It seems to be, just like Islam, a universalization of Judaic monotheism.
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" Therefore, per Fukuyama, the end point of history had been reached with "the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.
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Anyone can realistically play these characters without dramatically altering the plot, making Walker's creative move more about expression — through the universalization of a narrative — than being socially aware.
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While all three deploy religion in their quest for dominance, its very universalization in these and other ways has made Islam increasingly recalcitrant to such uses, as it slowly comes to constitute nothing more than the national character of Muslim societies in the region.
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See Fordham, Finn. "The Universalization of Finnegans Wake and the Real HCE." Joyce, Ireland, Britain. Ed. Gibson, Andrew; Platt, Len.
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Additionally, the universalization of education during the twentieth century, which coincided with the development of the horror film, helped foster a public audience for films set amongst students.
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The Department of School Education and Literacy is responsible for the development of school education and literacy in the country. It works on the "universalization of education" and for the cultivation of higher standards for citizenship among the youth of India.
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Another response has been that proponents of auxlangs, particularly in the Esperanto movement, are often thought to also be proponents of measures to conserve and promote minority languages and cultures. Based on Baháʼí writ, Meyjes (2006) sees an International Auxiliary Language intended to be implemented in ways that shield native tongues from undue pressures from any traditional lingua franca, while enabling inter-community communication worldwide.Also see "universalization" in Meyjes (also: Posthumus Meyjes), Gregory Paul. 1999. Language and Universalization: An Ecolinguistic Reading of Bahá’í writ. The Journal of Bahá’í Studies, 9 (1): 51- 63. Toronto: Association for Bahá’í Studies (Canada); in German: 2003.
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International psychology, global psychology, and cross-cultural psychology share the common goal of making psychology more universal and less ethnocentric in character, whereas transnational psychology is concerned with uncovering the particularities of the psychology of groups without regard to nation-state boundaries and is opposed to universalization.
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Lewis White Beck (20, 22). and, in the Seventh Thesis, asserted that while such material property is indicative of a civilized state, only the ideal of morality and the universalization of refined value through the improvement of the mind "belongs to culture".Kant, Immanuel. Idea for a Universal History. Trans.
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There are many primary schools started during the tenure of the Malabar District Board. Most of the primary schools were upgraded during 1955–1959. This universalization of the schools helped the minority communities and the scheduled caste communities to get access to education. People across society came forward to establish these schools, inculcating higher values.
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Comprehending the Holocaust: > Historical and Literary Research, ed. Asher Cohen, Joav Gelber, and > Charlotte Wardi. Manfred Gerstenfeld identifies trivialization and universalization of the Holocaust as one of eleven forms of Holocaust distortion. Holocaust trivialization involves the application of language that is specific to describing the Holocaust to events and purposes that are unrelated to it.
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Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (The Education for All Movement), is a programme aimed at the universalization of elementary education "in a time bound manner", as mandated by the 86th amendment to the Constitution of India making free and compulsory education to children of ages 6–14 (estimated to be 205 million in number in 2001) a fundamental right.
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Second-wave pro-feminism paid increased attention to issues of sexuality, particularly the relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity. This shift led to more cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements. In part this cooperation arose because masculinity was then understood to be a social construction, and as a response to the universalization of "men" seen in previous men's movements.
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For many behaviors, universalizability tests using the same satisfaction criteria but different universalization conditions will reach the same conclusion. For instance, if every person's M-ing causes the same amount of harm and good as anyone else's, no matter what anyone else does, then the total effect of everyone's M-ing will be the effect of one person's M-ing multiplied by the number of persons; if the criterion is that the effect cause no more harm than good, then the same behaviors will satisfy or fail this criterion under either universalization condition we use. However some behaviors cause different amounts of harm depending upon how many other people are performing them. For these behaviors, universal practice tests generally give counter-intuitive, and often quite harmful recommendations, for cases in which not everyone else is doing the same thing we are doing.
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China's nine-year compulsory education was established and considered successful. The compulsory education brings huge effects of different aspects of people's lives. The number of students became larger and the drop-out rates of students decreased in huge percent, even in the rural area. The purpose of the establishment of compulsory education in China is about “universalization”, which balances the educated differences between the towns and villages (Ding 13).
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Immanuel Kant's first formulation of the categorical imperative, the "Formula of Universal Law," as well as his third "Kingdom of Ends" formulation, also use a universal practice condition.Kant, 1785 The first formula states that the only morally acceptable maxims of our actions are those that could rationally be willed to practiced as a universal law, or in a variant "Law of Nature" formulation, one whose practice by all persons we could will to have been a law of nature (and hence necessarily governing the behavior of all persons throughout all time and space).Kant, 1785, 4:421 Kant appealed to two criteria which must be satisfied under such a condition: first, the universalization must be conceivable, and second that this universalization will not necessarily frustrate the ends of any agent practicing the maxim (and hence such an agent can both will his own practice of the maxim, and its practice by all other agents).Kant, 1784, 4:424 The first is violated by maxims, e.g.
