142 Sentences With "crania" | Random Sentence Generator

Its roots wend back to the 19th century, when scientist Samuel George Morton produced works like Crania Americana and Crania Aegyptiaca, in which he assiduously measured skull sizes of members of different races, then correlated those measurements with alleged intelligence.

"The fact that two crania were mounted suggests that they have been on display, in the lake or elsewhere," said Kjellström.

The Ivory Mirror objects can be quite grim, with their snakes slithering through skeletal nostrils and lizards creeping on the bare crania.

Surface wear and extensive fractures in the plaster face — present, too, in the six other crania — support this theory, suggesting that it was handled frequently, possibly over hundreds of years.

In 1990 he invented statistical parametric mapping, a computational technique that helps—as one neuroscientist put it—"squash and squish" brain images into a consistent shape so that researchers can do apples-to-apples comparisons of activity within different crania.

"We hope to do future studies on isotopes, which allow insight into diet and geophysical location on the landscape, and DNA, which might clarify the relationships between the infants and their accompanying crania, and others buried in the mound," Juengst said.

MEXICO CITY (Reuters) - A tower of human skulls unearthed beneath the heart of Mexico City has raised new questions about the culture of sacrifice in the Aztec Empire after crania of women and children surfaced among the hundreds embedded in the forbidding structure.

"Importantly, the African fossil record lacks any reasonably complete hominoid crania between 17 and 7 million years ago, and no cranial specimens are known at all from between 14 and 10 million years, greatly hampering the analysis of hominoid evolution," the researchers said in their study.

A viewer could play a game in trying to connect an object to Cézanne's oeuvre, perhaps matching the three bony crania to those that appear piled in the 1901 "Pyramid of Skulls," or identifying the cherubic sculpture as the one that dances over a table of apples in a 1895 still life.

Crania is an extinct genus of brachiopods that lived during the Upper Cretaceous.

The other crania include another partial adult male and a six-year-old child.

And in place of macrocephalic, we have for very large normal crania the new term megalocephalic.

He dedicated A Voyage Around the World to Morton and in return Morton dedicated his Crania Americana to Ruschenberger.

The fossil remains from Shihuiba included a number of relatively complete but badly crushed crania of both male and female specimens.

In this regard, the Tasian skeletons are most similar to those associated with the Merimde culture. Furthermore, although the Tasian crania are dolichocephalic (long-headed) like many of the other predynastic skulls, they have a large and wide vault like the Merimde crania. Skulls excavated from Badarian, Amratian and Natufian sites tend instead to be smaller and narrow.

The northern kerb stones in the foreground, with the chamber in the background. Keith believed that the crania he examined displayed similar features to one another, suggesting that this meant that they all belonged to "one family—or several families united by common descent." Similar observations have been made regarding the crania from other long barrows in Britain.

PA 644 is an adult crania discovered in 1987 that has been reconstructed, but is different in both age and development than ZT299.

The museum has actively conducted research using the collection in recent years. More than a dozen crania, along with mid-19th century measuring devices, were on public display at the museum from 2012-2013 in an exhibit named "Year of Proof: Making and Unmaking Race". In 2018, students in the Penn and Slavery project discovered the collection includes 55 crania of enslaved people, with 53 of these crania from Havana and 2 from the United States. In July, 2020 the museum announced it would move the collection from a private classroom into storage after criticism from students and the local community.

All the material from A. laaroussii, including the holotype and unpublished post crania, is housed at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris, France.

Paul Broca (1877) thus proposed that the mesocephalic crania of the Upper Paleolithic was the result of admixture between the long-headed Cro-Magnons and the broad-headed Furfooz race. Giuseppe Sergi in his work The Mediterranean Race (1901), however, rejected this view (p. 192) but it was generally agreed that the crania at Grenelle and Furfooz were ancestral to the broad-headed Alpine race.

Howell's craniometric data set consist of 2500 crania from 28 different populations around the world dating to the later Holocene, in which around 82 cranial measurements were obtained.

The crania at Furfooz were linked in earlier scientific sources to another brachycephalic skull (but dated to the early Neolithic) which was unearthed at Grenelle (Paris, France) in 1870. In the scientific literature of John Lubbock (1890), Samuel Laing (1892), Arthur Keith (1912), Henry Fairfield Osborn (1916), Madison Grant (1918) and Amadeus William Grabau (1921) the findings became known as the "Grenelle-Furfooz Men" or "Furfooz race". Earlier Quatrefages de Bréau in his Crania Ethnica (1875) popularised the view that the brachycephalic (round-headed) Grenelle-Furfooz Men were a distinct racial type to the dolichocephalic (long-headed) Cro- Magnons and prognathic Grimaldi Man. However, the cranial index of the Grenelle and Furfooz skulls were different, as one of the Furfooz crania was not broad, but mesocephalic.

Crania has small (up to in diameter) circular shells. The dorsal valve is smooth or has slight pustules. The ventral valve is only attached posteriorly and has a thickened flat grainy rim.

Crania recovered from Cholula show another form of trepanation ("supra-inial lesion"), where a depression has been worn into the back of the skull, without however substantially perforating it.Rodríguez (1972), as cited in Tiesler (2003a).

Through craniometry conducted on thousands of human skulls, Samuel George Morton argued that the differences between the races were too broad to have stemmed from a single common ancestor, but were instead consistent with separate racial origins. In his Crania Aegyptiaca (1844), Morton analyzed over a hundred intact crania gathered from the Nile Valley, and concluded that the ancient Egyptians were racially akin to Europeans. His conclusions would establish the foundation for the American School of anthropology, and would also influence proponents of polygenism.

The cranium and the few fragments of femur were heavily encrusted with carbonate when recovered. The cranium was initially considered large and robust but recent research comparing Keilor to a range of terminal Pleistocene and recent Australian Aboriginal crania have produced conflicting results. Thorne and Wilson concluded "cranial size in Pleistocene Australians was significantly greater than in Holocene Aboriginals... observable in the prehistoric crania from Kow Swamp-Cohuna, Mossgiel, Lake Nitchie and Keilor". However, later publications placed Keilor within the modern female range of variation for size and robusticity.

In 1875 a supplement to the Thesaurus was published. In 1879 or 1880 the Royal College of Surgeons purchased the collection, then numbering 1800 crania and some skeletons.Christine Quigley, Skulls and Skeletons: human bone collections and accumulations (2001), p.

Shark toothed whales also possess many modern features. Their crania were well compressed, their rostrums were telescoped outward, and their skulls show proof of the origin of echolocation.Whitmore, Jr., F.C., and Sanders, A.E. 1977. Review of the Oligocene Cetacea.

Ancient Egyptians such as the Badarians show greater statistical affinities to tropical African types and are not identical to Europeans.Keita and Kittles (1997); Keita (2005); Keita, "Further studies of crania"; Hiernaux J. (1975), The People of Africa. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons; Hassan, F. A. (1988), "The predynastic of Egypt", Journal of World Prehistory, 2: 135–185. As regards the key Badarian group, a 2005 study by anthropologist S. O. Y. Keita of Badarian crania in predynastic upper Egypt found that the predynastic Badarian series clusters much closer with the tropical African series than European samples.

Following a campaign by Aboriginal community groups to have human remains repatriated from Australian and overseas museum collections, the Kow Swamp skeletons were returned to the area and re-interred. Casts of some of the Kow Swamp crania and mandibles are held by the Archaeology and Human Sciences department at the Australian National University, with some casts (including casts of KS1 and 5) being sent to the London Natural History Museum and other institutions. Despite extensive reconstruction, the Kow Swamp material was extremely fragmentary, with only two of the crania, KS1 and 5, being relatively complete.

