Specifically, they use lower voltages to hunt for prey and higher voltages to stun and kill their prey.
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In the test, high voltages were applied to the chargers.
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The system is capable of simultaneously charging batteries of different voltages.
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A transformer's job is to transform electricity flowing through the grid, switching it from higher voltages that are used to distribute power over long distances to lower voltages designed to be used in homes and businesses.
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Part 3: Different Voltages Finally, the effect of bubble size is tested.
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But with voltages of 1.3 billion volts, gamma rays are easily explainable.
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The curious thing, though, is that these high voltages aren't always there, Mauk says.
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Their method restored regular beats using voltages far smaller than those in conventional pacemakers.
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Audi said the car can also be recharged at public charging points with lower voltages.
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With such minute voltages, distinguishing a 1 or a 0 from electrical noise becomes tricky.
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Voltages could control pitch, volume, attack, timbre, speed and other parameters, interacting in complex ways.
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A block diagram outlining the voltages and anticipated currents should be part of the exercise.
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But transmission over long distances requires very high voltages, which can be tricky for AC systems.
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You can't really blame her for the iron's overheating because of the different voltages in Europe.
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But the ultra-high voltages required for transcontinental transmission are still best achieved with direct current.
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Cables built for these purposes use direct current at very high voltages (HVDC), to minimise transmission losses.
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Some modern watches will send voltages through quartz crystals, which then vibrate at the same frequency every second.
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From the voltages, scientists need to identify which neurons are firing when, and that is complex computational challenge.
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Jon Shapiro: It measures micro-voltages on the surface of the leaf, and any change in the electrical current.
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Information is then recovered by passing voltages through the memory cells, with different resistivity thresholds corresponding to different cell states.
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In the first place, silicon carbide wafers are widely used in commercial electronics that operate at high voltages or temperatures.
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With AC power, the current is reversed numerous times per second, making it easy to convert to higher and lower voltages.
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"These fluids, which are exposed to high voltages, have very specific properties," says François Bénard, prospective & innovation manager at Total Lubrifiants.
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Output voltage is fixed at 9V for now, but there are plans to provide multiple voltages if they hit their goal.
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The study backs this up: as the devices heated to higher temperatures and voltages, higher levels of harmful emissions were produced.
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When voltages are applied to these microchips, they create the electric field which traps the ions and levitates them above the microchip.
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Second, it is much more efficient than silicon, especially at high voltages, and unlike mechanical switches, its efficiency rises as voltage falls.
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It detailing Google's "STRONGLY RECOMMENDED" suggestion that USB-C Android devices adhere to the standard and don't mess with pin-outs or voltages.
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Its resistance, or the amount of current it blocks, changes based on the voltages that have been applied to it in the past.
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They involved explosive liquids, high voltages, radioactive phosphorus, at least one form of pathogenic bacteria and a loosely improvised set of safety procedures.
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It is also looking at a study in rural areas, where the longer cables required present challenges in maintaining stable voltages for charging.
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At several points in their network, they had to convert quantum information (polarizations) into classical information (voltages and currents) and then back into quantum.
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It is able to take certain difficult equations known as differential equations and translate them into voltages and current flows on an analog chip.
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Late last year, the Johns Hopkins team pushed it further, making it fireproof and boosting its voltages to levels comparable with a commercial product.
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One challenge was that hearing aids, because of their size, have to operate on minuscule voltages, much lower than the ones that smartphones use.
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Different companies own regional distribution networks which carry electricity at lower voltages from the main grid via powerlines, cables and substations to homes and businesses.
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At a more local level, regional distribution networks carry electricity at lower voltages from the main grid via powerlines, cables and substations to homes and businesses.
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Opposite the desk is a cabinet jammed with large fuses, copper wires, and electrical boxes that seem to report through digital readouts the voltages coursing through them.
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These incredibly high voltages, however, are only spotted occasionally — and that's raising questions about what exactly is behind some of the planet's most vivid glows at the poles.
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Its slim form factor is all thanks to gallium nitride, or GaN, a component that can sustain higher voltages than silicon, and can do so without sacrificing efficiency.
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It measures resting heart rate, skin temperature, heart rate variability, sleep, breathing rate, movement, perfusion, bioimpedance (the resistance of body tissue to tiny electric voltages), and heat loss.
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As voltages go up, to push the current farther, AC employs (and thus wastes) an ever-increasing amount of energy in the task of squeezing its alternations through the line.
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Some of this is understandable—different products require different types of voltages, and that might make a closed loop desirable for some designers—but it creates a lot of waste.
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The report explains how electrodes on the ends of the touchpad applied similar voltages and created a uniform electrostatic field, so when a finger touched the panel, it closed the circuit.
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This allows AC voltages to be increased after generation, for more efficient transmission over longish distances, and then decreased again at the other end of the line, to supply customers' homes and businesses.
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In a 2015 paper in Nature, Catania reported that the eels can also use those higher voltages to sense and track potential prey, much like how bats use echolocation to navigate and hunt.
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We know so far that using high voltages in vapes can release formaldehyde-causing chemicals; we also know that vaping exposes users to more toxic chemicals and heavy metals than people who don't vape.
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An analog circuit, however, correctly configured with certain voltages corresponding to the equations' values, each affecting this or that current and so on, will solve itself simply because the laws of electrodynamics require it.
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He photographs, transmits worlds made numinous by the perfect confusion of edge and center, the perfect juxtaposition of culture and nature, the crossed voltages of immediate singular presence, the highly refined languages of art. . . .
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By sending airplanes and weather balloons into the center of lightning storms, scientists were able to measure just how large the voltages can be in thunderclouds, with the largest value reaching 130 million volts.
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They must therefore be robust enough to handle the high voltages such motors normally require while simultaneously being protected against damage from road debris and the risk of shorting out when periodically soaked in water.
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Engineers could connect signal probes to some of these connectors to monitor various signals and voltages, allowing developers to test key software changes to the iPhone and make sure they weren't negatively impacting the hardware.
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Charged with the twin voltages of sadness and exhilaration, it's a clarion call for the perpetually-too-fucked-for-the-Sunday-shift crew, battling valiantly against the sunrise in misshapen living rooms the world over.
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But, this is a really nice feature because you don't have to be tied to a power source, and it's great for traveling because you don't have to worry about messing with different outlets or voltages.
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Called a sequencer, it vastly expanded the concept and functionality of a tape loop by generating and repeating a chosen series of voltages, enabling it to control a recurring melody, a rhythm track or other musical elements.
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The power that comes from the batteries may be 12V or 24V DC, but the buildings require 120V AC. Suppliers have to convert voltages frequently, although they use transformers, which trade voltage for current and vice versa.
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Hackers can mess with voltages to steal Intel chips' secrets A new attack called Plundervolt gives attackers access to the sensitive data stored in a processor's secure enclave, but it's less about hacking and more about electricity.
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But there are also major hurdles to scaling up, including the cost and complexity of the recycling and the many hazards of dealing with EV batteries, which run at high voltages and can electrocute the person doing the disassembly.
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De Santana pointed out that this research is based on only 107 specimens, and that more work would be needed to verify some of the hypotheses raised in the paper, such as why the different species produce voltages of varying strengths.
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A new technique for studying the inside of a lightning storm has been developed that exploits radiation from space to peer inside an entire thunderstorm and measure all of the voltages in the storm, rather than just those in a few clouds.
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Whether they were thought to be Thor fighting the Frost Giants or understood using the more modern idea of electricity, voltages and electric fields, it is hard to compete with a wave of lightning rolling across the sky, accompanied by a cacophonous rumble of thunder.
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We redesigned both the hardware and software architecture that controls the display through a completely new display controller that changes how the display itself is electrically controlled, down to the voltages and electrical currents applied in complex waveforms to each individual pixel, millions at a time.
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On the one hand are improved metrics for determining a memory cell's current state, and on the other, are coding and detection schemes resistant to the material's natural drift between amorphous and crystalline states, which has the effect of changing the threshold voltages corresponding to the material's different information-encoding states.
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For instance, the radars don't always pick up smaller artillery fire; the night vision devices don't mount onto Kalashnikovs without the aforementioned adapter; the drones are prone to Russian jamming and hacking; the medical scanners run on different voltages than in Ukraine; and the Humvees suck up gas and aren't armored.
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But power is also lost in between, on the grid, as it is carried along hundreds of miles of wires, repeatedly shifted between different voltages, and converted from AC to DC and back, all in the split second between the time it enters the grid and the time it powers your computer.
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Back in mid-April the makers of the plant-based instrument—which reads micro-voltages on the surface of leaves, not unlike a lie detector test, and translates them into MIDI data that can be read by a synthesizer—took some time during a trip to South America to attach their device to a cannabis plant.
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One is a machine intelligence tool from researchers at the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, a trade group that represents more than 900 independent utilities around the US. NRECA's tool establishes a baseline for normal behavior on critical infrastructure networks and then uses that standard to help detect deviating voltages, new devices on a network, or other unusual behavior.
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To allay fears with pushing more power faster at higher voltages, the company's fortified Quick Charge 4 with further safety enhancements at the cable and connector level, including over-voltage, over-current and over-temperature protection on the power adapter side and three levels of current protection, three levels of voltage protection and four levels of temperature protection on the mobile device end.
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Rather than the 1s and 0s/yeses and nos/is and isn'ts stored by configurations of transistors, we may instead find voltages representing continuously changing values; instead of a voltage reaching a certain threshold and a value flipping from 0 to 1, the value can change from some number between 0 and 1 to some other number between 0 and 1.
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Most of the resulting batteries had modest voltages (between 0.5 and 0.7 volts) but stored enough energy to power one-shot ingestible devices such as capsule endoscopes (pill-shaped machines which can look at parts of the alimentary canal that conventional endoscopy cannot reach) or drug-delivery systems designed to release their payloads at a particular place in the gut.
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Using cables with a 3.5mm jack on each end that are capable of carrying audio signals and control voltages, the synthesiser's sound could be shaped or modulated in a vast number of ways and configurations, limited only by the user's creativity and knowledge of synthesis techniques (or their appetite for experimentation), together with the number of different modules in their system and size of their bank balance.
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Voltages in this article are the nominal single-phase supply voltages, or split-phase supply voltages. Three-phase and industrial loads may have other voltages. All voltages are root mean square voltage; the peak AC voltage is greater by a factor of , and the peak-to-peak voltage greater by a factor of 2.
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If the BCEs were written in terms of the branch voltages, one more step, i.e., replacing the branches voltages for the node ones, would be necessary. In this article the letter "e" is used to name the node voltages, while the letter "v" is used to name the branch voltages. Step 3 Finally, write down the unused equations.
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The pulsing nature of the higher voltage switched output is often smoothed by the use of an output capacitor. An external or secondary circuit drives the switching, typically at tens of kilohertz up to several megahertz. The high frequency minimizes the amount of capacitance required, as less charge needs to be stored and dumped in a shorter cycle. Charge pumps can double voltages, triple voltages, halve voltages, invert voltages, fractionally multiply or scale voltages (such as ×3/2, ×4/3, ×2/3, etc.) and generate arbitrary voltages by quickly alternating between modes, depending on the controller and circuit topology.
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PSEG's transmission line voltages are 500,000 volts, 345,000 volts, 230,000 volts and 138,000 volts with interconnections to utilities in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New York. The company's subtransmission voltages are 69,000 volts and 26,000 volts. PSEG's distribution voltages are 13,000 volts and 4,160 volts.
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International Standard IEC 60038, IEC standard voltages, defines a set of standard voltages for use in low voltage and high voltage AC and DC electricity supply systems.
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Because of this current limitation, multiple parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used when higher capacity is needed. Bundle conductors are also used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused by corona discharge. Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower voltages, such as 66 kV and 33 kV, are usually considered subtransmission voltages, but are occasionally used on long lines with light loads.
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Most effects pedals are powered by varying levels of DC voltage, depending on the manufacturer. Possible voltages include 9V, 12V, 15V, 18V, 24V, and 40V, though 9V is most common. Some effects pedals accept a range of voltages, producing different effects. Guitar players can experiment with varying voltages to generate different sounds.
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They are commonly used in low-power electronics (such as mobile phones) to raise and lower voltages for different parts of the circuitry - minimizing power consumption by controlling supply voltages carefully.
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Opto-isolators prevent high voltages from affecting the system receiving the signal.Lee et al., p. 2. Commercially available opto-isolators withstand input-to-output voltages up to 10 kVHasse, p. 145.
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Modern electric power transmission systems consist of generating plants inter- connected by electrical circuits that operate at fixed transmission voltages controlled at substations. The grid voltages employed are largely dependent on the path length between these substations and 200-700 kV system voltages are common. There is a trend towards higher voltages and lower line resistances to reduce transmission losses over longer and longer path lengths. Low line resistances produce a situation favourable to the flow of GIC.
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As power systems evolved, voltages formerly used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power, and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point-to- point.Donald G. Fink and H. Wayne Beaty. (2007), Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (15th Edition). McGraw-Hill.
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This section will cover common voltages for different vehicle applications.
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Frequencies and voltages of the sine waves generators were determined and tuned by La Monte Young using oscillators custom-designed by sound engineer Robert Adler to generate specific frequencies and voltages of great stability.
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This lets the magnetic measurement be made near high electrical voltages.
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Special high-voltage resistors are used in such probes as they must be able to tolerate high input voltages and, to produce accurate results, must have matched temperature coefficients and very low voltage coefficients. Capacitive divider probes are typically used for voltages above 100 kV, as the heat caused by power losses in resistor divider probes at such high voltages could be excessive.
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By averaging the reversed measurements, the thermoelectric error voltages are cancelled out.
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As a result, the output collector voltages do not change as well.
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The goal of circuit analysis is to determine all the branch currents and voltages in the network. These network variables are not all independent. The branch voltages are related to the branch currents by the transfer function of the elements of which they are composed. A complete solution of the network can therefore be either in terms of branch currents or branch voltages only.
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It also reports the module status, including the various voltages, currents and temperatures.
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Table 4 shows nominal voltages above 35 kV and not exceeding 230 kV.
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Most commutator motors are limited to about 1,500 volts because higher voltages give rise to a risk of arcing across the commutator. Repulsion motors can be used at higher voltages because the rotor circuit is not electrically connected to the supply.
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Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution. Voltages above 765 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared to equipment used at lower voltages. Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, the design of these lines requires minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions, such as high winds and low temperatures, can lead to power outages.
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Such methods can be applied to enable safe work at the highest transmission voltages.
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In particular, very high voltages are easily obtained using relatively few turns of windings which, after rectification, can provide the very high accelerating voltage for a CRT. Many more recent applications of such a transformer dispense with the need to produce high voltages and use the device as a relatively efficient means of producing a wide range of lower voltages using a transformer which is much smaller than a conventional mains transformer.
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They are typically used in applications requiring relatively small currents, as at higher currents the increased efficiency and smaller size of switch-mode converters makes them a better choice. They are also used at extremely high voltages, as magnetics would break down at such voltages.
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Some devices have a slide-switch to adapt to different voltages, or wide-ranging power supplies.
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Both of the circuits above, when solved for V_1 \, and I_1 \, as functions of V_2 \, and I_2 \, yield exactly the same equations. In the bottom circuit, all voltages except the port voltages are with respect to ground and the differential amplifiers have unshown connections to ground.
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The CP-251 is a control voltage processor that is designed to be used with any of the moogerfoogers or any other audio device that can be manipulated with control voltages. It does not process sound, only the voltages that control the various parameters on other audio equipment. The control voltages act as invisible hands which "turn" the knobs and controls on the other gear. The CP-251 has a total of 9 knobs and 24 quarter-inch jacks.
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This ability depends on rated voltage and component size. Low energy transient voltages lead to a voltage limitation similar to a zener diode An unambiguous and general specification of tolerable transients or peak voltages is not possible. In every case transients arise, the application must be individually assessed.
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Attenuation, the opposite of amplification, is necessary when voltages to be digitized are beyond the ADC range. This form of signal conditioning decreases the input signal amplitude so that the conditioned signal is within ADC range. Attenuation is typically necessary when measuring voltages that are more than 10 V.
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Pylon in Sweden about 1918. AC circuits of different frequency and phase-count, or AC and DC circuits, may be installed on the same tower. Usually all circuits of such lines have voltages of 50 kV and more. However, there are some lines of this type for lower voltages.
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To regulate all the power supply voltages and prevent surges and dips from the power grid from affecting computer operation, power was derived from a motor-generator set that improved the stability and regulation of power supply voltages. Two broad types of logic circuits were used in construction of vacuum tube computers. The "asynchronous" or direct, DC coupled type used only resistors to connect between logic gates and within the gates themselves. Logic levels were represented by two widely separated voltages.
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Both breakdown types are present in Zener diodes with the Zener effect predominating at lower voltages and avalanche breakdown at higher voltages. Zener diodes are widely used in electronic equipment of all kinds and are one of the basic building blocks of electronic circuits. They are used to generate low-power stabilized supply rails from a higher voltage and to provide reference voltages for circuits, especially stabilized power supplies. They are also used to protect circuits from overvoltage, especially electrostatic discharge (ESD).
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At times regulated supplies can be much more complex. An example supply from a 1980s TV which used bidirectional interaction between the main supply and the line output stage to operate, generating a range of output voltages with varying amounts of stabilisation. Since neither stage could start without the other running, the supply also included a kickstart system to pulse the system into operation. The supply also monitored voltages in the TV power circuitry, shutting down if these voltages went out of spec.
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Batteries provided the voltages required by tubes in early radio sets. Three different voltages were generally required, using three different batteries designated as the A, B, and C battery. The "A" battery or LT (low-tension) battery provided the filament voltage. Tube heaters were designed for single, double or triple-cell lead-acid batteries, giving nominal heater voltages of 2 V, 4 V or 6 V. In portable radios, dry batteries were sometimes used with 1.5 or 1 V heaters.
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Many modern components allow voltage regulation to be controlled through software (for example, through the BIOS). It is usually possible to control the voltages supplied to the CPU, RAM, PCI, and PCI Express (or AGP) port through a PC's BIOS. However, some components do not allow software control of supply voltages, and hardware modification is required by overclockers seeking to overvolt the component for extreme overclocks. Video cards and motherboard northbridges are components which frequently require hardware modifications to change supply voltages.
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Flyback transformer are often used for amateur high voltage experiments due to high achievable voltages and easy availability.
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The Cyrix Cx486 was available with different features, clock speeds and voltages over the duration of its production.
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A modern computer power supply is a switch-mode power supply that converts AC power from the mains supply, to several DC voltages. Switch- mode supplies replaced linear supplies due to cost, weight, efficiency and size improvements. The diverse collection of output voltages also have widely varying current draw requirements.
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Devices that have too high cut-off voltages may stop operating while the battery still has significant capacity remaining.
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Where the currents and voltages have non-sinusoidal forms, power factor is generalized to include the effects of distortion.
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The cell voltages given in the Electrochemistry section are larger than the potential at which aqueous solutions will electrolyze.
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In general it is impossible to determine visually whether electrical equipment is energized; in any event it is often necessary to maintain or repair circuits while they are in operation. In addition, at high voltages it is unnecessary to come into direct contact with charged equipment to be shocked, because an arc can jump from the equipment to a tool or part of the body, and materials such as rubber, while excellent insulators at low voltages, are also subject to electrical failure at high voltages.
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The voltage between A and C is the sum of the voltage between A and B and the voltage between B and C. The various voltages in a circuit can be computed using Kirchhoff's circuit laws. When talking about alternating current (AC) there is a difference between instantaneous voltage and average voltage. Instantaneous voltages can be added for direct current (DC) and AC, but average voltages can be meaningfully added only when they apply to signals that all have the same frequency and phase.
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Further research by David Staack provided a graph of ideal electrode distances, voltages, and carrier gases tested for microplasma generation.
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With precise construction and design, generators can be built to produce very precise voltages for certain ranges of shaft speeds.
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Journal of Power Sources; 167: 430-441. Higher applied voltages increases the internal oxygen partial pressure, further exacerbating the degradation.
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Force is not analogous to voltage (generator voltages are often called electromotive force), but rather, it is analogous to current.
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Auflage, Roederstein, Landshut 1991 (). For higher voltages, several layers of paper (duplex paper) are used to increase the breakdown strength.
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At grid voltages lower than the nominal voltage, the inverter may derate to keep the output current within the specifications.
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So in power systems where generation is distant from the load, it is desirable to step-up (increase) the voltage of power at the generation point and then step-down (decrease) the voltage near the load. Secondly, it is often more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than would be used by most appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this mismatch between voltages can be easily managed. Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductor revolution, make it possible to transform DC power to different voltages, build brushless DC machines and convert between AC and DC power. Nevertheless, devices utilising solid state technology are often more expensive than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use.
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The common static electric sparks seen under low-humidity conditions always involve voltage well above 700 V. For example, sparks to car doors in winter can involve voltages as high as 20,000 V. Electrostatic generators such as Van de Graaff generators and Wimshurst machines can produce voltages approaching one million volts, but typically produce low currents. Induction coils operate on the flyback effect resulting in voltages greater than the turns ratio multiplied by the input voltage. They typically produce higher currents than electrostatic machines, but each doubling of desired output voltage roughly doubles the weight due to the amount of wire required in the secondary winding. Thus scaling them to higher voltages by adding more turns of wire can become impractical.
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List of high-voltage transmission links in Lithuania at voltages higher than 330 kV and/or the 400 kV-grid in Lithuania. The list does not include links at smaller voltages like 110 kV or less. Lithuania has 13 international 110 kV voltage links: 7 with Belarus, 3 with Russia and 3 with Latvia.
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An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high voltage power supply, although very small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages.
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An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although very small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages.
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If the signal approaches perpendicular to the line, the phase is the same and the voltages will be equal. If the tops of the antennae are wired together, the net voltage will be zero when the antenna is face-on to the signal, because the voltages in both vertical sections are opposing each other. When the antenna is rotated, the slight difference in phase, and thus induced voltages, will leave a net voltage in the circuit, and current will flow. This is maximized when the antennae are parallel to the transmitter.
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First, devices requiring different voltages required specialized generators with their own separate lines. Street lights, electric motors in factories, power for streetcars and lights in homes are examples of the diversity of devices with voltages requiring separate systems. Secondly, generators had to be relatively near their loads (a mile or less for low voltage devices). It was known that longer distance transmission was possible the higher the voltage was raised, so both problems could be solved if transforming voltages from a single universal power line could be done efficiently.
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An N-MOS switch passes all voltages less than V − V. When the switch is conducting, it typically operates in the linear (or ohmic) mode of operation, since the source and drain voltages will typically be nearly equal. In the case of a P-MOS, the body is connected to the most positive voltage, and the gate is brought to a lower potential to turn the switch on. The P-MOS switch passes all voltages higher than V − V (threshold voltage V is negative in the case of enhancement- mode P-MOS).
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These high voltages and unbalanced communications also resulted in relatively short cable lengths, nominally set to a maximum of , although in practice they could be somewhat longer if running at slower speeds. The reason for the large voltages was due to ground voltages. RS-232 included both a protective ground and a signal ground in the standard, but did not define how these were to be implemented. It was often the case that the protective ground was left unconnected, and the signal ground was connected to ground at both ends.
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DC power, despite its restrictions, had become very useful.The Electrical Engineer: A Weekly Review of Theoretical Electrical...1895, Volume 20 accessed 22 Mar 2014 A rotary converter, a type of motor generator, was used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) for railway electrification from an AC power source. Factories were also heavy power users. Transforming AC voltages up to high voltages for long distance transmission and down to lower voltages at locations close to their use was a very attractive way to get access to a new source of power.
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The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) defines supply system low voltage as voltage in the range 50 to 1000 V ac or 120 to 1500 V dc in IEC Standard VoltagesStandard Voltages, IEC 60038 which defines power distribution system voltages around the world. In electrical power systems low voltage most commonly refers to the mains voltages as used by domestic and light industrial and commercial consumers. "Low voltage" in this context still presents a risk of electric shock, but only a minor risk of electric arcs through the air.
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The magnets in the two coils are arranged with opposite polarity so that the string motion induces voltages across both coils that become additive (exactly the opposite of phase cancellation) when the coils are wired in this manner. Electromagnetic interference induces identical, or almost identical voltage across both coils, because they are directly adjacent, and therefore pick up the same interference. When the signals from both coils are summed together, the two noise voltages cancel each other out, while the signal voltages add. This dramatically improves the signal-to-noise ratio.
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The drawback is that controlled operation outside the operational speed range is impossible because of the higher than rated rotor voltage. Further, the voltage transients due to the grid disturbances (three- and two-phase voltage dips, especially) will also be magnified. In order to prevent high rotor voltages (and high currents resulting from these voltages) from destroying the insulated-gate bipolar transistors and diodes of the converter, a protection circuit (called crowbar) is used. The crowbar will short-circuit the rotor windings through a small resistance when excessive currents or voltages are detected.
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However, the line voltages for states 1 through 6 produce an AC line voltage consisting of the discrete values of Vi, 0 or –Vi. For three-phase SPWM, three modulating signals that are 120 degrees out of phase with one another are used in order to produce out of phase load voltages. In order to preserve the PWM features with a single carrier signal, the normalized carrier frequency, mf, needs to be a multiple of three. This keeps the magnitude of the phase voltages identical, but out of phase with each other by 120 degrees.
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All power distribution is at -48 VDC (nominal), from which DC to DC converters on every shelf provide other necessary voltages.
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The line voltages are negative compared to earth, to reduce galvanic corrosion. Negative voltage attracts positive metal ions toward the wires.
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By using a transmission gate to switch alternating voltages (e.g.: audio signal), the negative power supply potential must be lower than the lowest signal potential. This ensures that the substrate diode will remain non-conducting even at negative voltages. Although the transmission gate can still switch to logic voltage levels, there are special versions with integrated level shifters.
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Switchgear for lower voltages may be entirely enclosed within a building. For higher voltages (over about 66 kV), switchgear is typically mounted outdoors and insulated by air, although this requires a large amount of space. Gas-insulated switchgear saves space compared with air- insulated equipment, although the equipment cost is higher. Oil insulated switchgear presents an oil spill hazard.
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Low-voltage electron microscope (LVEM) is an electron microscope which operates at accelerating voltages of a few kiloelectronvolts or less. Traditional electron microscopes use accelerating voltages in the range of 10-1000 keV. Low voltage imaging in transmitted electrons is possible in many new scanning electron detector. Low cost alternative is dedicated table top low voltage transmission electron microscope.
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The differential voltages must stay within the limits specified by the manufacturer. Early integrated comparators, like the LM111 family, and certain high-speed comparators like the LM119 family, require differential voltage ranges substantially lower than the power supply voltages (±15 V vs. 36 V).LM111/LM211/LM311 datasheet. Texas Instruments. August 2003. Retrieved 2014-07-02.
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3D printing of the battery packs allowed for the largest Al-ion cells developed, with voltages ranging from 6 to 72 volts.
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But the application of larger voltages pulled the barrier down, producing accessible states into which transitions could occur, thus leading to conduction.
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SIMION is an ion optics simulation program that calculates electric fields for electrodes of defined voltages and ion trajectories in those fields.
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The company's products include overhead electrical line and other outdoor switchgear for voltages up to 38 kV, indoor switchgear for voltages to 15 kV, containerised electrical substations, HV DC switchgear for currents up to 12 kA with voltages up to 1.8 kV and protection relays, as well as servicing, maintenance and repair services.Hawker Siddeley Switchgear - products hss-ltd.com The company has supplied equipment for the Channel Tunnel rail link,Hawker Siddeley Switchgear Ltd celebrates Channel Tunnel Link completion hss-ltd.com the Metro-North RailroadHawker Siddeley Switchgear Ltd on track to replace railroad circuit breakers hss-ltd.
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A distinction should be made between the voltage at the point of supply (nominal voltage at the point of interconnection between the electrical utility and the user) and the voltage rating of the equipment (utilization voltage). Typically the utilization voltage is 3% to 5% lower than the nominal system voltage; for example, a nominal 208 V supply system will be connected to motors with "200 V" on their nameplates. This allows for the voltage drop between equipment and supply. Voltages in this article are the nominal supply voltages and equipment used on these systems will carry slightly lower nameplate voltages.
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On June 19, 1995, Delmarva Power acquired the Conowingo Power Company service area from PECO. PECO's distribution line voltages are 4,160 volts and 13,200 volts. Subtransmission voltages are 34,500 volts and 69,000 volts. Transmission line voltages are 138,000 volts, 230,000 volts and 500,000 volts. PECO's peak electric load occurred on August 3, 2006 and was 8,932 megawatts (MWs) and its highest peak load in the winter season occurred on December 20, 2004 and was 6,838 MW. Residential electric usage makes up about 35 percent of PECO's total electric delivery and half of the annual electric revenue.
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Undervolting is a practice of running the CPU or any other component with voltages below the device specifications. An undervolted component draws less power and thus produces less heat. The ability to do this varies by manufacturer, product line, and even different production runs of the same product (as well as that of other components in the system), but processors are often specified to use voltages higher than strictly necessary. This tolerance ensures that the processor will have a higher chance of performing correctly under sub-optimal conditions, such as a lower-quality motherboard or low power supply voltages.
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Early B batteries used with bright emitter tubes were 120 volts, but these quickly became obsolete as they were replaced with examples having voltages of typically 45 volts, 67½ volts, or 90 volts as more efficient tubes became available. Some examples had taps every 22½ volts. Even when the plate voltage rail is fed by a power supply rather than a battery, it is generally referred to as the "B+" line in American schematics. Because plate voltages can be as high as 300V DC, multiple B batteries may be connected together in series to additively provide the required operating voltages.
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The teachers were told the learners had to memorize word pairs, and every time they got it wrong they were shocked with increasing voltages. The voltages ranged from 15 to 450, and in order for the participants to believe the shock was real, the experimenters administered to them a real 45v shock, The participant was unaware that the learner was a confederate. The participant would test the learner, and for each incorrect answer the learner gave, the participant would have to shock the learner with increasing voltages. The shocks were not actually administered, but the participant believed they were.
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The primary caveat of overvolting is increased heat: the power dissipated by a circuit increases with the square of the voltage applied, so even small voltage increases significantly affect power. At higher temperatures, transistor performance is adversely affected, and at some threshold, the performance reduction due to the heat exceeds the potential gains from the higher voltages. Overheating and damage to circuits can occur very quickly when using high voltages. There are also longer-term concerns: various adverse device-level effects such as hot carrier injection and electromigration occur more rapidly at higher voltages, decreasing the lifespan of overvolted components.
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Primary distribution voltages range from 4 kV to 35 kV phase- to-phase (2.4 kV to 20 kV phase-to-neutral) Only large consumers are fed directly from distribution voltages; most utility customers are connected to a transformer, which reduces the distribution voltage to the low voltage "utilization voltage", "supply voltage" or "mains voltage" used by lighting and interior wiring systems.
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Cordless torque screwdriver are powered by batteries, usually rechargeable batteries with voltages from 3.6 to 18 volts. Dedicated screwdrivers for domestic use tend to operate off 3.6 to 4.8 volts and have relatively low maximum torque; drill/drivers operate off higher voltages and can deliver higher maximum torque. Cordless torque screwdrivers are used for the same applications as cordless screwdrivers without torque control.
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The three phase currents lag their corresponding phase voltages by \delta. The DQ axes are shown rotating with angular velocity equal to \omega, the same angular velocity as the phase voltages and currents. The D axis makes an angle \theta = \omega t with the phase A winding which has been chosen as the reference. The currents I_D and I_Q are constant dc quantities.
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Although firing voltages are 300 to 500 volts, once the arc is created voltages drop to around 100 to 200 volts. The arc created excites the molecular deuterium contained within the bulb to a higher energy state. The deuterium then emits light as it transitions back to its initial state. This continuous cycle is the origin of the continuous UV radiation.
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Some manufacturers, particularly Canon, ask for no more than 6 volts. Flash units designed for modern cameras use voltages which are safe and effective, but some older flashes have much higher voltages, up to hundreds of volts, which damage electronic triggering circuits. Some use negative DC polarity, or AC. iISO hotshoe contacts are only protected up to ca. 5 volts in some cameras.
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The E1 pulse is the very fast component of nuclear EMP. E1 is a brief but intense electromagnetic field that induces high voltages in electrical conductors. E1 causes most of its damage by causing electrical breakdown voltages to be exceeded. E1 can destroy computers and communications equipment and it changes too quickly (nanoseconds) for ordinary surge protectors to provide effective protection from it.
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These designs allow frequency-agile operation at frequencies from 105 to 205 kHz and with maximum resonant circuit voltages as high as 200 volts.
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PID occurs mostly at negative voltage with respect to the ground potential and is accelerated by high system voltages, high temperatures, and high humidity.
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In tunnel diodes, a diode allows the tunneling of electrons for certain voltages. This allows them to be used for generating high-frequency signals.
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Meters of this type draw negligible current but are sensitive to voltages over about 100 volts and work with either alternating or direct current.
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Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in switching or by lightning.
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Each satellite was equipped to transmit data such as battery charge, voltages, temperature of equipment inside the satellite, etc. Later satellites had more telemetry channels.
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Figure 1 - Recovery voltage in case of a capacitive load Figure 2 - Voltages on terminals of the first pole that clears three-phase capacitive currents in a system with isolated neutral Figure 3 - Evolution of voltages with restrike occurring a half cycle after current interruption, in the case of single-phase capacitive current switching Typical cases of capacitive loads are unloaded lines and capacitor banks.
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Where the two parameters that depend on the solar cell construction and to some degree upon the voltage itself are m, the ideality factor, and kT/q the thermal voltage (about 0.026 V at room temperature). This relation is plotted in the figure using a fixed value m = 2. In practice, at low voltages m → 2, whereas at high voltages m → 1. See Araújo, op. cit. .
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Modular synthesizers are synthesizers composed of separate modules of different functions. The modules can be connected together with patch cords, a matrix patching system, or switches by the user to create a patch. The output (voltages) from the modules may function as (audio) signals, control voltages, or logic/timing conditions. Typical modules are oscillators (operate on frequency), filters (spectrum), amplifiers/gates (amplitude) and Envelope generators (dynamic control).
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When a "detector" chamber absorbs some of the infrared radiation, it heats up and expands. This causes a rise in pressure within the sealed vessel that can be detected either with a pressure transducer or with a similar device. The combination of output voltages from the detector chambers from the sample gas can then be compared to the output voltages from the reference chamber.
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Strings of multiple LEDs are normally connected in series. In one configuration, the source voltage must be greater than or equal to the sum of the individual LED voltages; typically the LED voltages add up to around two-thirds of the supply voltage. A single current-limiting resistor may be used for each string. Parallel operation is also possible but can be more problematic.
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Before they enter the weatherhead, a drip loop is left in the overhead wires, which permits rain water that collects on the wires to drip off before reaching the weatherhead. A weatherhead termination is only used at low voltages (up to 600 volts), since higher distribution voltages require more insulation between conductors and metal enclosures. Higher-voltage connections are made through a pothead.Anthony J. Pansini.
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In effect, carrier velocities and current drop as the voltage is increased. While this transfer occurs, the material exhibits a decrease in current – that is, a negative differential resistance. At higher voltages, the normal increase of current with voltage relation resumes once the bulk of the carriers are kicked into the higher energy-mass valley. Therefore the negative resistance only occurs over a limited range of voltages.
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The nodes of the signal-flow graph will include both voltages and currents. The branch gains will include impedances and admittances. :4. Convert all nodes of the signal-flow graph to voltages and all impedances to dimensionless transmittances. This is accomplished by dividing all impedance elements by R, an arbitrary resistance and multiplying all admittance elements by R. This scaling does not change the frequency response. :5.
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This process is known as volume conduction. When the wave of ions reaches the electrodes on the scalp, they can push or pull electrons on the metal in the electrodes. Since metal conducts the push and pull of electrons easily, the difference in push or pull voltages between any two electrodes can be measured by a voltmeter. Recording these voltages over time gives us the EEG.
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The basic technique for plotting a field is to first construct a model of the independent variables, then to use voltage meter probes to measure the dependent variables. Typically this means applying known voltages at certain points, then measuring voltages and currents within the model. The two basic approaches are to either applying electrodes and a voltage at known points within a large sheet of Teledeltos (modelling an infinite field) or else to cut a shape from Teledeltos and then apply voltages to its edges (modelling a bounded field). There is a common practical association that electrical field models are usually infinite and thermal models are usually bounded.
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Doping the anode lowers the anode potential and leads to a higher output voltage of the capacitor. Typically, output voltages for LICs are in the range of 3.8–4.0 V but are limited to minimum allowed voltages of 1.8–2.2 V. If the voltage drops any lower than this lithium ions will deintercalate more rapidly than they can be restored during normal use. Like EDLCs, LIC voltages vary linearly adding to complications integrating them into systems which have power electronics that expect the more stable voltage of batteries. As a consequence, LICs have a high energy density, which varies with the square of the voltage.
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Despite the need for relatively high programming and erasing voltages, virtually all flash chips today require only a single supply voltage and produce the high voltages that are required using on-chip charge pumps. Over half the energy used by a 1.8 V NAND flash chip is lost in the charge pump itself. Since boost converters are inherently more efficient than charge pumps, researchers developing low-power SSDs have proposed returning to the dual Vcc/Vpp supply voltages used on all early flash chips, driving the high Vpp voltage for all flash chips in an SSD with a single shared external boost converter. (abstract). In particular, pp 515-536: K. Takeuchi.
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Plasma electrolytic oxidation is a similar process, but where higher voltages are applied. This causes sparks to occur and results in more crystalline/ceramic type coatings.
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Another problem is that the voltages for such amplifiers often pass well beyond 1 kV, which forms an effective disincentive to commercial products of this type.
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Rectiformers may be designed to output dc voltages from 30V dc to over 120KV dc. They can weigh over 400 tons.Rectiformer details, Aluminium smelting rectiformer project.
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A beam extraction area 1.6 times that of NSTAR allows higher thruster input power while maintaining low voltages and ion current densities, thus maintaining thruster longevity.
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Though voltages can accumulate in electrical conductors after an EMP, it will generally not flow out into human or animal bodies, and thus contact is safe.
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Small, rapid variations in a waveform due to mechanical disturbances or to changes in the characteristic of components. Supply voltages, imperfect synchronizing signals, circuits, frequency pulses, etc.
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Finally, equalizing the collector voltages also equalizes the power dissipated in Q1 and Q2 and that tends to reduce mismatch from the effects of temperature on VBE.
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Transparent heating film, also called transparent heating plastic or heating transparent polymer film is a thin and flexible polymer film with a conductive optical coating. Transparent heating films may be rated at 2.5kW/m at voltages below 48 volts direct current (VDC). This allows heating with secure transformers delivering voltages which will not hurt the human body. Transparent conductive polymer films may be used for heating transparent glasses.