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Oxford University Press. Melbourne, Australia. 2002. Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies—marked by a universalization of money-based social relations, a consistently large and system-wide class of workers who must work for wages (the proletariat) and a capitalist class which owns the means of production—developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution.
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In short, Kirk sees Eliade's theory of eternal return as a universalization of the Australian Dreamtime concept. As two counterexamples to the eternal return, Kirk cites Native American mythology and Greek mythology. The eternal return is nostalgic: by retelling and reenacting mythical events, Australian Aborigines aim to evoke and relive the Dreamtime. However, Kirk believes that Native American myths "are not evocative or nostalgic in tone, but tend to be detailed and severely practical".
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The scientific field entails rigorous intersubjective scrutinizing of theory and data.Bourdieu 2004/2002, p. 47–8: "The work of departicularization, universalization, that goes on in the [scientific] field, through the regulated confrontation of the competitors most inclined and most able to expose... any judgement aspiring to validation and, through this, to universal validity, is the reason why the truth regognized by the scientific field is irreducible to its historical and social conditions of production."Bourdieu, Pierre.
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Philip J. Kain believes that, although Karl Marx rejected many of the ideas and assumptions found in Kant's ethical writings, his views about universalization are much like Kant's views about the categorical imperative, and his concept of freedom is similar to Kant's concept of freedom. Marx has also been influenced by Kant in his theory of Communist society, which is established by a historical agent that will make possible the realization of morality.Kain, Philip, pp. 277–301.
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The value-added of an enterprise can be said that the potential for profit. Mature technology, low requirement to entry, and universalization of technology is easy to become so-called "low-profit" enterprise, also known as low-value- added industries. Normal manufacturing, assembly enterprise is called low- value-added industries, in order to survive, only to keep expanding production capacity to maintain profits. But as long as the market is shrinking, product prices is decreasing, product sales will no longer growing.
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Although personally opposed to this type of income, Proudhon expressed that he had never intended "to forbid or suppress, by sovereign decree, ground rent and interest on capital. I think that all these manifestations of human activity should remain free and voluntary for all: I ask for them no modifications, restrictions or suppressions, other than those which result naturally and of necessity from the universalization of the principle of reciprocity which I propose."Proudhon's Solution of the Social Problem, Edited by Henry Cohen. Vanguard Press, 1927.
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The goal of the program was to provide electricity to over a million households, but as of early 2003 only half of them had been electrified. According to Rousseff, the results of this program were higher in states where local governments subsidized it for the population. She defended, then, a program heavily subsidized by the federal government, which should not only subsidize, but cover the costs for the universalization of electricity. The subsidy, however, should be for the consumer, and not for the electric companies.
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The Triumph of the West is the last scenario presented by Mahbubani. The West, having positioned itself as a superpower after the Cold War, Westernization will increase thus causing all other nations to adopt Western values and become "cultural clones of the West". This argument was elaborated by Francis Fukuyama in his book "The End of History" arguing for the "end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government". Mahbubani contends that three fundamental flaws exists in this scenario.
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Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic —the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the "men of Chilli". Ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling "Chili" was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching to "Chile".
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Focusing less on the preservation of cultures as an end in itself and more on the realization of "ecological" relations between cultural groups as a condition for equitable interactions and the potential for organic cultural change, Meyjes proposes the interchangeable terms cultural justice and ethno- cultural justice and intercultural justice — which he defines as the principle of maximally accommodating the culturally-specific values and practices of minority groups and their members, in the form of rights, within the overall legal, regulatory, or policy limits of the institution, community, or society concerned (also see universalization).
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In the book "Beyond Access and Equity: Distance Learning Models in Asia", Flor (2002) details the case of SMP Terbuka, a junior secondary education in Indonesia delivered in distance learning mode. This is in consonance with the country's pursuit of the Universalization of Basic Education. In assessing the socio-cultural environment of SMP Terbuka and in determining the policy environment for distance learning, environmental scanning was done. The study also used the problematique method to analyze structural-organizational problems in a distance learning system, along with their causes.
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Lassina Zerbo (born 10 October 1963) is the Executive Secretary of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization, a position which he assumed on 1 August 2013. He previously served as Director of the organization's International Data Centre (IDC). He is a national of Burkina Faso. Zerbo has been instrumental in cementing the CTBTO's position as the world's centre of excellence for nuclear test-ban verification, as well as in driving forward efforts towards the entry into force and universalization of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT).
