Sentences Generator
And
Your saved sentences

No sentences have been saved yet

"aversive" Definitions
  1. tending to avoid or causing avoidance of a noxious or punishing stimulus
"aversive" Synonyms
evitative unpitying apathetic indifferent unfeeling unresponsive cold unconcerned cool frigid disinterested unemotional unmoved aloof untouched callous insensitive heartless obdurate stony uncaring negative reinforcement aversive stimulus castigation censure chastening chastisement correction discipline punishment reprimand scolding telling-off More

504 Sentences With "aversive"

How to use aversive in a sentence? Find typical usage patterns (collocations)/phrases/context for "aversive" and check conjugation/comparative form for "aversive". Mastering all the usages of "aversive" from sentence examples published by news publications.

type: All Declarative Interrogative Exclamative

structure: All Simple Compound Complex Compound-Complex

length: All <=10 words 10-20 words 20-30 words 30-50 words

Some readers strung together multiple words to form aversive sentences.
"Once mosquitoes learned odors in an aversive manner, those odors caused aversive responses on the same order as responses to DEET, which is one of the most effective mosquito repellents," said Riffell in a statement.
It's an aversive experience that alters our future calculation of reward.
It "seems to regulate unpleasant or aversive feelings," summed another study.
In reality, faeces often smell aversive to many animals, including dogs.
Never once did anyone onscreen do anything particularly aversive or embarrassing.
"On average, people smell more aversive when they're sick," Olsson said. Diabetes?
" Another manual introduces children and teens to the practice of "aversive scenes.
He said loneliness is an aversive signal much like thirst, hunger or pain.
The first one is associated with a state of mind that is aversive.
He and his art are too trouble-makingly elusive and embrace-aversive for that.
"This is a novel mechanism for adapting to a mildly aversive-tasting substance," he said.
In other words, the LA–ACx pathway is necessary for the recall of the aversive memory.
Researchers consider loneliness akin to hunger and thirst: It's an aversive cue that something is wrong.
However, should their mothers be avid garlic eaters, then garlic odors are no longer aversive to the baby.
Then each participant is asked to identify an "aversive" scene— a memory, or image, that is a particular turn-off.
The "dark triad," a set of three socially aversive personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy, all wrapped up in one person.
Your brain internalizes the negative feedback of the vibration, training you with aversive conditioning to ignore the desire to scratch yourself.
People in the gratitude meditation group reported that stress was more aversive and had larger increases in negative emotion related to stress.
"A lack of sleep inappropriately modulates the human emotional brain response to negative aversive stimuli," says one study published in Current Biology.
Healthy, non-drug-abusing subjects with fewer D443 receptors experienced the stimulant drug as pleasurable, while those with more found it aversive.
His experiments had participants rate a slew of words on several categories, including how aversive and negative the word appeared to participants.
They were shown pictures of chocolate and moldy strawberries while being fed liquefied chocolate and an "aversive" strawberry drink through a Teflon tube.
With some 2212 likenesses by a notoriously testy, people-aversive artist-rebel, this is the largest gathering of its kind in a century.
With some 6383 likenesses by a notoriously testy, people-aversive artist-rebel, this is the largest gathering of its kind in a century.
Here is Brehm's original language: Psychological reactance is an aversive affective reaction in response to regulations or impositions that impinge on freedom and autonomy.
The biologic and genetic transmission of genes causing addiction coupled with aversive childhood experiences as well as inadequate mental health services will perpetuate dependence.
The odors stemming from bodies that had begun to behave as if they were sick were found to smell more aversive, proving that disease smells.
People and other animals are hard-wired to learn to be afraid of various cues and places that are linked to dangerous or aversive experiences.
Other common factors related to opioid dependence include biological inheritance, aversive childhood experiences, mental health issues, and trauma both of a physical and emotional type.
The researchers say that this could prove that the reward circuit has a dual purpose, involved in both aversive behaviour as well as motivational behaviour.
If a person is particularly mean to the animal, they might form right away a very strong aversive memory, and thereafter react with fear or aggression.
While visualizing how he would feel about applying for jobs if there were no chance of rejection, he realized that he still found the task aversive.
Ishida also said he was doubtful on whether expanding stimulus at a time when market volatility was so high could reverse the market's risk-aversive sentiment.
"We hope the ban is a significant step in ending the use of all aversive procedures on people with disabilities, who deserve to be supported with dignity."
The entire time I spent behind the wheel in Scotland I was suffering what psychologists call an aversive experience—that is, I was afraid for my life.
The other is that just by having people produce this pattern again and again, it acts as its own form of exposure therapy, but without the aversive experience.
Arnold Sansone in her opinion recommended a limited injunction against the ban, according to The Washington Post, that would still ban "aversive" conversion therapy techniques including electroshock therapy.
As he explains on the website The Psych Report: First... people who scored higher on a measure of disgust toward bodily function were more likely to find "moist" aversive.
But the rhetoric of a property-owning democracy didn't last long, as the free market capitalism that was supposed to accompany it was supplanted by a more corporate, risk-aversive mutation.
Gay conversion therapy methods range from counseling, hypnosis and dating-skill training to aversive techniques that induce pain or electric shocks in response to same-sex erotic images, according to California officials.
"Our study points to the fact that the welfare of companion dogs trained with aversive-based methods appears to be at risk," the study's researchers wrote in their paper on the assessments.
"Many insects have been shown to learn and associate odors with appetitive and aversive stimuli, and the idea that this occurs through a dopaminergic pathway is consistent with prior literature," she told Gizmodo.
The Park Service had been trying to get the bear out of the area using "aversive conditioning," in which rangers shoot non-lethal bean bags at the bear in an attempt to establish dominance.
The study found that dogs who underwent reward-based training were more curious and figured out what bowls contained the sausage snack faster than their aversive-training counterparts, who were more reluctant about exploring.
This was done with an appetitive-aversive (reward-punishment) method, meaning the bees received a sugary food reward when they selected the right color and a bitter-tasting quinine liquid when they were incorrect.
A particularly powerful source is 1 trial food aversion learning where if you become ill after consuming a particular food the smell taste of the food becomes aversive and remains so for a long time.
A new study has found that yelling at your dog, and using other kinds of "aversive training" — like negative reinforcement — "can have long-term negative effects on your dog's mental state," according to Science Alert.
That article was written not by a scientist but by a treatment provider who claimed to be able to essentially cure sex offenders though innovative "aversive therapies" including electric shocks and pumping ammonia into offenders' noses via nasal cannulas.
Recently, Thibodeau published intriguing results in the journal PLOS One that aim to bring some rigor to the "informal speculation about why words like 'moist' are aversive on blogs and in the press," Thibodeau writes me in an email.
It made sense that a mental simulation of killing an innocent person (unjustified kill) led to overwhelming feelings of guilt and subsequent activation of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), an area of the brain involved in aversive, morally sensitive situations.
Results from the short-term assessment showed that dogs who go through aversive-training show more stress-related behaviors — like lip-licking and yawning —  and have higher cortisol levels, even at home, when compared to the dogs going through reward-based training.
"Cortisol's main job is to boost your blood sugar, and adrenaline's main job is to jack up your blood pressure, so you have fuel and a delivery method to sustain your muscles and brain in dealing with an aversive threat," he'd explained.
But with non-invasive brain imaging techniques, my colleagues and I have recently gathered evidence that suggests our brain reacts to desirable information as it does to rewarding stimuli like food, and reacts to undesirable information as it does to aversive stimuli like electric shocks.
A more recent study, analyzing data collected a decade after these papers, provided strong evidence that caregivers' use of Internet filtering technologies did not reduce children's exposure to a range of aversive online experiences including, but not limited to, encountering sexual content that made them feel uncomfortable.
The study, which was recently uploaded to pre-print server bioRxiv, recruited 92 pet dogs, 42 canines from reward-based dog training schools and 50 from aversive-based training schools, and was led by biologist Ana Catarina Vieira de Castro of the Universidade do Porto in Portugal.
Many swing voters found the topic of immigration, specifically the left's moral outrage on the subject, aversive; the more that issue dominated the conversation, the harder the moderates' re-election campaigns might be, and the more challenging it might be, some analysts argued, for a Democratic presidential candidate to gain traction in purple states.
The psychology field's diagnostic manual (called the DSM-5) explains that PTSD can affect someone after they're exposed to death (actual or threatened), serious injury, or sexual assault—by either experiencing the event directly, witnessing the event as it occurs, learning of the event that occurred to a friend or family member, or experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of a traumatic event (like first responders or police officers might endure).
Specific PIT with an aversive stimulus occurs when a CS is paired with an aversive stimulus and subsequent exposure to the CS enhances an operant response that is directed away from the aversive stimulus with which it was paired (i.e., it promotes escape and avoidance behavior). General PIT with an aversive stimulus occurs when a CS is paired with one aversive stimulus and it enhances an operant response that is directed away from a different aversive stimulus.
Upon a second exposure to the maze (e.g. 24 h later) the aversive stimuli is no longer presented. Retention of the aversive memory is assessed based on the relative time spent in the non-aversive arm compared to the previously aversive arm and anxiety behavior is calculated based on the time spent in the open arms during the training session.
A conditioned aversive stimulus is an initially neutral stimulus that becomes aversive after repeated pairing with an unconditioned aversive stimulus. This type of stimulus would include consequences such as verbal warnings, gestures or even the sight of an individual who is disliked.
Aversive salience is the aversive form of motivational salience that causes avoidance behavior, and is associated with operant punishment, undesirable outcomes, and unpleasant stimuli.
The indirect pathway of the ventral striatum within the basal ganglia mediates aversion-based learning and aversive motivational salience, which is assigned to aversive stimuli.
In this test, one of the enclosed arms is paired with aversive stimuli (e.g. bright light, loud white noise). During training, animals are placed in the apparatus facing the intercept between the open arms. Each time the animal enters the aversive enclosed arm, the aversive stimulus is presented until the animal leaves the arm.
Aversive collars use levels of discomfort or an unpleasant sensation to encourage a dog to modify unwanted behaviors. The use of aversive collars is controversial, with some humane and veterinary organizations recommending against them.
Aversive stimulus, punisher, and punishing stimulus are somewhat synonymous. Punishment may be used to mean # An aversive stimulus # The occurrence of any punishing change # The part of an experiment in which a particular response is punished. Some things considered aversive can become reinforcing.Solnick, J. V., Rincover, A. and Peterson, C. R. (1977), Some Determinants Of the Reinforcing and Punishing Effects of Timeout.
Aversive agents are unpleasantly flavored substances added to poisonous household goods in order to discourage children and animals from consuming the poisonous household products. Aversive agents are not intended to be harmful, only unpleasant. For example, to prevent children from consuming poisonous anti-freeze, which has a sweet flavor due to the ethylene glycol, an aversive agent is added, which gives the anti-freeze an unpleasant taste. There are two primary classes of aversive agents: bitterants, chemicals producing a bitter flavor, and pungent agents, chemicals producing an unpleasantly pungent flavor.
A discriminated avoidance experiment involves a series of trials in which a neutral stimulus such as a light is followed by an aversive stimulus such as a shock. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such as a lever press prevents or terminate the aversive stimulus. In early trials, the subject does not make the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early trials are called "escape" trials. As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring.
Aversive Stimulation. University of Miami Press. p. 15Reilly, Steve; Schachtman, Todd R. (2009).
Pavlovian fear conditioning is a behavioral paradigm in which organisms learn to predict aversive events. It is a form of learning in which an aversive stimulus (e.g. an electrical shock) is associated with a particular neutral context (e.g., a room) or neutral stimulus (e.g.
Journal of Social Issues, 41, 157-175. The concept of intergroup anxiety also draws from Aversive Racism Theory, which argues that subconscious negative feelings about Black Americans are an important part of racism against them.Gaertner, S.L. & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). "The aversive form of racism".
Taste aversion is fairly common in humans. When humans eat bad food (e.g., spoiled meat) and get sick, they may find that food aversive until extinction occurs, if ever. Also, as in nature, a food does not have to cause the sickness for it to become aversive.
They are also non-aversive as punishment is not involved. More aversive interventions can be used as latter resort if previous non- aversive intervention have been tried and shown ineffective. Punishment such as time-out and response cost are considered negative punishment, which although is still controversial, is more widely accepted than positive punishment such as overcorrection, contingent exercise, guided compliance and physical restraint. As mentioned punishment should only be used as a last resort when other methods have already been considered.
These negative expectations result in aversive behaviors; however, the behaviors are only a symptom of the original cognitive misconceptions.
Another set of key terms similar to the two the Greeks used to describe hedonic motivation is appetitive emotion and aversive motivation. Appetitive emotions are described as goals that can be associated with the positive hedonic processes of survival and pleasure, such as food and sex. Aversive motivation is about removing oneself from unpleasant situations.
Aversive racism can have serious implications for selection decisions. According to the aversive racism framework, discrimination should occur in situations in which decision can be ostensibly be based on factors other than race. Dovidio and Gaertner (2000) created just such a condition. College students were asked to make hiring recommendations for a campus position.
In drug testing the conditioned reward or aversive effects can be tested in a drug-free state where the animals will not be impaired due to drug use. The testing is also sensitive to the effects of low drug doses. Conditioned place preference is well suited to measure the temporal profile of drugs (the pattern of rewarding and aversive effects) as well as the aversive effects of withdrawal. This can be done by varying the time of drug administration in relation to presentation of the to- be-conditioned context.
When the organism's blood sugar reaches or exceeds an optimum level the taste of sugar becomes less effective or even aversive.
Aversive stimulation is used as a means of increasing or decreasing the likelihood of target behavior. Similar to all methods of self-management, there is a controlling response, and a controlled response. An averse stimuli is sometimes referred to as a punisher or simply an aversive. Closely related to the idea of a punisher is the concept of punishment.
Her work in humans supported the findings from rodents that acquisition of Pavlovian conditioned aversive responses is compared across adolescents and adults.
This measure focuses on the differences in incentive motivations and aversive motivations. As previously mentioned these motivations correlate to impulsivity and anxiety respectively.
In AccessScience. McGraw- Hill Education. In the mid 1950s Lawrence Weiskrantz demonstrated that monkeys with lesions of amygdala failed to avoid an aversive shock while the normal monkeys learned to avoid them. He concluded that a key function of the amygdala was to connect external stimuli with aversive consequences. Following Weiskrantz’s discovery many researchers used avoidance conditioning to study neural mechanisms of fear.
The sea star is eating the bivalve Chama pellucida while three Kelletia kelletii are attempting to get to the prey. An avoidance response is a response that prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. It is a kind of negative reinforcement. An avoidance response is a behavior based on the concept that animals will avoid performing behaviors that result in an aversive outcome.
Fear conditioning in animals is used to model anxiety disorders such as PTSD. Fear conditioning works by pairing an initially neutral stimulus with an aversive stimulus, leading to long-lasting fear memories. In an adult animal, fear conditioning induces a permanent memory resilient to erasure by extinction. After extinction, conditioned fear responses can recover spontaneously after a reexposure to the aversive stimulus.
The aversive or evitative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case found in Australian Aboriginal languages that indicates that the marked noun is avoided or feared.
Research on the dark triad (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy) indicate a correlation with bullying as part of evidence of the aversive nature of those traits.
These are compounds with a very strong and unpleasant smell, which produce powerfully aversive effects without the toxic effects of tear agents or vomiting agents.
The rACC is part of the limbic system, which is responsible for emotional processing. It is hypothesized that the rACC determines the, "correct allocation of attention based resources to emotionally aversive stimuli". This means it may play an active role in identifying important behavioral responses necessary to comprehend the consequences of the aversive stimuli. The limbic system also includes areas that are important for memory consolidation.
In this case, the aversive reaction was an unpleasant or painful feeling. The result of the aversive reaction to the stimulus was a negative feedback to the brain. Within hours her brain was producing fewer spindles as a result of the negative feedback.Physical Control of the Mind: Toward a Psychocivilized Society by Jose M. Delgado - Chapter 11 As a result, Paddy became “quieter, less attentive and less motivated during behavioral testing”.
Catherine Hartley is an American psychologist and an Assistant Professor of Psychology within the Department of Psychology and Center for Neural Science at New York University in New York City. Hartley's research explores how brain development impacts the evaluation of negative experiences, decision making, and motivated behavior. Her work has helped to elucidate how uncontrollable aversive events affect fear learning and how learning to control aversive stimuli can improve emotional resilience.
After viewing a picture of an aversive product, participants rated on a scale of 1 to 7 how desirable the product was and how much they approached of or avoided the product. They also provided how much they would pay for the product. An approach/avoidance effect was found in relation to product evaluation. Participants in the "approach" condition liked the aversive product significantly more and would pay more for it.
Autonomic responses characteristic of various emotions may decrease after performing affect labeling. For instance, upon quantifying their level of anger on a rating scale, subjects subsequently experienced decreases in heart rate and cardiac output. Research also indicates that giving labels to aversive stimuli results in a lower skin conductance response when similar aversive stimuli are presented in the future, implying affect labeling can have long-term effects on autonomic responses.
In college, Duncan co-authored a chapter in the social psychology book Aversive Interpersonal Behaviors. After earning his college degree, Duncan became eligible for the 1997 NBA draft.
Continuing to explore the VP, Creed and her team looked at the role of the GABAergic VP neurons in appetitive and aversive behavior. They first explored human imaging studied to look at the role of the VP in the human brain and found that it tracks reward- sensitivity and motivation to seek rewards. They further found that a subsection of the VP seemed to be implicated in processing aversive information. They mimicked these findings in the rodent brain using in vivo electrophysiology and behavioral pharmacology which poses the question as to how the mechanisms by which the VP is able to elicit such distinct behavioral outputs, aversive or appetitive behaviors, when it plays a role in both.
A patent drawing for the GED, a banned aversive conditioning device Aversives can be used as punishment during applied behavior analysis to reduce unwanted behavior, such as self-injury, that poses a risk of harm greater than that posed by application of the aversive. Aversive stimuli may also be used as negative reinforcement to increase the rate or probability of a behavior by its removal. The use of aversives was developed as a less restrictive alternative to practices prevalent in mental institutions at the time such as shock treatment, hydrotherapy, straitjacketing and frontal lobotomies. Early iterations of the Lovaas technique incorporated aversives during therapy, though the use of aversives in ABA was not without controversy.
Laboratory studies have shown that OPRM1 genotype moderates the subjective effects of naltrexone in social and heavy drinkers, such that G carriers reported reduced sensitivity to the stimulating effects of alcohol. Moreover, a placebo-controlled study of heavy drinkers of East Asian descent demonstrated that G carriers experienced greater sensitivity to alcohol's aversive effects as compared to A homozygotes. There is limited evidence suggesting that quetiapine and varenicline increase the aversive effects of alcohol.
Land et al. first described a mechanism of dysphoria in which corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) provokes dynorphin release. While control mice displayed aversive behaviors in response to forced swim tests and foot shocks, mice lacking dynorphin did not show any such signs of aversion. They noted that injecting CRF led to aversive behaviors in mice with functional genes for dynorphin even in the absence of stress, but not in those with dynorphin gene deletions.
"Systematic desensitization" associates an aversive stimulus with a behavior the client wishes to reduce or eliminate. This is done by imagining the target behavior followed by imagining an aversive consequence. "Covert extinction" attempts to reduce a behavior by imagining the target behavior while imagining that the reinforcer does not occur. "Covert response cost" attempts to reduce a behavior by associating the loss of a reinforcer with the target behavior that is to be decreased.
Understandably, with the negative effects of aversive racism on interracial interaction, interracial teamwork can suffer greatly from aversive racism. The discomfort detected through subtle, nonverbal cues that goes unaddressed openly can easily cause distrust between two individuals. When these individuals are members of the same team, or office, or project it can result in less effective communication and strained relations. This, of course, can drastically decrease the quality of work produced by the team.
Skinner described three contingencies: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Reinforcements create a positive association between the action and consequence in order to promote the continuation of the action. This is done in one of two ways, positive reinforcers introduce a rewarding stimulus, whereas negative reinforcers remove an aversive stimulus to make the environment less aversive. Punishments create a negative relationship between the action and the consequence so that the action does not continue.
Hamann et al. (1999)Hamann, S.B., Ely, T.D., Grafton, S.T., Kilts, C.D. (1999). Amygdala activity related to enhanced memory for pleasant and aversive stimuli. Nature Neuroscience, (2) 3, 289-293.
Once an association is formed between the neutral stimulus and aversive event, a startle response is observed each time the neutral stimulus is presented. An aversion to the presentation of the neutral stimulus is observed after repeated trials. Essential to understanding risk aversion is the implicit learning that occurs during fear-conditioning. Risk aversion is the culmination of implicitly or explicitly acquired knowledge that informs an individual that a particular situation is aversive to their psychological well-being.
This suggests that hypokinetic individuals simply have a narrower range of movement that does not increase relative to motivation. Other studies have come to the same conclusion about rewards and hypokinesia, but have shown that aversive stimuli can, in fact, reduce hypokinesic movement. Dopamine is either less involved or has a more complex role in the response to punishment than it does to rewards, as the hypodopaminergic striatum allows more movement in response to aversive stimuli.
Social distance between whites and non-whites is a distinct aspect of the Canadian community that is identified through the isolation index. The anti-racism movement in Canada has borne aversive racism.
Which one is more attractive to you? The psychological benefit of winning the $150 or losing the $100? “Losses loom larger than gains” meaning that people by nature are aversive to losses.
When warnings such as "Look out!" are heeded, the listener may avoid aversive stimulation. The Lamarre & Holland (1985) study on mands would be one example of a research study in this area.
Brain Injury, 19(10), 753–764.Giles, G. M., Wilson, J., & Dailey, W. (2009). Non-aversive treatment of repetitive absconding behaviour in clients with severe neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 19(1), 28–40.
Initially, applied behavior analysis used punishment such as shouting and slaps to reduce unwanted behaviors. Ethical opposition to such aversive practices caused them to fall out of favor and has stimulated development of less aversive methods. In general, aversion therapy and punishment are now less frequently used as ABA treatments due to legal restrictions. However, procedures such as odor aversion, covert sensitization and other covert conditioning procedures, based on punishment or aversion strategies, are still used effectively in the treatment of pedophiles.
Aversive racism is a theory proposed by Samuel L. Gaertner & John F. Dovidio (1986), according to which negative evaluations of racial/ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism is characterized by more complex, ambivalent expressions and attitudes nonetheless with prejudicial views towards other races.Crisp, R. J. & Turner, R. N. (2007). Essential social psychology.
Aversive racism is a form of implicit racism, in which a person's unconscious negative evaluations of racial or ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups. As opposed to traditional, overt racism, which is characterized by overt hatred for and explicit discrimination against racial/ethnic minorities, aversive racism is characterized by more complex, ambivalent expressions and attitudes. Aversive racism is similar in implications to the concept of symbolic or modern racism (described below), which is also a form of implicit, unconscious, or covert attitude which results in unconscious forms of discrimination. The term was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to a particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes.
One ink is reddish-purple and comes from what is called the purple ink gland, while the other is milky white, comes from what is called the opaline gland, and contains the aversive chemical opaline.
Because aversive racism is neither conscious nor blatantly apparent to others, it is able to survive largely unchallenged by societal pressure for egalitarianism. Thus, outgroups, particularly racial minorities, can be subject to disadvantageous selection processes.
May 10, 2009. Retrieved June 15, 2009. On February 14, 2010, Dizon appeared on live television and discussed making cookies for Bun. Subsequently, she confessed that their relationship had been aversive ever since the birth.
It was also found that from a clinical perspective, the PCS may be useful in identifying individuals that may be more susceptible to high distress responses from aversive medical procedures such as chemotherapy or surgery.
In psychology, aversives are unpleasant stimuli that induce changes in behavior via negative reinforcement or positive punishment. By applying an aversive immediately before or after a behavior the likelihood of the target behavior occurring in the future is reduced. Aversives can vary from being slightly unpleasant or irritating to physically, psychologically and/or emotionally damaging. It is not the level of unpleasantness or intention that matter, but rather the level of effectiveness the unpleasant event has on changing (decreasing) behavior that defines something as aversive.
People who behave in an aversively racial way may profess egalitarian beliefs, and will often deny their racially motivated behavior; nevertheless they change their behavior when dealing with a member of another race or ethnic group than the one they belong to. The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious. Experiments have provided empirical support for the existence of aversive racism. Aversive racism has been shown to have potentially serious implications for decision making in employment, in legal decisions and in helping behavior.