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The lines in the picture are located in eastern Utah. High voltages have disadvantages, such as the increased insulation required, and generally increased difficulty in their safe handling. In a power plant, energy is generated at a convenient voltage for the design of a generator, and then stepped up to a high voltage for transmission. Near the loads, the transmission voltage is stepped down to the voltages used by equipment.
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The branch currents chosen as a set of independent variables must be a set associated with the links of a tree: one cannot choose any l branches arbitrarily.Guillemin, pp.8–9 In terms of branch voltages, a complete solution of the network can be obtained with t branch voltages. This is a consequence the fact that short-circuiting all the branches of a tree results in the voltage being zero everywhere.
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Transients are fast and high voltage spikes. Polymer electrolytic capacitors, aluminum as well as tantalum polymer capacitors can not withstand transients or peak voltages higher than surge voltage. Transients for this type of e-caps may destroy the components. Hybrid polymer Al-e-caps are relatively insensitive to high and short- term transient voltages higher than surge voltage, if the frequency and the energy content of the transients are low.
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Different voltages are used for different types of trains. Most electrified trains run 3000 V DC (overhead); this is used primarily for commuter lines, and has been in use since the 1920s. During the 1980s, higher voltages (25 kV AC and—much less frequently—50 kV AC (both overhead) have been used for heavy duty lines (which also require more sleepers per kilometer) primarily used for the transport of iron ore.
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Stray voltages created in grounding (earthing) conductors by currents flowing in the supply utility neutral conductors can be troublesome. For example, special measures may be required in barns used for milking dairy cattle. Very small voltages, not usually perceptible to humans, may cause low milk yield, or even mastitis (inflammation of the udder).Thomas J. Divers, Simon Francis Peek (ed),Rebhun's diseases of dairy cattle, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008, pp.
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Due to deep submicron manufacturing process variations, every transistor in an Integrated Circuit (IC) has slightly different physical properties. These lead to small differences in electronic properties, such as transistor threshold voltages and gain factor. The start-up behavior of an SRAM cell depends on the difference of the threshold voltages of its transistors. Even the smallest differences will push the SRAM cell into one of the two stable states.
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These are frequently used to modulate light, since the Kerr effect responds very quickly to changes in electric field. Light can be modulated with these devices at frequencies as high as 10 GHz. Because the Kerr effect is relatively weak, a typical Kerr cell may require voltages as high as 30 kV to achieve complete transparency. This is in contrast to Pockels cells, which can operate at much lower voltages.
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A common voltage for flashlight batteries is 1.5 volts (DC). A common voltage for automobile batteries is 12 volts (DC). Common voltages supplied by power companies to consumers are 110 to 120 volts (AC) and 220 to 240 volts (AC). The voltage in electric power transmission lines used to distribute electricity from power stations can be several hundred times greater than consumer voltages, typically 110 to 1200 kV (AC).
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There are multiple useful ways to define voltage, including the standard definition mentioned at the start of this page. There are also other useful definitions of work per charge (see this section). Voltage is defined so that negatively charged objects are pulled towards higher voltages, while positively charged objects are pulled towards lower voltages. Therefore, the conventional current in a wire or resistor always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage.
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The phase voltages VaN and VbN are identical, but 180 degrees out of phase with each other. The output voltage is equal to the difference of the two phase voltages, and do not contain any even harmonics. Therefore, if mf is taken, even the AC output voltage harmonics will appear at normalized odd frequencies, fh. These frequencies are centered on double the value of the normalized carrier frequency.
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The HVDC link will be configured as a symmetrical monopole, with DC voltages of ±320kV, and nominal power rating of 500MW. The project is expected to cost €400M.
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Reversing the current more quickly requires higher voltages, which require more expensive electrical components. In analog television systems the horizontal frequency is between 15.625 kHz and 15.750 kHz.
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A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is a special type of VCO designed to be very linear in frequency control over a wide range of input control voltages.
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In North American commercial and industrial lighting installations, lighting installed on 480Y/277 V 3-phase circuits uses voltages higher than the rating of common 120 V switches.
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RAe TEE II trainset in operation as the TEE Gottardo in 1988 The electric multiple unit (EMU) trainsets that were used by the Gottardo from 1961 to 1994, or most of its life, were very unusual in their ability to operate at four different overhead line voltages. The RAe TEE II trainsets were built in 1961 and designed specifically for use on international TEE routes that served countries whose national rail systems used different overhead voltages. On the TEE routes Edelweiss and Iris, the RAe trainsets needed all four different power settings; those routes travelled through five different countries. The route served by the Gottardo and Ticino served only two countries, but they have different line voltages.
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Long exposure photograph of a Tesla coil showing the repeated electric discharges The dielectric breakdown strength of dry air, at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP), between spherical electrodes is approximately 33 kV/cm.A. H. Howatson, "An Introduction to Gas Discharges", Pergamom Press, Oxford, 1965, page 67 This is only as a rough guide, since the actual breakdown voltage is highly dependent upon the electrode shape and size. Strong electric fields (from high voltages applied to small or pointed conductors) often produce violet-colored corona discharges in air, as well as visible sparks. Voltages below about 500–700 volts cannot produce easily visible sparks or glows in air at atmospheric pressure, so by this rule these voltages are "low".
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Resonant circuits exhibit ringing and can generate higher voltages and currents than are fed into them. They are widely used in wireless (radio) transmission for both transmission and reception.
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Chiasso station houses the border controls and has a large international marshalling yard. Conventional trains change locomotives here due to different traction voltages and train protection systems in Italy.
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Some models suggest that terahertz frequencies are achievable with this material. Indium antimonide semiconductor devices are also capable of operating with voltages under 0.5 V, reducing their power requirements.
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New electrified railway systems tend to use overhead for regional and long- distance systems. Third-rail systems using lower voltages than overhead systems still require many more supply points.
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That is why it is used to form emitter-coupled amplifiers (avoiding Miller effect), phase splitter circuits (obtaining two inverse voltages), ECL gates and switches (avoiding transistor saturation), etc.
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The robot was cybernetic. It did not use a computer. Its control circuitry consisted of dozens of transistors controlling analog voltages. It used photocell optics and sonar to navigate.
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From there, the two channels are represented with a sequence of inductors and resistors for fluid flow within each channel with the two channels joined with a sequence of series resonant RLC circuits. Voltages across capacitances represent basilar membrane displacements. Element values along the cochlea are tapered in a logarithmic fashion to represent lowering frequency responses with distance. The pattern of voltages along the basilar membrane can be viewed on an oscilloscope.
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For this reason, the two inductors can be wound on the same core, which begins to resemble a Flyback converter, the most basic of the transformer-isolated SMPS topologies. Since the voltages are the same in magnitude, their effects on the mutual inductance will be zero, assuming the polarity of the windings is correct. Also, since the voltages are the same in magnitude, the ripple currents from the two inductors will be equal in magnitude.
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Aluminum electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolyte are relatively insensitive to high and short-term transient voltages higher than surge voltage, if the frequency and the energy content of the transients are low. This ability depends on rated voltage and component size. Low energy transient voltages lead to a voltage limitation similar to a zener diode.Imam, A.M., Condition Monitoring of Electrolytic Capacitors for Power Electronics Applications, Dissertation, Georgia Institute of Technology (2007) smartech.gatech.
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DC power remains the only practical choice in digital systems and can be more economical to transmit over long distances at very high voltages (see HVDC).All About Circuits [Online textbook], Tony R. Kuphaldt et al., last accessed on 17 May 2009. (also here ) The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important for two reasons: Firstly, power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at higher voltages.
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The lineman may still be electrocuted if he completes an electrical circuit, for example by handling both ends of a broken conductor. Such work is often done by helicopter by specially trained linemen. Weblink Isolated line work is only used for transmission-level voltages and sometimes for the higher distribution voltages. Live wire work is common on low voltage distribution systems within the UK and Australia as all linesmen are trained to work 'live'.
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Trigger circuit voltages below ca. 2 to 2.5 volts may exhibit this problem, unless the triggering circuit is specifically designed to work with such low voltages. Older cameras equipped with an electro-mechanical trigger contact may exhibit yet another problem. If they provide both an ISO hotshoe and a PC terminal, both are typically wired to the same trigger contact in the camera rather than triggered independently as in cameras with electronic triggering circuits.
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However, cartesian complex number representation is often more powerful for circuit analysis purposes. The notion of impedance is useful for performing AC analysis of electrical networks, because it allows relating sinusoidal voltages and currents by a simple linear law. In multiple port networks, the two-terminal definition of impedance is inadequate, but the complex voltages at the ports and the currents flowing through them are still linearly related by the impedance matrix.Callegaro, Sec.
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If the card is compatible with both voltages then it may not have any coding key. Other coding keys exists for use of backplanes and cards that support PICMG 2.5.
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Capacitor discharge ignition was developed. It produces a rising voltage that is sent to the spark plug. CD system voltages can reach 60,000 volts. CD ignitions use step-up transformers.
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In solid-state storage devices, a multi-level cell stores data using multiple voltages. Storing n bits in one cell requires the device to reliably distinguish 2n distinct voltage levels.
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Electronic ignition systems replace some or all of the components the Delco ignition system with solid state and/or optical devices and provide both higher voltages and more reliable ignition.
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The behavior of the electrical network is defined by Kirchhoff's voltage and current laws. Voltages add to zero around all closed loops and currents add to zero at all nodes.
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In silicon, this is approximately 1.25 V. Buried-Zener references can provide even lower noise levels, but require higher operating voltages which are not available in many battery-operated devices.
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Alternatively, connectors of the same size can be part of power supplies with different voltages and currents. Use of the wrong power supply may cause severe equipment damage, or even fire.
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The currents of the two nodes are combined in a single equation, and a new equation for the voltages is formed. # Solve the system of simultaneous equations for each unknown voltage.
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Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breakers may be used as self-contained apparatus in outdoor air-insulated substations or may be incorporated into gas-insulated switchgear which allows compact installations at high voltages.
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His was successful in effort to standardize voltages for transmission lines in Czechoslovakia in 1919 (220/380V for low voltage and 22kV/100kV for high-voltage lines) and power plug sockets.
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Comparators can be used to create absolute value detectors. In an absolute value detector, two comparators and a digital logic gate are used to compare the absolute values of two voltages.
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Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) molecules bind directly to f-channels and increase their open probability. cAMP dependence is a particularly relevant physiological property, since it underlies the If-dependent autonomic regulation of heart rate. Sympathetic stimulation raises the level of cAMP-molecules which bind to f-channels and shift the If activation range to more positive voltages; this mechanism leads to an increase of the current at diastolic voltages and therefore to an increase of the steepness of DD and heart rate acceleration. Parasympathetic stimulation (which acts to increase probability of potassium channels opening but decreases the probability of calcium channel opening) decreases the heart rate by the opposite action, that is by shifting the If activation curve towards more negative voltages.
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Bonding conductive objects in the immediate work area can also be used to minimize the voltage between the objects and between each object and ground. (Bonding an object outside the work area can increase the touch voltage to that object in some cases, however.) The use of insulating personal protective equipment, such as rubber gloves, can protect employees handling grounded equipment and conductors from hazardous touch voltages. The insulating equipment must be rated for the highest voltage that can be impressed on the grounded objects under fault conditions (rather than for the full system voltage). Workers may be protected from hazardous step or touch voltages by prohibiting access to areas where dangerous voltages may occur, such as within substation boundaries or areas near transmission towers.
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The first IBM PC power supply unit (PSU) supplied two main voltages: +5 V and +12 V. It supplied two other voltages, −5 V and −12 V, but with limited amounts of power. Most microchips of the time operated on 5 V power. Of the 63.5 W these PSUs could deliver, most of it was on this +5 V rail. The +12 V supply was used primarily to operate motors such as in disk drives and cooling fans.
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Arc detectors may shut off the transmitter when sparks or fires occur. Protection features must also prevent the human operator and the public from encountering the high voltages and power which exist inside the transmitter. Tube transmitters typically use DC voltages between 600 and 30,000 volts, which are deadly if contacted. Radio frequency power above about 10 watts can cause burning of human tissue through contact and higher power can actually cook human flesh without contact.
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Four-wire resistance thermometer The four-wire resistance configuration increases the accuracy of measurement of resistance. Four-terminal sensing eliminates voltage drop in the measuring leads as a contribution to error. To increase accuracy further, any residual thermoelectric voltages generated by different wire types or screwed connections are eliminated by reversal of the direction of the 1 mA current and the leads to the DVM (digital voltmeter). The thermoelectric voltages will be produced in one direction only.
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The LN3-2A computer controls the platform, computes navigational information and provides special AC and DC voltages required for equipment operation. The functions of the computer are: # to position the azimuth, pitch and roll gimbals of the platform. The basic sequence is that the gyro precession error due to airplane maneuvering is sensed and fed to the platform azimuth synchro resolver. The gyro signals are resolved into pitch and roll error voltages which are amplified in the computer.
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The system inverters typically provide power output at voltages of the order of 480 VAC. Electricity grids operate at much higher voltages of the order of tens or hundreds of thousands of volts, so transformers are incorporated to deliver the required output to the grid. Due to the long lead time, the Long Island Solar Farm chose to keep a spare transformer onsite, as transformer failure would have kept the solar farm offline for a long period.
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Rather than attempting to distinguish between four voltages on one wire, digital designers have settled on two voltages per wire, high and low. Computers use two-value Boolean circuits for the above reasons. The most common computer architectures use ordered sequences of Boolean values, called bits, of 32 or 64 values, e.g. 01101000110101100101010101001011. When programming in machine code, assembly language, and certain other programming languages, programmers work with the low-level digital structure of the data registers.
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In practice, systems rarely have perfectly balanced loads, currents, voltages and impedances in all three phases. The analysis of unbalanced cases is greatly simplified by the use of the techniques of symmetrical components. An unbalanced system is analysed as the superposition of three balanced systems, each with the positive, negative or zero sequence of balanced voltages. When specifying wiring sizes in a three-phase system, we only need to know the magnitude of the phase and neutral currents.
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Sense amplifiers are required to resolve the voltage differential into the levels specified by the logic signaling system. Modern DRAMs use differential sense amplifiers, and are accompanied by requirements as to how the DRAM arrays are constructed. Differential sense amplifiers work by driving their outputs to opposing extremes based on the relative voltages on pairs of bitlines. The sense amplifiers function effectively and efficient only if the capacitance and voltages of these bitline pairs are closely matched.
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Potheads are used where higher-voltage power lines go underground, generally voltages of 600 volts or greater. They are used mostly for service drops for commercial and industrial buildings. For lower voltages such as those used for residential service drops, another weather seal called a weatherhead is used. The device consists of a molded plastic housing that attaches to the end of an electrical conduit that carries the underground cables up the utility pole to the crossarm.
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In certain applications, such as the deposition of ceramic materials, voltages above 3–4V cannot be applied in aqueous EPD if it is necessary to avoid the electrolysis of water. However, higher application voltages may be desirable in order to achieve higher coating thicknesses or to increase the rate of deposition. In such applications, organic solvents are used instead of water as the liquid medium. The organic solvents used are generally polar solvents such as alcohols and ketones.
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Style 2 uses one of the contacts as well as the shell, internally connected together. They are not strongly typed for specific circuits and voltages as the IEC 309 are. One insert rotation option is available to prevent mating of similar connectors with different voltages. The contacts in the plug are simple cylinders (sleeves), while the pin contacts in the receptacle have the spring arrangement to hold contact pressure, the reverse of the IEC 60309 type connectors.
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The \alpha\beta\gamma transformation can be thought of as the projection of the three phase quantities (voltages or currents) onto two stationary axes, the alpha axis and the beta axis. Shown above is the \alpha\beta\gamma transform as applied to three symmetrical currents flowing through three windings separated by 120 physical degrees. The three phase currents lag their corresponding phase voltages by \delta. The \alpha-\beta axis is shown with the \alpha axis aligned with phase 'A'.
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Hasse, p. 60. A circuit can also incorporate high voltages by design, in which case it needs safe, reliable means of interfacing its high-voltage components with low-voltage ones.See Basso for a discussion of such interfacing in switched-mode power supplies. The main function of an opto-isolator is to block such high voltages and voltage transients, so that a surge in one part of the system will not disrupt or destroy the other parts.
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High voltage resistor divider probe for voltages up to 50 kV. The probe tip consists of a corona ball, which avoids corona discharge and arcing by distributing the electric field gradient. A high voltage probe allows an ordinary voltmeter to measure voltages that would otherwise be too high to measure or even destructive. It does this by reducing the input voltage to a safe, measurable level with a precision voltage divider circuit within the probe body.
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Since poles and coils are equally spaced and the locations of the poles match to the locations of the coils, the magnetic lines of force are cut at the same amount at any degree of the rotor. As a result, the voltages induced to all windings have the same value at any given time. The voltages from both coils are "in phase" to each other. Therefore, the total output voltage is two times the voltage induced in each winding.
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The Swiss transmission grid, 6,700 km in length, operates at voltages of 220 kilovolts and 380 kilovolts and a frequency of 50 Hz. It has 145 switching substations and 12,000 electricity pylons.
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The technique of synchrophasors uses digital instruments to measure the phasors representing transmission system voltages at widespread points in a transmission network. Differences among the phasors indicate power flow and system stability.
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Electron Devices, vol. 53, pp. 3129-3135, 2006 which allows high levels of monolithic integration. These power transistors can operate at voltages that are 20 times higher than the baseline CMOS transistorsW.
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A tweezer probe Tweezer probes are a pair of simple probes fixed to a tweezer mechanism, operated with one hand, for measuring voltages or other electronic circuit parameters between closely spaced pins.
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Even higher voltages can be measured with capacitor divider probes, though the larger physical size and other mechanical features (e.g., corona rings) of these devices often preclude their use as handheld probes.
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Different voltages are applied to a series of electrodes so the direction of electric field is different near the surface of the crystal, allowing over 99.5% of surface events to be rejected.
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They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed. They also are designed with direct current breakdown voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage.
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Output power, 1 kW appx. Grid voltages measured with respect to the midpoint of the directly heated cathode. 80% efficiency at A.F., dropping to 60% at 100 MHz when used as an amplifier.
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They can be installed anywhere in the ground. They provide only low voltages and current. They were used to power telegraphs in the 19th century. As appliance efficiencies increase, they may become practical.
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Piezoelectric actuators are also employed to produce vibrations, and offer even more precise motion than LRAs, with less noise and in a smaller platform, but require higher voltages than do ERMs and LRAs.
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Network Protection & Automation, AREVA 2002 Measurement of high voltages is possible by the potential transformers. An optical voltage transformer is not strictly a transformer, but a sensor similar to a Hall effect sensor.
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Most CD ignitions are made to give very high output voltages but this is not always beneficial. When there is no triggering signal the charging circuit is re-connected to charge the capacitor.
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The 12DQ7 was the final backwards compatible update to the 12BV7. It offered higher maximum screen and plate voltages of 330VAC. The transconductance value was further reduced from 11 mS to 10.5 mS.
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Comparators can also be used as window detectors. In a window detector, a comparator is used to compare two voltages and determine whether a given input voltage is under voltage or over voltage.
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Due to the 180° limitation, the power- supply/lamp/lens assembly was mounted on leveling gimbals and incorporated a horizon cutoff mask to avoid projecting below-horizon stars. Another improvement is that control voltages were no longer at line (120VAC) levels, but at low voltages. It also improved the RA and declination axes projector, switching to optical projectors. It also had an azimuthal drive so that the star field could be rotated to the part of the dome facing patrons, avoiding neck-craning.
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Peak repetitive off voltage is the maximum, instantaneous value of the off-state voltage that occurs across a thyristor, including all repetitive transient voltages and excluding all non-transient voltages. Peak repetitive reverse voltage is the maximum peak reverse voltage that may be applied continuously to the main terminals (anode and cathode) of quadracs. RMS on-state current is the maximum RMS current allowed for the specified use-case temperature. Temperature junction for quadracs is expressed as a full-required range.
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MOVs tend to be more suitable for higher voltages, because they can conduct the higher associated energies at less cost. Another type of transient suppressor is the gas-tube suppressor. This is a type of spark gap that may use air or an inert gas mixture and often, a small amount of radioactive material such as Ni-63, to provide a more consistent breakdown voltage and reduce response time. Unfortunately, these devices may have higher breakdown voltages and longer response times than varistors.
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In the early days of radio, mains electricity was supplied at different voltages in different places, and either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) was supplied. There are three ways of powering electronic equipment. AC-only equipment would rely on a transformer to provide the voltages for heater and plate circuits. AC/DC equipment would connect all the tube heaters in series to match the supply voltage; a rectifier would convert AC to the direct current required for operation.
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Tertiapin has a high affinity for Kir channels with approximately Kd = 8 nM for GIRK1/4 channels and Kd = 2 nM for ROMK1 channels. In contrast to the voltage-gated K+ channels, Kir channels are more permeable to K+ during hyperpolarization than during depolarization. A voltage-dependent blockade by intracellular cations at voltages more positive than the K+ reversal potential is the mechanism underlying this feature. At more negative voltages the Kir channels are responsible for an inward K+ current.
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It is desirable that the reactor does not go into magnetic saturation during a short circuit, so generally an air-core coil is used. At low and medium voltages, air- insulated coils are practical; for high transmission voltages, the coils may be immersed in transformer oil. Installation of air-core coils requires consideration of the magnetic field produced by the coils, which may induce current in large nearby metal objects. This may result in objectionable temperature rise and waste of energy.
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Normally this is not an acceptable film cosmetically or functionally. The causes and mechanisms for rupturing are not completely understood, however the following is known: #Commercially available anodic EPD coating chemistries typically exhibit rupturing at voltages significantly lower than their commercially available cathodic counterparts. #For a given EPD chemistry, the higher the bath conductivity, the lower the rupture voltage. #For a given EPD chemistry, the rupture voltages normally decrease as the temperature is increased (for temperatures above the coalescence temperature).
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Where two voltages are given below separated by "/", the first is the root-mean-square voltage between a phase and the neutral connector, whereas the second is the corresponding root- mean-square voltage between two phases (exception: the category shown below called "One Phase", where 240 V is the root-mean-square voltage between the two legs of a split phase). The three-phase voltages are for use in either four-wire (with neutral) or three-wire (without neutral) systems.
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Aluminum electrolytic capacitors with non-solid electrolyte are relatively insensitive to high and short-term transient voltages higher than the surge voltage, if the frequency and the energy content of the transients is low. This ability depends on the rated voltage and component size. Low energy transient voltages lead to a voltage limitation similar to a zener diode. The electrochemical oxide forming processes take place when voltage in correct polarity is applied and generates an additional oxide when transients arise.
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Small stray voltages may never be noticed and may only be detected with a voltmeter. Larger voltages may have a range of effects, from barely perceptible to dangerous electric shocks, or unintended electrical heating resulting in fires. Normally, metal electrical equipment cases are bonded to ground to prevent a shock hazard if energized conductors accidentally contact the case. Where this bonding is not provided or has failed, a severe hazard of electric shock or electrocution is presented when circuit conductors contact the case.
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Differential TTL is used in preference to single-ended TTL for long-distance signaling. In a long cable, stray electromagnetic fields in the environment, or stray currents in the system ground, can induce unwanted voltages that cause errors at the receiver. With a differential pair of wires, roughly the same unwanted voltage is induced in each wire. The receiver subtracts the voltages on the two wires, so that the unwanted voltage disappears, and only the voltage created by the driver remains.
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Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered, damped, or limited, or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback. Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into '0' and '1' states. On the other hand, thermal runaway is a type of positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions. Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions, and in some cases can lead to explosions.
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If the input currents are matched, and the impedance looking out of both inputs are matched, then the voltages produced at each input will be equal. Because the operational amplifier operates on the difference between its inputs, these matched voltages will have no effect. It is more common for the input currents to be slightly mismatched. The difference is called input offset current, and even with matched resistances a small offset voltage (different from the input offset voltage below) can be produced.
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The objective is to obtain a best estimate of the voltages for the points between the electrodes. The three-dimensional array is chosen to have either cylindrical or planar symmetry or no symmetry at all. The Laplace equation has the convenient property that its solution is a sum over the contribution from each electrode. Therefore, after the electric field array has been found once by iteration, the voltages of the individual electrodes can be changed and the new fields are immediately obtained.
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His book, Essentials of Electronic Testing for Digital, Memory and Mixed-Signal VLSI Circuits co-authored with M. L. Bushnell, published in 2000, is a widely used text in hardware testing. His recent research has focused on optimizing testing in the context of varying clock frequencies and supply voltages. "Optimum Test Schedule for SoC with Specified Clock Frequencies and Supply Voltages," VLSI Design and 2013 12th International Conference on Embedded Systems (VLSID), 2013 26th International Conference on, Pune, 2013, pp. 267-272.
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In 1925 the Commissioners approved a system for the standardisation of electricity supply. The generation and distribution of electricity was undertaken at a range of voltages and frequencies; 109 suppliers provided AC only, 297 DC only, and 176 both AC and DC. Supply voltages ranged from 100 V to >3000 V. The frequency of AC supplies were at 15 different frequencies ranging from 25 Hz to 100 Hz, even at the most common frequency of 50 Hz (supplied by 223 undertakings) some provided single phase, some 2-phase and some 3-phase. The standard proposed by the Commissioners was three-phase AC of 6.6 kV (or 11 kV, 33 kV, 49.5 kV or 66 kV). Lower voltages could be DC or AC. Frequency was to be 50 Hz ± 2.5%.
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This "complementary" or CMOS type of switch uses one P-MOS and one N-MOS FET to counteract the limitations of the single-type switch. The FETs have their drains and sources connected in parallel, the body of the P-MOS is connected to the high potential (VDD) and the body of the N-MOS is connected to the low potential (gnd). To turn the switch on, the gate of the P-MOS is driven to the low potential and the gate of the N-MOS is driven to the high potential. For voltages between VDD − Vtn and gnd − Vtp, both FETs conduct the signal; for voltages less than gnd − Vtp, the N-MOS conducts alone; and for voltages greater than VDD − Vtn, the P-MOS conducts alone.
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In common mode (the two input voltages change in the same directions), the two voltage (emitter) followers cooperate with each other working together on the common high-resistive emitter load (the "long tail"). They all together increase or decrease the voltage of the common emitter point (figuratively speaking, they together "pull up" or "pull down" it so that it moves). In addition, the dynamic load "helps" them by changing its instant ohmic resistance in the same direction as the input voltages (it increases when the voltage increases and vice versa.) thus keeping up constant total resistance between the two supply rails. There is a full (100%) negative feedback; the two input base voltages and the emitter voltage change simultaneously while the collector currents and the total current do not change.
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Normal. In differential mode (the two input voltages change in opposite directions), the two voltage (emitter) followers oppose each other--while one of them tries to increase the voltage of the common emitter point, the other tries to decrease it (figuratively speaking, one of them "pulls up" the common point while the other "pulls down" it so that it stays immovable) and vice versa. So, the common point does not change its voltage; it behaves like a virtual ground with a magnitude determined by the common-mode input voltages. The high- resistance emitter element does not play any role--it is shunted by the other low-resistance emitter follower. There is no negative feedback, since the emitter voltage does not change at all when the input base voltages change.
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In any situation where energized equipment is in intimate electrical contact with a person or animal (such as swimming pools, surgery, electric milking machines, car washes, laundries, and many others), particular attention must be paid to elimination of stray voltages. Dry intact skin has a higher resistance than wet skin or a wound, so voltages that would otherwise be unnoticed become significant for a wet or surgical situation. Potential differences between pool water and railings, or shower facilities and grounded drain pipes are not uncommon as a result of neutral to earth voltages (NEV), and can be a major nuisance, but are usually not life-threatening. However, contact voltage resulting from damaged insulation on a current carrying conductor can be very dangerous, and can lead to shock or electrocution.
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Corona rings are used on very high voltage power transmission insulators and switchgear, and on scientific research apparatus that generates high voltages. A very similar related device, the grading ring, is used around insulators.
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The test is then repeated several times to obtain a distribution of time-to-failure. These distributions are used to create reliability plots and to predict the TDDB behavior of oxide at other voltages.
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A Darlington pair can be sensitive enough to respond to the current passed by skin contact even at safe zone voltages. Thus it can form a new input stage of a touch-sensitive switch.
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Electric single-phase railway traction, such as light rail, uses a very similar system. It uses resistors to earth to reduce hazards from rail voltages, but the primary return currents are through the rails.
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Initially, he concentrated on measuring the development of his case, voltages of optical coatings. Then he developed a temperature-resistant electrical resistance. His employer, however, had no interest in the marketing of this invention.
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The disadvantages of arc lighting were: it was maintenance intensive, buzzed, flickered, constituted a fire hazard, was really only suitable for outdoor lighting, and, at the high voltages used, was dangerous to work with.
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This is the result of a homogeneous electric field distribution at temperatures of around 300 °C and bond voltage of 250 V. Using thin deposited glass layers the voltages needed can be significantly reduced.
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Despite the two different sets of specified voltages and test protocols, the lamps themselves are the same; with few exceptions, 12-volt H1 lamps are generally manufactured and tested to comply with both regulations.
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The time-varying voltages that are applied to these rods can be recorded and used to image the surface of the conductor. STMs are accurate to 0.001 nm, or about 1% of atomic diameter.
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Stanton Tower is the corporate office for El Paso Electric. El Paso Electric transmission system voltages are 115,000 volts and 345,000 volts. There are also two 115 kV interconnections with Mexico to the south.
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Although sustained production of aldosterone requires persistent calcium entry through low-voltage activated Ca2+ channels, isolated zona glomerulosa cells are considered nonexcitable, with recorded membrane voltages that are too hyperpolarized to permit Ca2+ channels entry.
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Distribution lines of 66kV, 33 kV, 22 kV, 11 kV, 6.6 kV and 400/230 volt electricity distribution network connect to the National Grid via transmission substations will have their voltages stepped down by transformers.
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The reason vacuum circuit breakers are unsuitable for breaking high DC voltages is that with DC there is no "current zero" period. The plasma arc can feed itself by continuing to gasify the contact material.
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Commercial and industrial service drops can be much bigger, and are usually three phase. In the US, common services are 120Y/208 (three 120 V circuits 120 degrees out of phase, with 208 V line-to-line), 240 V three-phase, and 480 V three-phase. 600 V three-phase is common in Canada, and 380-415 V or 690 V three-phase is found in European and many other countries. Generally, higher voltages are used for heavy industrial loads, and lower voltages for commercial applications.
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However, the primary factor is the type of dielectric material. Capacitors such as tantalum electrolytic or polysulfone film exhibit relatively high absorption, while polystyrene or Teflon allow very small levels of absorption. In some capacitors where dangerous voltages and energies exist, such as in flashtubes, television sets, and defibrillators, the dielectric absorption can recharge the capacitor to hazardous voltages after it has been shorted or discharged. Any capacitor containing over 10 joules of energy is generally considered hazardous, while 50 joules or higher is potentially lethal.
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Introduction to Metal Oxide Varistors, www.powerguru.org When a small voltage is applied across the electrodes, only a tiny current flows, caused by reverse leakage through the diode junctions. When a large voltage is applied, the diode junction breaks down due to a combination of thermionic emission and electron tunneling, resulting in a large current flow. The result of this behavior is a nonlinear current-voltage characteristic, in which the MOV has a high resistance at low voltages and a low resistance at high voltages.
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Rural electrification systems tend to use higher distribution voltages because of the longer distances covered by distribution lines (see Rural Electrification Administration). 7.2, 12.47, 25, and 34.5 kV distribution is common in the United States; 11 kV and 33 kV are common in the UK, Australia and New Zealand; 11 kV and 22 kV are common in South Africa; 10, 20 and 35 kV are common in China. Other voltages are occasionally used. Rural services normally try to minimize the number of poles and wires.
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Corona discharges produce electric currents of the order of 1 – 100 μA at high voltages of the order of several kV. These currents and the corresponding discharge power are low comparing to the currents and the power of the arc and the dielectric barrier discharges. However, the advantage of the corona discharge is simplicity of the DC high voltage electronics. While electric sparks limit the high voltage, and thus the corona power, the latter can be further increased with a help of pulse-periodic high voltages.
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High-phase-order (HPO) power transmission has been frequently proposed as a way to increase transmission capacity within a limited-width right of way. The required conductor spacing is determined by the phase-to-phase voltages, and six-phase power has the same voltage between adjacent phases as between phase and neutral. However voltages between non-adjacent phase conductors increases as the difference increases between phase angles of the conductors. Conductors can be arranged so that non-adjacent phases are spaced farther apart than adjacent phases.
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In this circuit, VA is between two unknown voltages, and is therefore a supernode. In this circuit, we initially have two unknown voltages, V1 and V2. The voltage at V3 is already known to be VB because the other terminal of the voltage source is at ground potential. The current going through voltage source VA cannot be directly calculated. Therefore, we cannot write the current equations for either V1 or V2. However, we know that the same current leaving node V2 must enter node V1.
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Peninsular Malaysia as a whole including Pahang, has almost 100% electrification. Transmission and distribution of electricity in the state of Pahang lie under the responsibility of the national utility company, Tenaga Nasional. The main power plant in Pahang is located in Cameron Highlands with installed capacity 250 MW that generates about 643 GWh of hydroelectricity. Transmission voltages are at 500 kV, 275 kV and 132 kV while distribution voltages are 33 kV, 22 kV, 11 kV and 415 V three-phase or 240 V single-phase.
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Computers operate over a range of DC voltages, but utilities deliver power as AC, and at higher voltages than required within computers. Converting this current requires one or more power supply units (or PSUs). To ensure that the failure of one power source does not affect the operation of the computer, even entry-level servers may have redundant power supplies, again adding to the bulk and heat output of the design. The blade enclosure's power supply provides a single power source for all blades within the enclosure.
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Partially insulated medium-voltage conductors in California Conductors carry power from the generators to the load. In a grid, conductors may be classified as belonging to the transmission system, which carries large amounts of power at high voltages (typically more than 69 kV) from the generating centres to the load centres, or the distribution system, which feeds smaller amounts of power at lower voltages (typically less than 69 kV) from the load centres to nearby homes and industry.Marshall Brain, "How Power Grids Work", howstuffworks.com, 1 April 2000.
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An engineering analysis of the power system under fault conditions can be used to determine whether or not hazardous step and touch voltages will develop. The result of this analysis can show the need for protective measures and can guide the selection of appropriate precautions. Several methods may be used to protect employees from hazardous ground-potential gradients, including equipotential zones, insulating equipment, and restricted work areas. The creation of an equipotential zone will protect a worker standing within it from hazardous step and touch voltages.
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In some disciplines, safety can be a particular concern with instrumentation. For instance, medical electronics designers must take into account that much lower voltages than normal can be dangerous when electrodes are directly in contact with internal body fluids. Power transmission engineering also has great safety concerns due to the high voltages used; although voltmeters may in principle be similar to their low voltage equivalents, safety and calibration issues make them very different. Many disciplines of electrical engineering use tests specific to their discipline.
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The gun was modulated by voltage as it would be in a B&W; set, with increasing power producing a brighter spot on the screen. A set of fine wires placed behind the screen then provided extra energy needed to select a particular color layer. Since the phosphors were relatively opaque, the system required very high accelerating voltages, between 25 and 40 kV. An improved version was introduced that used transparent phosphor layers and thin insulating layers between them that reduced the required voltages.
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Writing was accomplished by firing the writing gun at low voltage in a fashion similar to the Williams tube, adding a further voltage to the phosphor. Thus the storage pattern was the slight difference between two voltages stored on the tube, typically only a few tens of volts different. In comparison, the Williams tube used much higher voltages, producing a pattern that could only be stored for a short period before it decayed below readability. Reading was accomplished by scanning the reading gun across the storage area.
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High Vth devices are used on non-critical paths to reduce static leakage power without incurring a delay penalty. Typical high Vth devices reduce static leakage by 10 times compared with low Vth devices. One method of creating devices with multiple threshold voltages is to apply different bias voltages (Vb) to the base or bulk terminal of the transistors. Other methods involve adjusting the gate oxide thickness, gate oxide dielectric constant (material type), or dopant concentration in the channel region beneath the gate oxide.
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All of these switches are limited on what signals they can pass or stop by their gate–source, gate–drain, and source–drain voltages; exceeding the voltage, current, or power limits will potentially damage the switch.
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Powerlink has adopted live high voltage substation maintenance practices on voltages up to 330 kV and is currently the only transmission utility in Australia to use these techniques. Its laboratory provides specialist testing and diagnostic services.
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For example, a small 5% imbalance in phase voltage requires a much larger 24% reduction of motor rated power. Thus tuning a rotary phase converter circuit for equal phase voltages under maximum load may be quite important.
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The link voltages cannot, therefore, be independent of the tree branch voltages.Guillemin, pp.9–10 Figure 2.4. A cut set of the graph in figure 2.2 derived from the tree of figure 2.3 by cutting branch 3.
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Because of the known temperature and current dependence of the forward-biased base–emitter junction voltage, the BJT can be used to measure temperature by subtracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a known ratio.
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Dual-energy radiography is where images are acquired using two separate tube voltages. This is the standard method for bone densitometry. It is also used in CT pulmonary angiography to decrease the required dose of iodinated contrast.
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A disadvantage of this method is the need to break the circuit to introduce the shunt. Another problem is measuring the voltage across the shunt when common-mode voltages are present; a differential voltage measurement is needed.
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When the voltages of the two arms were multiplied a pencil beam was formed, but with rather high sidelobes. The beam could be steered in the sky by adjusting the phasing of the elements in each arm.
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The total sum of the voltages from each photomultiplier, measured by a pulse height analyzer is proportional to the energy of the gamma ray interaction, thus allowing discrimination between different isotopes or between scattered and direct photons.
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Overhead power lines. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, p. 5 Voltages used for electric power transmission increased throughout the 20th century. By 1914, fifty-five transmission systems each operating at more than 70 kV were in service.
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In 2009, a European Commission initiative resulted in the specification of a common external power supply (common EPS) for use with data-enabled mobile phones sold in the European Union. The external power supply is the AC electric power adapter that converts household AC electricity voltages to the much lower DC voltages needed to charge a mobile phone's internal battery. Although compliance is voluntary, a majority of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers agreed to make their applicable mobile phones compatible with Europe's common external power supply specification (EN 62684:2010).
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A MOV inside a transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) does not provide complete protection for electrical equipment. In particular, it provides no protection from sustained over-voltages that may result in damage to that equipment as well as to the protector device. Other sustained and harmful over-voltages may be lower and therefore ignored by a MOV device. A varistor provides no equipment protection from inrush current surges (during equipment startup), from overcurrent (created by a short circuit), or from voltage sags (brownouts); it neither senses nor affects such events.
