134 Sentences With "negative reinforcement"

Remember how we said that Bungie's big problem was negative reinforcement?

A common misconception seems to be that negative reinforcement cures all negative behaviors.

Fear helps us learn to avoid dangerous situations in the future through a process called negative reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement, he said, is the act of avoiding or removing an unwanted stimulus to achieve a desired result.

You made it do what you wanted, and if it didn't, you administered what the psychologists called negative reinforcement.

Is all behavior the result of external factors, of positive and negative reinforcement, as the behaviorist B.F. Skinner hypothesized?

Punishment in prisons exists as negative reinforcement for avoiding crime, however as research shows it does not work well enough.

They also explain concepts like cognitive dissonance and negative reinforcement with that demonstrative gusto often found in beloved middle school teachers.

Solutions that focus on negative reinforcement are like hacking at the branches when what we really need is to focus on the roots.

And through negative reinforcement—think of someone flashing a laser pointer in your face—the birds can be taught to avoid tortoise habitat.

Goodnight Gloom Anxiety sufferers most likely feel plagued by bad dreams because of a process in behavioral psychology called negative reinforcement, said Dr. Nadorff.

Apparently a firm believer in negative reinforcement, Scott has made a ritual out of pointing out everything that is wrong with Russell and his game.

ESDs work by administering an electric shock through electrodes attached to the skin of patients to discourage self-harming or hostile behavior as a form of negative reinforcement.

They zeroed in on irregularities in areas of the brain associated with empathy, moral decision-making, emotional processing, and the interaction between positive and negative reinforcement in guiding actions.

To fix Destiny, Bungie doesn't just need to rethink its entire philosophy of negative reinforcement, it needs to make sure players actually feel like they're getting something for their time.

Even if the idea of a meet-cute still sounds nice, we're in a true chicken-egg situation, a never ending cycle of negative reinforcement to those attempting to connect with someone in person.

A new study has found that yelling at your dog, and using other kinds of "aversive training" — like negative reinforcement — "can have long-term negative effects on your dog's mental state," according to Science Alert.

The FDA proposed Friday to ban some devices that use small electrical shocks as a form of negative reinforcement to help people stop behaviors like head-banging, hand-biting, excessive scratching, and picking of the skin, among others.

Baidu's artificial intelligence research team has achieved a significant milestone: teaching a virtual agent "living" in a 2D environment how to navigate its world using natural language commands, by first teaching it language through positive and negative reinforcement.

"If kids are coming into social situations with more constrained ideas about what boys and girls should be from playing, you can see how that would contribute to the negative reinforcement of ideas about identity and sexuality," says Tolman.

For the experiment, honeybees were exposed to a simple Y-shaped maze, where one path led to a sweet treat in the form of sugar water (positive reinforcement) and the other path led to a bitter quinine solution (negative reinforcement).

JS: Gender-reparative approaches presume that children's genders are still malleable at these earlier stages, and they use a combination of positive and negative reinforcement strategies (such as restricting certain types of toys or play or play partners) in the hopes that the child will become more gender-conforming over time.

However, I think with a lot of research and time we found out that negative reinforcement is very bad for dogs, definitely doesn't correct bad behavior and can actually breed bad behavior, as well as breeding aggressive behavior and fear in our pets, and that's definitely not something that we wanna do.

You see, Destiny 23 uses negative reinforcement with timers, the fear of missing out, and restrictive enemies that punish you for avoiding weapons that are not fun to use—like scout rifles against champions—while, on higher difficulties, locking the gear you can use, preventing you from experimenting and changing weapons encounter-by-encounter.

Alternatives to corporal punishment include the following strategies: Praise your children and give them increased attention when they are behaving well to promote desired behaviors Use "time outs" to take a break from escalating behaviors Use positive reinforcements such as giving rewards for good behaviors Use other forms of negative reinforcement such as expressing disappointment or taking away a privilege Ignore small misbehaviors that are not a priority for improving behavior and may be a part of normal development Take a break from your children when you are angry Ask a partner, friend, or family member for emotional and practical support If you choose to spank your children, consider the following recommendations: Try to use other discipline techniques more often to decrease the frequency of spanking Avoid the use of any objects (such as a belt or switch) Avoid spanking while angry Avoid spanking very young children (less than 3 years old) Although I firmly believe that most parents who spank their children are not doing so in a way that would be considered child abuse, I think there are more effective and better options than spanking, with less potential for harm.

Automatic negative reinforcement is when a negative reinforcement occurs automatically reducing or eliminating an aversive stimulus as a reinforcing consequence of the behavior. A popular example of automatic negative reinforcement would be binge eating. Binge eating (problem behavior) had been found to temporarily reduce any unpleasant emotions the person may be experiencing before the binge (automatic negative reinforcement).

Social negative reinforcement is when another person delivers a negative reinforcement after the problem behavior occurs. The person may terminate an aversive stimuli (interaction, task or activity) and the behavior is more likely to be maintained. An example of social negative reinforcement would be Max complains (problem behavior) to his parents (social) when he is asked to do chores, as a result, his parents allows him to escape the task (negative reinforcement).

Other uses of NSSI include wanting to fit in, gaining attention, and alleviating emotional numbness. NSSI functions are classified into four sub-functions: automatic negative reinforcement, automatic positive reinforcement, social negative reinforcement, and social positive reinforcement. Automatic negative reinforcement aims to eliminate feeling of emotional numbness or negative feelings of emotional disturbances, automatic positive reinforcement seeks to gain any type of feelings, even pain, social negative reinforcement helps individuals get away from feeling peer pressure and being forced to do things against their wills, lastly, social positive reinforcement is done to attain attention, negative or positive. Overall, automatic negative reinforcement and automatic positive reinforcement prevail the other two methods, while automatic negative reinforcement is more common than automatic positive reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement is any stimulus that is presented after a behavior and increases the frequency of that behavior. Negative reinforcement is the removal of an aversive stimulus after a behavior that increases the frequency of that behavior. Both positive and negative reinforcement are effective in the development of industriousness.

