He said she lived in the palace's zenana, the women's quarters, in strict purdah, or seclusion.
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Other highlights include Palitana, with 900 carved temples; a safari in Sasan Gir National Park, home to 300 Asiatic lions; the fortified town of Gondal; Bhuj City, including a visit to the Zenana Mahal palace to see its wooden filigree work; and a drive through the Kutch desert region to visit tribes who have lived there for centuries.
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The society arose out of a split in the Zenana Bible and Medical Missionary Society who had denominational disputes. The Anglican church created the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society by the example of the Baptist Missionary Society, which had inaugurated zenana missions in India in the mid 19th century. Women in India at this time were segregated under the purdah system, being confined to a women's quarters known as a zenana into which it was forbidden for unrelated men to enter. The zenana missions were made up of female missionaries who could visit Indian women in their own homes with the aim of converting them to Christianity.
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Other administrative positions within the zenana included the tehwildars, or accounts officers responsible for the salaries and financial requests of the zenana inhabitants. The mahaldar, the female servant of highest authority, often acted as an intelligence source from the zenana directly to the emperor. The anagas, or royal wet-nurses, were elevated to positions of rank though their purpose was not strictly administrative.
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The Church of England Zenana Missionary Society (CEZMS; founded 1880),Church of England Zenana Mission (CEZMS) 中華聖公會(女部) also known as the Church of England Zenana Mission, was a British Anglican Christian missionary society established to spread Anglicanism in India. It would later expand its missionary work into Japan and Qing Dynasty China. In 1957 it was absorbed into the Church Missionary Society (CMS).
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Zenana missions was the strongest feature of this Society's labors from the beginning. In Calcutta, it was known as "The American Doremus Zenana Mission." It included the superintendent (always one of the missionary women); 16 missionaries; 55 native teachers; zenana pupils, 1,000; schools, 50; suburban schools, in Kajpore, 12; and Entally, 2. In Calcutta, there was also an orphanage, with superintendent, zenana teacher, Bible-class teacher, and 112 pupils. The mission had no school-houses in Calcutta, but its 50 schools were taught in rooms which were rented in the houses of Babus. There were 1,500 children in these schools, whose lessons were received behind the purdah.
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Rather than being the prison-like space of licentious activity popularized by European imagination (see Orientalism), the zenana functioned as the domain of female members of the household, ranging from wives to concubines to widows, unmarried sisters and cousins, and even further distant relations who were considered dependent kin. In addition to the women of rank, the zenana was populated by attendants of various skill and purpose to provide for the needs of the ladies residing within. All visiting friends, servants, and entertainers were invariably female, down to the highly trained corps of armed women — guards known as urdubegis — assigned to escort and protect the women in the zenana. Fortified entrance to the zenana at Fatehpur Sikri.
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During the Mughal Dynasty, urdubegis were the class of women assigned to protect the emperor and inhabitants of the zenana. Because the women of the Mughal court lived sequestered under purdah, the administration of their living quarters was run entirely by women. The division of the administrative tasks was dictated largely by the vision of Akbar, who organized his zenana of over 5,000 noble women and servants. The women tasked with the protection of the zenana were commonly of Habshi, Tatar, Turk and Kashmiri origin.
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He also seized every opportunity to write and speak in favour of the zenana initiative. In February 1855 there began a series of zenana visits by Miss Eliza Toogood, the most able of Fordyce’s staff who was also fluent in Bengali, and these continued in three houses during the next seven months. The instruction given was so well received that by the end of this period arrangements were being finalised for females from several neighbouring families to meet in the zenana of one house. On 7 September 1855, Fordyce reported the result of his experiment to the Bengal Missionary Conference, which “rejoiced in the hopeful commencement of the Zenana School Scheme both as a sign of progress and a new means for the elevation of women”.
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High caste women, Harkua, India, c. 1915Original caption: "High caste women in zenana at Harkua village in Gopalganj." A zenana (literally meaning "pertaining to women") was the part of the household reserved for women in Muslim south Asian households. These living quarters would be visited by the wives of missionaries as part of mission work.
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The zenana missions were outreach programmes established in British India with the aim of converting women to Christianity. From the mid 19th century, they sent female missionaries into the homes of Indian women, including the private areas of houses - known as zenana - that male visitors were not allowed to see. Gradually these missions expanded from purely evangelical work to providing medical and education services. Hospitals and schools established by these missions are still active, making the zenana missions an important part of the history of Christianity in India.
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Prince or noble visiting the zenana or women's quarters Zenana (, , , ) literally meaning "of the women" or "pertaining to women," in Persian language contextually refers to the part of a house belonging to a Hindu or Muslim family in the Indian subcontinent which is reserved for the women of the household. The zenana are the inner apartments of a house in which the women of the family live. The outer apartments for guests and men are called the mardana. Conceptually in those that practise purdah, it is the equivalent in the Indian subcontinent of the harem.
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Some schools and hospitals established by the society still operate in India, some still bearing Zenana as part of their name.
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By the 1880s, the zenana missions had expanded their ministry, opening schools to provide education for girls, including the principles of the Christian faith. This programme also included home visits, the establishment women's hospitals and the opening of segregated women's wards in general hospitals. One society, the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission, was involved in recruiting female doctors, both by persuading female doctors in Europe to come to India and by encouraging Indian women to study medicine in their pursuit of conversion. As a result, the Zenana missions helped break down the male bias against colonial medicine in India to a small extent.
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The most distinctive part of the collection is the set of wet plate negatives that documents the zenana women, offering us a unique insight into the microcosm of the zenana. The photographic equipment in the collection belonged to Maharaja Sawai Ram Singh II and it appears to date from the 1860s. It includes the camera equipment and assorted accessories for practicing the wet plate collodion photography process.
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Women in India at this time were segregated under the purdah system, being confined to women's quarters known as a zenana, which men unrelated to them were forbidden to enter. The zenana missions were made up of female missionaries who could visit Indian women in their own homes with the aim of converting them to Christianity. The purdah system made it impossible for many Indian women, especially high status women, to access health care, and many were needlessly dying and suffering. By training as doctors and nurses, the women of the zenana missions could be accepted by the women of India in a way that men would not have been.
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C. Pollock, Shadows Fall Apart: The Story of the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission (Hodder & Stoughton, 1958), pp. 18-19.) was in the course of fulfilment.
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Zenana won the race to take a prize of 100 guineas. Destiny was immediately retired and "put to the stud", being covered by the stallion Defence.
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Tehwildars in the Mughal court, were the female financial officers assigned to the zenana. The majority of the consolidation of Mughal court etiquette occurred under the reign of Emperor Akbar. Differing accounts of the size of his harem range anywhere from 300 to 5,000 wives. Residing within the zenana were also eunuchs, concubines, members of the royal household, servants, and entertainers, all of which comprised a massive community within itself.
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The building is in the Palladian style, with a classical portico. Six Corinthian columns support the roof. Within its compound there were several quarters, including a zenana quarter.
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Rani Mahal ("Queen Palace") is a double-storey zenana complex (female residence). It has a colonnaded Diwan-e-Aam.. It was residence for queens of Dost Mohammad Khan.
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The purdah system made it impossible for many Indian women, especially high status women, to access health care, and many were dying and suffering needlessly. By training as doctors and nurses, the women of the zenana missions were accepted by the women of India into their homes in a way that men would not have. The zenana missions expanded from just home visits to open mobile clinics in rural areas, women only hospitals and all girl schools, all staffed and run by women both recruited in Britain and those recruited and trained locally in India. The success of the Baptists in gaining local acceptance would lead to the creation of Anglican zenana missions in 1880, and the adoption of similar tactics in countries which practised segregation of men and women, the society became active in Qing dynasty China in 1884,Church of England Zenana Mission (CEZMS) 中華聖公會(女部) Japan in 1886, and Sri Lanka (at that time known as Ceylon) in 1889.
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Because the women of the Mughal court lived sequestered under purdah, the administration of their living quarters was run entirely by women. The division of the administrative tasks was dictated largely by the vision of Akbar, who organized his zenana of over 5,000 noble women and servants. The women tasked with the protection of the zenana were commonly of Habshi, Tatar, Turk and Kashmiri origin. Kashmiri women were selected because they did not observe purdah.
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The work of the Baptists inspired the formation of a British Anglican missionary society, the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society (founded 1880), which was involved in sending missionaries to mission stations in countries such as India (19th and 20th centuries) and late Qing dynasty China, beginning in 1884. Zenana missionaries had their establishments at Trivandrum, Palamcotta (Sarah Tucker College), Masulipatnam and Madras in South India, and Meerut, Jabalpur, Calcutta and Amritsar in North India.
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119 Miss Annie Allen came to the Zanzibar Mission in 1878 and later came to consider it home. Here she created a Zenana Mission that served many women and children.
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Watney was accepted by the CEZMS (Church of England Zenana Missionary Society), a mission which started in India but spread to China in 1884.Rosemary A. Keen, Catalogue of the papers of the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society, 1987. She was sent to China. In 1922 at the time of the National Christian conference in ShanghaiThe Chinese church as revealed in the National Christian Conference held in Shanghai, Tuesday, May 2, to Thursday, May 11, 1922 [microform].
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It has 410 fountains. In the third terrace, the axial water channel flows through the Zenana garden, which is flanked by the Diwan-e-Khas and chinar trees. At the entrance to this terrace, there are two small pavilions or guard rooms (built in Kashmir style on stone plinth) that is the restricted and controlled entry zone of the royal harem. Shahjahan built a baradari of black marble, called the Black Pavilion in the zenana garden.
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As such, the necessity for organizing the administration of zenana life led to the creation of several official posts within the harem. Among these positions was the Tehwildar. Described as the "lady accounts officer and cashier to whom all officials, including daroghas, had to apply for their salaries," she was responsible for all of the financial transactions related to the zenana and its residents. The disbursement of salaries may have been the primary responsibility of the cash-keeper.