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The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes. This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 93–95% for the last three years in some states. Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme. The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world.
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Since taking office, Agon has shaped a new philosophy of global marketing with his doctrine of universalization: beauty for all. Another focus is on expanding into developing countries, with the goal of winning one billion new customers by 2020. In addition to his vision for L’Oreal, Jean-Paul Agon also has strong viewpoints on corporate social responsibility; often being quoted as stating “the leader in beauty must be exemplary in terms of the environment.” To this end, L’Oreal has made the commitment to halve their CO2 emissions, water consumption and waste production within the next 10 years.
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Suresha, Ron (2009), "Bearness's beautiful big blank: tracing the genome of ursomasculinity. An interview with Jack Fritscher", in Second-wave pro-feminism paid greater attention to issues of sexuality, particularly the relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity. This shift led to increased cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements developing, in part, because masculinity was understood as a social construct and in response to the universalization of "men" in previous men's movements. Men's-rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from influencing the gay-rights movement, promoting hypermasculinity as inherent to gay sexuality.
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Born in São Borja, the scientist defended the increase of the female participation in research, with the universalization of research in the universities, and among others, participated in the preparation of the "National Plan of Postgrade Studies 2005-2010" coordinated by CAPES. She was radicated in Curitiba, being professor of the Federal University of Paraná. She chaired the Brazilian Society of Biochemistry, vice-president of the SBPC from 1995- 1999 and later president from 1999 to 2003 . In her last years of life, she was member of the CAPES higher board and of the Education Council of the State of Paraná.
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During this nearly 6 months period of stay in California he delivered 62 lectures, gave 12 formal and informal talks and also held 8 lecture classes to disciples at his place of stay. His first lecture in this series was on 8 December at Blachard Hall, 233 S Broadway, LA, in which he discussed on "Vedanta Philosophy" or "Hinduism as a religion". He gave lectures on the concept of “The way to the Realization of the Universalization of a Universal Religion” and on “Christ, the Messenger”. Vivekananda interpreted Jesus from the point of view of Vedantic enunciations.
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The publications on transformation issues were increasingly based on results of international comparative studies. This applies to the monograph "Managing Transformations in Eastern Europe"as well as to the edited volumes "Unemployment: Risks and Reactions" (1999) and "Continuing Transformations in Eastern Europe" (2000) (in English). The content of the latter publications is guided by a synthesis of broadly conceived concept of social interaction with a differentiated concept of societal transformation. The synthesis opens the prospect for complex studies on fundamental processes of accelerated commercialization of economy, democratization of politics, universalization of value-normative systems, digitization of technologies and ecologization of thinking and behavior.
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Embracing the libertarian right of self-ownership, he argues that its consistent universalization requires that individuals be vested with equal rights to negative freedom that are global in scope and that take account of interpersonal inequalities in natural resource values, including those of genetic endowments. He was also the first person to use the term "throffer", which is now used in and beyond political philosophy, in print.Prof. Hillel Steiner's page at the University of ManchesterProf. Hillel Steiner's page at the University of Arizona He is a member of the following organisations: American Philosophical Association, Aristotelian Society, Association for Legal and Social Philosophy, Basic Income Earth Network.
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Moreover, Buata B. Malela is interested in the matters touching with cultural diversity, the postcolonialism and the relations between literature and cultural universalization. Author of many studies on the Afro-West-Indian intellectuals (such as René Maran, Léon Damas, Aimé Césaire, Édouard Glissant, Simone Schwarz-Bart, Léopold Sédar Senghor) and of hexagonal France (in particular Jean-Paul Sartre, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze, etc.), he published a book on Afro-West-Indian writers in their relation with the Parisian intellectual world of the colonial era. He was a researcher at University of Silesia (Katowice, Poland) and now he is Associate Professor of French and Francophone studies at Centre Universitaire de Mayotte.
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In addition to using different universalization conditions, universalizability tests use a variety of different satisfaction criteria. For example, consequentialists typically use criteria like "produces at least as much good as any alternative would" or "has at least as much expected value as any alternative." These tend to be aggregative, allowing the addition of value across different agents. Deontologists tend to use non-aggregative criteria like "is not impossible" (Kant's contradiction in conception test), "would make the satisfaction of your ends impossible" (Kant's contradiction in will test), "would disrespect humanity in yourself or another" (Kant's formula of humanity), or "would be reasonable to reject" (Scanlon's contractualist test).
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Apatheism considers the question of the existence or nonexistence of deities to be fundamentally irrelevant in every way that matters. This position should not be understood as a skeptical position in a manner similar to that of, for example, atheists or agnostics who question the existence of deities or whether we can know anything about them. The existence of deities is not put aside for moral or epistemic reasons—for democratic or existential reasons, it is deemed unnecessary. This is a universalization of the fundamental democratic principle that there are no first- and second-class humans and that among other species or beings (including hypothetical deities or aliens elsewhere in the universe), human beings also are not second class.