How Caucasoids Got Such Big Crania and How They Shrank , by Leonard LiebermanForensic Misclassification of Ancient Nubian Crania: Implications for Assumptions about Human Variation Brace (1993) differentiated adaptive cranial traits from non-adaptive cranial traits, asserting that only the non-adaptive cranial traits served as reliable indicators of genetic relatedness between populations.Brace et al., 'Clines and clusters versus "race"' (1993) This was further corroborated in studies by von Cramon-Taubadel (2008, 2009a, 2011). Clement and Ranson (1998) estimated that cranial analysis yields a 77%-95% rate of accuracy in determining the racial origins of human skeletal remains.

Hog-nosed skunk skeleton Osteological collections consist of cleaned, complete and partial skeletons, crania of Vertebrates, mainly birds and mammals. They are used in studies of comparative anatomy and to identify bones from archaeological sites. Human bones are used in medical and forensic studies.

Hukoutherium is an extinct genus of mesonychid which lived during the middle Paleocene in Asia and was named by Chow. The genus became extinct during the Eocene Hukoutherium is known from a mandible with incisors, canines, and broken dentaries, a crushed crania and fragmentary bones.

Crania can be used to classify ancestry and sex to aid in forensic contexts such as crime scenes and mass fatalities. In 2010, Ross and colleagues were provided federal funds by the U.S. Department of Justice to compile data for population specific classification criteria using geometric morphometrics. Their aim was to create an extensive population database from 3D landmarks on human crania, to develop and validate population specific procedures for classification of unknown individuals, and develop software to use in forensic identification. They placed 3D landmarks on 75 craniofacial landmarks from European, African, and Hispanic populations of about 1000 individuals with a Microscribe digitizer.

Cast of Saccopastore 1 skull at the National Museum of Natural HistoryTwo fossil crania were discovered along the Aniene River Valley of Northern Rome, Italy in 1929 and 1935. The two human skulls that derive from Homo neanderthalensis were located in a quarry along the Aniene River in gravel and sand beds that have since been replaced by building areas with the city. From geomorphological classification, the two skulls were assigned to the Tyrrhenian stage due to their location within a small hill approximately 5 meters above the river. The area in which they were found at the time was called Saccopastore, which is where these two crania get their name.

Julia Gresky, Juliane Haelm and Lee Clare, "Modified human crania from Göbekli Tepe provide evidence for a new form of Neolithic skull cult", Science Advances, Vol. 3, no. 6, 28 Jun 2017. . Schmidt also interpreted the site in connection with the initial stages of the Neolithic.

The holotype specimen is PVL 3827, consisting of a mostly complete crania and a partial postcrania. A majority of the postcranial material was preserved. The skeleton was found with others in the upper section of the Los Colorados Formation. Other than the holotype, it is known from three skeletons.

Though no tombs or graves have yet been found, Schmidt believed that graves remain to be discovered in niches located behind the walls of the sacred circles. In 2017, discovery of human crania with incisions was reported, interpreted as providing evidence for a new form of Neolithic skull cult.

Pithecometra: In the frontispiece from his 1863 Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature, Thomas Huxley compared skeletons of apes to humans. Samuel George Morton (1799–1851), whose two major monographs were the Crania Americana (1839), An Inquiry into the Distinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America and Crania Aegyptiaca (1844) concluded that the ancient Egyptians were not Negroid but Caucasoid and that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since The Bible indicated that Noah's Ark had washed up on Mount Ararat only a thousand years before this Noah's sons could not account for every race on earth. According to Morton's theory of polygenism the races had been separate from the start.

His son Johan was imprisoned too.Giertsen, ed 1946: p. 330 After the end of the occupation, Schreiner rounded off his career as professor from spring to autumn 1945. His last book of importance came in 1946: the second volume of Crania Norvegica, the first volume of which came in 1939.

In 1873, Paul Broca, founder of the Anthropological Society of Paris (1859), found the same pattern of measures—that Crania Americana reported—by weighing specimen brains at autopsy. Other historical studies, proposing a black race–white race, intelligence–brain size difference, include those by Bean (1906), Mall (1909), Pearl (1934), and Vint (1934).

It is named in honor of Ian Archibald for his contributions to the northern territory. Fossil specimens of M. archibaldi include a premaxilla with alveoli for four incisors, and the holotype, a left maxilla. thylacinid skull fossils are exceedingly rare and M. archiboldi is one of only three species known from fossil crania.

A few of the healed fractures imply that long-term care was given to individuals who were injured. Very few bones showed any signs of inflammatory bone changes. However, over half of the juveniles crania (skulls) showed evidence of anemia (iron deficiency). This was represented by what is known as cribra orbitalia.

T. Moreno, 2005 Human crania from early prehistoric occupation have been recovered from this Pali Aike Crater site.G. Wisner, 2008 It includes native flora and faunal, with some species being exclusive to the region and cannot be found anywhere else in the world. The park has many rocky formations covered in 1000 years old larva.

Paleogeography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology. 333-334:75-91. The mudstone has also been home to many teeth specimen, skull fragments, and post-crania. It also hosts partial and complete skeletons of temnospondyls, phytosaurs, and rhynchosaurs. The faunal and floral assemblages of the Tiki Formation are comparable to the Late Triassic assemblage of the German Keuper.

Preserved four-horned antelope Antelopes also can be polycerate, for example, the blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). Both sexes normally possess one pair of large curved horns.Ackermann, R. R.; Brink, J. S.; Vrahimis, S.; De Klerk, B. (29 October 2010). "Hybrid wildebeest (Artiodactyla: Bovidae) provide further evidence for shared signatures of admixture in mammalian crania".

These species are distinguished by merged dorsal, caudal and anal fins, the absence of a lateral line and pectoral fins, and the presence of only one pelvic fin. They are sinistral flatfishes, meaning that as adults, their crania are asymmetrical, with both eyes on the left side. The largest species grows to about long.

In 1958, they received Australian citizenship. On 26 December 1986, the Adelaide Advertiser received a telex from the USSR outlining war crimes accusations against Polyukhovich. Limited examinations outside the town of Serniki of 533 selected crania confirmed that 410 of the men, women, and children exhumed had been shot in the head. Polyukhovich denied all accusations of wrongdoing.

Nonmetric traits of the crania are probably the most well known for estimating ancestry. Stanley Rhine is one of the most cited researchers for estimating ancestry using five cranial features. Even with the use of these traits, the outcome is only an estimation because of human variation. Joseph Hefner and Ousley use the same traits but score them differently.

He also studied ancient Swedish and Finnish skulls, following the steps of his father Anders Retzius, who had studied the crania of different human "races" and made pseudoscientific contributions to phrenology. Retzius was one of the fathers of the pseudoscientific race theory, "scientific racism", trying to glorify the "Nordic race" as the highest race of mankind.

He also concluded that more material was needed to make a firm conclusion about the relationship between the early Holocene Nile valley populations and later ancient Egyptians.Keita, S.O.Y. "Temporal Variation in Phenetic Affinity of Early Upper Egyptian Male Cranial Series", Human Biology, Volume 80, Number 2 (2008) In 2013, Terrazas et al. conducted a comparative craniometric analysis of Dynastic Egyptian skulls with ancient and recent crania from other parts of Africa, and found that the ancient Egyptians were morphologically closest to modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations from the Horn of Africa. Both of these fossil series possessed Middle Eastern affinities and were distinct from the analyzed prehistoric crania of North Africa and the Horn region, including the Pleistocene Rabat skull, Herto Homo sapiens idaltu fossil and Early Holocene Kef Oum Touiza skeleton.