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He immediately took steps preparatory to schooling the daughters of influential Indians in the zenana (secluded female quarters) of their own homes. In 1839 Dr Duff had acknowledged that advancement of female education in India would be impossible without access to zenana but declared such access impractical.Alexander Duff, Female Education in India, being the substance of An Address Delivered at the First Assembly of the Scottish Ladies’ Association in Connection with the Church of Scotland for the Promotion of Female Education in India (John Johnstone, Edinburgh, 1839). In 1840 his colleague Dr Thomas Smith had outlined a scheme for zenana teaching, but conferences of fellow missionaries in Bengal had twice dismissed this as unrealistic. Not until Fordyce’s arrival was any concerted effort made to implement such a scheme.Rev.
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Fund raising in Britain was led by enthusiasts such as Harriett Urmston who began her support in 1875. In 1880 internal disputes within the organisation resulted in the Church of England Zenana Mission breaking away.
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Lacroix in 1825 married Hannah Herklots. Their children included Hana Catherine, who married the missionary Joseph Mullens. She grew up fluent in Bengali and did notable work in the zenana missions to women living in seclusion.
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By 1904, there were about 130 Adventists there. The church began with book sales and pamphlet distribution. Early endeavors also included medical work, schools, care of orphans, and zenana work. At first, converts were of European heritage.
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With the construction of Fatehpur Sikri, Emperor Akbar saw need to organize the administration of his Zenana. This portion of the palace was reputably home to more than five thousand women. While Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak claims in the Akbarnama that each woman had her own suite of rooms, it is more likely that only members of the royal family and favorites of the emperor had their own apartments. The zenana was divided into sections, with (female) daroghas tending to the organizational needs of the residents, and working to keep the peace.
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Allen did not only help people medically. She also was an integral part of many Zenana Missions. In 1878 she started one such mission in Zanzibar. She worked extensively with the people of Zanzibar and considered it her home.
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Despite the social freedom that came with being a member of the royal household, Mughal women did not go about unveiled and were not seen by outsiders or men other than their family. Instead, when they traveled they covered their heads and faces in white veils, and they were transported in howdahs, chaudoles, carriages and palanquins with covering on all sides, to maintain the modesty and seclusion required of purdah. When entering or exiting the zenana itself, female pall bearers carried their palanquins, and they were only transferred to male servants and eunuchs outside the walls of the zenana. Should outsiders be required to enter the zenana, as in the case of an illness where the lady could not be moved for her health, the visitor was covered from head to foot in a shroud and led blindly to the lady by a eunuch escort.
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Local equivalents include durani (Kolkata), menaka (Cochin),Naz Foundation International, Briefing Paper 3: Developing community-based sexual health services for males who have sex with males in South Asia. August 1999. Paper online (Microsoft Word file). meti (Nepal), and zenana (Pakistan).
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Thomas Smith (8 July 1817-26 May 1906) was a Scottish missionary and mathematician who was instrumental in establishing India's zenana missions in 1854. He served as Moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland 1891/92.
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The middle part is occupied by the main building and the kitchen, Gol Bangla, Zenana Mehal, and harem quarters stretch to the south. The Nawab was an avid traveller, and his influences show in the architecture, which combines Italian and Tudor influences.
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Christian missionaries were able to gain access to these Indian girls and women through the zenana missions; female missionaries who had been trained as doctors and nurses were able to provide them with health care and also evangelise them in their own homes.
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Kinnaird College was founded in 1913 by the Zenana and Bible Medical Mission when they started college classes at Kinnaird Christian Girls' High School in Lahore.Maskiell, Michelle. “Social Change and Social Control: College-Educated Punjabi Women 1913 to 1960.” Modern Asian Studies, vol.
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The story of Muthulakshmi is told in the book 'From an Indian Zenana: The Story of Lydia Muthulakshmi' by Rev WH Jackson Picken. The book also has an old photograph of the Wesley Tamil Church Haines Road and Narayan Pillai Street, dated 1892.
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174 Under the Islamic Mughal Empire, various aspects of veiling and seclusion of women was adopted, such as the concept of Purdah and Zenana, partly as an additional protection for women, they were abducted so to prevent the consequences veil became necessary.
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The International Service Fellowship, more commonly known as Interserve, is an interdenominational Protestant Christian mission agency which was founded in London in 1852. For many years it was known as the Zenana Bible and Medical Missionary Society and it was run entirely by women.
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Harriett Urmston born Harriett Elizabeth Hughes (20 January 1828 – 4 September 1897) was a British missionary in India who preached to the British wives and soldiers in Rawalpindi. She spent years talking in the UK in support of the Zenana Bible and Medical Missionary Society.
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In 1934, she began attending the Church of England Zenana Missionary School. In 1940, she began training as a nurse at the St Andrew’s Mission Hospital and qualified as a nurse the following year. She was also adopted by a Christian family at this time.
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The Children of Sir John Spencer Login in Lucknow, anon. Miniature on ivory, 1846. As physician to the Court of Oudh, Login was barred from directly examining women in the zenana. However, here, his wife Lena was able assist in diagnosing the medical conditions.
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212 Additions were made to the palace in the form of the Zenana Mahal and the Rang Mahal in the 18th century. The temples built in Chamba demonstrate a strong Kashmiri influence with their stone temple architecture and temple iconography.Bhatnagar (2008), p.42Handa (2005), p.
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Ridden as usual by John Barham Day, Destiny raced in third place before moving up to challenge the leaders Toga and Zenana inside the final furlong. After an "exceedingly pretty race" she won by a neck from Toga, with Zenana just behind in third. In the Oaks Stakes over one and a half miles at Epsom on 20 May, Destiny was not strongly fancied, being the fifth choice in the betting at odds of 10/1. In the last quarter of a mile, she was one of five fillies who broke clear of the field and after a "grand struggle" she finished second by half a length to the favourite Cyprian.
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They taught in girls' schools, which were attended by all classes. Bible women visited the zenana, taught women and girls there, preached religious values and worked for the general good of the women. They also visited native women in hospitals and homes, providing healthcare services and facilities.
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The first missionary was sent out in November, 1861, Miss Marstou, to Burma. In July, 1863, Miss Brittan (Episcopalian) went to zenana work in Calcutta. At the end of four years, the Society had 2 missionaries, 7 Bible-women, and another serving in hospitals in Calcutta.
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Christian missionaries in India also worked to increase literacy and also engaged in social activism, such as fighting against prostitution, championing the right of widowed women to remarry, and trying to stop early marriages for women. Among British women, zenana missions became a popular method to win converts to Christianity.
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John Fordyce (1819–1902) was a Christian missionary, evangelical minister and administrator who launched the female education initiative in India known as the Zenana Missions. He has been credited with introducing the rickshaw to India.Pamela Kanwar, Imperial Simla: The Political Culture of the Raj (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 176.
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The building was designed by Zain Yar Jung. It featured a special entrance which allowed veiled women (zenana) to be delivered by car and enter without being seen. The large entrance foyer opened out onto rooms and halls. Women could play Tambola, cards or badminton or take lessons in cooking or needlework.
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The Kinnaird College for Women (KCW) is a university located in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan. It is a women's liberal arts university. Kinnaird was established in 1913 by the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission. In 1919, Presbyterian Mission Church and the Church Mission Society joined a consortium to fund and operate the college.
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At Cawnpur, there was a superintendent, zenana missionary, 13 missionaries, 5 native assistants, 968 pupils, 623 in 37 schools, 345 pupils in 184 zenanas. Among the schools is one for high-caste Hindus taught by a Pundita. It contained 38 girls, in 1889, who were learning Bible verses, catechism, and Scripture lessons.
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From 1880 the organisation became known as the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission as its focus expanded to include medical work. In 1881 a Zenana worker, Miss Bielby, met Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle to ask for her support in publicising the organisation’s work, a request to which the Queen agreed. At this time the organisation began to expand its sending bases as well, and workers were sent from Canada, New Zealand, Ireland and the USA as well as from Britain. For the first century of its existence the organisation was run solely by women but in 1957 the decision was made to accept men as well. In 1987 the organisation was renamed “Interserve” to reflect its international status and its emphasis on practical service.
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She was not as successful with converting this group. Like many Zenana Missions, Allen's later became less evangelistic and more focused on educating women and young girls. One of the skills she taught them was sewing. She gave them the skills and materials necessary to mend their own clothes, thereby making them more self-sufficient.
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Padshah Begum (Urdu: پادشاہ بیگم) was a superlative imperial title conferred upon the 'imperial' or 'First Lady' of the Mughal Empire and was considered to be the most important title in the Mughal harem or zenana. This title can be equivalent with "empress" in English, but in only approximate terms in the Mughal context.
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Blenda Charlotte Swenson a graduate of Bethany College (Lindsborg, Kansas) was deputed by the Lutheran Mission Board to go out to India as a Zenana Sister. During her work in India at Rajahmundry, she envisioned the establishment of a Bible Training School for Christian women where they would be prepared as teachers of the Bible in Hindu homes.
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In 1893, Faizunnesa established a charitable dispensary in her village for women in purdah, particularly destitute women. She also built a hospital for women, Faizunnesa Zenana Hospital in Comilla. In addition, she built mosques and contributed towards the development of roads and ponds. Faizunnesa patronised different newspapers and periodicals, including Bandhab, Dhaka Prakash, Musalman Bandhu, Sudhakar, and Islam Pracharak.
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The building was constructed with white marble in the lower half of its walls and pillars. It consists of six apartments divided by arched piers and was originally painted with floral decorations on the interior. The Mumtaz Mahal was part of the Zenana. After the British occupied the fort, it was used as a prison camp.
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It was rumored that she had an affair with the Nawab Bahadur Javid Khan, who was the eunuch superintendent of the zenana. Javid Khan was later assassinated. When the Nawab Imad-ul-Mulk reached Delhi in 1754, the emperor and his mother were arrested and imprisoned. She probably died after in prison, although the exact date and her gravesite are unknown.