Schiller’s research addressed this question by using a behavioral paradigm called reversal learning in conjunction with physiological skin conductance measurements and neuroimaging. In this task, subjects first learned to associate one of two neutral stimuli with an aversive outcome (acquisition stage), and then had to flexibly modify this learning when the second stimulus began to predict the aversive outcome, while the initial predictive stimulus ceased to do so (reversal stage). The study found that responses in the amygdala and the striatum flexibly tracked the predictive aversive value of the conditioned stimuli, and switched their responses from one stimulus to another when reversal occurred. The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) also participated albeit in the opposite direction, showing stronger responses to the safe stimuli, but also dissociating ‘naïve’ safe stimuli from stimuli that used to be dangerous but are now safe.
A bitterant (or bittering agent) is a chemical that is added to a product to make it smell or taste bitter. Bitterants are commonly used as aversive agents to discourage the inhalation or ingestion of toxic substances.
ABA is controversial within the autism rights movement due to its emphasis on normalization instead of acceptance and a history of, in some embodiments of what was then called behavior modification, the use of aversive electric shocks.
Chin, Jean Lau. Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination: Racism in America. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004. 2 Dec. 2008 Dovidio and Gaertner showed evidence of aversive racism in the 1970s and 1980s with their field research.
92-95, 2.22.52-55 In addition to having insatiable hunger for an aversive item, pretas are said to have disturbing visions. Pretas and human beings occupy the same physical space and while humans looking at a river would see clear water, pretas see the same river flowing with an aversive substance, common examples of such visions include pus and filth. Through the belief and influence of Hinduism and Buddhism in much of Asia, preta figure prominently in the cultures of India, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar.
For instance, in case of the fear of heights (acrophobia), the CS is heights such as a balcony on the top floors of a high rise building. The UCS originates from an aversive or traumatizing event in the person's life, such as almost falling down from a great height. The original fear of almost falling down is associated with being in a high place, leading to a fear of heights. In other words, the CS (heights) associated with the aversive UCS (almost falling down) leads to the CR (fear).
Russian doctor Evgeny Krupitsky has claimed to have obtained encouraging results by using ketamine as part of a treatment for alcohol addiction which combines psychedelic and aversive techniques. Krupitsky and Kolp summarized their work to date in 2007.
So already Rank himself had developed the outlines of a true prenatal psychology. In the light of such assumptions he interpreted cultural aspects. F. i. he understood Christian fantasies of the hell as being based on aversive intrauterine situations.
All basic tastes are classified as either appetitive or aversive, depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial.Why do two great tastes sometimes not taste great together? scientificamerican.com. Dr. Tim Jacob, Cardiff University. 22 May 2009.
Keeling, L.J. and Gonyou, H.W. CABI, Oxford. Alarm or aversive stimuli are transmitted to other pigs not only by auditory cues but also by pheromones. Similarly, recognition between the sow and her piglets is by olfactory and vocal cues.
This theory was originally proposed in order to explain discriminated avoidance learning, in which an organism learns to avoid an aversive stimulus by escaping from a signal for that stimulus. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the escape response: a) Classical conditioning of fear. Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS with an aversive US. The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) – "fear." b) Reinforcement of the operant response by fear-reduction. As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination.
In R. M. Kaplan, V. J. Konečni & R. W. Novaco (Eds.), Aggression in children and youth (pp. 1–43). The Hague, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.Konečni, V. J. (1979). The role of aversive events in the development of inter-group conflict.
Such trials are called "avoidance trials." This experiment is said to involve classical conditioning because a neutral CS (conditioned stimulus) is paired with the aversive US (unconditioned stimulus); this idea underlies the two-factor theory of avoidance learning described below.
Both, S., Everaerd, W., Laan, E. (2003). Modulation of spinal reflexes by aversive and sexually appetitive stimuli. Psychophysiology, 40, 174-183. Other researchers have stated that there is a lack of concordance between women's subjective sexual arousal and their genital arousal.
Anthraquinone is a secondary repellent that has a laxative effect that is not instantaneous. Because of this it is most effective on resident populations of wildlife that will have time to learn an aversive response (Izhaki 2002, DeVault et al. 2013).
Although the avoidance response is often advantageous and has developed because it is adaptive, it can sometimes be harmful or become obsessive. Such is the case with obsessive compulsive disorder, a disorder involving mental obsessions followed by actions performed often repetitively, to relieve the anxiety of the obsessions, panic disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. In panic disorder, a person learns to avoid certain situations such as being in crowded places because when they enter these situations, a panic attack (aversive stimulus) ensues. People with obsessive compulsive disorder may learn to avoid using public restrooms because it produces anxiety in them (aversive stimulus).
In April 2014, the United States Food and Drug Administration announced a public hearing where a panel of neurological devices experts would consider whether or not the FDA should issue a ban of electric shock aversive conditioning devices like the GED. In April 2016, the Food and Drug Administration took the further step of formally proposing a regulatory ban on electric shock aversive conditioning devices. In 2020 the FDA issued the final rule banning the device with only minor changes from the 2016 draft. The GED was the third medical device ever banned by the FDA in the organization's history.
Learned helplessness is behavior exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control. It was initially thought to be caused from the subject's acceptance of their powerlessness: discontinuing attempts to escape or avoid the aversive stimulus, even when such alternatives are unambiguously presented. Upon exhibiting such behavior, the subject was said to have acquired learned helplessness. Over the past few decades, neuroscience has provided insight into learned helplessness and shown that the original theory actually had it backwards: the brain's default state is to assume that control is not present, and the presence of "helpfulness" is what is actually learned.
The amygdala plays a critical role in the evaluation of actual or potential threats. Imagining oneself in a painful and potentially dangerous situation thus might have triggered a stronger fearful and/or aversive response than imagining someone else in the same situation.
The Metro section usually reports the weather forecast. The Sports section reports sports-related news. Before social media became popular, the Metro and Sports sections contained "The Vent" features, where readers expressed opinions about current events.Robin M. Kowalski, Aversive Interpersonal Behaviors, 2013, p.
The right superior temporal gyrus was the most significantly activated area during the processing happiness. The right superior temporal gyrus increasingly responds to an increasingly happy stimuli, while the left pulvinar increasingly responds to increasingly fearful stimuli. The right pulvinar is activated during aversive conditioning.
In 2014, Kawakami conducted a study investigating aversive racism in Canada using eye tracking technology. Over one thousand white participants were shown images of white faces and black faces on a computer screen.McCue, D. (November 12, 2014). "Racism still an uncomfortable truth in Canada".
In insect and mammalian taste, receptor cells changes into attractive or aversive stimulus. The number of taste receptors in a mammalian tongue and on the tongue of the fly (labellum) is same in amount. Most of the receptors are dedicated to detect repulsive ligand.
Trimethylthiazoline (TMT; sometimes called fox odor) is a constituent of fox urine and feces that may be an innately aversive odor to rodents. The chemical is liquid at room temperature and has a very light yellow color which darkens on oxygen exposure over time.
The monkeys' eye-gaze was used as a proxy for preference or aversion. Since the realistic 3D monkey face was looked at less than either the real photo, or the unrealistic 3D monkey face, this was interpreted as an indication that the monkey participants found the realistic 3D face aversive, or otherwise preferred the other two images. As one would expect with the uncanny valley, more realism can lead to less positive reactions, and this study demonstrated that neither human-specific cognitive processes, nor human culture explain the uncanny valley. In other words, this aversive reaction to realism can be said to be evolutionary in origin.
Relief is often discussed as one concept, but when asking people to think of scenarios where they experienced relief, about half thought of near-miss scenarios, and the other half thought of task- completion scenarios. Near-miss relief is when you narrowly avoid something aversive, for example, a test you did not study for was cancelled. Task- completed relief is when you finish an aversive task, for instance you complete your tax returns . To test whether there really are two distinct types of relief, the researchers created a scenario where people had to sing a song in front of an experiment leader after listening to the song once.
An experiment was conducted that had 12 men and 12 women view an assortment of images (emotional and nonemotional). Three weeks after the experiment a follow-up study was conducted testing the memory of those individuals, and it was "revealed that highly emotional pictures were remembered best, and remembered better by women than by men". One study performed an MRI scan on 40 patients after showing them aversive and non- aversive photographs proceeded by a warning stimulus. This experiment found that "previously reported sex differences of memory associations with left amygdala for women and with right amygdala for men were confined to the ventral amygdala during picture viewing and delayed memory".
Aversive approval: Interactive effects of modeling and reinforcement on altruistic behavior. Child Development, 44, 321–328 Two studies exist in which modeling by itself did not increase prosocial behavior;Harris, M.B.(1970). Reciprocity and generosity: Some determinants of sharing in children. Child Development, 41, 313–328.
Motivation is a person's internal disposition to be concerned with and approach positive incentives and avoid negative incentives. To further this, an incentive is the anticipated reward or aversive event available in the environment.Deckers, L. (2010). Motivation; Biological, Psychological and Environmental. (3rd ed., pp. 2–3).
Although it has generally fallen out of favor, at least one institution continues uses electric shocks on the skin an aversive. A ruling in 2018 supported its continued use. The FDA has made a commitment to ban its use, but as of January 2019 has not yet done so.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Due to the different effects of the different classes of drugs, the SMH postulates that the appeal of a specific class of drugs differs from person to person. In fact, some drugs may be aversive for individuals for whom the effects could worsen affective deficits.
22-kHz calls can range from 18-32-kHz, 40-kHz calls range from 40-70-kHz, and 50-kHz calls range from 35-72-kHz. The 22-kHz vocalizations of adults and the 40-kHz vocalizations of pups are emitted in response to aversive situations or noxious stimuli.
Festinger's original theory did not seek to explain how dissonance works. Why is inconsistency so aversive? The action–motivation model seeks to answer this question. It proposes that inconsistencies in a person's cognition cause mental stress, because psychological inconsistency interferes with the person's functioning in the real world.
The delay reduction hypothesis was developed in 1969 by Edmund Fantino. As a hypothesis, delay reduction proposes that delays are aversive to organisms and that choices will be made by the organism to reduce delay.O'Daly & Fantino (2003): Delay Reduction Theory. The Behavior Analyst Today, 4 (2), 141–155.
Positive reinforcement is any stimulus that is presented after a behavior and increases the frequency of that behavior. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an aversive stimulus after a behavior that increases the frequency of that behavior. Both positive and negative reinforcement are effective in the development of industriousness.
Nichols (2006) compiled some common clinical issues: countertransference, non-disclosure, coming out, partner/families, and bleed-through. Countertransference is a common problem in clinical settings. Despite having no evidence, therapists may find themselves believing that their client's pathology is "self-evident". Therapists may feel intense disgust and aversive reactions.
Rachman proposed three pathways to acquiring fear conditioning: classical conditioning, vicarious acquisition and informational/instructional acquisition. Much of the progress in understanding the acquisition of fear responses in phobias can be attributed to classical conditioning (Pavlovian model). When an aversive stimulus and a neutral one are paired together, for instance when an electric shock is given in a specific room, the subject can start to fear not only the shock but the room as well. In behavioral terms, this is described as a conditioned stimulus (CS) (the room) that is paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (the shock), which leads to a conditioned response (CR) (fear for the room) (CS+UCS=CR).
Miller and Sweatt demonstrated that rats trained in a contextual fear conditioning paradigm had elevated levels of mRNA for DNMT3a and DNMT3b in the hippocampus. Fear conditioning is an associative memory task where a context, like a room, is paired with an aversive stimulus, like a foot shock; animals who have learned the association show higher levels of freezing behavior when exposed to the context even in the absence of the aversive stimulation. However, when rats were treated with the DNMT inhibitors zebularine or 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine immediately after fear-conditioning, they demonstrated reduced learning (freezing behavior). When treated rats were re-trained 24 hours later, they performed as well as non-treated rats.
In recent years correlations between birth weight and shyness have been studied. Findings suggest that those born at low birth weights are more likely to be shy, risk-aversive and cautious compared to those born at normal birth weights. These results do not however imply a cause-and-effect relationship.
For instance, in support of TMT, many experiments have shown that reminding people of their own mortality (versus a neutral or aversive control topic) leads people to defend their cultural worldviews more vigorously. For instance, people who are briefly reminded of death are more dismissive of someone who criticizes their culture.
The rapid modulation of sniffing upon inhalation of a novel odor or an irritating odor is evidence for an "olfactomotor" loop in the brain. In this loop, novel odor-evoked sniffing behavior can occur rapidly upon perception of a novel odor, one of interest, or an odor which is aversive.
Brown, Lydia. "Moral and Legal Bases for Banning Aversive Conditioning Devices Used for Contingent Electric Shock Lydia Brown Comment", April 18, 2014. Brown maintains a living archive of documents and other resources related to the JRC on their website.Brown, Lydia. "Judge Rotenberg Center Living Archive", last updated July 22, 2016.
Refers to an aversive form of heightened 'public self-consciousness' characterized by the feelings that one is under intensive evaluation or scrutiny.Sutton, R. I., & Galunic, D. C. (1996). Consequences of public scrutiny for leaders and their organizations. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol.
Paulhus and Williams (2002) coined the term "dark triad" in referring to three socially aversive personalities: Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. The research showed both similarities and differences among the three constructs.Paulhus, D.L., & Williams, K. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556-568.
The controversy, as outlined in the 2006 American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC) Task Force Report, has broadly centered around "holding therapy" and coercive, restraining, or aversive procedures. These include deep tissue massage, aversive tickling, punishments related to food and water intake, enforced eye contact, requiring children to submit totally to adult control over all their needs, barring normal social relationships outside the primary caretaker, encouraging children to regress to infant status, reparenting, attachment parenting, or techniques designed to provoke cathartic emotional discharge. Variants of these treatments have carried various labels that change frequently. They may be known as "rebirthing therapy", "compression therapy", "corrective attachment therapy", "the Evergreen model", "holding time", "rage- reduction therapy" or "prolonged parent-child embrace therapy".
Egotism is defined as the drive to maintain and enhance favorable views of oneself, and generally features an inflated opinion of one's personal features and importance distinguinshed by a persons amplified vision of ones self and self importance. It often includes intellectual, physical, social and other overestimations.Robin M. Kowalski ed., Aversive Interpersonal Behaviors (1997) p.
Smith also makes the case that failing to sympathize with another person may not be aversive to ourselves but we may find the emotion of the other person unfounded and blame them, as when another person experiences great happiness or sadness in response to an event that we think should not warrant such a response.
Tobacco provides individuals with a way of controlling aversive emotional states accompanying daily experiences of stress that characterize the lives of deprived and vulnerable individuals.Whalen, C.K.; Jamner, L.D.; Henker, B. & Delfino, R.J. (2001). Smoking and moods in adolescents with depressive and aggressive dispositions: Evidence from surveys and electronic diaries. Health Psychology, 20, 99–111.
New York: Academic, 1974. Print. The punishment side of aversion therapy is when an aversive stimulus is presented at the same time that a negative stimulus and then they are stopped at the same time when a positive stimulus or response is presented.Bellack, Alan S., and Michel Hersen. Dictionary of Behavior Therapy Techniques, pp. 14.
"ARS and New Mexico Scientists Take a Long Look at Livestock and Locoweed" by Ann Perry, June 21, 2010 Agricultural Research Service, accessed September 29, 2010 Conditioned food aversion has been used experimentally to discourage livestock from eating it. In horses, a small study has shown promising results using lithium chloride as the aversive agent.
The connections of the amygdalofugal pathway to the nucleus accumbens plays a role in the perception of a stimulus as either gratifying or aversive. The nucleus accumbens, along with other regions of the ventral striatum and the prefrontal cortex, is one of the major targets of ascending dopaminergic pathways originating from the ventral tegmental area.
Guilt has been defined as "an agitation-based emotion or painful feeling of regret that is aroused when the actor actually causes, anticipates causing, or is associated with an aversive event" (Fergusen & Stegge, 1998).Ferguson T. J. & Stegge H. (1998). Measuring guilt in children: a rose by any other name still has thorns. In Guilt and Children, ed.
In the context of sport, a model was created by R.S. Lazarus in 1991 that uses the cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion.Lazarus, R.S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. Oxford University Press, New York: Another study was done in 2001 by Conroy, Poczwardowski, and Henschen that created five aversive consequences of failing that have been repeated over time.
Automatic negative reinforcement is when a negative reinforcement occurs automatically reducing or eliminating an aversive stimulus as a reinforcing consequence of the behavior. A popular example of automatic negative reinforcement would be binge eating. Binge eating (problem behavior) had been found to temporarily reduce any unpleasant emotions the person may be experiencing before the binge (automatic negative reinforcement).
Small rodents can be used to study aversive conditioning and emotional memory, and contextual/spatial memory. To reduce memory and learning to its genetic basis, mice can be genetically modified and studied.Chan, C.S., & Chen, H. & Bradley, A., & Dragatis, I., & Rosenmund, C., & Davis, R.L. (2010). alpha 8 integrins are required for hippocampal longterm potentiation but not for hippocamptal- dependant learning.
Reinforcement, a key concept of behaviorism, is the primary process that shapes and controls behavior, and occurs in two ways: positive and negative. In The Behavior of Organisms (1938), Skinner defines negative reinforcement to be synonymous with punishment, i.e. the presentation of an aversive stimulus. This definition would subsequently be re-defined in Science and Human Behavior (1953).
During this period, Craig and his wife lived in Scotland for two years. In the mid-1930s the American ornithologist Margaret Morse Nice instigated a contact with Konrad Lorenz, an Austrian naturalist. Craig and Lorenz exchanged letters concerning key concepts of behavior such as reflex, instinct, taxis, tropism, learning, as well as search, appetitive and aversive behavior.
Unconditioned aversive stimuli naturally result in pain or discomfort and are often associated with biologically harmful or damaging substances or events. Examples include extreme heat or cold, bitter flavors, electric shocks, loud noises and pain. Aversives can be applied naturally (such as touching a hot stove) or in a contrived manner (such as during torture or behavior modification).
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10: 415-424. doi:10.1901/jaba.1977.10-415 In addition, some things that are aversive may not be punishing if accompanying changes are reinforcing. A classic example would be mis-behavior that is 'punished' by a teacher but actually increases over time due to the reinforcing effects of attention on the student.
Woman portraying the condition of distress Charity relieving stress of an overloaded mother. In medicine, distress is an aversive state in which a person is unable to completely adapt to stressors and their resulting stress and shows maladaptive behaviors. It can be evident in the presence of various phenomena, such as inappropriate social interaction (e.g., aggression, passivity, or withdrawal).
Schematic representation of the apparatus used for the plus-maze discriminative avoidance test. Like the standard EPM, the apparatus used in the plus-maze discriminative avoidance test (PMDAT) has four arms. This test has been used to investigate interactions between aversive memory and anxiety responses in rodents. The apparatus has two open arms opposite to two enclosed arms.
For example, you try to be as friendly and pleasant as possible to put Dick in a good mood before asking him to study. # Pre-giving: Reward the person before requesting compliance. For example, raise Dick's allowance and tell him you now expect him to study. # Aversive stimulation: Continuously punish the person, making cessation contingent on compliance.
Both the opaline and ink gland secrete different substances that when mixed together form the ink released during phagomimicry. The secretion is very acidic (ink having a pH of 4.9 and opaline having a pH of 5.8) and contains high levels of bioactive molecules that can serve as feeding stimulants, feeding deterrents, and aversive compounds. Feeding stimulants can be found in both the ink and opaline secretions in the form of amino acids (such as lysine and arginine), and serve to trick predators into thinking that the ink secretion is a food source. To induce the aversive feeding effects on predators the ink contains a compound from the opaline gland produced from the oxidation of L-lysine, which is then mixed in the mantle with the L-amino acid oxidase from the ink gland.
The American Psychological Association defines conversion therapy or reparative therapy as therapy aimed at changing sexual orientation. The American Psychiatric Association states that conversion therapy or reparative therapy is a type of psychiatric treatment "based upon the assumption that homosexuality per se is a mental disorder or based upon the a priori assumption that a patient should change his/her sexual homosexual orientation." Conversion therapy comprises efforts by mental health professionals to convert lesbians and gay men to heterosexuality, and that techniques include psychoanalysis, group therapy, reparative therapy, and involvement in ex-gay ministries such as Exodus International. Aversive conditioning involving electric shock or nausea- inducing drugs was practiced before 1973, as was sex therapy, though there are some reports of aversive treatments through unlicensed practice as late as the 1990s.
The social emotions such as "generosity, humanity, kindness, compassion, mutual friendship and esteem" are considered overwhelmingly with approbation by the impartial spectator. The agreeableness of the "benevolent" sentiments leads to full sympathy on the part of the spectator with both the person concerned and the object of these emotions and are not felt as aversive to the spectator if they are in excess.
A number of different strategies are employed in healthcare settings for the management of challenging behavior. A theoretical rationale for a collection of short-term non-aversive behavior management strategies described as low arousal approaches is to avoid the use of punishing consequences to behavior.McDonnell, McEvoy & Dearden, (1994) The approach acknowledges the potential role of cognitive behavioral frameworks in shaping staff behavior.
The right and left portions of the amygdala have independent memory systems, but work together to store, encode, and interpret emotion. The right hemisphere is associated with negative emotion. It plays a role in the expression of fear and in the processing of fear-inducing stimuli. Fear conditioning, which occurs when a neutral stimulus acquires aversive properties, occurs within the right hemisphere.
In the vocabulary of classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus or context is the "conditional stimulus" (CS), the aversive stimulus is the "unconditional stimulus" (US), and the fear is the "conditional response" (CR). PTSD studies. Fear conditioning has been studied in numerous species, from snails to humans. In humans, conditioned fear is often measured with verbal report and galvanic skin response.
Learning can be shown when the rodent reduces its average number of errors or wrong turns. Aversive techniques such as the Morris Water Maze can also be used to study spatial memory. The rat is placed in murky water surrounded by sheer walls containing spatial cues. Learning is shown when the rat swims a more direct route to the obscured platform.
While unpleasant, temporary feelings of loneliness are sometimes experienced by almost everyone, and are not thought to cause long term harm. Early 20th century work sometimes treated loneliness as a wholly negative phenomena. Yet transient loneliness is now generally considered beneficial. The capacity to feel it may have been evolutionarily selected for, a healthy aversive emotion that motivates individuals to strengthen social connections.
Punishment can be the application of an aversive stimulus/event (positive punishment or punishment by contingent stimulation) or the removal of a desirable stimulus (negative punishment or punishment by contingent withdrawal). Though punishment is often used to suppress behavior, Skinner argued that this suppression is temporary and has a number of other, often unwanted, consequences.Skinner, B. F. 1953. Science and Human Behavior.
This indicates that increasing CREB reverses the positive effects of cocaine. Northern blot analysis several days after CREB overexpression showed a marked increase in dynorphin mRNA in the nucleus accumbens. Blocking KORs with an antagonist (norBNI) blocked the aversive effects caused by CREB overexpression. Thus, cocaine use ultimately appears to lead to an increase in the transcription of prodynorphin mRNA.
Together, these two pathways are collectively termed the mesocorticolimbic projection. The VTA also sends dopaminergic projections to the amygdala, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, and olfactory bulb. Mesocorticolimbic neurons play a central role in reward and other aspects of motivation. Accumulating literature shows that dopamine also plays a crucial role in aversive learning through its effects on a number of brain regions.
Here, it seems advisable to reduce overcontrol (e.g., negative fantasies, excessive impulse control, too much planning) and rather motivate oneself by reframing (positive fantasies) or by changing aversive framework conditions, for instance by conducting the sales pitch in a neutral environment. If the 3C-check shows support from all three components (represented by the overlap section of the three circles in Fig.
Pain, loud noises, foul tastes, bright lights, and exclusion are all things that would pass the "caveman test" as an aversive stimulus, and are therefore primary punishers. The sound of someone booing, the wrong-answer buzzer on a game show, and a ticket on your car windshield are all things you have learned to think about as negative, and are considered secondary punishers.
In free-operant avoidance a subject periodically receives an aversive stimulus (often an electric shock) unless an operant response is made; the response delays the onset of the shock. In this situation, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals the shock. Two crucial time intervals determine the rate of avoidance learning. This first is the S-S (shock-shock) interval.
Approach motivation (i.e., incentive salience) can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is rewarded or results in a positive or desirable outcome. In contrast, avoidance motivation (i.e., aversive salience) can be defined as when a certain behavior or reaction to a situation/environment is punished or results in a negative or undesirable outcome.
Nalfurafine has been found to be effective in a variety of animal models relevant to drug abuse, addiction, and dependence, and may represent a novel potential treatment for these maladies. In rodents, the drug attenuates the discriminative and rewarding effects of cocaine and the rewarding and locomotor effects of morphine, and diminishes the mecamylamine-precipitated aversive effect of nicotine withdrawal.