There was undoubtedly some range of variation within their population. Yellow hair in Chinese sources could have meant brown rather than blonde and described other people such as the Jie rather than the Xianbei. Historian Edward H. Schafer believes many of the Xianbei were blondes, but others such as Charles Holcombe think it is "likely that the bulk of the Xianbei were not visibly very different in appearance from the general population of northeastern Asia." Chinese anthropologist Zhu Hong and Zhang Quan-chao studied Xianbei crania from several sites of Inner Mongolia and noticed that anthropological features of studied Xianbei crania show that the racial type is closely related to the modern East-Asians, and some physical characteristics of those skulls are closer to modern Mongols, Manchu and Han Chinese.

Kranea, Krania or Crania (, ) is an Aromanian (Vlach) village and a community of the Grevena municipality. Before the 2011 local government reform it was a part of the municipality of Gorgiani, of which it was a municipal district.Kallikratis law Greece Ministry of Interior The 2011 census recorded 385 residents in the village. The community of Kranea covers an area of 70.929 km2.

Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero. The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier Kiffians. Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct. The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians, early Holocene Capsians, and mid-Holocene Mechta groups, whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups.

A. Galloway (1937) proposed classification as Homo sapiens, specifically noting a resemblance to modern Australoids. Commentators of the 1950s to 1970s have drawn attention to archaic African human fossils such as Saldanha and Kabwe crania (now assigned to H. heidelbergensis). Clarke (1985) compared it to Laetoli Hominid 18 and Omo 2, which are now considered early anatomically modern human (H. sapiens) fossils.

Silky anteaters are the smallest living anteaters, and have proportionately shorter faces and larger crania than other species. Adults have a total length ranging from , including a tail long, and weigh from . They have dense and soft fur, which ranges from grey to yellowish in color, with a silvery sheen. Many subspecies have darker, often brownish, streaks, and paler underparts or limbs.

The initial descriptions of the crania from Kow Swamp identified "receding frontal squama, massive supraorbital regions and a supraglabella fossae..." which were considered to be "preserving an almost unmodified eastern erectus form" displaying a "..complex of archaic characteristics not seen in recent Aboriginal crania...". The features were considered to indicate "the survival of Homo erectus features in Australia until as recently as 10,000 years ago".Thorne and Macumber 1972:319 However, Donald Brothwell disputed this interpretation suggesting the vault size and shape at Kow Swamp had been influenced by artificial cranial deformation, particularly in Kow Swamp 5.Brothwell 1975; Brown 1981,1989 The varying morphological and metrical comparisons of the burials have distinguished them from modern Aboriginal craniaThorne 1976; Pietrusewsky 1979; Brown 1987 and also a more gracile group of Pleistocene remains found at Lake Mungo and Keilor.

The concept of a 'migration' of a people south into Africa from Egypt originated in the mid-19th century with the development of the Hamitic hypothesis whose origins go further back to the development of the Hamitic race theory. Of particular note in the development of the hypothesis was the examination of thousands of human skulls by Samuel George Morton who argued on this basis that the differences between the races were too broad to have stemmed from a single common ancestor, but were instead consistent with separate racial origins. In his Crania Aegyptiaca (1844), Morton analyzed over a hundred intact crania gathered from the Nile Valley, and concluded that the ancient Egyptians were racially akin to Europeans. His conclusions would establish the foundation for the American School of anthropology, and would also influence proponents of polygenism.

Such tropical elements were thus in place from the earliest beginnings of Egyptian civilization, not isolated somewhere South behind the Saharan barrier. This is considered to be an indigenous development based on microevolutionary principles (climate adaptation, drift and selection) and not the movement of large numbers of outside peoples into Egypt.Keita, "Further studies of crania", op. cit.; Hiernaux, J. (1975), The People of Africa.

"Boston Almanac. 1838. "In its collection are about 700 specimens in mineralogy and geology, besides the rich collection of Dr. C.T. Jackson, and the state collection; botany, 5,000; mammalia, 30 entire skeletons and 30 crania; birds, 200 species; reptiles, 130; insects, about 15,000; crustacea, 130; radiata, 190. Library, 600 volumes and pamphlets. The room ... gratuitously opened to the public every Wednesday from 12 to 2 o'clock.

Other advances included the invention of many musical instruments and celestial observations of Mars and various comets by Shang astronomers. Their civilization was based on agriculture and augmented by hunting and animal husbandry. In addition to war, the Shang also practiced human sacrifice. Crania of sacrificial victims have been found to be similar to modern Chinese ones (based on comparisons with remains from Hainan and Taiwan).

Thurnam with Dr. Joseph Barnard Davis published a work in two volumes under the title of Crania Britannica in 1865, important for craniometry. Thurnam and Davis were both believers in polygenism, in the form that different races had been created separately. Davis was a collector of craniums, and had over 1700 specimens.Bronwen Douglas, Chris Ballard, Foreign bodies: Oceania and the science of race 1750-1940, 2008, pp.

The remains of 16 individuals were recovered from pit burials at the site. Five of the crania from the site exhibit signs of intentional cranial modification. Isotopic analysis, estimates of travel distance to nearby lower elevation areas, demographic profiling, and the evidence for the high use of local lithic materials suggest that the individuals at Soro Mik'aya Patjxa were permanent inhabitants of a high-altitude environment.

The holotype is a skull and a postcranial skeleton. Additional fossils referred to Dalanistes include crania, several vertebrae and sacra, possible caudals, one side of the pelvis, and a distal femur. The alveoli is all that is left of the dentition, but the dental formula apparently was . The vertebral elements of the sacrum are solidly fused and form a well-developed articular surface for the pelvis.

According to George W. Gill and other modern forensic anthropologists, physical traits of Caucasoid crania can be distinguished from those of the people from Mongoloid and Negroid racial groups based on the shapes of specific diagnostic anatomical features. They assert that they can identify a Caucasoid skull with an accuracy of up to 95%.Bass, William M. 1995. Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual.

The Australians and Melanesians, however, are scattered over the African and European branch along with a side branch of Tasmanians and Solomon Islanders. Howell analyzed crania of major racial branches worldwide, and linked Australian and Melanesian cranial morphology most closely with African cranials. Howell discovered, however, that the size and features of present- day Asian cranial morphology differed significantly from that of Australians, Melanesians, and Africans.

Out of the 3000-plus skeletons excavated, 98 crania and 139 mandibles, as well as a small number of other post cranial bones, survived. However, the original field cards for all of the skeletons remained. Unfortunately, only 326 of the 2903 field cards contained complete information of observations and measurements made on site during the excavation. Only 25% of the cards contained accurate or useful information.

Several Mesoamerican cultures used a skull-rack (known by its Nahuatl term, tzompantli), on which skulls were impaled in rows or columns of wooden stakes. Even so, some evidence of genuine trepanation in Mesoamerica (i.e., where the subject was living) has survived. The earliest archaeological survey published of trepanated crania was a late 19th-century study of several specimens recovered from the Tarahumara mountains by the Norwegian ethnographer Carl Lumholtz.

Los Mangales lies within the Salama Valley in the Northern Highlands of Guatemala. It has been estimated that this site was active from approximately 1000 until 400 BC and was the site of vast, elaborate burials. Three principal mounds entail the main composition of the site, (Str. D6-1) containing varied amounts of adult male crania that have been interpreted as trophy heads or possibly dismembered sacrificial retainers.

Additionally, Day published on cranial evidence from the Omo Crania (Day, 1969b) and from the Ngaloba cranium (Day et al, 1980), as well as publications that addressed the vexed problem of how to define Homo sapiens. Day published a wide-ranging review and analysis of the hominin fossil record called the Guide to Fossil Man. Day published four versions: two in 1976, one in 1978, and the final version in 1986.

Generally, whether or not the treatment was successful in alleviating the symptoms of the patient's medical complaint is difficult to ascertain from the osteological data. Recently, anthropologists have discovered evidence which suggests that survival rates may have been as high as 80 to 90 percent.Science News / Incan Skull Surgery Its prevalence among Mesoamerican civilizations is much lower, at least judging from the comparatively few trephinated crania which have been uncovered.Tiesler (2003a).