This model follows a functional perspective in which behaviors are caused by the events that immediately precede and follow them. Four types of reinforcement processes can maintain self-injury: intrapersonal negative reinforcement, intrapersonal positive reinforcement, interpersonal positive reinforcement, and interpersonal negative reinforcement. Intrapersonal negative reinforcement refers to self-injury being followed by a decrease or stop of aversive thoughts or feelings. Intrapersonal positive reinforcement involves self-injury being followed by an increase in desired thoughts or feelings such as a feeling of satisfaction.

If the removal of an event serves as a reinforcer, this is termed negative reinforcement. There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that affect the future probability of behavior.

A harness should only be used when the parrot is supervised and should never be used to tether a parrot to a perch or other object. The best way to train a parrot to wear a harness is to use positive and negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is used to reward the parrot until it overcomes its fear of the harness. Food treats are used as positive reinforcement to reward the parrot for putting on the harness.

Removing sources of attention by placing in an environment without other people. Careful: This can become (aversive) punishment, depending on how done. To be response cost, it can only simply be taking away a desirable thing; not adding a negative one. Negative reinforcement: One example would be to couple negative reinforcement with response cost—after some period of time in which he has acted cooperatively or calmly while in the absence of others, can bring him back with others.

Both positive punishment and negative reinforcement are inherently linked producing similar intensities in undesirable consequences such as escape, avoidance, aggression, apathy, generalized fear of the environment, or generalized reduction in behavior. As in the example with the rat, the shock acts as a positive punisher while the removal of the shock acts as a negative reinforcer which is why the two contingencies are inherently linked. Negative reinforcement cannot be used unless an aversive (the shock) was already applied. Both are un-encouraged in common trick-training programs.

Traditional treatment of phobias is still in use today. Its underlying theory states that phobic anxiety is conditioned and triggered by a conditional stimulus. By avoiding phobic situation, anxiety is reduced. However, avoidance behaviour is reinforced through negative reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement is often used by laypeople and even social scientists outside psychology as a synonym for punishment. This is contrary to modern technical use, but it was B.F. Skinner who first used it this way in his 1938 book. By 1953, however, he followed others in thus employing the word punishment, and he re-cast negative reinforcement for the removal of aversive stimuli. There are some within the field of behavior analysis who have suggested that the terms "positive" and "negative" constitute an unnecessary distinction in discussing reinforcement as it is often unclear whether stimuli are being removed or presented.

Behavioral theory of depression was outlined by Charles Ferster. A later revision was provided by Peter Lewisohn and Hyman Hops. Hops continued the work on the role of negative reinforcement in maintaining depression with Anthony Biglan.Biglan, A.; Hops, H. & Sherman, L. (1988).

Practices and service quality in such program vary greatly. The behavior modification methodologies used vary, but a combination of positive and negative reinforcement is typically used.Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2007). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it (Eighth Edition).

However, when stimulation was delivered to the parietal ganglion, the snails decreased the frequency of touching the rod compared to the baseline spontaneous frequency. These increases and decreases in pressing are positive and negative reinforcement responses typical of those seen with vertebrates.

In what has now become the standard set of definitions, positive reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the occurrence of some event (e.g., praise after some behavior is performed), whereas negative reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you). Both types of reinforcement strengthen behavior, or increase the probability of a behavior reoccurring; the difference being in whether the reinforcing event is something applied (positive reinforcement) or something removed or avoided (negative reinforcement).

Faced with a choice of entering one of three arms at three different times of day, laboratory mice can learn which arm to enter at the correct time, be it to obtain food (a positive reinforcement) or to avoid receiving a mild electric shock (a negative reinforcement).

Trauma and negative reinforcement of all kinds create aversion of other negative reaction to generalizations from the adverse event or events. And like taste aversion, the generalization may or not be conscious. Stimulus generalization is a factor in most "superstitious behavior", racism and prejudice of all kinds.

Elephant crushing, or a training crush, is a method by which wild elephants can be tamed for domestication, using restriction in a cage, sometimes with the use of corporal punishment or negative reinforcement. This practice is condemned by a variety of animal-welfare groups as a form of animal cruelty.

Humans teach animals specific responses for specific conditions or stimuli. Training may be for purposes such as companionship, detection, protection, research and entertainment. During training humans communicate their wishes with positive or negative reinforcement. After training is finished the human communicates by giving signals with words, whistles, gestures, body language, etc.

Special guest star Kate Hudson (pictured) make her first appearance as Cassandra July. Special guest star Kate Hudson begins a six- episode arc as Cassandra July, Rachel's dance instructor at NYADA. Cassandra, according to Falchuk, teaches "based on negative reinforcement". Studio recording by the cast members began by July 19, 2012.

Child Development, 50, 1219–1222Lamb, M.E., Easterbrooks, M.A., & Holden, G. (1980). Reinforcement and punishment among preschoolers: Characteristics and correles. Child Development, 51, 1230–1236 Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment are all forms of operant conditioning. Reinforcements are when one tries to increase behavior, either positively or negatively, in a target.

Reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Thus, reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior. However, there is also negative reinforcement, which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus. Changing someone's job might serve as a negative reinforcer to someone who suffers from back problems, i.e.

Reinforcement, a key concept of behaviorism, is the primary process that shapes and controls behavior, and occurs in two ways: positive and negative. In The Behavior of Organisms (1938), Skinner defines negative reinforcement to be synonymous with punishment, i.e. the presentation of an aversive stimulus. This definition would subsequently be re-defined in Science and Human Behavior (1953).

Positive punishment, if used at all, can be physical, such as pulling on a leash or spanking. It may also be vocal, such as saying "bad dog". Bridges to positive reinforcement, include vocal cues, whistling, and dog whistles, as well as clickers used in clicker training, a method popularized by Karen Pryor. Negative reinforcement may also be used.