Dovidio and Gaertner introduced three psychological supports for aversive racism. As humans, people are predisposed to cognitive categorization. By categorizing people into different groups, it allows us to see the differences that exist between other groups compared to the groups we've put ourselves in. By recognizing these differences, we are then motivated to control our environment around us when we interact with outgroups.
Negative Reinforcement: Persuade the user by removing an aversive stimulus. For example, turning a brown and dying nature scene green and healthy as the user conducts more healthy behaviors. Positive Reinforcement: Persuade the user by adding a positive stimulus. For example, adding flowers, butterflies, and other nice-looking elements to any empty nature scene, as the user conducts more healthy behaviors.
The pigs lose consciousness within 13 to 30 seconds. Older research produced conflicting results, with some showing pigs tolerated CO2 stunning and others showing they did not. However, the current scientific consensus is that the "inhalation of high concentration of carbon dioxide is aversive and can be distressing to animals." Nitrogen has been used to induce unconsciousness, often in conjunction with CO2.
The consultant will visit the client and animal in its current environment, and observe the animal. If practically and ethically possible, the consultant will observe the animal engaging in the problem behavior and identify the antecedents and consequences of that behavior. # Intervention design. Certified animal behavior consultants will design interventions that conform to the Least Invasive, Minimally Aversive (LIMA) model of behavior modification.
Individuals who have had bulimia or who intentionally induced vomiting in the past have a reduced chance for improvement due to the reinforced behavior. The technique is not used with infants or young children due to the complex timing and concentration required for it to be successful. Most infants grow out of the disorder within a year or with aversive training.
It allows both rewarding and aversive effects to be tested and it provides unique information about the motivational effects of unconditioned stimuli. Although the protocol is most often used with mice and rats, it can be adapted for use in other species such as birds and other rodents.Hughes RA, Baker MR, Rettig KM (1995) Cocaine-conditioned place preference in young precocial domestic fowl.
These improvements sometimes resulted in dramatic increases in performance. Gilbert developed the behavior and environment registers of the model outlined above with the basic framework of the Skinnerian operant behavioral model. This framework = Discriminative Stimulus --> Response --> Reinforcing or Aversive Stimulus (= SD --> R --> S+/-). This paradigm can be summarized as the ABC model: Antecedents lead to Behaviors which, in turn, lead to Consequences.
Motivational salience is a cognitive process and a form of attention that motivates or propels an individual's behavior towards or away from a particular object, perceived event or outcome. Motivational salience regulates the intensity of behaviors that facilitate the attainment of a particular goal, the amount of time and energy that an individual is willing to expend to attain a particular goal, and the amount of risk that an individual is willing to accept while working to attain a particular goal. Motivational salience is composed of two component processes that are defined by their attractive or aversive effects on an individual's behavior relative to a particular stimulus: incentive salience and aversive salience. Incentive salience is the attractive form of motivational salience that causes approach behavior, and is associated with operant reinforcement, desirable outcomes, and pleasurable stimuli.
Specifically, she found that stimulating dynorphinergic cells in the ventral shell of the NAc elicits aversive responses via KOR activation while stimulating dynorphinergic cells in the dorsal shell of the NAc elicits appetitive behaviors mediated by KOR signalling. Her work in the Bruchas Lab led to her winning an NIH Pathway to Independence Award (K99/R00) which provided her the funding to start her own lab.
Examples of stress-inducing tasks include those that require the individual to persist in tracing a computerized mirror under timed conditions (i.e. computerized mirror tracing persistence task)Strong DR, Lejuez CW, Daughters S, Marinello M, Kahler CW, Brown RA. Unpublished manual. 2003. The computerized mirror tracing task, version 1. or complete a series of time- sensitive math problems for which incorrect answers produce an aversive noise (i.e.
Fantasy proneness: Developmental antecedents. Journal of Personality 55, 121–137. not only tested the construct validity of such a personality but also tried to precisely identify the early life experiences which direct the development of fantasy proneness. In particular, three kinds of early experiences were tested: encouragement to fantasize from a significant adult, high levels of involvement in artistic activities, and isolating or aversive environments.
The TMAS scale was frequently used in the past, however, its use has declined over the years due to problems with the validity of this self- report measure. Participants use their own judgement when answering questions, which causes internal and construct validity issues, which makes the interpretation of results difficult.Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states.
Aversive conditioning deters bears by modifying their behaviour. Deterrents such as noise makers and rubber bullets are used each time the bear performs an undesirable action. Advice is also given to people to avoid an eventual habituation of bears to human presence. If this conditioning is continual the bear will be less likely to continue the undesirable behaviour (crossing into campsites and roads etc.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. This Anger-Aggression Bidirectional-Causation (AABC) theoretical model parsimoniously accounts for hundreds of experimental findings in the literature. These ideas have also been applied to the role of aversive events in the development of intergroup conflict. Subsequently, Konečni's writing on aggression was extended to the concept of revenge and the expression of anger and violence on the stage and in literature.
Monkeys given extremely high (> 20 mg/kg) doses of etoxadrol died of apparent respiratory failure. Etoxadrol produces a wide variety of dreams, ranging from pleasant to frightening or aversive. Approximately half of patients given etoxadrol report pleasant dreams, 25% report unpleasant dreams, and the remaining 25% experience no dreams at all. Such dreams were frequently described as “floating,” “puffy” or “out of this world.
When dopamine, an aversive olfactory stimulant, is applied it activates PKA specifically in the vertical mushroom body lobes. This spatial specificity is regulated by the dunce (dnc) PDE, a cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase. If the dunce gene is abolished, as found in the dnc mutant, the spatial specificity is not maintained. In contrast, an appetitive stimulation created by an octopamine application increases PKA in all lobes.
Counter-conditioning is the process of altering a parrot's behavior to a stimulus by altering the consequence from aversive to positive. If a parrot bites an approaching hand in self-defense, the biting behavior can be counter-conditioned by supplementing the approaching hand with positive reinforcement. Instead of biting, the parrot will learn to accept the approaching hand because it is coupled with positive reinforcement.
Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: the disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490. Group members tend to experience similar moods based on several theoretical mechanisms, including the selection and composition of group members, the socialization of group members, and exposure of group members to the same affective events, such as task demands and outcomes.Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996).
This is the case, for instance, when important, but aversive tasks need to be fulfilled. Volition Type 2 is needed for tasks that are supported by the heart but not the head; such situations may be experienced as temptation or fear. Lacking support by the component hand requires problem-solving mechanisms to compensate one's lacking skills and abilities, for instance by asking others for help.
Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior. As with reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed (negative punishment). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli (e.g., pain), response cost (removal of desirable stimuli as in monetary fines), and restriction of freedom (as in a 'time out').
Aversive racism may have similar negative implications for bias in legal decisions. Johnson and colleagues examined the effects of introducing damaging inadmissible evidence on the judgments of white jurors. The race of the defendant was manipulated to be either black or white. When exposed to only admissible evidence, jurors were not affected by the race of the defendant and perceived both whites and blacks as equally guilty.
But being the owner of such a large swath of land, he is, by extension, in charge of the physical well-being of the town. An example of his power is when he decides to allow Comala to starve and do nothing with the fields and with the crops. The town withers on his apathy and indifference. The entire work centers around his actions, appetitive and aversive.
Injections of GnRH in male birds immediately after an aggressive territorial encounter results in higher testosterone levels than what is observed naturally during an aggressive territorial encounter. A compromised GnRH system has aversive effects on reproductive physiology and maternal behavior. In comparison to female mice with a normal GnRH system, female mice with a 30% decrease in GnRH neurons are poor caregivers to their offspring.
Trace amine-associated receptor 9 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TAAR9 gene. TAAR9 is a member of a large family of rhodopsin G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs, or GPRs). GPCRs contain 7 transmembrane domains and transduce extracellular signals through heterotrimeric G proteins.[supplied by OMIM] N-Methyl piperidine is a ligand of TAAR9 associated with aversive behavior in mice.
Mice with pre-trial sleep deprivation also took significantly longer to learn a task than well- rested mice. Sleep deprivation is also implicated in impaired ability to retrieve stored long-term memories. When an aversive stimulus was included in a trial (i.e., a blowdryer would blast hot air and noise at a mouse), mice that were sleep deprived were less anxious on subsequent trials.
Alcohol consumption impairs affective processing and therefore leads to abnormal responses to environmental stimuli. A study involving 42 abstinent alcoholics and 46 nonalcoholic demonstrates that alcoholics usually have lower emotional responsivity to erotic, happy, aversive, and gruesome stimuli. However, an in-depth analysis of fMRI images reveals gender differences. Alcoholic men have reduced emotional responsivity while alcoholic women have increased emotional responsivity to positive affective stimuli.
However, the boundaries between these forms of memory are not clear-cut, and they can vary depending on the task. Intermediate-term memory is thought to be supported by the parahippocampal cortex. In 1993, Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrated that, in rats conditioned with an aversive stimulus, percent avoidance of the stimulus (and, by implication, memory of the aversive nature of the stimulus) reached relative minima at one minute, fifteen minutes, and sixty minutes. These dips were theorized to correspond to the time points in which the rats switched from working memory to intermediate-term memory, from intermediate-term memory to the early phase of long-term memory, and from the early phase of long-term memory to the late phase of long-term memory, respectively—thus demonstrating the presence of a form of memory that exists between working memory and long-term memory, which they referred to as "intermediate-term memory".
Overall, the role of amygdala in loss anticipation suggested that loss aversion may reflect a Pavlovian conditioned approach-avoidance response. Hence, there is a direct link between individual differences in the structural properties of this network and the actual consequences of its associated behavioral defense responses. The neural activity involved in the processing of aversive experience and stimuli is not just a result of a temporary fearful overreaction prompted by choice-related information, but rather a stable component of one's own preference function, reflecting a specific pattern of neural activity encoded in the functional and structural construction of a limbic-somatosensory neural system anticipating heightened aversive state of the brain. Even when no choice is required, individual differences in the intrinsic responsiveness of this interoceptive system reflect the impact of anticipated negative effects on evaluative processes, leading preference for avoiding losses rather than acquiring greater but riskier gains.
The relationship between all the areas in the limbic system is an area of interest for psychic numbing because it encapsulates two factors that contribute to the phenomenon: emotions and memory. These studies are also a good paradigm for the understanding of psychic numbing because they considers sustained aversive material and how the brain reacts in a habitual manner in an effort to remove the underlying emotional content.
Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional stability. According to Hans Eysenck's (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism is interlinked with low tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli. Neuroticism is a classic temperament trait that has been studied in temperament research for decades, before it was adapted by the FFM.
Putative trace amine-associated receptor 3 (TAAR3) is a human pseudogene with the gene symbol TAAR3P. Retrieved 28 November 2019 In other species such as mice, TAAR3 is a functional protein-coding gene that encodes a trace amine- associated receptor protein. Ligands: Isobutylamine is a known ligand of TAAR3 in mice associated with sexual behaviour in male mice. Isopentylamine was identified as a ligand for murine TAAR3 eliciting aversive behavior.
It is also well known that emotional situations produce an "adrenaline rush". This adrenaline, as well as cortisol (adrenocortical hormone) serve to influence an organism's response to stress, but also may aid future responding by enhancing declarative memory of them. Negative emotional experiences may be remembered better than positive experiences. Goddard found that retention was disrupted with electrical stimulation of AC after aversive learning, but not with appetitively motivated learning.
One such example is fenfluramine, which was previously marketed as an appetite suppressant. Dopamine antagonists generally result in the depression of ICSS responding and a rightward-shift in the frequency-rate curve. This suggests decreased BSR and possibly increased aversive properties of the stimulation. Following chronic treatment with a dopamine antagonist, there is withdrawal-induced facilitation of ICSS, the opposite effect of what is observed following chronic treatment with stimulants.
To render food unpleasant or dangerous to consume, it is denatured by adding a substance known as a denaturant. Aversive agents—primarily bitterants and pungent agents—are used to produce an unpleasant flavor. For example, the bitterant denatonium might be added to food used in a laboratory, where such food is not intended for human consumption. A poisonous substance may be added as an even more powerful deterrent.
Traditionally, laboratory mice have been picked up by the base of the tail. However, recent research has shown that this type of handling increases anxiety and aversive behaviour. Instead, handling mice using a tunnel or cupped hands is advocated. In behavioural tests, tail-handled mice show less willingness to explore and to investigate test stimuli, as opposed to tunnel-handled mice which readily explore and show robust responses to test stimuli.
Early electrical collars provided only a single, high-level shock and were useful only to punish undesirable behavior.Lindsay, 2005, p. 583 Modern electrical collars are adjustable, allowing the trainer to match the stimulation level to the dog's sensitivity and temperament. They deliver a measured level of aversive stimulation that produces a wide range of sensation, from a mildly irritating tingle or tap sensation to severe discomfort or pain.
Beyond addictive behavior, opponent-process theory can in principle explain why processes (i.e. situations or subjective states) that are aversive and unpleasant can still be rewarding. For instance, after being exposed to a stressful situation (cold pressor test), human participants showed greater physiological signs of well-being than those in the control condition.Deuter, C. E., Kuehl, L. K., Blumenthal, T. D., Schulz, A., Oitzl, M. S., & Schachinger, H. (2012).
A drone bee Honeybees extend their proboscis when learning about novel odours. In one study on this response, bees learnt to discriminate between two odours, but then learned to suppress the proboscis extension response when one of the odours was paired with an electric shock. This indicates the sensation was aversive to the bee, however, the response was plastic rather than simply reflexive, indicating pain rather than nociception.
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays a significant role in motivation and the creation of emotion. An emotion can be seen as comprising both a feeling and a motivation based on that feeling. According to one view, the “feeling” is represented in the insula, while the “motivation” is represented in the ACC. Many interoceptive tasks activate the insula and ACC together, specifically tasks that elicit strong aversive feeling states like pain.
Usually, treatment is not required for somniloquy because it generally does not disturb sleep or cause other problems. But a behavioral treatment has already shown results in the past. Le Boeuf (1979) used an automated auditory signal to treat chronic sleep-talking in a patient suffering from sleep talking for 6 years. An aversive sound was produced for 5 seconds when the patient started talking in his sleep.
This fatigue can refer to both physical and mental fatigue depending on the task at hand. Until the theory of learned industriousness, effort was generally considered an aversive sensation. Hull summed up this concept with the Law of Least Effort, which asserts that individuals will choose a solution that minimizes effort for any given problem. Learned industriousness theory is considered an addendum to the Law of Least Effort.
For example, in a neuroimaging study of how individuals with psychopathy respond to emotional words, widespread differences in activation patterns have been shown across the temporal lobe when psychopathic criminals were compared to "normal" volunteers, which is consistent with views in clinical psychology. Additionally, the notion of psychopathy being characterized by low fear is consistent with findings of abnormalities in the amygdala, since deficits in aversive conditioning and instrumental learning are thought to result from amygdala dysfunction, potentially compounded by orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction, although the specific reasons are unknown. Proponents of the primary-secondary psychopathy distinction and triarchic model argue that there are neurological differences between these subgroups of psychopathy which support their views. For instance, the boldness factor in the triarchic model is argued to be associated with reduced activity in the amygdala during fearful or aversive stimuli and reduced startle response, while the disinhibition factor is argued to be associated with impairment of frontal lobe tasks.
The Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) offers a technical certificate in behavior analysis. This certification is internationally recognized. This certification states the level of training and requires an exam to show a minimum level of competence to call oneself a board certified behavior analyst (BCBA). Certification came about because of many ethical issues with behavioral interventions being delivered including the use of aversive and humiliating treatments in the name of behavior modification.
Social negative reinforcement is when another person delivers a negative reinforcement after the problem behavior occurs. The person may terminate an aversive stimuli (interaction, task or activity) and the behavior is more likely to be maintained. An example of social negative reinforcement would be Max complains (problem behavior) to his parents (social) when he is asked to do chores, as a result, his parents allows him to escape the task (negative reinforcement).
50% of children scored themselves at or above the midpoint on a numerical homesickness intensity scale (compared to 20% of children at summer camp). Soldiers report even more intense homesickness, sometimes to the point of suicidal misery. Naturally, aversive environmental elements, such as the trauma associated with war, exacerbate homesickness and other mental health problems.In sum, homesickness is a normative pathology that can take on clinical relevance in its moderate and severe forms.
Self-punishment of responses would include the arranging of punishment contingent upon undesired responses. This might be seen in the behavior of whipping oneself which some monks and religious persons do. This is different from aversive stimulation in that, for example, the alarm clock generates escape from the alarm, while self-punishment presents stimulation after the fact to reduce the probability of future behavior.Skinner, B.F. Science and Human Behavior, Chapter XV p.
The nerve impulses of the nociception response may be conducted to the brain thereby registering the location, intensity, quality and unpleasantness of the stimulus. This subjective component of pain involves conscious awareness of both the sensation and the unpleasantness (the aversive, negative affect). The brain processes underlying conscious awareness of the unpleasantness (suffering), are not well understood. There have been several published lists of criteria for establishing whether non-human animals experience pain, e.g.
People who are highly sensitive to punishment perceive punishments as more aversive and are more likely to be distracted by punishments. The physiological mechanism behind the BIS is believed to be the septohippocampal system and its monoaminergic afferents from the brainstem. Using a voxel-based morphometry analysis, the volume of the regions mentioned was assessed to view individual differences. Findings may suggest a correlation between the volume and anxiety-related personality traits.
Each of these questions recruit a different brain area, playing a poignant role in whether a decision is beneficial to an individual. Fear-Conditioning. Over time, individuals learn that a stimulus is not benign through personal experience. Implicitly, a fear of a particular stimulus can develop, resulting in risk-averse behaviour. Traditionally, fear-conditioning is not associated with decision-making, but rather the pairing of a neutral stimulus with an aversive situation.
Methodologically, a "Sidman avoidance procedure" is an experiment in which the subject is periodically presented with an aversive stimulus, such as the introduction of carbon dioxide or an electric shock, unless they produce a particular response, such as pulling a plunger, which delays the stimulus by a certain amount of time. His work on methodology for behavioural psychologistsSidman, M. (1960). Tactics of scientific research: Evaluating experimental data in psychology. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Behavioral principles have also been researched in emerging peer groups, focusing on status. Research shows that it takes different social skills to enter groups than it does to maintain or build one's status in groups. Research also suggests that neglected children are the least interactive and aversive, yet remain relatively unknown in groups. Children suffering from social problems do see an improvement in social skills after behavior therapy and behavior modification (see applied behavior analysis).
The position of the treatment cages were alternated, and all cages were placed in the swim path of the rays. Brill et al. (2008) reported that captive juvenile sandbar sharks (Carcharhinus plumbeus) maintained a 50–60 cm clearance in their swimming patterns when a piece of neodymium-praseodymium mischmetal was placed in the tank. Wang, Swimmer, and Laughton (2007) reported aversive responses to neodymium- praseodymium mischmetals placed near baits offered to adult Galapagos (C.
Component analysis is the analysis of two or more independent variables which comprise a treatment modality.For definition, see It is also known as a dismantling study. The chief purpose of the component analysis is to identify the component which is efficacious in changing behavior, if a singular component exists. Eliminating ineffective or less effective components may help with improving social validity, reducing aversive elements, improving generalization and maintenance, as well as administrative efficacy.
Dysfunctional motivational salience appears in a number of psychiatric symptoms and disorders. Anhedonia, traditionally defined as a reduced capacity to feel pleasure, has been reexamined as reflecting blunted incentive salience, as most anhedonic populations exhibit intact “liking”. On the other end of the spectrum, heightened incentive salience that is narrowed for specific stimuli is characteristic of behavioral and drug addictions. In the case of fear or paranoia, dysfunction may lie in elevated aversive salience.
An eating or feeding disturbance (e.g., apparent lack of interest in eating or food; avoidance based on sensory characteristics of food; concern about aversive consequences of eating) as manifested by persistent failure to meet appropriate nutritional and/or energy needs associated with one (or more) of the following: # Significant weight loss (or failure to achieve expected weight gain or faltering growth in children). # Significant nutritional deficiency. # Dependence on enteral feeding or oral nutritional supplements.
A specific type of generalization, fear generalization, occurs when a person associates fears learned in the past through classical conditioning to similar situations, events, people, and objects in their present. This is important for the survival of the organism; humans and animals need to be able to assess aversive situations and respond appropriately based on generalizations made from past experiences.Asok, A., Kandel, E. R., & Rayman, J. B. (2019). The neurobiology of fear generalization.
The nerve impulses of the nociception response may be conducted to the brain thereby registering the location, intensity, quality and unpleasantness of the stimulus. This subjective component of pain involves conscious awareness of both the sensation and the unpleasantness (the aversive, negative affect). The brain processes underlying conscious awareness of the unpleasantness (suffering), are not well understood. There have been several published lists of criteria for establishing whether non-human animals experience pain, e.g.
Humans appear to learn many simple behaviors through the sort of process studied by Thorndike, now called operant conditioning. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any "teacher", but operant conditioning has been used by parents in teaching their children for thousands of years.Miltenberger, R. G., & Crosland, K. A. (2014). Parenting.
Some theorists suggest that avoidance behavior may simply be a special case of operant behavior maintained by its consequences. In this view the idea of "consequences" is expanded to include sensitivity to a pattern of events. Thus, in avoidance, the consequence of a response is a reduction in the rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that a "missed shock" is detected as a stimulus, and can act as a reinforcer.
Formation of long-term memory may be dependent on Elk1. MEK inhibitors block Elk1 phosphorylation and, thus, impair acquired conditioned taste aversion. Moreover, avoidance learning, which involves the subject learning that a particular response leads to prevention of an aversive stimulus, is correlated with a definite increase in activation of Erk, Elk1, and c-fos in the hippocampus. This area of the brain is involved in short-term and long-term information storage.
Their pinules are also spiked to protect them from predators .In addition, C. bella are able to produce aversive tasting and toxic chemicals to deter predators from consuming their arms that remain exposed out of their habitat throughout the day. The deterrent taste not only provides immediate protection from their predators but also forms long-term negative conditioning to prevent large fish from attacking again . These antifeedant chemicals also provide the beautiful crinoid’s colour.
A tolerated illness is a "noted discordance between subjective and objective health measures" in a patient. Native American communities have been shown to have incidences of illness tolerance, in part because of the treatment they receive in the healthcare system. In psychopathology, distress tolerance describes "perceived capacity to withstand negative emotional and/or other aversive states". In nature, the immune system of plants has been shown to protect against pathogens through a strategy of tolerance.
The nerve impulses of the nociception response may be conducted to the brain thereby registering the location, intensity, quality and unpleasantness of the stimulus. This subjective component of pain involves conscious awareness of both the sensation and the unpleasantness (the aversive, negative affect). The brain processes underlying conscious awareness of the unpleasantness (suffering), are not well understood. There have been several published lists of criteria for establishing whether non-human animals experience pain, e.g.
Knowledge sharing between members is an essential value of the association. EIRBOT is also a cradle of ideas and projects. Loïc Dauphin, president of the association in 2013-2014, was recently awarded a price from INRIA for his Aversive++ project , a generic multi microcontroller API, which he started as a project within the association with the help of Clément Lansmarie and some other members to program robots. This project is now supported by INRIA.
Massachusetts: NEARI Press. These terms have often been associated with this group, regardless of the youth’s age, diagnosis, cognitive abilities, or developmental stage. Using appropriate expressions can facilitate a more accurate depiction of juvenile sex offenders and may decrease the subsequent aversive psychological affects from using such labels. In the Arab Gulf states [sic], homosexual acts are classified as an offense, and constitute one of the primary crimes for which juvenile males are charged.
Learned helplessness is a term to explain a specific pattern of behavior that occurs in both animals and humans. When an animal or human is consistently exposed to an aversive condition (pain, unpleasant noise, etc.) and is unable to escape this condition, that animal or human will become helpless and stop attempting escape. The animal or human may develop motivational deficits, as demonstrated in learned helplessness experiments.Overmier, J. B., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1967).
In psychology, the term valence is used to describe stimuli, events, situations and emotional states that are intrinsically attractive (positively valenced) or intrinsically aversive (negatively valenced). The valence of a stimulus or event tells us whether we are likely to approach or avoid it. Valence, however provides no information about the strength of this tendency as it is either positive or negative. Instead, the strength of this association is quantified as the Motivational Intensity.
The interventions attempt to reduce environmental stressors and instigations to aggression and to use inclusion and positive engagement to reduce the frequency of aggressive behaviour. Evidence is currently limited to small-scale proof of concept designs and the approaches have not been subjected to randomised controlled investigations.Giles, G. M., Wager, J., Fong, L., & Waraich, B. S. (2005). Twenty-month effectiveness of a non- aversive, long-term, low cost programme for persons with persisting neurobehavioural disability.
