product of hybridization between A. montanum and A. rhizophyllum to form a sterile diploid, followed by chromosome doubling that restored fertility.

A meiocyte is a type of cell that differentiates into a gamete through the process of meiosis. Through meiosis, the diploid meiocyte divides into four genetically different haploid gametes.Libeau, P., Durandet, M., Granier, F., Marquis, C., Berthomé, R., Renou, J. P., Taconnat-Soubirou, L., and Horlow, C. (2011). Gene expression profiling of Arabidopsis meiocytes.

Senecio madagascariensis, also known as Madagascar ragwort, is a species of the genus Senecio and family Asteraceae that is native to Southern Africa. Other common names include Madagascar groundsel and fireweed. It has been included on the noxious weeds list for Hawaii and the reject list for Australia. S.madagascariensis is the diploid cytotype of S.inaequidens.

It is also likely one of the longest lived plants in its family - one plant growing in Norrtälje, Sweden is reported to be over 50 years old. It is a diploid (2n=2x=18) with a basic chromosome number of 9 (Darlington & Wylie, 1955, p. 76). Hohmann, S., Kadereit, J. W., & Kadereit, G. (2006).

Plants which reproduce sexually also have gametes. However, since plants have an alternation of diploid and haploid generations some differences exist. In flowering plants, the flowers use meiosis to produce a haploid generation which produce gametes through mitosis. The female haploid is called the ovule and is produced by the ovary of the flower.

The effect of forcing date and temperature on growth and flowering of Iris koreana and Iris minutoaurea has been examined in 2007. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has been counted twice,2n=22, Simonet, in 1934; syn.

It was hypothesized that this hexaploid form was evolved by outcrossing between diploid Hordeum marine and tetraploid Hordeum brachyantherum ssp. brachyantherum and followed by duplication of chromosome.Komatsuda T, Salomon B, Bothmer RV. (2009) Evolutionary process of Hordeum brachyantherum 6x and related tetraploid species revealed by nuclear DNA sequences. Breeding Science 59(5):611-616.

It is a popular fishing destination, which is stocked annually with Rainbow trout. A spawning channel project has been underway at Inga since 1997. The purpose of the channel is educational in nature and to prevent diploid (2N) rainbows from becoming spawnbound. Suckers are far and away the most abundant fish in this lake.

In another evolutionary study, introduction of partial CUG identity redefinition (from Candida species) into Saccharomyces cerevisiae clones caused a stress response that negatively affected sexual reproduction. This CUG identity redefinition, occurring in ancestors of Candida species, was thought to lock these species into a diploid or polyploid state with possible blockage of sexual reproduction.

Partial peduncles are one-flowered. Pedicels are up to 6 mm long and may or may not be shortly bracteate. The species has an indumentum of simple or branched white hairs between 0.3 and 0.4 mm long. The diploid chromosome number of N. thorelii is 78 according to a 1969 paper by Katsuhiko Kondo.

T. lepidota (Bonpl.) Baillon has been reported to have 2n =122 and n=62 in different studies, while T. semidecandra (DC.) Cogn has 2n =54 and T. urvilleana (DC.) Cogn has 2n =56. For species with chromosome counts, tetraploidy is most common (16 species) while 10 species are diploid and 4 species are hexaploid.

Most temperature-sensitive mutations affect proteins, and cause loss of protein function at the non-permissive temperature. The permissive temperature is one at which the protein typically can fold properly, or remain properly folded. At higher temperatures, the protein is unstable and ceases to function properly. These mutations are usually recessive in diploid organisms.

Phytotaxa 14 22. Unlike Spirogyra the filaments of Cladophora branch and do not undergo conjugation. There are two multicellular stages in its life cycle - a haploid gametophyte and a diploid sporophyte - which look highly similar. The only way to tell the two stages apart is to either count their chromosomes, or examine their offspring.

Variation arises from females, who produce genetically variant eggs through meiosis. Sex is determined under a single-locus complementary sex determination (sl-CSD) system, where multiple alleles at a single locus determine the sex of an individual. Sex locus heterozygotes develop as females, while hemizygous and homozygous eggs develop as haploid and diploid males.

Hypericum undulatum, the wavy St Johns Wort, is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant native to western Europe and northern Africa. The specific name undulatum is Latin, meaning "wavy" or "undulated", referring, just as the common name, to the wavy leaf margins of the herb. The plant has a diploid number of 16 or 32.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count of 2n=44.Richard Gerald Harrison (Editor) It has been counted many times, 2n=44-Simonet 1934, 2n=42 by Randolph 1958 and 2n=42, Randolph in 1966.

The FIV virus genome is diploid. It consists of two identical single-strands of RNA in each case about 9400 nucleotides existing in plus-strand orientation. It has the typical genomic structure of retroviruses, including the gag, pol, and env genes. The Gag polyprotein is cleaved into matrix (MA), capsid (CA) and nucleocapsid (NC) proteins.

The abacá plant belongs to the banana family, Musaceae; it resembles the closely related wild seeded bananas, Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. Its scientific name is Musa textilis. Within the genus Musa, it is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

He showed that the tetraploid Empetrum hermaphroditum is a separate species from the diploid Empetrum nigrum. He thereby initiated the use of chromosome numbers in systematic botany, a field later known as cytotaxonomy. He put forward the hypothesis that the ploidy level is an important factor in the distribution and ecology of plant species.

Among diatoms, reproduction is primarily asexual by binary fission, with each daughter cell receiving one of the parent’s cell’s two frustules. However, this asexual division results in a size reduction. To restore the cell size of a diatom population, sexual reproduction must occur. Vegetative diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce active and passive gametes.

Honey bees have a haplodiploid system of sex determination. Drones are typically haploid, having only one set of chromosomes, and primarily exist for the purpose of reproduction. They are produced by the queen if she chooses not to fertilize an egg or by an unfertilized laying worker. There are rare instances of diploid drone larvae.

Muntiacus muntjak chromosomes Muntjac are of great interest in evolutionary studies because of their dramatic chromosome variations and the recent discovery of several new species. The Indian muntjac (M. muntjak) is the mammal with the lowest recorded chromosome number: The male has a diploid number of 7, the female only 6 chromosomes. Reeves's muntjac (M.

Reproduction in P. californica involves an alternation of generations. Microscopic zoospores are produced in the sporangia. After release, these settle on the sea bed and develop into haploid gametophytes. These produce male and female gametes the fertilisation of which results in zygote formation and the growth of the diploid sporophytes, the stipe and blades.

It was originally described to have a diploid karyotype of 28 chromosomes, but it actually has 32. It is sanguivorous, feeding on the blood of vertebrates. It was formerly believed to feed exclusively on birds. However, it has since been documented that it will feed on the blood of mammals, including humans and cattle.

It builds a characteristic large hanging paper nest up to 58 centimeters (23 in) in length. Workers aggressively defend their nest by repeatedly stinging invaders. Dolichovespula maculata is distributed throughout the United States and southern Canada, but is most common in the southeastern United States. Males in this species are haploid and females are diploid.

CEA is elevated more in tumors with lymph node and distant metastasis than in organ-confined tumors and, thus, varies directly with tumor stage. Left-sided tumors generally tend to have higher CEA levels than right-sided tumors. Tumors causing bowel obstruction produce higher CEA levels. Aneuploid tumors produce more CEA than diploid tumors.

Nearly all land plants have alternating diploid and haploid generations. Gametes are produced by the gametophyte, which is the haploid generation. The female gametophyte produces structures called archegonia, and the egg cells form within them via mitosis. The typical bryophyte archegonium consists of a long neck with a wider base containing the egg cell.

Upon maturation, the neck opens to allow sperm cells to swim into the archegonium and fertilize the egg. The resulting zygote then gives rise to an embryo, which will grow into a new diploid individual (sporophyte). In seed plants, a structure called ovule, which contains the female gametophyte. The gametophyte produces an egg cell.

A. ludens have 12 chromosomes and most cells are diploid. A 2014 genetic study of A. ludens concluded that "A. ludens populations are genetically diverse with moderate levels of differentiation." They go on to attribute this genetic diversity to natural selection across the wide habitat range of the fly and to pest management practices.

169-176, 1995. Like other ferns, P. venosum undergoes alteration of generations which consists of two sexual stages - the diploid sporophyte and the haploid gametophyte. The sporophyte stage of P. venosum consists of adult ferns which release numerous spores. These spores then settle on the trunks of D. antartica in a moist and sheltered habitat.

Contains a diploid (2n) number of autosomes ranging from 36 and below. The sex chromosomes come in two different types depending on number of Z chromosomes that are species specific: ZW-type or Z1Z2W-type. The chromosomes also can contain nucleolar organizer in large macrochromosomes, termed L-type, or in a medium macrochromosome, termed M-type.

The haloid gametophyte generation is the dominant state. Begins with the haploid spores that gives rise to protonema, and eventually producing the gametophyte. The gametophyte then develops the reproductive structures: archegonium, the female reproductive structure that produces eggs, and antheridium, the male reproductive structure that produces sperms. The egg and the sperm fuse together to form a diploid zygote.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20, counted by Delauney in 1928. Then by Marc Simonet in 1932 and then by Avishai & Zohary in 1977. It has an unnamed alkaloid (as of 1961), contained within its rhizome.

The male gametophytes, or microgametophytes, that participate in double fertilization are contained within pollen grains. They develop within the microsporangia, or pollen sacs, of the anthers on the stamens. Each microsporangium contains diploid microspore mother cells, or microsporocytes. Each microsporocyte undergoes meiosis, forming four haploid microspores, each of which can eventually develop into a pollen grain.

Workers are females produced by the queen that develop from fertilized, diploid eggs. Workers are essential for social structure and proper colony functioning. They carry out the main tasks of the colony, because the queen is occupied with only reproducing. These females raise their sister workers and future queens that eventually leave the nest to start their own colony.

This method of carrying eggs is possibly a strategy to protect the eggs from predation, since these fishes commonly live in exposed sandy- or muddy-bottomed environments devoid of places to hide. A diploid number of 2n = 56 has been reported for two species characterized. A ZZ/ZW sex chromosome system was also reported for L. platymetopon.

Musa gracilis is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Peninsular Malaysia. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20. It grows to less than tall. It has an upright pink-purple bud and produces narrow fruits (bananas), which have magenta and green stripes.

In the haplontic life cycle (with post-zygotic meiosis), the organism is haploid instead, spawned by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the gamete. Two organisms of opposing sex contribute their haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism.

It is hardy and drought resistant. This species is a member of the diploid North American vervains which have 14 chromosomes altogether. Hybridization seems to have played some role in its evolution, presumably between some member of a group including the white vervain (V. urticifolia), V. lasiostachys or V. menthifolia, and V. orcuttiana or a related species.

Gametes carry half the genetic information of an individual, one ploidy of each type, and are created through meiosis. Oogenesis is the process of female gamete formation in animals. This process involves meiosis (including meiotic recombination) occurring in the diploid primary oocyte to produce the haploid ovum. Spermatogenesis is the process of male gamete formation in animals.

They have thinner, or finer veining and small dots than the falls. They have anthers about 2.5 cm long. After the iris has flowered, it produces a seed capsule that has not yet been described. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

For diploid organisms such as humans and maize, each organism has two copies of a chromosome - one each from the two parents. The two copies are highly similar to each other. A haplotype is the sequence of nucleotides in a chromosome. the haplotype phasing problem is focused on the nucleotides where the two homologous chromosomes differ.

However, newer vaccines are more commonly used. These include the human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV) first introduced in 1978; purified chicken embryo cell vaccine (PCECV), developed in 1984; and a purified Vero cell rabies vaccine (PVCRV) developed in 1986.Keller H, Glueck R, Wegmann A et al. Immunogenicity of a New, Highly Purified, Highly Concentrated Duck Embryo Rabies Vaccine.

The specific epithet vilmorinii refers to the 19th century French horticulturalist Maurice de Vilmorin. It grows in a wide range of habitats (mountain slopes, roadsides, mixed forests along river banks, grasslands, bamboo thickets). Sorbus vilmorinii was described based on a specimen in cultivation that was an apomictic microspecies. However, almost indistinguishable specimens are diploid and frequent in the wild.

Paeonia sterniana is a hairless perennial herbaceous plant of up to 90 cm high, with leaves alternately set along the stems, which flowers in it home range in May, while the seeds are ripe as off September. It is a diploid nothospecies with ten chromosomes (2n=10), that results from hybridisation between P. lactiflora and P. mairei.

58 The fruit somewhat resembles that of the cultivar's supposed offspring 'Dabinett', albeit the latter is less tannic. The cultivar 'Sandford Jersey' was commercially planted in Herefordshire under the name 'Chisel Jersey', but can be distinguished from the true cultivar by the lack of an offset stem. The tree is diploid and though self-sterile is an excellent pollinator.

In colonies of Phaeocystis, the colony skin may provide protection against smaller zooplankton grazers and viruses. While suspected in other species (P. pouchetii and P. antarctica), a haploid-diploid life cycle has only been observed in P. globosa. In this cycle, sexual reproduction is dominant in colony bloom formation/termination, and two types of vegetative reproduction exist.