Interpersonal positive reinforcement occurs when self-injury is followed by a desired social event such as attention or support. Finally, interpersonal negative reinforcement occurs when self-injury is followed by a decrease or stop of a social event. Many studies investigating the motives reported for engaging in self-injury provide evidence for this four-function model.

This usage is at odds with some non-technical usages of the four term combinations, especially in the case of the term "negative reinforcement," which is often used to denote what technical parlance would describe as "positive punishment" in that the non-technical usage interprets "reinforcement" as subsuming both reward and punishment and "negative" as referring to the responding operant's evaluation of the factor being introduced. By contrast, technical parlance would use the term "negative reinforcement" to describe encouragement of a given behavior by creating a scenario in which an unpleasant factor is or will be present but engaging in the behavior results in either escaping from that factor or preventing its occurrence, as in Martin Seligman's experiments involving dogs' learning processes regarding the avoidance of electric shock.

Several psychological mechanisms are thought to be implicated in the development and maintenance of problem gambling. First, reward processing seems to be less sensitive with problem gamblers. Second, some individuals use problem gambling as an escape from the problems in their lives (an example of negative reinforcement). Third, personality factors play a role, such as narcissism, risk-seeking, sensation-seeking, and impulsivity.

Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving.

Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants, i.e., leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace.Petty tyranny in organizations , Ashforth, Blake, Human Relations, Vol. 47, No. 7, 755-778 (1994) Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.

The sea star is eating the bivalve Chama pellucida while three Kelletia kelletii are attempting to get to the prey. An avoidance response is a response that prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. It is a kind of negative reinforcement. An avoidance response is a behavior based on the concept that animals will avoid performing behaviors that result in an aversive outcome.

At age six, Li followed her father's footsteps and started playing badminton, which honed her reflexes. Just before she turned eight, Li was persuaded to switch to tennis by coach Xia Xiyao of the Wuhan youth tennis club. Her instructors taught tennis through negative reinforcement, which affected Li's confidence in later years. Li joined China's National Tennis Team in 1997.

Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"), so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving.

With the open source structure of social media, a world of communication is opened for both positive and negative reinforcement. Bullying has become a prevalent concern when discussions occur regarding social media. Cyber bullying can occur because of race, sexual orientation, age, and political preference, among other attributes. Bullied individuals, specifically, can experience real life impact outside the digital world.

Negative Reinforcement: Persuade the user by removing an aversive stimulus. For example, turning a brown and dying nature scene green and healthy as the user conducts more healthy behaviors. Positive Reinforcement: Persuade the user by adding a positive stimulus. For example, adding flowers, butterflies, and other nice-looking elements to any empty nature scene, as the user conducts more healthy behaviors.

An experiment conducted by Solomon and Wynne in 1953 shows the properties of negative reinforcement. The subjects, dogs, were put in a shuttle box (a chamber containing two rectangular compartments divided by a barrier a few inches high). The dogs had the ability to move freely between compartments by going over the barrier. Both compartments had a metal floor designed to administer an unpleasant electric shock.

Applied behavioral analysis (ABA) is considered the most effective therapy for autism spectrum disorders by the American Academy of Pediatrics. ABA focuses on teaching adaptive behaviors like social skills, play skills, or communication skills and diminishing problematic behaviors like eloping or self-injury by creating a specialized plan that uses behavioral therapy techniques, such as positive or negative reinforcement, to encourage or discourage certain behaviors over-time.

In the operant conditioning paradigm the alarm sound serves as a noxious stimuli added to the environment, effectively implementing a positive punishment procedure whenever the individual activates the alarm by urinating. This eventually causes an avoidance response from the individual, maintain the behavior through negative reinforcement by avoiding the alarm sound altogether. In the future the individual wakes up to urinate and avoids wetting the bed.

Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all. Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might be used, depending on the situation. In both cases, the goal of reinforcement is always to strengthen the behavior and increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future. In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be reinforced each and every time they occur.

According to this model, the maintenance of deliberate self-harm behavior is due to negative reinforcement. Deliberate self-harm is reinforced because it prevents or takes away negative emotional experiences. The experiential avoidance model was developed to account for deliberate self-harm for various populations not just ones with psychopathology. Experiential avoidance behaviors are those that “function to avoid or escape from unwanted internal experiences.

During the early stages, smoking provides pleasurable sensations (because of its action on the dopamine system) and thus serves as a source of positive reinforcement. After an individual has smoked for many years, the avoidance of withdrawal symptoms and negative reinforcement become the key motivations. Like all addictive substances, the amount of exposure required to become dependent on nicotine can vary from person to person.

If positive reinforcement is used, a wanted stimulus for desired behavior (e.g. awarding good behavior with a treat) in a target is added. Negative reinforcement is when one tries to increase behavior by doing or giving something unwanted to the target. (e.g., a child's room is messy and his mom nags him to clean it up, he will eventually try to keep it clean to stop his mother from nagging him).

Withdrawal is the body's reaction to abstaining from a substance upon which a person has developed a dependence syndrome. When dependence has developed, cessation of substance-use produces an unpleasant state, which promotes continued drug use through negative reinforcement; i.e., the drug is used to escape or avoid re-entering the associated withdrawal state. The withdrawal state may include physical-somatic symptoms (physical dependence), emotional- motivational symptoms (psychological dependence), or both.

A negative reinforcement meaning that the student is avoiding school. Dube and Orpinas conducted a study by surveying 99 upper-elementary and middle schools, targeting students with attendance problems. Three major profiles were identified from these students. Dube and Orpinas found that 17.2 percent missed school to avoid fear, anxiety problems, or escape from social or evaluative situations; 60.6 percent missed school to gain parental attention or tangible benefits; and 22.2 percent had no profile.