Ease of imagination thus facilitates persuasion when messages emphasize potential health risks. A positive framing however, leads to more positive attitudes when symptom imagination was rather difficult. Therefore, a message with a reassuring theme is more congruent with a recipient's state of mind when he or she cannot easily imagine the symptoms whereas a message with an aversive theme is more congruent with a recipient's state of mind when he or she can easily imagine having the symptoms .
Distress tolerance is an emerging construct in psychology that has been conceptualized in several different ways. Broadly, however, it refers to an individual's "perceived capacity to withstand negative emotional and/or other aversive states (e.g. physical discomfort), and the behavioral act of withstanding distressing internal states elicited by some type of stressor." Some definitions of distress tolerance have also specified that the endurance of these negative events occur in contexts in which methods to escape the distressor exist.
Such aversive effects are absent when a discrimination is trained without errors. Skinner cited a similar difference in the case of the teaching machine, a device he invented to train human subjects to learn different types of technical material. The teaching machine introduces a new topic with simple questions that are gradually made more difficult. Subjects who learn with few or no errors do not exhibit the frustration they would have experienced had they learned by trial and error.
High fantasy proneness was also associated with an aversive environment. Such subjects reported significantly more frequent, severe, and unjustified physical punishment than comparison groups, both in middle and late childhood. High fantasy-prone subjects described using imagination to block the pain of punishment and thinking of revenge more often than the other subjects. In their discussion of these results, Rhue and Lynn suggested that there were two kinds of negative environments that could lead to fantasy proneness.
As with the depressed in general, responses to depressed family members are often aversive. This is seen in that parents of the depressed tend to provide less support and neglect their children more than parents of non-depressed individuals. However, depression has also been found to reduce the chance that a parent will act aggressively towards their child, an outcome that is compatible with evolutionary approaches emphasizing depression's role as a potential signal of need or a bargaining strategy.
When an individual is presented with a conditioned, aversive stimulus, it is processed within the right amygdala, producing an unpleasant or fearful response. This emotional response conditions the individual to avoid fear-inducing stimuli and more importantly, to assess threats in the environment. The right hemisphere is also linked to declarative memory, which consists of facts and information from previously experienced events and must be consciously recalled. It also plays a significant role in the retention of episodic memory.
The posterior and intermediate lobes of the pituitary are necessary for maintenance of the avoidance response once learned. When these areas of the brain are lesioned or removed, animals display difficulty in maintaining a conditioned avoidance response. The avoidance response can be extinguished using a procedure called "flooding" or response prevention. This is a method in which the subject is forced to remain in the fearsome or aversive situation and not allowed the opportunity to avoid it.
The Community Alliance For the Ethical Treatment of Youth (CAFETY) is an advocacy group for people enrolled in residential treatment programs for at- risk teenagers. The group's mission includes advocating for access to advocates, due process, alternatives to aversive behavioral interventions, and alternatives to restraints and seclusion for young people in treatment programs. They have also called for the routine reporting of abuse in residential treatment programs, as well as federal government oversight and regulation of residential treatment programs.
During this time, she continued to publish many papers from her graduate work and also had her second child. The work she published from her graduate studies explored how control of an aversive experience is related to the behavioral consequences and fear responses. She found that when stressors were controllable, fear extinction was improved and spontaneous recovery of fear associations was limited. Her new postdoctoral further work began to explore the relation of stress to fear learning throughout development.
Freezing behaviour in rats is an example of a post-encounter defensive behaviour which has been well studied. Freezing in rats is characterized by sudden, extended immobility, followed by a decreased heart rate and an increased respiration rate. This behaviour is often the dominant post-encounter defence behaviour in rats. In the laboratory setting, post- encounter defensive behaviours can be elicited by pairing a neutral stimulus, such as a light, with an aversive stimulus, such as a shock.
Pain asymbolia, also called pain dissociation, is a condition in which pain is experienced without unpleasantness. This usually results from injury to the brain, lobotomy, cingulotomy or morphine analgesia. Preexisting lesions of the insula may abolish the aversive quality of painful stimuli while preserving the location and intensity aspects. Typically, patients report that they have pain but are not bothered by it; they recognize the sensation of pain but are mostly or completely immune to suffering from it.
Aversion therapy and punishment is a technique in which an aversive (painful or unpleasant) stimulus is used to decrease unwanted behaviours from occurring. It is concerned with two procedures: 1) the procedures are used to decrease the likelihood of the frequency of a certain behaviour and 2) procedures that will reduce the attractiveness of certain behaviours and the stimuli that elicit them.Rimm, David C., and John C. Masters. Behavior Therapy: Techniques and Empirical Findings, pp. 353.
Later experiments have served to confirm the depressive effect of feeling a lack of control over an aversive stimulus. For example, in one experiment, humans performed mental tasks in the presence of distracting noise. Those who could use a switch to turn off the noise rarely bothered to do so, yet they performed better than those who could not turn off the noise. Simply being aware of this option was enough to substantially counteract the noise effect.
Rats were trained to discriminate between two different locations, in either high ('H') or low ('L') light levels. One location was rewarded with palatable food and the other with aversive food. Rats switched from high to low light levels (putatively the least negative emotional manipulation) ran faster to all three ambiguous locations than rats switched from low to high light levels (putatively the most negative manipulation). Another study investigated whether chronic social defeat makes rats more pessimistic.
Impairment is defined as being unable to complete routine tasks whether occupational, academic or social. In acrophobia, an impairment of occupation could result from not taking a job solely because of its location at the top floor of a building, or socially not participating in a social event at a theme park. The avoidance aspect is defined as behaviour that results in the omission of an aversive event that would otherwise occur, intending to prevent anxiety.
Recent research suggests that the escape response in Musca domestica may be controlled by the compound eyes. When house flies (Musca domestica) encounter an aversive stimulus, they jump rapidly and fly away from the stimulus. A recent research suggests that the escape response in Musca domestica is controlled by a pair of compound eyes, rather than by the ocelli. When one of the compound eyes was covered, the minimum threshold to elicit an escape response increased.
There is considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning.Neuron 63:244–253, 2009, Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 3: Article 13, 2009 Dopamine pathways project much more densely onto frontal cortex regions. Cholinergic projections, in contrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like the primary visual cortex. A study of patients with Parkinson's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustrates the role of dopamine in positive reinforcement.
Vernet-Maury reported that TMT is effective at inducing antipredator behavior in rats. TMT has been called an "innate threat stimulus" because of how it "induces a number of fear and defensive behaviors" in naive mice and rats. Not all research has come to the same conclusions, however; with some questioning the role of TMT in the aversive effects of fox feces. One study, for example, found that cat odor, but not TMT, elicits specific defensive behaviors in rats.
See mutual fund separation theorem for a discussion of other possibilities. It is the construction of a universal portfolio that is kept separate from the individual needs of each client. The second part is tailoring the use of that portfolio to the risk-aversive needs of each individual client. This is achieved through simulation of a given risk-return range by allocating the client's total investments partly to that universal portfolio and partly to the risk-free asset.
Removing sources of attention by placing in an environment without other people. Careful: This can become (aversive) punishment, depending on how done. To be response cost, it can only simply be taking away a desirable thing; not adding a negative one. Negative reinforcement: One example would be to couple negative reinforcement with response cost—after some period of time in which he has acted cooperatively or calmly while in the absence of others, can bring him back with others.
One very interesting finding may have implied that aversive racism can be combated simply by eliminating the desire to employ the time- and energy-saving tactic of stereotyping. By priming and inducing participants' creativity, which causes people to avoid leaning on their energy-saving mental shortcuts, such as stereotyping, reduced participants' propensity to stereotype. Finally, there is evidence to suggest that simply having a greater amount of intergroup contact is associated with less implicit intergroup bias.
That is, try to gain their compliance by using or relying on a position of power over them to get them do to what you want. Example: "My boss told me to get him the reports by 10 am so I did." # Aversive Stimulation: Try to get others to comply by doing things they don't like until they agree to comply. That is, try to gain their compliance by bothering them until they do what you want.
The view of cognitive ability has evolved over the years, and it is no longer viewed as a fixed property held by an individual. Instead, the current perspective describes it as a general capacity, comprising not only cognitive, but motivational, social and behavioural aspects as well. These facets work together to perform numerous tasks. An essential skill often overlooked is that of managing emotions, and aversive experiences that can compromise one's quality of thought and activity.
It is also used by neuroscientists to determine whether there is a causative effect after mild traumatic brain injury on learning deficits (acquisition trials) and spatial memory retention (probe) at acute and chronic time points. This task is dependent on the intrinsic inclination of the subjects to escape from an aversive environment and on hippocampal-dependent spatial reference memory.Harrison FE, Hosseini AH, McDonald MP. 2009. Endogenous anxiety and stress responses in water maze and barnes maze spatial memory tasks.
Understanding behaviors including recruitment, settling, spawning, foraging, territoriality, daily movements, and seasonal patterns of migration are all important for conservation success. Minimizing human–wildlife conflict is a persistent challenge in wildlife management and conservation. Behavioral manipulation can help mitigate some conflicts such as livestock depredation or agricultural destruction by repelling animals with strobe lights, sounds, aversive conditioning, or taste aversion. Not only are humans frequently coming into conflict with animals, but humans can also induce environmental stress on animals.
Conditioned place preference (CPP) is a form of Pavlovian conditioning used to measure the motivational effects of objects or experiences. By measuring the amount of time an animal spends in an area that has been associated with a stimulus, researchers can infer the animal's liking for the stimulus. This paradigm can also be used to measure conditioned place aversion with an identical procedure involving aversive stimuli instead. Both procedures usually involve mice or rats as subjects.
There are numerous advantages of the conditioned place preference and aversion protocol. It is methodologically simple and only requires two to three weeks to perform all steps of the procedure. In some cases conditioning can occur with two stimulus-context pairings.Cunningham, C.L., Tull, L.E., Rindal, K.E. & Meyer, P.J. Distal and proximal pre-exposure to ethanol in the place conditioning task: tolerance to aversive effect, sensitization to activating effect, but no change in rewarding effect. Psychopharmacology 160, 414–424 (2002).
Giles & Manchester, 2006 Non-aversive approaches to behaviour disorder after TBI are consistent with concepts in psychiatric rehabilitation and positive behavioural supports in work with persons with mental retardation but were developed independently from them. The interventions stress a philosophy of normalisation, respect, non- confrontation, positive engagement, support, and functional and behavioural skill development. The approach is based on the observation that much of the behavioural disregulation is hostile/irritable aggression and not instrumental in nature.
Since findings on mortality salience and worldview defense were first published, other researchers have claimed that the effects may have been obtained due to reasons other than death itself, such as anxiety, fear, or other aversive stimuli such as pain. Other studies have found effects similar to those that MS results in – for example, thinking about difficult personal choices to be made, being made to respond to open-ended questions regarding uncertainty, thinking about being robbed, thinking about being socially isolated, and being told that one's life lacks meaning. While these cases exist, thoughts of death have since been compared to various aversive experimental controls, such as (but not limited to) thinking about: failure, writing a critical exam, public speaking with a considerable audience, being excluded, paralysis, dental pain, intense physical pain, etc. With regards to the studies that found similar effects, TMT theorists have argued that in the previously mentioned studies where death was not the subject thought about, the subjects would quite easily be related to death in an individual's mind due to "linguistic or experiential connection with mortality" (p. 332).
Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) has primarily substituted the psychoanalytic and dynamic approach in the treatment of kleptomania. Numerous behavioural approaches have been recommended as helpful according to several cases stated in the literature. They include: hidden sensitisation by unpleasant images of nausea and vomiting, aversion therapy (for example, aversive holding of breath to achieve a slightly painful feeling every time a desire to steal or the act is imagined), and systematic desensitisation."Historical Research in the Journal of Macromarketing, 1981-2005".
Specifically, the certainty and the strength of the evaluation of accountability influences which emotions are experienced (Roseman, 1996). In addition, the appetitive or aversive nature of motive consistency also influences the emotions that are elicited (Roseman, 1996). Roseman's theory of appraisal suggests that motive consistency and accountability are the two most important components of the appraisal process (1996). In addition, the different levels of intensity of each component are important and greatly influence the emotions that are experienced due to a particular situation.
They found that participants who practiced focused breathing responded less negatively to aversive stimuli whereas participants who practiced unfocused breathing reported more distress. This result suggests that focused breathing may be used in therapeutic contexts to help clients respond less strongly to negative stimuli. One of her most cited studies involved a two-year follow-up of patients who received behavioral treatment for panic disorder. Treatment included progressive muscle relaxation, interoceptive exposure therapy with cognitive restructuring, or a combination of both.
Kapur (2003) proposed that a hyperdopaminergic state, at a "brain" level of description, leads to an aberrant assignment of salience to the elements of one's experience, at a "mind" level. These aberrant salience attributions have been associated with altered activities in the mesolimbic system, including the striatum, the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the parahippocampal gyrus. Dopamine mediates the conversion of the neural representation of an external stimulus from a neutral bit of information into an attractive or aversive entity, i.e. a salient event.
Sucrose octaacetate has been used to determine tasters from non-tasters in mice, in clinical drug studies and sweetener evaluations, and in taste physiology research. The product has also been used as a bitterant and aversive agent. Until 1993, the compound was the active ingredient of over-the-counter preparations to discourage thumb sucking and nail biting. It has also been used in sprays and lotions to prevent dog licking, and as an additive to deter ingestion of pesticides and other toxic products.
The Growth Arrest and DNA Damage inducible 45 (Gadd45) gene family plays a large role in the hippocampus. Gadd45 facilitates hippocampal long-term potentiation and enhances persisting memory for motor performance, aversive conditioning, and spatial navigation. Additionally, DNA methylation has been shown to be important for activity- dependent modulation of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus, which is mediated by GADD45b. GADD45b seems to act as a sensor in mature neurons for environmental changes which it expresses through these methylation changes.
The child typically has no control over these leakage accidents, and may not be able to feel that they have occurred or are about to occur due to the loss of sensation in the rectum and the RAIR. Strong emotional reactions typically result from failed and repeated attempts to control this highly aversive bodily product. These reactions then in turn may complicate conventional treatments using stool softeners, sitting demands, and behavioral strategies. The onset of encopresis is most often benign.
Four years later she was released from prison when the jacket of the baby was found in a dingo den and the mother was therefore found innocent. This incident caused much outcry for and against the dingoes. To be better prepared for dingo attacks demands were made that a better recording of problematic cases should be implemented. Also non-lethal guns, spray cans with appropriate content, whips and aversive baits should be used to increase the caution of the dingoes.
Although pain is considered to be aversive and unpleasant and is therefore usually avoided, a meta-analysis which summarized and evaluated numerous studies from various psychological disciplines, found a reduction in negative affect. Across studies, participants that were subjected to acute physical pain in the laboratory subsequently reported feeling better than those in non-painful control conditions, a finding which was also reflected in physiological parameters. A potential mechanism to explain this effect is provided by the opponent-process theory.
For example, Brucine has an index of 11, is thus perceived as intensely more bitter than quinine, and is detected at a much lower solution threshold. The most bitter substance known is the synthetic chemical denatonium, which has an index of 1,000. It is used as an aversive agent (a bitterant) that is added to toxic substances to prevent accidental ingestion. This was discovered in 1958 during research on lignocaine, a local anesthetic, by MacFarlan Smith of Gorgie, Edinburgh, Scotland.
In psychology, desensitization is a treatment or process that diminishes emotional responsiveness to a negative, aversive or positive stimulus after repeated exposure to it. Desensitization also occurs when an emotional response is repeatedly evoked in situations in which the action tendency that is associated with the emotion proves irrelevant or unnecessary. The process of desensitization was developed by psychologist Mary Cover Jones, and is primarily used to assist individuals in unlearning phobias and anxieties.T.L. Brink (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach.
The larynx has been implicated in the production of ultrasonic vocalizations. A constriction within a rat’s larynx is thought to be the source of their ultrasonic vocalizations. As well, brain areas such as the medulla oblongata, the cortex, the amygdala, and the dorsal hippocampus, among others, play a role in 22-kHz calls specifically. Many of these brain areas/structures have been implicated in studies involving fear and anxiety, and can be associated with a larger network which deals with aversive emotions.
Pathway analysis of these genes has indicated possible roles in neurogenesis and anxiety-related behavioural responses, alongside other functional and phenotypic observations. Mice models for brain research have contributed significantly to drug development and increased our understanding of the genomic underpinnings of several neurological diseases in the last generation. Chlorpromazine, the first antipsychotic drug (discovered in 1951), was identified as a viable treatment option after it was shown to suppress response to aversive stimuli in rats in a behavioural screen.
The Barnes maze is similar to the Morris water navigation task and to the radial arm maze task, but does not utilize a strong aversive stimulus (stress induced by swimming such as in the Morris water maze) or deprivation (food or water deprivation such as in the radial arm maze) as reinforcement. Behavioral tasks involving high levels of stress can influence the animal's performanceHolscher C. Stress impairs performance in spatial water maze learning tasks. Behav Brain Res. 100:225-235 (1999).
This model follows a functional perspective in which behaviors are caused by the events that immediately precede and follow them. Four types of reinforcement processes can maintain self-injury: intrapersonal negative reinforcement, intrapersonal positive reinforcement, interpersonal positive reinforcement, and interpersonal negative reinforcement. Intrapersonal negative reinforcement refers to self-injury being followed by a decrease or stop of aversive thoughts or feelings. Intrapersonal positive reinforcement involves self-injury being followed by an increase in desired thoughts or feelings such as a feeling of satisfaction.
In laboratory studies, the threat of receiving shock is enough to potentiate startle, even without any actual shock. Fear potentiated startle paradigms are often used to study fear learning and extinction in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder and other anxiety disorders. In fear conditioning studies, an initially neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an aversive one, borrowing from classical conditioning. FPS studies have demonstrated that PTSD patients have enhanced startle responses during both danger cues and neutral/safety cues as compared with healthy participants.
Even domesticated animals have SSDRs, and in those moments it is seen that animals revert to atavistic standards and become "wild" again. Dr. Bolles states that responses are often dependent on the reinforcement of a safety signal, and not the aversive conditioned stimuli. This safety signal can be a source of feedback or even stimulus change. Intrinsic feedback or information coming from within, muscle twitches, increased heart rate, are seen to be more important in SSDRs than extrinsic feedback, stimuli that comes from the external environment.
TFMPP is rarely used by itself. In fact, TFMPP reduces locomotor activity and produces aversive effects in animals rather than self- administration, which may explain the decision of the DEA not to permanently make TFMPP a controlled substance. More commonly, TFMPP is co-administered with BZP, which acts as a norepinephrine and dopamine releasing agent. Due to the serotonin agonist effects and increase in serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels produced by the BZP/TFMPP combination, this mixture of drugs produces effects which crudely mimic those of MDMA.
There are radical behaviorist schools of animal training, management, clinical practice, and education. Skinner's philosophical views have left their mark in principles adopted by a small handful of utopian communities, such as Los Horcones and Twin Oaks, and in ongoing challenges to aversive techniques in control of human and animal behavior. Radical behaviorism has generated numerous descendants. Examples of these include molar approaches associated with Richard Herrnstein and William Baum, Howard Rachlin's teleological behaviorism, William Timberlake's behavior systems approach, and John Staddon's theoretical behaviorism.
They are used as aversive agents (bitterants) to prevent inappropriate ingestion. Denatonium is used in denatured alcohol, antifreeze, preventive nail biting preparations, respirator mask fit-testing, animal repellents, liquid soaps, shampoos, and even Nintendo Switch game cards to prevent accidental swallowing or choking by children. It is not known to pose any long-term health risks. The name denatonium is a portmanteau word reflecting the substance's primary use as a denaturant and its chemical nature as a cation, whence the New Latin suffix -onium.
Perceptual learning comprises the assimilation/accommodation of new/existing schemas by hypothesis based perception. Procedural learning depends on reinforcing the associations of actions and preconditions (situations that afford these actions) with appetitive or aversive goals, which is triggered by pleasure and distress signals. Abstractions may be learned by evaluating and reorganizing episodic and declarative descriptions to generalize and fill in missing interpretations (this facilitates the organization of knowledge according to conceptual frames and scripts). Behavior sequences and object/situation representations are strengthened by use.
Neumeier advocates against coercive and forced treatment, and calls to close the Judge Rotenberg Center, an institution known for using electric skin shock aversive treatment on people with developmental disabilities. In 2012, Neumeier attended a medical malpractice trial against the Judge Rotenberg Center brought by former resident Andre McCollins, who received 31 shocks over a period of six hours. Neumeier also testified before the United Nations special rapporteur on torture about the Judge Rotenberg Center. They supported the FDA's ban of electric shock devices in 2020.
Residents were often put in positions where there was no way for them to avoid receiving an aversive: For example, deaf children were punished for failing to comply with verbal commands. Residents were also forced to take part in behavior rehearsal lessons where they were punished regardless of whether or not they behaved correctly. Additionally, residents were regularly spanked for crying after being punished. The report found that at least one resident's behavior substantially worsened at the institute due to "improper treatment" and "unprofessional use of aversives".
In psychology, personal distress is an aversive, self-focused emotional reaction (e.g., anxiety, worry, discomfort) to the apprehension or comprehension of another's emotional state or condition. This negative affective state often occurs as a result of emotional contagion when there is confusion between self and other. Unlike empathy, personal distress does not have to be congruent with the other's state, and often leads to a self- oriented, egoistic reaction to reduce it, by withdrawing from the stressor, for example, thereby decreasing the likelihood of prosocial behavior.
Several major drug classes have been studied extensively in relation to ICSS behavior: monoaminergic drugs, opioids, cholinergic drugs, GABAergic drugs, as well as a small number of drugs from other classes. These studies generally compare ICSS responding at baseline and following drug administration. Typically, the frequency-rate approach is used to determine changes in the M50 or θ0. Drugs with increased addiction liability generally decrease the stimulation threshold for ICSS responding, while drugs with aversive properties generally increase the stimulation threshold to achieve ICSS responding.
Started in the 1970s by Nathan H. Azrin and his graduate student Hunt, the community reinforcement approach is a comprehensive operant program built on a functional assessment of a client's drinking behavior and the use of positive reinforcement and contingency management for nondrinking. When combined with disulfiram (an aversive procedure) community reinforcement showed remarkable effects. One component of the program that appears to be particularly strong is the non- drinking club. Applications of community reinforcement to public policy has become the recent focus of this approach.
Later, in 2014, Brown testified against the Judge Rotenberg Center's use of electric shock aversives at a Food and Drug Administration advisory panel hearing.Food and Drug Administration. "Transcript of Open Public Hearing of the Neurological Devices Panel, Medical Devices Advisory Committee, U.S. Food and Drug Administration", April 24, 2014, pp.192-195. Prior to the hearing, Brown submitted a written testimony on behalf of TASH New England arguing that electric shock aversive devices should be banned as an ineffective and dangerous form of treatment.
On February 25, 2009, Cao grabbed headlines by announcing that his staff members were investigating the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) office in New Orleans. Cao, whose aversive relationship with the agency had started during his time as a community activist for victims of Hurricane Katrina, accused FEMA of a host of malfeasance charges, including "widespread complaints of discrimination, sexual harassment, ethics violations, nepotism and cronyism."Jonathan Tilove, N.O. recovery office probed: Employees' complaints crippling, Times-Picayune, February 26, 2009, Saint Tammany Edition, pp. A1, A6.
Both positive punishment and negative reinforcement are inherently linked producing similar intensities in undesirable consequences such as escape, avoidance, aggression, apathy, generalized fear of the environment, or generalized reduction in behavior. As in the example with the rat, the shock acts as a positive punisher while the removal of the shock acts as a negative reinforcer which is why the two contingencies are inherently linked. Negative reinforcement cannot be used unless an aversive (the shock) was already applied. Both are un-encouraged in common trick-training programs.
Self-consciousness was characterized as an aversive psychological state. According to this model, people experiencing self-consciousness will be highly motivated to reduce it, trying to make sense of what they are experiencing. These attempts promote hypervigilance and rumination in a circular relationship: more hypervigilance generates more rumination, whereupon more rumination generates more hypervigilance. Hypervigilance can be thought of as a way to appraise threatening social information, but in contrast to adaptive vigilance, hypervigilance will produce elevated levels of arousal, fear, anxiety, and threat perception.
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 3(2), 123–142. However, it may also have powerful and lasting side effects. For example, an aversive stimulus used to punish a particular behavior may also elicit a strong emotional response that may suppress unpunished behavior and become associated with situational stimuli through classical conditioning.Schwartz, B, Wasserman, E. A., & Robbins, S. J. "Psychology of Learning and Behavior" (5th Ed) (2002) Norton, New York Such side effects suggest caution and restraint in the use of punishment to modify behavior.