Checklist of the Plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 55: 1–584 Brassavola cucullatais the type species for the genus Brassavola, and the only member of B. sect. Brassavola. The diploid chromosome number of B. cucullata has been determined as 2n = 40.page 250.

If both alleles of a diploid organism are the same, the organism is homozygous at that locus. If they are different, the organism is heterozygous at that locus. If one allele is missing, it is hemizygous, and, if both alleles are missing, it is nullizygous. The DNA sequence of a gene often varies from one individual to another.

This contrasts with the pattern in all vascular plants (seed plants and pteridophytes), where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Lichens may superficially resemble mosses, and sometimes have common names that include the word "moss" (e.g., "reindeer moss" or "Iceland moss"), but they are not related to mosses. Mosses are now classified on their own as the division Bryophyta.

Vascular plants have two sets of chromosomes in their vegetative cells and are said to be diploid, i.e. each chromosome has a partner that contains the same, or similar, genetic information. By contrast, mosses and other bryophytes have only a single set of chromosomes and so are haploid (i.e. each chromosome exists in a unique copy within the cell).

Experimental systems for plant morphogenesis Coleochaete has a sterile jacket of cells that surround the gametangia and zygotes that are protected by a layer of sterile cells after fertilization. However, unlike land plants, Coleochaete has zygotic meiosis, meiosis taking place directly in the zygote and not in diploid cells resulting from mitotic division of the zygote.

The diploid chromosome number is 2n = 12, and all the chromosomal pairs are metacentric. Their count consists of 5 autosomal pairs and a sex chromosomal pair with an XY sex-determination system. Karyotype analysis indicates that the pericentromeric region of the autosomal chromosomes includes a C band, while the 3rd pair of chromosomes additionally includes an interstitial band.

Both the spores and the resulting gametophyte are haploid, meaning they only have one set of chromosomes. The mature gametophyte produces male or female gametes (or both) by mitosis. The fusion of male and female gametes produces a diploid zygote which develops into a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as alternation of generations or alternation of phases.

Copy number changes can be seen in both germline and tumor samples. Copy number changes can be detected by arrays with non-polymorphic probes, such as arrayCGH, and by SNP-based arrays. Human beings are diploid, so a normal copy number is always two for the non-sex chromosomes. :Deletions: A deletion is the loss of genetic material.

Acanthoxyla is a genus of stick insects in the family Phasmatidae (tribe Acanthoxylini). All the individuals of the species are female and reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis. The genus is the result of interspecific hybridisation resulting in some triploid lineages and some diploid lineages. The genus is endemic to New Zealand, but some species have been accidentally introduced elsewhere.

Zinc atoms are released during this activation. This process ultimately leads to the formation of a diploid cell called a zygote. The zygote divides to form a blastocyst and, upon entering the uterus, implants in the endometrium, beginning pregnancy. Embryonic implantation not in the uterine wall results in an ectopic pregnancy that can kill the mother.

The stem is round and bicolor, being pinkish or light tan at the base but greenish nearer the branches or leaves. The diploid number is 184. Rattlesnake fern has separate fertile and sterile leaves, when present the sterile leaf arises halfway up the stalk and the fertile leaf exists at the tip. The spores are shed in late spring.

In 2014, a new technique of in vitro plant tissue culture was carried out on Iris sari and Iris schachtii. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings, but Iris schachtii is a tetraploid, with a count of 2n=48, by Koca, 1989.

A diploid isolate of C. blankii had an observed "potential for use in single cell protein production from hemicellulose hydrolysates", which is related to Cellulosic ethanol (i.e., ethanol production). This yeast is one of several studied extensively for use in xylose fermentation. C. blankii has been tested as an aid for the degradation of hemicellulose hydrolycates.

A vascular species of lycophyte, Phlegmariurus phlegmaria resembles many species of moss. The specialised fluid conducting tissues of vascular plants distinguish lycophytes from the more basal cryophytes (mosses and liverworts). The diploid sporophyte stage of the life cycle of lycophytes is dominant. Sporophytes produce tetrahedral spores of 37 × 35 μm, off-white in colour, with angles never exceeding 130°.

For over 80 years, U. americana had been identified as a tetraploid, i.e. having double the usual number of chromosomes, making it unique within the genus. However, a study published in 2011 by the Agricultural Research Service of the USDA revealed that about 20% of wild American elms are diploid and may even constitute another species.

The eggs are then kept under the disk of the female starfish to incubate after fertilization occurs. After incubation, the female deposits its eggs on the ground, secretes mucus onto them, and then stays on top of the eggs for three weeks while they hatch. The sea stars are polygamous. Henricia sanguinolenta has a diploid chromosome number of 36.

When extruded, the protoplasm can survive without a cell membrane for several minutes before regenerating into mature individual units (Hollants, Decleyre, et al., 2011; Lü et al., 2011). The thallus is commonly erect and occurs in two morphologies corresponding to haploid or diploid life cycle stages: the macrothallus and microthallus (Hollants, Leliaert, Verbruggen, Willems, et al.

Diagram of stages of embryo development to a larval and adult stage. In developmental biology, embryonic development, also known as embryogenesis, is the development of an embryo. Embryonic development starts with the fertilization of an egg cell (ovum) by a sperm cell, (spermatozoon). Once fertilized, the ovum becomes a single diploid cell known as a zygote.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count of 2n=40. It was counted by Colasante & Sauer in 1993 and by Colasante in 1996. It is the same as Iris setina, Iris bicapitata, Iris lutescens and Iris revoluta.

In B. terricola, there are three phases of colony development. The first phase, known as colony initiation, begins when a solitary queen starts to produce her first workers by laying diploid eggs. This leads to further eusociality within the colony and the queen's continued efforts to produce more worker bees. The emergence of workers is essential for colony growth.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=38. It has been counted several times, 38 in 1969 by O.I. Zakharyeva and L.M. Makushenko, 44 in 1970 by AK Sharma and 42 in 1978 by V Karihaloo.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted several times, 2n=22 (Marc Simonet, 1934), 2n=22 (Randolph, 1947), 2n=26 (Simonet, 1952) and 2n=26 (Doronkin, 1984). It is commonly published as 2n=22, 26, or 2n = 26.

The plant Tolmiea diplomenziesii is a member of the genus Tolmiea. It is found mainly in Oregon and California, but it is endemic to the United States. The plant was formerly considered to be part of T. menziesii but was split off as a separate species because while T. menziesii is tetraploid, T. diplomenziesii is diploid.

In the original extended onion test rationale, Gregory used A. altyncolicum as an example of an exceptionally small (7pg, 6.9 Gb) Allium genome. This species is most likely tetraploid, but this perhaps makes the case for highly variable genome size even more strongly, and could be easily replaced with other diploid species such as Allium schoenoprasum (chives,7.5 Gb).

P. biglumis has a haplodiploid sex determination system. All males among a male brood exhibit the relatedness of full brothers, indicating that they are haploid and generally produced by one female. Females, on the other hand, are diploid. Sex ratio analysis indicates that the female producing all of the male workers was the original nest founder.

Odontophrynus americanus (common names: common lesser escuercito, American ground frog) is a species of frog in the family Odontophrynidae. It is found in central and northern Argentina, Uruguay, southern Brazil, and southern Paraguay. It is tetraploid; diploid populations have been described as a new species, Odontophrynus cordobae. Odontophrynus americanus is common throughout much of its range.

Musa hirta is a tropical Asian species of plant in the banana family native to Sarawak on the island of Borneo, in Malaysia. It is one of fourteen species of Musa endemic to the island of Borneo. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

This family has diploid hexadecachoric symmetry, [4,3,3], of order 24×16=384: 4!=24 permutations of the four axes, 24=16 for reflection in each axis. There are 3 small index subgroups, with the first two generate uniform 4-polytopes which are also repeated in other families, [1+,4,3,3], [4,(3,3)+], and [4,3,3]+, all order 192.

14 January 2014. Spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporangium of a diploid sporophyte. Under favourable conditions the spore can develop into a new organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, which eventually goes on to produce gametes. Two gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops into a new sporophyte.

The Sri Lankan forms leucopygialis and insularis are darker than the Indian form and there is some intergradation within the Sri Lankan forms. The species is believed to be closely related to Dicrurus leucophaeus but has not be confirmed with molecular sequence studies. Both the white-bellied drongo and the black drongo share a diploid chromosome number of 68.

Hölldobler & Wilson (1990), pp. 143–179 Mated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their wings using their tibial spurs and begin to lay and care for eggs. The females can selectively fertilise future eggs with the sperm stored to produce diploid workers or lay unfertilized haploid eggs to produce drones.

The lifecycle is typically haploid, with the only diploid stage occurring in the zygote, which is normally short-lived. The main difference between the coccidians and the gregarines is in the gamonts. In the coccidia, these are small, intracellular, and without epimerites or mucrons. In the gregarines, these are large, extracellular, and possess epimerites or mucrons.

Subgenus Tapeti in the genus Sylvilagus, marsh rabbits (S. palustris), and swamp rabbits (S. aquaticus), share a chromosomal karyotype derived from a common ancestor and have a diploid number of 2n=38. Molecular data analysis from sequencing the mitochondrial 12S ribosomal RNA gene confirms that S. palustris and S. aquaticus are sister taxa under their subgenus.

This was agreed and expanded on by Daniel Ward in 2011 (from the University of Florida), who linked Iris kimballiae as a variant of Iris savannarum. It was later classified as a synonym of Iris savannarum. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

Each flower has a 5–15 mm long, bluish bract at the base. The seeds are ovoid and black. The diploid number of chromosomes is 20 or 22. The plant occurs from Portugal north through Spain, France, Great Britain (particularly the west coast) and Ireland (mainly along the east coast), reaching as far as the Faroe Islands and Norway.

The intent was to obtain a grapefruit-like cross that is less bitter or acidic than grapefruit, instead achieving sweetness similar to the pomelo. It was to be smaller than the pomelo, and more flavourful, with characteristics linked to the grapefruit. The breeders intentionally used a tetraploid grapefruit and a diploid pomelo, with triploid progeny and seedless.

Crataegus collina is a type of hawthorn that is closely related to C. punctata, the dotted hawthorn, and sometimes considered to be the same species. A sample of C. collina and C. punctata has suggested that C. collina is polyploid, and C. punctata is diploid, but a wider sample is needed to confirm that this is generally the case.

Endogone species are sporocarpic—they form a fruit body termed a sporocarp, on which spore-bearing structures are borne. The zygospores—a diploid reproductive stage in the life cycle—are formed above the point of union of two gametangia, or from a budding from the larger of the two. Species in the genus can be saprobic, ectomycorrhizal, or both.

Division of tubers is possible when the plant is dormant in autumn. Vegetative propagation of L tuberosus is very successful and sexual reproduction might only take place for genetic diversifications or to colonize different habitats. The diploid plant has 14 chromosomes. There is a high variation in the percentage of constitutive heterochromatin between different L tuberosus plants.

The Tokunoshima spiny rat (Tokudaia tokunoshimensis) is a rodent found only on the island of Tokunoshima in the Ryukyu Islands of Japan. Due to its small habitat, it is considered endangered. It is commonly found in the secondary and primary subtropical moist broadleaf forests of this island. The karyotype has an odd diploid number, 2n = 45.

Diplobiontic green algae include isomorphic and heteromorphic forms. In isomorphic algae, the morphology is identical in the haploid and diploid generations. In heteromorphic algae, the morphology and size are different in the gametophyte and sporophyte. Reproduction varies from fusion of identical cells (isogamy) to fertilization of a large non-motile cell by a smaller motile one (oogamy).

Whole genome duplication is common in fungi as well as plant species. An example of extreme genome duplication is represented by the Common Cordgrass (Spartina anglica) which is a dodecaploid, meaning that it contains 12 sets of chromosomes, in stark contrast to the human diploid structure in which each individual has only two sets of 23 chromosomes.

Except the pyramidal orchid (A. pyramidalis), all species of Anacamptis seem to form a clade around the green-veined orchid (A. morio). They have a diploid chromosome number of 32 or 36. A useful character for distinguishing Anacamptis from Orchis - where the green-veined orchid clade was formerly included - is the basal fusion of the three sepals in Anacamptis.

The sori lie along the veins, forming a band near the perimeter of the leaf segment only wide. The leaf edges are slightly curved under, but not otherwise modified into false indusia. The plants are diploid, with a chromosome number of 2n = 54. It is similar to Argyrochosma incana and can be somewhat difficult to distinguish from that species.

A gametid is a complementary gamete to the gamete that gives rise to a zygote after conception. During meiosis, four gametes, or haploid cells, are the products of diploid cell division. Two gametes, one egg and one sperm, unite during conception, yielding a zygote. For each gamete that makes a zygote, there is a complementary gamete, or gametid.

The other species is Zephyranthes carinata, usually referred to incorrectly as Zephyranthes grandiflora. Z. carinata is often mislabeled as Z. rosea by merchants. Z. carinata can be distinguished from true Z. rosea by their much larger flowers with a deeper pink coloration. Z. rosea also has 24 chromosomes in diploid somatic cells, in contrast to 48 in Z. carinata.