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They used music to reach out to its wide audience - to attract more women and to provide a commentary on the verses from Bible. Bible women wore white saris and carried cloth covered Bibles, representative of their virtuous identity. They stopped wearing jewellery and deprived themselves of all forms of vanity. Bible women took up various roles in the zenana missions.
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The mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb at the Red Fort complex in Delhi, India, from 1659-1660 for his 2nd wife Nawab Bai. The mosque was also used by the ladies of the Zenana. The mosque was constructed at a cost of Rs. 160,000. The prayer hall has three arches, and it is divided into two aisles.
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The Mughal Indian emperor Jahangir celebrating Holi with ladies of the zenana. The festival has traditionally been also observed by non-Hindus, such as by Jains and Newar Buddhists (Nepal). In Mughal India, Holi was celebrated with such exuberance that people of all castes could throw colour on the Emperor. According to Sharma (2017), "there are several paintings of Mughal emperors celebrating Holi".
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The source of water supply to the two gardens is the same. Built in an east-west direction, the top terrace has the Zenana garden while the lowest terrace is connected to the Dal Lake. In recent years, the lowest terrace has merged with the approach road. A spring called the Gopi Thirst provides clear water supply to the gardens.
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In 1882, the NIA launched Medical Women for India, an initiative to train women doctors so that they could work in part on caring for women in India. (See Zenana missions.) The NIA also took an interest in students from India who were studying in Britain. Manning created a book of guidance called Handbook of information relating to university and professional studies etc.
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Alice Sorabji worked at the Zenana Hospital in Bahawalpur. For her work at the Pennell Hospital at Bannu (in present-day Pakistan), she was awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal in 1917. She was also appointed an OBE in 1921, for her hospital work during World War I. She retired from medical work in 1925."Obituary" British Medical Journal (March 31, 1951): 706.
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Katherine (Kate) Watney, Connie's sister, who was a CEZMS missionary in China Constance's sister Kate was a missionary in China with CEZMS (Church of England Zenana Missionary Society). Her niece, Faith, was a missionary with CMS in Sudan, and married Leonard Sharland. Two of their sons, Roger and David, have also been missionaries in Sudan, as is their grandson, Emmanuel.
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The seven pieces are titled as follows: :1. Nach der Wendung (Recueillement) ["After the Turning" (Contemplation)] :2. All' Italia! (In modo napolitano) ["To Italy!" (In a Neapolitan Mode)] :3. Meine Seele bangt und hofft zu Dir (Choralvorspiel) ["My soul trembles and hopes of thee" (Chorale Prelude)] :4. Turandots Frauengemach (Intermezzo) ["Turandot's Zenana" (Intermezzo)] :5. Die Nächtlichen (Walzer) ["The Nocturnal" (Waltz)] :6.
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Male children also lived in the harem until they grew up. Within the precincts of the harem were markets, bazaars, laundries, kitchens, playgrounds, schools and baths. The harem had a hierarchy, its chief authorities being the wives and female relatives of the emperor and below them were the concubines. Urdubegis were the class of women assigned to protect the emperor and inhabitants of the zenana.
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Though she was mainly concerned with the health of the people she served, she helped them in many other ways as well. She was a leader who pushed for the education of the women and children of the areas where she worked. She founded the Zenana Mission in Zanzibar through the UMCA. The main goal of the Universities' Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) was evangelistic.
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Newcastle' his first post was as a curate at St Peter's North Shields."The Clergy List, Clerical Guide and Ecclesiastical Directory" London, Hamilton & Co 1889 He subsequently became a missionary in the Middle East. His last post before elevation to the Episcopate was as Secretary of the Church of England Zenana Mission. On his return to England he was Vicar of Emmanuel Church, Clifton, Bristol.
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Evans served as a Presbyterian missionary at Sonapur and Karimganj in Assam, India. She was a teacher to women living in zenana. In 1925 she was appointed headmistress of the school at Karimganj, succeeding Dilys Edmunds. When the school was closed in 1935, she continued in Karimganj as a missionary, working with Jane Helen Rowlands to run Dipti Nibash, a refuge home for widows and orphans.
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They both returned to India in 1876, this time landing in Bombay (present Mumbai). He became the first chairman of the Punjab Native Church council when the "Lahore Diocese" was established in 1877. He also served as the first secretary of the CMS mission between 1878 and 1898. He served as the first secretary of the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society between 1878 and 1900.
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One of his first actions was to assert the legality of AA patrols warning motorists of police speed traps. He was also President of the Lancashire Commercial Motor Users’ Association of the National Threshing Machine Owners’ Association, and of the National Traction Engine Association. He was also Treasurer of the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission and a member of the finance committee of the YMCA.
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80; Julius Richter, DD, A History of Missions in India, trans. Sydney H Moore (Fleming H. Revell Company, New York, 1908); Arthur T. Pierson, DD, The New Acts of the Apostles (James Nisbet, London, 1901), p. 134 ; Benoy Bhusan Roy and Pranati Ray, Zenana Mission: The Role of Christian Missionaries for the Education of Women in 19th Century Bengal (ISPCK, Delhi, 1998), pp. 19, 133-136.
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Most other foreign women doctors in the country received help from government appointment or support of any missionary or philanthropic society, but Hamilton established a successful private medical practice with help only from Colonel Joubert. She held the post of medical officer at the Lady Dufferin Zenana [Women's] Hospital in Calcutta. Her career changed drastically in the spring of 1894 when she moved to Kabul, Afghanistan.
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In the spring of 1837, Destiny appeared at Newmarket where she contested two match races. At the Craven meeting she started favourite, but was beaten by Lord Suffield's colt Newlight. over five furlongs for a prize of 200 guineas. At the next Newmarket meeting she was matched against Zenana, carrying seven pounds more than the filly who had finished third to her in the previous year's guineas.
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Like his father, Sawai Jagat Singh was also a patron of the arts and crafts. He was very much interested in sports as well as in literature. All the Karkhanas that have been thriving for long in Jaipur and came down to him as heritage were bursting with activities. Many Painters prospered in the Suratkhana, a number of paintings depicting Durbar scenes and Zenana Majlis were painted.
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Shahpura Haveli, A 300 hundred year old Palace was built by Rao Pratap Singh, Descendant of Rao Shekha in the 17th Century. In the zenana (women's quarters), various rooms offer different themes. One room has antique murals, another has a marble fountain, while the turret room has walls that are thick. Diwankhana, the formal drawing room, is decorated with family portraits and an array of antique armour.
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Akhand Chandi Palace The Akhand Chandi Palace, noted for its distinct green roof, was built by Raja Umed Singh between 1747 and 1765 and used as his residence. Later, Raja Sham Singh refurbished it with the assistance of British engineers. In 1879, the Darbar Hall (also named 'Marshal Hall' after the builder) was built. Raja Bhuri Singh added the Zenana Mahal (residence of Royal ladies).
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Based on the infamous Bawla Murder case of 1925, Homi Master made use of the story elements involving a courtesan, royalty, romance, and murder. The case involved Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar III of Indore and a Muslim courtesan called Mumtaz Begum. Mumtaz escaped from the Holkar's zenana quarters in Indore and went to Bombay. Here she sought refuge from a rich benefactor and protector called Bawla.
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In an adjoining chamber, called the Kanch-ki-Burj, mosaics of mirrors adorn the walls. The Badi Charur Chowk within this chowk is a smaller court for private use. Its screen wall has painted and inlaid compositions depicting European men and Indian women. Proceeding further from the Mor-Chowk, in the Zenana Mahal or women's quarters exquisitely designed alcoves, balconies, colored windows, tiled walls, and floors are seen.
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Agra Fort: Jahangiri Mahal The Hauz-i-Jahangiri is made out of one single block of stone Jahangiri Mahal (Hindi: जहाँगीरी महल, Urdu: جہانگیری محل), may be the most noteworthy building inside the Agra Fort of India. The Mahal was the principal zenana (palace for women belonging to the royal household), and was used mainly by the Rajput wives of Akbar. It is a form of Islamic architecture .
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Spread over 8.77 acres, and built in the shape of a butterfly, in Indo-Saracenic architecture. The entrance hall of the palace, a dome with an entrance hall beneath with symmetrical wings at fifty-five degree angle, is the outstanding feature. It has 36 rooms including a zenana, four of which have now been converted into dining rooms. It is located to the northwest of the India Gate.
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Mary Washington Bacheler was born February 22, 1860, in New Hampton, New Hampshire, the daughter of Rev. Otis Robinson Bacheler and his second wife, Sarah P. Merrill Bacheler. When Mary was a girl, she moved to India, where her father, a medical doctor and ordained minister, and her mother, an educator, were Baptist missionaries at Midnapore. As a teen she worked with her mother, visiting and teaching women in zenana.
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Initially Carmichael traveled to Japan for fifteen months, but fell ill and returned home. After a brief period of service in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), she went to Bangalore, India for her health and found her lifelong vocation. She was commissioned by the Church of England Zenana Mission. Carmichael's most notable work was with girls and young women, some of whom were saved from customs that amounted to forced prostitution.
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In 1913, the Church of England Zenana Mission began Ewart as a 'finishing school' for Indian girls. Its goal was to bring Christian values as well as the poise and etiquette of an 'English' education to students in India. The school was named Ewart after its first donator, an Irish woman, Miss Ewart. With funding secured, the school started in an old mission house in Chennai with three students on roll.
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Garret to the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society (CEZMS) to open a school in benefit for the Kandyan girls. Bellerby along with Ethel Jones arrived Sri Lanka on 1889 to fulfill the request of the CEZMS. Upon arrival she went to Christian Mission School, Kotte to learn Sinhalese which might have surely made her easy to tackle the local folk. Bellerby started the institute between May and August 1890.
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Small had written "Light and Shade in Zenana Missionary Life" in 1890 which described the qualities required by aspiring female missionaries. Small was familiar not only with being a missionary in India but she had also spent time becoming familiar with the local traditions and customs. In October 1894 Small applied her knowledge as the first principal of the Women's Missionary Training Institute (later renamed St Colm's College).