Dopamine mediates the conversion of the neural representation of an external stimulus from a neutral bit of information into an attractive or aversive entity, i.e. a salient event. Symptoms of schizophrenia and schizotypy may arise out of ‘the aberrant assignment of salience to external objects and internal representations’; and antipsychotic medications may reduce positive symptoms by attenuating aberrant motivational salience, via blockade of the Dopamine D2 receptors (Kapur, 2003). There is no evidence however on a link between attentional irregularities and enhanced stimulus salience in schizotypy.
Operant behavior is the so-called "voluntary" behavior that is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. Specifically, operant conditioning refers to the three-term contingency that uses stimulus control, in particular an antecedent contingency called the discriminative stimulus (SD) that influences the strengthening or weakening of behavior through such consequences as reinforcement or punishment. The term is used quite generally, from reaching for a candy bar, to turning up the heat to escape an aversive chill, to studying for an exam to get good grades.
London: Sage. Aversive racism was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to a particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes (Dovidio & Gaertner, p. 62). People who behave in an aversively racial way may profess egalitarian beliefs, and will often deny their racially motivated behavior; nevertheless they may change their behavior when dealing with a member of a minority group. The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious.
These pairs will also be tested in reverse order (one key for a white person or something good, another for a black person or something bad). The greater the disparity in reaction times and accuracy between the different pair groups, the greater implicit racism is measured in that individual. Other ways of measuring implicit racism include physiological measures (such as tracking people's heart rates), memory tasks and indirect self-report measures. Collectively, these implicit attitude measures provide a strong means of identifying aversive racism.
In an experiment conducted by Gaertner and Dovidio in 2000, white college students were asked to assess the credentials and to make hiring recommendations for prospective white and black job candidates with either strong, weak, or marginal credentials. The results showed no overt discrimination when the applicants clearly had strong or weak credentials. Signs of aversive racism appeared only when the applicants possessed marginal credentials. Black candidates were recommended more than 20% less than the same white candidates who had the same marginal credentials.
Several possibilities exist for how to combat aversive racism. One method looks to the cognitive foundations of prejudice. The basic socio-cognitive process of creating in-groups and out-groups is what leads many to identify with their own race while feeling averted to other races, or out-group members. According to the common ingroup identity model inducing individuals to recategorize themselves and others as part of a larger, superordinate group can lead to more positive attitudes towards members of a former out-group.
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has concluded that aversive conditioning devices like the SIBIS pose an "unreasonable risk of harm" and are less effective than positive behavior support alone. While some studies appear to support their efficacy, these studies do no meet modern standards of evidence. Newer and better designed studies find more risks and fewer benefits. The FDA states that such devices may cause both physical and psychological harm, including: depression, anxiety, worsening of self- injurious behavior, PTSD, burns, and pain.
This led to his development of lower-dose and non-aversive methods, which would inspire a positive trial of his method in Switzerland by Dr Harry Feldmann and later scientific testing in the 1970s, some time after his death. However, the use of apomorphine in aversion therapy had escaped alcoholism, with its use to treat homosexuality leading to the death of a British Army Captain Billy Clegg HIll in 1962, helping to cement its reputation as a dangerous drug used primarily in archaic behavioural therapies.
Gordon Muir Giles is a professor at Samuel Merritt University in Oakland California and a Fellow of the American Occupational Therapy Association. He is best known for his work in rehabilitation following traumatic brain injury (TBI) and other forms of acquired neurological impairment. His two major contribution to TBI rehabilitation are the Neurofunctional Approach to brain injury rehabilitation (with J. Clark-Wilson) and non-aversive treatment of persons with neurobehavioral disability and behaviour disorder (sometimes referred to as relational therapy).Giles, G. M., & Manchester, D. (2006).
Before there was stated anything about C being valuable, A had a rather neutral stimulus function. After giving C a attractive stimulus function, A has become attractive. The attractive stimulus function has been transferred from C to A through the relations between A, B and C. And A has had a transformation of stimulus function from neutral to attractive. The same can be done with aversive stimulus function as danger instead of valuable, in saying that C is dangerous, A becomes more dangerous than C based on the relations.
In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps, the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation. This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history. Fear is affected by cultural and historical context. For example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that can lead to paralysis.
In scuba diving rebreather accidents, there is often little sensation, however, a slow decrease in oxygen breathing gas content has effects which are quite variable. By contrast, suddenly breathing pure inert gas causes oxygen levels in the blood to fall precipitously, and may lead to unconsciousness in only a few breaths, with no symptoms at all. Some animal species are better equipped than humans to detect hypoxia, and these species are more uncomfortable in low-oxygen environments that result from inert gas exposure; however, the experience is still less aversive than CO2 exposure.
Conversion therapy, the pseudoscientific practice of trying to change an individual's sexual orientation from homosexual or bisexual to heterosexual using psychological, physical, or spiritual interventions, is not outlawed in New Zealand. There is no reliable evidence that sexual orientation can be changed and medical institutions warn that conversion therapy practices are ineffective and potentially harmful.: "As noted previously, early research indicates that aversive techniques have been found to have very limited benefits as well as potentially harmful effects." In July 2018, Health Minister David Clark called conversion therapy "abhorrent".
In complex vertebrates, including humans, the amygdalae perform primary roles in the formation and storage of memories associated with emotional events. Research indicates that, during fear conditioning, sensory stimuli reach the basolateral complexes of the amygdalae, particularly the lateral nuclei, where they form associations with memories of the stimuli. The association between stimuli and the aversive events they predict may be mediated by long-term potentiation, a sustained enhancement of signaling between affected neurons. There have been studies that show that damage to the amygdala can interfere with memory that is strengthened by emotion.
Rodríguez Delgado claimed that the stimulus caused the bull to lose its aggressive instinct. Although the bull incident was widely mentioned in the popular media, Rodríguez Delgado believed that his experiment with a female chimpanzee named Paddy was more significant. Paddy was fitted with a stimoceiver linked to a computer that detected the brain signal called a spindle which was emitted by her part of the brain called the amygdala. When the spindle was recognized, the stimoceiver sent a signal to the central gray area of Paddy's brain, producing an 'aversive reaction'.
Studies have provided evidence that when examining animals and humans that glucocorticoids may possibly lead to a more successful extinction learning during exposure therapy. For instance, glucocorticoids can prevent aversive learning episodes from being retrieved and heighten reinforcement of memory traces creating a non-fearful reaction in feared situations. A combination of glucocorticoids and exposure therapy may be a better improved treatment for treating patients with anxiety disorders. A 2015 Cochrane review also found that CBT for symptomatic management of non-specific chest pain is probably effective in the short term.
Analysis of the hippocampus showed that TSD significantly decreased the levels of total ERK phosphorylation by about 30%. TSD did not affect proteins in the cortex which indicates that the decreases in ERK levels were due to impaired signal transduction in the hippocampus. In addition, neither PP1 or MAPK phosphatase 2 levels were increased suggesting that the decreases in ERK were not due to dephosphorylation but instead a result of TSD. Therefore, it is proposed that TSD has aversive effects on the cellular processes (ERK: gene transcription etc.), underlying sleep-dependent memory plasticity.
This can involve learning through operant conditioning when it is used as a training technique. It is a reaction to undesirable sensations or feedback that leads to avoiding the behavior that is followed by this unpleasant or fear-inducing stimulus. Whether the aversive stimulus is brought on intentionally by another or is naturally occurring, it is adaptive to learn to avoid situations that have previously yielded negative outcomes. A simple example of this is conditioned food aversion, or the aversion developed to food that has previously resulted in sickness.
The process is repeated > for various speeds and patterns. In another arrangement, the student echoes > rhythmic patterns sounded by the machine, though not in unison, and again > the specifications for an accurate reproduction are progressively sharpened. > Rhythmic patterns can also be brought under the control of a printed score. The instructional potential of the teaching machine stemmed from several factors: it provided automatic, immediate and regular reinforcement without the use of aversive control; the material presented was coherent, yet varied and novel; the pace of learning could be adjusted to suit the individual.
Intergroup anxiety is the social phenomenon identified by Walter and Cookie Stephan in 1985 that describes the ambiguous feelings of discomfort or anxiety when interacting with members of other groups. Such emotions also constitute intergroup anxiety when one is merely anticipating interaction with members of an outgroup. Expectations that interactions with foreign members of outgroups will result in an aversive experience is believed to be the cause of intergroup anxiety, with an affected individual being anxious or unsure about a number of issues. Methods of reducing intergroup anxiety stress facilitating positive intergroup contact.
Emotional target cues have been shown to eliminate age differences in prospective memory. For older participants, emotional prospective memory cues were better remembered than neutral cues. Whether the cues are positive or negative, strong emotional attachment makes the cue more self-relevant and easier to remember. For example, an aversive picture of a snake biting a person or a positive picture of a dog licking its owner are easier to remember because they evoke emotional responses, as opposed to a neutral picture of an animal that does not evoke an emotional response.
In situations in which individuals need to concentrate their attention on a specific ta sk, emotional stimuli can divert their attention to a greater degree than non-emotional stimuli. Emotional stimuli will often dominate a person's thoughts, and any attempt to suppress them will require additional working memory resources. When working memory divides resources between the aversive cognitions and the task-relevant material, then the person's ability to use the relevant information on a test will suffer. People who suffer from test anxiety are more likely to experience negative cognitions while in evaluative situations.
Rats that laugh the most also play the most and prefer to spend more time with other laughing rats. It has been reported that there is no decline in the tendency to laugh and respond to tickle skin as rats age, however, it has also been reported that in females, brain maturation after puberty appears to redefine tickling as aversive, leading to avoidance rather than appetitive responses. Further studies show that rats chirp when wrestling one another, before receiving morphine, or when mating. The sound has been interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding.
Aversive and disruptive stimulus applications for managing predation. Proceedings of the Ninth Eastern Wildlife Damage Management Conference. It uses a strobe light and two loudspeakers which emit an annoying noise; these are activated when the box detects the signal from a radio collar at short range, and scare off the wolf pack. The boxes were subjected to limited testing on wolves in Idaho and researchers concluded that they are effective for protecting livestock in small pastures; the technology is thought to be limited, however, because of the complexity of the device and its price.
Early conceptualizations of links between affect and objective self-awareness have evolved due to careful experimentation in social psychology. The original conceptualization of objective self-awareness theory proposed by Duval and Wicklund suggested that a state of self-focused attention was an aversive state. That is, when people are drawn to focus on themselves like an external evaluator would, they are more likely to develop a negative mood state. An early experiment following the original writing showed that the relationship between self-focus and mood is more complex than originally thought.
Not much is known about the neurobiology of depersonalization disorder; however, there is converging evidence that the prefrontal cortex may inhibit neural circuits that normally form the substrate of emotional experience. A PET scan found functional abnormalities in the visual, auditory, and somatosensory cortex, as well as in areas responsible for an integrated body schema. In an fMRI study of DPD patients, emotionally aversive scenes activated the right ventral prefrontal cortex. Participants demonstrated a reduced neural response in emotion-sensitive regions, as well as an increased response in regions associated with emotional regulation.
Pain has both a localizing somatic sensory component and an aversive emotional and motivational component. Pain travels through a variety of pathways via first pain on Alpha Delta fibers and second pain on slowly conducting C-fibers. The dorsal horn of the spinal cord serves as a major integration center for both ascending nociceptive information and descending antinociceptive influences from the brain. Plasticity within the dorsal horn is mediated by NMDA glutamate receptors and key in the initiation of chronic pain by decreasing the excitability threshold in nociceptive pathways.
Behavior modification is critiqued in person-centered psychotherapeutic approaches such as Rogerian Counseling and Re-evaluation Counseling, which involve "connecting with the human qualities of the person to promote healing", while behaviorism is "denigrating to the human spirit". B.F. Skinner argues in Beyond Freedom and Dignity that unrestricted reinforcement is what led to the "feeling of freedom", thus removal of aversive events allows people to "feel freer". Further criticism extends to the presumption that behavior increases only when it is reinforced. This premise is at odds with research conducted by Albert Bandura at Stanford University.
In 2008 COPAA published its Declaration of Principles Opposing the Use of Restraint, Seclusion and Aversive Interventions in Schools In 2009, COPAA published the Monograph, Unsafe in the Schoolhouse: Abuse of Children with Disabilities, written by Jessica Butler.Jessica Butler, Unsafe in the Schoolhouse: Abuse of Children with Disabilities (COPAA 2009) retrieved 15 July 2009. It documents 180 incidents in which children in special education were subject to restraints, seclusion, and other abusive interventions. Ms. Butler's Monograph also makes recommendations to Congress to adopt legislation that will protect children with disabilities from abusive practices.
In 2008, COPAA had issued a Declaration of Principals Opposing the Use of Restraint, Seclusion, and Abuse of Children with Disabilities. The Declaration expresses the view the use of restraints, seclusion and aversive interventions as part of educational programs for children with disabilities.Declaration of Principals Opposing the Use of Restraint, Seclusion, and Abuse, COPAA, 2008 retrieved 15 December 2008. In 2012 COPAA was among the first to analyze participation of students with disabilities in charter schools with the publication of "Charter Schools and Students with Disabilities" A32598DA1ABE/Charter-Schools-and-Students-with- DisabilitiesFINAL.
Sixty percent of individuals have their teeth extracted in order to avoid self-injury, which families have found to be an effective management technique. Because stress increases self- injury, behavioral management through aversive techniques (which would normally reduce self-injury) actually increases self-injury in individuals with LNS. Nearly all affected individuals need restraints to prevent self- injury, and are restrained more than 75% of the time. This is often at their own request, and occasionally involves restraints that would appear to be ineffective, as they do not physically prevent biting.
Phobotaxis is a random behavioral response to all forms of aversive stimuli. A positive phobic response is one in which either activity is increased or the organism moves toward the stimulus, while a negative phobic response is when activity is decreased or the organism moves away from the stimulus. On the bacterial level, phobotaxis is regularly seen in accordance with phototaxis, random movement in response to light. In the protobacteria Rhodospirillum rubrum, the presence of ferric ion does not create a favorable wavelength of light for physiological activity.
On the other hand, lesions to the shell only impair the effect of specific PIT. This distinction is thought to reflect consummatory and appetitive conditioned responses in the NAcc shell and the NAcc core, respectively. In the dorsal striatum, a dichotomy has been observed between D1-MSNs and D2-MSNs, with the former being reinforcing and enhancing locomotion, and the latter being aversive and reducing locomotion. Such a distinction has been traditionally assumed to apply to the nucleus accumbens as well, but evidence from pharmacological and optogenetics studies is conflicting.
However, dopaminergic neurotransmission into the nucleus accumbens shell is responsible not only for appetitive motivational salience (i.e., incentive salience) towards rewarding stimuli, but also for aversive motivational salience, which directs behavior away from undesirable stimuli. In the dorsal striatum, activation of D1 expressing MSNs produces appetitive incentive salience, while activation of D2 expressing MSNs produces aversion. In the NAcc, such a dichotomy is not as clear cut, and activation of both D1 and D2 MSNs is sufficient to enhance motivation, likely via disinhibiting the VTA through inhibiting the ventral pallidum.
Shock collars (also called e-collars, remote training collars, electric collars, zap collars, or hunting collars) are electronic training aids developed to deliver a low intensity electrical signal, vibration, tone, or light signal to the dog via the collar. They are used primarily as a means of remote communication and widely accepted as a primary tool for the training of deaf and working dogs. These consist of a radio receiver attached to the collar and a transmitter that the trainer holds. When triggered, the collar delivers an aversive.
The use of aversive conditioning is not a medically accepted treatment for self-harm or aggression. The medically accepted treatment for these and other concerning behaviors is functional analysis, which is not practiced at the Judge Rotenberg Center. As better positive behavior support interventions have been developed, it is more and more frequently viewed as unethical the use of aversives to modify behavior in children and adults with disabilities. There is medical consensus that positive behavior support alone is safer and more effective than behavior modification with the use of aversives.
Why do humans seek out and consume drugs that harm them? The paradox of drug reward refers to the puzzling ability of drugs to induce both aversive and rewarding effects. Despite contention on the particulars of dopamine induced reward and behavior, there is agreement that dopamine plays an instrumental role in the processing of reward-related stimuli and that drug induced dopamine stimulation explains at least some part of drug abuse phenomena. And still, almost all major recreational drugs are plant secondary metabolites or a close chemical analog.
The psychosocial approach to the treatment of ICDs includes cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) which has been reported to have positive results in the case of treatment of pathological gambling and sexual addiction. There is general consensus that cognitive-behavioural therapies offer an effective intervention model. ;Pathological gambling :Systematic desensitization, aversive therapy, covert sensitization, imaginal desensitization, and stimulus control have been proven to be successful in the treatments to the problems of pathological gambling. Also "cognitive techniques such as psychoeducation, cognitive-restructuring, and relapse prevention" have proven to be effective in the treatments of such cases.
The somatosensory component included the middle cingulate cortex, as well as the posterior insula and rolandic operculum bilaterally. The latter cluster partially overlaps with the right hemispheric one displaying the loss-oriented bidirectional response previously described, but, unlike that region, it mostly involved the posterior insula bilaterally. All these structures play a critical role in detecting threats and prepare the organism for appropriate action, with the connections between amygdala nuclei and the striatum controlling the avoidance of aversive events. There are functional differences between the right and left amygdala.
The insula is an area active in registering body discomfort. It is activated when people feel, among other things, social exclusion. The authors interpret activity in the insula as the aversive reaction one feels when faced with unfairness, activity in the DLPFC as processing the future reward from keeping the money, and the ACC is an arbiter that weighs these two conflicting inputs to make a decision. Whether or not the offer gets rejected can be predicted (with a correlation of 0.45) by the level of the responder's insula activity.
The involvement of the KOR in stress, as well as in consequences of chronic stress such as depression, anxiety, anhedonia, and increased drug- seeking behavior, has been made clear. KOR agonists are notably dysphoric and aversive at sufficient doses. The KOR antagonists buprenorphine, as ALKS-5461 (a combination formulation with samidorphan), and CERC-501 (LY-2456302) are currently in clinical development for the treatment of major depressive disorder and substance use disorders. JDTic and PF-4455242 were also under investigation but development was halted in both cases due to toxicity concerns.
Applied behavior analysis is the discipline initiated by B. F. Skinner that applies the principles of conditioning to the modification of socially significant human behavior. It uses the basic concepts of conditioning theory, including conditioned stimulus (SC), discriminative stimulus (Sd), response (R), and reinforcing stimulus (Srein or Sr for reinforcers, sometimes Save for aversive stimuli). A conditioned stimulus controls behaviors developed through respondent (classical) conditioning, such as emotional reactions. The other three terms combine to form Skinner's "three-term contingency": a discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for responses that lead to reinforcement.
During the 1980s, Cooper and Fazio argued that dissonance was caused by aversive consequences, rather than inconsistency. According to this interpretation, the belief that lying is wrong and hurtful, not the inconsistency between cognitions, is what makes people feel bad. Subsequent research, however, found that people experience dissonance even when they feel they have not done anything wrong. For example, Harmon-Jones and colleagues showed that people experience dissonance even when the consequences of their statements are beneficial—as when they convince sexually active students to use condoms, when they, themselves are not using condoms.
A definition of pain widely accepted and used by scientists is "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage". The nerve impulses of the nociception response may be conducted to the brain thereby registering the location, intensity, quality and unpleasantness of the stimulus. This subjective component of pain involves conscious awareness of both the sensation and the unpleasantness (the aversive, negative affect). The brain processes underlying conscious awareness of the unpleasantness (suffering), are not well understood.
In a lab experiment, goldfish were conditioned to receive a light stimulus followed shortly by an aversive electric shock, with a constant time interval between the two stimuli. Test subjects showed an increase in general activity around the time of the electric shock. This response persisted in further trials in which the light stimulus was kept but the electric shock was removed. This suggests that goldfish are able to perceive time intervals and to initiate an avoidance response at the time when they expect the distressing stimulus to happen.
Alcohol myopia has been shown to increase the likelihood that a person will engage in risky behavior. The increased risk taking brought on by alcohol myopia often ends with aversive consequences for the person acting dangerously or those influenced by the intoxicated's actions. Those under the influence of alcohol myopia are often unaware of the consequences of their behavior as well as its risky nature. It has been shown that alcohol myopia causes people to function like those with maladaptive risky behaviors, often caused by behavior disorders or a personal history of abuse.
The impact monitor serves to both detect an impact to the head and to protect the head from the damage that the impact could potentially incur. The sensor module is placed on either the body part receiving the impact (such as the head) or on the body part delivering the impact (such as the arm or knee). Wherever it is placed, the sensor module senses the impact of the blow and sends out an electrical signal. This electrical signal triggers the stimulus module, allowing for the aversive stimulation, the shock, to be delivered.
Learned industriousness theory asserts that reinforcing an individual for achieving a performance standard increases the likelihood of that individual's performing those behaviors again. If the individual exerted high levels of effort during the completion of the task, the effort takes on its own reinforcing value. This is because the individual enjoys the sensation of working hard because it is associated with reinforcement. Therefore, this individual is more likely to generalize this high level of effort to other tasks because it is less aversive and is associated with positive results.
Second messenger cascades triggered by activation of these dopamine receptors can modulate pre- and postsynaptic function, both in the short term and in the long term. In humans, the striatum is activated by stimuli associated with reward, but also by aversive, novel, unexpected, or intense stimuli, and cues associated with such events. fMRI evidence suggests that the common property linking these stimuli, to which the striatum is reacting, is salience under the conditions of presentation. A number of other brain areas and circuits are also related to reward, such as frontal areas.
Hypothalamic cooling was delivered on days 1,3, and 5 while a behavioural test was run on the second, fourth and sixth days. During hypothalamic cooling, many rats showed enhanced feeding. Zajonc also found that feeding was elicited during hypothalamic cooling but not heating or when the rat was left at its normal temperature. In his second experiment, which looked at hedonic and aversive reactions to taste, Zajonc connected the hypothalamic thermode of the 17 rats to water flow, and the rat’s were connected to an infusion delivery tube.
New information is incorporated into the framework and serves as the basis for the problem-solving skills a child develops as she or he is exposed to different types of stimuli (e.g., new situations, people, or environments). The experiences and environment that a child is exposed to can have either a positive or negative outcome, which, in turn, impacts how he or she remembers, reasons, and adapts when encountering aversive stimuli. Furthermore, when children have acquired extensive knowledge, it affects what they notice and how they organize, represent, and interpret information in their current environment (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).
Once these hormones cross the blood–brain barrier, they interact with other neurotransmitters and change the brain's chemistry as well as structure. The process of habituation is important to consider because it is a prevalent variable in the phenomenon of psychic numbing. The constant exposure a society or individual has to a prolonged and sustained aversive stimuli, the emotional magnitude that the stimuli has decreases greatly over time to where it becomes unnoticeable to those who have been surrounded by it for a long period of time. This type of response is seen in Vietnam veterans and rape victims who suffer from PTSD.
Video of the presentation. To assist in this, leaders developed an aversion therapy program on BYU campus for gay adolescents and adults from '59 to '83 since simply being attracted to people of the same sex was an excommunicable sin under church president Kimball. Teachings later changed as it became clear these self-help and aversive techniques were not working and, thus, from the 80s to the 2000s reparative therapy (also called conversion therapy) became the dominant treatment method. It was often recommended by Evergreen in an attempt to help homosexual members unchoose and unlearn their attractions.
The five categories include (a) experiencing shame and embarrassment, (b) devaluing one's self-estimate, (c) having an uncertain future, (d) important others losing interest, (e) upsetting important others. These five categories can help one infer the possibility of an individual to associate failure with one of these threat categories, which will lead them to experiencing fear of failure. In summary, the two studies that were done above created a more precise definition of fear of failure, which is "a dispositional tendency to experience apprehension and anxiety in evaluative situations because individuals have learned that failure is associated with aversive consequences".
Studies have been conducted that show an interaction between brain circuits that respond to baby-stimuli, such as infant cries, and testosterone and oxytocin pathways. It has been found that when acute amounts of testosterone and oxytocin are administered to nulliparous women exposed to infant cries, they cause decreased responses in the amygdala and increased insula and inferior frontal gyrus responses. The alterations in responses within those brain regions have been seen to induce maternal behaviors. As such, there is speculation that increasing the availability of testosterone and oxytocin alters the maternal brain to induce a non-aversive response to infant cries.