Each plant produces one to three erect or ascending inflorescences, which are long, including the scape. Each inflorescence bears two to twelve light to dark lilac-colored flowers. It can be found flowering year-round, though more plants are in flower during the wet season from December to March. This species has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

The biochemistry of the intermediate proteins determines how they interact in the cell. Therefore, biochemistry predicts how different combinations of alleles will produce varying traits. Extended expression patterns seen in diploid organisms include facets of incomplete dominance, codominance, and multiple alleles. Incomplete dominance is the condition in which neither allele dominates the other in one heterozygote.

To provide administrative and financial support for TIGR, TCAG, IBEA and JTC, Venter created the non-profit J. Craig Venter Science Foundation (JCVSF) to consolidate activities between its affiliated organizations. In 2007, the Institute published the first diploid human genome, i.e. the genome of a single individual (J. Craig Venter) in which both sets of chromosomes were sequenced.

The resulting gametocyst is usually spherical in shape. Within the gametocyst the gamonts give rise to gametes which may be of similar size (isogametes) or different sizes (anisogametes). The gametes fuse in pairs and give rise to a zygote — the only diploid stage in the life cycle. The zygote forms an oocyst and within the oocyst, the sporozoites develop.

The vertically or horizontally orientated seed has a brown to yellowish-brown, thin membranous seed coat. The annular embryo surrounds the copious farinaceous perisperm. The flowering time is March to June. The chromosome numbers are 2n = 18 (for the diploid Grayia arizonica and Grayia brandegeei) and 2n = 36 (for the tetraploid Grayia spinosa and Grayia plummeri).

For instance, the cell walls of oomycetes are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and generally do not have septations. Also, in the vegetative state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. Most oomycetes produce self-motile zoospores with two flagella. One flagellum has a "whiplash" morphology, and the other a branched "tinsel" morphology.

The diploid germ-line nucleus undergoes mitosis which creates a duplicated germ-line nucleus. At this point the somatic nucleus is being degraded. The duplicated germ-line nucleus then develops into the new somatic nucleus. The genomic structure of the somatic nucleus is being created by chromosomal fragmentation with single-gene chromosomes and amplification of these somatic chromosomes.

This action occurs by the alteration of the hosts' reproductive biology, such as causing imbalanced sex-ratios in offspring. A. nasoniae is a maternally inherited parasitic bacterium which infects the parasitoid wasp species Nasonia vitripennis. Genetically, female wasp offspring are diploid and develop from fertilised eggs. Males on the other hand are haploid and develop from unfertilised eggs.

Señorita bananas are diploid (AA) cultivars of the wild seeded banana Musa acuminata. Its accepted name is Musa acuminata (AA Group) 'Señorita'. In the Philippines it is known as 'Monkoy', 'Sarot-sut', 'Cariños' or 'Cariñosa', 'Arnibal' or 'Inarnibal' in Negros Occidental (literally "syrup" in Hiligaynon), and 'Lunsuranon' in Surigao. It is also known as 'Pisang Lampung' in Indonesia.

After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions, fruit bodies may be formed from the dikaryotic mycelia. These fruit bodies produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new basidiospores are made. Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse, and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce haploid basidiospores.

Bromus catharticus is a species of brome grass known by the common names rescuegrass, grazing brome, prairie grass, and Schrader's bromegrass. The specific epithet catharticus is Latin, meaning cathartic. The common name rescuegrass refers to the ability of the grass to provide forage after harsh droughts or severe winters. The grass has a diploid number of 42.

Bromus briziformis is a species of brome grass known by the common name rattlesnake brome. The specific epithet briziformis comes from the resemblance of the grass to grasses of the genus Briza, particularly Briza maxima. The common name is derived from the resemblance of the spikelets to the rattles of rattlesnakes. The grass has a diploid number of 14.

Lakatan bananas, also spelled Lacatan, are diploid banana cultivars from the Philippines. It is one of the most common banana cultivars in the Philippines, along with the Latundan and Saba bananas. Lakatan bananas should not be confused with the Cavendish banana Masak Hijau, which is also known as "Lacatan" in Latin America and the West Indies.

Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells. DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission. This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle. In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice.

Agrostis pallens is a species of grass known by the common name seashore bentgrass. It is native to western North America from British Columbia to Montana to California, where it grows in many types of habitat, typically open meadows, woodlands, subalpine areas, and other dry habitats. The diploid number of the grass is either 42 or 56.

The effort to discover how costs can constrain an "honest" correlation between observable signals and unobservable qualities within signallers is built on strategic models of signalling games, with many simplifying assumptions. These models are most often applied to sexually selected signalling in diploid animals, but they rarely incorporate a fact about diploid sexual reproduction noted by the mathematical biologist Ronald Fisher in the early 20th century: if there are "preference genes" correlated with choosiness in females as well as "signal genes" correlated with display traits in males, choosier females should tend to mate with showier males. Over generations, showier sons should also carry genes associated with choosier daughters, and choosier daughters should also carry genes associated with showier sons. This can cause the evolutionary dynamic known as Fisherian runaway, in which males become ever showier.

Studies show that all hymenopteran insects that have a diploid (2n) chromosome count above 52 are themselves all ants; Nothomyrmecia and another Ponerinae ant, Platythyrea tricuspidata, share the highest number of chromosomes within all the Hymenoptera, having a diploid chromosome number of 92–94. Genetic evidence suggests that the age of the most recent common ancestor for Nothomyrmecia and Myrmecia is approximately 74 million years old, giving a likely origin in the Cretaceous. There are two hypotheses of the internal phylogeny of Nothomyrmecia: subfamily Formicinae is more closely related to Nothomyrmecia than it is to Myrmecia, evolving from Nothomyrmecia-like ancestors. Alternatively, Nothomyrmecia and Aneuretinae may have shared a common ancestor; the two most likely separated from each other, and the first formicines evolved from the Aneuretinae instead.

The Xi marks the inactive, Xa the active X chromosome. XP denotes the paternal, and XM to denotes the maternal X chromosome. When the egg (carrying XM), is fertilized by a sperm (carrying a Y or an XP) a diploid zygote forms. From zygote, through adult stage, to the next generation of eggs, the X chromosome undergoes the following changes: # XiP XiM zygote → undergoing zygotic genome activation, leading to: # XaP XaM → undergoing imprinted (paternal) X-inactivation, leading to: # XiP XaM → undergoing X-activation in the early blastocyst stage, leading to: # XaP XaM → undergoing random X-inactivation in the embryonic lineage (inner cell mass) in the blastocyst stage, leading to: # XiP XaM OR XaP XiM → undergoing X-reactivation in primordial germ cells before meiosis, leading to: # XaM XaP diploid germ cells in meiotic arrest.

In 1999, a chemical compound study was carried out on the rhizomes of Iris spuria subsp. carthalinae. It found several new compounds. Iristectorigenin B 7-gentiobioside (also found in Juniperus macropoda) was found in the iris.John Buckingham and V. Ranjit N. Munasinghe As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

Theoretically, these cells are not germ cells (the source of gametes); they transmit their mutations, to their cellular descendants (if they have any), but not to the organism's descendants. However, in sponges, non-differentiated somatic cells form the germ line and, in Cnidaria, differentiated somatic cells are the source of the germline. Mitotic cell division is only seen in diploid somatic cells.

Queen ants of the species C. cursor can produce female reproductive progeny (i.e. potential new queens or gynes) by parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis, in this case, involves, a process (automictic thelytoky) by which two haploid products of meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote that develops into a gyne. Queens can also produce female worker ants by sexual reproduction involving fertilisation of eggs.

The mountain viscacha rat or mountain vizcacha rat (Octomys mimax), historically viscacha rat or vizcacha rat, is a species of rodent in the family Octodontidae. It is endemic to Argentina. It is the only living species within the genus Octomys. This diploid genus (2n = 56) may be ancestral to the two unusual suspected tetraploid species Tympanoctomys barrerae and Pipanacoctomys aureus.

Its karyotype has 2n = 18 and FN = 32 in females but has 2n = 19 in males. Due to an X-autosome translocation, S. delicatus has an XY1Y2 sex chromosome system, rare in mammals. During meiotic prophase, a male's X and two Y chromosomes form a trivalent. The female value of 18 is the lowest diploid number of any species in the tribe Phyllotini.

The life cycle of slime moulds is very similar to that of fungi. Haploid spores germinate to form swarm cells or myxamoebae. These fuse in a process referred to as plasmogamy and karyogamy to form a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into a plasmodium, and the mature plasmodium produces, depending on the species, one to many fruiting bodies containing haploid spores.

However, some organisms are polyploid, and polyploidy is especially common in plants. Most eukaryotes have diploid somatic cells, but produce haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) by meiosis. A monoploid has only one set of chromosomes, and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally haploid. Males of bees and other Hymenoptera, for example, are monoploid.

Musa boman is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to the West Sepik (Sandaun) Province of Papua New Guinea, in the eastern portion of the island of New Guinea. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20. The male bud is cream in colour. Its relationships have been disputed.

Musa borneensis is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to the island of Borneo, in the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20. Musa flavida M.Hotta is now considered to be only a variety of this species, M. borneensis var. flavida.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted several times including, 2n=34, Simonet 1932; 2n=34, Lenz 1963; 2n=34, Popova, M., & I. Cesmedziev, (1975 & 1976); 2n=34, Colasante & Sauer, 1993; 2n=28, 34, 36, Lovka, 1995 and 2n=34, Dobeš et al., 1997.

In biology, polyspermy describes an egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Diploid organisms normally contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The cell resulting from polyspermy, on the other hand, contains three or more copies of each chromosome—one from the egg and one each from multiple sperm. Usually, the result is an unviable zygote.

In 2004 Centaurium was split into four genera, with C. spicatum becoming Schenkia spicata. At the same time, it was noted that European and Australian specimens ascribed to this species are in fact different taxa; for example, all Australian specimens studied were tetraploid, whereas all European specimens studied were diploid. Therefore the Australian specimens were segregated into a new species, Schenkia australis.

Ferns mostly produce large diploid sporophytes with rhizomes, roots and leaves. Fertile leaves produce sporangia that contain haploid spores. The spores are released and germinate to produce short, thin gametophytes that are typically heart shaped, small and green in color. The gametophyte thalli, produce both motile sperm in the antheridia and egg cells in archegonia on the same or different plants.

Although some modern literature still regards P. veitchii as a subspecies of P. anomala, recent genetic analysis has shown that P. anomala, although being a diploid, is the result of a cross between Paeonia lactiflora and P. veitchii. Morphologically, P. anomala is very similar to P. veitchii nonetheless. These species also share a common chemistry, such as specific unique anthocyanins.

Reproduction refers to the process in which an offspring is formed via asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction involves one parent, producing a genetically identical offspring, to the parent cell. Whereas sexual reproduction involves the meeting and fertilisation of gamete cells in order to produce a genetically different offspring. Fungi type organisms reproduce asexually through the release of diploid spores.

In 2013, an in vitro micropropagation study was carried out on Iris aphylla. To improve the growth rate of new plants of the species. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. But unusually, Iris aphylla is a tetraploid form with 48 somatic chromosomes, but it is also variable.

Family Hylobatidae: gibbonsGeissmann, Thomas. "Gibbon Systematics and Species Identification" (web version). Ch.3: "Adopting a Systematic Framework" Retrieved: 2011-04-05. Hominoid family tree Agile gibbon, Hylobates agilis Siamang, Symphalangus syndactylus Northern white- cheeked gibbon, Nomascus leucogenys Lar gibbon (Hylobates lar) The family is divided into four genera based on their diploid chromosome number: Hylobates (44), Hoolock (38), Nomascus (52), and Symphalangus (50).

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosomal count of 2n = 24. A study in 2014, was carried out on various species of iris DNA, it found that I. iberica subsp. elegantissima had a purity value of 2.80, compared to 1.26 of Iris aucheri.

The species shows considerable polymorphism and can be divided into numerous subspecies. Mesoamerican specimens are usually tetraploid and South American specimens are diploid. The genera currently assigned to the tribe Rhipsalideae (which include Hatiora, Lepismium, and Schlumbergera in addition to Rhipsalis) were subject to considerable confusion and disagreement prior to the clarification by Wilhelm Barthlott and Nigel Taylor in 1995., pp.

Diagram showing the number of base pairs on each chromosome in green. The haploid human genome (23 chromosomes) is about 3 billion base pairs long and contains around 30,000 genes. Since every base pair can be coded by 2 bits, this is about 750 megabytes of data. An individual somatic (diploid) cell contains twice this amount, that is, about 6 billion base pairs.

Seed is typically produced in a four-sided capsule which may contain 50-500 wind-distributed seeds, consisting of a central embryo and two wings, one on either side (though N. pervillei differs). The genus is cytologically diploid, with all studied species having a chromosome number of 2n=80.Lowrey, T.K. 1991. No. 519: Chromosome and isozyme number in the Nepenthaceae.

After mating, a female lays diploid eggs in nymphs of the citrus blackfly. When available, a second instar nymph is selected and each egg will eventually produce a female adult. At 24 °C in the laboratory, it takes 30 to 35 days from egg-laying to adult emergence. Unmated females lay haploid eggs in the fully developed larvae of their own species.