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Each painted area has a low resistivity (relative to the carbon) and so may be assumed to be at a constant voltage. With the voltages applied, the current flow through the sheet will emulate the field distribution. Voltages may be measured within the sheet by applying a voltmeter probe (relative to one of the known electrodes) or current flows may be measured. As the sheet's resistivity is constant, the simplest way to measure a current flow is to use a small two-probe voltmeter to measure the voltage difference between the probes.
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Fig. 2: The two circuit configurations of a buck converter: on- state, when the switch is closed; and off-state, when the switch is open (arrows indicate current according to the direction conventional current model). Fig. 3: Naming conventions of the components, voltages and current of the buck converter. Fig. 4: Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an ideal buck converter operating in continuous mode. The basic operation of the buck converter has the current in an inductor controlled by two switches (usually a transistor and a diode).
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The Con Edison electrical transmission system utilizes voltages of 138 kilovolts (kV), 345 kV, and 500 kV. The company has two 345 kV interconnections with upstate New York that enable it to import power from Hydro-Québec in Canada and one 345 kV interconnection each with Public Service Electric and Gas in New Jersey and Long Island. Con Edison is also interconnected with Public Service Electric and Gas via the Branchburg-Ramapo 500 kV line. Con Ed's distribution voltages are 33 kV, 27 kV, 13 kV, and 4 kV.
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AFCI circuit breakers include a standard inverse-time circuit breaker but provide no specific protection against glowing connections also known as a high resistance connection, high line voltages or low line voltages. An AFCI does not detect high line voltage due to an open neutral in a multiwire branch circuit. A multiwire branch circuit has both energized wires of a 120-240 V split phase service. If the neutral is broken, devices connected from a 120 V leg to the neutral may experience excess voltage, up to twice normal.
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Ions are either injected into or created within the interior of the ion trap. They are confined by application of appropriate RF and DC voltages with their final position maintained within the center section of the ion trap. The RF voltage is adjusted and multi-frequency resonance ejection waveforms are applied to the trap to eliminate all but the desired ions in preparation for subsequent fragmentation and mass analysis. The voltages applied to the ion trap are adjusted to stabilize the selected ions and to allow for collisional cooling in preparation for excitation.
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The problem has become more acute as transistors have shrunk, as there is less averaging of the effect over a large gate area. Thus, different transistors experience different amounts of NBTI, defeating standard circuit design techniques for tolerating manufacturing variability which depend on the close matching of adjacent transistors. NBTI has become significant for portable electronics because it interacts badly with two common power-saving techniques: reduced operating voltages and clock gating. With lower operating voltages, the NBTI-induced threshold voltage change is a larger fraction of the logic voltage and disrupts operations.
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Zinc is rarely anodized, but a process was developed by the International Lead Zinc Research Organization and covered by MIL-A-81801. A solution of ammonium phosphate, chromate and fluoride with voltages of up to 200 V can produce olive green coatings up to 80 μm thick. The coatings are hard and corrosion resistant. Zinc or galvanized steel can be anodized at lower voltages (20–30 V) as well as using direct currents from silicate baths containing varying concentration of sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide, borax, sodium nitrite and nickel sulphate.
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Image of a sign for high voltage above a railway electrification system Railways and electrical utilities use AC for the same reason: to use transformers, which require AC, to produce higher voltages. The higher the voltage, the lower the current for the same power, which reduces line loss, thus allowing higher power to be delivered. Because alternating current is used with high voltages, this method of electrification is only used on overhead lines, never on third rails. Inside the locomotive, a transformer steps the voltage down for use by the traction motors and auxiliary loads.
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Electrospray ionization (ESI) is a technique that involves using high voltages to create an electrospray, or a fine aerosol created by the high voltages. ESI sample preparation can be very important and the quality of results can be heavily determined by the characteristics of the sample. ESI experiments can be run on-line or off-line. In on-line measurements the mass spectrometer is connected to a liquid chromatograph and as the samples are separated they are ionized into the mass spectrometer by the ESI system; sample preparation is actually performed before the LC separation.
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The manual type is applicable only for relatively low voltage and is known as a variable AC transformer (often referred to by the trademark name Variac). These are often used in repair shops for testing devices under different voltages or to simulate abnormal line voltages. The type with automatic voltage adjustment can be used as automatic voltage regulator, to maintain a steady voltage at the customers' service during a wide range of line and load conditions. Another application is a lighting dimmer that doesn't produce the EMI typical of most thyristor dimmers.
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Modern precision op amps can have internal circuits that automatically cancel this offset using choppers or other circuits that measure the offset voltage periodically and subtract it from the input voltage. ;Common-mode gain: A perfect operational amplifier amplifies only the voltage difference between its two inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to both. However, the differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect, leading to the amplification of these common voltages to some degree. The standard measure of this defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio (denoted CMRR).
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30-32 Bells used in early telephone systems derived current by a magneto generator cranked by the subscriber. In residential applications, a small bell-ringing transformer is usually used to power the doorbell circuit. So that bell circuits can be made with low-cost wiring methods, bell signal circuits are limited in voltage and power rating.Terrel Croft, Wilford Summers (ed), American Electrician's Handbook Eleventh Edition, Mc Graw Hill, 1987 , sections 9.451 through 9.462 Bells for industrial purposes may operate on other, higher, AC or DC voltages to match plant voltages or available standby battery systems.
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Aerial cables are mostly used for telecommunication systems or for power transmissions with voltages below 1000 volts. Aerial cable for voltages up to 69,000 volts has also been built, for the supply of farms, waterworks, transmitters and other facilities outside of urban areas. Aerial cables are not often used in transmission circuits because of the difficulty in insulating such high voltage wire. Because of the proven reliability benefits of insulated aerial cables over traditional air-insulated wire, the Electric Power Institute has been working with utility companies to develop better insulating materials.
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Schematic representation (similar to band diagram) of an electron tunnelling through a barrierIn mesoscopic physics, a Coulomb blockade (CB), named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb's electrical force, is the decrease in electrical conductance at small bias voltages of a small electronic device comprising at least one low-capacitance tunnel junction. Because of the CB, the conductance of a device may not be constant at low bias voltages, but disappear for biases under a certain threshold, i.e. no current flows. Coulomb blockade can be observed by making a device very small, like a quantum dot.
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Following its prediction based on analytic theory and molecular dynamics simulations, experimental evidence for ICB emerged from experiments on monolayer MoS2 pierced by a single 0.6nm nanopore. Highly non-Ohmic conduction was observed between aqueous ionic solutions on either side of the membrane. In particular, for low voltages across the membrane, the current remained close to zero, but it rose abruptly when a threshold of about 400mV was exceeded. This was interpreted as complete ionic Coulomb blockade of current in the (uncharged) nanopore due to the large potential barrier at low voltages.
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Since short circuits are less of a concern, a thinner tunnel oxide layer can be used (50-70Å) increasing the trapping layer's coupling to the channel and leading to a faster program speed (with localized trapped charges) and erasing with lower tunneling voltages. The lower tunneling voltages, in turn, place less stress on the tunnel oxide layer, leading to fewer lattice disruptions. Another important benefit of using a charge trapping cell is that the thin charge trapping layer reduces capacitive coupling between neighboring cells to improve performance and scalability.
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For example, the LTC6702, MAX9021 and MAX9031 have internal hysteresis desensitizing them from input noise. In place of one switching point, hysteresis introduces two: one for rising voltages, and one for falling voltages. The difference between the higher-level trip value (VTRIP+) and the lower-level trip value (VTRIP-) equals the hysteresis voltage (VHYST). If the comparator does not have internal hysteresis or if the input noise is greater than the internal hysteresis then an external hysteresis network can be built using positive feedback from the output to the non-inverting input of the comparator.
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A Low Power CMOS Clocked Comparator Because comparators have only two output states, their outputs are either near zero or near the supply voltage. Bipolar rail-to-rail comparators have a common-emitter output that produces a small voltage drop between the output and each rail. That drop is equal to the collector-to-emitter voltage of a saturated transistor. When output currents are light, output voltages of CMOS rail-to-rail comparators, which rely on a saturated MOSFET, range closer to the rail voltages than their bipolar counterparts.
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The Power Good signal (power-good) is a signal provided by a computer power supply to indicate to the motherboard that all of the voltages are within specification and that the system may proceed to boot and operate.
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It is of note that experimental designs where the direct application of high voltages to liquids to form aerosols and sprays has been described as early as 1917 in the context of not ionization, but atomization of liquids.
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Each cell in a penny battery can produce up to 0.8 volt, and many can be stacked together to produce higher voltages. Since the battery is a wet cell, the effectiveness will be reduced when the electrolyte evaporates.
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Table 3 of IEC 60038 lists nominal voltages above 1 kV and not exceeding 35 kV. There are two series, one from 3 kV up to 35 kV and another one from 4.16 kV up to 34.5 kV.
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In special cases (e.g., high-voltage switches), gases with good dielectric properties and very high breakdown voltages are needed. Highly electronegative elements, e.g., halogens, are favored as they rapidly recombine with the ions present in the discharge channel.
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Ionic electrolytes consists of liquid salts that can be stable in a wider electrochemical window, enabling capacitor voltages above 3.5 V. Ionic electrolytes typically have an ionic conductivity of a few mS/cm, lower than aqueous or organic electrolytes.
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In October 2006, ITC Holdings Corp. completed the acquisition of METC, or Michigan Electric Transmission Company. Largely overlapping Consumers Energy's area, METC system uses line voltages of 345,000, 230,000 and 138,000 volts. Consumers retained its radial 138 kV lines.
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Electric arc guns operate at low voltages (below 45 V dc), but at relatively high currents. They may be safely hand-held. The power supply units are connected to 440 V AC sources, and must be treated with caution.
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Ground receiving stations translated pulse spacings back into voltages which were applied to a bank of string galvanometers to make an approximately continuous record of each channel on a moving roll of film. Accuracy was within approximately 5 percent.
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In every case transients arise, the application has to be carefully approved. Electrolytic capacitors with solid electrolyte cannot withstand transients or peak voltages higher than the surge voltage. Transients for this type of electrolytic capacitor may destroy the component.
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However, in overhead transmission work on or near high-voltage lines, safety rules require connecting a conductor to earth ground during maintenance, since induced voltages and currents on a conductor may be sufficient to cause electrocution or serious injury.
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Design started with relays. Relay logic was relatively inexpensive and reliable, but slow. Occasionally a mechanical failure would occur. Fanouts were typically about 10, limited by the resistance of the coils and arcing on the contacts from high voltages.
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Likewise, a "Z servo" allowed the Air Resistance Circuits to adjust for altitude-varying air density, and the drag aerodynamics were vectorized by a servo operating potentiometers to pick-off 3 bomb-specific deceleration voltages based on each cartesian velocity voltage.
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A solar panel can produce a range of charging voltages depending upon sunlight intensity, so a voltage regulator must be included in the charging circuit so as to not over-charge (overvoltage) a device such as a 12 volt car battery.
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These principles are applied to all the nodes in a power flow system and thereby determine the elements of the admittance matrix, which represents the admittance relationships between nodes, which then determine the voltages, currents and power flows in the system.
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A bipolar device is being developed for higher voltages (up to 20 kV). Among its advantages, silicon carbide can operate at a higher temperature (up to 400 °C) and has a lower thermal resistance than silicon, allowing for better cooling.
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Take care, however, in the MNA method, the current of the independent voltage sources is taken from the "plus" to the "minus" (see Figure 1). Also, note that the right hand side of each equation is always equal to zero, so that the branch currents that come into the node are given a negative sign and those that go out are given a positive sign. Step 2 Use the BCEs in terms of the node voltages of the circuit to eliminate as many branch currents as possible. Writing the BCEs in terms of the node voltages saves one step.
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An even simpler model of the diode, sometimes used in switching applications, is short circuit for forward voltages and open circuit for reverse voltages. The model of a forward biased pn junction having an approximately constant 0.7V is also a much used approximation for transistor base-emitter junction voltage in amplifier design. The piecewise method is similar to the small signal method in that linear network analysis techniques can only be applied if the signal stays within certain bounds. If the signal crosses a discontinuity point then the model is no longer valid for linear analysis purposes.
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The magnetic field and voltages applied to the electrodes made the electrons form a thick sheet (as in a cavity magnetron) that went to only one anode. Applying a pulse with specified width and voltages to the spades made the sheet advance to the next anode, where it stayed until the next advance pulse. Count direction was determined by the direction of the magnetic field, and as such was not reversible. A later form of trochotron called a Beam-X Switch replaced the large, heavy external cylindrical magnet with ten small internal metal-alloy rod magnets which also served as electrodes.
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Consumer voltages vary somewhat depending on the country and size of load, but generally motors and lighting are built to use up to a few hundred volts between phases. The voltage delivered to equipment such as lighting and motor loads is standardized, with an allowable range of voltage over which equipment is expected to operate. Standard power utilization voltages and percentage tolerance vary in the different mains power systems found in the world. High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) electric power transmission systems have become more viable as technology has provided efficient means of changing the voltage of DC power.
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Loss from subthreshold leakage can be reduced by raising the threshold voltage and lowering the supply voltage. Both these changes slowdown the circuit significantly. To address this issue, some modern low-power circuits use dual supply voltages to improve speed on critical paths of the circuit and lower power-consumption on non-critical paths."A Survey Of Architectural Techniques for Near-Threshold Computing", S. Mittal, ACM JETC, 2015 Some circuits even use different transistors (with different threshold voltages) in different parts of the circuit, in an attempt to further reduce power consumption without significant performance loss.
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The Blackmer gain cell is an audio frequency voltage-controlled amplifier (VCA) circuit with an exponential control law invented and patented by David E. Blackmer in 1970-1973. Four-transistor core of the original Blackmer cell contains two complementary bipolar current mirrors performing log-antilog operation on input voltages in a push-pull, alternating, fashion. Earlier log- antilog modulators employing the fundamental exponential characteristic of a p–n junction were unipolar; Blackmer's application of push-pull signal processing allowed modulation of bipolar voltages or bidirectional currents. The Blackmer cell, manufactured since 1973, is historically the first precision VCA circuit suitable for professional audio.
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A cut set is formed by allowing all but one of the tree branches to be short circuit. The cut set consists of the tree branch which was not short-circuited and any of the links which are not short-circuited by the other tree branches. A cut set of a graph produces two disjoint subgraphs, that is, it cuts the graph into two parts, and is the minimum set of branches needed to do so. The set of network equations are formed by equating the node pair voltages to the algebraic sum of the cut set branch voltages.
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Some inward rectifiers, termed "weak inward rectifiers", carry measurable outward K+ currents at voltages positive to the K+ reversal potential (corresponding to, but larger than, the small currents above the 0 nA line in figure 1). They, along with the "leak" channels, establish the resting membrane potential of the cell. Other inwardly rectifying channels, termed "strong inward rectifiers," carry very little outward current at all, and are mainly active at voltages negative to the K+ reversal potential, where they carry inward current (the much larger currents below the 0 nA line in figure 1).Hille, p. 153.
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The amplifier has what the manufacturer calls a "dual-mode power supply", where the output stage is only loosely regulated, so it is free to supply the high voltages needed for musical transients and the large currents at lower voltages needed for driving low-impedance loads in the power amplifier circuitry. The design also incorporates a separate regulated power supply circuit, fed from a secondary winding on the transformer, dedicated to the pre-amplifier and tone control stages. It is thus claimed that intermodulation distortion and blurring of the stereo image due to power supply functioning cannot occur.
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Both NMOS and PMOS transistors have a gate–source threshold voltage, below which the current (called sub threshold current) through the device drops exponentially. Historically, CMOS designs operated at supply voltages much larger than their threshold voltages (Vdd might have been 5 V, and Vth for both NMOS and PMOS might have been 700 mV). A special type of the transistor used in some CMOS circuits is the native transistor, with near zero threshold voltage. SiO2 is a good insulator, but at very small thickness levels electrons can tunnel across the very thin insulation; the probability drops off exponentially with oxide thickness.
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The various properties of oxide structures affect the subsequent characteristics of the electrolytic capacitors. Anode foils with amorphous oxide are primarily used for electrolytic capacitors with stable long-life characteristics, for capacitors with low leakage current values, and for e-caps with rated voltages up to about 100 volts. Capacitors with higher voltages, for example photoflash capacitors, usually containing anode foils with crystalline oxide.S. Parler, Cornell Dubilier CDE, "Heating in Aluminum Electrolytic Strobe and Photoflash Capacitors" PDF Because the thickness of the effective dielectric is proportional to the forming voltage, the dielectric thickness can be tailored to the rated voltage of the capacitor.
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Analog television cameras scan an image as a series of horizontal lines that are stacked vertically to form a grid or "frame". The camera's progression through the frame is carefully controlled by electronic timers, known as time base generators, that produce smoothly increasing voltages. As the camera scans the image, the brightness of the location currently being scanned is also represented as a voltage. The series of varying voltages from the sensor forms an amplitude modulated (AM) signal that encodes the brightness variations along any given scan line, and spikes in the signal indicate when the line or frame changes.
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When faced with a new circuit, the software first tries to find a steady state solution, that is, one where all nodes conform to Kirchhoff's current law and the voltages across and through each element of the circuit conform to the voltage/current equations governing that element. Once the steady state solution is found, the operating points of each element in the circuit are known. For a small signal analysis, every non-linear element can be linearized around its operation point to obtain the small-signal estimate of the voltages and currents. This is an application of Ohm's Law.
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Stray voltage is the occurrence of electrical potential between two objects that ideally should not have any voltage difference between them. Small voltages often exist between two grounded objects in separate locations, due to normal current flow in the power system. Large voltages can appear on the enclosures of electrical equipment due to a fault in the electrical power system, such as a failure of insulation. A fallen power conductor from a transmission line forces current through the earth; the resistance of the earth to current produces a voltage difference between the point of contact and distant earth.
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Arcing horns thus play a role in the process of correlating system protection with protective device characteristics, known as insulation coordination. The horns should provide, amongst other characteristics, near- infinite impedance during normal operating conditions to minimise conductive current losses, low impedance during the flashover, and physical resilience to the high temperature of the arc. As operating voltages increase, greater consideration must be given to such design principles. At medium voltages, one of the two horns may be omitted as the horn-to-horn gap can otherwise be small enough to be bridged by an alighting bird.
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The gel is run usually for a few hours, though this depends on the voltage applied across the gel; migration occurs more quickly at higher voltages, but these results are typically less accurate than at those at lower voltages. After the set amount of time, the biomolecules have migrated different distances based on their size. Smaller biomolecules travel farther down the gel, while larger ones remain closer to the point of origin. Biomolecules may therefore be separated roughly according to size, which depends mainly on molecular weight under denaturing conditions, but also depends on higher-order conformation under native conditions.
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The first electrified railways used series-wound DC motors, first at 600 V and then 1,500 V. Areas with 3 kV DC catenaries (primarily in Eastern Europe) used two 1,500 V DC motors in series. But even at 3 kV, the current needed to power a heavy train (particularly in rural and mountainous areas) can be excessive. Although increasing the transmission voltage decreases the current and associated resistive losses for a given power, insulation limits make higher voltage traction motors impractical. Transformers on each locomotive are thus required to step high transmission voltages down to practical motor operating voltages.
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Small-signal modeling is a common analysis technique in electronics engineering which is used to approximate the behavior of electronic circuits containing nonlinear devices with linear equations. It is applicable to electronic circuits in which the AC signals, the time-varying currents and voltages in the circuit, have a small magnitude compared to the DC bias currents and voltages. A small-signal model is an AC equivalent circuit in which the nonlinear circuit elements are replaced by linear elements whose values are given by the first-order (linear) approximation of their characteristic curve near the bias point.
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An example schematic with one master (a microcontroller), three slave nodes (an ADC, a DAC, and a microcontroller), and pull-up resistors Rp I2C uses only two bidirectional open collector or open drain lines, Serial Data Line (SDA) and Serial Clock Line (SCL), pulled up with resistors. Typical voltages used are +5 V or +3.3 V, although systems with other voltages are permitted. The I2C reference design has a 7-bit address space, with a rarely used 10-bit extension. Common I2C bus speeds are the 100 kbit/s standard mode and the 400 kbit/s Fast mode.
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Cross section of a three conductor transmission line composed of two parallel plates and a rectangular shield. The figure shows the cross section of a three conductor transmission line. The structure has two transmission eigen-modes which are the differential mode (conductors a and b driven with equal amplitude but opposite phase voltages with respect to conductor c) and the common mode (conductors a and b driven with the same voltages with respect to conductor c). In general, the eigen-modes have different characteristic impedances. If w ≫ h1, h2 ≫ t, then the field in region IV and V and can be ignored.
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New York City streets in 1890. Besides telegraph lines, multiple electric lines were required for each class of device requiring different voltages In the early days of commercial electric power, transmission of electric power at the same voltage as used by lighting and mechanical loads restricted the distance between generating plant and consumers. In 1882, generation was with direct current (DC), which could not easily be increased in voltage for long-distance transmission. Different classes of loads (for example, lighting, fixed motors, and traction/railway systems) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits.
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However, under conditions of low atmospheric pressure (such as in high-altitude aircraft), or in an environment of noble gas such as argon or neon, sparks appear at much lower voltages. 500 to 700 volts is not a fixed minimum for producing spark breakdown, but it is a rule-of-thumb. For air at STP, the minimum sparkover voltage is around 327 volts, as noted by Friedrich Paschen. While lower voltages do not, in general, jump a gap that is present before the voltage is applied, interrupting an existing current flow with a gap often produces a low-voltage spark or arc.
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The conduction band edge also is lowered, increasing electron occupancy of these states, but at low voltages this increase is not significant. At larger applied voltages, however, as in the bottom panel, the conduction band edge is lowered sufficiently to cause significant population of these levels in a narrow surface layer, called an inversion layer because the electrons are opposite in polarity to the holes originally populating the semiconductor. This onset of electron charge in the inversion layer becomes very significant at an applied threshold voltage, and once the applied voltage exceeds this value charge neutrality is achieved almost entirely by addition of electrons to the inversion layer rather than by an increase in acceptor ion charge by expansion of the depletion layer. Further field penetration into the semiconductor is arrested at this point, as the electron density increases exponentially with band-bending beyond the threshold voltage, effectively pinning the depletion layer depth at its value at threshold voltages.
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Penning created a cathode tube with a more stable voltages by removing the oxide layer from the cathode; this allowed for consistent measurement of cathode fall. In the 1950s Penning’s health began to deteriorate. He died on December 6, 1953, at Utrecht.
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In this frequency range their realization is very difficult because of the very high voltages that occur in the huge tuned loading coils that are used in the antenna feed. Diplexers are also used for non-broadcast applications such as amateur radio.
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Because of train lengths and the high power requirements in North America, HEP is supplied as three-phase AC at 480 V (standard in the US), 575 V, or 600 V. Transformers are fitted in each car for reduction to lower voltages.
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When the air gap flux is kept constant, other variables like voltages, current and torque are functions of slip frequency only. By accelerating or decelerating rotation of the air gap flux to choose the slip frequency, the torque can be controlled as desired.
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Additionally, other transparent conducting materials, such as carbon nanotube coatings or PEDOT can be used as the front electrode. The display applications are primarily passive (i.e., voltages are driven from edge of the display cf. driven from a transistor on the display).
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Voltage standing waves occur when impedance mismatches in the waveguide cause energy to reflect back in the opposite direction of propagation. In addition to limiting the effective transfer of energy, these reflections can cause higher voltages in the waveguide and damage equipment.
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This is the same as the first case, hence the graph will also map onto a plane.Guillemin, pp.23–27 Suresh p.514 There is an approach to choosing network variables with voltages which is analogous and dual to the loop current method.
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The 8,320 volt distribution lines are located in Pontiac, Michigan in an area that was served by Consumers Power Company until the mid-1980s when the area was acquired by Detroit Edison. Edison's subtransmission line voltages are 24,000 volts and 41,600 volts.
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Inverter lugs Inverter tabs/lugs are available in 2, 4, and 8 AWG. These are designed to pass very high currents at voltages up to 600 V DC to and from battery packs, inverters, and other high-current loads to a terminal bus.
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Parallel LEDs must have closely matched forward voltages (Vf) in order to have similar branch currents and, therefore, similar light output. Variations in the manufacturing process can make it difficult to obtain satisfactory operation when connecting some types of LEDs in parallel.
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Derating can also be used to provide a safety margin for transient voltages or currents (spikes) that exceed normal operation, or simply to prolong life. For example the life of electrolytic capacitors is dramatically increased by operating them below their maximum temperature rating.
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Compared with the vacuum tube, transistors are generally smaller and require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high operating voltages. Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers.
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LB buffer containing lithium borate is similar to sodium borate and has all of its advantages, but permits use of even higher voltages due to the lower conductivity of lithium ions as compared to sodium ions. However, lithium borate is somewhat more expensive.
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KCNE3 also regulates Kv3.4, augments its current by increasing the unitary conductance and by left-shifting the voltage dependence such that the channel can open at more negative voltages. This may allow Kv3.4-KCNE3 channels to contribute to setting resting membrane potential.
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The ICD 2 firmware is field upgradeable using the MPLAB IDE. The ICD 2 can be used to erase, program or reprogram PIC MCU program memory, while the device is installed on target hardware, using ICSP. Target device voltages from 2.0V to 6.0V are supported.
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Anchor pylons may also have a switch attached to their crossbeam. These so-called switch pylons are operated from the ground by the use of long rods. The attachment of circuit breakers to pylons is only practical when voltages are less than 50 kV.
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The line operated a unique railway electrification system among Pacific Electric routes: overhead line was primarily electrified at 1200 volts direct current with 600 volt sections within town and city limits where the line shared tracks with local streetcars. Cars operated at both voltages.
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IEC 60850:2000 - "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems" Later suburban systems were Brisbane from 1979, Perth from 1992 and Adelaide from 2014. There has also been extensive non-urban electrification in Queensland using 25 kV AC, mainly during the 1980s for coal routes.
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The energy of the electron beam can be controlled by the acceleration voltages. The energy of these electrons that gives rise to a sharp onset of the current of ions and freed electrons through the tube will match the ionization energy of the atoms.
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These manufacturing differences affect the way e-cigarettes convert the liquid solution to an aerosol, and thus the levels of ingredients, that are delivered to the user and the surrounding air for any given liquid. First-generation e-cigarettes use lower voltages, around 3.7 V.
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The LED shows battery status. The power button can also switch off the battery so it is not activated accidentally. Second generation e-cigarettes may have lower voltages, around 3.7 V. However, adjustable-voltage devices can be set between 3 V and 6 V.
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Brakes are available in multiple voltages and can have either standard backlash or zero backlash hubs. Multiple disks can also be used to increase brake torque, without increasing brake diameter. There are 2 main types of holding brakes. The first is spring applied brakes.
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Power may be fed as direct (DC) or alternating current (AC). The most common DC voltages are 600 and 750 V for tram and rapid transit systems, and 1,500 and 3,000 V for mainlines. The two dominant AC systems are 15 kV and 25 kV.
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The LGP-30 required 1500 watts when operating under full load. The power inlet cord was plugged into any standard 115 volt 60-cycle single-phase line. The computer contained internal voltage regulation against power-line variations of voltages from 95 to 130 volts.
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Amalgamated zinc and plain zinc electrodes give essentially the same voltage when the zinc is pure.The standard electrode potential is 0.76 V for both pure zinc and for amalgamated zinc. See . With the imperfectly refined zinc in 19th century laboratories they typically gave different voltages.
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There are complex tradeoffs to consider, which depend on the particular system, the load presented to it, and power management goals. When quick responses are needed, clocks and voltages might be raised together. Otherwise, they may both be kept low to maximize battery life.
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Over the years battery voltages have increased, with 18 V drills being most common, but higher voltages are available, such as 24 V, 28 V, and 36 V. This allows these tools to produce as much torque as some corded drills. Common battery types of are nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries and lithium-ion batteries, with each holding about half the market share. NiCd batteries have been around longer, so they are less expensive (their main advantage), but have more disadvantages compared to lithium-ion batteries. NiCd disadvantages are limited life, self-discharging, environment problems upon disposal, and eventually internally short circuiting due to dendrite growth.
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Several types of metal oxides and sulfides can reversibly intercalate lithium cations at voltages between 1 and 2V against lithium metal with little difference between the charge and discharge steps. Specifically the mechanism of insertion involves lithium cations filling crystallographic vacancies in the host lattice with minimal changes to the bonding within the host lattice. This differentiates intercalation anodes from conversion anodes that store lithium by complete disruption and formation of alternate phases, usually as lithia. Conversion systems typically disproportionate to lithia and a metal (or lower metal oxide) at low voltages, < 1V vs Li, and reform the metal oxide at voltage > 2V, for example, CoO + 2Li --> Co+Li2O.
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While analog devices use continually varying voltages, digital devices use numbers that correspond to samples of the voltage. In the case of digital oscilloscopes, an analog-to- digital converter (ADC) changes the measured voltages into digital information. The digital storage oscilloscope, or DSO for short, is the standard type of oscilloscope today for the majority of industrial applications, and thanks to the low costs of entry-level oscilloscopes even for hobbyists. It replaces the electrostatic storage method in analog storage scopes with digital memory, which stores sample data as long as required without degradation and displays it without the brightness issues of storage- type CRTs.
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Ferrofilatelia - EnElSubte, 6 June 2010.Denuncia contra la compra de nuevos coches para los subtes - Perfil, 20 July 2014. In 1978, Materfer presented a prototype vehicle which solved the issue of the different voltages by providing a model which could be easily switched between the two voltages, though Line B would remain an independent entity in the underground network. The trains were produced throughout the 1980s for use on Line E, however due to the economic problems in the country at the time, they never attained widespread use on the rest of the network since there was not the funding available to purchase new rolling stock for all the lines.
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Three-phase systems can be connected to give various combinations of voltage, suitable for use by different classes of equipment. Where both single-phase and three-phase loads are served by an electrical system, the system may be labelled with both voltages such as 120/208 or 230/400 V, to show the line-to-neutral voltage and the line-to-line voltage. Large loads are connected for the higher voltage. Other three-phase voltages, up to 830 volts, are occasionally used for special-purpose systems such as oil well pumps. Large industrial motors (say, more than 250 hp or 150 kW) may operate on medium voltage.
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To protect a unit of equipment from transients occurring on an attached conductor, a surge arrester is connected to the conductor just before it enters the equipment. The surge arrester is also connected to ground and functions by routing energy from an over-voltage transient to ground if one occurs, while isolating the conductor from ground at normal operating voltages. This is usually achieved through use of a varistor, which has substantially different resistances at different voltages. Surge arresters are not generally designed to protect against a direct lightning strike to a conductor, but rather against electrical transients resulting from lightning strikes occurring in the vicinity of the conductor.
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Hot-stick working appeared in the second decade of the 20th century, when insulating poles made from baked wood were used for tasks such as replacing fuses, replacing post insulators, and transferring lines onto temporary supports. The sticks enabled the linemen to carry out the work without infringing on the minimum clearance distances from live equipment. As experience with the techniques developed, then the operating voltages at which the work was performed increased. With the advent of fibreglass poles in the late 1950s, which neither split nor soaked up rainwater, utilities were prepared to carry out hot-stick working to their highest operating voltages, perhaps 765 kV.
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Low voltage heating films are usually designed to function at voltages within SELV range and therefore present no danger of shock. Operation at such voltages means that the films have many fewer limitations on where and how they can be installed, however higher currents are required for operation, requiring thicker wires and voltage converting isolation transformers or power supplies to run from the local mains. Alternatively, low voltage heating films may be suitable for off grid installations where battery, solar, wind or other power is available at the required voltage and current. Low voltage heating films can be particularly suitable for use in wet areas, where water ingress is a possibility.
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Later electronic types used the varactor diode as a voltage controlled capacitance in the tuned circuit, to receive a number of preset voltages from the rack of buttons tuning the device instantly to local stations. The mechanical button rack was popular in car radios of the 1960s and 1970s. The electronic button rack controlling the new electronic varactor tuner was popular in television sets of the 1970s and 1980s. Modern electronic tuners also use varactor diodes as the actual tuning elements, but the voltages which change their capacitance are obtained from a digital to analog converter (DAC) driven by a microprocessor or phase locked loop (PLL) arrangement.
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These large voltages lead to high-energy ion bombardment of surfaces. High-frequency plasmas are often excited at the standard 13.56 MHz frequency widely available for industrial use; at high frequencies, the displacement current from sheath movement and scattering from the sheath assist in ionization, and thus lower voltages are sufficient to achieve higher plasma densities. Thus one can adjust the chemistry and ion bombardment in the deposition by changing the frequency of excitation, or by using a mixture of low- and high-frequency signals in a dual-frequency reactor. Excitation power of tens to hundreds of watts is typical for an electrode with a diameter of 200 to 300 mm.
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Then the pollen tubes are left to germinate and grow for 2 hours undisturbed unless otherwise stated. After the pollen tubes germinated, they were placed in DC and AC electric fields to see how an external field affected the growth of pollen tubes and the grains inside of them. The researchers applied varying voltages and frequencies to the pollen tubes and the grains to see how this affected their growth rate. To ensure reproducibility of test conditions, no dyes were implemented, no extreme voltages were applied, and pollen from the same plant and flowering season was used as not to be confounders in the experiment.
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To conserve power and manage heat, many laptop and desktop processors have a power management feature that software (usually the operating system) can use to adjust the clock speed and core voltage dynamically. Often a voltage regulator module converts from 5V or 12 V or some other voltage to whatever CPU core voltage is required by the CPU. The trend is towards lower core voltages, which conserve power. This presents the CMOS designer with a challenge, because in CMOS the voltages go only to ground and the supply voltage, the source, gate, and drain terminals of the FETs have only the supply voltage or zero voltage across them.
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Where higher speed is desired, these motors can be operated in parallel, making a higher voltage available at each and so allowing higher speeds. Parts of a rail system might use different voltages, with higher voltages in long runs between stations and lower voltage near stations where only slower operation is needed. A variant of the DC system is the AC series motor, also known as the universal motor, which is essentially the same device but operates on alternating current. Since both the armature and field current reverse at the same time, the behavior of the motor is similar to that when energized with direct current.
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To create a digital signal, an analog signal must be modulated with a control signal to produce it. The simplest modulation, a type of unipolar encoding, is simply to switch on and off a DC signal so that high voltages represent a '1' and low voltages are '0'. In digital radio schemes one or more carrier waves are amplitude, frequency or phase modulated by the control signal to produce a digital signal suitable for transmission. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) over telephone wires, does not primarily use binary logic; the digital signals for individual carriers are modulated with different valued logics, depending on the Shannon capacity of the individual channel.
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The Miller theorem establishes that in a linear circuit, if there exists a branch with impedance Z, connecting two nodes with nodal voltages V1 and V2, we can replace this branch by two branches connecting the corresponding nodes to ground by impedances respectively Z/(1 − K) and KZ/(K − 1), where K = V2/V1. The Miller theorem may be proved by using the equivalent two-port network technique to replace the two-port to its equivalent and by applying the source absorption theorem. This version of the Miller theorem is based on Kirchhoff's voltage law; for that reason, it is named also Miller theorem for voltages.
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Some organisms, such as sharks, are able to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception, while others, termed electrogenic, are able to generate voltages themselves to serve as a predatory or defensive weapon. The order Gymnotiformes, of which the best known example is the electric eel, detect or stun their prey via high voltages generated from modified muscle cells called electrocytes. All animals transmit information along their cell membranes with voltage pulses called action potentials, whose functions include communication by the nervous system between neurons and muscles. An electric shock stimulates this system, and causes muscles to contract.
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For older pupils and for college students, batteries serve to illustrate the principles of oxidation-reduction reactions. Students can discover that two identical electrodes yield no voltage and that different pairs of metals (beyond copper and zinc) yield different voltages. The voltages and currents from series and parallel combinations of the batteries can be examined. The current that is output by the battery through a meter will depend on the size of the electrodes, how far the electrodes are inserted into the fruit, and how close to each other the electrodes are placed; the voltage is fairly independent of these details of the electrodes.
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Transformers are most commonly used for increasing low AC voltages at high current (a step-up transformer) or decreasing high AC voltages at low current (a step-down transformer) in electric power applications, and for coupling the stages of signal-processing circuits. Transformers can also be used for isolation, where the voltage in equals the voltage out, with separate coils not electrically bonded to one another. Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electric power. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications.
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However, these had a practical limit of 40 kV. In 1907, the invention of the disc insulator by Harold W. Buck of the Niagara Falls Power Corporation and Edward M. Hewlett of General Electric allowed practical insulators of any length to be constructed for higher voltages.
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At frequencies greater than 200 GHz, waveguide dimensions become impractically small, and the ohmic losses in the waveguide walls become large. Instead, fiber optics, which are a form of dielectric waveguides, can be used. For such frequencies, the concepts of voltages and currents are no longer used.
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Via KevinChant.com. Retrieved June 21, 2013. (Manual of 1952 Astor with instructions on use with AC and DC mains of different voltages) The first ever AC/DC design of radio was the All American Five. The sole aim of the design was to eliminate the mains transformer.
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The resulting devices are self-biasing, and can directly charge batteries, or can produce exponentially growing voltages on storage capacitors, from which energy can be periodically extracted by DC/DC converters.IEEE Xplore – The Doubler of Electricity Used as Battery Charger. Ieeexplore.ieee.org. Retrieved on 9 December 2013.
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But at greater distance only the p orbital from tellurium can be detected. Lower voltages than used for α form still produce atomic images. Friction force microscopy (FFM) has been used to get a slip-stick image at a resolution below that of the unit cell.
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For example, when a large machine is turned on, the demand for power is suddenly a lot higher. The voltage regulator compensates for the change in load. Commercial voltage regulators normally operate on a range of voltages, for example 150–240 V or 90–280 V.
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He then switched to the string galvanometer and later to a double-coil Siemens recording galvanometer, which allowed him to record electrical voltages as small as one ten thousandth of a volt. The resulting output, up to three seconds in duration, was then photographed by an assistant.
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Hydro One's overhead power lines Hydro One's 230,000 volt transmission lines Hydro One's transmission line voltages are 500,000 volts, 230,000 volts and 115,000 volts. Hydro One has interconnections with Manitoba Hydro, Hydro-Québec, Minnesota Power, DTE Energy/ITC, Niagara Mohawk Power and the New York Power Authority.
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It used a power supply with a variable voltage of 1.2 to 2.2 volts (V) to enable designs to find a balance between power consumption and performance (higher voltages enable higher clock rates). The SA-110 was packaged in a 144-pin thin quad flat pack (TQFP).