Negative reinforcement is often used by laypeople and even social scientists outside psychology as a synonym for punishment. This is contrary to modern technical use, but it was B.F. Skinner who first used it this way in his 1938 book. By 1953, however, he followed others in thus employing the word punishment, and he re-cast negative reinforcement for the removal of aversive stimuli. There are some within the field of behavior analysis who have suggested that the terms "positive" and "negative" constitute an unnecessary distinction in discussing reinforcement as it is often unclear whether stimuli are being removed or presented.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) defines trauma as direct personal experience of an event that involves actual or threatened death or serious injury; threat to one's physical integrity, witnessing an event that involves the above experience, learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm, or threat of death, or injury experienced by a family member or close associate. Memories associated with trauma are typically explicit, coherent, and difficult to forget.McNally, R.J. (2003) Remembering Trauma. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press The person's response to aversive details of traumatic event involves intense fear, helplessness or horror.
The human trace amine-associated receptors are a group of six G protein-coupled receptors (i.e., TAAR1, TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8, and TAAR9) that – with exception for TAAR1 – are expressed in the human olfactory epithelium. In humans and other animals, TAARs in the olfactory epithelium function as olfactory receptors that detect volatile amine odorants, including certain pheromones; these TAARs putatively function as a class of pheromone receptors involved in the olfactive detection of social cues. A review of studies involving non-human animals indicated that TAARs in the olfactory epithelium can mediate attractive or aversive behavioral responses to a receptor agonist.
This review also noted that the behavioral response evoked by a TAAR can vary across species (e.g., TAAR5 mediates attraction to trimethylamine in mice and aversion to trimethylamine in rats). Figure 2: Table of ligands, expression patterns, and species-specific behavioral responses for each TAAR In humans, hTAAR5 presumably mediates aversion to trimethylamine, which is known to act as an hTAAR5 agonist and to possess a foul, fishy odor that is aversive to humans; however, hTAAR5 is not the only olfactory receptor that is responsible for trimethylamine olfaction in humans. hTAAR5-mediated trimethylamine aversion has not been examined in published research.
However, after several trials, the dog began to make avoidance responses and would jump over the barrier when the light turned off, and would not receive the shock. Many dogs never received the shock after the first trial. These results led to questioning in the term avoidance paradox (the question of how the nonoccurrence of an aversive event can be a reinforcer for an avoidance response?) Because the avoidance response is adaptive, humans have learned to use it in training animals such as dogs and horses. B.F. Skinner (1938) believed that animals learn primarily through rewards and punishments, the basis of operant conditioning.
Hartley was interested in exploring how decision-making strategies are employed and change throughout development. She found that model-free strategies were employed across all age groups while model-based strategies began to be recruited in adolescents and strengthened in adults suggesting that the development and recruitment of model-based valuation system, and development of goal directed behavior. h Following this study, Hartley probed the cognitive mechanisms by which the memories of reinforced and unreinforced aversive events are enhanced across adults and adolescents. She found that, in both adults and adolescents, autonomic arousal and reinforced exemplars enhanced recognition.
The investigation found that residents had received "excessive bruises" from "excessive and unnecessary aversives". Residents had cuts, scars, scabs, and open wounds from the use of aversives. Furthermore, staff took action to disguise these injuries from doctors and family members: Doctor's appointments were sometimes postponed due to the presence of excessive bruising, and aversive interventions were put on hold before scheduled visits with family for "public relations purposes". Residents were made to wear long sleeves to cover up the injuries, and social service employees were on some occasions denied the right to adequately inspect them for bruises.
The doctor diagnosed him with acute stress disorder, which was a direct result of the school's aversive treatment. His mother subsequently claimed that "There is no counseling for the [students] there... and the staff there lied to [her] all these years..." In 2012, a video of the incident was released as part of a lawsuit by McCollins‘ mother, which was settled for an undisclosed sum. The video aired on national news, and caught the attention of the hacker group Anonymous, which announced in a YouTube video that the center and those affiliated with it were targets.
Dysfunction in the salience network have been observed in various psychiatric disorders, including anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia, frontotemporal dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. The AI node of the salience network has been observed to be hyperactive in anxiety disorders, which is thought to reflect predictions of aversive bodily states leading to worrisome thoughts and anxious behaviors. In schizophrenia, both structural and functional abnormalities have been observed, thought to reflect excessive salience being ascribed to internally generated stimuli. In individuals with autism, the relative salience of social stimuli, such as face, eyes, and gaze, may be diminished, leading to poor social skills.
As CRH levels are elevated in PTSD, this can personify feelings of euphoria experienced when an individual uses substances and increase addiction severity as a result of positive reinforcement from euphoric sensation. This can also affect the interplay between withdrawal symptoms and the increased experience of hyperarousal. As increased levels of CRH have been linked to both withdrawal and hyperarousal, those affected by both diagnoses of PTSD and SUD may subsequently continue to seek substances as a means to avoid these escalated aversive sensations. The described relationship has been used to evidence the self-medication hypothesis.
The nucleus accumbens, being one part of the reward system, plays an important role in processing rewarding stimuli, reinforcing stimuli (e.g., food and water), and those which are both rewarding and reinforcing (addictive drugs, sex, and exercise). The predominant response of neurons in the nucleus accumbens to the reward sucrose is inhibition; the opposite is true in response to the administration of aversive quinine. Substantial evidence from pharmacological manipulation also suggests that reducing the excitability of neurons in the nucleus accumbens is rewarding, as, for example, would be true in the case of μ-opioid receptor stimulation.
Behavioral activation (BA) is an idiographic and functional approach to depression. It argues that people with depression act in ways that maintain their depression and locates the origin of depressive episodes in the environment. While BA theories do not deny biological factors that contribute to depression, they assert that it is ultimately the combination of a stressful event in an individual's life and their reaction to the event that produces a depressive episode. Individuals with depression may display socially aversive behaviors, fail to engage in enjoyable activities, ruminate on their problems, or engage in other maladaptive activities.
Research shows that behavioral immune system, the psychological processes that infer infection risk from perceptual cues and respond to these perceptual cues through the activation of aversive emotions, may influence gregariousness. Although extraversion is associated with many positive outcomes like higher levels of happiness, those extraverted people are also more likely to be exposed to communicable diseases, such as airborne infections, as they tend to have more contact with people. When individuals are more vulnerable to infection, the cost of being social will be relatively greater. Therefore, people tend to be less extraversive when they feel vulnerable and vice versa.
Moffat's Shoo-Fly Powders for Drunkenness. The New England Journal of Medicine reported a case study of a patient whose wife secretly gave him a dose of a product called "tartaro emetico" which contained trivalent antimony (antimony potassium tartrate) and is sold in Central America as an aversive treatment for alcohol abuse. The patient, who had been out drinking the night before, developed persistent vomiting shortly after being given orange juice with the drug. When admitted to the hospital, and later in the intensive care unit, he experienced severe chest pains, cardiac abnormalities, renal and hepatic toxicity, and nearly died.
The amygdala is located deep within the temporal lobe of the brain and is involved in the acquisition and retrieval of information on highly salient events. It is also involved in several functions of the body, which include determining what and where memories are stored in the brain. The determination of what/where memories are stored is dependent on how big of an emotional response an event evokes. This is related to eyewitness testimonies because young children usually have poorer recall for details of events, but when an event evokes a highly aversive response (unpleasant, arousing), they tend to remember it.
These LHb projections are activated both by aversive stimuli and by the absence of an expected reward, and excitation of the LHb can induce aversion. Most of the dopamine pathways (i.e., neurons that use the neurotransmitter dopamine to communicate with other neurons) that project out of the ventral tegmental area are part of the reward system; in these pathways, dopamine acts on D1-like receptors or D2-like receptors to either stimulate (D1-like) or inhibit (D2-like) the production of cAMP. The GABAergic medium spiny neurons of the striatum are components of the reward system as well.
The peak–end rule is particularly salient in regard to medical procedures, since it suggests that it is preferable to have longer procedures that include a period of decreased discomfort than to have shorter procedures. In particular, the rule "suggests that the memory of a painful medical treatment is likely to be less aversive if relief from the pain is gradual than if relief is abrupt". Furthermore, the quality of a remembered procedure can drastically influence medical futures. If people recall necessary but onerous procedures more positively, then they are more likely to return for repeat procedures later in life.
The fields generated by these permanent magnets (ferrite and rare-earth types) decrease at the inverse cube of the distance from the magnet to sharks and rays. Therefore, at distances of a few meters from the magnet, the field exerted is less than the Earth's magnetic field. Animals which lack that Ampullae of Lorenzini organ do not display aversive behavior in close proximity to the magnetic field, making this technology selective. When a shark swims through the Earth's magnetic field, electromagnetic induction – a phenomenon which generates voltage in an electrical conductor moving through a magnetic field – creates an electric field around the shark.
In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the human/animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is determined by its effect on the rate that the behavior occurs, not by any "hostile" or aversive features of the change. For example, a painful stimulus which would act as a punisher for most people may actually reinforce some behaviors of masochistic individuals.
A hermit crab Nociceptive responses are reflexes that do not change regardless of motivational priorities. In contrast, a painful experience may change the motivation for normal behavioural responses, thereby indicating a plastic response to an aversive stimulus, rather than a simple reflex response. In 2009, Elwood and Mirjam Appel showed that hermit crabs make motivational trade-offs between electric shocks and the quality of the shells they inhabit. In particular, as hermit crabs are shocked more intensely, they become increasingly willing to leave their current shells for new shells, and they spend less time deciding whether to enter those new shells.
Michael J. Frank, Lauren C. Seeberger, and Randall C. O'Reilly (2004) "By Carrot or by Stick: Cognitive Reinforcement Learning in Parkinsonism," Science 4, November 2004 It showed that while off their medication, patients learned more readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on their medication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effective form of learning when dopamine activity is high. A neurochemical process involving dopamine has been suggested to underlie reinforcement. When an organism experiences a reinforcing stimulus, dopamine pathways in the brain are activated.
Desensitization also refers to the potential for reduced responsiveness to actual violence caused by exposure to violence in the media, although this topic is debated in the scientific literature on the topic. Desensitization may arise from different sources of media, including TV, video games and movies. Some scholars suggest that violence may prime thoughts of hostility, with the possibility of affecting the way we perceive others and interpret their actions. It is hypothesized that initial exposure to violence in the media may produce a number of aversive responses such as increased heart rate, fear, discomfort, perspiration and disgust.
In the past decades, Canada has seen major legal shifts in support of LGBT rights (e.g. decriminalization, anti-discrimination, anti-harassment, gay marriage, ban proposals on aversive therapies, etc.). A global survey conducted in March 2013 showed that 80% of Canada's general population (87% among Canadians aged between 18 and 29) favoured social acceptance of homosexuality, which represented an increase of 10% in public opinion, within six years. Thereafter, polls from June 2013 have shown an increase in the Canadian population's point of view, with a large majority of Canadians supporting same-sex marriage, which has been legally permitted since 2005.
Some authors, in particular with respect to modelling business systems, use negative to refer to the reduction in difference between the desired and actual behavior of a system. John D.Sterman, Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World McGraw Hill/Irwin, 2000. In a psychology context, on the other hand, negative refers to the valence of the feedback – attractive versus aversive, or praise versus criticism. In contrast, positive feedback is feedback in which the system responds so as to increase the magnitude of any particular perturbation, resulting in amplification of the original signal instead of stabilization.
But forms of implicit racism including aversive racism, symbolic racism, and ambivalent prejudice, may have come to replace these overt expressions of prejudice. Research has not revealed a downward trend in implicit racism that would mirror the decline of explicit racism. Furthermore, implicit racism, when explicit racism is absent or rare, raises new issues. When surveyed about their attitudes concerning the racial climate in America, black people and white people had largely different perceptions, with black people viewing racial discrimination as far more impactful on income and education disparities, and being far less satisfied in general with the treatment of minorities in America.
Nordgreen said that the behavioural differences they found in response to uncomfortable temperatures showed that fish feel both reflexive and cognitive pain. "The experiment shows that fish do not only respond to painful stimuli with reflexes, but change their behavior also after the event," Nordgreen said. "Together with what we know from experiments carried out by other groups, this indicates that the fish consciously perceive the test situation as painful and switch to behaviors indicative of having been through an aversive experience." In 2012, Rose and others reviewed this and further studies which concluded that pain had been found in fish.
Mand is a term that B.F. Skinner used to describe a verbal operant in which the response is reinforced by a characteristic consequence and is therefore under the functional control of relevant conditions of deprivation or aversive stimulation. One cannot determine, based on form alone, whether a response is a mand; it is necessary to know the kinds of variables controlling a response in order to identify a verbal operant. A mand is sometimes said to "specify its reinforcement" although this is not always the case. Skinner introduced the mand as one of six primary verbal operants in his 1957 work, Verbal Behavior.
The widespread connections of the nucleus basalis with other parts of the brain indicate that it is likely to have an important modulatory influence on brain function. Studies of the firing patterns of nucleus basalis neurons in nonhuman primates indicate that the cells are associated with arousing stimuli, both positive (appetitive) and negative (aversive). There is also evidence that the nucleus basalis promotes sustained attention, and learning and recall in long term memory Cholinergic neurons of the nucleus basalis have been hypothesized to modulate the ratio of reality and virtual reality components of visual perception.Smythies, J. (2009) Philosophy, Perception and Neuroscience.
Conditioned satiety is thought to be acquired when a food with a given flavour is eaten on a partly full stomach and followed promptly by a mildly aversive digestive event ("bloat"). However, it is uncertain if and how this phenomenon may occur under real-life conditions as normally more than food of one given flavor is ingested during a meal. It has been widely misunderstood as an association of the sensory properties of a food with its energy content (calories) or carbohydrate content. However that is a confusion with the conditioning of simple aversion or a contrast with simple conditioned preference.
Meaney is an expert in stress and epigenetics, with hundreds of papers and thousands of citations culminating in a h-index of 135 as of 2019. Meaney has studied the epigenetic effects of stressors ranging from aversive early life experience to obesity. His early research focused on the relationship between maternal care and stress response in rat pups. This work demonstrated that pups removed from their maternal environment and handled for 15 minutes per day had lower hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal responses than pups separated from their mothers for 3 hours per day and pups with no handling whatsoever.
Fabuloso multipurpose cleaner and generic surface cleaners All- purpose cleansers contain mixtures of anionic and nonionic surfactants, polymeric phosphates or other sequestering agents, solvents, hydrotropic substances, polymeric compounds, corrosion inhibitors, skin-protective agents, and sometimes perfumes and colorants. Aversive agents, such as denatonium, are occasionally added to cleaning products to discourage animals and small children from consuming them. Some cleaners contain water-soluble organic solvents like glycol ethers and fatty alcohols, which ease the removal of oil, fat and paint. Disinfectant additives include quaternary ammonium compounds, phenol derivatives, terpene alcohols (pine oil), aldehydes, and aldehyde-amine condensation products.
In the standard conditioned place preference procedure, when the unconditioned stimulus is rewarding, rodents will be more likely to approach the compartment that contains cues associated with it. Alternatively, when the unconditioned stimulus is aversive, rodents will be more likely to escape and avoid the compartment that contains cues associated with it. Timing of presentation of the unconditioned stimulus can determine whether place preference or aversion will be conditioned. For example, in trials testing drugs of abuse, if the animal experiences the initial pleasurable effects of the drug while in the conditioning context, the result will likely be conditioned place preference.
She found that female mice are more attracted to male mice with their own territory. She found that darcin and other major urinary proteins influence the odour signature that female mice learn. She edited volume 11 of Chemical Signals in Vertebrates that followed a conference of the same name in Chester, UK. Professor Jane Hurst, William Prescott Professor of Animal Science Her research is directed in part to the development of humane control of rodent pests. She also identified non-aversive handling methods that would reduce anxiety in mice, allowing them to be more reliable in laboratory tests.
However, in this same study, the conditioned place preference took place immediately after the injection of amphetamine, suggesting that it is the immediate, pleasurable interoceptive effects of amphetamine administration, rather than the delayed, aversive effects of amphetamine withdrawal that are represented within the insula. A model proposed by Naqvi et al. (see above) is that the insula stores a representation of the pleasurable interoceptive effects of drug use (e.g., the airway sensory effects of nicotine, the cardiovascular effects of amphetamine), and that this representation is activated by exposure to cues that have previously been associated with drug use.
The researchers go on to mention that their results regarding those individuals who were on the depressed side showed evidence that pleasing or neutral stimuli as being less positive compared to the results of the healthy individuals. The results of this study do show similarity to that of other studies in that positive emotions are not likely found in those who are in a depressed state. Those who are depressed may have an aversive side, but their motivational side to do things is not there. The concepts of both positivity offset and negative bias can also be analyzed from an element of positive valence.
Oxytocin has been shown to play a critical role in many social behaviors and olfaction appears to be a very important driver of socially behaviors. Due to this knowledge, Choi and her team explored the role of oxytocin in social behaviors driven by olfactory cues. The first publication from Choi's lab at MIT highlighted their discovery that oxytocin signalling is specifically required to learn associations between olfactory stimuli and social cues but not nonsocial cues. Further, they found that activating oxytocin positive neurons enabled social learning and that oxytocin mediated signalling in the piriform cortex is necessary to mediate social learning to both appetitive and aversive olfactory cues.
He makes clear that mutual sympathy of negative emotions is a necessary condition for friendship, whereas mutual sympathy of positive emotions is desirable but not required. This is due to the "healing consolation of mutual sympathy" that a friend is 'required' to provide in response to "grief and resentment", as if not doing so would be akin to a failure to help the physically wounded. Not only do we get pleasure from the sympathy of others, but we also obtain pleasure from being able to successfully sympathize with others, and discomfort from failing to do so. Sympathizing is pleasurable, failing to sympathize is aversive.
The Low Level of Response Model proposes that individuals who are less sensitive to the effects of alcohol are at greater risk for developing alcohol use disorder. One explanation for this phenomenon is that the experiences of elevated intoxication constitutes a feedback mechanism, which prompts drinking cessation. Low-level responders need to consume more alcohol than high responders to achieve a similar level of intoxication and experience the aversive effects of alcohol; consequently, these individuals must consume more alcohol to trigger the negative feedback loop. Escalating alcohol consumption may ultimately contribute to the development of tolerance, which further dampens sensitivity to alcohol's unpleasant effects.
Pregnancy and childbirth result in a high state of plasticity of the olfactory system that may facilitate olfactory learning within the mother. Neurogenesis likely facilitates the formation of olfactory memory in the mother, as well as the infant. A significant change takes place in the regulation of olfaction just after birth so that odors related with the offspring are no longer aversive, allowing the female to positively respond to her babies. Research with a variety of animals suggest the role of norepinephrine in olfactory learning, in which norepinephrine neurons in the locus coeruleus send projections to neurons in the main and accessory olfactory bulbs.
In what has now become the standard set of definitions, positive reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the occurrence of some event (e.g., praise after some behavior is performed), whereas negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you). Both types of reinforcement strengthen behavior, or increase the probability of a behavior reoccurring; the difference being in whether the reinforcing event is something applied (positive reinforcement) or something removed or avoided (negative reinforcement).
The freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii Crayfish naturally explore new environments but display a general preference for dark places. A 2014 study on the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii tested their responses in a fear paradigm, the elevated plus maze in which animals choose to walk on an elevated cross which offers both aversive and preferable conditions (in this case, two arms were lit and two were dark). Crayfish which experienced an electric shock displayed enhanced fearfulness or anxiety as demonstrated by their preference for the dark arms more than the light. Furthermore, shocked crayfish had relatively higher brain serotonin concentrations coupled with elevated blood glucose, which indicates a stress response.
Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders The taste thresholds of other bitter substances are rated relative to quinine, which is thus given a reference index of 1. For example, brucine has an index of 11, is thus perceived as intensely more bitter than quinine, and is detected at a much lower solution threshold. The most bitter natural substance is amarogentin a compound present in the roots of the plant Gentiana lutea and the most bitter substance known is the synthetic chemical denatonium, which has an index of 1,000. It is used as an aversive agent (a bitterant) that is added to toxic substances to prevent accidental ingestion.
Cortisol increases withdrawal behavior and sensitivity to punishment and aversive conditioning, which are abnormally low in individuals with psychopathy and may underlie their impaired aversion learning and disinhibited behavior. High testosterone levels combined with low serotonin levels are associated with "impulsive and highly negative reactions", and may increase violent aggression when an individual is provoked or becomes frustrated. Several animal studies note the role of serotonergic functioning in impulsive aggression and antisocial behavior. However, some studies on animal and human subjects have suggested that the emotional-interpersonal traits and predatory aggression of psychopathy, in contrast to impulsive and reactive aggression, is related to increased serotoninergic functioning.
The investigation found that residents were provoked into violent and aggressive behavior as part of the filming of a "before and after" video, where staged clips of the residents responding to provocation were shown as examples of how they had behaved "before" treatment. The residents were then taken off aversive therapy, rewarded heavily for several days, and asked to perform only tasks that placed little demand on them so that a video could be produced to show how they behaved "after" treatment. This film is often shown to parents of prospective students and to reporters to convince them of the benefits of the school.
Citizen Autistic is a 2013 documentary film directed by William Davenport exploring the advocacy work of autism rights activists. Citizen Autistic features interviews with autistic activists including Ari Ne'eman, co-founder and former president of the Autistic Self Advocacy Network, and Zoe Gross, creator of the Disability Day of Mourning annual vigils held in honor of filicide victims with disabilities. The documentary covers topics important to neurodiversity such as the debate over whether researchers should seek a cure for autism and controversies surrounding the nonprofit organization Autism Speaks and the Judge Rotenberg Center, a residential institution known for using electric skin shock aversive treatment as a form of behavioral modification.
The GED was created by Matthew Israel, the founder of Judge Rotenberg Center. Before it used of electric shocks, the school used pinches, spankings, muscle squeezes, as well as a wide variety of other aversive intervention included punitive, restraints, sensory deprivation, and withholding food. Matthew Israel said that the school moved to electric shocks because “A lot of injuries were occurring” and also because it is more consistent. After the school began to use electric shocks as punishment, it phased out pinches, spankings, and muscle squeezes, but retained most other aversion interventions which were used alongside of, and sometimes at the same time as the electric shocks.
The behavioral shutdown model states that if an organism faces more risk or expenditure than reward from activities, the best evolutionary strategy may be to withdraw from them. This model proposes that emotional pain, like physical pain, serves a useful adaptive purpose. Negative emotions like disappointment, sadness, grief, fear, anxiety, anger, and guilt are described as "evolved strategies that allow for the identification and avoidance of specific problems, especially in the social domain." Depression is characteristically associated with anhedonia and lack of energy, and those experiencing it are risk-aversive and perceive more negative and pessimistic outcomes because they are focused on preventing further loss.
Drug toxicity and aversion exist in humans and are at odds with the theory of drug reward. Chronic drug use is harmful in humans and the human brain has evolved defenses to prevent, not reinforce, drug abuse. In response to the evolution of plant chemical defenses, herbivores have co-evolved a number of countermeasures, including (1) compounds that prevent or attenuate induction of plant chemical defenses; (2) detoxification mechanisms, including enzymes and symbiotic relationships with microbes to detoxify or extract nutrients from plant defenses, and cellular membrane carrier proteins for toxin transport; and (3) chemosensors and aversive learning mechanisms that permit selective feeding on less toxic tissues.
Thus, the fabric of an egalitarianist society is held together by cooperation and implicit peer pressure rather than by explicit rules and punishment. Thompson et al. theorize that any society consisting of only one perspective, be it egalitarianist, hierarchist, individualist, fatalist or autonomist, will be inherently unstable as the claim is that an interplay between all these perspectives are required if each perspective is to be fulfilling. For instance, although an individualist according to cultural theory is aversive towards both principles and groups, individualism is not fulfilling if individual brilliance cannot be recognized by groups, or if individual brilliance cannot be made permanent in the form of principles.
"Contact desensitization" is intended to increase a behavior by imagining a reinforcing experience in connection with modeling the correct behavior. "Covert negative reinforcement" attempts to increase a behavior by connecting the termination of an aversive stimulus with increased production of a target behavior. "Dialectical behavior therapy" (DBT) and "Acceptance and commitment therapy" (ACT) uses positive reinforcement and covert conditioning through mindfulness. Although the therapies are quite similar in theory and practice, DBT is based on the cognitive psychology philosophy that thoughts and feelings are explanations of motor behavior, whereas ACT--rooted in behavior analysis-- views thinking and feelings as more behavior to be explained.
Hyperflexion of the neck has been linked to airway obstruction, musculoskeletal pathology, stress, fear, and pain in horses. Horses ridden in hyperflexion show more conflict behaviors (resistance to the rider's commands) and signs of discomfort, even at the highest level of competition, indicating that the posture is aversive even after prolonged training and experience. It also impacts forward vision, as horses have a relatively limited vertical field of vision and cannot see in front of them well with their noses pointing vertically downwards or backwards. This may itself lead to further stress while in the hyperflexed position, as the horse cannot adequately watch out for obstacles while moving forward.