A chromosome in a diploid organism is hemizygous when only one copy is present. The cell or organism is called a hemizygote. Hemizygosity is also observed when one copy of a gene is deleted, or, in the heterogametic sex, when a gene is located on a sex chromosome. Hemizygosity must not be confused with haploinsufficiency, which describes a mechanism for producing a phenotype.

Recently, however, the species Schmidtea mediterranea has emerged as the species of choice for modern molecular biological and genomic research due to its diploid chromosomes and the existence of both asexual and sexual strains. Recent genetic screens utilizing double-stranded RNA technology have uncovered 240 genes that affect regeneration in S. mediterranea. Many of these genes have orthologs in the human genome.

Potamopyrgus antipodarum is ovoviviparous and parthenogenic. This means that they can reproduce asexually; females "are born with developing embryos in their reproductive system." Native populations in New Zealand consist of diploid sexual and triploid parthenogenically cloned females, as well as sexually functional males (less than 5% of the total population). All introduced populations in North America are clonal, consisting of genetically identical females.

The reliable diagnostic character of M. tatricus is its karyotype. Its diploid number of chromosomes and the basic karyotype characteristics (2N = 32, NF = 46) are unique among voles of the genus Microtus. The species is genetically most closely related to alpine voles Microtus multiplex, Microtus liechtensteini and Microtus bavaricus.Martínková, N., J. Zima, M. Jaarola, M. Macholán and F. Spitzenberger. 2007.

Cytogeography and genome size variation in the Claytonia perfoliata (Portulacaceae) polyploid complex. Annals of Botany (Oxford) 110(6): 1195-203 which is based on three diploid species.Miller, J. M. and K. L. Chambers. 2006. Systematics of Claytonia (Portulacaceae). Systematic Botany Monographs 78: 1-236 Two key studies on the population ecology and genetics of the C. perfoliata complex were published in 2012.

Hugh Iltis (April 7, 1925 – December 19, 2016) was a professor of botany and director of the herbarium at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. While he is most noted as a scientist for his role in the discovery of perennial teosinte (Zea diploperennis), a wild diploid relative of modern maize (Zea mays), he is also remembered as an outspoken environmental conservationist.

In many fungi (except chytrids), as in some protists, fertilisation is a two step process. First, the cytoplasms of the two gamete cells fuse (called plasmogamy), producing a dikaryotic or heterokaryotic cell with multiple nuclei. This cell may then divide to produce dikaryotic or heterokaryotic hyphae. The second step of fertilisation is karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei to form a diploid zygote.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted several times. As 2n=17 by Randolph & Mitra in 1959, 2n=16 by Johnson & Mathew in 1989 and 2n=16+1B, Johnson & Brandham in 1997. It is normal stated as 2n=16, or 2n=17.

Cytological studies have shown some 27 species of Crinum to be diploid with a normal chromosome count of 2n = 22. Abilio Fernandes found that the Orange River Crinum bulbispermum had a count of 2n = 66, and some desert Crinum macowanii 2n = 44. These polyploid species produce seeds that are often parthenogenetic triploid or diploids, lack vigour and seldom grow to mature plants.

In 2012, a study was carried out on 18 species of iris found in Iran. (RAPD) markers and other tests were applied to identify genetic differences among species. It concluded that Iris germanica and Iris imbricata are ancient hybrids. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=40. It has been counted several times; 2n=40, Lenz & Day, 1963; 2n=40, Mehra & Pand., 1978; 2n=40, Simonet, 1932; 2n=40, Banerji; 1970; 2n=40, Sharma, 1970; 2n=34, Mehra & Sach.

Moreover, several triploid trees known only in cultivation, such as 'Jefferson', are possessed of a high degree of resistance to DED, which ravaged American elms in the 20th century. This suggests that the diploid parent trees, which have markedly smaller cells than the tetraploid, may too be highly resistant to the disease.Whittemore, A. & Olsen, R. (2011). Ulmus americana (Ulmaceae) is a polyploidy complex.

Claytonia nevadensis, known by the common names Sierra springbeauty and Sierra Nevada claytonia, is a species of wildflower in the family Montiaceae. The evolutionary relationship of Claytonia nevadensis to other claytonias is a subject of debate and ongoing genetic studies. Sierra springbeauties are diploid with a chromosome base number of x = 7Miller, J. M. and K. L. Chambers. 2006. Systematics of Claytonia (Portulacaceae).

In a 2014 taxonomic revision, E. aucherianum, E. gayanum, E. gracile, and E. passgalense are considered to be the same species as E. collinum. The revised species has both diploid (2n = 14) and hexaploid (2n = 42) members. Based on sequence comparisons of expressed genes in 48 Erysimum species, E. collinum is most closely related to E. crassipes and E. crassicaule.

The trophozoites can mature into schizonts and release more merozoites into the circulatory system, or they can differentiate into still haploid gametocytes. The gametocyte is the sexual stage of the life cycle, with female macrogametocytes and male microgametocytes. Sexual reproduction does not occur in the human host. Instead, the gametocytes only fuse to form a diploid zygote when ingested by the female Anopheles.

Diploid Artemia parthenogenetica reproduce by automictic parthenogenesis with central fusion (see diagram) and low but nonzero recombination. Central fusion of two of the haploid products of meiosis (see diagram) tends to maintain heterozygosity in transmission of the genome from mother to offspring, and to minimise inbreeding depression. Low crossover recombination during meiosis likely restrains the transition from heterozygosity to homozygosity over successive generations.

In 2006, 13 species of Iris, including Iris subdichotoma, Iris delavayi and Iris dolichosiphon were studied for a cytological analysis of the chromosome counts. As most irises are diploid (having two sets of chromosomes ), this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=22, the same as Iris cuniculiformis (another Pseudoregelia iris).

Coccolithophores reproduce asexually through binary fission. In this process the coccoliths from the parent cell are divided between the two daughter cells. There have been suggestions stating the possible presence of a sexual reproduction process due to the diploid stages of the coccolithophores, but this process has never been observed. K or r- selected strategies of coccolithophores depend on their life cycle stage.

The edges of the indusia are not toothed or lobed. Beneath them, the sori are usually not continuous around the edge of the leaf, and are often concentrated on lateral lobes of the fertile pinnulets, particularly at the ends of veins. Each sporangium in a sorus carries 64 tan spores. Individual sporophytes are sexual diploids, with a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 58.

Variations are frequent and multiple. In a typical Basidiomycota lifecycle the long lasting dikaryons periodically (seasonally or occasionally) produce basidia, the specialized usually club-shaped end cells, in which a pair of compatible nuclei fuse (karyogamy) to form a diploid cell. Meiosis follows shortly with the production of 4 haploid nuclei that migrate into 4 external, usually apical basidiospores. Variations occur, however.

Pentagramma is a small genus of North American ferns. Until 1990 members of this genus were included in Pityrogramma, and there has been considerable disagreement regarding the species' taxonomy. In the most recent treatment, six diploid species are recognized. The distribution of P. triangularis (goldback fern) extends from British Columbia through the western United States into Baja California in northwestern Mexico.

Iris sintenisii As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted several times; 2n=16, ex Randolph and Mitra 1956, Lenz, Bulletin of the American Iris Society169: 55. 1963; 2n=16, 32 Simonet 1934; 2n=16, Lenz 1963 and 2n=16, Popova, M., & I. Cesmedziev, (1975 & 1976).

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It is published, that it a chromosome count: 2n=24, or 2n=40. As Iris germanica has a count of 2n=44 or 48 and Iris variegata is counted as 2n=24. Iris variegata is more likely to be the parent species.

Cattleya gaskelliana (translation: Gaskell's Cattley's orchid) is a labiate Cattleya species of orchid. The diploid chromosome number of C. gaskelliana has been determined as 2n = 40.page 250 of L. P. Felix and M. Guerra: "Variation in chromosome number and the basic number of subfamily Epidendroideae (Orchidaceae)" Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 163(2010)234—278. The Linnean Society of London.

The haploid gametophyte produces haploid gametes by mitosis and the diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis. The only visible difference between the gametes and spores of Cladophora is that the gametes have two flagella and the spores have four. The Cladophora species can be a major nuisance causing major alteration to benthic conditions linked particularly with increased phosphorus loading.

Female N. testaceicornis will have two sets of chromosomes (diploid), receiving one set from the queen and the other from a male drone. Meanwhile, drones have one set of chromosomes (haploid), resulting from an unfertilized egg. The worker N. testaceicornis will primarily act as guards of the nest and search for food while the drones and queen stay inside the nest.

Flowers are hermaphrodite, insect-pollinated (entomophilous) and are on stalks that reach about a foot in height. Taraxacum kok-saghyz is usually in flower from May through June, with seeds ripening from June through July. It is a diploid species that reproduces sexually, and produces good pollen. Another species, a triploid apomict that also has horned bracts and produces rubber, T. brevicorniculatum Korol.

Once freed from the oogonium, each daughter cell is only motile for a short period of time. All four cells may eventually attach to a substrate and then divide repeatedly to form new Oedogonium filament. The life cycle of Oedogonium is haplontic. The egg from the oogonia and the sperm from the antheridia fuse and form a zygote which is diploid (2n).

Dianthus acicularis is a species of pink in the carnation family mostly found in the Urals region; eastern European Russia and western Siberia, with some occurrences in Kazakhstan, and Xinjiang in China. A diploid, its resistance to bacterial wilt of carnation and ease of cell line propagation in the laboratory make it useful for breeding ornamental carnations for the cut flower industry.

Within the mosquito midgut, the female gamete maturation process entails slight morphological changes, becoming more enlarged and spherical. The male gametocyte undergoes a rapid nuclear division within 15 minutes, producing eight flagellated microgametes by a process called exflagellation. The flagellated microgamete fertilizes the female macrogamete to produce a diploid cell called a zygote. The zygote then develops into an ookinete.

A variety of factors maintain genetic variation in populations. Potentially harmful recessive alleles can be hidden from selection in the heterozygous individuals in populations of diploid organisms (recessive alleles are only expressed in the less common homozygous individuals). Natural selection can also maintain genetic variation in balanced polymorphisms. Balanced polymorphisms may occur when heterozygotes are favored or when selection is frequency dependent.

Fungi commonly produce spores, as a result of sexual, or asexual, reproduction. Spores are usually haploid and grow into mature haploid individuals through mitotic division of cells (Urediniospores and Teliospores among rusts are dikaryotic). Dikaryotic cells result from the fusion of two haploid gamete cells. Among sporogenic dikaryotic cells, karyogamy (the fusion of the two haploid nuclei) occurs to produce a diploid cell.

This contrasts sharply with the pattern exhibited by nearly all animals and by vascular plants. In the more familiar seed plants, the haploid generation is represented only by the tiny pollen and the ovule, while the diploid generation is the familiar tree or other plant.Fosket, Donald E. Plant Growth and Development: A Molecular Approach, p. 27. (San Diego: Academic Press, 1994). .

Wheat is typically tetraploid and rye diploid, with their triploid hybrid infertile; treatment of triploid triticale with colchicine gives fertile hexaploid triticale. When used to induce polyploidy in plants, colchicine cream is usually applied to a growth point of the plant, such as an apical tip, shoot, or sucker. Also, seeds can be presoaked in a colchicine solution before planting.

Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 2016;371(1706). In addition, sexual selection can occur within fungi if there is a limiting number of a certain type of gamete. The limiting gamete is typically the female gamete as they tend to be more costly to produce and invest more, energetically, in the zygote. Most fungi have a haploid-diploid life cycle.

S. cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are abundant. However, when starved, these cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores. Evidence from studies of S. cerevisiae bear on the adaptive function of meiosis and recombination. Mutations defective in genes essential for meiotic and mitotic recombination in S. cerevisiae cause increased sensitivity to radiation or DNA damaging chemicals.

Also, weather that is humid and warm promotes the spread. Spores can be spread by wind to other plants. An important factor in development of rust epidemics is the infection of volunteer faba bean plants. The disease cycle is as follows: the overwintering diploid teliospores germinate in the spring with metabasidium forming four haploid basidiospores of two mating types, types (+) and (-) are formed.

Only fertilised queens can lay diploid eggs (one set of chromosomes from a drone, one from the queen) that mature into workers and new queens.Goulson, 2013. pp. 108–114 In a young colony, the queen minimises reproductive competition from workers by suppressing their egg-laying through physical aggression and pheromones. Worker policing leads to nearly all eggs laid by workers being eaten.

In 1979, a karyotype analysis study was carried out on Iris attica, Iris mellita (a synonym of Iris suaveolens Boiss. & Reut.) and Iris reichenbachii. It found that Iris attica was 2n=16, both Iris mellita and Iris reichenbachii were 2n = 24. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

K. marxianus is also able to use multiple carbon substrata at the same time making it highly suited to industrial use. When glucose concentrations become depleted to 6 g/L, the lactose co-transport initiates. The formation of the ascospores occurs through the conjugation of the haploid cells preceding the formation of the ascus. Alternatively, ascosporogensis can arise directly from diploid cells.