With children, applied behavior analysis provides the core of the positive behavior support movement and creates the basis of Teaching-Family Model homes. Teaching-Family homes have been found to reduce recidivism for delinquent youths both while they are in the homes and after they leave. Operant procedures form the basis of behavioral parent training developed from social learning theorists. The etiological models for antisocial behavior show considerable correlation with negative reinforcement and response matching.

Zoos, including those in countries such as the USA, used corporal punishment and negative reinforcement to train elephants until the mid-1970s. A new technique, called protected contact or non-dominance is used in modern zoos. The new training uses rewards, not punishment to encourage the behavior of the animal toward the target behavior. Another alternative is to use trained elephants (called Kumkis in India) to tame, train or chase wild elephants.

It has been said that three out of the four contingencies are labeled as aversives, excluding positive reinforcement. Depending on the contingency and the level of severity of the contingency used, side-effects will increase with application. To list the order of which the severity of side-effects intensifies: negative punishment, negative reinforcement, positive punishment. That is, when considering a training strategy to produce results with the least amount of aggression, apathy, escape/avoidance etc.

For example, a record of weight loss may act as negative reinforcement if it reminds the individual how heavy they actually are. The token economy, is an exchange system in which tokens are given as rewards for desired behaviors. Tokens may later be exchanged for a desired prize or rewards such as power, prestige, goods or services. # Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior For example, remove candy and fatty snacks from kitchen shelves.

Skinner described three contingencies: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Reinforcements create a positive association between the action and consequence in order to promote the continuation of the action. This is done in one of two ways, positive reinforcers introduce a rewarding stimulus, whereas negative reinforcers remove an aversive stimulus to make the environment less aversive. Punishments create a negative relationship between the action and the consequence so that the action does not continue.

Diagram of consequences in operant conditioning The consequence to a behavior can be reinforcing or punishing. Reinforcing consequences increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future; it is further divided into positive and negative reinforcement. Punishing consequences decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future; like reinforcement, it is divided into positive and negative punishment. The effectiveness and value of a consequence is determined by the motivating operations the organism has.

Students note that smoking cigarettes reduces anxiety, and smoking often occurs after stressful events or in stressful situations. Studies find that depressed college students are more likely to smoke and have a more difficult time quitting than non-depressed college students. 31.9% of college smokers attribute their smoking behavior as a means to alleviate their depression.Morrell, H.E.R., Cohen, L.M., McChargue, D.E. (2010) Depression vulnerability predicts cigarette smoking among college students: Gender and Negative reinforcement expectancies as contributing factors.

The gender gap tends to be less pronounced in lower age groups. Many smokers begin during adolescence or early adulthood. During the early stages, a combination of perceived pleasure acting as positive reinforcement and desire to respond to social peer pressure may offset the unpleasant symptoms of initial use, which typically include nausea and coughing. After an individual has smoked for some years, the avoidance of withdrawal symptoms and negative reinforcement become the key motivations to continue.

This method contrasts to those of say, the Buddhist faith, which involve a more esoteric approach to doubt and inaction. Buddhism sees doubt as a negative attachment to one's perceived past and future. To let go of the personal history of one's life (affirming this release every day in meditation) plays a central role in releasing the doubts — developed in and attached to — that history. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.

Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace.Petty tyranny in organizations, Ashforth, Blake, Human Relations, Vol. 47, No. 7, 755–778 (1994) Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.

A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinner's conclusions. For example, Azrin and Holz defined punishment as a “consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior,” and some studies have shown that positive reinforcement and punishment are equally effective in modifying behavior. Research on the effects of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment continue today as those concepts are fundamental to learning theory and apply to many practical applications of that theory.

For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters. In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g.

But if the trainer heavily relies on a harness to keep the bird safe, then it is an obvious sign that the training methods used where not positive reinforcement and negative punishment. Trainers who use the harness too much often have problems controlling the bird in an outdoor environment and have problems with birds flying off and not coming back. This problem can be remedied by refining the person's training skills and by eliminating negative reinforcement and positive punishment from the training routine.

174, 492–500. It promotes an evidence-based understanding of horse- rider interactions. The goal is to apply valid, quantitative scientific methods to identify what training techniques are ineffective or painful, and to improve the horse-rider relationship by explaining horse training from a learning theory perspective that removes anthropomorphism and emotiveness. It can aid the training process by clarifying the roles of positive versus negative reinforcement, punishment, and by identifying stimuli that provoke unwanted responses or pain in horses.

For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters. In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g.

Duncan is best known for his contributions in the field of drug abuse, which have often been highly controversial. In 1974, he and Edward Khantzian of Harvard Medical School, in separate publications, proposed what has come to be known as the self- medication hypothesis of addiction. Both authors proposed that addiction arose out of the use of drugs to medicate a preexisting disorder or problem. Duncan's version of the hypothesis is distinguished by its identification of addiction with negative reinforcement.

Government sectors can also use life cycle thinking to better educate consumers. Requiring labels on products describing the impacts the product has and how to use the products in order to reduce the impact can be an important role for the government. Regulating supply chains and consumers with policy is motivational as negative reinforcement. Life cycle thinking provides a methodology for creating those policies in order to have the most effective and most cost efficient means of reducing environmental impacts.

The Core Principles of PBIS at the primary level are: #schools can effectively teach appropriate behavior to all students #intervene early #use a multi-tier model #use research-based interventions #monitor student progress often #use data to make decisions #use assessments to screen, diagnose, and monitor progress These principles make the PBIS program significant in that it makes it more proactive rather than reactive. Furthermore, PBIS helps schools develop a common language, common practices, and consistent application of positive and negative reinforcement at a school-wide level.

Skinner described operant conditioning as strengthening behaviour through reinforcement. Reinforcement can consist of positive reinforcement, in which a desirable stimulus is added; negative reinforcement, in which an undesirable stimulus is taken away; positive punishment, in which an undesirable stimulus is added; and negative punishment, in which a desirable stimulus is taken away. Through these practices, animals shape their behaviour and are motivated to perform said learned behaviour to optimally benefit from rewards or to avoid punishment. Through operant conditioning, the presence of instinctive drift was discovered.

Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve categorization and concept learning. They can learn using habituation, desensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning, and positive and negative reinforcement. One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four. Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent instinctive behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural.

In the development of anti-social behavior, etiological models for anti-social behavior show considerable correlation with negative reinforcement and response matching (see matching law). Escape conditioning, through the use of coercive behavior, has a powerful effect on the development and use of future anti-social tactics. The use of anti-social tactics during conflicts can be negatively reinforced and eventually seen as functional for the child in moment to moment interactions. Anti-social behaviors will also develop in children when imitation is reinforced by social approval.

In psychology, aversives are unpleasant stimuli that induce changes in behavior via negative reinforcement or positive punishment. By applying an aversive immediately before or after a behavior the likelihood of the target behavior occurring in the future is reduced. Aversives can vary from being slightly unpleasant or irritating to physically, psychologically and/or emotionally damaging. It is not the level of unpleasantness or intention that matter, but rather the level of effectiveness the unpleasant event has on changing (decreasing) behavior that defines something as aversive.

A different hypothesis does not assume that only naive pollinators visit deceptive species. Instead, the negative reinforcement associated with visiting an unrewarding flower is assumed to be stored in short-term memory. This causes the pollinator to go to a different morph type on its next visit. In other words, if deceptive species were to occur at a low enough frequency that pollinators do not encounter them very often, it is unlikely they will have the opportunity to relocate this information to their long-term memory.

In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the reinforcing stimulus has been conditioned to make the person happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the punishment—the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.

The positive reinforcement (labeled R) loop on the right indicates that the more people have already adopted the new product, the stronger the word-of-mouth impact. There will be more references to the product, more demonstrations, and more reviews. This positive feedback should generate sales that continue to grow. The second feedback loop on the left is negative reinforcement (or "balancing" and hence labeled B). Clearly, growth cannot continue forever, because as more and more people adopt, there remain fewer and fewer potential adopters.

McCreary ties much of this behavior to particular rigidity around male gender roles. McCreary notes that boys are more severely punished by parents and ostracized from peer groups for displaying typically effeminate traits, which serves to amplify in- group homophobia. McCreary connects this lack of tolerance among young men to the impact of male gender roles on social status. Overall, the combination of negative reinforcement from parents and a social hierarchy based upon obeying fixed notions of masculinity makes homophobia among young men uniquely toxic.

Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result. Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also been applied to workplace performance.

The idea of doing away with both positive and negative reinforcement as much as possible is suggested as a way to inspire intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the motivation drawn from internal sources, out of a sense of ethics or a desire to feel good about oneself. This is in contrast with extrinsic motivation, wherein motivation stems from a desire to avoid punishment or attain a reward. This is what Positive Discipline seeks to avoid, so that children learn to act correctly even when there will be no external reward or punishment for behavior.

In an article in Vanity Fair, William Langewiesche noted that once the AoA was so extreme, the system rejected the data as invalid, and temporarily stopped the stall warnings, but "this led to a perverse reversal that lasted nearly to the impact; each time Bonin happened to lower the nose, rendering the angle of attack marginally less severe, the stall warning sounded again—a negative reinforcement that may have locked him into his pattern of pitching up", which increased the angle of attack and thus aggravated the stall.

Insufficient justification and insufficient punishment are broad terms. They encompass and involve ideas ranging from operant conditioning and behavior psychology to cognitive dissonance and intrinsic desires/motivation. According to the American Heritage Medical Dictionary, operant conditioning is "the process of behavior modification in which a subject is encouraged to behave in a desired manner through positive or negative reinforcement, so that the subject comes to associate the pleasure or displeasure of the reinforcement with the behavior." This term is an example of, and serves as a representative of, behavior psychology as a whole.

Operant Conditioning theory is a well-known theory that also deals with hedonic processes; it is a model that includes three different changing and molding behavior. Positive reinforcement is the first area of this it offers giving a reward to increase the probability of changing a certain behavior. This presents a positive hedonic impact by them . Negative reinforcement follows the idea that getting rid of an unpleasant hedonic motivation that animals will move towards acquiring a pleasurable stimulus and attempt to end or escape a painful or uncomfortable stimulus.

Motivation lies at the core of many behaviorist approaches to psychological treatment. A person with autism-spectrum disorder is seen as lacking motivation to perform socially relevant behaviours – social stimuli are not as reinforcing for people with autism compared to other people. Depression is understood as a lack of reinforcement (especially positive reinforcement) leading to extinction of behavior in the depressed individual. A patient with specific phobia is not motivated to seek out the phobic stimulus because it acts as a punisher, and is over-motivated to avoid it (negative reinforcement).

Continuing to hold certain beliefs even after they are shown to be flawed creates cognitive dissonance regarding current information and past behavior, and the way to alleviate this is to simply reject new information. Therefore, anxiety buffers such as self-esteem allow individuals to cope with their fears more easily. Death cognition may in fact cause negative reinforcement that leads people to further engage in dangerous behaviors (smoking in this instance) because accepting the new information would lead to a loss of self-esteem, increasing vulnerability and awareness of mortality.

Most traditional and modern horse training methods utilise forms of operant conditioning, particularly negative reinforcement or "pressure/release" methods. While acknowledging their apparent effectiveness, Hempfling has explicitly rejected many conventional methods of horse training. He has distanced himself from the term "horse whisperer" which he associates with these techniques. Instead, Hempfling promotes the use of specific body language to establish a relationship between horse and human in which the horse recognises the human handler as the higher-ranking, dominant partner, but in which there is still trust in the handler.