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Educated Indian Christian women, who worked as assistants to the zenana missionaries were known as Bible women. They came from notable families and worked among poor women in villages, towns, hospitals, schools, etc. The Bible women, helped bridge the vast cultural differences between the English missionaries and the village folk. The Bible women used indigenous ideas to teach and preach their ideals of a Christian God to the women of the subcontinent.
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Editorial committee: F. Rawinson, chairman, Helen Thoburn, D. MacGillivray she was in Foochow, Fu. She was Principal of the Church of England Zenana Mission School for Blind Girls in Nantai, Foochow, now spelled Fuzhou. Watney retired to Limpsfield, Surrey where she had a house, Burnside, in Detillens Lane. The inscription on Katherine Watney's parents' gravestone in Westerham Churchyard Watney never married. She retired to Limpsfield, Surrey where she had a house in Detillens Lane.
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Mahaldars in the Mughal Empire were the chief officers of the imperial harem. Chosen from the ranks of the darogha administrators of the zenana, the mahaldar was responsible for maintaining order in this large community of women. Niccolao Manucci writes that "the way in which these kings are waited on deserves mention. For just as the king has his officers outside, he has the same among the fair sex within the Mahal".
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In 1910 to 1911, there was an epidemic of Phagedaenic ulcer at Palwal and Bisset worked with Dr. Young of the Women's Hospital of Palwal to treat about 600 patients. Both physicians were Zenana medical missionaries who performed amputations and other necessary surgeries. She sought to reduce the rate of illness and death during childbirth. Bisset wrote that puerperal sepsis was common due to unsanitary conditions, such as dirty bedding and cloths used during childbirth.
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St. Margaret's School is the oldest girls’ school in Singapore and the Far East. It was founded in 1842 by Maria Dyer, a missionary of the London Missionary Society. It was known first as the Chinese Girls’ School, then as the Church of England Zenana Missionary (CEZMS) School in Singapore, before being renamed St. Margaret's School. The secondary section was split from the primary in 1960 and it moved into new premises along Farrer Road.
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Elizabeth Bielby was a nineteenth-century British physician and medical missionary. She petitioned Queen Victoria for a women's medical service for India and was instrumental in the foundation of the Countess of Dufferin Fund. She was affiliated to the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission and arrived in Lucknow in 1876. In 1881, the Maharaja of Punna asked Bielby, then undertaking medical missionary work in Lahore, to come and treat his wife, the Maharani, who was ill.
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The top of the gates has notched parapets for archers to shoot at the enemy army. A circular road within the fort links all the gates and provides access to the numerous monuments (ruined palaces and 130 temples) in the fort. On the right of Suraj Pol is the Darikhana or Sabha (council chamber) behind which lie a Ganesha temple and the zenana (living quarters for women). A massive water reservoir is located towards the left of Suraj Pol.
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Family scene in a gynaeceum – painted on a lebes gamikos about 430 BC In Ancient Greece, the gynaeceum ( gynaikeion, from Ancient Greek gynaikeia "part of the house reserved for the women"; literally "of or belonging to women, feminine"). or the gynaeconitis ( gynaikōnitis "women's apartments in a house"). was a building or the portion of a house reserved for women, generally the innermost apartment. In other words, a women's quarters, similar to the Indian and Muslim zenana.
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Notable dignitaries to stay in this palace include Czar Nicholas II, George V, Queen Mary, Narendra Modi and Ivanka Trump. After Nizam bought the Falaknuma Palace, Viqar-ul-Umra built the Paigah Palace (originally known as Aiwan-e-Viqar) for himself. The Zenana Mahal in it was built with a blend of Neo Gothic, Indo-Saracenic and Mughal architecture. A part of the palace houses the U.S. consulate and a part of it is inhabited by his descendants.
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As physician to the Court of Oudh, Login was barred from directly examining women in the zenana. However, here, his wife Lena was able assist in diagnosing the medical conditions. In 1839, Login took responsibility for two thousand poor in Herat. After assisting with the re-building of the carpet weaving industry, political instability in the area caused the British mission to leave and Login to move to Kandahar and then Kabul, eventually returning again to Lucknow.
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The Diwan-e-Khas (the Hall of Private Audience), which was accessible only to the noblemen or guests of the court, now derelict, is in its centre. However, the carved stone bases and a fine platform surrounded by fountains are still seen. The royal bathrooms are located on the north-west boundary of this enclosure. The fountain pools of the Diwan-e-Khas, the Diwan- e-Aam, and in turn, the Zenana terrace are supplied in succession.
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This was their third return to the UK from India as they had been given two furloughs during their mission. They booked a package holiday with Thomas Cook & Son on their return and the family went on a £10 arranged holiday to Rome. She still worked to support the missions and she encouraged support for the Zenana Bible and Medical Missionary Society. This mission was aimed at women in India who could not normally meet a male missionary.
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Within its compound there were several quarters, including a zenana (women's quarters) where Khair un Nissa lived. Within the compound is a miniature model of the building- legend has it that this was so Kirkpatrick's wife, who remained in purdah, could see the entire mansion, including the front. This scaled model has recently been beautifully restored. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, a group of rebels, led by Maulvi Allauddin and Turrebaz Khan, attacked the residency.
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Physically, the zenana of the Mughal court consisted of exceptionally luxurious conditions, particularly for princesses and women associated to high-ranking figures. Because of the extreme restrictions placed on access to the women's quarters, very few reliable accounts of their description are available. Still, modern scholars evaluating court records and travelogues contemporary with the Mughal period detail the women's lodgings as offering courtyards, ponds, fountains and gardens. The palaces themselves were decorated with mirrors, paintings and marble.
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At the time, the opportunities available in England for female physicians were limited. However, Butler's medical training could be used elsewhere. In parts of India, female doctors were needed because the purdah women who lived there were not comfortable receiving care from male doctors. In response to this need, Butler was sent to India by the Church of Zenana Missionary Society, an Anglican group specifically devoted to Christianizing the women of India through various methods including medical missionary work.
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The Hindoo Patriot, under the able editorship of Harish Chandra Mukherjee became the mouthpiece of protest against imperial injustices. In the late fifties, the Hindoo Patriot began to expose the oppression and atrocities on Indian peasants by the indigo planters. The latter used to force the peasants into cultivating indigo. In the late 1875, when one Jagadananda Mukherjee invited the Prince of Wales to his residence and zenana, the Hindoo Patriot commented that the national feeling had been outraged.
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A Tirth Purohit at the Ram Chandra Goenka Zenana Bathing Ghat, Kolkata. Purohit, in the Indian religious context, means family priest, from puras meaning "front", and hita, "placed". The word is also used synonymously with the word pandit, which also means "priest". Tirth Purohit means the Purohits who sit at the fords of the holy rivers or holy tanks and who have maintained the records of the forefathers of the Hindu family for thousands of years.
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The most advanced of all were put into a normal training-class and study for the entrance examinations of the University of Calcutta. Several of these upper-class girls were suitable candidates for a medical course, and the superintendent hoped to see them trained as physicians. All these girls were also trained in the Bible. At Allahabad, there was a Superintendent, zenana missionary, 16 missionaries, 6 native assistants, 1,398 pupils, 1,000 in 47 schools, 398 pupils in 320 zenanas.
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Several Baptist Missionary Society, SPCK, LMS, CMS, SPG, Zenana mission, Medical Mission, American Mission, Danish Mission, and Methodist Mission missionaries have contributed for the progressive Christian community in India. These missionaries have made a vast contributions in the districts of Tinnevelly and Travancore, which covers most of the southern Tamil Nadu. These missions were mostly influenced under the direct control of the Church of England. The following is an incomplete list of Protestant missionaries in India.
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During the last decade of the 19th century, Western missionaries from the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society arrived in Kienning Prefecture (which also comprises the present day Nanping City) to evangelize. However they soon realized that the majority of the residents in the region did not comprehend Mandarin speech nor the Foochow dialect when Foochow Christians tried to preach to them, hence the missionaries studied an existing Chinese publication titled The Eight Tones of Kien-chou () and in 1896 the missionaries devised a new Latinized alphabet system for the Kienning dialect, which emulated the Foochow Romanization system. Among the early translators were Miss L.J. BryerThe Bible in China: Kienning Version and other ladies of the Zenana Mission with the help of native teachers, translated the New Testament into the Kienning Romanized Colloquial writing system by 1895. It was seen through the press by Miss B. NewcombeA History of the British and Foreign Bible Society, Pg. 195 and published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in London in 1896.
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Hunan was the second Chinese province in which the society was active with, amongst others, mission centres being opened in Hengzhou in 1910 and Yongzhou in 1916. The third and last province in which the society opened a mission centre was Guangxi, with a centre being established in Guilin in 1916.Church of England Zenana Mission (CEZMS) 中華聖公會(女部) In the Diocese of Fujian (Fokien) in 1908 there was a large staff of CEZMS workers.
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The association was established under the sanction of the Bishops of Waiapu and Nelson, with the Rev. Frederick William Chatterton as Clerical Secretary, and Mr. J. Holloway as Lay Secretary and Treasurer. The association provided workers for the Maori Mission, for the Melanesian Mission, for the CMS Missions in China, Japan, India and Africa, and also for the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society. In 1893 Miss Marie Louise Pasley, the first missionary candidate, was selected, and who was subsequently sent to Japan.
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They did return occasionally and in 1905-6 Emily was the vice president of the Scottish branch of the Zenana Bible and Medical Missionary Society. She was very interested in the YWCA but her life can be partly judged by her 1944 book My Adopted Country, 1889–1944 which was published in India at Lucknow. However she worked in Britain too. During World War one she, and the YMCA, created 300 centres that could be exploited by WAACs and other war workers.