The haploid generation consists of male and female gametophytes. The fertilization of egg cells varies between species of brown algae, and may be isogamous, oogamous, or anisogamous. Fertilization may take place in the water with eggs and motile sperm, or within the oogonium itself. Certain species of brown algae can also perform asexual reproduction through the production of motile diploid zoospores.

This contrasts with homothallic strains that appear to express both mating types. Mating is initiated by gametogenesis that produces small, motile gametes that fuse to form a small binucleate cell. The volume of the binucleate cell then increases to produce a giant binuclear cell. As growth proceeds, the nuclei swell, and then fuse forming a true diploid zygote giant cell.

Micrasterias can produce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction occurs via mitosis. When this occurs the genetic material of Micrasterias is duplicated and two small semi-cells grow between the original semi-cells, gradually increasing in size. Sexual reproduction occurs through a process called conjugation whereby two organisms come together and fuse their haploid cells to form a diploid zygote.

Vegetative cells of the reinhardtii species are haploid with 17 small chromosomes. Under nitrogen starvation, vegetative cells differentiate into haploid gametes. There are two mating types, identical in appearance, thus isogamous, and known as mt(+) and mt(-), which can fuse to form a diploid zygote. The zygote is not flagellated, and it serves as a dormant form of the species in the soil.

Hordeum chilense is a species of wild barley native to Chile and Argentina. A diploid, it is used or being explored for use in barley crop improvement due to its resistance to Zymoseptoria tritici septoria leaf blotch, its high seed yellow pigment content (YPC), and its cytoplasmic male sterility. It is a parent, along with durum wheat, of the hybrid crop Tritordeum.

This measure assumes diploid data and explicit inference of haplotypes from genotypes. Another assessment method due to Clayton is based on a measure of the diversity of haplotypes. The diversity is defined as the total number of differences in all pairwise comparison between haplotypes. The difference between a pair of haplotypes is the sum of differences over all the SNPs.

Following this, male and female organs called the antheridia and archegonia will produce sperm and eggs through mitosis. If fertilization is successful, a diploid zygote will form, eventually developing into a dependent sporophyte, which will produce the following generation of spores. Due to the often short-lived nature of their habitat, members of Splachnaceae do not usually engage in asexual reproduction.

Randomly partitioning a complete diploid fosmid library into various pools of equal size presents an alternative method for haplotype phasing. In the proof of principle description of this techniqueHaplotype- resolved genome sequencing of a Gujarati Indian individual. J.O. Kitzman et al. Nature Biotechnology vol 29 no 1 59-63 115 pools were created containing ~5000 unique clones from the original fosmid library.

Each of these pools contained roughly 3% of the genome. Between the 3% in each pool and the fact that each clone is a random sampling of the diploid genome, 99.1% of the time each pool contains DNA from a single homolog. Amplification and analysis of each pool provide haplotype resolution limited only by the size of the fosmid insert.

The copy number of this gene varies among individuals. This is hypothesized to be due to segmental duplication of the region containing CCL3. Most individuals have 1-6 copies in the diploid genome, although rare individuals have zero or more than six copies. With increased copy number, there is more CCL3L1 expressed, and so competition for the CCR5 binding site is increased.

Genetically, the maned wolf has 37 pairs of autosomes within diploid genes, with a karyotype similar to that of other canids. It has 76 chromosomes, and therefore cannot interbreed with other canids. Evidence suggests that 15,000 years ago, the species suffered a reduction in its genetic diversity, called the bottleneck effect. However, its diversity is still greater than that of other canids.

Cotton fibres occur naturally in colours of white, brown, green, and some mixing of these. Most wild cottons are diploid, but a group of five species from America and Pacific islands are tetraploid, apparently due to a single hybridization event around 1.5 to 2 million years ago. The tetraploid species are G. hirsutum, G. tomentosum, G. mustelinum, G. barbadense, and G. darwinii.

Barley The cross- section of a barley root Barley is a member of the grass family. It is a self- pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp. spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides, and orchards.

The Ryukyu spiny rat (Tokudaia osimensis) is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. Endemic to Amami Ōshima island in the Amami Islands of the Ryukyu archipelago of Japan, its natural habitat is subtropical moist broadleaf forest. The karyotype has an odd diploid number, 2n = 25. Like its relative T. tokunoshimensis, it has lost its Y chromosome and SRY gene.

Female E. lutescens metaphase chromosome set The karyotype has a low, odd, diploid number, 2n = 17,X. Transcaucasian mole voles have no SRY gene or Y chromosome; both sexes have an XO sex chromosome set, a state possibly derived from an ancestral population in which males had an XX sex chromosome set, like E. tancrei. Their sex-determination method remains unknown.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20. It was counted in June 1956, I. gatesii, Iris susiana, Iris lortetii, and Iris sofarana were found to have exclusively chromosomes with sub-terminal centromeres. It was also counted in 1977 by Avishai & Zohary.

In budding yeast (Sacharomyces cerevisiae), the homologue of METTL3, IME4 is induced in diploid cells in response to nitrogen and fermentable carbon source starvation and is required for mRNA methylation and the initiation of correct meiosis and sporulation. mRNAs of IME1 and IME2, key early regulators of meiosis, are known to be targets for methylation, as are transcripts of IME4 itself.

The male structures are known as antheridia and are protected by modified leaves called the perigonium. Fertilization will occur with the aid of water, sperm will be transported from antheridia to archegonia and travel down its venter to reach the egg, where fertilization will happen. Producing a diploid sporophyte. The sperm is biflagellate, they have two flagellae that aid in propulsion.

The process of spermatogenesis as the cells progress from primary spermatocytes, to secondary spermatocytes, to spermatids, to Sperm Cycle of the seminiferous epithelium of the testis Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and results in the formation of spermatocytes possessing half the normal complement of genetic material. In spermatocytogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium, which resides in the basal compartment of the seminiferous tubules, divides mitotically, producing two diploid intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes. Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules and duplicates its DNA and subsequently undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes, which will later divide once more into haploid spermatids. This division implicates sources of genetic variation, such as random inclusion of either parental chromosomes, and chromosomal crossover that increases the genetic variability of the gamete.

Their classic 1976 paper also demonstrated the utility of isozymes in sorting out a complicated systematics in Tragopogon, the presence of fixed heterozygosity in its polyploids, as well as the occurrence of novel isozymes (multimers) in the Tragopogon allopolyploids. Gottlieb's further studies on polyploidy were concerned with the fates of those genes that were duplicated by an allopolyploidization event. That is, he was interested to know if the homeologus genomes of allopolyploids were changed by being in the same nucleus—were there novel patterns of gene expression that may influence fitness; or, to quote Gottlieb in 1999 do "...polyploid species evolve differently than their diploid parents". To sort this out, Gottlieb maintained that one had to know if any differences one saw in the allopolyploid were indeed differences from polyploidization or were they a "legacy" of the diploid progenitors.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=20, counted by Awishai & Zohary in 1980. In August 2016, a study was published that focused on the karyological and cytogenetic characters of Irises in Lebanon (including Iris cedreti) as compared to Iris germanica and Iris mesopotamica.

In 2016, Complete Genomics contributed over 184 phased human genomes to George Church's Personal Genome Project. In 2019, they published on their new single-tube long fragment read (stLFR) technology, enabling construction of long DNA molecules from short reads using a combinatorial process of DNA barcoding. This enables phasing, SV detection, scaffolding, and cost-effective diploid de novo genome assembly, from second generation sequencing technology.

Russell Lande explored this with a quantitative genetic model, showing that Fisherian diploid dynamics are sensitive to signalling and search costs. Other models incorporate both costly signalling and Fisherian runaway. These models show that if fitness depends on both survival and reproduction, having sexy sons and choosy daughters (in the stereotypical model) can be adaptive, increasing fitness just as much as having healthy sons and daughters.

Whole plant with blossom and immature pod Okra is an allopolyploid of uncertain parentage. However, proposed parents include Abelmoschus ficulneus, A. tuberculatus and a reported "diploid" form of okra. Truly wild (as opposed to naturalised) populations are not known with certainty, and the species may be a cultigen. The geographical origin of okra is disputed, with supporters of South Asian, Ethiopian and West African origins.

Flowering plants generate gametes using a specialized cell division called meiosis. Meiosis takes place in the ovule (a structure within the ovary that is located within the pistil at the center of the flower) (see diagram labeled "Angiosperm lifecycle"). A diploid cell (megaspore mother cell) in the ovule undergoes meiosis (involving two successive cell divisions) to produce four cells (megaspores) with haploid nuclei.Snustad DP, Simmons MJ (2008).

Two polar nuclei are left in the central cell of the embryo sac. Pollen is also produced by meiosis in the male anther (microsporangium). During meiosis, a diploid microspore mother cell undergoes two successive meiotic divisions to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores or male gametes). Each of these microspores, after further mitoses, becomes a pollen grain (microgametophyte) containing two haploid generative (sperm) cells and a tube nucleus.

157 By that time, a debate emerged focusing on the origin of the asexual generation of land plants (i.e., the sporophyte) and is conventionally characterized as a conflict between theories of antithetic (Čelakovský, 1874) and homologous (Pringsheim, 1876) alternation of generations. Čelakovský coined the words sporophyte and gametophyte. Eduard Strasburger (1874) discovered the alternation between diploid and haploid nuclear phases, also called cytological alternation of nuclear phases.

Parthenogenesis (amictic phase) dominates the monogonont life cycle, promoting fast population growth and colonization. In this phase males are absent and amictic females produce diploid eggs by mitosis which develop parthenogenetically into females that are clones of their mothers. Some amictic females can generate mictic females that will produce haploid eggs by meiosis. Mixis (meiosis) is induced by different types of stimulus depending on species.

Although sexual reproduction in fungi varies between phyla, for some fungi the sporangium plays an indirect role in sexual reproduction. For Zygomycota, sexual reproduction occurs when the haploid hyphae from two individuals join to form a zygosporangium in response to unfavorable conditions. The haploid nuclei within the zygosporangium then fuse into diploid nuclei.When conditions improve the zygosporangium germinates, undergoes meiosis and produces a sporangium, which releases spores.

Musa peekelii is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to eastern New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20. It is a very tall plant, reaching over , with a narrow green drooping bud. The ripe bananas are red with bright yellow flesh.

While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. The two alleles for a gene are located on identical loci of the two homologous chromosomes, each allele inherited from a different parent. Walther Flemming's 1882 diagram of eukaryotic cell division. Chromosomes are copied, condensed, and organized.

Thomas Hunt Morgan's 1916 illustration of a double crossover between chromosomes. The diploid nature of chromosomes allows for genes on different chromosomes to assort independently or be separated from their homologous pair during sexual reproduction wherein haploid gametes are formed. In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair. Genes on the same chromosome would theoretically never recombine.

Diploid organisms contain two copies of each gene. If these are different (heterozygous / heteroallelic), the two different copies of the allele may interact with each other to cause epistasis. This is sometimes called allelic complementation, or interallelic complementation. It may be caused by several mechanisms, for example transvection, where an enhancer from one allele acts in trans to activate transcription from the promoter of the second allele.

Gladiolus dalenii is a species of flowering plant in the iris family Iridaceae. It is one of the most widely distributed species of Gladiolus, ranging from eastern South Africa and Madagascar throughout tropical Africa and into western Arabia. It is the main parental species of the large flowering grandiflora hybrids. This species is also unusual in its genus in including diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid races.

Botrychium pumicola is a mycorrhizal fern, and grows sporophytic gemmae (i.e., little structures for the asexual reproduction of the sporophytic, or diploid, phase of the plant's life cycle). Some botanists believe that the gemmae might be adaptations to a dry climate and fires. Another name for plants of the genus Botrychium is 'grapeferns,' since the sexual reproductive structures (synangia) look like tiny yellow-green grapes.

In 1873 he was appointed director of the marine zoology laboratory at Concarneau. Robin's contributions to medical science were many and varied. He was among the first scientists in France to use the microscope in normal and pathological anatomy. He was the first to describe the species Candida albicans (a diploid fungus), and he contributed new information on the micro-structure of ganglia and of neuroglia.

Musa exotica is a species of wild banana (genus Musa), native to Vietnam. It is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), having a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20. It was only described in 2004, from a collection in the Cúc Phương Forest Reservation, Ninh Bình Province, Vietnam. The clear orange bud is upright; small yellow bananas develop below the male flowers.

Tetra hydroxy-3' methoxyisoflavone (C16H12O7) can be found naturally within the iris,John Buckingham and V. Ranjit N. Munasinghe rhizomes.J. B. Harborne As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted several times, 2n=26, Simonet, 1932 and 2n=26, Chimphamba, 1973. It is normally published as 2n=26.

Hordeum brachyantherum, known by the common name meadow barley, is a species of barley. It is native to western North America from Alaska to northern Mexico, coastal areas of easternmost Russia (Kamchatka), and a small area of coastal Newfoundland. The diploid cytotype occurs only in California, throughout the state, while everywhere else plants are tetraploid. This is a tufting perennial bunchgrass approaching a meter in maximum height.