Nine main unconditioned (i.e. not learned) motivating operations, have been identified in humans. Deprivation of food, water, sleep, activity, or oxygen; becoming too warm or too cold; and increase of a painful stimulus all function as establishing operations for related behaviors, and increase the effect of positive or negative reinforcement related to them. Conversely, being satiated with food, water, sleep, activity, oxygen and sex; getting cooler after being too warm or warmer after too cold; and decrease of a painful stimulus all function as abolishing operations for related behavior and reinforcement.

In a chronic alcoholic who has built up a tolerance to ethanol, this removes some of the disincentives to ethanol consumption ("negative reinforcement") while allowing them to become intoxicated with a lower dose of ethanol. The danger is that the alcoholic will then overdose on ethanol (possibly fatally). If alcoholics instead very carefully reduce their doses to reflect the now slower metabolism, they may get the "rewarding" stimulus of intoxication at lower doses with less adverse "hangover" effects - leading potentially to increased psychological dependency. However, these lower doses may therefore produce less chronic toxicity and provide a harm minimization approach to chronic alcoholism.

The most recent summary and conceptual revisions of the behavioral model was provided by Johnathan Kanter. The standard model is that depression has multiple paths to develop. It can be generated by five basic processes, including: lack or loss of positive reinforcement,In addition to loss of reinforcement, the loss of contingency between behavior and reinforcement can also lead to depression direct positive or negative reinforcement for depressive behavior, lack of rule-governed behavior or too much rule-governed behavior, and/or too much environmental punishment. For children, some of these variables could set the pattern for lifelong problems.

For example, a child whose depressive behavior functions for negative reinforcement by stopping fighting between parents could develop a lifelong pattern of depressive behavior in the case of conflicts. Two paths that are particularly important are (1) lack or loss of reinforcement because of missing necessary skills at a developmental cusp point or (2) the failure to develop adequate rule-governed behavior. For the latter, the child could develop a pattern of always choosing the short-term small immediate reward (i.e., escaping studying for a test) at the expense of the long-term larger reward (passing courses in middle school).

Research involving the fear-avoidance model has led some to question its accuracy in representing or predicting the actual avoidance of physical activity due to negative reinforcement. In certain cases, the individual completely avoids anxiety- inducing behavior, so that the fear response never becomes directly involved. Other factors affecting the perceived level of danger and spatial awareness further complicate the model. While the fear-avoidance model may be simplistic for every situation involving fear, discomfort, and/or chronic pain, its effectiveness is generally acknowledged for diagnosing and understanding how humans positively or negatively react to fear and anxiety.

Possibly the most widely accepted cause of addictions is the self-medication hypothesis, that views drug addiction as a form of coping with stress through negative reinforcement, by temporarily alleviating awareness of or concerns over the stressor. Substance users learn that the effects of each type of drug work to relieve or better painful states. They use drugs as a form of self- medication to deal with difficulties of self-esteem, relationships, and self- care. Individuals with substance use disorders often are overwhelmed with emotions and painful situations and turn to substances as a coping method.

Referring to definition 1, some authors use alternative terms, replacing positive/negative with self-reinforcing/self-correcting, reinforcing/balancing, John D. Sterman, Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, McGraw Hill/Irwin, 2000. discrepancy-enhancing/discrepancy-reducing Charles S. Carver, Michael F. Scheier: On the Self-Regulation of Behavior Cambridge University Press, 2001 or regenerative/degenerative Hermann A Haus and Richard B. Adler, Circuit Theory of Linear Noisy Networks, MIT Press, 1959 respectively. And for definition 2, some authors advocate describing the action or effect as positive/negative reinforcement or punishment rather than feedback. BF Skinner, The Experimental Analysis of Behavior, American Scientist, Vol.

Behavior modification refers to behavior-change procedures that were employed during the 1970s and early 1980s. Based on methodological behaviorism, overt behavior was modified with presumed consequences, including artificial positive and negative reinforcement contingencies to increase desirable behavior, or administering positive and negative punishment and/or extinction to reduce problematic behavior. For the treatment of phobias, habituation and punishment were the basic principles used in flooding, a subcategory of desensitization. Applied behavior analysis (ABA)--the application of behavior analysis--is based on radical behaviorism, which refers to B. F. Skinner's viewpoint that cognition and emotions are covert behavior that are to be subjected to the same conditions as overt behavior.

There is no specific treatment for autism spectrum disorders, but there are several types of therapy effective in easing the symptoms of autism, such as Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), Speech-language therapy, Occupational therapy or Sensory integration therapy. Applied behavioral analysis (ABA) is considered the most effective therapy for Autism spectrum disorders by the American Academy of Pediatrics. ABA focuses on teaching adaptive behaviors like social skills, play skills, or communication skills and diminishing problematic behaviors like self-injury. This is done by creating a specialized plan that uses behavioral therapy techniques, such as positive or negative reinforcement, to encourage or discourage certain behaviors over-time.

"Contact desensitization" is intended to increase a behavior by imagining a reinforcing experience in connection with modeling the correct behavior. "Covert negative reinforcement" attempts to increase a behavior by connecting the termination of an aversive stimulus with increased production of a target behavior. "Dialectical behavior therapy" (DBT) and "Acceptance and commitment therapy" (ACT) uses positive reinforcement and covert conditioning through mindfulness. Although the therapies are quite similar in theory and practice, DBT is based on the cognitive psychology philosophy that thoughts and feelings are explanations of motor behavior, whereas ACT--rooted in behavior analysis-- views thinking and feelings as more behavior to be explained.

In operant conditioning, the type and frequency of behaviour is determined mainly by its consequences. If a certain behaviour, in the presence of a certain stimulus, is followed by a desirable consequence (a reinforcer), the emitted behaviour will increase in frequency in the future, in the presence of the stimulus that preceded the behaviour (or a similar one). Conversely, if the behaviour is followed by something undesirable (a punisher), the behaviour is less likely to occur in the presence of the stimulus. In a similar manner, removal of a stimulus directly following the behaviour might either increase or decrease the frequency of that behaviour in the future (negative reinforcement or punishment).