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There are many other structures within the complex, such as the Huzoor Palace, a large building which is currently the residence of the royal family; the Orchard Palace, a wing of the Huzoor; and the Riverside Palace, which is away from Naulakha. An adjoining zenana is in a state of ruin. It is flanked by two statues of guards and has stone tracery architectural features on its upper floor. The Gori Pir, a Muslim shrine (dargah) of a saint is within the courtyard.
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In June 1895 Tyabji was made a judge of the Bombay High Court, the first Muslim and the third Indian to be so elevated. In 1902, he became the first Indian to hold the post of Chief Justice of the Bombay High Court. Tyabji was also active in women's emancipation and worked to weaken the zenana system. He sent all of his daughters to be educated in Bombay and in 1904 he sent two of them to boarding school in Haslemere in England.
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She spoke at the meetings raising awareness about hundred millions of people in India who have not heard about Jesus Christ. She also spoke of the great need for advance in education and medical work among the women in India. Kinnaird participated in various educational and reformist projects such as the Indian Female Normal School and Instruction Society and the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission, precursors of the present-day international Christian organization Interserve. Gertrude Kinnaird died in July 1931.
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Mughal city of Fatehpur Sikri. The Mughal Harem was the harem of Mughal emperors of the Indian subcontinent. The term originated with the Near East, meaning a "forbidden place; sacrosanct, sanctum", and etymologically related to the Arabic ḥarīm, "a sacred inviolable place; female members of the family" and ḥarām, "forbidden; sacred". It has the same meaning as the Turkish word seraglio and the Persian word zenana. It is also similar to the Sanskrit word anthapura, meaning ‘the inner apartment’ of the household.
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Drawing on the independence she had learnt in Walthamstow Small encouraged her charges to develop themselves and not just to follow some pre-defined formula for becoming a missionary. The institute prepared women to engage women in Christian missions, such as in Zenana missions. The institute attracted students of different denominations and from Switzerland, Germany and Scandinavia. The institute was renamed in 1908 as the Women's Missionary College as the Free Church became part of the United Free Church of Scotland.
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Amy Carmichael, a Protestant missionary, focused her efforts in the Indian Empire on rescuing children from prostitution. Christian missionaries opposed the practice of prostitution in the Indian Empire. They also fought against the practice of child temple prostitution. Amy Carmichael, a Protestant missionary of the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society focused her efforts towards children who were "to be dedicated as temple prostitutes", resulting in the creation of the Dohnavur Fellowship, which rescued one thousand children, as well as operated a hospital and engaged in evangelism.
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A zenana in the palace complex Naulakha Palace is situated within Darbargardh (an old fort complex), which was built during the 18th century (1748), with a number of additional structures built in subsequent years. The main approach to the complex is through a curved gateway structure with a clock tower which rises in three tiers above the gateway. The palace is at the far end from the gate and is fronted by a rectangular forecourt. The palace has an overview of the Gondal River.
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Already having been honored by selection for duties within the women's quarters, a mahaldar was exalted above the others for her special services to the emperor. These special services included the management of the other ranking administrators, and reporting conflicts and intrigues from the zenana directly to the Emperor. In that way, she served as a kind of spy on behalf of the Emperor. She was also given the task of reading out daily reports from the public and secret news court writers to the emperor.
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Believing that circulating air was bad, women were shut up in rooms were a fire was burned to heat the room, regardless of the weather, and any opportunity for circulating air was blocked off. Women were prohibited from drinking water or milk if they developed puerperal sepsis, out of concern for a purulent discharge. Bisset helped oversee the construction of a hospital for women in Bhiwani that opened in the fall of 1921. In 1931, she worked in Bhiwani at the Zenana Baptist Mission Hospital.
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Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork.
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Kashmiri women were selected because they did not observe purdah. Many of the women were purchased as slaves, and trained for their positions. They are mentioned as early as the reigns of Babur and Humayun, and were proficient in weapons combat, specifically lance, and archery. Mughal emperors spent a great deal of their leisure time in the zenana, and slept there at night, therefore the women assigned to protect the women's quarters were also part of the larger system in place to protect the emperor.
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These photographs were held in a private collection in the United Kingdom and were not published until 1980. They are the most valuable source of the mid-19th-century state of Hampi monuments to scholars. A translation of the memoirs written by Abdul Razzaq, a Persian envoy in the court of Devaraya II (1424–1446), published in the early 1880s described some monuments of the abandoned site. This translation, for the first time, uses Arabic terms such as "zenana" to describe some of the Hampi monuments.
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Interserve, which was originally called the Calcutta Normal School and later the Indian Female Normal School and Instruction Society and then the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission.Interserve England and Wales, Mundus, Retrieved 31 May 20 It was founded as one of the zenana missions in the 19th century, with the aim of addressing the medical and educational needs of Indian women. In 1821 Mary Ann Cooke (Wilson) landed in Calcutta with the intention of setting up a school to educate young Hindu women. Although she experienced significant opposition from people unwilling to countenance the thought of women receiving an education she worked closely with the Church Mission SocietyChurch Mission Society to set up a school to teach young boys. In 1852 Mrs Mackenzie, a colleague of Miss Cooke’s, wrote to the social activist Mary Jane Kinnaird (who later founded the YWCA) to ask for her assistance in expanding the organisation’s work. Lady Kinnaird’s involvementJane Garnett, ‘Kinnaird , Mary Jane, Lady Kinnaird (1816–1888)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, May 2006 accessed 31 May 2017 led to the rapid growth of the organisation and its expansion across India.
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Kabul (1848 lithograph, by James Rattray) showing unveiling in zenana areas Harem ( ḥarīm, "a sacred inviolable place; harem; female members of the family"),Harem at WordReference.com properly refers to domestic spaces that are reserved for the women of the house in a Muslim family.Harem in Merriam- Webster Dictionary This private space has been traditionally understood as serving the purposes of maintaining the modesty, privilege, and protection of women. A harem may house a man's wife or wives, their pre-pubescent male children, unmarried daughters, female domestic workers, and other unmarried female relatives.
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Arnold was influenced by her pastor, Silas Mead, who had founded the Australian Baptist Missionary Society in 1864. After some medical training, she and Marie Glibert went to Furreedpore (then part of British India) in October 1882, the first missionaries sent by the newly formed Society, undertaking "zenana work". Arnold returned to Australia in 1884 suffering illness and undertook a tour of the colonies and New Zealand which became known as the "crusade of Ellen Arnold." This led to the establishment of the Queensland and New Zealand Baptist Missionary Societies.
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The other challenge to Asaf's rule was his mother Umat-ul-Zohra (better known as Bahu Begum), who had amassed considerable control over the treasury and her own jagirs and private armed forces. She, at one point, sought the Company's direct assistance in the appointment of anti-Asaf ministers. When Shuja-ud-Daula died he left two million pounds sterling buried in the vaults of the zenana. The widow and mother of the deceased prince claimed the whole of this treasure under the terms of a will which was never produced.
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Much of the vision of training at St Colm's was driven by the work of its first principal, Annie Hunter Small, a Scot and a former Zenana missionary worker in India. Teaching for the College brought together a mixture of theoretical and practical skills, and many of the female students enrolled in classes at New College. Women trained at the College would come from a variety of denominational backgrounds and eventually work in the Scottish Highlands and amongst Jewish communities, but also overseas in Africa, China, and India.
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The most famous Mosque built during the Moghul period has been the Badshahi Mosque. Others include the Masjid Sara-I-Shahjahani, built by Emperor Shah Jahan and situated next to Emperor Jahangir’s tomb; Taxali Gate Mosque; Mosque of Mullah Mohammad Saleh Kamboh, situated near the Mochi Gate; Sunehri Mosque, built during the last phase of Mughal rule; Masjid Sardar Jahan, the earliest mosque of Jahangir’s period and situated inside the Lahori Gate; and the Zenana Masjid in the Fort built near the Ladies Quadrangle and was meant exclusively for the ladies living nearby.
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Her work was hampered by limitations of caste and race - as a white woman she was regarded as "unclean" by high-caste Hindus - but she said, "it was all in the way of opening up the path for those who came later." Despite the restrictions, during her first year in Guntur she treated 185 patients at their homes, and 276 at the Zenana Home where she lived. Her motto was "Ourselves Your Servants for Jesus' Sake." She continued her teaching and was placed in charge of the Hindu Girls School and the Girls Boarding School.
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Doctors Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi were the first Indian women to have received medical degrees in 1886. But only Dr. Ganguly went on to practice medicine, making Rukhmabai the second woman to both receive a medical degree and practice medicine. In 1895, she returned to India and worked as the Chief Medical Officer at the Women's Hospital in Surat. In 1918, she turned down the offer of a role in the Woman's Medical Service, opting instead to work at the Zenana (Woman's) State Hospital in Rajkot until her retirement in 1929.
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The fourth courtyard is where the Zenana (Royal family women, including concubines or mistresses) lived. This courtyard has many living rooms where the queens resided and who were visited by the king at his choice without being found out as to which queen he was visiting, as all the rooms open into a common corridor. ; Palace of Man Singh I Baradari pavilion at Man Singh I Palace Square. South of this courtyard lies the Palace of Man Singh I, which is the oldest part of the palace fort.
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Kolkata zenana bathing ghat In 1858, she married Judge Benjamin F. Bonham, of Salem, Oregon. In 1885, Judge Bonham was appointed Consul-General to British India, and removed his family to Calcutta the same year. Bonham always had a liking for literary work, but the cares of a large family and social duties gave her little leisure time, and it was not until her residence abroad that the opportunity came. During five years, her letters over the name " Mizpah" attracted much attention and were widely circulated by the Oregon and California press.
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Muslim women favored the pants style, and Hindu women, the skirt. In either style, the drawstrings were decorated at length with pearls and jewels. Only the costliest clothes of cotton, silk or wool were used. In the zenana, there were multiple costume changes a day, and often an outfit would be worn only once and then given away. The garments themselves were very thin, weighing less than an ounce each, with gold lace added and “muslin so fine as to be almost transparent.” This may account for the breasts occasionally seen in Mughal miniature painting.