The earliest archaeological surveyAccording to Tiesler (2003a). published of trepanated crania was a late 19th-century study of several specimens recovered from the Tarahumara mountains by the Norwegian ethnographer Carl Lumholtz.Lumholtz's study was published in the journal American Anthropologist (Lumholtz & Hrdlička 1897). Later studies documented cases identified from a range of sites in Oaxaca and central Mexico, such as Tilantongo, Oaxaca and the major Zapotec site of Monte Albán.

The crania is globular shape, somewhat similar to a gibbon. These traits, combined with seemingly similar dental characteristics, lead some early researchers to suggest a close evolutionary relationship between Pliopithecoidea and Hylobates. This hypothesis has largely fallen out of favor, mostly because of the primitive nature of the skeleton of Epipliopithecus. Epipliopithecus had a tail, and although this trait is shared by some crown catarrhines (Old World Monkeys), it excludes pliopithecoids from Hominoidea.

Three new species, dating from 17 to 19 million years ago, were unearthed between 2000 and 2005 in a road-widening project in California. These three new specimens of Morawanocetus, a genus thought to have gone extinct some five million years earlier, were discovered next to a fourth specimen, still under preparation, which clearly has archaeocete dentition.. CSUF. Retrieved 11 January 2014. Morawanocetus was divergent, with wide crania, elaborate cheek, tooth crowns, and short necks.

The Middle Holocene occupation is associated with the Ténérians, who settled the area 1000 or more years after the Kiffians, 6250 BCE to 2550 BCE (8200 to 4500 BP). According to Sereno, "Their crania are long, high and narrow, and their faces are taller with considerable alveolar prognathism." This was a nomadic herding culture. Artifacts found in association include bones and tusks from fauna, projectile points, ceramics, ivory, bone and shell ornaments.

He corresponded with travellers, collectors, and residents in foreign countries. In 1856 he began with John Thurnam, the publication of Crania Britannica: delineations and descriptions of the skulls of the aboriginal and early inhabitants of the British islands, with text, plates and an accompanying atlas. The work was completed in 1865. In 1867 he published a catalogue of the collection called Thesaurus Craniorum, describing and figuring many specimens, and giving 25,000 measurements.

The crania from these bodies were discovered at regular intervals in the two defensive ditches surrounding the site.Warfare and Conquest 2004 After the victims were decapitated, their heads were either thrown into the ditch or placed on top of posts that later collapsed inside the ditch. The heads showed signs of trauma from axes and one other weapon. Moreover, the organized placing of the skulls suggests a recurrent ritual act, instead of a single instance.

Two specimens from the Tlatilco civilization's homelands (which flourished around 1400 BCE) indicate the practice has a lengthy tradition,Romero (1970). although the cultural provenance of these particular specimens has been disputed.See Tiesler (2003a) for mention of dissenting views. A 1999 study of seven trepanated crania from Monte Albán showed a combination of single and multiple elliptical holes drilled or worn into the cranial cap, performed exclusively on the upper Parietal bones.

The post-crania of P. vindobonesis also shows that Pliopithecoids had an entepicondylar foramen, which is a primitive trait not found in any other catarrhine primates (extant or extinct). The wrist and hands of pliopithecoids were seemingly much more similar to platyrrhines than to catarrhines, as the carpo-metacarpal joint of the thumb is a modified “hinge joint” compared to the "saddle-like" thumb joint found in Old World monkeys and apes. Pliopithecoids also had a tail.

Clovis and Early Archaic Crania from the Anzick Site (24PA506), Park County, Montana, Plains Anthropologist, 46 (176): 115-124, Douglas Owsley and David Hunt, 2001. Dr. Larry Lahren, a North American archaeologist from Livingston, Montana was the first researcher to examine and record the site (24PA506), artifacts and human remains at the request of Ben Hargis not long after the discovery in 1968.Homeland: An Archaeologist’s View of Yellowstone Country’s Past. Cayuse Press, Box 1218, Livingston, Montana.

Upon removal, special care was taken to protect any bones that may be lost or damaged. For example, all maxillae bones and mandibles were wrapped to prevent the teeth from falling out and crania were removed with soil still attached (a measure that helps to prevent the bones from fragmenting). These and other large elements like long bones, scapulae, sacra, and innominate bones were bagged individually and assigned their own unique catalogue number. All small elements (e.g.

Cranial bones can also be useful for detecting evidence of physiological perturbations. The reconstructed frontal, parietal, and occipital bone fragments of Anzick-1 were analyzed for these indicators of health; however, the crania showed no evidence of cribra orbitalia or porotic hyperostosis, conditions that can indicate diseases. Porotic hyperostosis is characterized by porous lesions on the parietal, occipital, and sometimes frontal bones. Cribra orbitalia is another pathological skeletal lesion that manifests as porosity on the orbital roof.

Massey (1949) suggested a connection with Waikuri. However, with the benefit of several decades of subsequent research, Laylander (1997) and Zamponi (2004) conclude that the languages were unrelated. The Pericú may have shared with the Waikuri distinctive physical characteristics such as small bodies and dolichocephalic crania (long-headedness). Those physical characteristics set them apart from most other Native Americans and are consistent with the theory that they were an ancient people and their language was a language isolate of ancient origin.

The Camfield Fossil Beds which contain the Bullock Creek local fauna consist of light coloured calcareous sandstone, siltstone and limestone. Ferruginous mottling is found at the base and chalcedonic silification at the top. The presentation of fossils at the site ranges from poorly sorted fragmentary lags to associations with partial skeletons which includes complete crania (skulls) with intact delicate structures. The Bullock Creek Fossil Site is of natural significance in providing evidence for the evolution of the Northern Territory's fauna and climate.

40 ka), and Sri Lanka (c.36 ka). The artifacts from these sites include partial skeleton, crania, deep skull, and other related skeletons indicate that modern human migrated to Asia earlier than the western theory might have discussed. In 2009, archaeologists discovered the partial cranium and some teeth of a modern human at Tam Pa Ling in mainland Laos, which shed light on the understanding of anatomically modern human migration and evolution in the region during the Late Pleistocene Period.

Yunyang District (), formerly Yun County or Yunxian (), is a district of the prefecture-level city of Shiyan in northwestern Hubei Province, China. It borders the provinces of Henan (to the northeast) and Shaanxi (to the north and west). The district spans an area of 3,863 square kilometers, and has a population of 558,355 as of 2010. In 1992 crania of a species of Homo were found, dated to 900,000 years ago, and showing features of both Homo erectus and Homo sapiens.

Ngandong (Emuseum@Minnesota State University, Mankato) Due to the tools found with the fossils and many of their more gracile anatomical features, Solo Man was first classified as a subspecies of Homo sapiens (dubbed Homo sapiens soloensis) and long thought to be the ancestor of modern Australo-Melanesians. More rigorous studies in the 1990s have concluded that this is not the case. Analysis of 18 crania from Sangiran, Trinil, Sambungmacan, and Ngandong show chronological development from the Bapang-AG to Ngandong periods.

Drawing from Petrus Camper's theory of facial angle, Blumenbach and Cuvier classified races, through their skull collections based on their cranial features and anthropometric measurements. Caucasoid traits were recognised as: thin nasal aperture ("nose narrow"), a small mouth, facial angle of 100°–90°, and orthognathism, exemplified by what Blumenbach saw in most ancient Greek crania and statues."Miriam Claude Meijer, Race and Aesthetics in the Anthropology of Petrus Camper", 1722–1789, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999, pp. 169–74.Bertoletti, Stefano Fabbri. 1994.