Polyploidization plays an important role in plant evolution, it is commonly used in agriculture to develop novel phenotypes.Mason AS, and Batley J (2015) Creating new interspecific hybrid and polyploid crops. Trends In Biotechnology 33(8): 436-441 Polyploidization also occurs naturally in plant populations. In 1980, a rare hexaploid form of Hordeum brachyantherum was discovered in California within the populations of diploid and tetraploid Hordeum brachyantherum.

Flora of North America, Epidendrum magnoliae Muhlenberg, 1813. Green-fly orchid The diploid chromosome number of E. magnoliae has been determined as 2n = 40, the haploid chromosome number as n = 20.page 251 of Leonardo P. Felix and Marcelo Guerra: "Variation in chromosome number and the basic number of subfamily Epidendroideae (Orchidaceae)" Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 163(2010)234-278. The Linnean Society of London.

The species originated as a hybrid between two species, and is diploid, but not hermaphroditic. It can have triploid and tetraploid forms, including all- female forms that reproduce mainly through hybridogenesis. It is rare to find true parthenogenesis in fishes, where females produce female offspring with no input from males. All-female species include the Texas silverside, Menidia clarkhubbsi as well as a complex of Mexican mollies.

Raphidiophrys heterophryoidea is the first organism to show a combination of scales and spicules in one species amongst heliozoans demonstrating a transitional state observed at least twice in centrohelid evolution . This is important because of suspicions that like other hacrobians, centrohelids may have haploid and diploid stages that are morphologically different (in centrohelids the ploidy of these morphologically different stages has never been shown).

Like most brown algae, Postelsia goes through alternation of generations, and is an annual species. The diploid sporophyte produces, through meiosis, haploid spores, which drip down through the grooves in the blades onto the substrate, which may be mussels, barnacles, or bare rock. These spores develop, through mitosis, into small, multicellular haploid gametophytes, male and female. The male and female gametophytes create sperm and eggs, respectively.

Michael Foster was the first to use the species in hybridisation. He crossed with Iris germanica to create larger plants. Then in the early 20th century, William Mohr, and Sydney B Mitchell (from California) used the iris in breeding programmes of tall bearded varieties. The first tetraploid forms appeared in 1900, by 1943 there were up to 145 diploid, 23 triploid and 247 tetraploid cultivars.

Most species of bryophytes remain small throughout their life-cycle. This involves an alternation between two generations: a haploid stage, called the gametophyte, and a diploid stage, called the sporophyte. In bryophytes, the sporophyte is always unbranched and remains nutritionally dependent on its parent gametophyte. The embryophytes have the ability to secrete a cuticle on their outer surface, a waxy layer that confers resistant to desiccation.

This contrasts with the pattern in all vascular plants (seed plants and pteridophytes), where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses reproduce using spores, not seeds, and have no flowers. Moss gametophytes have stems which may be simple or branched and upright or prostrate. Their leaves are simple, usually only a single layer of cells with no internal air spaces, often with thicker midribs.

The mechanism which decides which of several morphs an individual displays is called the switch. This switch may be genetic, or it may be environmental. Taking sex determination as the example, in humans the determination is genetic, by the XY sex- determination system. In Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps), sex determination is by haplo-diploidy: the females are all diploid, the males are haploid.

Microscopic view of Zea seed Both annual and perennial teosinte species occur. Z. diploperennis and Z. perennis are perennial, while all other species are annual. All species are diploid (n=10) with the exception of Z. perennis, which is tetraploid (n=20). The different species and subspecies of teosinte can be readily distinguished based on morphological, cytogenetic, protein, and DNA differences and on geographic origin.

Z. angusticollis is a hemimetabolous, diploid species. Upon hatching from their egg, they are quite similar to adults except for their lack of genitalia. Their series of morphological instars allows them to increase in size until they reach their adult stage. Like all other termites, the dampwood termites live in eusocial colonies that contain workers, soldiers, nymphs (semi-mature young), and both male and female reproductive individuals.

Protozoa are unicellular organisms, which have nuclei, and ultramicroscopic cellular bodies within their cytoplasm. One particular aspect of protozoa that are of interest to human geneticists are their flagella, which are very similar to human sperm flagella. Studies of Paramecium have contributed to our understanding of the function of meiosis. Like all ciliates, Paramecium has a polyploid macronucleus, and one or more diploid micronuclei.

Plants of the Phureja Group are ascending to erect, with pedicel articulation is evident below the upper 20% of the pedicel, and upper leaves diverge from stems at 40°-50°. They are adapted to short-day flowering and tuberization, and are generally not frost tolerant. They are diploid, and differentiated from the Stenotomum Group in that the tubers sprout at harvest in the Phureja Group.

Salvia coccinea, the blood sage, scarlet sage, Texas sage, or tropical sage, is a herbaceous perennial in the family Lamiaceae that is widespread throughout the Southeastern United States, Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and northern South America (Colombia, Peru, and Brazil). At one time Brazil was considered to be where it originated, but its diploid chromosome count now points to Mexico as its place of origin.

Typhonium jinpingense, common name "artist's aroid,"Nature Products Network, TianZi Biodiversity Research and Development Centre, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China is a plant species native to Jingping County, Yunnan Province, China. It grows in wet fields and on stream banks at elevations of .Z.T. Wang, H. Li & F.H. Bian. 2002. Typhonium jinpingense: a new species from Yunnan China with the lowest diploid chromosome number in Araceae.

The genomes of several species in the genus Genlisea were studied in 2006. According to the study, prior to its publication the smallest known angiosperm (flowering plant) genome was that of Arabidopsis thaliana at 157 Megabase pairs (Mbp). With a diploid chromosome number of around 52 (2n = ca. 52), G. aurea has the distinction of having one of the smallest known angiosperm genome size at 63.6 Mbp.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count: 2n=18. It has also been counted by 'La Cour', (but unpublished) and by Lenz in 1963, both as 2n=18. In 2011, a study to find the various volatile chemical compounds within 3 species of native iris from Turkey.

Although fungi are normally haploid, diploid cells can arise by two mechanisms. The first is a failure of the mitotic spindle during regular cell division, and does not involve karyogamy. The resulting cell can only be genetically homozygous since it is produced from one haploid cell. The second mechanism, involving karyogamy of somatic cells, can produce heterozygous diploids if the two nuclei differ in genetic information.

In 2009, a plant regeneration study was carried out on Iris adriatica, using somatic embryogenesis and organogenesis. In 2012, Iris adriatica was studied to assess the possibility of growing this species as a pot plant. Biometric analysis showed only that substrate was an influence in cultivation. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

The leaves are usually opposite, simple, and in many species hairy, often densely so. The flowers are small, with five petals, and borne in dense spikes. Typically some shade of blue, they may also be white, pink, or purple, especially in cultivars. The genus can be divided into a diploid North American and a polyploid South American lineage, both with a base chromosome number of seven.

Allelic exclusion is a process by which only one allele of a gene is expressed while the other allele is silenced. For autosomal genes, diploid organisms inherit one copy from each parent. At least two distinct selection events can lead to allelic exclusion. On one hand, one allele of the gene can be transcriptionally silent, which would result in the expression of only the second allele.

In some Basidiomycota the spores are not ballistic, and the sterigmata may be straight, reduced to stubbs, or absent. The basidiospores of these non-ballistosporic basidia may either bud off, or be released via dissolution or disintegration of the basidia. Scheme of a typical basidiocarp, the dipoid reproductive structure of a basidiomycete, showing fruiting body, hymenium and basidia. In summary, meiosis takes place in a diploid basidium.

The onset of the second phase, known as the switch point, is when the queen stops laying diploid eggs and starts making haploid eggs to produce male bees. During the third phase, the workers exhibit overt aggression towards each other and towards the queen. The beginning of the third phase is known as the competition point. Reciprocal oophagy also occurs during this third stage.

The leaf edges are not modified into false indusia; they are sometimes, thought not always, slightly curved under. Each sporangium bears 64 spores, indicating that it is a sexual diploid species. It is most similar to Argyrochosma jonesii, but can be distinguished from it by its black (rather than brownish) leaf axes, and the bipinnate (rather than bi- to tripinnate) division of the leaf.

It codes for a relatively simple nucleolar protein called treacle, that is thought to be involved in ribosome assembly. Mutations in TCOF1 lead to haploinsufficiency of the treacle protein. Haploinsufficiency occurs when a diploid organism has only one functional copy of a gene, because the other copy is inactivated by a mutation. The one normal copy of the gene does not produce enough protein, causing disease.

Diseased roots develop lesions that may spread up the stem and eventually kill the entire plant. Phytophthora sojae also produces oospores that can remain dormant in the soil over the winter, or longer, and germinate when conditions are favourable. Oospores may also be spread by animals or machinery. Phytophthora sojae is a diploid organism with a genome size of 95 Mbp (Millions of base pairs).

It is known that the founding queen of a nest produces her first brood to be workers. In a study about early emerging males in this initial brood of workers, many observations were taken. First, the possibility of sibling mating was quite high in nests where there were early emerging males. There were no early emerging males found to be diploid in chromosome number.

In 1961, a study was carried out on various irises in USSR, including Iris furcata. The karyotype of Iris furcata is distinct from that of Iris aphylla, it may be better considered an ancestral form. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has a chromosome count of 2n=24.

Eucomis schijffii was first described in 1976 by William Reyneke, who named it to honour his professor, H. P. van der Schijff. It is one of a group of mainly short, diploid species with 2n = 2x = 30 chromosomes. Its small stature and ovate leaves normally lying flat on the ground, along with purple flowers and stamen filaments, distinguish it from similar dwarf Eucomis species.

Sweet Flag (2006 drawing by USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center) Products derived from Acorus calamus were banned in 1968 as food additives by the United States Food and Drug Administration. The questionable chemical derived from the plant was β-asarone. Confusion exists whether all strains of A. calamus contain this substance. Four varieties of A. calamus strains exist in nature: diploid, triploid, tetraploid and hexaploid.

These algae are capable of forming two types of dormant diploid zygospores. Some populations form zygospores within single clones of cells (homothallic), whereas others form zygospores between different clones of cells (heterothallic). The heterothallic strains have two mating types, mt(-) and mt(+). When cells of opposite mating types are mixed in a nitrogen- deficient mating medium, mt(-) and mt(+) cells pair with each other and release protoplasts.

When cannibalism is complete, the giant diploid cell is a hardy macrocyst which eventually undergoes recombination and meiosis, and hatches hundreds of recombinants. In D. mucoroides (DM7) homothallic mating, cells are directed towards sexual development by ethylene. Scientists also found the collective cell migration could occur without the presence of cAMP oscillations at multicellular stages, and novel models have been proposed to interpret this interesting phenomenon.

As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It is normally published as 2n=22. There has been several counts, over the years including 2n=27, Krogulevich 1978, 2n-24, Sokolovskya & Probatova, 1986, 2n=28, Starobudtsev & Mironova, 1990, 2n=28, Malakhova, 1990, 2n=28 Malakhova & Markova, 1994. As Iris flavissima 2n=22, Doronkin.

Because relatedness differs in haplodiploid species, the effects of kin selection are predicted to differ from that of a diploid species. V. pensylvanica is a haplodiploid species. Thus, female offspring have a 0.75 relatedness to their sisters, but only a 0.25 relatedness to their brothers. As a result, kin selection posits that workers will be more inclined to show altruistic behavior toward sisters than brothers.

It placed Iris mandshurica in a clade with other basal irises, including Iris dichotoma and Iris tectorum. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings. It has been counted several times; 2n=20 (Longley 1928). 2n=34 (Probatova 1988), 2n=14 (Zakharjeva 1990), 2n=14 (Starodubtsev & Mironova 1990) and 2n=28 (Sha et al.

These zoospores form in plurilocular sporangium, and can mature into the sporophyte phase immediately. In a representative species Laminaria, there is a conspicuous diploid generation and smaller haploid generations. Meiosis takes place within several unilocular sporangium along the algae's blade, each one forming either haploid male or female zoospores. The spores are then released from the sporangia and grow to form male and female gametophytes.

The diploid number of chromosomes in the blue wildebeest is 58. Chromosomes were studied in a male and a female wildebeest. In the female, all except a pair of very large submetacentric chromosomes were found to be acrocentric. Metaphases were studied in the male's chromosomes, and very large submetacentric chromosomes were found there as well, similar to those in the female both in size and morphology.

Yeast, for example, are isogamous sexual organisms which have two mating types which fuse and recombine their haploid genomes. Both sexes reproduce during the haploid and diploid stages of their life cycle and have a 100% chance of passing their genes into their offspring. Some species avoid the 50% cost of sexual reproduction, although they have "sex" (in the sense of genetic recombination). In these species (e.g.

Honey bee workers are unusually closely related to their full sisters (same father) because of their haplodiploid inheritance system. In honeybees, the drones (males) are entirely derived from the queen, their mother. The diploid queen has 32 chromosomes and the haploid drones have 16 chromosomes. Drones produce sperm cells that contain their entire genome, so the sperm are all genetically identical except for mutations.