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Paper online (Microsoft Word file). meti (Nepal), and zenana (Pakistan). Hijra used to be translated in English as "eunuch" or "hermaphrodite", although LGBT historians or human rights activists have sought to include them as being transgender. In a series of meetings convened between October 2013 and Jan 2014 by the transgender experts committee of India's Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, hijra and other trans activists asked that the term "eunuch" be discontinued from usage in government documents, as it is not a term with which the communities identify.
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His choice of bride may therefore have been calculated to meet the particular challenge ahead, while she may have drawn encouragement from sharing names with the celebrated lady traveller Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who had penetrated the zenanas of the Ottoman empire a century earlier. The “gifted” Mrs Fordyce was an important partner in her husband’s work: she introduced Miss Toogood and her assistant to the ladies of the zenana on their initial visits,Richter, p. 338, and Fordyce, ut supra. and she was later Secretary of the Anglo-Indian Ladies’ Union.
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Owing to the cultural precedent set by their Timurid ancestors, it was comparatively more acceptable for Mughal women to perform civic charity in the form of building projects and even engage in leisure activities outside the zenana like hunting, polo and pilgrimage, than it would have been for their Safavid contemporaries. Nur Jahan seems to be unique in that she had a particular affinity for hunting, and was able to gain permission to accompany her husband Jahangir on several outings, even once killing four tigers easily with her excellent marksmanship.
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CSI Bethel Ashram, Thrissur It was established in the year of 1934 by Zenana mission. CMS Higher Secondary School, Thrissur CSI St. John the Baptist Church, Aluva St. John the Baptist Church, Aluva built in 1891 by the leadership of Church missionary society (CMS) and was under the auspices of former Travancore cochin Anglican diocese at its beginning and is one of the oldest CMS-built churches in Kerala. Later, It became part of CSI North Kerala diocese. When CSI cochin diocese was established, it became under its see.
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William Sproston Caine in his book 'Picturesque India: a Handbook for European Travellers', published in 1890, describes the Wesleyan Tamil School on Promenade Road, Cleveland Town, St. John's Hill as being headed by a missionary. The missionary's house is recorded to being just next to the boarding school. The missionary was being assisted by a native preacher, zenana visitors, catechists, and bible women. The principal chapel of the mission is described as being at Haines Road, and another Wesleyan chapel being constructed at Shoolay (Wesley Tamil Church, Commisionarant Road).
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Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri Another view Panch Mahal is a palace in Fatehpur Sikri, Uttar Pradesh, India. The Panch Mahal meaning 'Five level Palace' was commissioned by Akbar This structure stands close to the Zenana quarters (Harem) which supports the supposition that it was used for entertainment and relaxation. This is one of the most important buildings in Fatehpur Sikri. This is an extraordinary structure employing the design elements of a Buddhist Temple; entirely columnar, consisting of four stories of decreasing size arranged asymmetrically on the ground floor, which contains 84 columns.
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Goldsack joined the Australian Baptist Missionary Society in 1899 where he mastered languages before being placed at mission station Pabna, East Bengal. At Pabna, he devoted his missionary work to preaching and teaching; additionally, he purchased the land for mission to erect new Zenana house. Having influenced by George Henry Rouse, head of the Baptist Mission Press at Calcutta, West Bengal, he devoted himself to the Islamic studies and literary work; thus, he wrote many apologetic tracts and pamphlets. In 1908 he undertook the translation of Quran or Koran into Bengali language.
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In Indian subcontinent, from 1st century B.C. societies advocated the use of the veil for married Hindu women which came to be known as Ghoonghat. Buddhists attempted to counter this growing practice around 3rd century CE. Rational opposition against veiling and seclusion from spirited ladies resulted in system not becoming popular for several centuries. Under the Medieval Islamic Mughal Empire, various aspects of veiling and seclusion of women was adopted, such as the concept of Purdah and Zenana, partly as an additional protection for women. Purdah became common in the 15th and 16th century, as both Vidyāpati and Chaitanya mention it.
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Caubul (1848 lithograph, by James Rattray) showing the lifting of purdah in zenana areas – Oriental and India Office Collection, British Library Pardah or purdah (from , meaning "curtain") is a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent among some Muslim and Hindu communities. It takes two forms: physical segregation of the sexes and the requirement that women cover their bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form. A woman who practices purdah can be referred to as ' or '. The term purdah is sometimes applied to similar practices in other parts of the world.
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It is access to the palace from the west. It opens in three directions, one to the Jaleb Chowk, another to the Man Singh Palace and the third one to the Zenana Deorhi on the south. ; Lion gate The Lion Gate, the premier gate, was once a guarded gate; it leads to the private quarters in the palace premises and is titled 'Lion Gate' to suggest strength. Built during the reign of Sawai Jai Singh (1699–1743 AD), it is covered with frescoes; its alignment is zigzag, probably made so from security considerations to attack intruders.
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In parallel with his other troubles, Hastie fell out with a Miss Pigot who was employed by the Scottish Ladies Association. One source claims that it was Hastie who was trying to expose the poor management and morals of Pigot of the Zenana Mission School and Orphanage. Hastie claimed that the (allegedly) Eurasian Pigot was illegitimate and she was having an affair both with a native Christian teacher at the Free Church college and a Professor Wilson at his college. Hastie and Pigot both went to court, with Hastie defending himself on libel charges by calling on supportive witnesses.
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Zaman Shah was rescued when his brother Shuja Shah Durrani became the king after toppling Mahmud Shah Durrani in 1803. He lived in 'blinded' luxury up to 1809 when Mahmud Shah Durrani again seized the throne. While his brother, Shuja Shah was captured by the Governor of Attock, Zaman Shah managed to escape with the zenana (ladies of the house) of his brother and his own to Lahore and sought asylum from Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1810. He was first allowed to stay at Rawalpindi but, in 1811, Zaman Shah received full state honours at Lahore by Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh.
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Jai Singh III spent the first 9 years of his life within the confines of the zenana, making his first public appearance in a procession to the Jamwa Mata Temple after the people of Jaipur demanded to see their ruler. The task of administration was entrusted to Rawal Berisal of Samode. Constant troubles were created by Sanghi Jhutha Ram and Roopan Badaran, the former a suspect in the sudden death of Jagat Singh. In 1812, Jaipur's first Political Agent, J. Stewart, moved into Maji ka Bagh, a garden that had been laid by Jai Singh II's queen.
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Butler was interested in religion and had become a Sunday school teacher earlier when she was 14 years old. In 1872, Butler went to live in Birmingham to nurse her elder sister. In Birmingham, Butler encountered an article by prominent Scottish medical missionary William Elmslie, which solicited female missionaries to aid the women in India. This article sparked Butler's interest in medical missionary work, and two years later in 1874 she was accepted to the India Female Normal School and Instruction Society, a non- denominational missionary group that eventually became the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society in 1880.
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During this period he lived away from the principal palace. He lived on his own to avoid the unwholesome atmosphere of palace quarters under the guidance of Sir Egerton and other British officials and mentors so he could flourish as a gentleman of the highest class. Sir Egerton recorded that as a child, Mir Osman Ali Khan was magnanimous and "anxious to learn". Because of the indomitable attitude of zenana (the women) who were determined to send Mir Osman Ali Khan out of Hyderabad for further studies, he pursued them at Mayo College after consultation with the principal nobles of the Paigah family.
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The tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti is considered to be one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India. The Tomb of Salim Chishti is famed as one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India, built during the years 1580 and 1581, along with the imperial complex at Fatehpur Sikri near Zenana Rauza and facing south towards Buland Darwaza, within the quadrangle of the Jama Masjid which measures 350 ft. by 440 ft. It enshrines the burial place of the Sufi saint, Salim Chisti (1478 – 1572), a descendant of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, and who lived in a cavern on the ridge at Sikri.
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Archdeacon Banister Twentieth Century Impressions of Hongkong, Shanghai, and other Treaty Ports of China/The Anglican Communion In 1911, the society had a staff of 1288. In 1912, the churches founded by the society joined other Anglican churches in China to form the Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui, the Anglican-episcopal church in China. The activities of the society in India were wound up in the years following Indian independence and came to an end in China in 1950 shortly after the establishment of the People's Republic. In 1957, the Church of England Zenana Society was absorbed into the Church Mission Society, an organisation it had worked alongside for many years.
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She says, "I've been working with the idea of stretching time. It's like seeing something in slow motion or looking at one thing and stretching that time, being able to go backwards and forwards and doing it at a very, very slow pace. I think that has been very crucial to a lot of the work that I have been doing recently." She has conducted several workshops in Gorlesborg, Sweden, the Max Mueller Bhawan in Chennai, the Khoj International Artists Workshop in Modinagar and Srinagar, South Asian Women's Peace Workshop in Lahore, Pakistan organised by Salima Hashmi and workshop at Zenana Mahal in Udaipur Palace in Rajasthan.
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While Niloufer's private life seemed empty due to lack of children, she compensated by making her public life very glittering. She was part of the elite women's club at the time, Lady Hydari Club. Unlike other ladies in her family (this is true of both her natal family in Turkey and her marital family in India) who felt that their dignity and honour lay in not making public spectacles of themselves, Niloufer preferred to move about the city quite freely, leaving the zenana of the palace frequently to attend public engagements, cocktail parties and late-night revels. She attended many functions and also inaugurated several events.
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He noted that the male partner of a female sparrow was replaced soon after he had shot the previous male. Salim went to primary school at Zenana Bible and Medical Mission Girls High School at Girgaum along with two of his sisters and later to St. Xavier's College, Bombay. Around the age of 13 he suffered from chronic headaches, making him drop out of class frequently. He was sent to Sind to stay with an uncle who had suggested that the dry air might help and on returning after such breaks in studies, he barely managed to pass the matriculation exam of the Bombay University in 1913.