The pain of paying is not an exclusively behavioral phenomenon. Neuroscientific studies have shown that the pain of paying exists on a neural level. In addition to merely representing costs or loss in a rational sense, the “pain of paying” theory argues that price can elicit an aversive response akin to physical pain (Prelec and Loewenstein 1998, Rick et al. 2008). The results for nucleus accumbens (reward centre) and medial prefrontal cortex indicate that even if price primacy evoked pain early in the decision process, that pain did not systematically lower estimates of product value, nor did it prevent or decrease purchasesKarmarkar, U. R., Shiv B., & Knutson B. (2015).
Because of the subtle and varied nature of these biases, aversive racism not only systematically influences decision making but can also fundamentally impact everyday social relations in ways that contribute substantially to misunderstandings and mistrust in intergroup relations. Studies of nonverbal cues have shown repeatedly that less conscious or vigilantly controlled displays of discomfort increase in aversively racist Whites when interacting with Blacks, even when a concerted effort is being made and the white participants reported liking the black participants. Dovidio et al. found that negative implicit attitudes were correlated with nonverbal cues of discomfort such as increased rates of blinking and decreased eye contact in interactions with blacks.
Aversive racism has been hypothesized in the 2008 presidential elections with the emergence of the first biracial candidate, Barack Obama. During the latter half of the campaign, Obama showed a decent lead in the polls ranging anywhere from 2–10%. A survey conducted by Stanford University claimed support for Obama would have been "six percentage points higher if he were white". The New York Times journalist, Nicholas Kristof stated that "most of the votes that Mr. Obama actually loses will belong to well-meaning whites who believe in racial equality and have no objections to electing a black person as president – yet who discriminate unconsciously".
In another study measuring the correction of implicit bias among aversively racist people, Green et al. examined physicians' treatment recommendations for Blacks and Whites. While aversively racist people typically recommended an aggressive treatment plan more often for White than for Black patients, those who were made aware of the possibility that their implicit biases could be informing their treatment recommendations did not end up showing such a disparity in their treatment plans. While all of the above-mentioned studies attempt to address the nonconscious process of implicit racism through conscious thought processes and self-awareness, others have sought to combat aversive racism through altering nonconscious processes.
Schaller and Park (2011) used the term the Behavioral Immune System to account for observable activities that humans utilize in the face of pathogen threat. Whereas non-human social animals appear to largely rely upon distinctly organized social structures to combat the threat of diseases, it is evident such systems would be strained to apply in most modern human societies. Schaller and Park (2011) describe "perceptual cues" that humans use that will trigger aversive behavior toward other individuals. For example, people who appear to be ill may stimulate avoidance behavior in those around them, particularly if the others around them have temporarily suppressed immune systems, Wilson et al.
In rats, stimulates the mesolimbic reward pathway by inducing dopamine release and activating dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, presumably through antagonisation of NMDA receptors localised in the system. This action has been implicated in its euphoric effects and, notably, appears to augment its analgesic properties as well. It is remarkable, however, that in mice, blocks amphetamine-induced carrier-mediated dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and behavioural sensitisation, abolishes the conditioned place preference (CPP) of cocaine and morphine, and does not produce reinforcing (or aversive) effects of its own. Effects of CPP of in rats are mixed, consisting of reinforcement, aversion and no change.
Recently, noribogaine has been determined to act as a biased agonist of the κ-opioid receptor (KOR). It activates the G protein (GDP-GTP exchange) signaling pathway with 75% the efficacy of dynorphin A (EC50 = 9 μM), but it is only 12% as efficacious at activating the β-arrestin pathway. Moreover, due to its very low efficacy on the β-arrestin pathway, noribogaine blocked dynorphin A activation of the pathway (IC50 = 1 μM) and hence functioned as an antagonist of it. The β-arrestin pathway is thought to be responsible for the dysphoric and aversive effects of KOR activation, and its lack of activation by noribogaine may be the reason for the lack of dysphoric effects of the drug.
The brain responds by inducing vomiting, to clear the supposed toxin. Treisman's indirect argument has recently been questioned via an alternative direct evolutionary hypothesis, as well as modified and extended via a direct poison hypothesis. The direct evolutionary hypothesis essentially argues that there are plausible means by which ancient real or apparent motion could have contributed directly to the evolution of aversive reactions, without the need for the co-opting of a poison response as posited by Treisman. Nevertheless, the direct poison hypothesis argues that there still are plausible ways in which the body's poison response system may have played a role in shaping the evolution of some of the signature symptoms that characterize motion sickness.
Through this technique, a patient is assisted in reducing the tendency to evoke images indicative of the distressing, painful, or debilitative nature of a condition, and learns instead to evoke mental imagery of their identity, body, and circumstances that emphasizes the capacity for autonomy and self-determination, positive proactive activity, and the ability to cope, whilst managing their condition. As a result, symptoms become less incapacitating, pain is to some degree decreased, while coping skills increase.van den Hout, M. A., Engelhard, I. M., Beetsma, D., Slofstra, C., Hornsveld, H., Houtveen, J., and Leer, A., EMDR and mindfulness. Eye movements and attentional breathing tax working memory and reduce vividness and emotionality of aversive ideation.
They were asked to either put themselves explicitly in the shoes of the patient (imagine self), or to focus on their feelings and affective expressions (imagine other). The behavioral data confirmed that explicitly projecting oneself into an aversive situation leads to higher personal distress whereas focusing on the emotional and behavioral reactions of another's plight yields greater empathic concern and less personal distress. The neuroimaging data were consistent with this finding and provided insights into the neural correlates of these distinct behavioral responses. The self-perspective evoked stronger hemodynamic responses in brain regions involved in coding the motivational-affective dimensions of pain, including bilateral insular cortices, anterior cingulate cortex, the amygdala, and various structures involved in motor preparation.
The avoidance of such negative consequences leads to negative reinforcement, whereas contacting these negative consequences is called Punishment. As an example of this, consider a child who has painted on the walls of her house, if she has never done this before she may immediately seek a reaction from her mother or father. The form of reaction taken by the mother or father will affect whether the behaviour is likely to occur again in the future. If her parent is positive and approving of the behaviour it will likely reoccur, however, if the parent offers an aversive consequence (physical punishment, time-out, anger etc...) then the child is less likely to repeat the behaviour in future.
Pavlovian-instrumental transfer (PIT) is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS, also known as a "cue") that has been associated with rewarding or aversive stimuli via classical conditioning alters motivational salience and operant behavior. Two distinct forms of Pavlovian-instrumental transfer have been identified in humans and other animals – specific PIT and general PIT – with unique neural substrates mediating each type. In relation to rewarding stimuli, specific PIT occurs when a CS is associated with a specific rewarding stimulus through classical conditioning and subsequent exposure to the CS enhances an operant response that is directed toward the same reward with which it was paired (i.e., it promotes approach behavior).
In 1979, a staff member resigned and asked the district attorney to file child abuse charges against the institute, alleging that he had observed abuse there. On the prompting of various former staff, residents, and concerned family members, the California Department of Social Services launched an investigation into the institution. The ensuing investigation revealed various abuses by the institute including: improper and unsafe use of restraints, punishments designed to humiliate the residents, failure to provide proper nutrition, failure to provide proper medical care, and severe bruising/lacerations/scars from aversive interventions. In a 1982 report of the investigation, the California Department of Social Services documented various violations and abuses that had occurred at the institute.
Dissection of a frog Pain is an aversive sensation and feeling associated with actual, or potential, tissue damage. It is widely accepted by a broad spectrum of scientists and philosophers that non-human animals can perceive pain, including pain in amphibians. Pain is a complex mental state, with a distinct perceptual quality but also associated with suffering, which is an emotional state. Because of this complexity, the presence of pain in non-human animals cannot be determined unambiguously using observational methods, but the conclusion that animals experience pain is often inferred on the basis of likely presence of phenomenal consciousness which is deduced from comparative brain physiology as well as physical and behavioural reactions.
The maximum response rate during baseline conditions is typically used to normalize data in a frequency-rate curve to a maximum control rate (MCR). More specifically, the number of responses for any given trial is divided by the highest number of responses recorded in a baseline condition trial, which is then multiplied by 100. In an experimental condition, if the MCR falls below 100% at the highest stimulation frequencies, it is thought to reflect an impacted capability or motivation to respond, potentially induced by a drug with sedative or aversive properties. Shifts above 100% of the MCR indicate improved ability or motivation to respond, potentially induced by a drug with rewarding or stimulant properties.
Similarly, fear-conditioning is the acquisition of knowledge that informs an individual that a particular neutral stimulus now predicts an event that endangers their psychological or physical well-being. Researchers such as Mike Davis (1992) and Joseph LeDoux (1996), have deciphered the neural correlates responsible for the acquisition of fear- conditioning. The amygdala, previously mentioned as a region showing high activity for the emotion of regret, is the central recipient for brain activity concerning fear-conditioning. Several streams of information from multiple brain areas converge on the lateral amygdala, allowing for the creation of associations that regulate fear-conditioning; Cells in the superior dorsal lateral amygdala are able to rapidly pair the neutral stimulus with the aversive stimulus.
Other reasons for parents' use of physical punishment may be to communicate the parent's displeasure with the child, to assert their authority and simple tradition. Parents also appear to use physical punishment on children as an outlet for anger. The American Academy of Pediatrics notes that "Parents are more likely to use aversive techniques of discipline when they are angry or irritable, depressed, fatigued, and stressed", and estimates that such release of pent-up anger makes parents more likely to hit or spank their children in the future. Parents commonly resort to spanking after losing their temper and most parents surveyed expressed significant feelings of anger, remorse and agitation while physically punishing their children.
Parrot taming, or teaching, can be measured by the number, or types of behaviors it knows. Teaching can be achieved through the science behind operant or classical conditioning and is what is currently accepted by the major AZA accredited zoos and aquariums in the US. If a parrot is exposed to an unusual or mildly aversive stimulus on purpose, such as a new toy or a hand it can create a fear response very easily in a prey animal such as a bird. Training is at a comfortable pace so the bird accepts the object via small approximations in behavior. Teaching any animal this way prevents flooding and initiation of its fight or flight response.
In one study, Daniel Kahneman and Barbara Fredrickson showed subjects pleasant or aversive film clips. When reviewing the clips mentally at a later time, subjects did not appear to take the length of the stimuli into account, instead judging them as if they were only a series of affective "snapshots". In another demonstration, Kahneman and Fredrickson with other collaborators had subjects place their hands in painfully cold water. Under one set of instructions, they had to keep their hand in the water for an additional 30 seconds as the water was slowly heated to a warmer but still uncomfortably cold level, and under another set of instructions they were to remove their hand immediately.
Those observing the nonverbal cues may often receive very mixed messages. Consistent with this reasoning, Dovidio, Kawakami, and Gaertner (2002) found that racial majority and racial minority members often based their perceptions of interracial interactions on two different sources of information, with white people relying more on verbal behavior and black people more on nonverbal behaviors. In their experiment, black and white participants engaged in paired conversations and then provided their assessments of the interaction. Consistent with the aversive racism framework, black participants rated a white partner's friendliness as a function of their nonverbal behaviors and implicit attitudes while white participants rated their own friendliness based on the verbal content of their conversation.
Another important application of social learning theory has been in the treatment and conceptualization of anxiety disorders. The classical conditioning approach to anxiety disorders, which spurred the development of behavioral therapy and is considered by some to be the first modern theory of anxiety, began to lose steam in the late 1970s as researchers began to question its underlying assumptions. For example, the classical conditioning approach holds that pathological fear and anxiety are developed through direct learning; however, many people with anxiety disorders cannot recall a traumatic conditioning event, in which the feared stimulus was experienced in close temporal and spatial contiguity with an intrinsically aversive stimulus.Mathews, A., Gelder, M. & Johnston, D. (1981).
When a message processor decides to pay attention to a message because it appeals to their interests, and they allocate resources to information processing, the controlled message engagement subprocess begins; conversely, when a message processor is cued automatically, and they are paying attention, the same process of allocating cognitive resources begins to elicit message processing. First, message engagement, which is a stimulus approach/avoidance interaction engages the appetitive and aversive cognitive subprocesses. In the most lay terms, these are basic fight or flight responses that happen in mere nanoseconds. This information then can report to sensor stores in the brain; and if it is useful, it will move to short term memory and long term memory.
IBNtxA, or 3-iodobenzoyl naltrexamine, is an atypical opioid analgesic drug derived from naltrexone. In animal studies it produces potent analgesic effects that are blocked by levallorphan and so appear to be μ-opioid mediated, but it fails to produce constipation or respiratory depression, and is neither rewarding or aversive in conditioned place preference protocols. These unusual properties are thought to result from agonist action at a splice variant or heterodimer of the μ-opioid receptor, rather than at the classical full length form targeted by conventional opioid drugs.Keck TM, Uddin MM, Babenko E, Wu C, Moura-Letts G. Abuse Liability and Anti-Addiction Potential of the Atypical Mu Opioid Receptor Agonist IBNtxA.
Some sociologists also argue that, particularly in the West, where racism is often negatively sanctioned in society, racism has changed from being a blatant to a more covert expression of racial prejudice. The "newer" (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism – which can be considered embedded in social processes and structures – are more difficult to explore as well as challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt or explicit racism has become increasingly taboo, even among those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously. This process has been studied extensively in social psychology as implicit associations and implicit attitudes, a component of implicit cognition.
Researchers were able to link dispositional mindfulness to affect labeling by showing that people with higher levels of dispositional mindfulness showed stronger brain activation in regions associated with affect labeling, such as the vlPFC. Additionally, they showed greater reductions in activity in the amygdala, suggesting that mindfulness modulates the effectiveness of affect labeling, and lending support to the idea that introspection is the mechanism of action. Unfortunately, this theory of affect labeling struggles to explain affect labeling's benefits on stimuli that do not apply to the self. For instance, the regulatory effects of labeling external stimuli, such as faces or aversive images presented during an experiment, are unlikely to be explained by a self-reflective process.
The Self-Injurious Behavior Inhibiting System (SIBIS) is an apparatus designed to reduce self-injurious behavior (SIB) directed at the head, such as banging the head against walls and other objects or hitting oneself in the head. Invented by Dr. Robert E. Fischell, Glen H. Fountain, and Charles M. Blackburn in 1984, the device is able to detect instances of head-directed SIB, and delivers an aversive electric shock contingent on its occurrence. The United States Food and Drug Administration banned the device in 2020 as part of a larger blanket ban on devices that use electric shocks to modify behavior without the consent of the user. Other devices covered by this ban include the Graduated Electronic Decelerator.
The behavioral immune system is a phrase coined by the psychological scientist Mark Schaller to refer to a suite of psychological mechanisms that allow individual organisms to detect the potential presence of disease-causing parasites in their immediate environment, and to engage in behaviors that prevent contact with those objects and individuals. These mechanisms include sensory processes through which cues connoting the presence of parasitic infections are perceived (e.g., the smell of a foul odor, the sight of pox or pustules), as well as stimulus–response systems through which these sensory cues trigger a cascade of aversive affective, cognitive, and behavioral reactions (e.g., arousal of disgust, automatic activation of cognitions that connote the threat of disease, behavioral avoidance).
Furthermore, studies done on the self-reported reasons for deliberate self-harm have found that the primary reasons given for engaging in the behavior are related to avoiding, eliminating or escaping internal experiences. A study conducted on female college students investigated emotional responses of women with and without deliberate self-harm and found that women who engage in self-harm reported higher levels of experiential avoidance. Factors that may underlie an increase in experiential avoidance are higher levels of impulsivity or novelty seeking and heightened levels of aversive physiological arousal to emotional events. Other factors include a low tolerance for emotional distress and a failure to use different, less maladaptive behaviors in response to emotional arousal.
Neurophysiologist Dr. Jose Delgado noted a few exceptions to this rule. In contrast, EBS, via deeply implanted electrodes in localized areas of the brain (deep brain stimulation; DBS), elicited both pleasurable and aversive responses in laboratory animals and humans as previously described. EBS could elicit the ritualistic, motor responses of sham rage in cats by stimulation of the anterior hypothalamus, as well as more complex emotional and behavioral components of "true rage" in both experimental animals by stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus, and in human subjects by stimulating various deep areas of the brain. EBS in human patients with epilepsy could trigger seizures in the surface of the brain and pathologic aggression and rage with stimulation of the amygdala.
Autism National Committee was founded in 1990 to protect and advance the human rights and civil rights of all persons with autism, Pervasive Development Disorder, and related differences of communication and behavior. It was founded by the late Dr. Herb Lovett. In the face of social policies of devaluation, which are expressed in the practices of segregation, medicalization, and aversive conditioning, AutCom asserts that all individuals are created equal and endowed with certain inalienable rights, and that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. As an independent 501(c)(3) non-profit organization, AutCom works to ensure that people with autism and related disabilities are treated equality and with dignity.
Subjective response to alcohol (SR) refers to an individual's unique experience of the pharmacological effects of alcohol and is a putative risk factor for the development of alcohol use disorder. Subjective effects include both stimulating experiences typically occurring during the beginning of a drinking episode as breath alcohol content (BAC) rises and sedative effects, which are more prevalent later in a drinking episode as BAC wanes. The combined influence of hedonic and aversive subjective experiences over the course of a drinking session are strong predictors of alcohol consumption and drinking consequences. There is also mounting evidence for consideration of SR as an endophenotype with some studies suggesting that it accounts for a significant proportion of genetic risk for the development of alcohol use disorder.
Notably, there is no population-level demarcation separating low from high responders and so level of response is arbitrarily defined (generally in terciles) within a given sample. Early studies compared SR in individuals (mostly males) with (FH+) and without (FH-) a history of alcohol dependence in order to demonstrate that individual differences in SR could be considered genetically-linked determinants of alcohol use disorder. Non-placebo controlled studies conducted by Schuckit and colleagues found that FH+ males experienced less of the aversive effects of alcohol as compared to FH- males matched on key demographic and body mass variables. Furthermore, FH+ young males and their fathers showed similar SR after reaching peak BAC, suggesting that SR is a heritable risk factor for the development of alcohol use disorder.
Mutual gaze or eye contact in humans and some other primates in one context can serve to bond individuals and regulate social interactions, through the transmission of expressions of intimacy and filial identity (Kleinke 1986). But, in another context, a sustained stare may be interpreted as a sign of hostility or anger – a cue for increased vigilance or aversive action (Ellsworth and Carlsmith 1973). Staring is a threat gesture in many primate societies (Hinde and Rowell 1962) and makes most people feel nervous and tense (Strom and Beck 1979). Be that as it may, regardless of how it is perceived and subsequently processed cognitively a directed gaze is a powerful cue, an amber alert, for potential synergistic or antagonistic interactions.
Researchers have linked head injuries with psychopathy and violence. Since the 1980s, scientists have associated traumatic brain injury, such as damage to the prefrontal cortex, including the orbitofrontal cortex, with psychopathic behavior and a deficient ability to make morally and socially acceptable decisions, a condition that has been termed "acquired sociopathy", or "pseudopsychopathy". Individuals with damage to the area of the prefrontal cortex known as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex show remarkable similarities to diagnosed psychopathic individuals, displaying reduced autonomic response to emotional stimuli, deficits in aversive conditioning, similar preferences in moral and economic decision making, and diminished empathy and social emotions like guilt or shame. These emotional and moral impairments may be especially severe when the brain injury occurs at a young age.
Some laboratory research demonstrates correlations between psychopathy and atypical responses to aversive stimuli, including weak conditioning to painful stimuli and poor learning of avoiding responses that cause punishment, as well as low reactivity in the autonomic nervous system as measured with skin conductance while waiting for a painful stimulus but not when the stimulus occurs. While it has been argued that the reward system functions normally, some studies have also found reduced reactivity to pleasurable stimuli. According to the response modulation hypothesis, psychopathic individuals have also had difficulty switching from an ongoing action despite environmental cues signaling a need to do so. This may explain the difficulty responding to punishment, although it is unclear if it can explain findings such as deficient conditioning.
When presented with an aversive stimulus such as shocks, puffs of air, or noxious food, rodents will exhibit a behavior called "defensive burying", where they will displace bedding material with their nose and forepaws; the marble-burying test takes advantage of this behavior by measuring how many glass marbles a rodent will bury under the effect of different stimuli. In the experiments, when mice consumed P. subcaerulipes, it significantly inhibited their marble-burying behavior, but, unlike an equivalent dose of purified psilocybin, did not affect locomotor activity. Further, the mushroom was more effective than purified psilocybin in inhibiting the behavior, and lower doses were required. Based on these results, the authors suggest that the mushroom has the potential "to be efficient in clinical obsessive-compulsive disorder therapy".
A patent drawing for the GED The graduated electronic decelerator (GED) is an aversive conditioning device that delivers a powerful electric skin shock to punish behaviors considered undesirable. The GED was created by Matthew Israel for use on students at the Judge Rotenberg Center as part of the school's behavior modification program. The school has since been condemned for torture by the United Nations special rapporteur on torture for its use of the GED and other inhumane treatments. In 2020, the device was banned by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Matthew Israel created the GED to replace the older punishments of spankings, pinches, and muscle squeezes because “A lot of injuries were occurring” and because the GED supplied a more consistent dose of pain.
Other evidence suggests that the direct and indirect pathway oppositely influence the termination of movement—specifically, the relative timing of their activity determines if an action will be terminated. Recent experiments have established that the direct and indirect pathways of the dorsal striatum are not solely involved in movement. Initial experiments in an intracranial self-stimulation paradigm suggested opposing roles in reinforcement for the two pathways; specifically, stimulation of direct pathway medium spiny neurons was found to be reinforcing, whereas stimulation of indirect pathway medium spiny neurons was aversive. However, a subsequent study (using more physiologically relevant stimulation parameters) found that direct and indirect pathway stimulation was reinforcing, but that pathway-specific stimulation resulted in the development of different action strategies.
This shows the crabs trade-off the motivation to avoid electric shocks and predator avoidance. Shore crabs (Carcinus maenas) also show motivational trade-offs; they will discard a valuable resource (a preferred shelter) to avoid future encounters with painful stimuli, thereby indicating avoidance learning – a key criterion of the ability to experience pain. A 2014 study on crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) tested their responses in a fear paradigm, the elevated plus maze in which animals choose to walk on an elevated cross which offers both aversive and preferable conditions (in this case, two arms were lit and two were dark). Crayfish which experienced an electric shock displayed enhanced fearfulness or anxiety as demonstrated by their preference for the dark arms more than the light.
They described psychological abuse as "a range of aversive behaviors that are intended to harm an individual through coercion, control, verbal abuse, monitoring, isolation, threatening, jealousy, humiliation, manipulation, treating one as an inferior, creating a hostile environment, wounding a person regarding their sexuality and/or fidelity, withholding from a partner emotionally and/or physically". Gaslighting has been observed in some cases of marital infidelity: "Therapists may contribute to the victim's distress through mislabeling the [victim's] reactions. [...] The gaslighting behaviors of the spouse provide a recipe for the so-called 'nervous breakdown' for some [victims] [and] suicide in some of the worst situations." In their 1988 article "Gaslighting: A Marital Syndrome", psychologists Gertrude Zemon Gass and William Nichols studied men's extramarital affairs and their consequences on their wives.
This means that a response to the experience of pain is likely to be more plastic than a nociceptive response when there are competing factors for the animal to consider. Hermit crabs fighting over a shell Robert Elwood and Mirjam Appel at the Queen's University of Belfast argue that pain may be inferred when the responses to a noxious stimulus are not reflexive but are traded off against other motivational requirements, the experience is remembered and the situation is avoided in the future. They investigated this by giving hermit crabs small electric shocks within their shells. Only crabs given shocks evacuated their shells indicating the aversive nature of the stimulus, but fewer crabs evacuated from a preferred species of shell demonstrating a motivational trade-off.
A diminished uterine capacity reduces the likelihood of the foetus reaching full-term development due to spatial constraints, explaining the higher rates of preterm births observed in women with Mullerian anomalies. The degree to which the Mullerian anomaly impairs the reproductive potential of a woman varies between individuals, and is dependent on the type of anomaly and its severity. Women with minor fusion defects such as arcuate uteri and septate uteri tend to have a lower risk of aversive pregnancy outcome, compared to patients with major fusion defects, such as unicornuate uteri, bicornuate uteri and didelphys uteri. Females with severe agenesis and/or hypoplasia, such as in MRKH syndrome, have an increased chance of poor reproductive outcomes without surgical intervention.