Other improvements to military training methods have included the timed firing course; more realistic training; high repetitions; praise from superiors; marksmanship rewards; and group recognition. Negative reinforcement includes peer accountability or the requirement to retake courses. Modern military training conditions mid-brain response to combat pressure by closely simulating actual combat, using mainly Pavlovian classical conditioning and Skinnerian operant conditioning (both forms of behaviorism). > Modern marksmanship training is such an excellent example of behaviorism > that it has been used for years in the introductory psychology course taught > to all cadets at the US Military Academy at West Point as a classic example > of operant conditioning.

From NYADA, Whoopi Goldberg first appears in the third season as Carmen Tibideaux, a dean from NYADA who comes to Ohio to preside over Rachel's and Kurt's auditions to the school, in the episode "Choke". She appeared again, including at the Nationals competition in Chicago, and returns in the fourth and fifth seasons for scenes set at NYADA. Kate Hudson appears as Cassandra July, Rachel's dance instructor at NYADA who, according to Falchuk, teaches "based on negative reinforcement". She was introduced in the fourth-season premiere for a six- episode arc, however, Cassandra only appears in five episodes: four in 2012 and one in 2013.

The various behavioral approaches to treating relapse focus on the precursors and consequences of drug taking and reinstatement. Cognitive behavioral techniques (CBT) incorporate Pavlovian conditioning and operant conditioning, characterized by positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, in order to alter the cognitions, thoughts, and emotions associated with drug taking behavior. A main approach of CBT is cue exposure, during which the abstinent user is repeatedly exposed to the most salient triggers without exposure to the substance in hopes that the substance will gradually lose the ability to induce drug-seeking behavior. This approach is likely to reduce the severity of a relapse than to prevent one from occurring altogether.

Dinsmoor's first work was just one of a long list of works on the secondary environmental characteristics that lead to changes in behavior, which he studied throughout his lifetime (see Bibliography). James Dinsmoor first researched these ideas for two years at Columbia University, where he worked as a lecturer before he accepted a job at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana in 1951. He worked as a professor at Indiana University for 34 years, where he conducted numerous projects examining basic behavioral processes, especially discrimination learning in the area of negative reinforcement. In general, Dinsmoor's work was influential in the development of scientific knowledge on stimulus control.

The avoidance of such negative consequences leads to negative reinforcement, whereas contacting these negative consequences is called Punishment. As an example of this, consider a child who has painted on the walls of her house, if she has never done this before she may immediately seek a reaction from her mother or father. The form of reaction taken by the mother or father will affect whether the behaviour is likely to occur again in the future. If her parent is positive and approving of the behaviour it will likely reoccur, however, if the parent offers an aversive consequence (physical punishment, time-out, anger etc...) then the child is less likely to repeat the behaviour in future.

A human with a trained horse and a trained Peregrine Falcon Unlike dogs, horses are not motivated as strongly by positive reinforcement rewards as they are motivated by other operant conditioning methods such as the release of pressure as a reward for the correct behavior, called negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement techniques such as petting, kind words, rewarding of treats, and clicker training have some benefit, but not to the degree seen in dogs and other predator species. Punishment of horses is effective only to a very limited degree, usually a sharp command or brief physical punishment given within a few seconds of a disobedient act. Horses do not correlate punishment to a specific behavior unless it occurs immediately.

A patent drawing for the GED, a banned aversive conditioning device Aversives can be used as punishment during applied behavior analysis to reduce unwanted behavior, such as self-injury, that poses a risk of harm greater than that posed by application of the aversive. Aversive stimuli may also be used as negative reinforcement to increase the rate or probability of a behavior by its removal. The use of aversives was developed as a less restrictive alternative to practices prevalent in mental institutions at the time such as shock treatment, hydrotherapy, straitjacketing and frontal lobotomies. Early iterations of the Lovaas technique incorporated aversives during therapy, though the use of aversives in ABA was not without controversy.

Manipulators and abusers control their victims with a range of tactics, including positive reinforcement (such as praise, superficial charm, flattery, ingratiation, love bombing, smiling, gifts, attention), negative reinforcement, intermittent or partial reinforcement, psychological punishment (such as nagging, silent treatment, swearing, threats, intimidation, emotional blackmail, guilt trips, inattention) and traumatic tactics (such as verbal abuse or explosive anger). The vulnerabilities of the victim are exploited with those who are particularly vulnerable being most often selected as targets. Traumatic bonding can occur between the abuser and victim as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change and a climate of fear.Chrissie Sanderson.

Studies have been done where fit and focus have been applied to show their applicability to consumer purchasing, health advisories, and social policy issues. To be persuaded is to change your prior feelings, actions, and/or beliefs on a matter to where you agree with the persuader. The "fit" involved in RFT plays a large role in such issues and stories because it can be a device to help an individual receive and review the experience during a particular message delivery. Positive reinforcement and feelings of rightness while decoding the message creates a stronger engagement and relationship with processing the message, and negative reinforcement and feelings of wrongness lessens the engagement and attachment.

A growing literature is demonstrating the importance of emotion regulation in the treatment of substance abuse. Considering that nicotine and other psychoactive substances such as cocaine activate similar psycho- pharmacological pathways, an emotion regulation approach may be applicable to a wide array of substance abuse. Proposed models of affect-driven tobacco use have focused on negative reinforcement as the primary driving force for addiction; according to such theories, tobacco is used because it helps one escape from the undesirable effects of nicotine withdrawal or other negative moods. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), is showing evidence that it is effective in treating substance abuse, including the treatment of poly- substance abuse and cigarette smoking.