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72, Wiley, 2003 . The first widely used system (Wheatstone, 1858) was first put into service with the British General Post Office in 1867. A novel feature of the Wheatstone system was the use of bipolar encoding. That is, both positive and negative polarity voltages were used.
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The input voltages are: 50 mV (line) and 2 mV (mic). The output is: 0.7757 V (line). This machine includes a feature called Dia-Pilot. This means that it will record a running commentary or music and trigger the change of slides in an automatic slide projector.
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Power lines with high voltage warning sign. Electrical transmission and distribution lines for electric power typically use voltages between tens and hundreds of kilovolts. The lines may be overhead or underground. High voltage is used in power distribution to reduce ohmic losses when transporting electricity long distance.
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For more than one port, then it must be defined that the currents and voltages between all pairs of corresponding ports must bear the same relationship. For instance, star and delta networks are effectively three port networks and hence require three simultaneous equations to fully specify their equivalence.
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A major concern with three phase power is that each phase be at similar voltages. A discrepancy between phases is known as phase imbalance. As a general guideline, unbalanced three-phase power that exceeds 4% in voltage variation can damage the equipment that it is meant to operate.
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The high voltages associated with valve circuits are dangerous to persons. For economic reasons, valves continue to be used for the final power amplifier for transmitters operating above 1.8 MHz and with powers above about 500 watts for amateur use and above about 10 kW for broadcast use.
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Depending on the design and layout of the audio equipment, lethal voltages between the (now isolated) ground at the mixing desk and earth ground can then develop. Any contact between the AC line live terminals and the equipment chassis will energize all the cable shields and interconnected equipment.
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The Czech Republic has a total railway length of . The vast majority () is standard gauge. Electrified railways generally have voltages of 3 kV DC or 25 kV AC. of track is narrow gauge. The most prominent Czech railway company is the state-owned České dráhy (ČD) (English: Czech Railways).
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By Newton's third law, this flux produces a tangential force (hence a torque) on the inner nanotube causing it to rotate hence giving this model the name – "electron windmill". For moderate voltages, the tangential force produced by the electron wind is much greatly exceed the associated frictional forces.
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The gyrator, on the other hand, maps a voltage at one port to a current at the other. Likewise, currents are mapped to voltages. The quantity r in the matrix is in units of resistance. The gyrator is a necessary element in analysis because it is not reciprocal.
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The electric field grows as the reverse voltage increases. When the electric field increases beyond a critical level, the junction breaks down and current begins to flow by avalanche breakdown. Therefore, care must be taken that circuit voltages do not exceed the breakdown voltage or electrical isolation ceases.
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STAX USA: Earspeaker products Its predecessors are the SR-007 and SR-007A. There are two different bias voltages for Stax earspeakers. The first earspeakers have a 230 volt bias, referred to as “Normal” bias. The later earspeakers have a 580 volt bias, referred to as “Pro” bias.
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Each pylon stands on 3 metre tall ceramic cylinders, which serve as insulators for voltages up to 300 kV. The masts are equipped with cylindrical oscillation dampers for better protection against storms. The transmitter is capable of transmitting signals to submarines worldwide to depths of approx. 30 metres.
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Vin is the input of the circuit and V2 is the output. The two-port equations impose a set of linear constraints between its port voltages and currents. The terminal equations impose other constraints. All these constraints are represented in the SFG (Signal Flow Graph) below the circuit.
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Voltage dividers are used for adjusting the level of a signal, for bias of active devices in amplifiers, and for measurement of voltages. A Wheatstone bridge and a multimeter both include voltage dividers. A potentiometer is used as a variable voltage divider in the volume control of many radios.
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As already stated, film thickness and throwpower are dependent on the application voltage. However, at excessively high voltages, a phenomenon called "rupture" can occur. The voltage where this phenomenon occurs is called the "rupture voltage". The result of rupture is a film that is usually very thick and porous.
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The stepping switch transmitted the traction current to the motors which were connected in series circuit. The flat track stepping switch was mounted to the transformer. It consisted of 18 steps with voltages between 230 V and 1300 V. For both motor groups a reverse switch was mounted.
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The emf for this process is approximately −4 V indicating a (very) non-spontaneous process. In order for this reaction to occur the power supply should provide at least a potential of 4 V. However, larger voltages must be used for this reaction to occur at a high rate.
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SIM chip structure and packaging There are three operating voltages for SIM cards: , and (ISO/IEC 7816-3 classes A, B and C, respectively). The operating voltage of the majority of SIM cards launched before 1998 was . SIM cards produced subsequently are compatible with and . Modern cards support , and .
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The American company Comdyna manufactured small analog computers. At Indiana University Bloomington, Jonathan Mills has developed the Extended Analog Computer based on sampling voltages in a foam sheet. At the Harvard Robotics Laboratory, analog computation is a research topic. Lyric Semiconductor's error correction circuits use analog probabilistic signals.
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Plasma screens and LCD screens have been used in analog television sets. These types of display screens use lower voltages than older CRT displays. Many dual system television receivers, equipped to receive both analog transmissions and digital transmissions have analog tuner receiving capability and must use a television antenna.
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Augstsprieguma Tīkls AS (AST) is an independent electricity transmission system operator in Latvia. It operates power systems with voltages of 110 kV and above, which is leased from Latvenergo. It is also the main shareholder of Conexus Baltic Grid, a unified natural gas transmission and storage operator in Latvia.
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Arnold recommended that AT&T; purchase the patent, and AT&T; followed his recommendation. Arnold developed high-vacuum tubes which were tested in the summer of 1913 on AT&T;'s long-distance network. The high-vacuum tubes could operate at high plate voltages without a blue glow.
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Voltage-regulator tube in operation. Low-pressure gas within tube glows due to current flow. Some special-purpose tubes are constructed with particular gases in the envelope. For instance, voltage-regulator tubes contain various inert gases such as argon, helium or neon, which will ionize at predictable voltages.
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The 3000 Volts DC capability was retained. The reason for this was because Class 13 was to be a dual voltage locomotive running on the same voltages with the same type of motors. 1901 operated into Lille Flandres station in France many times as part of the testing process.
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A 24-hour clock displayed on a CRT oscilloscope configured in X-Y mode as a vector monitor with dual R2R DACs to generate the analog voltages Most modern oscilloscopes have several inputs for voltages, and thus can be used to plot one varying voltage versus another. This is especially useful for graphing I-V curves (current versus voltage characteristics) for components such as diodes, as well as Lissajous patterns. Lissajous figures are an example of how an oscilloscope can be used to track phase differences between multiple input signals. This is very frequently used in broadcast engineering to plot the left and right stereophonic channels, to ensure that the stereo generator is calibrated properly.
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The basic principle of dynamic voltage restoration is to inject a voltage of the magnitude and frequency necessary to restore the load side voltage to the desired amplitude and waveform, even when the source voltage is unbalanced or distorted. Generally, devices for dynamic voltage restoration employ gate turn off thyristors, (GTO) solid state power electronic switches in a pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverter structure. The DVR can generate or absorb independently controllable real and reactive power at the load side. In other words, the DVR is a solid state DC to AC switching power converter that injects a set of three-phase AC output voltages in series and synchronicity with the distribution and transmission line voltages.
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Normally a time base is triggered to start its sweep as soon as the signal from the transmitter is seen, but as noted above, this would not provide the accuracy required for this role. Instead, the time base was set to span the screen at a much faster rate, representing only a portion of the signal's overall flight time. Triggering the time base was accomplished using a very accurate oil-filled potentiometer which exponentially increased the charge in a capacitor bank until it reached a trigger value. A very complex grounding system was needed to ensure the accuracy of the voltages leaving the potentiometer system, as any stray voltages could overwhelm the signal.
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The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device similar to the diode, but with an extra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a particular instant during the AC cycle. Because the voltages in HVDC systems, up to 800 kV in some cases, far exceed the breakdown voltages of the thyristors used, HVDC thyristor valves are built using large numbers of thyristors in series. Additional passive components such as grading capacitors and resistors need to be connected in parallel with each thyristor in order to ensure that the voltage across the valve is evenly shared between the thyristors. The thyristor plus its grading circuits and other auxiliary equipment is known as a thyristor level.
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For either enhancement- or depletion-mode devices, at drain-to-source voltages much less than gate-to- source voltages, changing the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance, and drain current will be proportional to drain voltage (referenced to source voltage). In this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor and the FET is said to be operating in a linear mode or ohmic mode. If drain-to-source voltage is increased, this creates a significant asymmetrical change in the shape of the channel due to a gradient of voltage potential from source to drain. The shape of the inversion region becomes "pinched-off" near the drain end of the channel.
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All equipment placed on the market within the E.U. since voltage harmonisation in 1995 should operate satisfactorily at voltages within the range 230 V +/-10%. Equipment rated at 220 V should operate satisfactorily down to 200 V. By efficiently bringing supply voltages to the lower end of the statutory voltage range, voltage optimisation technology could yield average energy savings of around 13% . The higher the voltage the higher the power consumption in the case of a pure resistance load. A reduction in voltage does not affect the energy used by the domestic appliances which use resistive loads except in devices such as kettles and toasters which will take longer to do their job due to atmospheric losses.
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Electricians were originally people who demonstrated or studied the principles of electricity, often electrostatic generators of one form or another.Shock and Awe: The Story of Electricity- Jim Al-Khalili In the United States, electricians are divided into two primary categories: linemen, who work on electric utility company distribution systems at higher voltages, and wiremen, who work with the lower voltages utilized inside buildings. Wiremen are generally trained in one of five primary specialties: commercial, residential, light industrial, industrial, and low-voltage wiring, more commonly known as Voice-Data-Video, or VDV. Other sub-specialties such as control wiring and fire-alarm may be performed by specialists trained in the devices being installed, or by inside wiremen.
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The tuner circuit must "float" above or below the exterior ground level in order for the ATU circuit ground (or common side) to feed the second hot wire that formerly was attached to the output cable's ground wire: The circuit's floating ground must provide a voltage difference adequate to drive current through an output terminal to make the second output "hot". High voltages are normal in any efficient impedance matching circuit bridging a wide mismatch. Unless the incompatible grounds are carefully kept separate, the high voltages present between this interior floating ground and the exterior transmitter and antenna grounds can lead to arcing, corona discharge, capacitively coupled ground currents, and electric shock.
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An SF6 circuit breaker rated 115 kV, 1200 A installed at a hydroelectric generating station Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breakers protect electrical power stations and distribution systems by interrupting electric currents, when tripped by a protective relay. Instead of oil, air, or a vacuum, a sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas to cool and quench the arc on opening a circuit. Advantages over other media include lower operating noise and no emission of hot gases, and relatively low maintenance. Developed in the 1950s and onward, SF6 circuit breakers are widely used in electrical grids at transmission voltages up to 800 kV, as generator circuit breakers, and in distribution systems at voltages up to 35 kV.
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The 2.5 MeV Pelletron accelerator SIRIUS at the École polytechnique. A pelletron is a type of electrostatic particle accelerator similar to a Van de Graaff generator. Pelletrons have been built in many sizes, from small units producing voltages up to 500 kilovolts (kV) and beam energies up to 1 megaelectronvolt (MeV) of kinetic energy, to the largest system, which has reached a DC voltage of over 25 megavolts and produced ion beams with energies over 900 MeV. Generating electric charge is done by a mechanical transportation system made of a chain of pellets (short conductive tubes connected by links made of insulating material), that is used to build up high voltages on the Pelletron terminal.
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In circuit diagrams and circuit analysis, there are long-standing conventions regarding the naming of voltages, currents, and some components. In the analysis of a bipolar junction transistor, for example in a common emitter configuration, the DC voltage at the collector, emitter, and base (with respect to ground) may be written as VC, VE, and VB, respectively. Resistors associated with these transistor terminals may be designated RC, RE, and RB. In order to create the DC voltages, the furthest voltage, beyond these resistors or other components if present, was often referred to as VCC, VEE, and VBB. In practice VCC and VEE then refer to the plus and minus supply lines respectively in common NPN circuits.
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The thermoelectric effect causes junctions of different metals to generate voltages if the junctions are at different temperatures (see also thermocouple). While these unwanted voltages are small, on the order of a few microvolts per °C, they can cause appreciable errors at the high accuracy of which the Kelvin-Varley circuit is capable. The errors can be minimized through proper design — by keeping all junctions at the same temperature, and by employing only metal pairings with low thermoelectric coefficients (down to the external connectors and cables used; for example, a standard 4 mm plug/socket combination may have a coefficient of 1 μV/°C compared to only 0.07 μV/°C for a "low thermal EMF" grade plug/socket ).
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In electric power transmission, the three conductors used for three- phase power transmission are referred to as a balanced line since the instantaneous sum of the three line voltages is nominally zero. However, balance in this field is referring to the symmetry of the source and load: it has nothing to do with the impedance balance of the line itself, the sense of the meaning in telecommunications. For the transmission of single-phase electric power as used for railway electrification systems, two conductors are used to carry in-phase and out-of-phase voltages such that the line is balanced. Bipolar HVDC lines at which each pole is operated with the same voltage toward ground are also balanced lines.
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A network, in the context of electrical engineering and electronics, is a collection of interconnected components. Network analysis is the process of finding the voltages across, and the currents through, all network components. There are many techniques for calculating these values. However, for the most part, the techniques assume linear components.
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Prototype dichroic displays, photo by PPI Unlike common TN (Twisted Nematic) or STN (Super Twisted Nematic) liquid crystal displays, guest host displays are typically driven direct, and are not usually multiplex driven. Shtiever 11.01.10 2 In addition, guest host displays usually require higher operating voltages than TN or STN displays.
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For atomic ion IBD, electron ionization, field ionization (Penning ion source) or cathodic arc sources are employed. Cathodic arc sources are used particularly for carbon ion deposition. Molecular ion beam deposition employs electrospray ionization or MALDI sources. The ions are then accelerated, focused or deflected using high voltages or magnetic fields.
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ComEd's subtransmission voltage is 34,500 volts. Their distribution line voltages are 4,160 volts, 7,200/12,470 volts and 7,970/13,800 volts. The company's revenues total more than $15 billion annually. ComEd has interconnections with American Transmission Company (ATC), ITC Midwest, Ameren, American Electric Power, Northern Indiana Public Service, and MidAmerican Electric (MEC).
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122-3 However, the higher voltages used in many AC electrification systems reduces transmission losses over longer distances, allowing for fewer substations or more powerful locomotives to be used. Also, the energy used to blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware must be accounted for.
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The typical uncertainty in measurements of 10 V Zener standards is limited by noise in the Zener to about 0.01 ppm. The ability to set the Josephson array to a wide range of discrete voltages also makes it the most accurate tool for measuring the linearity of high-accuracy digital voltmeters.
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559-566 Dr. Douglas J. Reinemann, Professor of Biological Systems Engineering at University of Wisconsin–Madison, reported on stray voltages on dairy farms in 2003.What do we know about stray voltage? Douglas R. Reinemann, retrieved 2010 May 18 Investigation of stray voltage claims must also consider other animal health concerns.
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For short-range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin. The back-bias voltages are near breakdown (around a thousand volts per centimeter). Germanium and silicon are common materials. Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy.
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The ranges of multifaceted reflector "MR" lamps of 20–50 watts were originally conceived for the projection of 8 mm film, but are now widely used for display lighting and in the home. More recently, wider beam versions have become available designed for direct use on supply voltages of 120 or .
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CTDL avoided the level shifting stage (R3 and R4) by alternating NPN and PNP based gates operating on different power supply voltages. The 1401 used germanium transistors and diodes in its basic gates. The 1401 also added an inductor in series with R2.IBM 1401 logic Retrieved on 2009-06-28.
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The accelerating electrode has the shape of a long hollow cylinder. The ion beam has a slightly diverging angle (about 0.1 radian). The electrode shape and distance from target can be chosen so the entire target surface is bombarded with ions. Acceleration voltages of up to 200 kV are achievable.
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Manthiram identified the polyanion class of cathode materials for lithium ion batteries, which are widely used in commercial applications. This is a class which includes lithium iron phosphate. He demonstrated that positive electrodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the inductive effect of the polyanion.
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The mutual conductance tester tests the tube dynamically by applying bias and an AC voltage to the control grid, and measuring the current obtained on the plate, while maintaining the correct DC voltages on the plate and screen grid. This setup measures the transconductance of the tube, indicated in micromhos.
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Normalized waveforms of the instantaneous voltages in a three-phase system in one cycle with time increasing to the right. The phase order is 1‑2‑3. This cycle repeats with the frequency of the power system. Ideally, each phase's voltage, current, and power is offset from the others’ by 120°.
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A high voltage is not necessarily dangerous if it cannot deliver substantial current. Despite electrostatic machines such as Van de Graaff generators and Wimshurst machines producing voltages approaching one million volts, they deliver a brief sting. That is because the current is low, e.g. only a relatively few electrons move.
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While electroluminescence was originally mostly of academic interest, the increased conductivity of modern conductive polymers means enough power can be put through the device at low voltages to generate practical amounts of light. This property has led to the development of flat panel displays using organic LEDs, solar panels, and optical amplifiers.
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As an electric insulator, particularly at high temperatures, it is excellent at high voltages and a broad spectrum of frequencies. Macor comes in a standard size maxi slab (about ).Corning Macor Maxi-Slab. Components, bars, rods and plates can be machined within the size of this slab (hand tools can be used).
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Because of their inefficiency and the difficulty of insulating machines that produced very high voltages, electrostatic generators had low power ratings, and were never used for generation of commercially significant quantities of electric power. Their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators.
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Reflectron TOF MS schematic A dual stage reflectron from a Shimadzu IT-TOF instrument. The 46 metal plates carry the voltages which set up the potential gradient. The kinetic energy distribution in the direction of ion flight can be corrected by using a reflectron.Time-of-flight mass spectrometer Boris A. Mamyrin et al.
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Aldert van der Ziel, (1954), Noise, Prentice–Hall A pink- noise source is sometimes deliberately included on analog synthesizers (although a white-noise source is more common), both as a useful audio sound source for further processing and as a source of random control voltages for controlling other parts of the synthesizer.
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As transistors rapidly improved, particularly when alloy transistors were introduced, radios were able operate from lower voltages and the battery manufacturers introduced suitable batteries as the demand arose. The PP3 (physically identical to 6LR61 or 1604A) appeared when portable transistor radios became common, and is still called a "transistor" battery by some manufacturers.
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When negative voltages are reached, it is possible that the cathode would begin to produce Ca (which is soluble in CaCl2). Ca is highly reductive and would further strip oxygen from the cathode, resulting in calciothermic reduction. However, Ca dissolved into CaCl2 results in a more conductive salt leading to reduced current efficiencies.
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The DO-41 (also known as DO-204-AL or SOD66) is a common semiconductor package used to encapsulate rectifier diodes (i.e., diodes meant to handle larger currents and voltages than signal diodes).DO-41 diode package; Interface Bus. The name is derived from the JEDEC descriptor "Diode Outline, Case Style 41".
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The electrokinematics theorem connects the velocity and the charge of carriers moving inside an arbitrary volume to the currents, voltages and power on its surface through an arbitrary irrotational vector. Since it contains, as a particular application, the Ramo-Shockley theorem, the electrokinematics theorem is also known as Ramo-Shockly-Pellegrini theorem.
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Therefore, it is not feasible to fix the duty ratio with such dynamically changing operating conditions. MPPT implementations utilize algorithms that frequently sample panel voltages and currents, then adjust the duty ratio as needed. Microcontrollers are employed to implement the algorithms. Modern implementations often utilize larger computers for analytics and load forecasting.
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Jeans, James (1947) The Growth of Physical Science. Cambridge University Press Wilhelm Röntgen discovered and named X-rays. After experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed a fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass. In one month, he discovered X-rays' main properties.
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In electrical engineering, low voltage is a relative term, the definition varying by context. Different definitions are used in electric power transmission and distribution, and electrical safety codes define "low voltage" circuits that are exempt from the protection required at higher voltages. These definitions vary by country and specific codes or regulations.
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The electrically similar 6L6 was not favored by hams because high transient voltages on the anode when operating in class C could cause a flashover between pins 2 and 3 on the octal base, whereas the 807 had the anode connected to a top cap, physically distant from all the base pins.
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Bias-induced scanning probe lithography (b-SPL) uses the high electrical fields created at the apex of a probe tip when voltages are applied between tip and sample to facilitate and confining a variety of chemical reactions to decompose gases or liquids in order to locally deposit and grow materials on surfaces.
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Effect on VGSC At this point, the effects of JZTX-XII on sodium channels are largely unknown. Effect on potassium channels JZTX-XII specifically acts on Kv4.1 potassium channels. It modulates potassium current by shifting Kv4.1 activation to more depolarized voltages and by producing a concentration- dependent slowing of activation and inactivation kinetics.
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The upper laser level is excited efficiently by electrons with more than 11 eV, best energy is 15 eV. The electron temperature in the streamers only reaches 0.7 eV. Helium due to its higher ionisation energy and lack of vibrational excitations increases the temperature to 2.2 eV. Higher voltages increase the temperature.
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Nuvve offers three-phase AC EVSE certified to UL and European standards with support for up to 480/277 VAC at 120 amps with SAE J3068 and IEC 61851-1 Annex D compliance, in addition to J1772 and Annex A support at lower voltages. See Maryland Electrical Testing Labs listing number E114798.
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A common application is to protect electronic circuits against damaging high voltages. The avalanche diode is connected to the circuit so that it is reverse-biased. In other words, its cathode is positive with respect to its anode. In this configuration, the diode is non-conducting and does not interfere with the circuit.
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However the relative unreliability early XLPE resulted in a slow adoption at transmission voltages. Cables of 330, 400, and 500 kV are commonly constructed using XLPE today, but this has occurred only in recent decades. Figure 4: Typical 15KV insulation class 3-conductor (3/C) paper insulated lead covered (PILC) cable. 1990s vintage.
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These voltages can destroy unshielded electronics. There are no known biological effects of EMP. The ionized air also disrupts radio traffic that would normally bounce off the ionosphere. Electronics can be shielded by wrapping them completely in conductive material such as metal foil; the effectiveness of the shielding may be less than perfect.
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Higher-voltage lines require more space and are usually above-ground since putting them underground is very expensive. There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission and distribution. The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV, and 138 kV are often used for subtransmission in North America.
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Higher voltages than rated voltage cause hydrogen gas formation or a short circuit. Standard supercapacitors with aqueous electrolyte normally are specified with a rated voltage of 2.1 to 2.3 V and capacitors with organic solvents with 2.5 to 2.7 V. Lithium-ion capacitors with doped electrodes may reach a rated voltage of 3.8 to 4 V, but have a lower voltage limit of about 2.2 V. Supercapacitors with ionic electrolytes can exceed an operating voltage of 3.5 V. Operating supercapacitors below the rated voltage improves the long-time behavior of the electrical parameters. Capacitance values and internal resistance during cycling are more stable and lifetime and charge/discharge cycles may be extended. Higher application voltages require connecting cells in series.
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It was found that de Forest's "gassy" version of the Audion could not handle even the relatively low voltages used by telephone lines. (Owing to the way he constructed the tubes, de Forest's Audions would cease to operate with too high a vacuum.) However, careful research by Dr. Harold D. Arnold and his team at AT&T;'s Western Electric subsidiary determined that improving the tube's design would allow it to be more fully evacuated, and the high vacuum allowed it to operate at telephone-line voltages. With these changes the Audion evolved into a modern electron-discharge vacuum tube, using electron flows rather than ions.The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900–1932 by Hugh G. J. Aitken, 1985, pages 235–244. (Dr.
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279-280, archive C2 represents the parasitic capacitance between the windings of coil L3. Tesla's wireless research required increasingly high voltages, and he had reached the limit of the voltages he could generate within the space of his New York lab. Between 1899 and 1900 he built a laboratory in Colorado Springs and performed experiments on wireless transmission there. He chose this location because the polyphase alternating current power distribution system had been introduced there and he had associates who were willing to give him all the power he needed without charging for it. _Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power_ , Leland I. Anderson, 21st Century Books, 2002, p.
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The electric code makes a distinction between "high" voltages above 100 volts, and "low" voltages below that. For circuits defined as low voltage, in some jurisdictions, there is no requirement for licensing, training, or certification of installers, and no inspection of completed work is required, for either residential or commercial work. Low voltage cabling run in the walls and ceilings of commercial buildings is also typically excluded from the requirements to be installed in protective conduit. The precise reasoning for the selection of 100 volts as the division between high and low is not clearly defined, but appears to be based on the idea that a person could touch the wires carrying low voltage with dry bare hands, and not be electrocuted, injured, or killed.
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An early advantage of AC is that the power-wasting resistors used in DC locomotives for speed control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the transformer can supply a range of voltages. Separate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary machinery. More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the classic DC motor to be largely replaced with the three-phase induction motor fed by a variable frequency drive, a special inverter that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor speed. These drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify cross-border operation.
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323x323pxThe analogical current signals flowing through the tip/sample nanojunction are sent to the preamplifier, which transforms them into digital voltages that can be read by the data acquisition (DAQ) card of the computer. Many manufacturers integrate the preamplifier in the so-called "CAFM application module", which is a removable component that can be fixed to the AFM (usually very near to the tip to minimize the electrical noise) to perform conductivity measurements. Similarly, many other modules allow AFMs to perform other operations, like scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM) or scanning spreading resistance microscopy (SSRM). In most CAFM experiments the currents measured typically can range between a few picoamperes and hundreds of microamperes, while the voltages readable by the DAQ card usually range between -3 V to +3V.
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In analog circuits a high impedance node is one that does not have any low impedance paths to any other nodes in the frequency range being considered. Since the terms low and high depend on context to some extent, it is possible in principle for some high impedance nodes to be described as low impedance in one context, and high impedance in another; so the node (perhaps a signal source or amplifier input) has relatively low currents for the voltages involved. High impedance nodes have higher thermal noise voltages and are more prone to capacitive and inductive noise pick up. When testing, they are often difficult to probe as the impedance of an oscilloscope or multimeter can heavily affect the signal or voltage on the node.
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So we see vc, ve, and vb, as well as ic, ie, and ib. Using these conventions, in a common emitter amplifier, the ratio ''''' represents the small-signal voltage gain at the transistor and ''''' the small-signal trans-resistance from which the name transistor is derived by contraction. In this convention, vi and vo usually refer to the external input and output voltages of the circuit or stage. Similar conventions were applied to circuits involving vacuum tubes or thermionic valves as they were known outside of the U.S. Therefore, we see VP, VK, and VG referring to plate (or anode outside of the U.S.), cathode (note K, not C) and grid voltages in analyses of vacuum triode, tetrode, and pentode circuits.
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Therefore, electrically driven actuators of nanotube sheets are superior to the conjugated polymer actuators which involve solid-state dopant diffusion and structural changes limiting rate, cycle life, and energy conversion efficiencies. On the other hand, ferroelectric and electrostrictive materials are also very useful for direct energy conversion, but they require high operation voltages and ambient temperature of a limited range. Nanotube sheet actuators were shown to operate at low voltages (≈1 volts or less) and provide higher work densities per cycle than other alternative technologies. Later Baughman et al. showed that actuator response can be observed up to switching rates of 1 kHz and cycling the nanotube actuator at constant rate of 1 Hz for 140,000 cycles decreases the stroke by ≈33%.
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Demonstration of the Nevada Lightning Laboratory 1:12 scale prototype twin Tesla Coil at Maker Faire 2008 Modern transistor or vacuum tube Tesla coils do not use a primary spark gap. Instead, the transistor(s) or vacuum tube(s) provide the switching or amplifying function necessary to generate RF power for the primary circuit. Solid-state Tesla coils use the lowest primary operating voltage, typically between 155 and 800 volts, and drive the primary winding using either a single, half-bridge, or full-bridge arrangement of bipolar transistors, MOSFETs or IGBTs to switch the primary current. Vacuum tube coils typically operate with plate voltages between 1500 and 6000 volts, while most spark gap coils operate with primary voltages of 6,000 to 25,000 volts.
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This method was described by Braun some time ago. The chief point in his new arrangement, however, is not the sub-division of the gap merely but their arrangement, by which they are charged in parallel, at low voltages, and discharge in series. The Nobel Prize awarded to Braun in 1909 depicts this design.
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Slew rates of ICA, VCA and settling time of VREF are not specified. According to Texas Instruments, power-on transient lasts for around 2 μs. Initially, VCA quickly rises to ≈2 V, and then locks at this level for around 1 μs. Charging internal capacitances to steady-state voltages takes up 0.51 μs more.
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These ballasts convert the incoming power to an output frequency in excess of . This increases lamp efficiency. These ballasts operate with voltages that can be almost 600 volts, requiring some consideration in housing design, and can cause a minor limitation in the length of the wire leads from the ballast to the lamp ends.
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The end-point of a given overclock is determined by parameters such as available CPU multipliers, bus dividers, voltages; the user's ability to manage thermal loads, cooling techniques; and several other factors of the individual devices themselves such as semiconductor clock and thermal tolerances, interaction with other components and the rest of the system.
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The main reason for using either MDCL method (or the combination of the two) is to save power and money. Alternatively, for the same total power consumption, the transmission coverage can be somewhat improved. The AMC method has two other advantages. It limits the peak voltages on transmitter and antenna circuits, possibly preventing damaging arcs.
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Such sparks have been known to cause fuel-air explosions and precautions must be taken to prevent them."Fundamentals of Electrostatic Discharge", Compliance Magazine, 1 May 2015. Retrieved 25 June 2015. A large and energetic EMP can induce high currents and voltages in the victim unit, temporarily disrupting its function or even permanently damaging it.
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This quantum coherence may yield new applications for quantum well modulators in optical communications. Recently, advances in crystal growth have triggered the study of self organized quantum dots. Since the EAM requires small size and low modulation voltages, possibility of obtaining quantum dots with enhanced electro-absorption coefficients makes them attractive for such application.
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The achievable jitter may be below 5 nanoseconds. The required trigger pulse voltage is about 200–2000 volts; higher voltages decrease the switching delay to some degree. Commutation time can be somewhat shortened by increasing the trigger pulse rise time. A given krytron tube will give very consistent performance to identical trigger pulses (low jitter).
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A transient analysis is then run with the supply voltages set to their final values, letting the outputs evolve normally. The values of the FGs can then be extracted and used for posterior small-signal simulations, connecting a voltage supply with the initial FG value to the floating gate using a very-high-value inductor.
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Amtrak ACS-64 The ACS-64 (Cities Sprinter) design is based on the EuroSprinter, but with substantial modifications to meet United States safety standards including crumple zones and an improved safety cage for the driver. It supports all three catenary voltages used in the northeast U.S., which is the only region with substantial intercity electrification.
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They are so called because they are in units of impedance and relate port currents to a port voltage. The z-parameters are not the only way that transfer matrices are defined for two-port networks. There are six basic matrices that relate voltages and currents each with advantages for particular system network topologies.
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In 1930, the BS 196 standard for industrial plugs and sockets was introduced. The plugs are available in 5 A, 15 A and 30 A variants, with various configurations of keyways and pins to cater for different voltages. BS 196 plugs have now been superseded by BS 4343 (CEE type) connectors in most modern applications.
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Precession electron diffraction is typically conducted using accelerating voltages between 100-400 kV. Patterns can be formed under parallel or convergent beam conditions. Most modern TEMs can achieve a tilt angle, φ, ranging from 0-3°. Precession frequencies can be varied from Hz to kHz, but in standard cases 60 Hz has been used.
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When a negative gate- source voltage (positive source-gate) is applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-channel case, but with opposite polarities of charges and voltages. The increase in hole density corresponds to increase in capacitance, shown in the left part of right figure.
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To use it, measurements on fully charged and fully discharged batteries of the same type can be used to determine resistances associated with those states. The cost of an ESR meter makes it uneconomic for measuring battery voltages as its only function, but a meter used for cheeking capacitors can take on the additional duty.
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The optical channel is made as thin as possible for a desired breakdown voltage. For example, to be rated for short-term voltages of 3.75 kV and transients of 1 kV/μs, the clear polyimide sheet in the Avago ASSR-300 series is only 0.08 mm thick.Avago Technologies (2007). ASSR-301C and ASSR-302C (datasheet).
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Most battery belts and power supplies output 13.2 V, but equipment can usually handle a range of 11–18 volts to accommodate battery packs of varying voltages and charging while operating. The readily available XLR3 is also used by some manufacturers as power supply plugs despite their being a well-accepted standard for other purposes.
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Porcelain insulator for medium-high voltage Porcelain and other ceramic materials have many applications in engineering, especially ceramic engineering. Porcelain is an excellent insulator for use with high voltages, especially in outdoor applications (see Insulator (electricity)#Material). Examples include: terminals for high-voltage cables, bushings of power transformers, and insulation of high-frequency antennas.
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RIC table In the RIC table painted on the coach the permitted top speed, voltages and maximum current through the collector is stated. An anchor symbol indicates that the coach is suitable for use on ferries. If country codes are displayed in the table, the coach is only cleared for use in those countries.
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Nano-Spindt arrays represent an evolution of the traditional Spindt- type emitter. Each individual tip is several orders of magnitude smaller; as a result, gate voltages can be lower, since the distance from tip to gate is reduced. In addition, the current extracted from each individual tip is lower, which should result in improved reliability.
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In 1960 she moved to the Department of Regulation Theory at the Silesian University of Technology headed by physicist and engineer, Professor. Stefan Węgrzyn. Under his supervision, she completed her PhD thesis on Voltages and currents arising when disconnecting electrical systems contain long lines the same year, earning the title of Doctor of Technical Sciences.
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Modern stepper controllers drive the motor with much higher voltages than the motor nameplate rated voltage, and limit current through chopping. The usual setup is to have a positioning controller, known as an indexer, sending step and direction pulses to a separate higher voltage drive circuit which is responsible for commutation and current limiting.
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LM317 with heat sink The LM317 is a popular adjustable positive linear voltage regulator. It was designed by Bob Dobkin in 1976 while he worked at National Semiconductor. The LM337 is the negative complement to the LM317, which regulates voltages below a reference. It was designed by Bob Pease, who also worked for National Semiconductor.
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Low system voltages beginning at 7:45 am on Tuesday, August 24, 2010, caused Amtrak to order an essentially system-wide stoppage of trains within the 25 Hz traction network. Slow-speed service was gradually restored, and the power problem was corrected by 9:00 am, although delays persisted the remainder of the morning.
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These connectors are polarized so that they usually cannot be inserted incorrectly. They lock into position using an integrated latch. Standard pinout: Power good goes high to indicate that voltages are stabilised and ready for use. Power on is internally driven high, and shorting this pin to ground will turn on the power supply.
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Figure 9. Cross-coupled switched-capacitor voltage doubler Cross-coupled switched capacitor circuits come into their own for very low input voltages. Wireless battery driven equipment such as pagers, bluetooth devices and the like may require a single-cell battery to continue to supply power when it has discharged to under a volt.Peluso et al.
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PDF SB buffer containing sodium borate is similar to lithium borate and has nearly all of its advantages at a somewhat lower cost, but the lithium buffer permits use of even higher voltages due to the lower conductivity of lithium ions as compared to sodium ions and has a better resolution for fragments above 4kb.
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X-ray cablesKreuger 1991 Vol. 1, pp. 65, 133 are used in lengths of several meters to connect the HV source with an X-ray tube or any other HV device in scientific equipment. They transmit small currents, in the order of milliamperes at DC voltages of 30 to 200 kV, or sometimes higher.
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If the capacitance is very small, the voltage build up can be large enough to prevent another electron from tunnelling. The electric current is then suppressed at low bias voltages and the resistance of the device is no longer constant. The increase of the differential resistance around zero bias is called the Coulomb blockade.
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The photoresist is stripped. At some point during the subsequent fabrication process, implanted ions are activated by annealing at an elevated temperature. In principle, any number of threshold voltage transistors can be produced. For CMOS having two threshold voltages, one additional photomasking and implantation step is required for each of p-MOSFET and n-MOSFET.
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Helix Semiconductors, formerly Semitrex, is an Irvine, California-based fabless semiconductor company that designs chips for improved power management. The company's patented capacitive voltage reduction technology uses cascading capacitors to store power and convert voltages on chips, reducing the energy consumption of electronic devices. The company also has offices throughout the United States and in Europe.
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Generalization of circuit theory based on scalar quantities to vectorial currents is a necessity for newly evolving circuits such as spin circuits. Generalized circuit variables consist of four components: scalar current and vector spin current in x, y, and z directions. The voltages and currents each become vector quantities with conductance described as a 4x4 spin conductance matrix.
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Each circuit detects a defined section of track, such as a block. These sections are separated by insulated joints, usually in both rails. To prevent one circuit from falsely powering another in the event of insulation failure, the electrical polarity is usually reversed from section to section. Circuits are powered at low voltages (1.5 to 12 V DC).
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The 512 Series resembled the A4, but with a major advancement: use of digital control voltages to the projector. This enabled the use of programmed sequences. The Big Model B Spitz departed from his earlier designs with the Model B, now using two very large star hemispheres in the Zeiss "dumbbell" configuration. Only 10 were installed in unique mounts.
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They are rarely able to handle currents exceeding 250 mA owing to the limits of plate power dissipation, and cannot be used for low voltage applications, such as battery chargers. Another limitation of the vacuum tube rectifier is that the heater power supply often requires special arrangements to insulate it from the high voltages of the rectifier circuit.
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A computer model of the sweep of the oscilloscopeSome oscilloscopes have cursors. These are lines that can be moved about the screen to measure the time interval between two points, or the difference between two voltages. A few older oscilloscopes simply brightened the trace at movable locations. These cursors are more accurate than visual estimates referring to graticule lines.
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Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) maps out the electrical conductivity of the ground using a two- dimensional grid of electrodes. Pairs of electrodes receive a small current and the resulting voltages measured on the remaining electrodes. The data are analyzed to construct a map of the conductivity. Both metallic and non- metallic mines will show up as anomalies.
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Once the receiver servo settled, the fine channel normally retained control. For very critical applications, three-speed synchro systems have been used. So called multispeed synchros have stators with many poles, so that their output voltages go through several cycles for one physical revolution. For two-speed systems, these do not require gearing between the shafts.
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The first 110 kV transmission line in Europe was built around 1912 between Lauchhammer and Riesa, German Empire. Original pole. Voltages used for electric power transmission increased throughout the 20th century. The first "high voltage" AC power station, rated 4-MW 10-kV 85-Hz, was put into service in 1889 by Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti at Deptford, London.