Artist's impression of a Leptictidium The ankles and the sacroiliac joint were quite loosely fixed, while the pelvis had a flexible joint with only one coccygeal vertebra. The anteorbital muscle fenestrae in their crania suggest they probably had a long and mobile snout, similar to that of elephant shrews. Leptictidium had wide diastemata in the antemolar row, its upper molar teeth were more transverse than those of the North American leptictids and its fourth premolars were molariform. Its C1 canines were incisiviform.

Evidence of sacrifice and trophy taking was found at an evacuation site in El Chalchuapa, El Salvador. The remains of 33 individuals were found and had appeared to have been victims of ritual sacrifice that had spanned five different episodes of construction to the structure. Many of the individuals were found to be male and most were lying in the prone position. Of the individuals found it was noted that they were represented as crania and were determined to have been trophy heads.

CranID is a free software program that utilizes multivariate linear discriminant analysis and nearest neighbor discriminant analysis in conjunction with 29 cranial measurements to assess the geographic origin, which can be used to infer the ancestry of an unknown cranium. CranID compares an unknown cranium with 74 geographic samples, from 3,163 crania from 39 different populations.Hughes, S., Wright, R., Barry, M. "Virtual Reconstruction and Morphological Analysis of the Cranium of an Ancient Egyptian Mummy." Australasian Physical & Engineering Sciences in Medicine.

675-7Parker & Haswell 1921 In addition to distinct crania (sing. cranium), craniates possess many derived characteristics, which have allowed for more complexity to follow. Molecular-genetic analysis of craniates reveals that, compared to less complex animals, they developed duplicate sets of many gene families that are involved in cell signaling, transcription, and morphogenesis (see homeobox). In general, craniates are much more active than tunicates and lancelets and, as a result, have greater metabolic demands, as well as several anatomical adaptations.

Hans Christian Bjerring (born May 30, 1931) is a Danish-Swedish vertebrate paleontologist and comparative anatomist. He has spent his career at the Swedish Museum of Natural History in Stockholm, Sweden, as curator at the Department of Palaeozoology. Bjerring's research is mainly about the fundamental structure of the head in vertebrate evolution. His studies are based on detailed analyses of models of the crania of the sarcopterygian fishes Eusthenopteron foordi and Glyptolepis groenlandica from the Devonian as well as serially-sectioned embryos of fishes and urodeles.

Following a serious sports accident in a swimming pool, Ben, now an incomplete quadriplegic, arrives in a rehabilitation center. He meets other handicapped people (tetraplegics, paraplegics, traumatized crania), all victims of accidents, as well as a handicapped since his early childhood. Between impotence, despair and resignation, in the daily struggle to learn to move a finger or to hold a fork, some slowly find a little mobility while others receive the verdict of the handicap for life. Despite everything, hope and friendship help them endure their difficulties.

Location of discovery The fossilized remains of Homo sapiens idaltu were discovered at Herto Bouri near the Middle Awash site of Ethiopia's Afar Triangle in 1997 by Tim White, Giday WoldeGabriel and Berhane Asfaw, but were first unveiled in 2003. Herto Bouri is a region of Ethiopia under volcanic layers. According to radioisotope dating, the layers are between 154,000 and 160,000 years old. Three well preserved crania are accounted for, the best preserved being from an adult male (BOU-VP-16/1) having a brain capacity of .

Another skull with a trepanation hole was found at burial site Chalaghantepe (Agdam Rayon, Azerbaijan) dated to the 5th millennium BCE. More than 1,500 trephined skulls from the Neolithic period (representing 5 to 10% of all Stone Age skulls) have been uncovered throughout the worldfrom Europe, Siberia, China and the Americas. Most of the trephined crania belong to adult males, but women and children are also represented. A cow skull dating to 3400-3000 BCE upon which trepanation had been performed was discovered in France.

The Vedda are often seen as the native population of Sri Lanka. A 2011 study on dental characteristics suggested a close relation between Vedda and other South Asians as well as to western Eurasian populations. A 2012 study on crania showed the Vedda to have close affinities with other South Asian populations such as other Sri Lankans, South Indians, and Punjabis (which had been classified as having Caucasoid affinities) and to differ significantly from Andaman islanders. A 2013 craniometric study by Raghavan et al.

The sample crania were from both male and female adults, and evidence of healing around the perforations suggested that about half had survived the operation. Most of the skulls in the study showed signs of earlier cranial damage, indicating (as with the Andean examples) that the operations were an attempt to repair or alleviate this head-trauma.Tiesler (1999). From these analyses, it appears that a technique of straightforward abrasion was employed in the earliest-dated finds, to be combined later on with drilling and incision techniques.

Several studies have demonstrated correlations between race and brain size, with varying results. In some studies, Caucasians were reported to have larger brains than other racial groups, whereas in recent studies and reanalysis of previous studies, East Asians were reported as having larger brains and skulls. More common among the studies was the report that Africans had smaller skulls than either Caucasians or East Asians. Criticisms have been raised against a number of these studies regarding questionable methods. An 1839 drawing by Samuel George Morton of "a Negro head …, a Caucasian skull …, a Mongol head" In Crania Americana Morton claimed that Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Indians were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches. In 1873 Paul Broca (1824–1880) found the same pattern described by Samuel Morton's Crania Americana by weighing brains at autopsy. Other historical studies alleging a Black–White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934). But in Germany Rudolf Virchow's study led him to denounce "Nordic mysticism" in the 1885 Anthropology Congress in Karlsruhe.

The Bullock Creek Fossil site is part of the Camfield Fossil Beds which are one of only a few Australian localities where rare fossil marsupials are well preserved. Among the fossils at the Bullock Creek site have been found complete marsupial crania with delicate structures intact. New significant taxa identified from the Bullock Creek mid Miocene include a new genus of crocodile, Baru (Baru darrowi), a primitive true kangaroo, Nambaroo, with high-crowned lophodont teeth; and a new species of giant horned tortoise, Meiolania. New marsupial lion, thylacine, and dasyurid material has also been recovered.

Boylston, Anthea, in Definite evidence of fractured bones was found in ten skeletons, and evidence of possible fractures was found in three other cases.Boylston, Anthea, in One cranium contained a large circular lesion which may have been the consequence of trepanning.Boylston, Anthea, in Other diseases specific to bones and joints were osteoarthritis, diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), and possible cases of spondyloarthropathy.Boylston, Anthea, in Three skeletons showed possible evidence of rickets, two had changes of osteoporosis, and three crania had features of hyperostosis frontalis interna, a metabolic condition affecting post-menopausal women.

In addition to the patagium of the wings, species of Miniopterus possess a uropatagium at the lower limbs, these membranes are a very dark and almost uniform brown colour. The generation length of M. sororculus is estimated to around 5.5 years. The population superficially resemble another Malagasy species, Miniopterus petersoni, first described shortly after the publication of this species. The external morphology of the two species indicates they have converged, which is supported by analysis of molecular evidence, but are distinguishable by features of the crania and external characteristics.

Morton had many skulls from Ancient Egypt, and concluded that the ancient Egyptians were not African, but were instead Caucasians. Morton's followers, particularly Gliddon and Josiah Nott in their monumental tribute to Morton's work, Types of Mankind (1854), carried Morton's ideas further and backed up Morton's findings which supported the notion of polygenism, which contends that humanity originates from different lineages and is the ancestor of the multiregional hypothesis. Gliddon collaborated with Morton on several published works; they shared many views on human races. Morton had sent Gliddon over 100 Egyptian crania specimens.

Prior to its excavation, the city was believed to be that of potters, but the burials studied instead showed that there were servants, middle-class, elite, and even perhaps low kings or governors occupying the city. Further investigations on a random selection of the burials from the site have shown that 26 percent of both male and female adult crania studied had at least one posterior wound, while only females had been subject to anterior wounds. The different levels of violence based on sex is evidence of some type of systematic hierarchy.