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Watson, Mary E. (1895): Robert and Louisa Stewart: In Life and in Death In 1891 he went home for a furlough and was redeployed by the C.M.S. Committee to accompany Eugene Stock on his Australian tour, after which he visited India and returned to China via Canada fully restored in the autumn of 1893. Burial site of victims of Kucheng Massacre On 1 August 1895, he was brutally murdered in Kucheng Hwasang by a sect known as the Vegetarians during the Kucheng Massacre, together with his wife and two children and seven other missionaries connected with the Church Missionary Society or the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society.
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Yahya, Lucas and all his family, including at least one babe-in- arms, arrived in Peshawar destitute and were eventually housed in the CMS Zenana Mission's hujra in Gor Khatri Bazaar. Since the refugees had been stripped of all their property and were destitute both Yahya and Lucas Joseph wrote appeals to various British officials seeking financial assistance with but with no success. Lucas and his heirs eventually adopted the surname of Joseph and became citizens of India and later Pakistan. Two of Lucas' maiden aunts(?) worked for the Zanana Mission while his son, Paul N[asraddin] Joseph, eventually became the Medical Superintendent of the Peshawar Mission Hospital.
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It was because male members of Mughal society did not closely define the concept of purdah as a reflection of their own honor that wives, daughters, and particularly unmarried women in the upper-echelons of the empire were able to extend their influence beyond the physical structures of the zenana. That less-constrictive interpretation of purdah allowed the ladies of the Mughal court to indirectly participate in public life, most notably in civic building projects. Jahanara herself was responsible for the major alteration of Shahjahanabad, by constructing the now famous Chandni Chowk market. Altogether, wives, daughters, and even a courtesan were the primary patrons to 19 major structures in the city.
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Lakshmeshwar Singh was the eldest son of Maharaja Maheshwar Singh of Darbhanga, who died when Lakshmeshwar was aged two. The British Raj placed the estate of Darbhanga under the control of the Court of Wards because the heirs to the estate were minors. He was placed under the tutorship of Chester Macnaghten, who later served as the founding Principal of the oldest Public school in India, the Rajkumar College, Rajkot from 1870 to 1896. For the next 19 years, till he attained majority, he was caught in political one-upmanship between his mother, who was supported by family priests, and the Tutors appointed by the British Government, who wanted him to be free from Zenana influence.
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Famine relief at the Zenana Mission at Deori Panagar, near Jabalpur, India, March 1897 A decade earlier, in 1883, the Provisional Famine Code had been promulgated soon after the report of the first Indian Famine Commission was submitted in 1880. Now, guided by the Code, relief was organised for 821 million units1 unit = relief for one individual for one day at a cost of Rs. 72.5 million (then approx. £4,833,500). Revenue (tax) was remitted to the tune of Rs. 12.5 million (£833,350) and credit totalling Rs. 17.5 million (£1,166,500) was given. A charitable relief fund collected a total of Rs. 17.5 million (£1,166,500) of which Rs. 1.25 were collected in Great Britain.
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The Maharajah fell ill towards the end of July in 1885 at the age of 48 and died on 4 August 1885. His Highness was married in 1859 to a noblewomen of the Arumana Ammaveedu of Trivandrum with which family more than one of his ancestors had been related through marriage, Arumana Ammachi Panapillai Amma Srimathi Lakshmi Pillai Kochamma (educated privately and in English by the Church of England Zenana Mission in Trivandrum since 1865. Within the royalty and nobility of Trivandrum, she was the first lady to commence English Education), descendant of Maharajah Balarama Varma and Dharma Raja. The Maharajah chose his own consort, causing displeasure to his uncle and the then Maharajah, Uthram Thirunal.
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With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Chintamani Durg (Junagarh fort) on a plain which has an average elevation of . He was an expert in arts and architecture, and the knowledge he acquired during his visits abroad is amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built at the Junagarh fort. Maharaja Karan Singh, who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh Ji, who ruled from 1669 to 1698, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter, a royal dwelling for women and children.
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The Queen Mary School in Mumbai, India, was started in 1875 by the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission, an Anglican Mission, to provide education for girls. The school was called Queen Mary High School even though it had classes from Nursery (typically age 4) until the 11th standard (grade) which was equivalent to the "O" levels in Great Britain. The monthly tuition fees were higher than the schools which taught in the local languages and the "convent" girls' schools run by nuns associated with Jesuit societies. The medium of instruction was English and the examination papers for the 11th standard final school exams were set in Cambridge, England and initially were sent there for evaluation.
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Gupta was born in Rangoon, present day Yangon and the capital city of Myanmar, on 20 October 1896 and after early education at Yangon and London, she secured her graduate degree from Diocesan College, Kolkata. Taking up a career in education, she worked as the vice principal of the Government Girls College, Lucknow and served as a member of the University Review Committee for women's education. Gupta started two women's organizations in the 1930s, Zenana Park League in 1931 and Women’s Social Service League in 1936. Almost a decade later, she founded the Women's Academy and after the Indian independence in 1947, the academy was merged with Women’s Social Service League to form Nari Sewa Samiti.
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In 1912 the Church Missionary Society opened a sister school for girls in Agra and Ethel McNeile was the founding head of school. She had persuaded the CMS and the Zenana Bible and Medical Missionary Society that schools for girls in India should aspire to rival British public schools. In 1927, St John's school that by then affiliated to the University of Allahabad moved to affiliate with Agra University (now known as Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar University) as it came into existence, the college became affiliated to it, and its principal Dr. A.W. Davies became the first Vice-Chancellor of the newly formed University. Since 1893, the college has offered post-graduate courses.
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The hospital merged with other institutions and from 1942 was known as the Queen Elizabeth Hospital for Children. After she was widowed, she continued working on expanding the hospital's offerings, and wrote her first book, The Life of Christ and its Bearing on the Doctrines of Communism (1873). She set off to travel after hospital business was settled, first to Naples (where her daughter married), then to India, where she worked as an informal medical missionary treating women (see Zenana mission). She moved to South Africa in 1878, hoping to become a farmer, but she discovered that she had been cheated in her arrangements, and took a position as a governess for two years instead.
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He had travelled all over England conducting missions and when he became Canon Warner - a prebendary of Chichester Cathedral – in 1930, he enriched the life of the diocese. Canon Warner was later elected president of the Eastbourne branch of the CEZMS (the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society) and Hon Secretary of the annual gathering of Evangelical clergy and Laymen of the Diocese of Chichester. His missionary work and an encompassing interest in youth organisations were, with his zeal for writing religious books, a great part of his life. He worked very hard for the United Mission in 1923 and had previously conducted the Mission in London but these duties took their toll.
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Shuja, Mughal Prince Thereafter, to secure and begin trading, Boughton travelled to Rajmahal, where he became acquainted with the Viceroy of Bengal, Shah Shuja, one of the Emperor's sons, and where further privileges were granted after Boughton healed a lady from the Sultan's zenana. With royal approval, Boughton sent for his EIC men, and subsequently factories were founded at Hooghly, Balasore, and Pipli. He was described "with that liberality which distinguishes Britons, sought not for any private emolument, but solicited that his nation might have liberty to trade free of all duties in Bengal and to establish factories in that country", and had therefore been credited with the beginnings of the EIC's trade in Bengal.
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Jyotirmoyee Devi was born in the Princely State of Jaipur in 1894, where her family had lived since 1857. Her father, Abinash Chandra Sen, was the eldest son of Sansar Chandra Sen who had come to Jaipur as a schoolmaster but quickly rose to the post of Dewan to the Maharaja of Jaipur. Jyotirmoyee grew up in Jaipur, receiving little formal education but observing keenly all that she saw around her. She was much impressed by the mixture of decadence and splendour that characterised the society of the zenana (women’s quarters) in a Princely State of the time. Jyotirmoyee was allowed to read whatever she liked in her grandfather’s well- stocked library and thus acquired a rather eclectic exposure to the world.
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James Kirkpatrick, a Christian, underwent some degree of conversion to Islam to be permitted to marry Khair-un-Nissa, but is not clear whether the marriage or the conversion were recognized as legal. Kitty was initially named Noor un-Nissa, Sahib Begum ("Little Lady of High Lineage") and was raised alongside her brother William (known as Mir Ghulam Ali, Sahib Allum) in the mansion her father built, the British Residency, Hyderabad, living in the zenana with her mother and grandmother. James was a doting father and is known to have spent a lot of time with his wife and small children. In 1805, Kitty and William were sent to live in England at age three and five years, respectively, with their paternal grandfather, Colonel James Kirkpatrick.
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During the early 20th century, the society's theology moved in a more liberal direction under the leadership of Eugene Stock.. The more liberal CMS position may be compared with the attitude expressed in the preface to its 1904 English–Kikuyu Vocabulary, whose author, CMS member , complained of the difficulty in obtaining information about Kikuyu from "very unwilling and unintelligent natives" (). There was considerable debate over the possible introduction of a doctrinal test for missionaries, which advocates claimed would restore the society's original evangelical theology. In 1922, the society split, with the liberal evangelicals remaining in control of CMS headquarters, whilst conservative evangelicals established the Bible Churchmen's Missionary Society (BCMS, now Crosslinks). In 1957 the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society was absorbed into the CMS.
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The final chapter is the conclusion of the book. The Chapters in Part IV are: Chapter 15: "Institutionalized Gender-Crossing in Southern Iraq" by Sigrid Westphal- Hellbusch with Bradley Rose as a translator, Chapter 16: "The Sohari Khanith by Murray, Chapter 17: "Male Actresses in Islamic Parts of Indonesia and the Southern Philippines" by Murray, Chapter 18: "Two Baluchi Buggas, a Sindhi Zenana, and the Status of Hijras in Contemporary Pakistan," by Nauman Naqvi and Hasan Mutjaba, "The Chapter 19: "The Other Side of Midnight: Pakistani Male Prostitutes" by Mutjaba, Chapter 20: "Not-So-Gay Life in Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s" by Badruddin Khan, Chapter 21: "Two Islamic AIDS Education Organizations" by Murray and Eric Allyn, and Chapter 22: Conclusion, by Murray and Roscoe.