Gould’s research has shown that exposure of aversive stimuli results in a decrease in cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus of adult rats, tree shrews and marmoset monkeys. Gould and her colleagues have shown that social stress inhibits cell production in these three species in a series of studies. Furthermore, they have discovered that exposure of adult rats to the odors of natural predators, but not other novel odors, suppresses the proliferation of cells in the dentate gyrus. This effect was found to be dependent on adrenal steroids because the prevention of the stress-induced rise in glucocorticoids (by adrenalectomy and replacement with low-dose corticosterone in the drinking water) eliminated the inhibitory effect of fox odor on cell production.
In response to expressions of anger, hatred, or resentment, it is likely that the impartial spectator will not feel anger in sympathy with the offended but instead anger toward the offended for expressing such an aversive. Smith believes that there is some form of natural optimality to the aversiveness of these emotions, as it reduces the propagation of ill will among people, and thus increases the probability of functional societies. Smith also puts forth that anger, hatred, and resentment are disagreeable to the offended mostly because of the idea of being offended rather than the actual offense itself. He remarks that we are likely able to do without what was taken from us, but it is the imagination which angers us at the thought of having something taken.
For example, it is widely accepted that the rewarding properties of alcohol are reinforcing. Yet, according to the Low Level of Response Model, reduced sensitivity to these rewarding effects is an indicator of problematic drinking. To that end, critics have noted that in Schuckit's seminal SR study, FH+ males experienced more "energy" than FH- males along rising BAC, suggesting that heightened sensitivity to the stimulating effects of alcohol may convey risk for developing alcohol problems. Another study found that FH+ subjects reported experiencing less intoxication than FH- subjects in response to a placebo drink, indicating that alcohol expectancies may account for differences in risk more so than SR. That is, individuals at greatest risk for developing alcohol use disorder may expect alcohol to be more enjoyable and less aversive than low-risk individuals.
Because SR is such a strong predictor of future alcohol consumption and problems, medication development has focused on drugs which either reduce the pleasant or increase the unpleasant effects of alcohol. Naltrexone, an opioid receptor antagonist, is frequently prescribed to patients suffering from alcohol use disorder, with moderate effectiveness. Studies have demonstrated that naltrexone reduces the stimulating and heightens the aversive sedative effects of alcohol in individuals at-risk for alcohol use disorder, contributing to decreases in self-reported subjective high and liking of alcohol. Only one study has reported on the effects of naltrexone on SR in a sample of participants with alcohol dependence: naltrexone, in comparison to a placebo, attenuated subjective stimulation within 10 minutes of administration of a moderate dose of alcohol, but not thereafter.
Political events and progress attained during December 1915 allowed the mission to celebrate at Kabul on Christmas Day with wine and cognac left behind by the Durand mission forty years previously, which Habibullah lay at their disposal. These events included the foundation of the Provisional Government of India that month and a shift from the Emir's usual aversive stance to an offer of discussions on a German-Afghan treaty of friendship. In November, the Indian members decided to take a political initiative which they believed would convince the Emir to declare jihad, and if that proved unlikely, to have his hand forced by his advisors. On 1 December 1915, the Provisional Government of India was founded at Habibullah's Bagh-e-Babur Palace, in the presence of the Indian, German, and Turkish members of the expedition.
A 2015 study hypothesized from the data that at high voltage (5.0 V), a user, "vaping at a rate of 3 mL/day, would inhale 14.4 ± 3.3 mg of formaldehyde per day in formaldehyde-releasing agents." The 2015 study used a puffing machine showed that a third-generation e-cigarette turned on to the maximum setting would create levels of formaldehyde between five and 15 times greater than with cigarette smoke. A 2015 PHE report found that high levels of formaldehyde only occurred in overheated "dry-puffing", and that "dry puffs are aversive and are avoided rather than inhaled", and "At normal settings, there was no or negligible formaldehyde release." But e-cigarette users may "learn" to overcome the unpleasant taste due to elevated aldehyde formation, when the nicotine craving is high enough.
Though non-human animals cannot provide useful verbal feedback about the experiential and cognitive details of their feelings, various emotional vocalizations of other animals may be indicators of potential affective states. Beginning with Darwin and his research, it has been known that chimpanzees and other great apes perform laugh-like vocalizations, providing scientists with more symbolic self-reports of their emotional experiences. Research with rats has revealed that under particular conditions, they emit 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalisations (USV) which have been postulated to reflect a positive affective state (emotion) analogous to primitive human joy; these calls have been termed "laughter". The 50 kHz USVs in rats are uniquely elevated by hedonic stimuli—such as tickling, rewarding electrical brain stimulation, amphetamine injections, mating, play, and aggression—and are suppressed by aversive stimuli.
Although John B. Watson mainly emphasized his position of methodological behaviorism throughout his career, Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the renowned Little Albert experiment (1920), a study in which Ivan Pavlov's theory to respondent conditioning was first applied to eliciting a fearful reflex of crying in a human infant, and this became the launching point for understanding covert behavior (or private events) in radical behaviorism. However, Skinner felt that aversive stimuli should only be experimented on with animals and spoke out against Watson for testing something so controversial on a human. In 1959, Skinner observed the emotions of two pigeons by noting that they appeared angry because their feathers ruffled. The pigeons were placed together in an operant chamber, where they were aggressive as a consequence of previous reinforcement in the environment.
The errorless learning procedure is highly effective in reducing the number of responses to the S− during training. In Terrace's (1963) experiment, subjects trained with the conventional discrimination procedure averaged over 3000 S− (errors) responses during 28 sessions of training; whereas subjects trained with the errorless procedure averaged only 25 S− (errors) responses in the same number of sessions. Later, Terrace (1972) claimed not only that the errorless learning procedure improves long-term discrimination performance, but also that: 1) S− does not become aversive and so does not elicit "aggressive" behaviors, as it often does with conventional training; 2) S− does not develop inhibitory properties; 3) positive behavioral contrast to S+ does not occur. In other words, Terrace has claimed that the "by-products" of conventional discrimination learning do not occur with the errorless procedure.
Shrillness is a word used to describe the quality of sounds that have a high- pitched, strident, raucous, screeching or harsh character, such as those produced by a trumpet or piccolo, but it can also be used to describe a widely recognised and puzzling phenomenon whereby certain sounds are perceived as psychologically painful or aversive to a degree that cannot be accounted for simply in terms of frequency content or loudness. Such sounds include the sound of fingernails scraping a chalkboard, the sound of chalk on a blackboard, the sound of glass being scratched, and possibly the sound of a baby crying. There have been attempts to explain the phenomenon, often in terms of frequency content, or evolutionary advantage, but so far no complete explanation or mechanism has been found.
Therefore, this concept is often excluded in definitions of pain in animals, such as that provided by Zimmerman: "an aversive sensory experience caused by actual or potential injury that elicits protective motor and vegetative reactions, results in learned avoidance and may modify species-specific behaviour, including social behaviour." Non-human animals cannot report their feelings to language-using humans in the same manner as human communication, but observation of their behaviour provides a reasonable indication as to the extent of their pain. Just as with doctors and medics who sometimes share no common language with their patients, the indicators of pain can still be understood. According to the U.S. National Research Council Committee on Recognition and Alleviation of Pain in Laboratory Animals, pain is experienced by many animal species, including mammals and possibly all vertebrates.
Hare's research on the causes of psychopathy focused initially on whether such persons show abnormal patterns of anticipation or response (such as low levels of anxiety or high impulsiveness) to aversive stimuli ('punishments' such as mild but painful electric shocks) or pleasant stimuli ('rewards', such as a slide of a naked body). Further, following Cleckley, Hare investigated whether the fundamental underlying pathology is a semantic affective deficit - an inability to understand or experience the full emotional meaning of life events. While establishing a range of idiosyncrasies in linguistic and affective processing under certain conditions, the research program has not confirmed a common pathology of psychopathy. Hare's contention that the pathology is likely due in large part to an inherited or 'hard wired' deficit in cerebral brain function remains speculative.
In B.A. Campbell & R.M. Church (eds.), Punishment and aversive behavior, 279–96, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts the conditioning of an association between two stimuli, a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) is impaired if, during the conditioning process, the CS is presented together with a second CS that has already been associated with the unconditioned stimulus. For example, an agent (such as a mouse in the figure) is exposed to a light (the first conditioned stimulus, CS1), together with food (the unconditioned stimulus, US). After repeated pairings of CS1 and US, the agent salivates when the light comes on (conditioned response, CR). Then, there are more conditioning trials, this time with the light (CS1) and a tone (CS2) together with the US. Now, when tested, the agent does not salivate to the tone (CS2).
Linz and Donnerstein conducted a study on the way viewers reacted to sex combined with violence in slasher films, and found that "Studies show that pleasant, mildly arousing sex scenes that are paired with graphic violence can be expected to diminish aversive reaction to violence in the long run." The combination of sex and violence is shown to grab viewers' attention, making it a more "depthful" process. Carol J. Clover argues in her article that "horror and pornography are the only two genres specifically devoted to the arousal of bodily sensation. They exist solely to horrify and stimulate, not always respectively, and their ability to do so is the sole measure of their success: they 'prove themselves upon our pulses". Exposure to scenes of explicit violence combined with sexual images is believed to affect males’ emotional reactions to film violence.
Since many educators and policy makers are not experienced in evaluating scientific studies and studies have found that "teachers’ beliefs are often guided by subjective experience rather than by empirical data", several non-profit organizations have been created to critically evaluate research studies and provide their analysis in a user-friendly manner. They are outlined in research sources and information. EBP has not been readily adopted in all parts of the education field, leading some to suggest the K-12 teaching profession has suffered a loss of respect because of its science-aversive culture and failure to adopt empirical research as the major determinant of its practices. Neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg stated that “A stronger scientific ethos (in education) could have provided a much needed defense against bad science”, particularly in the field of early reading instruction.
This can be estimated to result in a free concentration of 3.75 ng/mL (12.2 nM), which is still only about half of the Ki of sertraline for the DAT. As such, it seems unlikely that sertraline would produce much inhibition of dopamine reuptake even at clinically used dosages well in excess of the recommended maximum clinical dosage. This is in accordance with its 86-fold selectivity for the SERT over the DAT and hence the fact that nearly 100-fold higher levels of sertraline would be necessary to also inhibit dopamine reuptake. In accordance, while sertraline has very low abuse potential and may even be aversive at clinical dosages, a case report of sertraline abuse described dopaminergic-like effects such as euphoria, mental overactivity, and hallucinations only at a dosage 56 times the normal maximum and 224 times the normal minimum.
As opposed to seeing individual freedom as a prerequisite to an authentic life, interdependent cultures evaluate freedom in terms of its costs and benefits to the group. 1411\. In addition to that, individualist societies with dominant with independent self-construal which is typical for western society are more likely to rely on feelings and consequently more impulsive in their decision making compared to people with an interdependent self-construal which more typical for eastern society. There is a difference in the decision making patterns between cultures with independent and interdependent social orientations in the situations when risk-taking is involved, namely the members of cultural groups with high independency show more risk-aversive behavior. This pattern is observed only when risk is material in its nature, and not observed when risk is of the social nature.
Of the ways depression might lead to increased social stressors, negative feedback seeking and reassurance seeking are two of the most explored. Both behaviors involve questioning social partners about oneself in ways that are aversive to others, differing in whether the feedback sought is positive or negative Evidence compatible with reassurance seeking and negative feedback seeking increasing social stress and depression symptoms comes from the frequency of these behaviors among the depressed and the responses of others that often accompany these actions. For example, depressed individuals have been found to engage more in both behaviors than non-depressed individuals and may fail to benefit from positive feedback when it is available. Reactions to negative feedback and reassurance seeking often include increased likelihood of rejection and contribute to low self-esteem levels, potentially prolonging or increasing both one's depression symptoms and the degree to which the depressed engages in feedback seeking.
Such a program is able to create a positive atmosphere and culture in almost any school, but the support, resources, and consistency in using the program over time must be present. School-wide Positive behavior support (SW-PBS) consists of a broad range of systematic and individualized strategies for achieving important social and learning outcomes while preventing problem behavior with all students.OSEP Center on Positive Interventions and Support, "School-wide positive behavior support implementers’ blueprint and self-assessment", 2004, April Such school-wide use of PBS has not been approved other than for special populations, and the work of Dr. Robert Horner, a leader of a Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Positive Behavioral Supports, was approved on the basis of non-use of aversive technology (e.g., restraints, electric shock, transfers to criminal justice) with any students, including individuals in the most restrictive placements.
Chaffin et al. (2006), pp. 79–80. The APSAC Taskforce Report. There is considerable criticism of this form of treatment and diagnosis as it is largely unvalidated and has developed outside the scientific mainstream.Chaffin et al. (2006), p. 85. The APSAC Taskforce Report There is little or no evidence base and techniques vary from non-coercive therapeutic work to more extreme forms of physical, confrontational and coercive techniques, of which the best known are holding therapy, rebirthing, rage-reduction and the Evergreen model. These forms of the therapy may well involve physical restraint, the deliberate provocation of rage and anger in the child by physical and verbal means including deep tissue massage, aversive tickling, enforced eye contact and verbal confrontation, and being pushed to revisit earlier trauma.Chaffin et al. (2006), pp. 78–83. The APSAC Taskforce Report. Critics maintain that these therapies are not within the attachment paradigm, are potentially abusive,Prior & Glaser (2006), p. 267.
Importantly, differences in SR by family history were significant only in the alcohol condition and not the placebo condition, suggesting that SRs observed in the alcohol condition could be attributed to the pharmacological effects of alcohol, rather than to a confounding factor. A 2011 meta-analysis revealed that FH+ individuals reported lower SR in comparison to FH- individuals across both limbs of intoxication, consistent with the Low Level of Response Model. These findings were more robust along the descending limb of the BAC curve where sedative effects of alcohol are more prevalent and among males who comprised the overwhelming majority of participants in early SR studies. Critics noted that studies supporting the Low Level of Response Model only accounted for the negatively valenced sedative effects of alcohol and that while decreased sensitivity to aversive effects of alcohol would likely lead to increased drinking frequency and severity, the subjective effects of alcohol are, in actuality, quite varied.
Using optogenetics, they found that stimulating the pIC caused aversive behaviors as well as increased autonomic responses. Then, using in vivo two-photon calcium imaging, Gogolla and her team were able to record calcium transients in neurons in the pIC as an indicator of neural activity to establish a causal relationship between pIC activity and the convergence and integration of acute sensory stimuli as well as sustained affective and homeostatic states. In 2020, Gogolla and her team published a groundbreaking paper using innovative machine learning and two- photon technologies to show that mouse facial expressions correlate with internal emotional states and that neural activity in the IC is closely correlated with specific facial expressions in mice. Gogolla was inspired by a 2014 Cell paper stating that emotions represent brain states and should last for a discrete amount of time after the stimulus that evoked them and, importantly, they should scale to the strength of the stimulus that evoked them.
Restrictions were to apply to: "matter (other than the printed word) and to a performance whose unrestricted availability is offensive to reasonable people by reason of the manner in which it portrays, deals with or relates to violence, cruelty or horror, or sexual, faecal or urinary functions or genital organs." Regarding the definition of pornography the commission stated that, "a pornographic representation is one that combines two features: it has a certain function or intention, to arouse its audience sexually, and also a certain content, explicit representations of sexual material (organs, postures, activity, etc). On the difference between 'obscenity' and 'pornography', the committee found that the word 'obscene' was a subjective term that refers to peoples reaction to material, and that " it principally expresses an intense or extreme version of what we have called ‘offensiveness’. It may be that it particularly emphasises the most strongly aversive element in that notion, the idea of an object's being repulsive or disgusting.
As the evolution of ABA began to unfold in the mid-1980s, functional behavior assessments (FBAs) were developed to clarify the function of that behavior, so that it is accurately determined which differential reinforcement contingencies will be most effective and less likely for aversive consequences to be administered. In addition, methodological behaviorism was the theory underpinning behavior modification since private events were not conceptualized during the 1970s and early 1980s, which contrasted from the radical behaviorism of behavior analysis. ABA--the term that replaced behavior modification--has emerged into a thriving field. The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the United States also continues to develop. In the US, the American Psychological Association (APA) features a subdivision for Behavior Analysis, titled APA Division 25: Behavior Analysis, which has been in existence since 1964, and the interests among behavior analysts today are wide-ranging, as indicated in a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within the Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI).
Marwell and Schmitt created a typology for compliance gaining techniques: promise, threat, positive expertise, negative expertise, liking, pregiving, aversive stimulation, debt, moral appeal, positive self-feeling, negative self-feeling, positive altercasting, negative altertcasting, altruism, positive esteem, and negative esteem. This study was the catalyst for more interest in compliance gaining from communication scholars. Miller, Boster, Roloff, and Seibold (1977) as well as Cody and McLaughlin (1980) studied the situational variables that influences compliance gaining strategies. The latter study identified six different typologies of situations that can influence compliance gaining behaviors: personal benefits (how much personal gain an actor can yield from the influencing behavior), dominance (the power relation between the actor and the target), rights (whether the actor has the right to expect compliance), resistance (how easy will the target be influenced), intimacy (whether the relation between actor and target is shallow), and consequences (what sort of effect this situation would have on the relationship between actor and target).
These steps fall into one of three theoretical orientations (i.e., rational or solution focused, cognitive emotive, and behavioral) and are intended to provide abused children and their adoptive parents with positive behavior change, corrective interpersonal skills, and greater control over themselves and their relationships. They are: 1) determining and normalizing thinking and behaving, 2) evaluating language, 3) shifting attention away from problem talk 4) describing times when the attachment problem isn't happening, 5) focusing on how family members "successfully" solve problematic attachment behavior; 6) acknowledging "unpleasant emotions" (i.e., angry, sad, scared) underlying negative interactional patterns, 7) identifying antecedents (controlling conditions) and associated negative cognitive emotive connections in behavior (reciprocal role of thought and emotion in behavioral causation), 8) encouraging previously abused children to experience or "own" negative thoughts and associated aversive emotional feelings, 9) modeling and rewarding positive behavior change (with themselves and in relationships), and 10) encouraging and rewarding thinking and behaving differently.
Around that time, during the German occupation of Denmark, Erik Jacobsen and Jens Hald at the Danish drug company Medicinalco picked up on that research and began exploring the use of disulfiram to treat intestinal parasites. The company had a group of enthusiastic self-experimenters that called itself the "Death Battalion", and in the course of testing the drug on themselves, accidentally discovered that drinking alcohol while the drug was still in their bodies made them mildly sick. They made that discovery in 1945, and did nothing with it until two years later, when Jacobsen gave an impromptu talk and mentioned this self-experimental work and Disulframs nausea inducing effects when combined with alcohol, this talk which was discussed afterwards in newspapers at the time, lead them to further explore the use of the drug for aversive-reaction based therapy for the treatment of alcohol abuse. That work included small clinical trials with Oluf Martensen-Larsen, a doctor who worked with alcoholics.
Cat with red nail caps According to board-certified veterinary behaviorist Dr. Gary Landsberg, "For most cats, appropriate client advice and a little effort is all that is needed to prevent scratching problems."Veterinary Information Network, 2009 However, many veterinary practitioners are unwilling or unable to offer solutions to behavioral problems such as scratching, other than declawing. A non-surgical alternative to declawing is the application of vinyl nail caps that are affixed to the claws with nontoxic glue, requiring periodic replacement when the cat sheds its claw sheaths (usually every four to six weeks, depending on the cat's scratching habits). Other alternatives include regular nail trimming; directing scratching behavior to inexpensive cardboard scratchers or scratching posts, or emery scratching pads that dull the claws; rotary sanding devices; covering furniture or using double-sided sticky tape or sheets such as Sticky Paws; remote aversive devices such as Scat Mats; or acceptance of cats' scratching behavior.
The final set of passions, or "selfish passions", are grief and joy, which Smith considers to be not so aversive as the unsocial passions of anger and resentment, but not so benevolent as the social passions such as generosity and humanity. Smith makes clear in this passage that the impartial spectator is unsympathetic to the unsocial emotions because they put the offended and the offender in opposition to each other, sympathetic to the social emotions because they join the lover and beloved in unison, and feels somewhere in between with the selfish passions as they are either good or bad for only one person and are not disagreeable but not so magnificent as the social emotions. Of grief and joy, Smith notes that small joys and great grief are assured to be returned with sympathy from the impartial spectator, but not other degrees of these emotions. Great joy is likely to be met with envy, so modesty is prudent for someone who has come upon great fortune or else suffer the consequences of envy and disapprobation.
Office bound behaviourists may be disadvantaged when it comes to assessing behavioural modification, as the dog may act very differently in different locations and interviewing owners, no matter how thorough, may not provide enough details. After establishing a motivating cause, the practitioner will develop a step-wise, goal-based plan to alter the behaviour in stages, continue their work with the pet owner to guide and make changes in the plan as the goals are met (or not) and conclude with a final write up of the case and its outcome. The methods and tools of the behaviourist will depend on several factors including the dog's temperament, the behaviourist's personal philosophy on training, the behaviourist's experience, and the behavioural problems being addressed. At one end of the spectrum, some behaviourists attempt to train dogs, refraining from the use of aversive or coercive methods (and the tools associated with them, such as choke, prong/pinch or electric shock collars, kicking, hitting, poking, staring, shaking, or rolling), choosing instead to rely on reward-based methods.
The Pact of Time Custodian (') is considered the entrance to the Druze religion, and they believe that all Druze in their past lives have signed this Charter, and Druze believe that this Charter embodies with human souls after death. > I rely on our Moula Al-Hakim the lonely God, the individual, the eternal, > who is out of couples and numbers, (someone) the son of (someone) has > approved recognition enjoined on himself and on his soul, in a healthy of > his mind and his body, permissibility aversive is obedient and not forced, > to repudiate from all creeds, articles and all religions and beliefs on the > differences varieties, and he does not know something except obedience of > almighty Moulana Al-Hakim, and obedience is worship and that it does not > engage in worship anyone ever attended or wait, and that he had handed his > soul and his body and his money and all he owns to almighty Maulana Al- > Hakim. The Druze also use a similar formula, called al-'ahd, when one is initiated into the ʻUqqāl.
Through such distraction it was also hypothesized that the subject would be able to take the frustrative nature of the situation and convert it into one psychologically less aversive. To test their expectations, the researchers contrived three settings under which to test participants; an overt activity, a covert activity, or no activity at all. They predicted that under the overt and covert activities that delay of gratification should increase, while under the no activity setting it would decrease. To assess the children’s ability to understand the instructions they were given, the experiment asked them three comprehension questions; “Can you tell me, which do you get to eat if you wait for me to come back by myself?”, “But if you want to, how can you make me come back ?”, and “If you ring the bell and bring me back, then which do you get?” Three distinct experiments were conducted under multiple differing conditions. Experiment 1 participants The participants consisted of 50 children (25 boys and 25 girls) from the Bing Nursery School at Stanford University. They ranged in age from 3 years 6 months to 5 years 6 months.
Appeals to the precautionary principle have often characterized the debates concerning animal sentience – that is, the question of whether animals are able to feel "subjective experiences with an attractive or aversive quality", such as pain, pleasure, happiness, or joy – in relation to the question of whether we should legally protect sentient animals. A version of the precautionary principle suitable for the problem of animal sentience has been proposed by LSE philosopher Jonathan Birch: "The idea is that when the evidence of sentience is inconclusive, we should 'give the animal the benefit of doubt' or 'err on the side of caution' in formulating animal protection legislation." Since we cannot reach absolute certainty with regards to the fact that some animals are sentient, the precautionary principle has been invoked in order to grant potentially sentient animals "basic legal protections". Birch's formulation of the Animal Sentience Precautionary Principle runs as follows: > Where there are threats of serious, negative animal welfare outcomes, lack > of full scientific certainty as to the sentience of the animals in question > shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to > prevent those outcomes.
In 2012, in accordance with the American Psychological Association, the professional order for Quebec psychologists () reaffirmed "its position that homosexuality per se is not a mental disorder", and that it "opposes portrayals of sexual minority youths and adults as mentally ill due to their sexual orientation". In May 2018, the professional order for Quebec sexologists () also issued a public notice reiterating the position of the Quebec psychologists that those practices are strictly forbidden by all the professional orders and associations in Quebec (including medicine and psychiatry), as it could have harmful effects on one's mental health. Any complaints concerning aversive therapies, whether it be conducted by religious, professional or other practitioners, would be filed with either one of the Orders, or associations, and/or Quebec's Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse, under the harassment clause, section 10.1 of the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms, or under the psychological ill-treatment clause, section 38 of the Youth Protection Act. "No ideological or other consideration, including one based on a concept of honour, can justify any situation described in section 38". On May 22, 2015, Manitoba Health Minister Sharon Blady announced measures to stop conversion therapy in Manitoba.

No results under this filter, show 504 sentences.

Copyright © 2024 RandomSentenceGen.com All rights reserved.