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When oscillating electric currents flow at the correct voltages within radio antennas, radio waves are generated. In electronics, other forms of electric current include the flow of electrons through resistors or through the vacuum in a vacuum tube, the flow of ions inside a battery or a neuron, and the flow of holes within metals and semiconductors.
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The device consists of two layers of graphene separated by an insulating layer of boron nitride a few atomic layers thick. Electrons move through this barrier by quantum tunneling. These new transistors exhibit negative differential conductance, whereby the same electric current flows at two different applied voltages. In June, an 8 transistor 1.28 GHz ring oscillator circuit was described.
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Power will be delivered as long as the waves can deliver mechanical power to the buoy and as long as the translator has not reached its upper or lower end stop. The current will increase when the speed of the translator increases. This non- linear power extraction results in different shapes of the voltages and the current pulses.
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An argument in favor of the likelihood principle is given by Edwards in his book Likelihood. He cites the following story from J.W. Pratt, slightly condensed here. Note that the likelihood function depends only on what actually happened, and not on what could have happened. : An engineer draws a random sample of electron tubes and measures their voltages.
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Power distribution system voltage is nearly sinusoidal in nature. Voltages are expressed as root mean square (RMS) voltage. Voltage tolerances are for steady-state operation. Momentary heavy loads, or switching operations in the power distribution network, may cause short-term deviations out of the tolerance band and storms and other unusual conditions may cause even larger transient variations.
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For higher voltages (above 500 V), MHV and SHV connectors are typically used. MHV connectors are easily mistaken for BNC type, and can be made to mate with them by brute force. The SHV connector was developed as a safer alternative, it will not mate with ordinary BNC connectors and the inner conductor is much harder to accidentally contact.
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Hazards of ultrasonic welding include exposure to high heat levels and voltages. This equipment should be operated using the safety guidelines provided by the manufacturer to avoid injury. For instance, operators must never place hands or arms near the welding tip when the machine is activated.American Welding Society, Welding Handbook: Welding Science and Technology, p. 750.
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This can be demonstrated by putting one end of a pair of wires in a hand drill and turning while maintaining moderate tension on the line. Where the interfering signal has a wavelength that is long compared to the pitch of the twisted pair, alternate lengths of wires develop opposing voltages, tending to cancel the effect of the interference.
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Submarine power cables at very high voltages (> 400 kV) are a very demanding application. The paper is normally 65-155 g/m2 and mostly produced on two ply paper machines. An advantage of using paper in sea cables is that in case of leakage, the paper will swell and prevent water from flowing along the cable.
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Chinese torture victim Gao Rongrong showing scars incurred from an electric baton. Cattle prods today are designed with a high range of voltages and currents. If more powerful prods are applied continuously to the skin, the current eventually causes heating, searing, burning, and scarring of skin at the contact point. Electric prods have found favour with torturers.
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Several methods have been proposed for achieving this. In one of these, two graphs are constructed, one representing the currents in the circuit and the other representing the voltages. Passive components will have identical branches in both trees but active components may not. The method relies on identifying spanning trees that are common to both graphs.
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Resonant magnetic power transfer was pioneered by Nikola Tesla. Some of his later Tesla coils use a loosely coupled resonant magnetic power system. The lower coil was energised, and this transferred power via magnetic resonance to the resonant top coil where the high voltage was generated. This was predominantly done to avoid arcing and permit higher voltages.
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In the coherent case, all of the components are exactly in phase, and their voltages simply add, while in the non-coherent case the phases are random and the distortion powers add together. The coherent case represents the most conservative (i.e. worst-case) answer, and the non-coherent case is generally a more accurate description for most systems.
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Today, ComEd is a unit of Chicago-based Exelon Corporation, one of the nation's largest electric and gas utility holding companies. ComEd provides electric service to more than 3.8 million customers across Northern Illinois. Commonwealth Edison's transmission lines operate at voltages of 69,000, 138,000, 345,000, and 765,000 volts, delivering power to their 3.8 million customer base.
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The motor–generator was a vertical type two-bearing machine with oil-bath bearings. Motors and generators may be coupled by a non-conductive shaft in facilities that need to closely control electromagnetic radiation,Physical Security Standard for Construction of Sensitive Compartmented Information Facilities , DIANE Publishing, 1994 , page 27 or where high isolation from transient surge voltages is required.
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Secondary breakdown can occur both with forward and reverse base drive.L.W. Turner,(ed), Electronics Engineer's Reference Book, 4th ed. Newnes- Butterworth, London 1976 , pages 8-45 and 8-46 Except at low collector-emitter voltages, the secondary breakdown limit restricts the collector current more than the steady-state power dissipation of the device.SANYO Semiconductor Co., Ltd.
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If a capacitor or inductor is added to a DC circuit, the resulting circuit is not, strictly speaking, a DC circuit. However, most such circuits have a DC solution. This solution gives the circuit voltages and currents when the circuit is in DC steady state. Such a circuit is represented by a system of differential equations.
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A lattice tower is a framework construction made of steel or aluminium sections. Lattice towers are used for power lines of all voltages, and are the most common type for high-voltage transmission lines. Lattice towers are usually made of galvanized steel. Aluminium is used for reduced weight, such as in mountainous areas where structures are placed by helicopter.
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Image silicon atoms (Si) enlarged about 45,000,000x. The p–n junction possesses essential properties for modern electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, and hence non-conductive, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions.
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USB hosts compliant with this USB specification can be requested by USB devices to provide alternative voltages (9, 15 and 20 V) and higher currents up to 3 A at 5 V (for a power consumption of up to 15 W) and optionally up to 5 A at either 12 V (60 W) or 20 V (100 W).
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The thickness and dimensions of a banknote are tested to ensure they are correct. US currency is 2.61 inches wide by 6.14 inches in length and are 0.0042 inches thick, and weigh 1 gram. Currency printed prior to 10 July 1929 had larger physical characteristics. As the notes pass between the rollers, the voltages vary according to their thickness.
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In solid-state avalanche devices, a high voltage automatically leads to high current. Because the high voltage is applied only for a short time, solid-state switches will not heat up excessively. As compensation for the higher voltages encountered, the later stages have to carry lower charge too. Stage cooling and capacitor recharging also go well together.
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Avalanche diodes can replace a spark gap for stage voltages less than 500 volts. The charge carriers easily leave the electrodes, so no extra ionisation is needed and jitter is low. The diodes also have a longer lifetime than spark gaps. A speedy switching device is an NPN avalanche transistor fitted with a coil between base and emitter.
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The photoresistors easily withstood voltages up to 400 volts,PerkinElmer, p. 3 which made them ideal for driving vacuum fluorescent displays. Other industrial applications included photocopiers, industrial automation, professional light measurement instruments and auto-exposure meters. Most of these applications are now obsolete, but resistive opto- isolators retained a niche in audio, in particular guitar amplifier, markets.
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The Japanese EIAJ standard includes five different sizes, with each supporting a specified range of voltages. Most of the other coaxial DC power connectors have no specified voltage association, however. Generic plugs are often named for the pin diameter they are designed to take. Many non-proprietary co-axial power plugs are in outside diameter (OD) and in length.
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A sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.
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They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large- volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
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The other end of the source and load are connected to taps along the winding. Different taps on the winding correspond to different voltages, measured from the common end. In a step-down transformer the source is usually connected across the entire winding while the load is connected by a tap across only a portion of the winding.
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The cell potential can be predicted through the use of electrode potentials (the voltages of each half-cell). These half-cell potentials are defined relative to the assignment of 0 volts to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE). (See table of standard electrode potentials). The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the potential measured.
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Cloverland Electric's transmission line voltage is 138,000 volts. Their subtransmission voltage is 69,000 volts. Distribution voltages are 14,400 volts and 13,200/7,620 volts. The cooperative has interconnections with Consumers Energy via two 138 kV cables submerged under the Straits of Mackinac and with Upper Peninsula Power Company and We Energies via 69 kV and 138 kV lines.
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New designs of power pHEMT (some with capabilities of over 100 W at 2 GHz) were developed and fabricated using this knowledge, which achieved high breakdown voltages whilst retaining excellent signal gain at microwave frequencies.M. Akkul, M. Sarfraz, J. Mayock, and W. Bosch, "50 watt MMIC power amplifier design for 2 GHz applications," in Proc. IEEE Int. Microwave Symp.
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The dimensions of the piezoelectric crystal define the resonance frequency, while its dielectric environment can cause small shifts of the resonance. The low voltage electronics continuously adjusts the frequency to keep the transformer operating within the resonance. At the resonance, such transformers offer very high voltage conversion factors up to 1000 with voltages of 5 – 15 kV.
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Telephone service for dispatchers and service personnel between way stations along railways used a form of party line service for many decades starting in the early 1900s. Railroad telephone systems often consisted of several dozen way stations interconnected with a shared line that used DC voltages as high as 400 V for selective signaling to alert called stations.
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Silicon germanium (SiGe) is a Si-based compound semiconductor technology offering higher-speed transistors than conventional Si devices but with similar cost advantages. Gallium nitride (GaN) is also an option for MMICs. Because GaN transistors can operate at much higher temperatures and work at much higher voltages than GaAs transistors, they make ideal power amplifiers at microwave frequencies.
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However, the modification must be done professionally as the high voltages that power these lamps can be lethal. Commercially made, submersible fishing lights are available on the internet. The power ballast and lamp housing is mounted on a pole in a dry location. The lamp, potted in a waterproof housing, is connected to the ballast via a waterproof cable.
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The digital protective relay is a protective relay that uses a microprocessor to analyze power system voltages, currents or other process quantities for the purpose of detection of faults in an electric power system or industrial process system. A digital protective relay may also be called a "numeric protective relay". It is also called numerical relay.
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Rectified voltage regulated by phase control Phase-fired control (PFC), also called phase cutting or "phase angle control", is a method for power limiting, applied to AC voltages. It works by modulating a thyristor, SCR, triac, thyratron, or other such gated diode-like devices into and out of conduction at a predetermined phase of the applied waveform.
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Einthoven's triangle is an imaginary formation of three limb leads in a triangle used in electrocardiography, formed by the two shoulders and the pubis. The shape forms an inverted equilateral triangle with the heart at the center that produces zero potential when the voltages are summed. It is named after Willem Einthoven, who theorized its existence.
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The conductor shield is always permanently bonded to the EPR or XLPE cable insulation in solid dielectric cable. The semi conductive insulation shield can be bonded or removable depending on the desires of the purchaser. For voltages 69KV and up the insulation shield is generally bonded. Strippable insulation shield is purchased to reduce splicing time and skill.
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The 8080 integrated circuit uses non-saturated enhancement- load nMOS gates, demanding extra voltages (for the load-gate bias). It was manufactured in a silicon gate process using a minimal feature size of 6 µm. A single layer of metal is used to interconnect the approximately 6,000 transistorsReichel-Orbital museum – CPU Collection. Museum.reichel-orbital.de. Retrieved on October 23, 2011.
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In coaxial cable the center conductor must be supported exactly in the middle of the hollow shield to prevent EM wave reflections. Finally, wires that expose voltages higher than 60 V can cause human shock and electrocution hazards. Insulating coatings help to prevent all of these problems. Some wires have a mechanical covering with no voltage rating—e.g.
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For example, the polymer dispersed liquid crystal display (also called a P.D.L.C. display), is usually operated at voltages from 4.5 V to 24 V to as high as 100 V. Similarly, dichroic dye containing guest host displays, require voltages from 4.5 V to 10 V and higher. However, the P.D.L.C. display and many dichroic dye containing guest host displays, such as the White-Taylor Phase Change display, do not require polarizers, which is a significant advantage over TN or STN displays. Lacking polarizers these displays commonly have lower contrast than TN or STN displays, But are often sunlight readable, and usually have no backlight, and hence no backlight glare. Polarizer free displays enable low cost devices, since the polarizer is one of the more expensive components comprising the common liquid crystal display.
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For example, to convert the DC power supply to high-frequency AC, use a transformer — small, light, and cheap due to the high frequency — to change the voltage, and rectify back to DC.There is at least one example of a very large (three refrigerator-size cabinets) and complex pre-transistor switching regulator using thyratron gas-filled tubes, although they appear to be used as regulators rather than for DC-to-DC conversion as such. This was the 1958 power supply for the IBM 704 computer, using 90 kW of power. Although by 1976 transistor car radio receivers did not require high voltages, some amateur radio operators continued to use vibrator supplies and dynamotors for mobile transceivers requiring high voltages although transistorized power supplies were available.Radio Amateur's Handbook 1976, pub.
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One was that there was a fundamental ratio between the acceleration provided by the grid and the electron gun at the back of the tube; in order to ensure that the grid could successfully control the beam, it had to have a significant proportion of the overall power. Unfortunately the mechanical layout of the grid limited it to voltages of about 5000 V or less, which in turn limited the electron gun to relatively low voltages around 8000 V. Thus the overall power in the Chromatron was less than in conventional tubes, offsetting its natural brightness to some degree.History The more pressing concern was the mechanical layout of the grid. Getting the fine wires to stay aligned with the strips of color on the screen proved to be the design's Achilles heel.
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In the United States, Canada, and parts of Central and South America similar customers are normally served by three-wire single phase. Three-wire single-phase requires local transformers, as few as one per ten residences, but provides lower, safer voltages at the socket (usually 120 V), and provides two voltages to customers: neutral to phase (usually 120 V), and phase to phase (usually 240 V). Additionally, three-wire customers normally have neutral wired to the zero side of the generator's windings, which gives earthing that can be easily measured to be safe. These meters have a metering equation of Watts = 0.5 x volts x (amps of phase A − amps of phase B), with volts measured between the phase wires. Industrial power is normally supplied as three phase power.
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The proposal of bipolar magnetic semiconductor (BMS) is aimed to realize electrical control of carriers' spin orientation, which is a key scientific problem in developing high performance spintronics devices, since electric field can be easily applied locally, in contrast to magnetic field. In BMS, the carriers' spin orientation can be controlled simply by altering the sign of the applied gate voltage. Under zero gate voltage (VG = 0), BMS is semiconducting. Under negative gate voltages (VG < 0) which shift down the material's Fermi level (EF) into spin-flip gap Δ2 in valence band, BMS conducts with carriers fully spin up polarized, while the conducting carriers change to be fully spin down polarized when positive gate voltages (VG > 0) push the Fermi level (EF) up into spin-flip gap Δ3 in conduction band.
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Voltages for NiMH batteries range from 7.2 V to 12 V. The usual rule of thumb is that the higher the mAh rating, the longer the battery lasts; the higher the voltage, the higher the rate of fire. Recently, however, the more energy-dense lithium polymer (Li-Po) batteries are becoming more popular in the airsoft world, since they last longer, have higher mAh and voltages, and can be charged more frequently without concerns for voltage depression, while at the same time being small and lightweight. Li-Po batteries are usually rated at 7.4 V or 11.1 V, and varying between 500 mAh and 6500 mAh. External modifications, such as metal bodies and reinforced plastics that make AEGs look and feel even more realistic, have become very popular.
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Although alternating current is commonly described as being "120 V" or "240 V", this is the root mean square of the actual full peak voltage of the AC sinewave, which is +/- 170 V for 120 V and +/- 339 V for 240 V. Additionally, 120 V and 240 V are considered nominal voltages, and actual voltages may be somewhat higher or lower during normal operation. The range of this variability is not well-defined but can be as much as +/- 20 volts (100 V - 140 V and 220 V - 260 V). This pushes the peak line voltage up to +/- 198 V for 120 V and +/- 368 V for 240 V. Off line regulators must also be tolerant of voltage spikes, surges, brownouts, and other power quality conditions that may affect the electronic device.
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In electrical engineering, modified nodal analysis or MNA is an extension of nodal analysis which not only determines the circuit's node voltages (as in classical nodal analysis), but also some branch currents. Modified nodal analysis was developed as a formalism to mitigate the difficulty of representing voltage-defined components in nodal analysis (e.g. voltage- controlled voltage sources). It is one such formalism.
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High currents and low voltages also make low equivalent series resistance (ESR) important. Solid tantalum capacitors offer low ESR versions that can often meet ESR requirements but they are not the lowest ESR option among all capacitors. Solid tantalums have an additional issue which must be addressed during the design stage. Solid tantalum capacitors must be voltage derated in all applications.
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At breakpoints, data and program memory can be read and modified using the MPLAB IDE. The ICD 3 firmware is field upgradeable using the MPLAB IDE. The ICD 3 can be used to erase, program or reprogram PIC MCU program memory, while the device is installed on target hardware, using ICSP. Target device voltages from 2.0V to 5.5V are supported.
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The IBEX-Hi instrument is recording particle counts in a higher energy band (300 eV to 6 keV) than the IBEX-Lo energy band (10 eV to 2 keV). The scientific payload also includes a Combined Electronics Unit (CEU) that controls the voltages on the collimator and the ESA, and it reads and records data from the particle detectors of each sensor.
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Some of these voltages will need to be regulated. Thus a significant part of the total design will consist of power supplies. Power supplies will be integrated into the control and protection systems of the transmitter, which will turn them on in the proper sequence and protect them from overloads. Often rather complicated logic systems will be required for these functions.
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As for oxide intercalation (or insertion) anode materials, similar classes of materials where the lithium cation is inserted into crystallographic vacancies within a metal host lattice have been discovered and studied since 1997. In general because of the metallic lattice, these types of materials, for example Cu6Sn5, Mn2Sb, lower voltages and higher capacities have been found when compared to their oxide counterparts.
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Each plate is able to withstand about 20 volts in the reverse direction. The metal squares, or disks, also serve as heat sinks in addition to providing a mounting place for the selenium disks. Plates can be stacked indefinitely to withstand higher voltages. Stacks of thousands of miniature selenium disks have been used as high-voltage rectifiers in television sets and photocopy machines.
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Each cell can withstand a reverse voltage around 25 volts and has a forward voltage drop around 1 volt, which limits the efficiency at low voltages. Selenium rectifiers have an operating temperature limit of 130 °C and are not suitable for high-frequency circuits.H. P. Westman (ed), Reference Data for Radio Engineers Fifth Edition, Howard W. Sams & Co., Inc. 1968, chapter 13.
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While transformers are usually used to change voltages, isolation transformers with a 1:1 ratio are used in safety applications. If two electronic systems have a common ground, they are not galvanically isolated. The common ground might not normally and intentionally have connection to functional poles, but might become connected. For this reason isolation transformers do not supply a GND/earth pole.
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By making these units publicly available, AEDs have improved outcomes for sudden out-of-hospital cardiac arrests. Trained health professionals have more limited use for AEDs than manual external defibrillators. Recent studies show that AEDs does not improve outcome in patients with in-hospital cardiac arrests. AEDs have set voltages and does not allow the operator to vary voltage according to need.
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In practice, the resolver is usually directly mounted to an electric motor. The resolver feedback signals are usually monitored for multiple revolutions by another device. This allows for geared reduction of assemblies being rotated and improved accuracy from the resolver system. Because the power supplied to the resolvers produces no actual work, the voltages used are usually low (<24 VAC) for all resolvers.
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Usually, capacitance in semiconductor devices is positive. However, in some devices and under certain conditions (temperature, applied voltages, frequency, etc.), capacitance can become negative. Non-monotonic behavior of the transient current in response to a step-like excitation has been proposed as the mechanism of negative capacitance. Negative capacitance has been demonstrated and explored in many different types of semiconductor devices.
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Differently colored wires and color-coding discipline are often adhered to for consistency. However, the number of available colors is typically far fewer than the number of signal types or paths. Typically, a few wire colors are reserved for the supply voltages and ground (e.g., red, blue, black), some are reserved for main signals, and the rest are simply used where convenient.
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Varistors are used as control or compensation elements in circuits either to provide optimal operating conditions or to protect against excessive transient voltages. When used as protection devices, they shunt the current created by the excessive voltage away from sensitive components when triggered. The name varistor is a portmanteau of varying resistor. The term is only used for non-ohmic varying resistors.
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Kerite products include high voltage and specialty cable for applications such as underwater use and areas with high ground water levels. High voltage cable is Kerite’s flagship product, made for voltages ranging from 46kV through 138kV. This cable is used for power transmission applications. Specialty cable includes medium and high voltage cable for subsea installations such as the Panama Canal.
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In a digital device, these voltages are then sampled, digitized, and usually stored in memory; in an analog device (such as an analog video camera), they are processed into a continuous analog signal (e.g. by feeding the output of the charge amplifier into a low-pass filter), which is then processed and fed out to other circuits for transmission, recording, or other processing.
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It applies the necessary voltages to a device and monitors leakage current. The current can trip a fault indicator. The tester has output overload protection. The test voltage may be either direct current or alternating current at power frequency or other frequency, like resonant frequency (30 to 300 Hz determined by load) or VLF (0.01 Hz to 0.1 Hz), when convenient.
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A battery is a collection of electrochemical cells. If the cells are connected in series, the voltage of the battery will be the sum of the cell voltages. For example, a 12 volt car battery contains six 2-volt cells connected in series. Some vehicles, such as trucks, have two 12 volt batteries in series to feed the 24-volt system.
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It is equivalent to a flyback converter using a single inductor instead of a transformer.The Flyback Converter - Lecture notes - ECEN4517 - Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering - University of Colorado, Boulder. Two different topologies are called buck–boost converter. Both of them can produce a range of output voltages, ranging from much larger (in absolute magnitude) than the input voltage, down to almost zero.
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It uses higher voltages (than urban distribution), which in turn permits use of galvanized steel wire. The strong steel wire allows for less expensive wide pole spacing. In rural areas a pole-mount transformer may serve only one customer. In New Zealand, Australia, Saskatchewan, Canada, and South Africa, Single-wire earth return systems (SWER) are used to electrify remote rural areas.
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For a one-port network, the Z-matrix reduces to a single element, being the ordinary impedance measured between the two terminals.The Z-parameters are also known as the open circuit parameters because they are measured or calculated by applying current to one port and determining the resulting voltages at all the ports while the undriven ports are terminated into open circuits.
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The base band waveforms are calculated inside the software and fed into a digital-analog converter. Here the digital waveforms are converted into voltages. A well-dimensioned anti-aliasing filter is used to create a high-quality modulation signal. Depending on the actual demands and link quality, modulation is adaptively and automatically changed by handshaking with the operating ground station.
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For this reason, the V-groove architecture is no longer used in commercial devices. The device's use was a power device until more suitable geometries, like the UMOS (or Trench-Gate MOS) were introduced in order to lower the maximum electric field at the top of the V shape and thus leading to higher maximum voltages than in case of the VMOS.
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Thoriated filaments can have very long lifetimes and are resistant to the ion bombardment that occurs at high voltages, because fresh thorium continually diffuses to the surface, renewing the layer. They are used in nearly all high-power vacuum tubes for radio transmitters, and in some tubes for hi-fi amplifiers. Their lifetimes tend to be longer than those of oxide cathodes.
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Serge adopted a series of geometric designs denoting signal types, input, outputs, and triggers. Colored 4 mm sockets were used for most connections – blue, black, and red jacks; blue for (unipolar) control voltages, black for bipolar signals (NOT necessarily AC coupled) and red for pulse/gate signals, although these were not rigidly enforced. Later, other colors were introduced, e.g. yellow for triggers.
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Several Moogerfoogers pedals. Moogerfooger is the trademark for a series of analog effects pedals manufactured by Moog Music. There are currently eight different pedals produced; however, one of these models is designed for processing control voltages rather than audio signal. A sixth model, the Analog Delay, was released in a limited edition of 1000 units and has become a collector's item.
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The Neal Station was decommissioned in the early 2000s. Central Power owns and operates 114 distribution substations, 22 high voltage transmission stations with voltages up to 230 kV, and about 1000 miles of 115 kV, 69 kV, 60 kV, and 43.8 kV transmission line interconnected with the Western Area Power Administration, Basin Electric, Otter Tail Power, Montana- Dakota Utilities, and Xcel Energy systems.
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That is, they are set by the values of the currents and voltages in the circuit at the onset of the transient and the presumed value they will settle to after infinite time.Nilsson and Riedel, pp. 287–288. The differential equation for the circuit solves in three different ways depending on the value of . These are overdamped (), underdamped (), and critically damped ().
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FTI sources could be temperature sensors, pressure probes, voltages, current transducers, potentiometers, strain gauges, aircraft data buses or cameras. These sensors may be digitalized and acquired by the data acquisition system. A cockpit audio recording may also be included. A telemetry transmitter may be added to the FTI to allow real-time monitoring of the tests from a ground-station.
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These four batteries could be connected in series or parallel, providing a wide range of voltages and currents, and thus a wide range of speeds.Friedman, pp. 25, 41 In the maneuvering room, two or four of the earlier high-speed motors and reduction gears were replaced by slow-speed motors. All open-front switchboards were replaced with enclosed splash-proof cabinets.
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After 1976, the plate voltages were lowered slightly for improved reliability. But during the 1970s, Marshall's increasing exports overseas led to a problem: Often the EL34 tubes would break during transportation, to the point where amps began being shipped from the factory with more rugged Tung-Sol 6550 tubes, which are "stiffer and not as harmonically rich" as the EL34 tubes.
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This is mostly due to the lower voltages used, resulting in higher currents to produce the same amount of power. It is usually important with a DC appliance to observe polarity, unless the device has a diode bridge to correct for this. EMerge Alliance is the open industry association developing standards of DC power distribution in hybrid houses and commercial buildings.
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One major issue to consider for field emitters is the effect of contamination. In order to achieve electron emission at low voltages, field emitter array tips are built on a micrometer-level scale sizes. Their performance depends on the precise construction of these small structures. They are also dependent on being constructed with a material possessing a low work-function.
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This is a simple connection between two six-pulse thyristor bridges. The de-icer function can be achieved with only a two-winding step-down transformer. Unlike the other two, this circuit can simple controller because the two thyristor bridges can be triggered directly in parallel. As a result, this circuit produces a broader range of harmonic currents and voltages.
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Network isolators are installed as part of a wired Ethernet system as galvanic isolators. Through the applied principle of electromagnetic induction, network data is transmitted across an electrically non-conducting barrier. High frequency AC voltages conveying data are induced across an isolating gap. The network isolator is a passive device, and functions without any requirement of an external power supply.
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Also, a "double battery jump-start" is performed by some tow truck drivers in cold climates. Equipment intended to be powered by the receptacle needs to account for intermittent contact, and voltages outside the nominal , such as maximum voltage continuously, or maximum voltage of lasting , lasting , and lasting .fordemc.com - EMC_CS_2009rev1.pdf An example of protection component ratings tolerance is to .
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A well-designed SWER line can be substantially upgraded as demand grows without new poles.Stone Power AB discusses low cost networks The first step may be to replace the steel wire with more expensive copper-clad or aluminum-clad steel wire. It may be possible to increase the voltage. Some distant SWER lines now operate at voltages as high as 35 kV.
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This minimum voltage is dictated by the need to keep the output transistor of the mirror in active mode. The range of voltages where the mirror works is called the compliance range and the voltage marking the boundary between good and bad behavior is called the compliance voltage. There are also a number of secondary performance issues with mirrors, for example, temperature stability.
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The arithmetic logic functions were fully electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. The family of logic gates ranged from inverters to two and three input gates. The input and output levels and operating voltages were compatible between the different gates. Each gate consisted of one inverting vacuum tube amplifier, preceded by a resistor divider input network that defined the logical function.
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DVD lasers operate at voltages of aronud 2.5 volts. The higher the writing speed, the less time a laser has to heat a point on the media, thus its power has to increase proportionally. DVD burners' lasers often peak at about 200 mW, either in continuous wave and pulses, although some have been driven up to 400 mW before the diode fails.
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Grid voltages do not reach target values, output waveform flattens. Feedback attempts to overcome choking by increasing driver voltage swing, but fails because coupling capacitors cannot physically pass direct current. Resulting distortion pattern, as Williamson proved with photocopies of oscillograms and Lissajous curves, is "of the desirable type", i.e. with abrupt onset of distortion at the extremes of otherwise highly linear response curves.
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The EOG is used to assess the function of the pigment epithelium. During dark adaptation, resting potential decreases slightly and reaches a minimum ("dark trough") after several minutes. When light is switched on, a substantial increase of the resting potential occurs ("light peak"), which drops off after a few minutes when the retina adapts to the light. The ratio of the voltages (i.e.
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This formation is accompanied with heat and hydrogen gas generation. This is tolerable if the energy content of the transient is low. However, when a transient peak voltage causes an electric field strength that is too high for the dielectric, it can directly cause a short circuit. An unambiguous and general specification of tolerable transients or peak voltages is not possible.
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Some electronic components develop lower resistances or lower triggering voltages (for nonlinear resistances) as their internal temperature increases. If circuit conditions cause markedly increased current flow in these situations, increased power dissipation may raise the temperature further by Joule heating. A vicious circle or positive feedback effect of thermal runaway can cause failure, sometimes in a spectacular fashion (e.g. electrical explosion or fire).
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NEMA L14 are three-pole and ground connectors rated for 125/250 V. Intended for three-pole, four-wire hot-hot-neutral-ground circuits with a nominal supply voltages of 240 or 208 V hot-to-hot and 120 V hot-to-neutral. These connectors are common on household backup generators, and on racks of power amplifiers in large audio systems.
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An integrated circuit voltage regulator A voltage regulator is a system designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may use a simple feed-forward design or may include negative feedback. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
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Grids are designed to supply electricity to their customers at largely constant voltages. This has to be achieved with varying demand, variable reactive loads, and even nonlinear loads, with electricity provided by generators and distribution and transmission equipment that are not perfectly reliable. Often grids use tap changers on transformers near to the consumers to adjust the voltage and keep it within specification.
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But this device required additional 2022V VPP bias voltage supply for byte erase, except for 5V read operations. In 1981, Perlegos and 2 other members left Intel to form Seeq Technology, which used on-device charge pumps to supply the high voltages necessary for programming E2PROMs. In 1984, Perlogos left Seeq Technology to found Atmel, then Seeq Technology was acquired by Atmel.
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These lines are mounted on the pylons of the overhead wire over the lines. The voltages used for traction current lines are 110 kV in Germany and Austria and 66 kV or 132 kV in Switzerland. Traction current lines are operated symmetrically against earth. In the case of 110 kV lines, for example, each conductor has a voltage of 55 kV against earth.
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The Lansing Board of Water & Light has an electric generating capacity of 510 megawatts. The BWL's transmission line voltage is 138,000 volts. The BWL's distribution voltages are 13,200/7,620Y, 8,320/4,800Y and 4,160/2,400Y. The Lansing Board of Water & Light pumps an average of approximately 23 million gallons per day (MGD) from two conditioning plants through approximately of water main.
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Consequently, electrical charges accumulate on and beneath the dust layer surface, creating a strong electric field. Voltages can be greater than 10,000 volts. Dust particles with high resistance are held too strongly to the plate, making them difficult to remove and causing rapping problems. In low resistance dust layers, the corona current is readily passed to the grounded collection electrode.
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Many factors determine the level of hazard, including: available fault current, soil type, soil moisture, temperature, underlying rock layers, and clearing time to interrupt a fault. Earth potential rise is a safety issue in the coordination of power and telecommunications services. An EPR event at a site such as an electrical distribution substation may expose personnel, users or structures to hazardous voltages.
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For example, on the original IBM PC, a male D-sub was an RS-232-C DTE port (with a non-standard current loop interface on reserved pins), but the female D-sub connector on the same PC model was used for the parallel "Centronics" printer port. Some personal computers put non-standard voltages or signals on some pins of their serial ports.
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Radio-frequency welding equipment, generally consists of: RF power generator, control unit, press, enclosure, electrodes, and sometimes a handling mechanism. The RF power generator converts line power to high-frequency, high-voltage power for welding. Typical voltages are 1kVAC - 1.5kVAC at a frequency of 27.12 MHz. The power needed for welding is based on the area of the weld, thickness, and the material.
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Some programs allow the user to manually adjust the voltages supplied to the CPU, which reduces both the amount of heat produced and electricity consumed. This process is called undervolting. Some CPUs can automatically undervolt the processor, depending on the workload; this technology is called "SpeedStep" on Intel processors, "PowerNow!"/"Cool'n'Quiet" on AMD chips, LongHaul on VIA CPUs, and LongRun with Transmeta processors.
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Specially calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory instruments capable of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters using amplifiers can measure tiny voltages of microvolts or less. Part of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to check its accuracy. In laboratories, the Weston cell is used as a standard voltage for precision work.
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Van de Graaff was the inventor of the Van de Graaff generator, a device which produces high voltages. During 1929, he developed his first such generator, producing 80,000 volts. By 1933, he had constructed a larger generator generating 7 million volts. Van de Graaff was a National Research Fellow, and from 1931 to 1934 a research associate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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SpeedFan is a system monitor for Microsoft Windows that can read temperatures, voltages and fan speeds of computer components. It can change computer fan speeds depending on the temperature of various components. The program can display system variables as charts and as an indicator in the system tray. Fully configurable user events can be defined to execute specific actions based on system status.
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CMOS chips often work with a broader range of power supply voltages than other logic families. Early TTL ICs required a power supply voltage of 5V, but early CMOS could use 3 to 15V.RCA COSMOS Lowering the supply voltage reduces the charge stored on any capacitances and consequently reduces the energy required for a logic transition. Reduced energy implies less heat dissipation.
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The energy stored in a capacitance C and changing V volts is ½ CV2. By lowering the power supply from 5V to 3.3V, switching power was reduced by almost 60 percent (power dissipation is proportional to the square of the supply voltage). Many motherboards have a voltage regulator module to provide the even lower power supply voltages required by many CPUs.
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The surface passivation process has since been critical to solar cell efficiency. The array of a photovoltaic power system, or PV system, produces direct current (DC) power which fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use of inverters. Multiple solar cells are connected inside modules.
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The main difference is that it uses a single two-way communication data line for half-duplex communication rather than separate transmit and receives lines. It operates at TTL voltages and is ‘multi-drop’ i.e. peripherals can be connected to a common bus and are logically separated by a device address. Each peripheral on the ccTalk bus must have a unique address.
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Biostar has the distinction of being the first to allow end-users to modify voltages and frequencies of the video card's GPU and memory to boost performance to extreme limits (overclocking). Those cards are either called "V-Ranger" or "V-Series". Their mainboards, notably the "T-Power" and "T-Series", have been widely reviewed to be highly overclockable achieving world record FSB overclocks.
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This flexing is transmitted into the water as the seismic pulse.Sheriff R. E., 1991, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa, 376p Originally the storage capacitors were placed in a steel container (the bang box) on the survey vessel. The high voltages used, typically 3,000 V, required heavy cables and strong safety containers. Recently, low voltage boomers have become available.
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In 1889, Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the first three-phase transformer at the Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft ('General Electricity Company') in Germany. In 1891, Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil, an air-cored, dual- tuned resonant transformer for producing very high voltages at high frequency. Audio frequency transformers ("repeating coils") were used by early experimenters in the development of the telephone.
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The BA-4386 was widely used by the US military from 1968 until c.1984 when it was replaced by a lithium thionyl chloride battery. A magnesium–air fuel cell has theoretical operating voltages of 3.1 V and energy densities of 6.8 kWh/kg. General Electric produced a magnesium air fuel cell operating in neutral NaCl solution as early as the 1960s.
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A comparator is an electronic component that compares two input voltages. Comparators are closely related to operational amplifiers, but a comparator is designed to operate with positive feedback and with its output saturated at one power rail or the other. An op-amp can be pressed into service as a poorly performing comparator if necessary, but its slew rate will be impaired.
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The solar array consists of hundreds (or thousands) of photovoltaic solar cells converting sunlight into electricity. Cars can use a variety of solar cell technologies; most often polycrystalline silicon, monocrystalline silicon, or gallium arsenide. The cells are wired together into strings while strings are often wired together to form a panel. Panels normally have voltages close to the nominal battery voltage.
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Low-dropout (LDO) regulators work in the same way as all linear voltage regulators. The main difference between LDO and non-LDO regulators is their schematic topology. Instead of an emitter follower topology, low-dropout regulators use open collector or open drain topology. In this topology, the transistor may be easily driven into saturation with the voltages available to the regulator.
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Performing electrical measurements with a multi-tip STM demands more than four tips and the ability to position them as required. Concerted measurements of currents and voltages with all four tips must be performed. The electronics allows operating each tip either as (biased) current probe, or as voltage probe. Different I-V ramps are applied between different tips (and/or the sample).
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The beads are "bichromal", with hemispheres of two contrasting colors (e.g. black and white, red and white), and charged, so they exhibit an electrical dipole. When voltage is applied to the surface of the sheet, the beads rotate to present one colored side to the viewer. Voltages can be applied to the surface to create images such as text and pictures.
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The results of the prototyping were used to define the design of flight hardware that was built for Deep Space 1 probe. One of the challenges was developing a compact and light weight power processing unit that converts power from the solar arrays into the voltages needed by the engine. The engine achieves a specific impulse of one to three thousand seconds.
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Electromagnetic sensing designs use coils (in the helmet) placed in an alternating field (generated in the flightdeck) to produce alternating electrical voltages based on the movement of the helmet in multiple axes. This technique requires precise magnetic mapping of the flightdeck to account for ferrous and conductive materials in the seat, flightdeck sills and canopy to reduce angular errors in the measurement.
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Leakage current can range from less than a hundred mA at rated voltage up to a few hundred mA at lower voltages. The device can be said to have latching functionality. The hold current is the maximum current at which the device is guaranteed not to trip. The trip current is the current at which the device is guaranteed to trip.
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Zero current output voltage is midway between the supply voltages that maintain a 4 to 8 volt differential. Non-zero current response is proportional to the voltage supplied and is linear to 60 amperes for this particular (25 A) device. When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced. Thus, it is possible to create a non-contacting current sensor.
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When the voltages are nearly equal, the output voltage will not fall into one of the logic levels, thus analog signals will enter the digital domain with unpredictable results. To make this range as small as possible, the amplifier cascade is high gain. The circuit consists of mainly Bipolar transistors. For very high frequencies, the input impedance of the stages is low.
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National Semiconductor LM393 This circuit requires only a single comparator with an open-drain output as in the LM393, TLV3011 or MAX9028. The circuit provides great flexibility in choosing the voltages to be translated by using a suitable pull up voltage. It also allows the translation of bipolar ±5 V logic to unipolar 3 V logic by using a comparator like the MAX972.
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High voltages may lead to electrical breakdown, resulting in an electrical discharge as illustrated by the plasma filaments streaming from a Tesla coil. High voltage electricity refers to electric potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, high voltage refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant special safety requirements and procedures.
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National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation: Cases of high- voltage related casualties . Retrieved on 24 November 2008. At very high transmission voltages even a close approach can be hazardous, since the high voltage may arc across a significant air gap. Digging into a buried cable can also be dangerous to workers at an excavation site.