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In traditional Persian residential architecture the women's quarters were known as andaruni (Persian: اندرونی; meaning inside, and in the Indian subcontinent as zenana (Persian: زنانه). Although the institution has experienced a sharp decline in the modern era due to a rise in education and economic opportunities for women, as well as Western influences, seclusion of women is still practiced in some parts of the world, such as rural Afghanistan and conservative states of the Persian Gulf region. In the West, Orientalist imaginary conceptions of the harem as a hidden world of sexual subjugation where numerous women lounged in suggestive poses have influenced many paintings, stage productions, films and literary works. Some earlier European Renaissance paintings dating to the 16th century portray the women of the Ottoman harem as individuals of status and political significance.
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In the districts round Pinjor, and in fact all along > the foot of the Himalayas, occasional cases of goitre are to be seen; so > from far and wide these poor people were collected by the wily Brahmins, and > produced as the ordinary inhabitants of the place. The gardeners all > suffered from goitre; every coolie had this dreadful complaint; even the > countrywomen carrying up the big flat baskets of fruits and flowers to the > zenana terraces were equally disfigured. The ladies of the harem naturally > were horrified; it was bad enough to be brought into these wild outlandish > jungles, without this new and added terror. For the poor coolie women, well > instructed beforehand, had told how the air and water of Pinjor caused this > disease, which no one who lived there long ever escaped.
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The focus of Imam Aga Khan III's message was to promote the idea that women were free and independent. In a message to his followers in 1926, he proclaimed that: "I do not want Ismaili women dependent on anyone—their parents, husbands, or anyone except God...I have no doubt that the whole spirit and teaching of my ancestor the Holy Prophet encouraged the evolution of all legitimate freedom and legitimate equality before men and women". He encouraged women to participate in social and political affairs and criticized veiling as well as gender segregation, including the acts of pardah (masking of oneself from the public) and zenana (restraint on women from leaving the home). Aga Khan III believed economic independence was key to achieving this equality and freedom.
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The focus of Imam Aga Khan III’s message was to promote the idea that women were free and independent. In a message to his followers in 1926, he proclaimed that: > I do not want Ismaili women dependent on anyone—their parents, husbands, or > anyone except God…I have no doubt that the whole spirit and teaching of my > ancestor the Holy Prophet encouraged the evolution of all legitimate freedom > and legitimate equality before men and women. He encouraged women to participate in social and political affairs and criticized veiling as well as gender segregation, including the acts of pardah (masking of oneself from the public) and zenana (restraint on women from leaving the home). Aga Khan III believed economic independence was key to achieving this equality and freedom.
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Women were known to have as many as 8 complete sets of jewelry. Popular ornaments included two-inch-wide armlets worn above the elbows, bracelets or pearls at the wrist stacked high enough to impede access to the pulse, many rings (with the mirror ring worn on the right thumb customary for nearly all the inhabitants of the Zenana), strings of pearls (as many as 15 strings at a time), metal bands or strings of pearls at the bottom of their legs, and ornaments hanging in the middle of the head in the shape of star, sun, moon, or a flower. Turban jewelry was considered a privilege of the Emperor. The constant change in the influences from Europe can be clearly witnessed in the design of the turban jewelry.
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Her first role in India was as manager of the Zenana Hospital in Ludhiana, where a medical school for women was established two years after her arrival. She then spent 18 years working as a Medical Superintendent, initially at the Dufferin Hospital at Nahan, where she worked until 1902, and then the Dufferin Hospital in Patiala, where she remained until 1914. Her success in these role led to her appointment as assistant to the Inspector General of Civil Hospitals, Punjab, in 1914. Two years later, she became the Chief Medical Officer of the newly formed Women’s Medical Service, a post she held until 1924. At the same time, she served for eight years as joint secretary at Delhi and Simla to the Countess of Dufferin’s Fund, an organisation which was established to promote medical education for women in India.
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In the time of British India, Calcutta was regarded as "the second city of the British Empire" (after London) and was aptly renamed "City of Palaces" and the Great Eastern Hotel was regarded as the "Jewel of the East". Calcutta at that time was famous for its "Baboo Culture", a mixture of English Liberalism, European fin de siecle decadence, Mughal conservatism, and indigenous revivalism, inculcating aspects of socio-moral and political change. This culture was fostered in its wake by the Zamindari system, the Dayabhaga System the Hindu Joint Family System, the Mitakshara System, the Muslim Zenana System, the Protestant spirit of free capitalist enterprise, the Mughal-inspired feudal system and the Nautch. This also fostered the Bengal Renaissance, an awakening of modern liberal thinking in 19th century Bengal, and which gradually percolated to the rest of India.
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Interestingly, the names of the photographed women were not mentioned and whether the Maharanis allowed themselves to be photographed is unknown. Laura Weinstein, an acclaimed art curator argues that the photographs served as an important tool to engage in the widespread discourse about Indian women behind the purdah and they stood out as a rare group of photographs that did not mirror oriental conceptions of Indian domestic life. By appropriating the very European model of portrait photography – which emphasized the dignity and propriety of women, he infused dignity into the life of his photograph-figures unlike other concurrent attempts and refuted the colonial notion of the zenana-inhabitants being idle, unhygienic, superstitious, sexually deviant and oppressed. Rather than reforming the purdah system or associated woman issues, his photographs were modern tools that staunchly defended the tradition, much more than it breached, by portraying an apparent normalcy.
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Cowgatehead Mission Church (in foreground) as seen from Candlemaker Row In 1839, under the influence of Rev Alexander Duff, Smith was ordained by the Church of Scotland and travelled to Calcutta in India, as a missionary, teaching mathematics and physics in the schools. From 1840 he suggested the use of female missionaries as male missionaries were not permitted to speak to the Indian females.ODNB: Thomas Smith At the Disruption of 1843 Smith left the established church and joined the Free Church of Scotland. The Free Church set up its own mission in Calcutta and Smith transferred to this new building.Ewing, William Annals of the Free Church From 1851 to 1857 he was editor of the Calcutta Review and Calcutta Christian Observer. In 1840 he proposed the establishment of what would become known as the zenana missions, and his scheme was later implemented in the 1850s by John Fordyce.
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Among British women, zenana missions became a popular method to win converts to Christianity. In colonial India, the All India Conference of Indian Christians (AICIC) played an important role in the Indian independence movement, advocating for swaraj and opposing the partition of India. The AICIC also was opposed to separate electorates for Christians, believing that the faithful "should participate as common citizens in one common, national political system". The All India Conference of Indian Christians and the All India Catholic Union formed a working committee with M. Rahnasamy of Andhra University serving as President and B.L. Rallia Ram of Lahore serving as General Secretary; in its meeting on 16 April 1947 and 17 April 1947, the joint committee prepared a 13 point memorandum that was sent to the Constituent Assembly of India, which asked for religious freedom for both organisations and individuals; this came to be reflected in the Constitution of India.
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Landon's appearance and personality were described by a number of her friends and contemporaries: Emma Roberts, from her introduction to "The Zenana and other works":Roberts(1839) > L.E.L. could not be, strictly speaking, called handsome; her eyes being the > only good feature in a countenance, which was, however, so animated, and > lighted up with such intellectual expression, as to be exceedingly > attractive. Gay and piquant, her clear complexion, dark hair, and eyes, > rendered her, when in health and spirits, a sparkling brunette. The > prettiness of L.E.L., though generally acknowledged, was not talked about; > and many persons, on their first introduction, were as pleasingly surprised > as the Ettrick Shepherd, who, gazing upon her with great admiration, > exclaimed "I did na think ye had been sae bonny." Her figure was slight, and > beautifully proportioned, with little hands and feet; and these personal > advantages, added to her kind and endearing manners, rendered her > exceedingly fascinating.
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During their time at the GSDA, the Griffins became more involved in anthroposophy,Paull, John (2012) "Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahoney Griffin, Architects of Anthroposophy", Journal of Bio-dynamics Tasmania, 106:20-30. and in 1935 through contacts in the movement Griffin won a commission to design the library at the University of Lucknow in Lucknow, India. Although he had planned to stay in India only to complete the drawings for the library, he soon received more than 40 commissions, including the University of Lucknow Student Union building; a museum and library for the Raja of Mahmudabad; a zenana (women's quarters) for the Raja of Jahangirabad; Pioneer Press building, a bank, municipal offices, many private houses, and a memorial to King George V. He also won complete design responsibility for the 1936–1937 United Provinces Exhibition of Industry and Agriculture. His 53 projects for the site featured a stadium, arena, mosque, imambara, art gallery, restaurant, bazaar, pavilions, rotundas, arcades, and towers,Walter Burley Griffin Society, Inc.
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The scheme, as refined by Fordyce, consisted in salaried governesses, each accompanied by an assistant or ayah, making regular visits to higher- caste Hindu households to provide elementary education for the ladies there, the costs of such visits being met from a monthly subscription paid by the head of the house. The governesses were to be accommodated free in an institution devoted to the cause: in the first instance they would be drawn from Fordyce’s orphanage and from orphans trained there to become teachers – to which end he established a Normal School department within the Institution.Calcutta Review, No. L, Vol. XXV (1855), p. 88, and Miscellaneous Notices xxx-xxxiv. He embarked on a programme of consultation, persuasion and negotiation with influential Hindu (notably the Tagore) families “to overcome their scruples, learn their objections, and gain their support”.Rev. E. Storrow, Our Indian Sisters (The Religious Tract Society, 1899), pp. 209-215. He produced a series of pamphlets (“Flyleaves for Indian Homes”) containing “short, strong and striking appeals to husbands and fathers”, which circulated widely in India.Mary Weitbrecht, The Women of India and Christian Work in the Zenana (James Nisbet & Co., 1875), p. 71.
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