Manipulators and abusers often control their victims with a range of tactics, including positive reinforcement (such as praise, superficial charm, flattery, ingratiation, love bombing, smiling, gifts, attention), negative reinforcement, intermittent or partial reinforcement, psychological punishment (such as nagging, silent treatment, swearing, threats, intimidation, emotional blackmail, guilt trips, inattention) and traumatic tactics (such as verbal abuse or explosive anger). The vulnerabilities of the victim are exploited with those who are particularly vulnerable being most often selected as targets. Traumatic bonding (also popularly known as Stockholm syndrome) can occur between the abuser and victim as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change and a climate of fear.Chrissie Sanderson.

For instance, a student that gained praise and a good grade after turning in a paper, might seem more motivated in writing papers in the future (positive reinforcement); if the same student put in a lot of work on a task without getting any praise for it, he or she might seem less motivated to do school work in the future (negative punishment). If a student starts to cause trouble in class gets punished with something he or she dislikes, such as detention (positive punishment), that behaviour would decrease in the future. The student might seem more motivated to behave in class, presumably in order to avoid further detention (negative reinforcement). The strength of reinforcement or punishment is dependent on schedule and timing.

There are five basic forms of experience path we are interested in, persistently positive reinforcement experience path, persistently negative reinforcement experience path, mixed persistent pattern experience path, decaying scale experience path and selection experience path. The compound computation in the selection experience path includes current and lagging interaction, dynamic topological transformation and implies both invariance and variance characteristics in an ordered system's experience path. Also, the computation law of reachable optimality gives out the boundary between the complexity model, chaotic model, and determination model. When RAYG is the Optimal Choice computation, and the reaching pattern is a persistently positive experience path, persistently negative experience path, or mixed persistent pattern experience path, the underlying computation shall be a simple system computation adopting determination rules.

237 Punishment is more like conformity than self-control because with self-control there needs to be an internal drive, not an external source of punishment that makes the person want to do something. There is external locus of control which is similar to determinism and there is internal locus of control which is similar to free will. With a learning system of punishment the person does not make their decision based upon what they want, rather they base it on the external factors. When you use a negative reinforcement you are more likely to influence their internal decisions and allow them to make the choice on their own whereas with a punishment the person will make their decisions based upon the consequences and not exert self-control.

If the trainer is not dedicated to both positive reinforcement and negative punishment training, then problems will occur in the training. Birds may learn to fly away from the owner or new objects as a result of flooding. Trainers who do not rely exclusively on positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement training will often use harnesses on their birds because of the poor training techniques they apply such as; grabbing the bird when it does not want to train, snatching the bird out of flight, launching the bird off the hand, and dropping the hand to make a bird fly, all of which increase the fear response in a bird. Harnesses can be a great tool when used properly as a rarely used backup plan to keep the bird safe.

She is Kasahara's roommate, and after Kasahara joins the task force, Shibasaki helps her study the catalogs in the base's library through a form of negative reinforcement involving giving her candy when she gave the wrong answers which leads her to break out in pimples. Shibasaki often tells Kasahara things she finds out in regards to Kasahara and her direct superiors such as Dojo or Genda. She tries to give Kasahara advice and cheer her up when she is sulking due to events most often brought on by Dojo, though in the beginning of the series, she has slight feelings for him. Later on, she falls in love with Hikaru ; : : Portrayed by: Jun Hashimoto : Ryusuke Genda is the forty-three-year-old captain of the Library Task Force and is ranked Supervising Librarian Third Class.

Although it is commonly believed that using a pacifier will lead to dental problems, if the pacifier is used for less than around three years, it does not appear to lead to long-term damage. However, prolonged use of a pacifier or other non-nutritive sucking habit (such as finger or blanket sucking) has been found to lead to malocclusion of the teeth, that is teeth sticking out or not meeting properly when they bite together. This is a common problem and the dental (orthodontic) treatment to correct it can take a long time and can be expensive. A Cochrane Review of the evidence found that orthodontic braces or psychological intervention (such as positive or negative reinforcement) were effective in helping children stop sucking habits where that was necessary.

The family's life revolves around Baby's care and they are dependent upon Baby's disability payments as their main source of income. Ann wants to work with Baby, who still acts and is treated like an infant by his mother and two sisters, thinking that with the proper treatment he might begin to behave more appropriately for his age group. She soon discovers that Baby's infant-like state is not caused by any physical or mental conditions but because of the Wadsworth clan's profound neglect and abuse. Baby is never permitted to speak, walk or do things for himself and is forced to both wear and use diapers; he receives negative reinforcement in the form of beatings, restraints or shocks with an electric cattle prod whenever he attempts to try to break out of the baby role.

Using optogenetics to control neurons by modulating how they transmit signals in the brain, her work seeks to determine whether there are different neuronal networks in the amygdala that communicate with either the fear or reward circuits of the brain. Through this research, Tye and colleagues were able to identify distinct populations of neurons that have different functions, morphology and genetics and were able to confirm that these differences are associated with separate roles in processing information that leads to either positive or negative reinforcement. Her work has contributed to the understanding of social behaviors such as reward-seeking and anxiety, and provided insights into the basis of psychiatric diseases. Her work has also looked at alcoholism and brain circuitry, where Tye led a team of researchers to identify how the brain is altered in mice that predicted increased levels of compulsive drinking.

In the behavioral sciences, the terms "positive" and "negative" refer when used in their strict technical sense to the nature of the action performed by the conditioner rather than to the responding operant's evaluation of that action and its consequence(s). "Positive" actions are those that add a factor, be it pleasant or unpleasant, to the environment, whereas "negative" actions are those that remove or withhold from the environment a factor of either type. In turn, the strict sense of "reinforcement" refers only to reward-based conditioning; the introduction of unpleasant factors and the removal or withholding of pleasant factors are instead referred to as "punishment," which when used in its strict sense thus stands in contradistinction to "reinforcement." Thus, "positive reinforcement" refers to the addition of a pleasant factor, "positive punishment" refers to the addition of an unpleasant factor, "negative reinforcement" refers to the removal or withholding of an unpleasant factor, and "negative punishment" refers to the removal or withholding of a pleasant factor.