Silene nutans is a diploid, mainly outcrossing, herbaceous, perennial plant. It grows up to tall, from a branching, woody stock with a thick taproot. The lower leaves are up to long, spathulate and have a long stalk, while leaves higher on the plant are lanceolate, subsessile and acute; all the leaves are covered in soft hairs. The flowers are wide, long, and drooping, on short, viscid stalks.

The relatedness from sister to sister is 75% and from sister to brother is 25%. This is because females are diploid and males are unfertilized haploid. The Queen has equal genetic relatedness to both her sons and daughters so she wants to lay an equal ratio of children. Since B. hypnorum also can mate with more than one male, then the colony has groups of related females.

It has been studied various times. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has been count various times; 2n=28, Sim. 1928; 2n=28, Skalinska, 1961; 2n=28, Wcislo, 1964; 2n=28 Baerji, 1970; 2n=28, Sharma, 1970; 2n=28; Lovka & Sus. 1971; 2n=28, Love in November 71, 2n=28, Pop.

Asplenium septentrionale is a species of fern known by the common names northern spleenwort and forked spleenwort. It is native to western North America, Europe, and Asia, where it grows on rocks. Its long, slender leaves give it a distinctive appearance, more like a grass than a typical fern. Three subspecies exist, corresponding to a tetraploid and a diploid cytotype and their triploid hybrid.

In 2010, the band won Best Pop/Rock Album at the Independent Music Awards for their album Spinnerette. The band has been inactive since 2010; in 2012 Dalle posted on her Twitter account that she was in the studio recording and was working with Shirley Manson of Garbage on at least one track. Dalle has released her first solo album Diploid Love in 2014.

Macronuclei and micronuclei differ in their functions even though they are located within the same cell. The micronucleus is globally repressed during the vegetative state, and serves as the diploid germline nucleus, whereas all known vegetative gene expression happens in the macronucleus, which is a polyploid somatic nucleus. The micronucleus divides before micronucleus in the state of vegetative growth. The macronucleus is active in transcription.

Buddleja curviflora grows to < 2 m in height in the wild, its branches subquadrangular in section, and glabrescent. The leaves are opposite, lanceolate to ovate, 5-15 cm long by 2-6 cm wide, the upper surface glabrous, the underside almost glaucous. The purple flowers are borne on slender, terminal, one-sided panicles 5-15 cm long; flowering occurs in June and July. Ploidy 2n = 38 (diploid).

Volvox is facultatively sexual and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. In the lab, asexual reproduction is most commonly observed; the relative frequencies of sexual and asexual reproduction in the wild is unknown. The switch from asexual to sexual reproduction can be triggered by environmental conditions and by the production of a sex-inducing pheromone. Desiccation-resistant diploid zygotes are produced following successful fertilization.

In 2014, Iris wilsonii was tested with Phragmites australis, Suaeda salsa, Artemisia anethifolia Weber, Salicornia europaea, and Spartina anglica, to compare rates of the removal of high concentrations of chloride in the polluted waters of Tianjin City. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count of 2n=40.

A mature perithecium may contain as many as 300 asci, each derived from identical fusion diploid nuclei. Ordinarily, in nature, when the perithecia mature the ascospores are ejected rather violently into the air. These ascospores are heat resistant and, in the lab, require heating at 60 °C for 30 minutes to induce germination. For normal strains, the entire sexual cycle takes 10 to 15 days.

Conjugation occurs between one microgamete and one macrogamate, to yield a diploid zygocyst with one nucleus. The zygocyst has two possible fates. It may be shed along with the feces of the tadpole host; and if eaten by another tadpole, it will excyst (hatch) to yield more gamonts in the new host. Alternatively, the zygocyst may excyst in its original host and grow into a multinucleate protrophont.

Exposure of S. pombe to hydrogen peroxide, an agent that causes oxidative stress leading to oxidative DNA damage, strongly induces mating and the formation of meiotic spores. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are abundant, but when starved, this yeast undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. Haploid cells may then reproduce asexually by mitosis. Katz Ezov et al.

This rose produced a few viable seeds as a result of self-pollination, and the seedlings that resulted were tetraploid instead of diploid, i.e., the chromosomes of both pollen and egg cells had been naturally duplicated. The tetraploid seedlings are amphidiploids. page 176 A selection with double deep pink flowers and repeat bloom, also called 'K01 AgCan' was released by W. Kordes' Söhne in 1951.

The diploid number of chromosomes in the wildebeest is 58. Chromosomes were studied in a male and a female wildebeest. In the female, all except a pair of very large submetacentric chromosomes were found to be acrocentric. Metaphases were studied in the male's chromosomes, and very large submetacentric chromosomes were found there, as well, similar to those in the female both in size and morphology.

After release from the epithelial cell, a trophozoit associates with a second one and forms a gamont by forming a circle and fusing together (syzygy). Once no distinction between the two is visible, zygotes are formed. The zygotes are the only diploid lifestage in the lifecycle of G. garnhami. A cyst (oocyst) eventually is formed and the nucleus goes through a meiotic and mitotic division.

The developing male germ cells do not complete cytokinesis during spermatogenesis. Consequently, cytoplasmic bridges assure connection between the clones of differentiating daughter cells to form a syncytium. In this way the haploid cells are supplied with all the products of a complete diploid genome. Sperm that carry a Y chromosome, for example, is supplied with essential molecules that are encoded by genes on the X chromosome.

The IR model for the development of anisogamy is named after its developers Priya Iyer and Joan Roughgarden. By considering the evolution of anisogamy in hermaphroditic marine invertebrates and bisexual plants, the theory postulates of a gene locus which controls both sperm and egg size produced by an organism. Anisogamy could evolve in diploid hermaphroditic adults as an individual adaptation which increases its own fitness.

Around the base of the corolla are many white, shortly toothed, deciduous pappus bristles. The brown, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypsellae are 3 mm (0.12 in) long and 1 mm (0.6 in) wide, have a light brown marginal ridge, and the more or less smooth surface carries short hairs. Felicia rosulata is a diploid having nine sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=18).

A rather different example is Porphyra gardneri: In its diploid phase, a carpospore can germinate to form a filamentous "conchocelis stage", which can also self-replicate using monospores. The conchocelis stage eventually produces conchosporangia. The resulting conchospore germinates to form a tiny prothallus with rhizoids, which develops to a cm-scale leafy thallus. This too can reproduce via monospores, which are produced inside the thallus itself.

In polyploid obligate parthenogens like the whiptail lizard, all the offspring are female. In many hymenopteran insects such as honeybees, female eggs are produced sexually, using sperm from a drone father, while the production of further drones (males) depends on the queen (and occasionally workers) producing unfertilized eggs. This means that females (workers and queens) are always diploid, while males (drones) are always haploid, and produced parthenogenetically.

SIR proteins have been identified in many screens, and have historically been known as SIR (silent information regulator), MAR (mating-type regulator), STE (sterile), CMT (change of mating type) or SSP (sterile suppressor) according to which screen led to their identification. Ultimately, the name SIR had the most staying power, because it most accurately describes the function of the encoded proteins. One of the early yeast screens to identify SIR genes was performed by Anita Hopper and Benjamin Hall, who screened with mutagenesis for alleles that allow sporulation in a normally sporulation-deficient heterothallic α/α (ho/ho MATα/MATα). Their screen identified a mutation in a novel gene that was not linked to HO that allowed the α/α diploid to sporulate, as if it were an α/a diploid, and inferred that the mutation affected a change in mating type by an HO-independent mechanism.

Rim15 was first discovered to play a critical role in initiating meiosis in diploid yeast cells. Under conditions of low glucose and nitrogen, which are key nutrients for the survival of yeast, diploid yeast cells initiate meiosis through the activation of early meiotic-specific genes (EMGs). The expression of EMGs is regulated by Ume6. Ume6 recruits the histone deacetylases, Rpd3 and Sin3, to repress EMG expression when glucose and nitrogen levels are high, and it recruits the EMG transcription factor Ime1 when glucose and nitrogen levels are low. Rim15, named for its role in the regulation of an EMG called IME2, displaces Rpd3 and Sin3, thereby allowing Ume6 to bring Ime1 to the promoters of EMGs for meiosis initiation. In addition to playing a role in meiosis initiation, Rim15 has also been shown to be a critical effector for yeast cell entry into G0 in the presence of stress.

The female gametophyte, the megagametophyte, that participates in double fertilization in angiosperms which is haploid is called the embryo sac. This develops within an ovule, enclosed by the ovary at the base of a carpel. Surrounding the megagametophyte are (one or) two integuments, which form an opening called the micropyle. The megagametophyte, which is usually haploid, originates from the (usually diploid) megaspore mother cell, also called the megasporocyte.

Under conditions of starvation or desiccation, the amoebae differentiate reversibly into dormant spores with cell walls. When immersed in water, amoebae differentiate reversibly into flagellated cells, which involves a major reorganization of the cytoskeleton. The plasmodium is typically diploid and propagates via growth and nuclear division without cytokinesis, resulting in the macroscopic multinucleate syncytium. While nutrients are available, the network-shaped plasmodium can grow to a foot or more in diameter.

Chromosome numbers are usually determined at mitosis and quoted as the diploid number (2n), unless dealing with a polyploid series in which case the base number or number of chromosomes in the genome of the original haploid is quoted. Another useful taxonomic character is the position of the centromere. Meiotic behaviour may show the heterozygosity of inversions. This may be constant for a taxon, offering further taxonomic evidence.

In established nests, workers may directly compete with the queen as well as each other for oviposition, and attempt to lay their own eggsthough many workers forgo their own reproduction and provision for others' offspring. However, many other workers lay eggs, thereby raising their own offspring in addition to the queen’s. In fact, around half of H. ligatus workers are inseminated and actually capable of producing diploid eggs.

A key event during meiosis in a diploid cell is the pairing of homologous chromosomes and homologous recombination (the exchange of genetic information) between homologous chromosomes. This process promotes the production of increased genetic diversity among progeny and the recombinational repair of damages in the DNA to be passed on to progeny. To explain the adaptive function of meiosis in flowering plants, some authors emphasize diversity and others emphasize DNA repair.

The haploid gametophyte has n unpaired chromosomes, i.e. half the number of the sporophyte. The gametophyte of ferns is a free-living organism, whereas the gametophyte of the gymnosperms and angiosperms is dependent on the sporophyte. The life cycle of a typical fern proceeds as follows: # A diploid sporophyte phase produces haploid spores by meiosis (a process of cell division which reduces the number of chromosomes by a half).

Many agriculturally important plants of the genus Brassica are also tetraploids. Polyploidization can be a mechanism of sympatric speciation because polyploids are usually unable to interbreed with their diploid ancestors. An example is the plant Erythranthe peregrina. Sequencing confirmed that this species originated from E. × robertsii, a sterile triploid hybrid between E. guttata and E. lutea, both of which have been introduced and naturalised in the United Kingdom.

Resting eggs enclose an embryo encysted in a three layered shell that protects it from external stressors. They are able to remain dormant for several decades and can resist adverse periods (e.g., pond desiccation or presence of antagonists). When favourable conditions return and after an obligatory period of diapause which varies among species, resting eggs hatch releasing diploid amictic females that enter into the asexual phase of the life cycle.

The gametophyte is unisexual and will produce either sperm or egg and not both at the same time. Sperm is transported, often by water, to an archegonium located on the top of a female gametophyte shoot. Once an egg has been fertilized, it develops a diploid sporophyte structure which is composed of a foot, seta, sporangium, and operculum. The foot supplies the developing sporangium with nutrients from the gametophyte.

When shed, the wing of the samara catches the wind and rotates the fruit as it falls, slowing its descent and enabling the wind to disperse it further from the parent tree. The seeds are mature in autumn about four months after pollination. The sycamore is tetraploid (each cell having four sets of chromosomes, 2n=52), whereas A. campestre and A. platanoides are diploid (with 2 sets of chromosomes, 2n=26).

In this image we see the movement of dominant and recessive alleles through a pedigree. The distinction between genotype and phenotype is commonly experienced when studying family patterns for certain hereditary diseases or conditions, for example, hemophilia. Humans and most animals are diploid; thus there are two alleles for any given gene. These alleles can be the same (homozygous) or different (heterozygous), depending on the individual (see zygote).

In diploid eukaryotic cells, recombination can occur during the process of Meiosis. Homologous chromosomes pair up during meiosis before finally splitting, resulting in two haploid daughter cells each with a single copy of every chromosome. While homologous chromosomes are lined up, they are free to exchange corresponding segments of their own DNA with that of their homolog. This results in a chromosomes that carry both maternal and paternal DNA.

Fruit body formation is influenced by external factors such as season (which affects temperature and air humidity), nutrients and light. As fruit bodies develop they produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new basidiospores are made. Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse, and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce basidiospores, each containing a single haploid nucleus.Deacon (2005) pp. 31–2.

During the ice ages, the population of the common ancestor of both parental species of the edible frog was split into two. These populations diverged, but remained genetically close enough to be able to create fertile hybrids. However, when diploid edible frogs mate with each other, their offspring are often malformed, so there are no pure populations of edible frogs unless some triploid individuals are present (the E system described above).