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In regions with snow, the salts used to melt snow and ice on roadways can accelerate corrosion. Under extreme conditions, pedestals and cabinets may be flooded with water that contains mud and corrosive salts. Corrosion of these flooded components may be accelerated by the presence of dc voltages used to power the networks. Secretions from insects can also accelerate corrosion.
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Strictly speaking, the terms grounding or earthing are meant to refer to an electrical connection to ground/earth. Bonding is the practice of intentionally electrically connecting metallic items not designed to carry electricity. This brings all the bonded items to the same electrical potential as a protection from electrical shock. The bonded items can then be connected to ground to eliminate foreign voltages.
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This turns the spurious noise due to ground loop current into Common-mode interference while the signal is differential, enabling them to be separated at the destination by circuits having a high common-mode rejection ratio. Each signal output has a counterpart in anti-phase, so there are two signal lines, often called hot and cold, carrying equal and opposite voltages, and each input is differential, responding to the difference in potential between the hot and cold wires, not their individual voltages with respect to ground. There are special semiconductor output drivers and line receivers to enable this system to be implemented with a small number of components. These generally give better overall performance than transformers, and probably cost less, but are still relatively expensive because the silicon "chips" necessarily contain a number of very precisely matched resistors.
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If the negative end of the power supply was grounded, the collector resistors would be attached to the positive rail. As the constant voltage drops across the collector resistors change slightly (or not at all), the output voltages follow the supply voltage variations and the two circuit parts act as constant current level shifters. In this case, the voltage divider R1-R2 compensates the voltage variations to some extent. The positive power supply has another disadvantage - the output voltages will vary slightly (±0.4 V) against the background of high constant voltage (+3.9 V). Another reason for using a negative power supply is protection of the output transistors from an accidental short circuit developing between output and groundModern digital electronics By R P Jain (page 111) (but the outputs are not protected from a short circuit with the negative rail).
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In both versions, ALDL data is sent in a format unique to the model of ECU in the vehicle with little standardization between models, so a proper definition of the data is required to interpret it. Most professional scan tools require a large database of vehicle definitions. The signaling of ALDL is similar to the RS-232 serial data standard; differing in the voltages used to denote logical one (usually 0 V DC) and logical zero (either +5 V DC or +12 V DC), and that unlike RS-232, both transmit and receive functions are on the same conductor. Schematics are available on the internet for devices that can be used to convert the ALDL voltages to those of the RS-232 standard, allowing the raw data to be read with a computer having a serial port and the proper software.
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For this reason the twelve-pulse system has become standard on most line-commutated converter HVDC systems built since the 1970s. With line commutated converters, the converter has only one degree of freedom – the firing angle, which represents the time delay between the voltage across a valve becoming positive (at which point the valve would start to conduct if it were made from diodes) and the thyristors being turned on. The DC output voltage of the converter steadily becomes less positive as the firing angle is increased: firing angles of up to 90° correspond to rectification and result in positive DC voltages, while firing angles above 90° correspond to inversion and result in negative DC voltages. The practical upper limit for the firing angle is about 150–160° because above this, the valve would have insufficient turnoff time.
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Electric motors eventually replaced steam engines in factories around the nation as they required neither complex mechanical transmissions from a central engine nor water sources for steam boilers in order to operate. Edison's direct current generation dominated the initial years of indoor commercial and residential electric lighting and electric power distribution. However, DC transmission was hampered by the difficulty in changing voltages between industrial generation and residential/commercial consumption and the low voltages used suffered from poor transmission efficiency. The mid 1880s saw the introduction of the transformer, allowing alternating current to be transmitted at high voltage long distances with greater efficiency and then "stepped down" to supply commercial and domestic indoor lighting, resulting in AC going from being the outdoor "arc lighting current" to taking over the domestic lighting utility market Edison's DC system was designed to supply.
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As a result, if there was a slight difference in ground potential at the two ends of the cable, the voltage in the signal ground pin might not be zero, and large signal voltages were needed to provide a positive signal in this case. To address this problem, the new RS-422 and RS-423 standards used well-defined grounding that was always based on the sender's reference, and made the signal only 400 mV above or below this reference. In the case of RS-422, for instance, every signal had a second pin operating at the opposite voltage, thereby balancing the voltages and always providing a positive signal. When this process was starting, the decision was made to unbundle the mechanical aspects of the standard from the electrical, with the former becoming the RS-449 standards track.
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Extending USB's power capability is also a response to Power over Ethernet, which has more flexible dynamic power negotiation capabilities up to 48 V DC and up to about 1 A, and whose maximum bandwidth is potentially greater than even USB 3.1's 10 Gbit/s. The combination of USB 3.0 and a 6 A limit at the most common (5, 12 and 24 V DC) voltages would permit support of a wider variety of devices, although powered Ethernet can support them at longer cable distances; however, PoweredUSB does not incorporate USB 3.x officially. In general, since the voltage drop at high currents can be significant over even a few meters, higher voltages are desired for larger distances. In 2012, the USB-IF released the USB Power Delivery Specification (USB PD) as an optional part of the USB 2.0 and 3.
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If using an ATX PSU for purposes other than powering an ATX motherboard, power can be fully turned on (it is always partly on to operate "wake-up" devices) by shorting the "power-on" pin on the ATX connector (pin 16, green wire) to a black wire (ground), which is what the power button on an ATX system does. A minimum load on one or more voltages may be required (varies by model and vendor); the standard does not specify operation without a minimum load and a conforming PSU may shut down, output incorrect voltages, or otherwise malfunction, but will not be hazardous or damaged. An ATX power supply is not a replacement for a current-limited bench laboratory DC power supply, instead it is better described as a bulk DC power supply.Using a Computer PSU; J. B. Calvert; University of Denver.
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The electrolysis starts with the application of an external voltage between the electrodes. This process will not occur except at extremely high voltages without an electrolyte such as sodium chloride or sulfuric acid (most used 0.1 M). Bubbles from the gases will be seen near both electrodes. The following half reactions describe the process mentioned above: :Anode (oxidation): 2 H2O(l) → O2(g) \+ 4 H+(aq) \+ 4 e− :Cathode (reduction): 2 H2O(g) \+ 2 e− → H2(g) \+ 2 OH−(aq) :Overall reaction: 2 H2O(l) → 2 H2(g) \+ O2(g) Although strong acids may be used in the apparatus, the reaction will not net consume the acid. While this reaction will work at any conductive electrode at a sufficiently large potential, platinum catalyzes both hydrogen and oxygen formation, allowing for relatively mild voltages (~2 V depending on the pH).
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Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption. Some old, large oil-filled capacitors contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). It is known that waste PCBs can leak into groundwater under landfills.
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Termination tower (overhead line to underground cable) Future termination tower of a 110 kV-line while joins are installed A special kind of a dead-end tower is a termination pylon. Also called a terminal tower. It is used when the overhead power line terminates, and is connected to substation equipment, or transitions to underground cable. For voltages below 30 kV also pylon transformers are used.
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Marcos Rubinstein developed the Cooray-Rubinstein approximation which is frequently used in analysing the voltages induced in power lines by lightning. Vernon Cooray and Marley Becerra developed the lightning interaction simulation program SLIM that can be used to predict the location of lightning strikes to structures. More recently, he together with Dr. Gerald Cooray illustrated a connection between classical electromagnetic fields and time energy uncertainty principle.
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The use of EHD propulsion for lift was studied by American aircraft designer Major Alexander Prokofieff de Seversky in the 1950s and 1960s. He filed a patent for an "ionocraft" in 1959., Filed Aug 31 1959, Published April 28, 1954. He built and flew a model VTOL ionocraft capable of sideways manoeuvring by varying the voltages applied in different areas, although the heavy power supply remained external.
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Fig. 3: Schematic of a laser interferometer for the detection of gravitational waves. Here, squeezed vacuum states are injected and overlapped with the bright field at the central beam splitter to improve the sensitivity. Fig. 4: Photo voltages of a photo diode detecting light. Squeezed light is used to reduce the photon counting noise (shot noise) in optical high-precision measurements, most notably in laser interferometers.
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Capacitors allow alternating current (AC) to flow, but block direct current; they couple ac signals between circuits at different direct voltages. Depending on conditions, a capacitor may fail and become "short circuited", ending its electric isolation function, which creates risk to the "now connected circuit" and, possibly, human danger. To address this question, there are special ratings for capacitors used for safety isolation, such as "Class Y".
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In British electric locomotives the steam generator was usually an electric steam boiler, heated by a large electric immersion heater running at the (then) line voltages of 600 volts from a third rail or 1,500 volts from an overhead wire. The Polish electric locomotive EL204 of 1937 was fitted with an electric steam generator supplied from overhead lines. The locomotive was destroyed during the second world war.
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Gradually the desire for trade eliminated some standards that had been used in only a few countries. Former colonies may retain the standards of the colonising country. Sometimes offshore industrial plants or overseas military bases use the wiring practices of their controlling country instead of the surrounding region. Some countries have multiple voltages, frequencies and plug designs in use, which can create inconvenience and safety hazards.
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The two two-phase windings, fixed at right (90°) angles to each other on the stator, produce a sine and cosine feedback current. The relative magnitudes of the two-phase voltages are measured and used to determine the angle of the rotor relative to the stator. Upon one full revolution, the feedback signals repeat their waveforms. This device may also appear in non-brushless type, i.e.
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Piezoelectric, or piezo, pickups represent another class of pickup. These employ piezoelectricity to generate the musical signal and are popular in hybrid electro-acoustic guitars. A crystal is located under each string, usually in the saddle. When the string vibrates, the shape of the crystal is distorted, and the stresses associated with this change produce tiny voltages across the crystal that can be amplified and manipulated.
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Resonant circuits can generate very high voltages. A tesla coil is a high-Q resonant circuit. Electrical resonance occurs in an electric circuit at a particular resonant frequency when the impedances or admittances of circuit elements cancel each other. In some circuits, this happens when the impedance between the input and output of the circuit is almost zero and the transfer function is close to one.
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TL431-based comparators and invertors can be easily cascaded following the rules of relay logic. For example, a two- stage window voltage monitor will turn on (switching from high-state to low- state output) when : U_{REF} ( 1 + R3/R4 ) < U_{IN} < U_{REF} (1 + R1/R2 ) , provided that R1/R2 is larger than R3/R4 so that the spread between two trip voltages is wide enough.
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While Germany and most of contiguous Europe use , differences in signalling, rules and regulations, electrification voltages, etc. create obstacles for freight operations across borders. These obstacles are slowly being overcome, with international (in- and outgoing) and transit (through) traffic being responsible for a large part of the recent uptake in rail freight volume. EU regulations have done much to harmonize standards, making cross border operations easier.
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Similar to LCD trends, there have also been Active Matrix EL (AMEL) displays demonstrated, where circuitry is added to prolong voltages at each pixel. The solid-state nature of TFEL allows for a very rugged and high-resolution display fabricated even on silicon substrates. AMEL displays of 1280x1024 at over 1000 lines per inch (lpi) have been demonstrated by a consortium including Planar Systems.Ron Khormaei, et al.
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In particular, the performance-enhancing doubling of the I/O clock rate is missing. It had severe overheating issues due to the nominal DDR voltages. ATI has since designed the GDDR technology further into GDDR3, which is based on DDR2 SDRAM, though with several additions suited for graphics cards. GDDR3 and GDDR5 is now commonly used in modern graphics cards and some tablet PCs.
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Circuits interconnecting switches are called trunks. Before Signalling System 7, Bell System electromechanical switches in the United States originally communicated with one another over trunks using a variety of DC voltages and signaling tones, replaced today by digital signals. Some signaling communicated dialed digits. An early form called Panel Call Indicator Pulsing used quaternary pulses to set up calls between a panel switch and a manual switchboard.
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The Co-OEC self-assembles upon oxidation of an earth metal ion from 2+ to 3+. It also self-heals upon application of a potential, wherein the cluster reforms due to equilibrium between aqueous cobalt and phosphate. The Bionic Leaf can be used in artificial photosynthetic systems. One such system is a hybrid water-splitting-biosynthetic system that can operate at low driving voltages.
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In the idealised converter, all the components are considered to be perfect. Specifically, the switch and the diode have zero voltage drop when on and zero current flow when off, and the inductor has zero series resistance. Further, it is assumed that the input and output voltages do not change over the course of a cycle (this would imply the output capacitance as being infinite).
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A vacuum feedthrough is a flange that contains a vacuum-tight electrical, physical or mechanical connection to the vacuum chamber. An electrical feedthrough allows voltages to be applied to components under vacuum, for example a filament or heater. An example of a physical feedthrough is a vacuum-tight connection for cooling water. A mechanical feedthrough is used for rotation and translation of components under vacuum.
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External DC/DC converters can help to regulate voltages so these can be used. Police cars often have Mobile data terminals in the form of a laptop swivel mounted where the driver's armrest would be. This can be used to log data and to query networked databases. Microsoft developed Windows Embedded Automotive and used it with the AutoPC, a brand of carputer jointly developed with Clarion.
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The formation of amyloid is due to these free light chains circulating through the body, caused by abnormal clones of plasma cells overproducing monoclonal immunoglobulin lambda light chains. This type usually affects males over the age of 60 and is rapidly progressive. Diagnostic tests includes serum and urine electrophoresis, laboratory testing for the determination of elevated levels of troponin and BNP, and ECGs showing low QRS voltages.
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The variophon has a processing unit, dubbed "the music cockpit" which the controller must be connected to. The controlling voltages of the blow controller and keys combine to influence the shape, width, and height of the electric pulses. The pulses it creates are modeled by the pulse formations of real wind instrument sounds, which is how the variophon replicates the sounds of these instruments.
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Radio mast radiators may be insulated from the ground by a gap at the base. When lightning hits the mast, it jumps this gap. A small inductivity in the feed line between the mast and the tuning unit (usually one winding) limits the voltage increase, protecting the transmitter from dangerously high voltages. The transmitter must be equipped with a device to monitor the antenna's electrical properties.
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High voltages (tens of thousands of volts) are used because this allows the use of low currents; transmission losses are proportional to the square of the current (e.g. twice the current means four times the loss). Thus, high power can be conducted over long distances on lighter and cheaper wires. Transformers in the locomotives transform this power to a low voltage and high current for the motors.
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Sub-wavelength metal arrays, essentially another form of metamaterial, usually operate in the microwave and optical frequencies. A liquid crystal is both transparent and anisotropic at those frequencies. In addition, a liquid crystal has the inherent properties to be both intrinsically tunable and provide tuning for the metal arrays. This method of tuning a type of metamaterial can be readily used as electrodes for applying switching voltages.
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Early transistorized radios and other equipment needed a suitable voltage miniature battery. Early transistor radios required a volt battery. Although the transistors would theoretically operate from lower voltages, in 1954, the point contact transistors had to be operated very close to their VCB0 limit in order to get the required frequency response. However, a suitable miniature battery was already marketed for (vacuum tube) hearing aids.
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Although DC stands for "direct current", DC often refers to "constant polarity". Under this definition, DC voltages can vary in time, as seen in the raw output of a rectifier or the fluctuating voice signal on a telephone line. Some forms of DC (such as that produced by a voltage regulator) have almost no variations in voltage, but may still have variations in output power and current.
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The American pin and sleeve circular connectors are not compatible with the newer IEC 60309 type. Current ratings are 30, 60, 100, 200, and 400 A. All are rated for voltages up to 250 V DC or 600 V AC. Contact arrangements are from 2 to 4 pins. There are two styles depending on the treatment of the ground. Style 1 grounds only on the shell.
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After this he made some developments for electric railways. Thury solved the problems of commutation and built the first dynamo with voltages of up to 25,000 volts. He also developed the Thury control (Régulateur à Déclic). After his resignation in 1910, he worked as a consultant, building in France a high-frequency generator for wireless telegraph transmissions operating at 40 kilohertz with a 1000 kW maximum output.
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Some older computer designs such as Novas and PDP-8s used a real-time clock that was notable for its high accuracy, simplicity, flexibility and low cost. The computer's power supply produces a pulse at logic voltages for either each half-wave or each zero crossing of AC mains. A wire carries the pulse to an interrupt. The interrupt handler software counts cycles, seconds, etc.
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Electropositive metals (EPMs) are a new class of shark repellent materials that produce a measurable voltage when immersed in an electrolyte such as seawater. The voltages produced are as high as 1.75 VDC in seawater. It is hypothesized that this voltage overwhelms the ampullary organ in sharks, producing a repellent action. Since bony fish lack the ampullary organ, the repellent is selective to sharks and rays.
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Feron, pp. 11, 15 Unlike her sister ships, Latouche-Trévilles gun turrets were electrically powered by two dynamos, each rated at . While they performed well during trials, the electrical installation proved to be unreliable in service. The electromagnetically operated friction clutch tended to burn out at normal operating voltages, the direct current components often caused arcing and the mechanical components wore out more quickly than anticipated.
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Intel officially states that Skylake's and Kaby Lake's integrated memory controllers (IMC) support DDR3L memory modules only rated at 1.35 V and DDR4 at 1.2 V, which led to the speculation that higher voltages of DDR3 modules could damage or destroy the IMC and processor. Meanwhile, ASRock, Gigabyte, and Asus guarantee that their Skylake and Kaby Lake DDR3 motherboards support DDR3 modules rated at 1.5 and 1.65V.
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Plasma Ball Night Light Makes Us Nostalgic For Bed Wetting , gizmodo.com, 2007-11-27Plasma Night Light , 4physics.com, 2010-02-17 Plasma globes can be used for experimenting with high voltages. If a conductive plate or wire coil is placed on the globe, capacitive coupling can transfer enough voltage to the plate or coil to produce a small arc or energize a high voltage load.
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The backplanes can be designed for 3.3 V VIO or 5 V VIO operation. These are differentiated by having 'Cadmium Yellow' coloured key for 3.3V or 'Brilliant Blue' colour for 5V operation. If the CompactPCI card operates on a particular VIO voltage the card shall have the respective coloured coding key. If the card is compatible with both voltages then it may not have any coding key.
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The 1949 version of the Williamson circuit. Power supply components omitted. AC voltages at 15 W output power, specified by Williamson in peak volts, shown recalculated to effective sine volts. Value of feedback resistor X depends depends on load impedance (two options shown) The Williamson amplifier is a four-stage, push-pull, class A triode valve amplifier built around a high quality, wideband output transformer.
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Digital PUF overcomes the vulnerability issues in conventional analog silicon PUFs. Unlike the analog PUFs where the fingerprints come from transistors' intrinsic process variation natures, the fingerprints of digital circuit PUFs are extracted from the VLSI interconnect geometrical randomness induced by lithography variations. Such interconnection uncertainty however is incompatible to CMOS VLSI circuits due to issues like short circuit, floating gate voltages etc. for transistors.
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24 105 (1980) soon made possible much larger arrays. In 1987, the design was extended to a chip with 14484 junctions that generated about quantized voltages spanning the range from to . Numerous further refinements were made as 10 V Josephson standards were implemented in many national standards laboratories. By 1989, all of the hardware and software for a complete voltage metrology system was commercially available.
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The KR580VM1 extends the address range from 64KB to 128KB. It adds two registers, H1 and L1, that can be used instead of H and L. Several 16-bit arithmetic instructions were added as well (DAD, DSUB, DCOMP). Just like the Intel 8085 and the Zilog Z80, the KR580VM1 needs only a single +5V power supply instead of the three voltages required by the KR580VM80A.
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He inserted silver wires under the scalps of his patients. These were later replaced by silver foils attached to the patient's head by rubber bandages. Berger connected these sensors to a Lippmann capillary electrometer, with disappointing results. However, more sophisticated measuring devices, such as the Siemens double-coil recording galvanometer, which displayed electric voltages as small as one ten thousandth of a volt, led to success.
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Moog established standards for control interfacing, using a logarithmic 1-volt-per-octave for pitch control and a separate triggering signal. This standardization allowed synthesizers from different manufacturers to operate simultaneously. Pitch control was usually performed either with an organ-style keyboard or a music sequencer producing a timed series of control voltages. During the late 1960s hundreds of popular recordings used Moog synthesizers.
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Most amplifiers use several devices at each stage; they are typically matched in specifications except for polarity. Matched inverted polarity devices are called complementary pairs. Class-A amplifiers generally use only one device, unless the power supply is set to provide both positive and negative voltages, in which case a dual device symmetrical design may be used. Class-C amplifiers, by definition, use a single polarity supply.
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At Cambridge, he worked in the prestigious Cavendish Laboratory, with eminent scientists such as Rutherford, Cockcroft, and Walton. The use of high voltages to accelerate particles into each other became of particular interest to him. After gaining a first class honours degree in physics from Cambridge, Allibone returned to Metropolitan-Vickers, to take charge of their high-voltage research laboratory at Trafford Park, Manchester.
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P. Glosekotter, C. Pacha, K. F. Goser, W. Prost, S. Kim, H. van Husen, et al., "Asynchronous circuit design based on the RTBT monostable-bistable logic transition element (MOBILE)", Symposium Integrated Circuits and Systems Design 2002, pp. 365–370. NDR is usually defined for small signal, so it is difficult to expect that such a C-element will operate in full range of voltages or currents.
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In late 1906, Lee de Forest had invented the three-element (triode) "grid Audion" vacuum-tube. How vacuum tubes worked was not understood at the time. De Forest's initial Audions did not have a high vacuum and developed a blue glow at modest plate voltages; De Forest improved the vacuum for Federal Telegraph.DeForest Radio Co. v. General Electric Co., 283 U.S. 664 (May 25, 1931).
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Columbia College via two long Geissler tubes (similar to neon tubes) in his hands. After 1890, Tesla experimented with transmitting power by inductive and capacitive coupling using high AC voltages generated with his Tesla coil.Tesla, Nikola (20 May 1891) Experiments with Alternate Currents of Very High Frequency and Their Application to Methods of Artificial Illumination, lecture before the American Inst. of Electrical Engineers, Columbia College, New York.
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A form of power supply will be included for operation from the AC mains for various CPU, status wetting voltages and other interface cards. This may consist of AC to DC converters where operated from a station battery system. RTUs may include a battery and charger circuitry to continue operation in event of AC power failure for critical applications where a station battery is not available.
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Voltage probes are used to measure voltages present on the DUT. To achieve high accuracy, the test instrument and its probe must not significantly affect the voltage being measured. This is accomplished by ensuring that the combination of instrument and probe exhibit a sufficiently high impedance that will not load the DUT. For AC measurements, the reactive component of impedance may be more important than the resistive.
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Modern polyfuses consist of a silicided polysilicon line, which is also programmed by applying a voltage across the device. Again, the resultant current permanently alters the resistance. The silicide layer covering the polysilicon line reduces its resistance (before programming), allowing the use of much lower programming voltages (1.8V–3.3V). Polyfuses have been shown to reliably store programmed data and can be programmed at high speed.
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In a proton source based on cyclotron resonance, microwaves are used to strip electrons from hydrogen atoms. What remains are the hydrogen atomic nuclei, each consisting of only one proton. These protons leave the source with a potential of 60 kilovolts and are then subjected to a further voltage of 810 kilovolts in an accelerator tube. Both voltages are supplied by a Cockcroft-Walton accelerator.
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The discharge is self-sustaining when for each electron that leaves the cathode, enough positive ions hit the cathode to free, on average, another electron. External circuitry limits the discharge current. Cold-cathode discharge lamps use higher voltages than hot-cathode ones. The resulting strong electric field near the cathode accelerates ions to a sufficient velocity to create free electrons from the cathode material.
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20, pp. 76-78. It was able to develop higher voltages from induction coils, and was widely employed in the large induction coils that powered early x-ray machines until the 1920s. Much of Wehnelt's research dealt with thermionic emission, the emission of electrons in vacuum tubes. In this context, he developed in 1902/03 the Wehnelt cylinder, an electrode used in electron guns.
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The secondary is usually grounded on one terminal. There are three primary types of voltage transformers (VT): electromagnetic, capacitor, and optical. The electromagnetic voltage transformer is a wire-wound transformer. The capacitor voltage transformer uses a capacitance potential divider and is used at higher voltages due to a lower cost than an electromagnetic VT. An optical voltage transformer exploits the electrical properties of optical materials.
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In the UK Richard Monkhouse working for Electronic Music Studios (London) Limited (EMS) developed a hybrid video synthesiser – Spectre – later renamed 'Spectron' (see also ) which used the EMS patchboard system to allow completely flexible connections between module inputs and outputs. The video signals were digital, but they were controlled by analog voltages. There was a digital patchboard for image composition and an analog patchboard for motion control.
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A simple barrier can be created by separating two conductors with a very thin insulator. These are tunnel junctions, the study of which requires understanding of quantum tunnelling. Josephson junctions take advantage of quantum tunnelling and the superconductivity of some semiconductors to create the Josephson effect. This has applications in precision measurements of voltages and magnetic fields, as well as the multijunction solar cell.
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Since there are infinitely many of them, in modeling there is a need for some typical, representative :(a) electrical charges and currents, e.g. moving pointlike charges and electric and magnetic dipoles, electric currents in a conductor etc.; :(b) electromagnetic fields, e.g. voltages, the Liénard–Wiechert potentials, the monochromatic plane waves, optical rays; radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, gamma rays etc.
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As well as using standard French voltages, the tri-current sets can operate under the Netherlands' 1.5 kV and Italian and Belgian 3 kV DC supplies. They are formed of two power cars (8,800 kW under 25 kV – as TGV Atlantique) and eight carriages, giving a capacity of 377 seats. They have a top speed of 320 km/h. They are long and are wide.
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Static induction transistor (SIT) is a high power, high frequency transistor device. It is a vertical structure device with short multichannel. Being a vertical device, the SIT structure offers advantages in obtaining higher breakdown voltages than a field-effect transistor (FET). For the SIT, it is not limited by the surface breakdown between gate and drain, and can operate at a very high current and voltage.
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In 1984 Da Vinci Systems introduced their first color corrector, a computer-controlled interface that would manipulate the color voltages on the Rank Cintel MkIII systems. Since then, technology has improved to give extraordinary power to the digital colorist. Today there are many companies making color correction control interfaces including Da Vinci Systems, Pandora International, Pogle and more. Some telecines are still in operation in 2018.
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Next followed the Single-Strand Conformational Analysis, where synthesis was provoked from normal or myotonic goat skeletal muscle. Then they performed mutagenesis and functional expression, where plasmid constructs were transcribed and expressed. The voltages were assessed between -145 mV and +35 mV. Using the Northern Blot Analysis, they verified that the fainting episodes are caused by decreased chloride production in the muscle cell membrane.
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Breakdowns occurring at voltages close to 5V are usually caused by some combination of the two effects. Zener breakdown voltage is found to occur at electric field intensity of about . Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped junctions (p-type semiconductor moderately doped and n-type heavily doped), which produces a narrow depletion region. The avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions, which produce a wider depletion region.
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A time-delay oscillator consists of an inverting amplifier with a delay element between the amplifier output and its input. The amplifier must have a gain greater than 1 at the intended oscillation frequency. Consider the initial case where the amplifier input and output voltages are momentarily balanced at a stable point. A small amount of noise can cause the amplifier output to rise slightly.
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Typical switching times are in the range of microseconds. The switching time of a transistor is inversely proportional to the amount of current used to charge the gate. Therefore, switching currents are often required in the range of several hundred milliamperes, or even in the range of amperes. For typical gate voltages of approximately 10-15V, several watts of power may be required to drive the switch.
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Mark Oliphant designed a proton source for them. A crucial moment came when Cockcroft read a paper by George Gamow on quantum tunnelling. Cockcroft realised that as a result of this phenomenon, the desired effect could be achieved with much lower voltages than first thought. In fact, he calculated that protons with energy of just 300,000 electronvolts would be able to penetrate a boron nucleus.
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Electric bells are typically designed to operate on low voltages of from 5 to 24 V AC or DC. Before widespread distribution of electric power, bells were necessarily powered by batteries, either wet-cell or dry-cell type.Frederick Charles Allsop. Practical electric bell fitting: a treatise on the fitting-up and maintenance of electric bells and all the necessary apparatus. E. & F. N. Spon. 1890. pp.
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Other mixtures add a small amount of helium to argon-oxygen combinations. These mixtures are claimed to allow higher arc voltages and welding speed. Helium also sometimes serves as the base gas, with small amounts of argon and carbon dioxide added. However, because it is less dense than air, helium is less effective at shielding the weld than argon--which is denser than air.
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This device, very similar to a Tesla coil, could produce very high voltages from several hundred thousand to a million volts. In use, the brush discharges from a pointed electrode attached to the high voltage terminal of the coil would be played over various parts of the body to treat a variety of medical conditions. The Oudin coil was used in electrotherapy and diathermy through the 1920s.
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An ETO is turned ON by applying positive voltages to gates, gate 1 and gate 2. When a positive voltage is applied to the gate 2, it turns on the MOSFET that is connected in series with the cathode terminal of the PNPN thyristor structure. The positive voltage applied to the gate 1 turns off the MOSFET connected to the gate terminal of the thyristor.
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The beams can be bent by applying voltages to various electrodes in the tube or by holding a magnet close by. The electron beams are visible as fine bluish lines. This is accomplished by filling the tube with low pressure helium (He) or Hydrogen (H2) gas. A few of the electrons in the beam collide with the helium atoms, causing them to fluoresce and emit light.
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Most EBIC images are qualitative and only show the EBIC signal as contrast image. Use of an external scan control generator on the SEM and a dedicated data acquisition system allow for sub-picoamp measurements and can give quantitative results. Some systems are commercially available that do this, and provide the ability to provide functional imaging by biasing and applying gate voltages to semiconductor devices.
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Even these measures were not enough to achieve the required reliability. Incipient faults were proactively sought by testing the valves during maintenance periods. They were subject to stress tests called marginal testing because they applied voltages and signals to the valves right up to their design margins. These tests were designed to bring on early failure of valves that would otherwise have failed while in service.
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There were eight third rail collector shoes on the Class 73 – four per bogie with two each side. These shoes were of the retractable type – a necessity for both safety and operational reasons, as described above. They could cope with all the then (1965) voltages of 660V and 750V as well as the 800V of the Bournemouth electrification beyond Pirbright Junction south of Woking (from autumn 1966).
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The xenon ions are then accelerated by the electric field between the anode and the cathode. For discharge voltages of 300 V, the ions reach speeds of around 15 km/s (9.3 mps) for a specific impulse of 1,500 seconds (15 kN·s/kg). Upon exiting, however, the ions pull an equal number of electrons with them, creating a plasma plume with no net charge.
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10–11 Where a delta-fed system must be grounded for detection of stray current to ground or protection from surge voltages, a grounding transformer (usually a zigzag transformer) may be connected to allow ground fault currents to return from any phase to ground. Another variation is a "corner grounded" delta system, which is a closed delta that is grounded at one of the junctions of transformers.
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The voltage on the high voltage terminal cannot increase above the air breakdown voltage, because additional electric charge pumped into the terminal from the secondary winding just escapes into the air. The output voltage of open-air Tesla coils is limited to a few million volts by air breakdown, but higher voltages can be achieved by coils immersed in pressurized tanks of insulating oil.
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There are many different types, ranging from historical handmade mechanical instruments to high-precision electronic devices. Modern electrometers based on vacuum tube or solid-state technology can be used to make voltage and charge measurements with very low leakage currents, down to 1 femtoampere. A simpler but related instrument, the electroscope, works on similar principles but only indicates the relative magnitudes of voltages or charges.
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The circuit consists of a resistive divider network, a set of op-amp comparators and a priority encoder. A small amount of hysteresis is built into the comparator to resolve any problems at voltage boundaries. At each node of the resistive divider, a comparison voltage is available. The purpose of the circuit is to compare the analog input voltage with each of the node voltages.
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In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is "displacement power factor". Non- linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current.
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A voltage tester with three lamps to give an approximate indication of voltage magnitude The test light is an electric lamp connected with one or two insulated wire leads.Terrel Croft, Wilford Summers American Electricians' Handbook, Eleventh Edition, McGraw Hill, 1987 pages 1-56 through 1-57 Often, it takes the form of a screwdriver with the lamp connected between the tip of the screwdriver and a single lead that projects out the back of the screwdriver. By connecting the flying lead to an earth (ground) reference and touching the screwdriver tip to various points in the circuit, the presence or absence of voltage at each point can be determined, allowing simple faults to be detected and traced to their root cause. For higher voltages, a statiscope consisting of a neon glow tube mounted on a long insulating handle can be used to detect AC voltages of 2000 volts or more.
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Examples of such systems include modern cell phones, with GND and voltages such as 1.2 V, 1.8 V, 2.4 V, 3.3 V and PCs, with GND and voltages such as −5 V, 3.3 V, 5 V, 12 V. Power- sensitive designs often have multiple power rails at a given voltage, using them to conserve energy by switching off supplies to components which are not in active use. More advanced circuits will often have pins carrying voltage levels for more specialized functions and these are generally labeled with some abbreviation of their purpose. For example, VUSB for the supply delivered to a USB device (nominally 5 V), VBAT for a battery, or Vref for the reference voltage for an analog-to-digital converter. Systems combining both digital and analog circuits often distinguish digital and analog grounds (GND and AGND), helping isolate digital noise from sensitive analog circuits.
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Active speakers comprise two or three speakers per channel, each fitted with its own amplifier, and preceded by an electronic crossover filter to separate the low-level audio signal into the frequency bands to be handled by each speaker. This approach enables complex active filters to be used on the low level signal, without the need to use passive crossovers of high power handling capability but limited rolloff and with large and expensive inductors and capacitors. An additional advantage is that peak power handling is greater if the signal has simultaneous peaks in two different frequency bands. A single amplifier has to handle the peak power when both signal voltages are at their crest; as power is proportional to the square of voltage, the peak power when both signals are at the same peak voltage is proportional to the square of the sum of the voltages.
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There are several alternate versions of the paradox. One is the original circuit with the two capacitors initially charged with equal and opposite voltages +V_i and -V_i. Another equivalent version is a single charged capacitor short circuited by a perfect conductor. In these cases in the final state the entire charge has been neutralized, the final voltage on the capacitors is zero, so the entire initial energy has vanished.
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Superposition of powers cannot be used to find total power consumed by elements even in linear circuits. Power varies according to the square of total voltage or current and the square of the sum is not generally equal to the sum of the squares. Total power in an element can be found by applying superposition to the voltages and current independently and then calculating power from the total voltage and current.
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A surge arrester (also called a lightning arrester) may also be installed between the line (ahead of the cutout) and the ground wire for lightning protection. The purpose of the device is to conduct extremely high voltages present on the line directly to ground. If uninsulated conductors touch due to wind or fallen trees, the resultant sparks can start wildfires. To reduce this problem, aerial bundled conductors are being introduced.
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Zénobe Théophile Gramme (4 April 1826 – 20 January 1901) was a Belgian electrical engineer. He was born at Jehay-Bodegnée on 4 April 1826, the sixth child of Mathieu-Joseph Gramme, and died at Bois-Colombes on 20 January 1901. He invented the Gramme machine, a type of direct current dynamo capable of generating smoother (less AC) and much higher voltages than the dynamos known to that point.
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Selenium rectifiers have no warm-up time, unlike high-vacuum rectifiers. Selenium rectifiers were also cheaper and simpler to specify and install than vacuum tubes. However, they were later replaced by silicon diodes with high efficiencies (close to 100% at high voltages). Selenium rectifiers had the capability to act as current limiters, which can temporarily protect the rectifier during a short circuit and provide stable current for charging batteries.
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Specialized high- voltage driver chips such as the 7441/74141 were available to drive Nixies. LEDs are better suited to the low voltages that semiconductor integrated circuits typically use, which was an advantage for devices such as pocket calculators, digital watches, and handheld digital measurement instruments. Also, LEDs are much smaller and sturdier, without a fragile glass envelope. LEDs use less power than VFDs or Nixie tubes with the same function.
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Further research with double layers on ruthenium dioxide films in 1971 by Sergio Trasatti and Giovanni Buzzanca demonstrated that the electrochemical behavior of these electrodes at low voltages with specific adsorbed ions was like that of capacitors. The specific adsorption of the ions in this region of potential could also involve a partial charge transfer between the ion and the electrode. It was the first step towards understanding pseudocapacitance.
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MOSFET analog switches use the MOSFET to pass analog signals when on, and as a high impedance when off. Signals flow in both directions across a MOSFET switch. In this application, the drain and source of a MOSFET exchange places depending on the relative voltages of the source/drain electrodes. The source is the more negative side for an N-MOS or the more positive side for a P-MOS.
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Electric fences are barriers that uses electric shocks to deter animals or people from crossing a boundary. The voltage of the shock may have effects ranging from uncomfortable, to painful or even lethal. Most electric fencing is used today for agricultural fencing and other forms of animal control purposes, though it is frequently used to enhance security of restricted areas, and there exist places where lethal voltages are used.
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There are often auxiliary windings that produce lower voltages for driving other parts of the television circuitry. The voltage used to bias the varactor diodes in modern tuners is often derived from the flyback transformer ("Line OutPut Transformer" LOPT). In tube sets, a one or two-turn filament winding is located on the opposite side of the core as the HV secondary, used to drive the HV rectifier tube's heater.
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For many materials, the current I through the material is proportional to the voltage V applied across it: :I \propto V over a wide range of voltages and currents. Therefore, the resistance and conductance of objects or electronic components made of these materials is constant. This relationship is called Ohm's law, and materials which obey it are called ohmic materials. Examples of ohmic components are wires and resistors.
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Wand vibrators can be powered either by batteries or from mains power, with the most powerful devices being typically mains- powered. Many recently designed mains-powered wand vibrators use a plug-in AC adaptor power supply which converts mains voltages down to safer voltage levels. In addition to use in masturbation, wand vibrators may also be used in orgasm control play, such as in edging or forced orgasm.
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This type of equipment is directly linked to the reliability of the electricity supply. The earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated, making opening manually operated switches too dangerous for anything other than isolation of a de- energized circuit. Oil-filled switchgear equipment allow arc energy to be contained and safely controlled.
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Several types of hippocampal and entorhinal neurons are capable of generating theta-frequency membrane potential oscillations when stimulated. Typically these are sodium-dependent voltage-sensitive oscillations in membrane potential at near-action potential voltages (Alonso & Llinás, 1989). Specifically, it appears that in neurons of the CA1 and dentate gyrus, these oscillations result from an interplay of dendritic excitation via a persistent sodium current (INaP) with perisomatic inhibition (Buzsáki, 2002).
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Thermopile, composed of multiple thermocouples in series. If both the right and left junctions are the same temperature, voltages cancel out to zero. However, if there is a temperature difference between sides the resulting total output voltage is equal to the sum of junction voltage differentials.Thermopiles are also used to generate electrical energy from, for instance, heat from electrical components, solar wind, radioactive materials, laser radiation or combustion.