The Baja California peninsula is a geographic cul-de-sac and the languages in the southernmost part of the peninsula (Pericu, Guaycura and, possibly, Monqui) have no known relatives. Some linguists have speculated that these people and languages date back thousands of years and that they may be the direct descendants of the earliest inhabitants in the Americas. This speculation is reinforced by their physical characteristic of dolichocephalic crania (longheadedness) which is unusual among present-day American Indians.Golla, Victor (2011), California Indian Languages, Berkeley: University of California Press, p.

In both, even cranioplasty existed. Its prevalence among Mesoamerican civilizations is much lower, at least judging from the comparatively few trepanated crania that have been uncovered. The archaeological record in Mesoamerica is further complicated by the practice of skull mutilation and modification carried out after the death of the subject, to fashion "trophy skulls" and the like of captives and enemies. This was a widespread tradition, illustrated in pre-Columbian art that occasionally depicts rulers adorned with or carrying the modified skulls of their defeated enemies, or of the ritualistic display of sacrificial victims.

North of the beach of Macinaggio at Point Coscia is a partially collapsed, wave-cut grotto, La Grotte de la Coscia, containing dateable sedimentary layers. In one deposit of the Last glacial period, a tumulus of crania and antlers of Cervus cazioti and various lagomorphs, rodents and other remains have been found with pebbles that could be interpreted as flakes and cores, fireplace sites and an ovate structure; that is, the most likely interpretation is that this is a site of the Middle Paleolithic, the first evidence of Early Stone Age occupation.

Example of the craniometric landmarks used in the program. CranID was created in 1992 by anthropologist Richard Wright of the University of Sydney to infer the probable geographic origin of unknown crania that are found in archaeological, forensic and repatriation cases. Wright created the program to establish uniformity in cranial morphology based on the assumption that there is a high correlation between geographical location and cranial morphology. This was the first standardized program to evaluate the similarity and dissimilarity of cranial morphological characteristics of an unknown cranium and the database.

Anzick-1's skeletal remains included 28 cranial fragments, the left clavicle, and several ribs. These bones were discovered in highly fragmented states; however, partial reconstruction of the crania allowed for age estimation, investigation of basic health indicators, and some information about cultural practices. Originally, investigators thought the left clavicle showed evidence of cremation, but further analysis revealed that the discoloration was the result of groundwater staining and not fire. Additionally, all of the Anzick-1 remains were stained with ocher, which masks the natural color of the infant's bones.

The age at death of an individual can be determined from several skeletal markers, including cranial suture closure, tooth eruption rates, rates of epiphyseal fusion on long bones, and others. Cranial bones fuse together along suture lines throughout the life of every human, and can be used to estimate the age at death of human remains. The small size and lack of suture closure of Anzick-1's crania revealed that the individual was 1–2 years old. The metopic suture is also present in the frontal bone of Anzick-1.

The Swedish anthropologist Bertil Lundman introduced the term "Nordid" to describe the Nordic race in his book The Races and Peoples of Europe (1977) as: Some forensic scientists, pathologists and anthropologists up to the 1990s continued to use the tripartite division of Caucasoids: Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean, based on their cranial anthropometry. The anthropologist Wilton M. Krogman for example identified Nordic racial crania in his work "The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine" (1986) as being "dolichochranic"."The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine", Wilton Marion Krogman, M. Yaşar İşcan, C.C. Thomas, 1986, p. 270, p. 489.

Oxford University Press 274-75 The largest study done on the subject of geographic variation in brain size is the 1984 study Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines. The study found that human brain size varied with latitude of biogeographic ancestry. The study claims that climatic conditions have been the primary cause for the evolution of differences in human cranial size and that crania are more spherical in cold climates because mass increases relative to surface area to conserve core temperatures, also stating that variation in endocranial volume among groups is "partially explicable by thermoregulation".

A mysterious element pervades these works as the figures undergo various facial and bodily compressions: noses, eyes, mouths, and eyebrows are elongated and occasionally become fine fissures, while surreal imagery such as tiny fork-like hands and beak-like crania are paired with out-of-proportion arms, torsos, and legs. For Gino De Dominicis, painting performed a primary and extraordinary function, reaffirming the legacy of the artist as a powerful and creative force. In 1998 at Galleria Emilio Mazzoli in Modena he had his last show titled “in pieno Kali-yuga”, six months before he died.

It is possible that ZT 299 represents a new species of Lufengpithecus due to differences between ZT 299 and the reconstructed adult cranium of L. lufengensis (PA 644) and the juvenile cranium of L. hudienensis (YV0999), however, its juvenile status complicates assessment. ZT 299 is more similar to L. lufengensis than to either L. keiyuanensis or L. hudienensis. While some argue that a case exists for a new species, different developmental stages of comparable crania and uncertainty concerning reconstruction of other samples makes the naming of a new species unjustified. Instead, ZT 299 is assigned to Lufengpithecus cf. lufengensis.

Profile of a Neanderthal skull, with the occipital bun visible at the back of the skull Occipital bun on a modern human male An occipital bun, also called occipital spurs, occipital knob, chignon hooks or inion hooks, is a prominent bulge or projection of the occipital bone at the back of the skull. It is important in scientific descriptions of classic Neanderthal crania. While common among many of humankind's ancestors, primarily robust relatives rather than gracile, the protrusion is still relatively prevalent in modern Homo sapiens. It is suspected that occipital buns might correlate with the biomechanics of running.

The anthropological theory of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. In Romanticism in science, science in Europe, 1790–1840. Later anthropologists of the 19th and early 20th century such as Pritchard, Pickering, Broca, Topinard, Morton, Peschel, Seligman, Bean, Ripley, Haddon and Dixon came to recognize other Caucasoid morphological features, such as prominent supraorbital ridges and a sharp nasal sill.See individual literature for such Caucasoid identifications, while the following article gives a brief overview: How "Caucasoids" Got Such Big Crania and Why They Shrank: From Morton to Rushton, Leonard Lieberman, Current Anthropology, Vol. 42, No. 1, February 2001, pp. 69–95.

Bones from several specimens of Dinofelis and baboons were found in a natural trap, where Dinofelis may have been lured to feed on trapped prey. Several sites from South Africa seem to show Dinofelis may have hunted and killed Australopithecus africanus, since the finds mingle fossilized remains of Dinofelis, hominids, and other large contemporary animals. In South Africa, Dinofelis remains have been found near Paranthropus fossil skulls, a few with precisely spaced canine holes in their crania, so it is possible Dinofelis preyed on robust hominids as well. This may been rare, however, as carbon isotope ratios contradict this.

In 1866, the archaeologist Édouard Dupont discovered a prehistoric lower jaw in the Trou de la Naulette, a cave near the village of Furfooz in the Belgian province of Namur. A further excavation the following year led to the discovery of other cranial remains, including a complete skull. Of these two crania, one was brachycephalic (round-headed) and another was mesocephalic. In scientific literature from the late 19th and early 20th century, the skulls from Furfooz were considered to represent a round-headed early racial type in Upper Paleolithic Europe, distinct from the Cro-Magnon and ancestral to the Alpine race.

Aïn Bénian skull in dorsal view, scale bar 5 cm The species is known from limited material, and knowledge of post-cranial remains and antlers are poor. The estimated size of the animal is smaller than a red deer but slightly larger than a fallow deer. It is known from a mostly complete skull of an aged individual with worn teeth found near Aïn Bénian in Algeria, alongside other fragmentary crania. The skull is broad, but the length of the skull, specifically the splanchnocranium (the region of the skull behind the dental region) is relatively short.

This program is used to determine geographical origin of skeletal remains in archaeological and forensic contexts. Due to the geographical origin of the program and the author of the program, and the many crania included in the data set, this program is mainly used by Australian and British bioarchaeologists and forensic anthropologists. Forensic anthropologists use this software to determine the ancestry of unknown skeletal remains, in medico-legal contexts. The use of this program is designed to aid forensic anthropologists in the determination of the biological profile, which includes factors such as age, sex, stature and race.