Fruiting body formation is influenced by external factors such as season (which affects temperature and air humidity), nutrients and light. As fruiting bodies develop they produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new basidiospores are made. Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse, and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce basidiospores, each containing a single haploid nucleus.Deacon pp. 31-32.

Unlike other ciliates, the macronuclei of karyorelicteans do not divide. This was first observed in Loxodes by Otto Bütschli in the 1870s. It was later shown to be a distinctive feature of the class Karyorelictea in general. Experiments on Loxodes have shown that little or no DNA synthesis occurs in their macronuclei, and that the DNA content of a macronucleus is only slightly more than that of a diploid micronucleus ("paradiploid").

Musa tuberculata is a tropical Asian species of plant in the banana family native to the Malesian region (Brunei). It is one of fourteen species of Musa endemic to the island of Borneo. The specific epithet "tuberculata" is from the Latin meaning "covered with minute tubercles". M. tuberculata is placed in section Callimusa (now including the former section Australimusa), members of which have a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 20.

As previously mentioned, the SI phenotype of the pollen is determined by the diploid genotype of the anther. In Brassica, the pollen coat, derived from the anther's tapetum tissue, carries the translation products of the two S alleles. These are small, cysteine-rich proteins. The male determinant is termed SCR or SP11, and is expressed in the anther tapetum as well as in the microspore and pollen (i.e. sporophytically).

A plasmodium is an amoeboid, multinucleate, and naked mass of cytoplasm that contains many diploid nuclei. The resulting structure, a coenocyte, is created by many nuclear divisions without the process of cytokinesis, which in other organisms pulls newlydivided cells apart. In some cases, the resulting structure is a syncytium, created by the fusion of cells after division. Under suitable conditions, plasmodia differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips.

But if instead we start with a strain which carries two copies of the whole lac region (that is diploid for lac), the repressor mutations (which still occur) are not recovered because complementation by the second, wild type lacI gene confers a wild type phenotype. In contrast, mutation of one copy of the operator confers a mutant phenotype because it is dominant to the second, wild type copy.

The diploid nuclei of blastospores are able to undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can then be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. Required for this process is a gene designated dmc1, a conserved homologue of genes recA in bacteria, and rad51 in eukaryotes (see articles recA and rad51). Dmc1 mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of double-strand breaks in DNA.

It is known to produce the isoflavone irilone, and several analytical studies have been made from the rhizomes.Shahid Akbar As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes. This can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has had its chromosome counted several times; 2n=44, Banerji & Chaudhuri, 1972; 2n=28, Mao 1986; 2n=44 Sopova 1982; 2n=44, Váchová & Feráková, 1986 and 2n=44, Lovka, 1995.

At the base of each floret are numerous pappus bristles of two lengths, the shorter ones white, scaly, persistent and about long. When mature, the dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruits called cypselae are dark brown with a lighter margin, long and wide, narrowly obovate in outline, with a scaly epidermis, and loosely evenly silky hairy. Felicia fruticosa is a diploid having nine sets of homologue chromosomes (2n=18).

The maximum width of the shell of Semisulcospira kurodai is and in height in the laboratory. The maximum weight of the animal is in the laboratory. The width of the shell is in the first year, in the second year, in the third year and in the fourth year in the laboratory. The diploid chromosome number of Semisulcospira kurodai is 2n=35 and 2n=36 (both chromosome numbers were observed).

In the seventh chapter, Dobzhansky discusses polyploidy, a condition (common in plants) where an organism has more than two complete sets of chromosomes. (Humans are diploid, having one set each from the mother and father.) He discusses case histories such as that of Raphanobrassica, a hybrid between the radish and the cabbage. This is an example of "cataclysmic" speciation, an exception to his general rule that speciation is a slow process.

Hybridization without change in chromosome number is called homoploid hybrid speciation. It is considered very rare but has been shown in Heliconius butterflies and sunflowers. Polyploid speciation, which involves changes in chromosome number, is a more common phenomenon, especially in plant species. Polyploidy is a mechanism that has caused many rapid speciation events in sympatry because offspring of, for example, tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny.

It has a diploid life cycle which includes both sexual and asexual reproduction. In the asexual phase, a spore of Saprolegnia releases zoospores. Within a few minutes, this zoospore will encyst, germinate and release another zoospore. This second zoospore has a longer cycle during which most dispersal happens; it will continue to encyst and release a new spore in a process called polyplanetism until it finds a suitable substrate.

V. orientalis hornets live in colonies in which the workers are all daughters of the queen, so the workers are all sisters. Social wasps are haplodiploid, which means that males are all haploid and develop from unfertilized eggs, while females are diploid and develop from eggs fertilized by drones. Queens commonly mate with only one drone. Each drone has only one set of chromosomes to pass on to its offspring.

In 2006, 13 species of Iris in China, including Iris japonica, Iris wattii and Iris cuniculiformis were studied for a cytological analysis of the chromosome counts. In 2011, a study was carried out on various irises found in China. Including Iris tigridia,Iris bloudowii and Iris cuniculiformis. As most irises are diploid, having two sets of chromosomes, this can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.

The characteristic part of the life-cycle of smuts is the thick- walled, often darkly pigmented, ornate, teliospore that serves to survive harsh conditions such as overwintering and also serves to help disperse the fungus as dry diaspores. The teliospores are initially dikaryotic but become diploid via karyogamy. Meiosis takes place at the time of germination. A promycelium is formed that consists of a short hypha (equated to a basidium).

Males have been known to behave aggressively towards females during copulation by squirting water from nostrils and biting. A few genomic studies show mosaicism exists among populations of the twist-necked turtle in Surinam. In other words, diploid and triploid levels exist among individuals at this particular location. No threats have been reported for this species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature does not have a current listing.

In a follow-up study, Bickham & Hanks (2009) performed cytogenic analysis of the twist-necked turtle to determine how widespread this process is throughout South America, and discovered normal diploid populations exist in Bolivia, while variable mosaic populations persist in Suriname. Additionally, Darr et al. (2006) found turtle populations from French Guiana had increased triploid frequency compared to both Bolivia and Suriname.Darr, ER, Huebinger, RM, Williams, KS, & Bickham, JW. 2006.

The nucellus (plural: nucelli) is part of the inner structure of the ovule, forming a layer of diploid (sporophytic) cells immediately inside the integuments. It is structurally and functionally equivalent to the megasporangium. In immature ovules, the nucellus contains a megasporocyte (megaspore mother cell), which undergoes sporogenesis via meiosis. In the megasporocyte of Arabidopsis thaliana, meiosis depends on the expression of genes that facilitate DNA repair and homologous recombination.

Although some modern literature still regards P. veitchii as a subspecies of P. anomala, recent genetic analysis has shown that P. anomala, although being a diploid, is the result of a cross between Paeonia lactiflora and P. veitchii. Morphologically, P. anomala is very similar to P. veitchii nonetheless, and very different from P. lactiflora. P. anomala and P. veitchii also share a common chemistry, such as specific unique anthocyanins.

Drosera adelae reproduces rapidly by asexual means, generating new plantlets from the spreading roots, which means this species is often found in large clumps. This species has a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 30, though a cultivated cytotype of the species had been reported as having 2n = 28, which botanist Fernando Rivadavia suggested may represent different forms of the species.Rivadavia, Fernando. 2005. New chromosome numbers for Drosera L. (Droseraceae).

Its karyotype has been compared with that of other caecilians, and its diploid number has been found to be 28, a fact that does not support the hypothesis that, during the period of amphibian evolution, the number of chromosomes became reduced. However, many caecilians have not yet been karyotyped and the exact evolutionary relationships between the species have not yet been determined, so the hypothesis is not necessarily incorrect.

However, they exhibit different polyploidy. Some species are diploid, having two sets of the seven chromosomes (14 chromosomes total). Others are tetraploid (four sets, 28 chromosomes total), hexaploid (six sets, 42 chromosomes total), octoploid (eight sets, 56 chromosomes total), or decaploid (ten sets, 70 chromosomes total). As a rough rule (with exceptions), strawberry species with more chromosomes tend to be more robust and produce larger plants with larger berries.

Should members of the same family breed with one another, there is the possibility that the male offspring will either be haplodiploid (normal phenotype) or diploid (sterile phenotype). Thus inbreeding is a highly avoided behavior by many of the females. This lack of inbreeding impacts the genetic relatedness of siblings. For sister-sister relatedness there tends to be a significant number of full sister relationships within the colony among juveniles.

The forest-steppe marmot (Marmota kastschenkoi) is a rodent species of the marmot genus found in south-central Russia. It lives in wooded forest steppe at an altitude of in a relatively small region located directly east of the upper Ob River. It has traditionally been considered a subspecies of the similar, more southerly distributed gray marmot (M. baibacina), but was separated mainly due to different diploid numbers.

Edinburgh: W. H. Lizars, 1840 In fertilised queens, the ovaries only become active when the queen starts to lay. An egg passes along the oviduct to the vagina where there is a chamber called the spermatheca, in which the sperm from the mating is stored. Depending on need, she may allow her egg to be fertilised. Unfertilised eggs become haploid males; fertilised eggs grow into diploid females and queens.

The entire genome of Dictyostelium discoideum was published in Nature in 2005 by geneticist Ludwig Eichinger and coworkers. The haploid genome contains approximately 12,500 genes on 6 chromosomes. For comparison, the diploid human genome has 20,000-25,000 genes (represented twice) on 23 chromosome pairs. There is a high level of the nucleotides adenosine and thymidine (~77%) leading to a codon usage that favors more adenosines and thymidines in the third position.

The Charales grow in freshwater and brackish environments worldwide, and have large, macroscopic thalli growing up to 120 cm long, they are branched, multicellular, and use chlorophyll to photosynthesize. Their only diploid stage in the life cycle is the unicellular oospore. They may be called stoneworts, because the plants can become encrusted in lime (calcium carbonate) after some time. The "stem" is actually a central stalk consisting of giant, multinucleated cells.

Under certain stress conditions some zoospore pairs fuse, resulting in a zygote. The zygote bearing host cells divide, forming eventually the walls of a new winter sporangium. In autumn, the warts rot and disintegrate, releasing new thick-walled resting spores of the fungus into the soil. The diploid resting spores (pro-soruses) undergo a dormancy period and before germination (probably) a meiotic division and several mitotic divisions, becoming a sorus.

Due to their haploidy, HAP1 cells are very useful in biomedical research and genetic experiments. When working in diploid cells, it is difficult to screen for mutations phenotypically, especially when considering recessive mutations. Because there are two copies of each gene, the mutation is often covered up by the non-mutated gene. In haploid cells, there is only one copy of each gene, so mutated phenotypes are immediately exposed.

Papaver setigerum, common name poppy of Troy or dwarf breadseed poppy, is a herbaceous annual plant of the family Papaveraceae. This plant is closely related to and sometimes treated as a subspecies of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). In fact it produces a very small amount of morphine alkaloids. However, P. somniferum is diploid (n=11) and P. setigerum is tetraploid (n=22) with twice the number of chromosomes.

A. sexdens, like all ants, has four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Their developmental larval stages are observed associated with fungal hyphae, and possess unique morphological features, compared to other ants. They are, like all hymenopterans, haplodiploid, meaning males are haploid (one of each chromosome) and females, including workers, are diploid (a pair of each chromosome). Sex is determined by the type of egg laid.

CPM is detected in approximately 1-2% of ongoing pregnancies that are studied by chorionic villus sampling (CVS) at 10 to 12 weeks of pregnancy. Chorionic villus sampling is a prenatal procedure which involves a placental biopsy. Most commonly when CPM is found it represents a trisomic cell line in the placenta and a normal diploid chromosome complement in the baby. However, the fetus is involved in about 10% of cases.

V. atropilosa is a social wasp. Social wasps live in altruistic colonies consisting of one queen and her many offspring who are workers (daughters) or reproductives (sons). Wasps have haplodiploidy sex determination, meaning that females emerge from fertilized eggs (diploid) while males emerge from unfertilized eggs (haploid). This system of sex determination results in daughters from a single father being more related to each other than to their mother.

The genus Barnardia was created by John Lindley in 1826 together with the single species B. scilloides. However, this species had already been described as Ornithogalum japonicum by Carl Peter Thunberg in 1784, so that it is now called B. japonica. The plant forms a genetic complex with two genome types, noted A and B, and diploid, allo-triploid and aneuploid specimens in natural populations.Cytogenetics of theScilla scilloides complex.

However, these traits show some variation, most notably among the basal green algae called prasinophytes. Haploid algal cells (containing only one copy of their DNA) can fuse with other haploid cells to form diploid zygotes. When filamentous algae do this, they form bridges between cells, and leave empty cell walls behind that can be easily distinguished under the light microscope. This process is called conjugation and occurs for example in Spirogyra.

As most irises are diploid, they have two sets of chromosomes. This fact can be used to identify hybrids and classification of groupings.} It has a chromosome count of 2n=44. It has been counted several times 2n=44, Randolph 1934 (ex Randolph & Mitra in Bulletin of the American Iris Society 140, in 1956) 2n=44 Riley 1942, 2n=42, R C Foster 1937 (as Iris hexagona var.