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A dielectric barrier discharge at 30 kHz in air between metal electrodes separated by two dielectric mica sheets with a gap of 4 mm. The "foot" of the discharge is the charge accumulation on the barrier surface. Dielectric barrier discharge occurs between two electrodes separated by a dielectric. Due to the presence of the dielectric barrier, such plasma sources operate only with sine-wave or pulsed high voltages.
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The various kinds of devices such as cig-a-likes, medium-sized vaporizers, tanks, or mods may function at different voltages and temperatures. Thus, the particle size of the e-cigarette vapor can vary, due to the device used. Comparable to cigarette smoke, the particle size distribution mode of e-cigarette vapor ranged from 120–165 nm, with some vaping devices producing more particles compared to cigarette smoke.
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Basic DC circuit theory shows that the current is the same all along the line. It was common to see 4–20 mA circuits that had loop lengths in miles or circuits working over telephone cable pairs that were longer than ten thousand feet end-to-end. There are still legacy systems in place using this technology. In Bell System circuits, voltages up to 125 VDC were employed.
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IL is supplied by C2. The easiest way to visualize this is to consider the bias voltages of the circuit in a d.c. state, then close S1. Figure 2: With S1 closed current increases through L1 (green) and C1 discharges increasing current in L2 (red) When switch S1 is turned off, the current IC1 becomes the same as the current IL1, since inductors do not allow instantaneous changes in current.
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In the 1740s and 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Andrew Gordon and by Benjamin Franklin. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-mechanical (MEMS) systems where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.
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Although it has a superficially similar appearance, the so-called halo antenna is not technically a loop since it possesses a break in the conductor opposite the feed point; that totally changes the current pattern since the voltages across the break are opposite and large. It is better analyzed as a dipole (which also has a large voltage and zero current at the ends) which has been bent into a circle.
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This 525 joule capacitor is one of a pair adapted for use in a ruby laser, and carries a warning of its deadly storage capacity. A resistor is connected between the terminals to prevent the capacitor retaining a dangerous charge when not in operation. Flashtubes operate at high voltages, with currents high enough to be deadly. Under certain conditions, shocks as low as 1 joule have been reported to be lethal.
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The schematic design of a BGT is illustrated in Fig. 1. It consists of a specially designed (Penning or Penning–Malmberg) type electromagnetic trap. Positrons are confined in a vacuum inside an electrode structure consisting of a stack of hollow, cylindrical metal electrodes such as that shown in Fig. 2. A uniform axial magnetic field inhibits positron motion radially, and voltages imposed on end electrodes prevent axial loss.
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However, there is an angular shifting of α between them. Since α can be freely chosen between [0, π], both phasors can be added or subtracted, so all the values in between are attainable. The primary and secondary are not isolated. Also, the ratio of the magnitudes of voltages between rotor and stator is constant; the resultant voltage varies owing to the angular shifting of the series winding induced voltage.
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The ribbon is a linear potentiometer that generates different control voltages depending on where it is touched. Thus, the modern ribbon on the Persephone replaces the nickel-chrome resistance wire used as a variable resistor to control the pitch of the trautonium1. These changes in voltage are applied to the voltage-controlled oscillator and the filter. The voltage fluctuations are also translated into binary data and used to control digital modulation.
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Phrixotoxin-1 and -2 bind to A-type, transient, voltage-gated potassium channels, near the S3 and S4 segments, where they negatively affect transmembrane movement of the voltage sensing domain in response to depolarizing voltages. They bind preferentially to the closed or inactivated state of Kv4.2 and Kv4.3 channels. Phrixotoxin-3 (PaurTx3) inhibits several voltage gated sodium channel subtypes (Nav1.1/SCN1A, Nav1.2/SCN2A, Nav1.4/SCN4A, Nav1.5/SCN5A, and Nav1.8/SCN10A) .
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With the primary winding effectively across the battery, the current increases at a rate proportional to the supply voltage divided by the inductance. Transistor switch-off takes place by different mechanisms dependent upon supply voltage. The gain of a transistor is not linear with VCE. At low supply voltages (typically 0.75 V and below) the transistor requires a larger base current to maintain saturation as the collector current increases.
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In the early 1920s, radio transmitters and receivers ran on large and expensive batteries to provide the high voltages needed for the vacuum tubes used. Early attempts at producing a radio receiver to operate on household alternating current were unsuccessful, since tubes designed for the low current supply from batteries were unsatisfactory when operated on 25- or 60-hertz alternating current. The batteries were also extremely large and bulky.
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A TVS diode is a type of Zener diode, also called an avalanche diode or silicon avalanche diode (SAD), which can limit voltage spikes. These components provide the fastest limiting action of protective components (theoretically in picoseconds), but have a relatively low energy-absorbing capability. Voltages can be clamped to less than twice the normal operation voltage. If current impulses remain within the device ratings, life expectancy is exceptionally long.
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Note the implementation the "half twist", routing inputs and outputs to the same pins on each plug. The Pin 1C/black, may carry 5 volts, while 2C/white may carry return. If the power supply is present it must have a self-healing fuse, and may have ground fault protection. If it is absent, the pins should include a 1 MΩ resistor to ground to leak away static voltages.
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Oscilloscope attached to two sine-wave voltage sources, producing a circle pattern on the display. Early radar displays used adapted oscilloscopes with various inputs. An oscilloscope generally receives three channels of varying (or oscillating) voltage as input and displays this information on a cathode ray tube. The oscilloscope amplifies the input voltages and sends them into two deflection magnets and to the electron gun producing a spot on the screen.
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They fly through the vacuum, and are registered as the electric current drawn from the power supply. When the voltage is negative, the electrons are repelled by the anode, and the current is essentially zero. Child's law predicted the current at lower positive voltages, at which the current isn't limited by the electron emission process. Rather, a cloud of electrons forms near the cathode and limits the current.
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These new ballasts operate at voltages up to 600 V AC, and at 20,000 Hz, with some high frequency ballasts operating as high as 100,000 Hz or higher. This allows the ballast to energize the lamp with more than raw power, and instead operates using a combination of electrical force and induction. This allows a 100 watt lamp to fully light with as little as 65 watts. S12 lamp starter.
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4–5 At microwave frequencies, none of the transfer matrices based on port voltages and currents are convenient to use in practice. Voltage is difficult to measure directly, current next to impossible, and the open circuits and short circuits required by the measurement technique cannot be achieved with any accuracy. For waveguide implementations, circuit voltage and current are entirely meaningless. Transfer matrices using different sorts of variables are used instead.
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Some chargers use pulse technology in which a series of voltage or current pulses is fed to the battery. The DC pulses have a strictly controlled rise time, pulse width, pulse repetition rate (frequency) and amplitude. This technology is said to work with any size, voltage, capacity or chemistry of batteries, including automotive and valve- regulated batteries. With pulse charging, high instantaneous voltages can be applied without overheating the battery.
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Brush Electric Company's central power plant with dynamos generating direct current to power arc lamps for public lighting in New York. Beginning operation in December 1880 at 133 West Twenty-Fifth Street, the high voltages it operated at allowed it to power a long circuit. Direct current was produced in 1800 by Italian physicist Alessandro Volta's battery, his Voltaic pile. The nature of how current flowed was not yet understood.
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Electrolytes are important because they are what cells (especially nerve, heart and muscle cells) use to maintain voltages across their cell membranes. Electrolytes have different functions, and an important one is to carry electrical impulses between cells. Kidneys work to keep the electrolyte concentrations in blood constant despite changes in the body. For example, during heavy exercise, electrolytes are lost in sweat, particularly in the form of sodium and potassium.
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62 In electronics, the term is usually applied to periodically varying voltages, currents, or electromagnetic fields. In acoustics, it is usually applied to steady periodic sounds—variations of pressure in air or other media. In these cases, the waveform is an attribute that is independent of the frequency, amplitude, or phase shift of the signal. The term can also be used for non-periodic signals, like chirps and pulses.
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When polarised to more negative voltages the oxide releases oxygen ions into the CaCl2 salt, which exists as CaO. To maintain charge neutrality, as oxygen ions are released from the cathode into the salt, so oxygen ions must be released from the salt to the anode. This is observed as CO or CO2 being evolved at the carbon anode. In theory an inert anode could be used to produce oxygen.
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The term charge pump is also commonly used in phase-locked loop (PLL) circuits even though there is no pumping action involved unlike in the circuit discussed above. A PLL charge pump is merely a bipolar switched current source. This means that it can output positive and negative current pulses into the loop filter of the PLL. It cannot produce higher or lower voltages than its power and ground supply levels.
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A field-effect transistor has a relatively low gain–bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The MOSFET is very susceptible to overload voltages, thus requiring special handling during installation. The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to electrostatic discharge or changes to threshold voltage during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed in a properly designed circuit.
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Retrieved November 3, 2010. Breakdown voltages of planar assemblies depend on the thickness of the transparent sheet and the configuration of bonding wires that connect the dies with external pins. Real in-circuit isolation voltage is further reduced by creepage over the PCB and the surface of the package. Safe design rules require a minimal clearance of 25 mm/kV for bare metal conductors or 8.3 mm/kV for coated conductors.
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High density plasmas can also be generated by a DC discharge in an electron-rich environment, obtained by thermionic emission from heated filaments. The voltages required by the arc discharge are of the order of a few tens of volts, resulting in low energy ions. The high density, low energy plasma is exploited for the epitaxial deposition at high rates in Low-Energy Plasma-Enhanced chemical vapor deposition reactors.
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This is measured by calibrating the voltage of the spikes against the voltages obtained from a calibration unit discharged into the measuring instrument. The calibration unit is quite simple in operation and merely comprises a square wave generator in series with a capacitor connected across the sample. Usually these are triggered optically to enable calibration without entering a dangerous high voltage area. Calibrators are usually disconnected during the discharge testing.
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Circuits of organic photovoltaic materials are deposited in five layers on ordinary paper substrates in a vacuum chamber. It is done by coating conformal conductive polymer electrodes with oxidative chemical vapor, a process known as chemical vapor deposition. Such solar panels are capable of producing voltages exceeding than 50V, which in turn can power appliances at normal lighting conditions. The solar cell is also shown to be flexible.
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The possible range of battery voltages from 11–15 VDC must be taken into account by devices attached to the cigar lighter socket. This connector is also often used for powering accessories on motorcycles, such as heated clothing (vests, gloves, etc.) or GPS units. This makes "plugging in" easier to manage while wearing gloves. As the accessory lacks any power of its own, there's no risk of "shorting" the exposed connector.
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The Anderson SBSAnderson SBS series and SBS Mini series of connectors are rated at up to 600 VDC at (depending on the connector) 50 A, 75 A or 110 A. They are only rated for disconnection under load at up to 120 VDC however. These connectors see use as battery bank connectors in higher power UPS systems, where the battery bank voltages are between 48 VDC and 500 VDC.
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Only improvements in photolithography and reduction in threshold voltage allow both to improve at once. On another note, the formula shown above is for long channel MOSFETs. With the area of the MOSFETs halving every 18-24 months (Moore's law) the distance between the two terminals of the MOSFET switch called the channel length is becoming smaller and smaller. This changes the nature of the relationship between terminal voltages and current.
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Two voltages arise over these electrode. In principle the voltage distribution over both electrodes behaves as the reciprocally CV product of each electrode. The design rule of high cathode capacitance assures that the voltage appearing over the cathode during discharge is not higher than roughly 1.5 V, that is its natural air-originated voltage proof. No further post- forming of the cathode foil takes place, which may lead to capacitance degradation.
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The conductor is made from copper or aluminum wires, the latter material having a small but increasing market share. Conductor sizes ≤ 1200 mm2 are most common, but sizes ≥ 2400 mm2 have been made occasionally. For voltages ≥ 12 kV the conductors are round, so that the insulation is exposed to a uniform electric field gradient. The conductor can be stranded from individual round wires, or can be a single solid wire.
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A three-layer (two acceptor and one donor) fullerene-free stack achieved a conversion efficiency of 8.4%. The implementation produced high open-circuit voltages and absorption in the visible spectra and high short-circuit currents. Quantum efficiency was above 75% between 400 nm and 720 nm wavelengths, with an open-circuit voltage around 1 V.Imec achieves record 8.4% efficiency in fullerene-free organic solar cells. Rdmag.com. Retrieved on 2015-11-12.
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However, these electron acceptor materials very weakly absorb visible light, decreasing the volume fraction occupied by the strongly absorbing electron donor material. Furthermore, fullerenes have poor electronic tunability, resulting in restrictions placed on the development of conjugated systems with more appealing electronic structures for higher voltages. Recent research has been done on trying to replace these fullerenes with organic molecules that can be electronically tuned and contribute to light absorption.
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Heat can damage or reduce electronic component service life. Designers and installers must also consider heating effects on adjacent equipment. Different power supply types result in many different methods of bias. Bias is a technique by which active devices are set to operate in a particular region, or by which the DC component of the output signal is set to the midpoint between the maximum voltages available from the power supply.
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When a known live circuit is not available, a separate proving unit that provides a known test voltage and sufficient power to illuminate the lamp is used to confirm operation of the lamp before and after testing a circuit. Since energy to operate the test lamp is drawn from the circuit under test, some high-impedance leakage voltages may not be detectable using this type of non-amplified test equipment.
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The term "stray voltage" is commonly used for all unwanted electrical leakage, by both the general public and many electrical utility professionals. Other more esoteric phenomenon that also result in elevated voltages on normally non- energized surfaces, are also referred to as “stray voltage.” Examples are voltage due to capacitive coupling, current induced by power lines, EMF, lightning, earth potential rise, and problems stemming from open (disconnected) neutrals.
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Conductive sensors are extremely safe because they use low voltages and currents. Since the current and voltage used is inherently small, for personal safety reasons, the technique is also capable of being made "Intrinsically Safe" to meet international standards for hazardous locations. Conductive probes have the additional benefit of being solid-state devices and are very simple to install and use. In some liquids and applications, maintenance can be an issue.
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The Crooks group at UT-Austin successfully demonstrated that electrophoretic separations on μPADs could be accomplished at relatively low applied voltages compared to conventional electrophoretic devices due to the high field strengths that can be generated on very thin (180 μm) sheets of origami paper. Simpler separation methods can also be used on μPADs, for instance, the Henry group demonstrated the separation of plasma from whole blood using blood separation membranes.
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Rail networks in Western and Central Europe are often well maintained and well developed, whilst Eastern, Northern and Southern Europe often have less coverage and/or infrastructure problems. Electrified railway networks operate at a plethora of different voltages AC and DC varying from 750 to 25,000 volts, and signalling systems vary from country to country, hindering cross- border traffic. EU rail subsidies amounted to €73 billion in 2005.
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Both man-made and natural sources generate changing electrical currents and voltages that can cause EMI: ignition systems, cellular network of mobile phones, lightning, solar flares, and auroras (northern/southern lights). EMI frequently affects AM radios. It can also affect mobile phones, FM radios, and televisions, as well as observations for radio astronomy and atmospheric science. EMI can be used intentionally for radio jamming, as in electronic warfare.
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Schematic of basic ac-to-dc power supply Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator or earlier, dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft–Walton voltage multipliers to convert AC into higher DC voltages.
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Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non- conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur.
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At much lower voltages, the bulb temperature may be too low to support the halogen cycle, but by this time the evaporation rate is too low for the bulb to blacken significantly. If the bulbs do blacken, it is recommended to run the lamps at the rated voltage to restart the cycle. (Also available as a PDF from lutron.com) There are many situations where halogen lamps are dimmed successfully.
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The models were used to develop high performance microwave transistors with highly predictable characteristics which went on to be manufactured in high volumes by several companies. One of the most successful was the 'hi-lo-hi' pulse-doped microwave transistor which achieved high breakdown voltages and was particularly suited to high volume manufacturing.Snowden, C.M. and Pantoja, R.R., "GaAs MESFET Physical Models for Process Oriented Design", IEEE Trans. MTT, Vol.
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Wave traps are used in switchyard of most power stations to prevent carrier from entering the station equipment. Each wave trap has a lightning arrester to protect it from surge voltages. A coupling capacitor is used to connect the transmitters and receivers to the high voltage line. This provides low impedance path for carrier energy to HV line but blocks the power frequency circuit by being a high impedance path.
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100× passive probes are also available, as are some designs specialized for use at very high voltages (up to 25 kV). Passive probes usually connect to the oscilloscope using a BNC connector. Most 10× probes are equivalent to a load of about 10-15 pF and 10 megohms on the DUT, while 100× probes typically present a 100 megohm load and a smaller capacitance, and therefore load the circuit less.
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The design was notable for its brushed aluminum front panel and large dual VU meters, and was made possible by the new high-power transistors designed for the high voltages of auto electronic ignitions. That original amp was replaced by the 700B and the 700 II. All of those designs were made to have extra power to run loudly the relatively inefficient sealed-box speakers like the Acoustic Research AR3/AR3a.
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Several megawatts of electrical power may be installed in large facilities, applied as single phase AC current at 50 to 8000 Hz and peak voltages between 3,000 and 20,000 volts. Applied voltage is usually inversely related to the applied frequency. The dominating parameter influencing ozone generation efficiency is the gas temperature, which is controlled by cooling water temperature and/or gas velocity. The cooler the water, the better the ozone synthesis.
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Wilhelm Röntgen discovered and named X-rays. While experimenting with high voltages applied to an evacuated tube on 8 November 1895, he noticed a fluorescence on a nearby plate of coated glass. Within a month, he discovered the main properties of X-rays that we understand to this day. In 1896, Henri Becquerel found that rays emanating from certain minerals penetrated black paper and caused fogging of an unexposed photographic plate.
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A non-isolated differential amplifier does not provide isolation between input and output circuits. They share a power supply and a DC path can exist between input and output. A non-isolated differential amplifier can only withstand common-mode voltages up to the power supply voltage. Similar to the instrumentation amplifier, isolation amplifiers have fixed differential gain over a wide range of frequencies, high input impedance and low output impedance.
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Unless the amplifiers used to measure individual cell voltages are allowed to float at a level equal to the common mode voltage, measurements are not likely to be accurate for any but the first cell in the string where the common mode voltage is zero. A non-isolated differential amplifier can be used but it will have a rated maximum common mode voltage that cannot be exceeded while maintaining accuracy.
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This "breaks" the careful twist in the crystal and fails to re-orient the polarized light passing through the crystal. In this case the light is blocked by the rear polarizer, P1, and the image, I, appears opaque. The amount of opacity can be controlled by varying the voltage. At voltages near the threshold, only some of the crystals will re-align, and the display will be partially transparent.
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For example, clipper circuits made up of two general purpose diodes with opposite bias in parallel or two Zener diodes with opposite bias in series (i.e., a double-anode Zener diode) are sometimes used internally across the two inputs of the operational amplifier. In these cases, the operational amplifiers will fail to function well as comparators. Conversely, comparators are designed under the assumption that the input voltages can differ significantly.
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Finally, thin sections are cut with a glass or diamond knife using an ultramicrotome and the sections are left floating on water that is held in a boat or trough. The sections are then retrieved from the water surface and mounted on a copper, nickel, gold, or other metal grid. Ideal section thickness for transmission electron microscopy with accelerating voltages between 50kV and 120kV is about 30–100 nm.
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By automatically analyzing and converting the power between different voltages and AC or DC, the transverter enables energy to flow between all types of devices. With the advent of the Smart Grid transverters are becoming very popular since they combine renewable energy, demand management, and community energy storage within the home or office. Transverters also locally correct for power factor, which creates significant reductions in transmission loss for the grid.
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A cheater cord was a power cord ending in the special socket used by the safety interlock; servicers could then power the device with the hazardous voltages exposed. To avoid the warm-up delay, "instant on" television receivers passed a small heating current through their tubes even when the set was nominally off. At switch on, full heating current was provided and the set would play almost immediately.
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The audio output stage, for instance, had a larger cathode and warmed up more slowly than lower-powered tubes. The result was that heaters that warmed up faster also temporarily had higher resistance, because of their positive temperature coefficient. This disproportionate resistance caused them to temporarily operate with heater voltages well above their ratings, and shortened their life. Another important reliability problem is caused by air leakage into the tube.
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A 30 kV high-voltage power supply with Federal Standard connector, used in electron microscopes A high-voltage power supply is one that outputs hundreds or thousands of volts. A special output connector is used that prevents arcing, insulation breakdown and accidental human contact. Federal Standard connectors are typically used for applications above 20 kV, though other types of connectors (e.g., SHV connector) may be used at lower voltages.
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Until UK and Irish voltages were standardised at 230 volts in the 1990s, it was common for such plugs to be pre-fitted on appliances destined for the Irish market, although they were prohibited on appliances destined for the United Kingdom market. Both countries now require the pre-fitting of BS 1363 plugs on domestic appliances. It is now extremely rare to find a non-BS 1363 plug in use.
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Faraday's ring transformer The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836. He was one of the first researchers to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the induced secondary EMF will be. Induction coils evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries.
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Another early product was the eXpanded range DeciBel meter, a little solid-state meter that measured audio voltages both weaker and stronger than other bigger contemporary volume meters, built into an aluminum extrusion that was about the size of the meter itself, which was an earlier source of the company initials. That dBx meter was related to their earlier CBS 600 extended range volume meter, developed and built at CBS.
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This model came in satin black metallic finish and is nearly the same in function as the SL-1200MK2, although some of the circuitry inside is updated to use fewer types of pots and resistors.SL-1200mk2 and SL-1210mk2 service manuals The Technics 1210 series also had a switch to change between voltages on the underside of the platter. It was unavailable from official Panasonic dealers in the United States.
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A linear regulator dissipates the difference between input and output voltages as heat. Under overload conditions the output voltage falls and so the difference becomes larger, thus increasing dissipation. Foldback helps to keep the output transistor within its safe operating area under fault and overload conditions. Foldback also significantly reduces the power dissipation in the load in fault conditions, which can reduce the risks of fire and heat damage.
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EBM equipment in construction is similar to electron beam welding machines (see electron beam welding). EBM machines usually utilize voltages in the range of 150 to 200 kV to accelerate electrons to about 200,000 km/s. Magnetic lenses are used to focus the electron beam to the surface of the work-piece. By means of electromagnetic deflection system the beam is positioned as needed, usually by means of a computer.
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The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials in which application of a voltage to the material causes it to expand. Very high voltages correspond to only tiny expansions. As a result, piezoelectric actuators can achieve extremely fine positioning resolution, but also have a very short range of motion. In addition, piezoelectric materials exhibit hysteresis which makes it difficult to control their expansion in a repeatable manner.
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Many manufacturers have now more or less replicated this basic model, adding reinforced parts or minor improvements. The electric airsoft guns were powered primarily by nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries with varying voltages and milliampere-hour ratings. The most common battery is an 8.4 V large battery pack, with a capacity between 2200 and 5000 mAh. Also available are "mini" and "stick" batteries, which generally have 900 ~ 1600 mAh capacities.
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When the voltages are properly adjusted, this lens has the advantage that it focuses ions with the same velocity to a single spot on the detector regardless where the ion was created. This technique thus overcomes the blurring caused by the finite overlap of the laser and molecular beams. In addition to ion imaging, velocity map imaging is also used for electron kinetic energy analysis in photoelectron photoion coincidence spectroscopy.
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Attempts to induce the glassy–crystal transformation of chalcogenides by electrical means form the basis of phase-change random-access memory (PC-RAM). This technology has been developed to near commercial use by ECD Ovonics. For write operations, an electric current supplies the heat pulse. The read process is performed at sub-threshold voltages by utilizing the relatively large difference in electrical resistance between the glassy and crystalline states.
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Bully Van de Graaff who punted, kicked, and played tackle, was Alabama's first All-American in 1915. Bully's brothers Adrian and Hargrove were also prominent Alabama football players in their day. Their younger brother was Robert J. Van de Graaff, inventor of the Van de Graaff generator which produces high voltages. In 1915, Thomas Kelley coached only the first half of season (4–0) before he came down with typhoid fever.
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The BZX79 series is a family of low voltage regulator diode. The diode is made in axial-lead DO-35 glass package. Regulating voltages varies from 2.4V to 75V with a total power dissipation maximum of 500 mW. In some datasheet, the serie is labelled as zener diode,BZX79 series datasheet (Fairchild) but this is not always the case as the serie relies on avalanche breakdown for higher voltage.
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These pipe type cables are oil filled at nominal low, medium, and high pressures. Higher voltages require higher oil pressures to prevent formation of voids that would allow partial discharges within the cable insulation. Pipe type cables will typically have a cathodic protection system driven off voltage where an oil filled cable circuit would not. Pipe type cable systems are often protected from forming holidays through an asphaltic coating.
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OPzS is used to refer to a flooded type of tubular-plated, lead acid, deep cycle batteries. These batteries, generally have a cell voltage of 2 volts and are connected in series to produce higher voltages. These types of batteries are generally vented and are used in stationary applications like; solar, wind and backup energy storage. They contain a liquid electrolyte which is generally composed of diluted sulfuric acid.
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Diagram of an electric power system; transmission system is in blue Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (66 kV or above) to reduce the energy loss which occurs in long-distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly higher installation cost and greater operational limitations, but reduced maintenance costs. Underground transmission is sometimes used in urban areas or environmentally sensitive locations.
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Balanced and unbalanced circuits can be interconnected using a transformer called a balun. Circuits driving balanced lines must themselves be balanced to maintain the benefits of balance. This may be achieved by transformer coupling or by merely balancing the impedance in each conductor. Lines carrying symmetric signals (those with equal but opposite voltages to ground on each leg) are often incorrectly referred to as "balanced", but this is actually differential signaling.
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A meter can be configured to read other voltages by putting it in a voltage divider circuit. This is generally done by placing a resistor in series with the meter coil. A meter can be used to read resistance by placing it in series with a known voltage (a battery) and an adjustable resistor. In a preparatory step, the circuit is completed and the resistor adjusted to produce full-scale deflection.
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Phase-to-phase transformer in Britain Primary line on the right toward the front and secondary lines in the back of this single- phase transformer Both pole-mount and pad-mount transformers convert the high 'primary' voltage of the overhead or underground distribution lines to the lower 'secondary' voltage of the distribution wires inside the building. The primary distribution wires use the three-phase system. Main distribution lines always have three wires. In the North American system, in which single-phase transformers are used which connect to only one of the phase wires, smaller "lateral" lines branching off to serve side roads may include only one or two phase wires. Primaries provide power at the standard distribution voltages used in the area; these range from as low as 2300 volts to about 35,000 volts depending on local distribution practice and standards; often 11,000 V (50 Hz systems) and 13,800 V (60 Hz systems) are used, but many other voltages are standard.
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The AN/MSQ-77 radar track began after the aircraft (A/C) arrived near the Initial Point (IP) on a heading toward the target. When the computer's groundspeed and elevation rate servos had stabilized to the A/C cartesian velocity from the differentiating amplifiers, an operator placed the central into "computer track" to provide rate-aided tracking signals to the radar. With the computer track and the central having target position, A/C heading, & bomb type information; and with the Bomb Trajectory Group's servos tracking the bomb-in-aircraft course and pitch, the operator then activated the BTG integrators for the computer simulation to begin integrating a bomb trajectory from the A/C coordinates at that integration start point. Acceleration voltages from the BTG dynamic models were double-integrated by the 6 computer amplifiers which generated 3 voltages for the simulated bomb displacement (altitude, north, & east deltas) which were summed to the A/C position (simulated bomb release point, BRP).
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Both approaches are inconvenient and time- consuming, taking about ten minutes. Another way is to use multi-system motive power that can operate under several different voltages and current types. In Europe, two-, three and four-system locomotives for cross frontier freight traffic are becoming a common sight (1.5 kV DC, 3 kV DC, 15 kV 16.7 Hz AC, 25 kV, 50 Hz AC). Locomotives and multiple units so equipped can, depending on line configuration and operation rules, pass from one electrification system to another without a stop, coasting for a short distance for the change over, past the dead section between the different voltages. Eurostar trains through the Channel Tunnel are multisystem; a significant part of the route near London was on southern England's 750 V DC third rail system, the route into Brussels is 3,000 V DC overhead, while the rest of the route is 25 kV 50 Hz overhead.
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Two sets of measurements need to be made: one with a magnetic field in the positive z-direction as shown above, and one with it in the negative z-direction. From here on in, the voltages recorded with a positive field will have a subscript P (for example, V13, P = V3, P \- V1, P) and those recorded with a negative field will have a subscript N (such as V13, N = V3, N \- V1, N). For all of the measurements, the magnitude of the injected current should be kept the same; the magnitude of the magnetic field needs to be the same in both directions also. First of all with a positive magnetic field, the current I24 is applied to the sample and the voltage V13, P is recorded; note that the voltages can be positive or negative. This is then repeated for I13 and V42, P. As before, we can take advantage of the reciprocity theorem to provide a check on the accuracy of these measurements.
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Capacitors containing PCB were labelled as containing "Askarel" and several other trade names. PCB-filled capacitors are found in very old (pre 1975) fluorescent lamp ballasts, and other applications. High-voltage capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion.
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The original laboratory and system module lines were offered in 500 kilocycle, 5 megacycle and 10 megacycle versions. In all cases, the supply voltages were -15 and +10 volts, with logic levels of -3 volts (passive pull-down) and 0 volts (active pull-up). DEC used the System Modules to build their "Memory Test" machine for testing core memory systems, selling about 50 of these pre- packaged units over the next eight years.Present 1978, pg.
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The top metal tab is the drain, same as pin 2.IRLZ24N, 55V N-Channel Power MOSFET, TO-220AB package; Infineon. A power MOSFET is a specific type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle significant power levels. Compared to the other power semiconductor devices, such as an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) or a thyristor, its main advantages are high switching speed and good efficiency at low voltages.
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A 5.5 volt supercapacitor is constructed out of two single cells, each rated to at least 2.75 volts, in series connection Supercapacitors are low voltage components. Safe operation requires that the voltage remain within specified limits. The rated voltage UR is the maximum DC voltage or peak pulse voltage that may be applied continuously and remain within the specified temperature range. Capacitors should never be subjected to voltages continuously in excess of the rated voltage.
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Assortment of small ceramic bushings for voltages from a few hundred to a few thousand volts. High voltage bushings on a utility transformer at an electrical substation. These probably operate at several hundred thousand volts. In electric power, a bushing is a hollow electrical insulator that allows an electrical conductor to pass safely through a conducting barrier such as the case of a transformer or circuit breaker without making electrical contact with it.
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The value of clearance relates to the electrical insulation, and the possibility of arc flash between two electrically energised parts (or between live and grounded parts). Higher voltages require higher clearances. For double insulation the clearances must be doubled. The required values can vary from 0.04 mm for single insulation CAT II, 50 V, to 28 mm for double insulation CAT IV, 1000 V. The exact values are defined in the international standards.
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They remain so even after the trigger is removed, and until the current is reduced to a certain level (or until they are triggered off). Diacs are bi-directional diodes that switch AC voltages and trigger triacs or silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs). Except for a small leakage current, diacs do not conduct until the breakover voltage is reached. Triacs are three-terminal, silicon devices that function as two SCRs configured in an inverse, parallel arrangement.
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Tungar bulbs from 1917, 2 ampere (left) and 6 ampere The General Electric Tungar rectifier was a mercury vapor (ex.:5B24) or argon (ex.:328) gas-filled electron tube device with a tungsten filament cathode and a carbon button anode. It operated similarly to the thermionic vacuum tube diode, but the gas in the tube ionized during forward conduction, giving it a much lower forward voltage drop so it could rectify lower voltages.
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A variety of silicon diodes of different current ratings. At left is a bridge rectifier. On the 3 center diodes, a painted band identifies the cathode terminal Silicon diodes are the most widely used rectifiers for lower voltages and powers, and have largely replaced other rectifiers. Due to their substantially lower forward voltage (0.3V versus 0.7V for silicon diodes) germanium diodes have an inherent advantage over silicon diodes in low voltage circuits.
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The machine may be protected from this occurrence by a "reverse power" trip. In some power plants, a set of lamps may be connected between the generator and system busses (or between the instrument transformers connected to those busses) as a backup to the synchroscope instrument. The lamps flicker at the difference between system and generator frequency. The lamps can be connected to go dark when the phase voltages are identical and in-phase.
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A humbucking pickup is composed of two coils, with each coil wound reverse to the other. Each set of six magnetic poles is also opposite in polarity. Since ambient hum from electrical devices reaches the coils as common-mode noise, it induces an equal voltage in each coil, but 180 degrees out of phase between the two voltages. These effectively cancel each other, while the signal from the guitar string is doubled.
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Another method for suppressing voltage spikes is the transient-voltage-suppression diode (TVS). Although diodes do not have as much capacity to conduct large surges as MOVs, diodes are not degraded by smaller surges and can be implemented with a lower "clamping voltage". MOVs degrade from repeated exposure to surges and generally have a higher "clamping voltage" so that leakage does not degrade the MOV. Both types are available over a wide range of voltages.
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Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, more useful voltages. Since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a basic feature of all subsequent generator designs.
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Although Moore's lamp was complicated, expensive, and required very high voltages, it was considerably more efficient than incandescent lamps, and it produced a closer approximation to natural daylight than contemporary incandescent lamps. From 1904 onwards Moore's lighting system was installed in a number of stores and offices. Its success contributed to General Electric’s motivation to improve the incandescent lamp, especially its filament. GE's efforts came to fruition with the invention of a tungsten-based filament.
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Following in his father's footsteps, Adrian joined the Alabama football team, becoming a prominent member of its 1911 and 1912 teams. At Alabama he was a member of Phi Delta Theta. Adrian's younger brothers Hargrove and William were also prominent football players for Alabama, William being the program's first All-American. Younger still was Adrian's brother Robert J. Van de Graaff, the inventor of the Van de Graaff Generator which produces high voltages.
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However this introduces asymmetry; the voltage drop in the neutral makes the phases not exactly 90 degrees apart. Two-phase systems have been replaced with three-phase systems. A two-phase supply with 90 degrees between phases can be derived from a three-phase system using a Scott-connected transformer. A polyphase system must provide a defined direction of phase rotation, so that mirror image voltages do not count towards the phase order.
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This lets an existing double-circuit transmission line carry more power with minimal change to the existing cable plant. This is particularly economical when the alternative is upgrading an existing extra high voltage (EHV, more than 345 kV phase-to-phase) transmission line to ultra-high voltage (UHV, more than 800 kV) standards. By contrast, three-phase power has phase-to-phase voltages equal to = 1.732 times the phase-to-neutral voltage.
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Coaxial design helps to further reduce low-frequency magnetic transmission and pickup. In this design the foil or mesh shield has a circular cross section and the inner conductor is exactly at its center. This causes the voltages induced by a magnetic field between the shield and the core conductor to consist of two nearly equal magnitudes which cancel each other. A twisted pair has two wires of a cable twisted around each other.
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Electrophoresis and microfluidics are highly synergistic because it is possible to use higher voltages in microchannels due to faster heat removal. Isoelectric focusing is the separation of proteins, organelles, and cells with different isoelectric points. Isoelectric focusing requires a pH gradient (usually generated with electrodes) perpendicular to the flow direction. Sorting and focusing of the species of interest is achieved because an electrophoretic force causes perpendicular migration until it flows along its respective isoelectric points.
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The J1772 standard includes several levels of shock protection, ensuring the safety of charging even in wet conditions. Physically, the connection pins are isolated on the interior of the connector when mated, ensuring no physical access to those pins. When not mated, J1772 connectors have no power voltages at the pins, and charging power does not flow until commanded by the vehicle. The ground pin is of the first-make, last-break variety.
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Voltages are distributed to the dynodes by a resistive voltage divider, although variations such as active designs (with transistors or diodes) are possible. The divider design, which influences frequency response or rise time, can be selected to suit varying applications. Some instruments that use photomultipliers have provisions to vary the anode voltage to control the gain of the system. While powered (energized), photomultipliers must be shielded from ambient light to prevent their destruction through overexcitation.
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Fig. 5: Evolution of the voltages and currents with time in an ideal buck converter operating in discontinuous mode. In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is too small. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see figure 5).
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1, either end to center has half the voltage of end-to-end. Fig. 2 illustrates the phasor diagram of the output voltages for a split-phase transformer. Since the two phasors do not define a unique direction of rotation for a revolving magnetic field, a split single-phase is not a two-phase system. In the United States and Canada, the practice originated with the DC distribution system developed by Thomas Edison.
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ESD events are characterised by high voltages of many kV but small currents and sometimes cause visible sparks. ESD is treated as a small, localised phenomenon, although technically a lightning flash is a very large ESD event. ESD can also be man-made, as in the shock received from a Van de Graaff generator. An ESD event can damage electronic circuitry by injecting a high-voltage pulse, besides giving people an unpleasant shock.
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In general, due to safety issues, heating films supplied directly from the mains are only installed underfloor or in ceilings. Due to potentially hazardous voltages from mains electricity, protection from electric shock is usually required, either due to damage (e.g. nails) or water ingress. Most commonly, additional insulation layers are added over the heating film and sealed with waterproof tapes, although this does not provide protection from shock due to damage like nails.
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The piezoelectric effect is the generation of electric charge when certain materials are under stress. In the case of piezo switches, the force could be compressive pressure that causes the (typically disc-shaped) piezo element to bend very slightly like a drumhead. Thus piezo switches produce a single, brief "on" pulse. This pulse can vary with the amount of pressure which is applied, since higher pressures generate higher voltages which take longer to dissipate.
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Here the voltage associated with pairs of nodes are the primary variables and the branch voltages are found in terms of them. In this method also, a particular tree of the graph must be chosen in order to ensure that all the variables are independent. The dual of the tie set is the cut set. A tie set is formed by allowing all but one of the graph links to be open circuit.
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The above fill-factor enhancement methods, mostly concentrating on SPAD geometry along with other advancements, have led SPAD arrays to recently push the 1 mega pixel barrier. While this lags CMOS image sensors (with pitches now below 0.8 um), this is a product of both the youth of the research field (with CMOS SPADs introduced in 2003) and the complications of high voltages, avalanche multiplication within the silicon and the required spacing rules.
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A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments such as microscopes. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope.
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Wafer fabrication is a procedure composed of many repeated sequential processes to produce complete electrical or photonic circuits on semiconductor wafers. Examples include production of radio frequency (RF) amplifiers, LEDs, optical computer components, and CPUs for computers. Wafer fabrication is used to build components with the necessary electrical structures. The main process begins with electrical engineers designing the circuit and defining its functions, and specifying the signals, inputs, outputs and voltages needed.