A lingulid in its burrow, in "up" and retracted positions Most modern species attach to hard surfaces by means of a cylindrical pedicle ("stalk"), an extension of the body wall. This has a chitinous cuticle (non-cellular "skin") and protrudes through an opening in the hinge. However, some genera such as the inarticulate Crania and the articulate Lacazella have no pedicle, and cement the rear of the "pedicle" valve to a surface so that the front is slightly inclined up away from the surface. In a few articulate genera such as Neothyris and Anakinetica, the pedicles wither as the adults grow and finally lie loosely on the surface.

St. Hoyme conducted fieldwork to study the effects of urbanization and environmental changes on the physical health of human living populations. St. Hoyme traveled to Jamaica to gather anthropometric data for her studies of climatic and genetic influences reflected by the individual’s phenotype, or physical appearance St. Hoyme traveled with Dr. Jane Phillips from Howard University during her trip to Jamaica. In 1969, St. Hoyme traveled to Poland, measuring crania and analyzing dental health, as dental disease and tooth loss serve as outward signs of stress markers and external pressure. In the 1970s, St. Hoyme traveled with Phillips to Ethiopia to study the effect of the environment on human health.

Evidence of human occupation at Gobero started during the Early Holocene dating around 7550 BCE to 6250 BCE (9500 to 8200 BP). The Early Holocene occupation is associated with the Kiffian culture: they were tall (as much as 6-foot 8-inches). According to Sereno (2008), "Their crania were long and low and are characterized by a distinct occipital bun, flattened sagittal profile, pentagonal posterior outline, broad proportions across the zygoma and interorbital region, broad nasal aperture, and negligible alveolar prognathism." They were heavily muscled hunter-fishers, they left a distinctive pottery with wavy lines and probably remained in the region until around 6000 BCE.

His final trip was in 1921–1923. Each of these books details the people he met and studied, and the cultural groups each belonged to. Farabee held fairly modern views regarding the people that inhabited the Amazon. He felt that all cultures are a product of their environment and that there is no way to separate culture and the influence that the surrounding world has had on it (Farabee, 1917). He stated that “…there are no primitive men, neither is there primitive culture,” (Ibid), which was a novel concept at a time when man was still often viewed in terms of the size of his crania.

Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis, formerly known by the junior synonym Sinanthropus pekinensis) is a group of fossil specimens of Homo erectus, dated from roughly 750,000 years ago,. A 26Al/10Be dating published in 2009 suggests they are in the range of 680,000–780,000 years old: discovered in 1929–37 during excavations at Zhoukoudian (Chou K'ou-tien) near Beijing (at the time spelled Peking), China. Between 1929 and 1937, 15 partial crania, 11 mandibles, many teeth, some skeletal bones and large numbers of stone tools were discovered in the Lower Cave at Locality 1 of the Peking Man site at Zhoukoudian. Their age is estimated to be between about 750,000 and 300,000 years old.

Working under Pittard, Comas received much of his indoctrination into the discipline of anthropology, and more specifically, the subfield of physical anthropology. Pittard was a Swiss anthropologist who had performed numerous investigations and published work in topics covering the evolution and origin of humans, as well as the races of people. In an act of great affection to his mentor, Juan Comas translated Pittard's book, The Races and History, close to thirty years after being published. In 1899 Pittard received his Doctoral of Sciences, by presenting his dissertation titled "Recherche d’anatomie comparative sur diverses séries de crânes anciens de la vallée du Rhône (Valais)" (Comparative Anatomical Research on a diverse series of ancient crania in the Rhone Valley).

Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero, Niger. The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier peoples associated with Kiffian culture. Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct. The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the Late Pleistocene Iberomaurusians, early Holocene Capsians, and mid-Holocene Mechta groups, whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups.. From their bones bioarchaeologist Chris Stojanowski concluded the Tenerians had huge leg muscles, suggesting that they were extremely strong. Stojanowski explained that with such huge muscle attachments, they must have eaten a lot of protein and participated in a “strenuous lifestyle,” which is both congruent with a fishing-based culture.

There is, however, substantial variation;Cosgrove et al., 2007 a study of 46 adults aged 22–49 years and of mainly European descent found an average brain volume of 1,273.6 cm3 for men, ranging from 1,052.9 to 1,498.5 cm3, and 1,131.1 cm3 for women, ranging from 974.9 to 1,398.1 cm3.Allen et al., 2002 According to a study published by Smith and Beals in 1984, based on measurements of approximately 20,000 crania from 87 populations worldwide, Asian and North America indigenous populations have the biggest brains in the world, with an average volume of 1,380 cm3, followed by Europeans with an average cranial volume of 1,362 cm3, South Americans with 1,350 cm3, Oceanic Americans with 1,277 cm3 and Africans with 1,276 cm3.

There have been many debates on the relationships between Middle Pleistocene hominin crania from Eurasia and Africa because they display a mosaic of both primitive and derived traits. Studies on cranial morphology for these specimens have created arguments that Eurasian fossils from the Middle Pleistocene are a transition between Homo erectus and later hominins like Neanderthals and modern humans. However, there are two sides to the argument with one side saying that the European and African fossils are from a single taxon while others say that the Neanderthal lineage should be included. Harvati and colleagues decided to attempt to quantify the craniofacial features of Neanderthals and European Middle Pleistocene fossils using 3D landmarks to try to add to the debate.

In fact, pliopithecoids are more similar to New World monkeys in some aspects of their dentition, including narrow lower incisors (mesiodistally waisted towards the base of the crown). Many species have what is often referred to as a 'pliopithecine triangle', a subtle set of ridges defining a small triangular shaped pit between the protocone and hypocone of the lower molars, but even this trait is variable. Instead, the most defining dental trait present in all pliopithecoids is a tall crowned lower third premolar, which is relatively triangular in outline with a comparatively short, vertically oriented mesiobucal face. The crania of P. vindobonesis, Laccopithecus robustus, Pliopithecus zhanxiangi, and Anapithecus hernyaki demonstrate that pliopithecoids had relatively large and globular braincases with a projecting snout.

However, in Carleton Coon's rewrite of Ripley's The Races of Europe, he developed a different argument that they reduced the Upper Paleolithic survivors indigenous to Europe, based on prehistoric broad-headed crania unearthed at Grenelle, France, and the findings at Furfooz in the Belgian province of Namur: Coon further argued that they were linked to their unreduced (Brünn, Borreby) counterparts. A debate concerning the origin of the Alpine race in Europe, involving Arthur Keith, John Myres and Alfred Cort Haddon was published by the Royal Geographical Society in 1906.The Alpine Races in Europe: Discussion, D. G. Hogarth, Arthur Evans, Dr. Haddon, Dr. Shrubsall, Mr. Hudleston, Mr. Gray, Dr. Wright and Mr. Myres, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 28, No. 6 (Dec.

Osteological remains and trepanated crania from Peruvian sites were also obtained."About the Museum — History", San Diego Museum of Man (n.d.). As the Exposition drew to a close, a group of citizens led by George Marston formed the San Diego Museum Association to retain the collection and convert it into a permanent museum, with Dr. Hewett as the first director. Notable additions to the museum's collection after the Exposition included the Jessop Weapons Collection and a rare collection of artifacts from the ancient Egyptian city of Amarna, donated by Ellen Browning Scripps and the Egyptian Exploration Society. Between 1935 and 1936, the museum's name briefly changed to the Palace of Science in order to correspond with other exhibit buildings participating in the California-Pacific International Exposition.