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Sinusoidal wave with phase of φ. Vectorial representation of waves and their superposition. Phasor approach refers to a method which is used for vectorial representation of sinusoidal waves like alternative currents and voltages or electromagnetic waves. The amplitude and the phase of the waveform is transformed into a vector where the phase is translated to the angle between the phasor vector and X axis and the amplitude is translated to vector length or magnitude.
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The IO-204 Module connects to a Local Area Network using 10/100/1000Base-T Ethernet and then establishes an encrypted connection to ioBridge web servers. The IO-204 has four GPIO channels. Each channel includes a 5 V power line, a ground connection, digital input pin, analog input pin, and a digital output pin. The digital input line is capable of reading voltages of 0 V and 5 V and pulse counting.
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Mains power outlets provide an easy example: they supply power at constant voltage, with electrical appliances connected to the power circuit collectively making up the load. When a high-power appliance switches on, it dramatically reduces the load impedance. If the load impedance is not very much higher than the power supply impedance, the voltages will drop. In a domestic environment, switching on a heating appliance may cause incandescent lights to dim noticeably.
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The radio hat had an external battery pack that provided 1.5 volts for the filaments and the 22.5 volt B+ supply. These were much safer voltages for use in a hat, especially since the full plate voltage is dropped across the earphone. This technique was commonly used in many simple radios, some having ninety or more volts present across the head or earphones. The battery pack would power the radio for up to 20 hours.
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The subthreshold slope is a feature of a MOSFET's current–voltage characteristic. In the subthreshold region, the drain current behaviour – though being controlled by the gate terminal – is similar to the exponentially decreasing current of a forward biased diode. Therefore a plot of drain current versus gate voltage with drain, source, and bulk voltages fixed will exhibit approximately log linear behaviour in this MOSFET operating regime. Its slope is the subthreshold slope.
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A low-voltage electron microscope (LVEM) is an electron microscope that is designed to operate at relatively low electron accelerating voltages of between 0.5 and 30 kV. Some LVEMs can function as an SEM, a TEM and a STEM in a single compact instrument. Using a low beam voltage increases image contrast which is especially important for biological specimens. This increase in contrast significantly reduces, or even eliminates the need to stain biological samples.
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Earlier EIT systems still used an analog demodulation circuit to convert the alternating voltage to a direct current level before running it through an analog-to-digital converter. Newer systems convert the alternating signal directly before performing digital demodulation. Depending on indication, some EIT systems are capable of working at multiple frequencies and measuring both magnitude and phase of the voltage. Voltages measured are passed on to a computer to perform image reconstruction and display.
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A direct current circuit is an electrical circuit that consists of any combination of constant voltage sources, constant current sources, and resistors. In this case, the circuit voltages and currents are independent of time. A particular circuit voltage or current does not depend on the past value of any circuit voltage or current. This implies that the system of equations that represent a DC circuit do not involve integrals or derivatives with respect to time.
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High voltage cannot readily be used for lighting or motors, so transmission-level voltages must be reduced for end-use equipment. Transformers are used to change the voltage levels in alternating current (AC) transmission circuits. Transformers made voltage changes practical, and AC generators were more efficient than those using DC. These advantages led to early low voltage DC transmission systems being supplanted by AC systems around the turn of the 20th century.Hughes, Thomas Parke (1993).
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In practice, an electrostatic charge monitoring probe is placed close (1 mm to 5 mm) to the surface to be measured and the probe body is driven to the same potential as the measured unknown by an electronic circuit. This achieves a high accuracy measurement that is virtually insensitive to variations in probe-to-surface distances. The technique also prevents arc-over between the probe and measured surface when measuring high voltages.
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Leakage through the Marx resistors needs to be compensated by a small bias current through the generator. At the trailing edge of the boxcar, the two other generators are fired to "reverse" the cell. Marx generators are used to provide high-voltage pulses for the testing of insulation of electrical apparatus such as large power transformers, or insulators used for supporting power transmission lines. Voltages applied may exceed two million volts for high-voltage apparatus.
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Increasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC.P. Leandes and S. Ostlund. "A concept for an HVDC traction system" in "International conference on main line railway electrification", Hessington, England, September 1989 (Suggests 30 kV). Glomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. "VSC-based MVDC Railway Electrification System" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v.29, no.
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Larger is around 1946 and the smaller is a Sprague tantalum capacitor from the 1980s During the Second World War, Sprague invented the tantalum capacitor. The use of tantalum allows capacitors to achieve high values of electron storage or capacitance along with higher operating voltages, shrinking the capacitor to a fraction of the size of a more conventional design. Vishay Intertechnology, which currently owns the Sprague capacitor brand, calls their tantalum capacitors the Sprague tantalum.
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A sample endplate potential (EPP; an average of 10 single EPPs) is shown at the top, and sample miniature endplate potentials (mEPPs) are shown at the bottom. Note the differences in the scales on the X- and Y-axes. Both are taken from recordings at the mouse neuromuscular junction. End plate potentials (EPPs) are the voltages which cause depolarization of skeletal muscle fibers caused by neurotransmitters binding to the postsynaptic membrane in the neuromuscular junction.
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Its sensitivity to ionizing radiation is low (like other group III nitrides), making it a suitable material for solar cell arrays for satellites. Military and space applications could also benefit as devices have shown stability in radiation environments. Because GaN transistors can operate at much higher temperatures and work at much higher voltages than gallium arsenide (GaAs) transistors, they make ideal power amplifiers at microwave frequencies. In addition, GaN offers promising characteristics for THz devices.
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Transient Earth Voltages (TEVs) are induced voltage spikes on the surface of the surrounding metalwork. TEVs were first discovered in 1974 by Dr John ReevesDavies, N., Tang, J.C.Y., Shiel, P., (2007), Benefits and Experiences of Non-Intrusive Partial Discharge Measurements on MV Switchgear, CIRED 2007, Paper 0475. of EA Technology. TEVs occur because the partial discharge creates current spikes in the conductor and hence also in the earthed metal surrounding the conductor.
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Voltage optimisation is a term given to the systematic controlled reduction in the voltages received by an energy consumer to reduce energy use, power demand and reactive power demand. While some voltage 'optimisation' devices have a fixed voltage adjustment, others electronically regulate the voltage automatically. Voltage optimisation systems are typically installed in series with the mains electrical supply to a building, allowing all its electrical equipment to benefit from an optimised supply.
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A dual-voltage CPU uses a split-rail design so the processor core can use a lower voltage, while the external Input/Output (I/O) voltages remain at 3.3 volts for backwards compatibility. A single-voltage CPU uses a single power voltage throughout the chip, supplying both I/O power and internal power. As of 2002 Microprocessor#Market statistics, most CPUs are single-voltage CPUs. All CPUs before the Pentium MMX are single-voltage CPUs.
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In film, this effect is usually created with an optical printer by controlled double exposure from frame to frame. In linear video editing or a live television production, the same effect is created by interpolating voltages of the video signal. In non-linear video editing, a dissolve is done using software, by interpolating gradually between the RGB values of each pixel of the image. The audio track optionally cross-fades between the soundtracks.
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Wilde used voltages up to only 600 V on a binary mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water in a flow system. He observed only small amounts of carbon dioxide reduction to carbon monoxide, and no other significant reduction products or newly formed carbon compounds. Other researchers were studying UV-photolysis of water vapor with carbon monoxide. They have found that various alcohols, aldehydes and organic acids were synthesized in reaction mixture.
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Sušnik conducted the first electric-powered aircraft flight in Slovenia and the third worldwide in 2005, but experienced an engine failure due to the design limitations of the commercial motor he used. This led him to develop his own line of engines, the EMRAX (Electric Motor Roman Axial fluX) in 2008. This axial flux design became the basis for the production designs, built in different sizes and voltages for a range of aircraft installations.
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Usually analysis of a three-phase system is simplified by assuming balanced loading of all three phases. Steady-state operation is assumed, with no transient changes in power flow or voltage due to load or generation changes. The system frequency is also assumed to be constant. A further simplification is to use the per-unit system to represent all voltages, power flows, and impedances, scaling the actual target system values to some convenient base.
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Many power supplies use more than one regulating method in series. For example, the output from a switching regulator can be further regulated by a linear regulator. The switching regulator accepts a wide range of input voltages and efficiently generates a (somewhat noisy) voltage slightly above the ultimately desired output. That is followed by a linear regulator that generates exactly the desired voltage and eliminates nearly all the noise generated by the switching regulator.
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There are two limitations of stored information; endurance, and data retention. During rewrites, the gate oxide in the floating-gate transistors gradually accumulates trapped electrons. The electric field of the trapped electrons adds to the electrons in the floating gate, lowering the window between threshold voltages for zeros vs ones. After sufficient number of rewrite cycles, the difference becomes too small to be recognizable, the cell is stuck in programmed state, and endurance failure occurs.
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Diagram of New Haven system following 1914 implementation of autotransformer substations. Although the railroad considered the 1907 electrification highly successful, two problems required an ultimate redesign of the transmission system. The first was electromagnetic interference in adjacent, parallel telegraph and telephone wires caused by the high currents in the traction power system. The second was that the system's geographic growth and the evolving state of electrical technology created a need for higher transmission voltages.
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For lower operating voltages, the permissible pulse rise times may decrease. The permissible pulse load capacity of a film capacitor is generally calculated so that an internal temperature rise of 8 to 10 °K is acceptable. The maximum permissible pulse rise time of film capacitors which may be applied within the rated temperature range is specified in the relevant data sheets. Exceeding the maximum specified pulse load can lead to the destruction of the capacitor.
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Carbon microphones are also widely used in safety-critical applications such as mining and chemical manufacturing, where higher line voltages cannot be used, due to the risk of sparking and consequent explosions. Carbon-based telephone systems are also resistant to damage from high-voltage transients, such as those produced by lightning strikes, and electromagnetic pulses of the type generated by nuclear explosions, and so are still maintained as backup communication systems in critical military installations.
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In addition to fault management, power systems may require maintenance or augmentation. As often it is neither economical nor practical for large parts of the system to be offline during this work, power systems are built with many switches. These switches allow the part of the system being worked on to be isolated while the rest of the system remains live. At high voltages, there are two switches of note: isolators and circuit breakers.
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The input (yellow) and output (green) of a saturated op amp in an inverting amplifier ; Saturation:Output voltage is limited to a minimum and maximum value close to the power supply voltages.That the output cannot reach the power supply voltages is usually the result of limitations of the amplifier's output stage transistors. See Output stage. The output of older op amps can reach to within one or two volts of the supply rails.
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As an example, the LT1494 micropower op amp consumes 1.5 microamp but has a 2.7 kHz gain-bandwidth product and a 0.001V per microsecond slew rate. ; Non-linear input-output relationship: The output voltage may not be accurately proportional to the difference between the input voltages. It is commonly called distortion when the input signal is a waveform. This effect will be very small in a practical circuit where substantial negative feedback is used.
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Voltage is defined as a mapping from the set of edge pairs to real numbers, . Voltage is directly analogous to electrical voltage in an electrical network. The voltage in the forward and reverse directions between a pair of nodes are the additive inverses of one another: . The input voltage is the sum of the voltages over a set of edges, P_{ab}, that form a path between the s and t nodes.
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Parallel port adapters are simple and inexpensive, but they are relatively slow because they use the host CPU to change each bit ("bit banging"). They have declined in usefulness because most computers in recent years don't have a parallel port. Driver support is also a problem, because pin usage by adapters varied widely. Since the parallel port is based on 5V logic level, most adapters lacked voltage translation support for 3.3V or 1.8V target voltages.
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The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated EPR as a "known hazard" and has issued regulations governing the elimination of this hazard in the work place. Protection and isolation equipment is made to national and international standards described by IEEE, National Electrical Codes (UL/CSA),FCC, and Telcordia. IEEE Std. 80-2000 is a standard that addresses the calculation and mitigation of step and touch voltages to acceptable levels around electrical substations.
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An electrically erasable programmable read-only memory EEPROM uses voltage to erase memory. These erasable memory devices require a significant amount of time to erase data and to write new data; they are not usually configured to be programmed by the processor of the target system. Data is stored by use of floating-gate transistors which require special operating voltages to trap or release electric charge on an insulated control gate to store information.
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If the adjustment pin is connected to ground the output pin delivers a regulated voltage of 1.25 V at currents up to the maximum. Higher regulated voltages are obtained by connecting the adjustment pin to a resistive voltage divider between the output and ground. Then Vout = Vref (1 + RL/RH) Vref is the difference in voltage between the OUT pin and the ADJ pin. Vref is typically 1.25 V during normal operation.
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This means that the interior of the cell has a negative voltage relative to the exterior. In most types of cells, the membrane potential usually stays fairly constant. Some types of cells, however, are electrically active in the sense that their voltages fluctuate over time. In some types of electrically active cells, including neurons and muscle cells, the voltage fluctuations frequently take the form of a rapid upward spike followed by a rapid fall.
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Amperometry uses a carbon electrode to record changes in the chemical composition of the oxidized components of a biological solution. Oxidation and reduction is accomplished by changing the voltage at the active surface of the recording electrode in a process known as "scanning". Because certain brain chemicals lose or gain electrons at characteristic voltages, individual species can be identified. Amperometry has been used for studying exocytosis in the nervous and endocrine systems.
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From this symmetry he inferred the characteristics of a fourth fundamental non-linear circuit element, linking magnetic flux and charge, which he called the memristor. In contrast to a linear (or non-linear) resistor the memristor has a dynamic relationship between current and voltage including a memory of past voltages or currents. Other scientists had proposed dynamic memory resistors such as the memistor of Bernard Widrow, but Chua introduced a mathematical generality.
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This induced DC voltage can degrade the precision of instrumentation amplifiers in particular. Such voltages appear in the junctions of the resistor leads with the circuit board and with the resistor body. Common metal film resistors show such an effect at a magnitude of about 20 µV/°C. Some carbon composition resistors can exhibit thermoelectric offsets as high as 400 µV/°C, whereas specially constructed resistors can reduce this number to 0.05 µV/°C.
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Pulsing the guide electrodes (negative going pulses) repeatedly will cause the neon dot to move from cathode to cathode. Detail of the top of a dekatron — central anode disk surrounded by 30 internal cathode pins. Sending sequenced pulses to guide electrodes will determine the direction of movement. Hydrogen dekatrons require high voltages ranging from 400 to 600 volts on the anode for proper operation; dekatrons with inert gas usually require ~350 volts.
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Honda's Integrated Motor Assist directly attaches a brushless DC motor between the flywheel and transaxle, providing both assist during acceleration, and regeneration during coasting / braking. It has been produced in various voltages and power outputs, as dictated by the size and weight of the vehicle application. Models equipped with the Integrated Motor Assist include the Honda Insight (1999-2006, 2009- ), Honda Jazz (2011- ) Honda Civic (2003- ), Honda Accord (2005-2007), and CR-Z (2010-2016).
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Other reasons for using a top cap include improving stability by reducing grid-to- anode capacitance,, p.571 improved high-frequency performance, keeping a very high plate voltage away from lower voltages, and accommodating one more electrode than allowed by the base. There was even an occasional design that had two top cap connections. The earliest vacuum tubes evolved from incandescent light bulbs, containing a filament sealed in an evacuated glass envelope.
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The construction of the Muntelier-Löwenberg–Ins extension began in February and operations started on 1 May 1903. The entire railway line was electrified with a side- contact third rail system, using direct current, on 23 July 1903. Over the years, the FMA used voltages between 750 and 900 volts. With the progressive electrification of the surrounding SBB lines, the FMA was finally re- electrified with alternating current supplied via overhead line.
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In such cases, the watchdog typically triggers a processor reset by activating an internal or external pulse generator, which in turn creates the required reset pulses. In embedded systems and control systems, watchdog timers are often used to activate fail-safe circuitry. When activated, the fail-safe circuitry forces all control outputs to safe states (e.g., turns off motors, heaters, and high-voltages) to prevent injuries and equipment damage while the fault persists.
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Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of a large transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. Transformers may require protective relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.
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Lowering the voltage applied at a higher temperature maintains safety margins. For some capacitor types therefore the IEC standard specify a second "temperature derated voltage" for a higher temperature range, the "category voltage". The category voltage (UC) is the maximum DC voltage or peak pulse voltage that may be applied continuously to a capacitor at any temperature within the category temperature range. The relation between both voltages and temperatures is given in the picture right.
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The Dual-Voltage MultimediaCard (DV-MMC) is one of the first acceptable changes in MMC was the introduction of dual-voltage cards that can operate at 1.8 V in addition to 3.3 V. Running at lower voltages reduces the card's energy consumption, which is important in mobile devices. However, simple dual-voltage parts quickly went out of production in favour of MMCplus and MMCmobile which offer capabilities in addition to dual-voltage capability.
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For mobility modeling at the physical level the electrical variables are the various scattering mechanisms, carrier densities, and local potentials and fields, including their technology and ambient dependencies. By contrast, at the circuit-level, models parameterize the effects in terms of terminal voltages and empirical scattering parameters. The two representations can be compared, but it is unclear in many cases how the experimental data is to be interpreted in terms of more microscopic behavior.
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Later, however, DG stopped direct sales of the 601 in favor of selling complete systems. The mN601 was implemented using NMOS technology, and thus required four separate input voltages from the power supply. It also lacked an internal clock, and required the system to provide a two-phase clock signal to drive it. It ran at fairly low speeds, normally using a 240 ns clock (~4.2 MHz), completing instructions in 2.4 to 10 µs.
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Some had a separate small display to light up indicating a stereo signal on FM. The British Leak company used an EM84 indicator as a very precise tuning-indicator in their Troughline FM tuner series, by mixing the AGC voltages from the two limiter valve grids at the indicator sensing-grid. By this means accurate tuning was indicated by a fully open sharp shadow, whilst off-tune the indicator produced a partially closed shadow.
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Without the presence of an electric field, the electrons have no net velocity. When a DC voltage is applied, the electron drift velocity will increase in speed proportionally to the strength of the electric field. The drift velocity is on the order of millimeters per hour. AC voltages cause no net movement; the electrons oscillate back and forth in response to the alternating electric field (over a distance of a few micrometers – see example calculation).
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A rotary phase converter is a three-phase motor with special starting arrangements and power factor correction that produces balanced three-phase voltages. When properly designed, these rotary converters can allow satisfactory operation of a three-phase motor on a single-phase source. In such a device, the energy storage is performed by the inertia (flywheel effect) of the rotating components. An external flywheel is sometimes found on one or both ends of the shaft.
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Digital circuits are made from analog components. The design must assure that the analog nature of the components doesn't dominate the desired digital behavior. Digital systems must manage noise and timing margins, parasitic inductances and capacitances, and filter power connections. Bad designs have intermittent problems such as "glitches", vanishingly fast pulses that may trigger some logic but not others, "runt pulses" that do not reach valid "threshold" voltages, or unexpected ("undecoded") combinations of logic states.
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Source tied to the body to ensure no body bias: top left: Subthreshold, top right: Ohmic mode, bottom left: Active mode at onset of pinch-off, bottom right: Active mode well into pinch-off – channel length modulation evident Example application of an n-channel MOSFET. When the switch is pushed, the LED lights up. 090507 brunningsoftware.co.uk The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending on the voltages at the terminals.
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The voltage required for inducing a phase change of \pi is called the half-wave voltage (V_\pi). For a Pockels cell, it is usually hundreds or even thousands of volts, so that a high-voltage amplifier is required. Suitable electronic circuits can switch such large voltages within a few nanoseconds, allowing the use of EOMs as fast optical switches. Liquid crystal devices are electro-optical phase modulators if no polarizers are used.
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Developed in the U.S., the diamond- shaped mast was specially designed to radiate radio waves in such a way that reduce fading. Thus it was able to serve the whole country. The mast was destroyed by retreating German troops in World War II, but was later rebuilt in 1946. In 1968 the tower was upgraded to serve the new 300 kW transmitter (amongst others, the ceramic base insulator had to be replaced to withstand the higher voltages).
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The time required to sample the 16 channels (one frame period) was 0.323 s. Half of the channels were used to convey eight-level digital information, and the others were used for analog information. During ground processing of the telemetered data, the analog information was digitized with an accuracy of 1/100 of full scale. One analog channel was subcommutated in a pattern 16 frames long and was used to telemeter spacecraft temperatures, power system voltages, electric currents, etc.
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For instance, one might transform a voltage generator into a current generator using Norton's theorem in order to be able to later combine the internal resistance of the generator with a parallel impedance load. A resistive circuit is a circuit containing only resistors, ideal current sources, and ideal voltage sources. If the sources are constant (DC) sources, the result is a DC circuit. Analysis of a circuit consists of solving for the voltages and currents present in the circuit.
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SRBP insulated bushings are typically used up to voltages around 72.5 kV. However, above 12 kV, there is a need to control the external electrical field and to even out the internal energy storage which marginalises the dielectric strength of paper insulation. To improve the performance of paper insulated bushings, metallic foils can be inserted during the winding process. These act to stabilize the generated electrical fields, homogenising the internal energy using the effect of capacitance.
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They generally carry voltages from 4.6 to 33 kilovolts (kV) for distances up to 30 miles, and include transformers to step the voltage down from the primary voltage to the lower secondary voltage used by the customer. A service drop carries this lower voltage to the customer's premises. Subtransmission lines carry higher voltage power from regional substations to local substations. They usually carry 46 kV, 69 kV, or 115 kV for distances up to 60 miles.
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Between 1831 and 1834, Michael Faraday discovered the solid electrolytes silver sulfide and lead(II) fluoride, which laid the foundation for solid-state ionics. In the late 1950s, several electrochemical systems employed solid electrolytes. They used a silver ion, but had low energy density and cell voltages, and high internal resistance. A new class of solid-state electrolyte, developed by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1990s, was used to make thin film lithium-ion batteries.
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ZnO has a relatively large direct band gap of ~3.3 eV at room temperature. Advantages associated with a large band gap include higher breakdown voltages, ability to sustain large electric fields, lower electronic noise, and high-temperature and high- power operation. The band gap of ZnO can further be tuned to ~3–4 eV by its alloying with magnesium oxide or cadmium oxide. Most ZnO has n-type character, even in the absence of intentional doping.
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These types of batteries are also referred to as lithium-metal batteries. They stand apart from other batteries in their high charge density (long life) and high cost per unit. Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages from (comparable to a zinc–carbon or alkaline battery) to about . Disposable primary lithium batteries must be distinguished from secondary lithium-ion or a lithium- polymer,Batscap - La batterie lithium métal polymère in batscap.
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An example of synchroscope operation on a hydroelectric generator. Synchroscopes are used in any power plant that connects to an outside power grid and also in isolated plants containing more than one generator. Each generator must be synchronized with the others before being connected to the plant bus. If line voltages are unequal when they are connected, a heavy current will flow as each line will attempt to equalize the other, causing damage in the process.
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As a result, the Arrow III passenger cars can no longer run between those two points, since those trains can not run on two different voltages on one trip (the transformer voltage taps must be manually changed from alongside the MU). The line remains electrified at 12 kV 25 Hz AC north of Matawan. Three phase breaks segregate the different power sources, at the Morgan Creek Drawbridge, Laurel (Hazlet/Holmdel), and east of Bergen Place in Red Bank.
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This allows them, in the case of the PICkit 2, to generate voltages from 2.5 to 5 volts, or in the case of the PICkit 3, 2.5 to 5.5 volts, from a 5 V USB supply, at around 100 mA. Both have options for calibrating the output with a multimeter, for increased accuracy. Additionally, for some PICs, the MCLR programming voltage can be generated, at around 13 to 14 volts. This voltage is required to reprogram the flash memory.
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Orthovoltage x-rays are produced by x-ray tubes operating at voltages in the 100-500 kV range, and therefore the x-rays have a peak energy in the 100-500 keV range. Orthovoltage X-rays are sometimes termed "deep" x-rays (DXR). They cover the upper limit of energies used for diagnostic radiography, and are used in external beam radiotherapy to treat cancer and tumors. They penetrate tissue to a useful depth of about 4-6 cm.
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Although applicable at any frequency, S-parameters are mostly used for networks operating at radio frequency (RF) and microwave frequencies where signal power and energy considerations are more easily quantified than currents and voltages. S-parameters change with the measurement frequency, so frequency must be specified for any S-parameter measurements stated, in addition to the characteristic impedance or system impedance. S-parameters are readily represented in matrix form and obey the rules of matrix algebra.
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R1 acts as a feedback resistor, biasing the inverter in its linear region of operation and effectively causing it to function as a high-gain inverting amplifier. To better understand this, assume the inverter is ideal, with infinite input impedance and zero output impedance. The resistor forces the input and output voltages to be equal. Hence the inverter will neither be fully on, nor fully off, but will operate in the transition region, where it has gain.
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Lower operating voltages lead to longer rise times of pulses, without appreciably changing the dead times. Spurious pulses are caused mostly by secondary electrons emitted by the cathode due to positive ion bombardment. The resulting spurious pulses have the nature of a relaxation oscillator and show uniform spacing, dependent on the tube fill gas and overvoltage. At high enough overvoltages, but still below the onset of continuous corona discharges, sequences of thousands of pulses can be produced.
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The state estimator is an integral part of the overall monitoring and control systems for transmission networks. It is mainly aimed at providing a reliable estimate of the system voltages. This information from the state estimator flows to control centers and database servers across the network.Yih-Fang Huang; Werner, S.; Jing Huang; Kashyap, N.; Gupta, V., "State Estimation in Electric Power Grids: Meeting New Challenges Presented by the Requirements of the Future Grid," Signal Processing Magazine, IEEE , vol.
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The 2N3906 is manufactured in a plastic TO-92 case. When looking at the flat side with the leads pointed downward, the three leads emerging from the transistor are, from left to right, the emitter, base, and collector leads. The 2N3906 is specified by a collector current of 200 mA, collector-base and collector-emitter voltages of 40 V, for power dissipation of 300 mW. Its transition frequency Ft is 250 MHz, with a beta of at least 100.
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This field may be an electric field, or some other field following the same linear distribution rules. The resistivity of Teledeltos is around 6 kilohms / square. This is low enough that it may be used with safe low voltages, yet high enough that the currents remain low, avoiding problems with contact resistance. Connections are made to the paper by painting on areas of silver-loaded conductive paint and attaching wires to these, usually with spring clips.
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Unlike Moore's lamps, Hewitt's were manufactured in standardized sizes and operated at low voltages. The mercury-vapor lamp was superior to the incandescent lamps of the time in terms of energy efficiency, but the blue- green light it produced limited its applications. It was, however, used for photography and some industrial processes. Mercury vapor lamps continued to be developed at a slow pace, especially in Europe, and by the early 1930s they received limited use for large-scale illumination.
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Peak inrush current into a high voltage capacitor upon power up can stress the component, reducing its reliability. Pre-charge of the powerline voltages in a high voltage DC application is a preliminary mode which limits the inrush current during the power up procedure. A high-voltage system with a large capacitive load can be exposed to high electric current during initial turn- on. This current, if not limited, can cause considerable stress or damage to the system components.
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The original difference in Fermi levels, before contact, is referred to as the emf. The contact potential cannot drive steady current through a load attached to its terminals because that current would involve a charge transfer. No mechanism exists to continue such transfer and, hence, maintain a current, once equilibrium is attained. One might inquire why the contact potential does not appear in Kirchhoff's law of voltages as one contribution to the sum of potential drops.
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This test is performed by measuring the resistance between the third pin (ground) and outside metal body of the product under test. The maximum acceptable value is generally 0.5 ohms although certain standards may specify 0.1 ohms. This test is generally carried out at a slightly higher current (e.g. 25–60 A) so that the ground bond circuit maintains safe voltages on the chassis of the product, even at a high current, before the circuit breaker trips.
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Some later-generation e-cigarettes let users increase the volume of vapor by adjusting the battery output voltage. Depending on the heating temperature, the carcinogens in the e-cigarette vapor may surpass the levels of cigarette smoke. E-cigarettes devices using higher voltage batteries can produce carcinogens including formaldehyde at levels comparable to cigarette smoke. The later-generation and "tank-style" devices with higher voltages (5.0 V) could produce formaldehyde at comparable or greater levels than in cigarette smoke.
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The advantage was that the heaters were a high and continuous load on the battery, whereas the plate voltage battery drain was smaller and intermittent. Often a wet-cell rechargeable battery was used for tube heaters, recharged by a local garage or by exchanging with a vehicle battery. Many 32-volt farm radios were factory-built for the purpose. They usually had two type 48 power tetrodes that could operate with B+ voltages as low as 28 volts.
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With mains voltages of around 220 V, the power dissipated by the additional resistance and the voltage drop across it could be quite high, and it was common to use a resistive power cable (mains cord) of defined resistance, running warm, rather than putting a hot resistor inside the case. If a resistive power cable was used, an inexperienced repairer might replace it with a standard cable, or use the wrong length, damaging the equipment and risking a fire.
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The superconducting tunnel junction (STJ) consists of two pieces of superconducting material separated by a very thin (~nanometer) insulating layer. It is also known as a superconductor-insulator-superconductor tunnel junction (SIS) and is a type of a Josephson junction. Cooper pairs can tunnel across the insulating barrier, a phenomenon known as the Josephson effect. Quasiparticles can also tunnel across the barrier, although the quasiparticle current is suppressed for voltages less than twice the superconducting energy gap.
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In 1931 a version able to produce 1,000,000 volts was described in a patent disclosure. The Van de Graaff generator was a successful particle accelerator, producing the highest energies until the late 1930s when the cyclotron superseded it. The voltage on open air Van de Graaff machines is limited to a few million volts by air breakdown. Higher voltages, up to about 25 megavolts, were achieved by enclosing the generator inside a tank of pressurized insulating gas.
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Stress testing, in general, should put computer hardware under exaggerated levels of stress in order to ensure stability when used in a normal environment. These can include extremes of workload, type of task, memory use, thermal load (heat), clock speed, or voltages. Memory and CPU are two components that are commonly stress tested in this way. There is considerable overlap between stress testing software and benchmarking software, since both seek to assess and measure maximum performance.
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When an uncontrolled arc forms at high voltages, and especially where large supply- wires or high-current conductors are used, arc flashes can produce deafening noises, supersonic concussive-forces, super-heated shrapnel, temperatures far greater than the Sun's surface, and intense, high-energy radiation capable of vaporizing nearby materials. Arc flash temperatures can reach or exceed at the arc terminals.KM Kowalski-Trakofler, EA Barrett, CW Urban, GT Homce. "Arc Flash Awareness: Information and Discussion Topics for Electrical Workers".
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The greatest currents and voltages were obtained when the difference in depth was such that a line joining the two electrodes was in the direction of the magnetic dip, or magnetic inclination. When the previous methods were combined, the current was tapped and utilized in any well-known manner. In some cases, a pair of plates with differing electrical properties, and with suitable protective coatings, were buried below the ground. A protective or other coating covered each entire plate.
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N100 (labeled N1) and P300 (labeled P3). Note that the ERP is plotted with negative voltages upward, a common, but not universal, practice in ERP research An event-related potential (ERP) is the measured brain response that is the direct result of a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event. More formally, it is any stereotyped electrophysiological response to a stimulus. The study of the brain in this way provides a noninvasive means of evaluating brain functioning.
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With the discovery of the electroencephalogram (EEG) in 1924, Hans Berger revealed that one could measure the electrical activity of the human brain by placing electrodes on the scalp and amplifying the signal. Changes in voltage can then be plotted over a period of time. He observed that the voltages could be influenced by external events that stimulated the senses. The EEG proved to be a useful source in recording brain activity over the ensuing decades.
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Applications that once were thought to require higher voltages, such as electrical power steering, have now been achieved with 12 volt systems. 42-volt electrical components are now used in only a few automotive applications, since incandescent light bulbs work well at 12 volts and switching of a 42-volt circuit is more difficult. 48 volt systems are being deployed in mild hybrid vehicles, which add electric assistance to the propulsion and regeneration during braking for fuel savings.
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The last ten triple voltage units carry the Thalys livery and are known as Thalys PBA (Paris-Brussels-Amsterdam) sets. As well as using standard French voltages of 25 kV AC and 1,500 V DC (also used in the Netherlands), the triple voltage sets can operate under the Belgian and Italian 3 kV DC supplies. They are formed of two power cars ( under 25 kV--like the TGV Atlantique) and eight carriages, giving a capacity of 377 seats.
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A typical design is now required (IEC 61010) on multimeter test leads and several other measurement and laboratory equipment. In this design, the metal banana plug is entirely sheathed in a plastic tube and inserts into a deeply recessed jack in the multimeter. Alternatively, the equipment may use a deeply recessed male banana plug, while the test lead uses a sheathed banana jack. Additionally, the test lead wire must be made with insulation rated for higher voltages.
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High voltage resistor divider probe. A voltage divider can be used to scale down a very high voltage so that it can be measured by a volt meter. The high voltage is applied across the divider, and the divider output--which outputs a lower voltage that is within the meter's input range--is measured by the meter. High voltage resistor divider probes designed specifically for this purpose can be used to measure voltages up to 100 kV.
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Laterally structured metal layer of an integrated circuit Thin layers from elemental metals like copper, aluminum, gold or silver etc. and alloys have found numerous applications in electrical devices. Due to their high electrical conductivity they are able to transport electrical currents or supply voltages. Thin metal layers serve in conventional electrical system, for instance, as Cu layers on printed circuit boards, as the outer ground conductor in coaxial cables and various other forms like sensors etc.
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Because of utility regulatory changes, Consumers divested its transmission system. It opted instead to sell the system to the Michigan Electric Transmission Company (METC), currently an ITC Holdings company (which also owns Detroit Edison's transmission system under the "ITCTransmission" brand.) Consumers Energy's primary distribution voltages are 2.77/4.8Y, 4.8/8.32Y, 7.2/12.47Y, 7.97/13.8Y and 14.4/24.9Y. Consumers retained its looped 23kV and 46kV high voltage sub-transmission (HVD) systems and its radial 138 kV lines as well.
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Electrostatic actuators use the force of electrostatic energy to move objects. Two mechanical elements, one that is stationary (the stator) and one that is movable (the rotor) have two different voltages applied to them, which creates an electric field. The field competes with a restoring force on the rotor (usually a spring force produced by the bending or stretching of the rotor) to move the rotor. The greater the electric field, the farther the rotor will move.
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He stated that the fusion rate achieved by WB-6 was roughly 100,000 times greater than what Farnsworth achieved at similar well depth and drive conditions. By comparison, researchers at University of Wisconsin–Madison reported a neutron rate of up to 5×109 per second at voltages of 120 kV from an electrostatic fusor without magnetic fields. Bussard asserted, by using superconductor coils, that the only significant energy loss channel is through electron losses proportional to the surface area.
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Electric sparks require a field strength above approximately 40 kV/cm in air, as notably occurs in lightning strikes. Other forms of ESD include corona discharge from sharp electrodes and brush discharge from blunt electrodes. ESD can cause harmful effects of importance in industry, including explosions in gas, fuel vapor and coal dust, as well as failure of solid state electronics components such as integrated circuits. These can suffer permanent damage when subjected to high voltages.
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Since approximately 1930 it is common to use water cooling for tubes of powerful transmitters. As these devices uses high operation voltages (around 10 kV), the use of deionized water is required and it has to be carefully controlled. Modern solid-state transmitters can be built so that even high power transmitters do not require water cooling. Water cooling is however also sometimes used for thyristors of HVDC valves, for which also the use of deionized water is required.
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The entire rotor and shaft assembly is smaller, lighter, and cheaper than a pair of machines, and does not require exposed drive shafts. Low-powered consumer devices such as vacuum tube vehicle radio receivers did not use expensive, noisy and bulky motor–generators. Instead, they used an inverter circuit consisting of a vibrator (a self-exciting relay) and a transformer to produce the higher voltages required for the vacuum tubes from the vehicle's 6 or 12 V battery.
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Sample and hold circuits are used in linear systems. In some kinds of analog-to-digital converters, the input is compared to a voltage generated internally from a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The circuit tries a series of values and stops converting once the voltages are equal, within some defined error margin. If the input value was permitted to change during this comparison process, the resulting conversion would be inaccurate and possibly unrelated to the true input value.
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Dye is typically followed up by a clean nickel acetate seal. Because the dye is only superficial, the underlying oxide may continue to provide corrosion protection even if minor wear and scratches break through the dyed layer. Conditions such as electrolyte concentration, acidity, solution temperature, and current must be controlled to allow the formation of a consistent oxide layer. Harder, thicker films tend to be produced by more concentrated solutions at lower temperatures with higher voltages and currents.
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Anodizing can produce yellowish integral colours without dyes if it is carried out in weak acids with high voltages, high current densities, and strong refrigeration. Shades of colour are restricted to a range which includes pale yellow, gold, deep bronze, brown, grey, and black. Some advanced variations can produce a white coating with 80% reflectivity. The shade of colour produced is sensitive to variations in the metallurgy of the underlying alloy and cannot be reproduced consistently.
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The dc converter at Lévis will be used to de-ice 5 lines: four 735 kV single-circuit lines and one 315 kV double-circuit line. Because of the different lengths and sizes of the conductor, the dc installation needs to be able to operate in various voltages and currents. To be de-iced, the line must be closed off from the ac current at both ends. Line conductors are used to form a closed loop.
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From the earth stake, the current eventually finds its way back to the main step-up transformer at the head of the line, completing the circuit. SWER is therefore a practical example of a phantom loop. In areas with high-resistance soil, the resistance of the soil wastes energy. Another issue is that the resistance may be high enough that insufficient current flows into the earth neutral, causing the grounding rod to float to higher voltages.
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Electro-diesel locomotives and Electro-diesel multiple units mitigate these problems somewhat as they are capable of running on diesel power during an outage or on non- electrified routes. Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service and requiring greater complexity of locomotive power. The limited clearances available under overhead lines may preclude efficient double-stack container service. However, Indian Railways and China Railway operate double stack cargo trains under overhead wires with electric trains.
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Instead of using wax coating on the outer body to keep moisture out (moisture renders capacitors useless), Sprague applied a plastic resin material to encapsulate the device and provide better and longer-lasting resistance to moisture. In the late 1960s capacitors developed quickly as better materials, such as mylar, were used in their production. Capacitors became more reliable, smaller, and able to withstand higher voltages. Sprague Electric's "Orange Drop" capacitors were well received by manufacturers and designers.
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Kelsterbach fire station In 1926, in the course of building the North-South Powerline, a great transformer station was built. This substation today handles voltages of 380, 220 and 110 kV. Owing to the Frankfurt Airport's expansion, the power lines leading to the substation from the south have had to be relocated several times. Today, the wires are borne on low pylons, with all conductors at the same level, leading by the airport to the west.
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