Cast of Wajak 1 The Wajak crania (also Wadjak, following the French spelling of the toponym) are two fossil human skulls discovered near Wajak, a village in Tulungagung Regency, East Java, Indonesia in 1888/90. Dubbed Wajak Man, and formerly classified as a separate species (Homo wadjakensis), the skulls are now recognized as an early anatomically modern human fossil. They were dated to the early-to-mid Holocene (12,000 to 5,000 years ago) in the 1990s, but a 2013 study claimed a date between 28,000 and 37,000 years ago.Paul Storm, Rachel Wood, Chris Stringer, Antonis Bartsiokas, John de Vosa, Maxime Aubert, Les Kinsley, Rainer Grün, "U-series and radiocarbon analyses of human and faunal remains from Wajak, Indonesia", Journal of Human Evolution, Volume 64, Issue 5, May 2013, 356–365, doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.11.

Samuel Morton's Crania Americana, 1839. Morton believed that intelligence was correlated with brain size and varied between racial groups, Chapter 6, "Science and the idea of race", by Audrey Smedley Francis Galton, the English eugenicist who wrote extensively on the relation between intelligence and social class In the 18th century, European philosophers and scientists such as Voltaire, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and Carl Linnaeus, proposed the existence of different mental abilities among the races. During the 19th and early 20th centuries the idea that there are differences in the brain structures and brain sizes of different races, and that these differences explained the different intelligences, was much advocated and studied. Through the publication of his book Hereditary Genius in 1869, polymath Francis Galton spurred interest in the study of mental abilities, particularly as they relate to heredity and eugenics.

Coon served as a mentor to another Harvard- educated OSS agent and anthropologist who embraced anthropometry (measuring features of the human body, such as crania and nose sizes) as a means asserting racial types and categories. This was Lloyd Cabot Briggs, author of Living Races of the Sahara Desert (1958) and later of No More for Ever: A Saharan Jewish Town (1962) about the Jews of the Mzab region of the Algerian Sahara, which he wrote with Norina Lami Guède (née Maria Esterina Giovanni). The historian Sarah Abreyava Stein (who argued that Guede had done most of the research) noted that Briggs and Coon corresponded during the writing of No More for Ever, joking, for example, about the genital depilation customs of Jewish women in Ghardaïa. Coon did photography work for the United States Air Force from 1954-1957\.

In 1997, the McKenna/Bell classification considered Elasmotherium to be closely related to the wooly and modern rhinos, and placed it into the subfamily Rhinocerotinae. A complete mitochondrial genome obtained from a specimen of E. sibiricum vindicated von Brandt, finding it to be the sister taxon to all living rhinoceroses, with an estimated divergence time of 47.4 million years ago, with a 95% highest posterior density of 41.9–53.2 Ma. The genus is known from hundreds of find sites, mainly of cranial fragments and teeth, but in some cases nearly complete skeletons of post-cranial bones, scattered over Eurasia from Eastern Europe to China. Dozens of crania have been reconstructed and given archaeological identifiers. The division into species is based mainly on the fine distinctions of the teeth and jaws and the shape of the skull.

Although the maker of CranID does not explicitly state that this program can infer ‘race’, many forensic anthropologists use this program, and others like it, to determine the race of an unknown individual, even though many biological anthropologists have criticized the use of the concept. A study conducted on the CranID program found that while the program is "supposed to allocate an individual skull to a specific population rather than a ‘major race’," the program did not generate persuasive allocations of individual crania to a geographical population. Another criticism is the fact that many of the measurements that are essential to this program are subject to both interobserver error and intraobserver error. Measurements between researchers can vary substantially in size and that this degree of variation in measurements can have a striking effect on the results of CranID.

Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning. The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America, New York: Nation Books 2016. , chapters 4, 7-12, 14, 16 passim. Through craniometry conducted on thousands of human skulls, Morton argued that the differences between the races were too broad to have stemmed from a single common ancestor, but were instead consistent with separate racial origins.Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning. The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America, New York: Nation Books 2016. , chapter 14. In Crania Aegyptiaca, he reported his measurements of internal skull capacity grouped according to Blumenbach's five races, finding that the average capacity of the "Caucasian race" was at the top, and that "Ethiopian" skulls had the smallest capacity, with the other "races" ranging in between.Michael, John S. “A New Look at Morton's Craniological Research.” Current Anthropology, vol.

Engraving of Morton from the frontispiece to Types of Mankind by Nott and Gliddon Morton claimed in his Crania Americana that the Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches (1,426 cc), Indians were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches (1,344 cc) and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches (1,278 cc). Morton believed that the skulls of each race were so different that a wise creator from the beginning had created each race and positioned them in separate homelands to dwell in.John P. Jackson, Nadine M. Weidman, Race, racism, and science: social impact and interaction, 2005, p. 45 Morton believed that cranial capacity determined intellectual ability, and he used his craniometric evidence in conjunction with his analysis of anthropological literature then available to argue in favor of a racial hierarchy which put Caucasians on the top rung and Africans on the bottom.

62–100 A 2005 study by Keita of predynastic Egyptian Badarian crania found that the Badarian samples cluster more closely with Ethiopid samples than they do with Northern European (Berg and Norse) samples, though importantly no Asian and Southern Africa samples were included in the study. Sonia Zakrzewski in 2007 noted that population continuity occurs over the Egyptian Predynastic into the Greco-Roman periods, and that a relatively high level of genetic differentiation was sustained over this time period. She concluded therefore that the process of state formation itself may have been mainly an indigenous process, but that it may have occurred in association with in-migration, particularly during the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods.Zakrzewski, Sonia "Population Continuity or Population Change:Formation of the Ancient Egyptian State" AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 132:501–509 (2007) In 2008 Keita found that the early predynastic groups in Southern Egypt were similar craniometrically to Nile valley groups of Ethiopid extraction, and as a whole the dynastic Egyptians (includes both Upper and Lower Egyptians) show much closer affinities with these particular Northeast African populations.

38–41 In Morton's Crania Americana, his claims were based on Craniometry data, that the Caucasians had the biggest brains, averaging 87 cubic inches, Native Americans were in the middle with an average of 82 cubic inches and Negroes had the smallest brains with an average of 78 cubic inches.Illustration from Types of Mankind (1854), whose authors leftIn The Mismeasure of Man (1981), the evolutionary biologist and historian of science Stephen Jay Gould argued that Samuel Morton had falsified the craniometric data, perhaps inadvertently over-packing some skulls, to so produce results that would legitimize the racist presumptions he was attempting to prove. A subsequent study by the anthropologist John Michael found Morton's original data to be more accurate than Gould describes, concluding that "[c]ontrary to Gould's interpretation... Morton's research was conducted with integrity". Jason Lewis and colleagues reached similar conclusions as Michael in their reanalysis of Morton's skull collection; however, they depart from Morton's racist conclusions by adding that "studies have demonstrated that modern human variation is generally continuous, rather than discrete or "racial," and that most variation in modern humans is within, rather than between, populations".

Some of Jantz’s more current research involves quantitative osteometric and anthropometric variation among Native American populations, including an analysis of the work of Franz Boas. In the early 1900s, Boas conducted an anthropometric study showing the plasticity of the human body in response to environmental changes. Testing the skeletal measurements of children of immigrants to the US, he found that their measurements were closer to the American mean than to the mean of their home countries. Boas saw this as an argument that nutrition and environment was more important in determining body measurements than racial background, and his study was widely seen as discrediting racial anthropometry. In 2002, Jantz conducted a reassessment of Boas' study, the first time anyone had examined the validity of Boas’ work. Specimens from Jantz’s research ranged in age from 10,000 years old to the modern period. In his reassessment, Jantz argued that Boas’ original claims about the variations in skeletal plasticity between European and American born children was flawed, stating that he could find only insignificant differences between European and American born children. He also argued that exposure to the environment in America did not affect the children's crania.