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Odisha Right to Public Services Act, 2012 in Odisha is an initiative by the State Government to check corruption in public service delivery. The law enables the citizens to demand public services as a right and also includes a provision for penal action against officials failing to provide the services within the stipulated time. It looks towards addressing the growing demand of citizens for improved public services, reducing corruption through imposing penalties on Public Authorities for default in delivery of services and aims at universalization of public services. In addition, what was under the Citizens’ Charters, an administrative guarantee has been translated into a legal right, justiciable under the provisions of ORTPS Act.
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He took a role in the process of liberalization of telecommunications in Spain, promoting the 1991–2001 National Plan of Telecommunications (PNT); in 1993, Borrell threatened nonetheless the European Commission with blocking the liberalization unless the concession of a moratory Spain was given, as Borrell deemed imperative to achieve first the universalization of service before the complete liberalization. Following the 1993 general election, Borrell continued with a seat at the Council of Ministers, assuming the portfolio of Minister of Public Works, Transports and Environment in the last government presided by Felipe González. He left the office after the arrival to power of the People's Party in 1996, remaining as an MP for Barcelona in the Spanish Congress.
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Dillens, Anne-Marie, Le Pluralism des valeurs entre particulier et universel, Brussels: Les Presses de l'Université Saint Louis, 2004. Since he understands philosophy as a project that an individual comes to in medias res their sole resource in order to start the project is the scraps and fragments of previous philosophical discourses that persist in their historical tradition. This position shows two aspects of the thrust of the Logique. On the one hand, these fragments that are left over in the tradition shows the target of philosophical discourse, which is an attempt to seize reality as it is lived as a coherent whole, on the other hand it shows the insufficiency of past attempts at universalization.
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Second-wave pro-feminism paid increased attention to issues of sexuality, particularly the relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity. This shift led to more cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements. In part, this cooperation arose because masculinity was understood to be a social construction, and as a response to the universalization of "men" seen in previous men's movements. In 2010, Elizabeth Wilson wrote that the Gay Liberation Front and feminism worked alongside one another to "spark a way of thinking about human relations in society that has led to significant change"; Peter Tatchell wrote about the GLF's "idealistic vision [that] involved creating a new sexual democracy, without homophobia, misogyny, racism and class privilege".
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Vivekananda became the catalyst for establishing the Vedanta Societies, the first Hindu group in America in New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Chicago. Vivekananda sent Swami Saradananda from India to assist him in the work of his Vedanta Society and deputed him to New York first and then toured many places in the US giving lectures. In Los Angeles, Vivekananda delivered a series of lectures at several notable locations, and gave lectures on the concept of “The Way to the Realization of the Universalization of a Universal Religion” and others. He spent a month at the "Home of Truth" and noted that of all Americans, “Californians are specially fit to understand the raja-yoga of intuitive meditation which he labeled Applied Psychology”.
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The Shafii school also rejects two sources of Sharia that are accepted in other major schools of Islam—Istihsan (juristic preference, promoting the interest of Islam) and Istislah (public interest).Istislah The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University PressIstihsan The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press The jurisprudence principle of Istihsan and Istislah admitted religious laws that had no textual basis in either the Quran or Hadiths, but were based on the opinions of Islamic scholars as promoting the interest of Islam and its universalization goals.Lloyd Ridgeon (2003), Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present, Routledge, , pp. 259–262 The Shafii school rejected these two principles, stating that these methods rely on subjective human opinions, and have potential for corruption and adjustment to political context and time.
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Therefore, only a small number or poor rural youth have the chance to attend a university. A study published by the Inter-American Development Bank also revealed that school dropout rates in Latin America can be significantly reduced by improving the quality of school's infrastructure, such as access to clean water and electricity. The study shows that, in Brazil, a universalization program focused on providing electricity to rural and indigenous schools (Light for All), reduced 27% the dropout rates of schools treated by the program when compared to schools without electricity. In El Salvador, a reform known as the EDUCO (Educación y Cooperación Para el Desarrollo) system has been implemented by the El Salvadorian government with the support of the World Bank and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
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This search for coherency, and the drive towards the universalization of meaning by the elimination of incoherencies highlights the way that Weil thematizes violence. To seize reality as it is lived as a coherent whole means that even those things that resist thematization must find a place within the discourse, this includes violence. Weil notes "it is language that brings out violence. Man, speaking being, or if we prefer, thinking being – is the sole to reveal violence, because he is the sole to look for a meaning, to invent, to create a meaning to his life and to his world, a meaning to his life in an organized and understandable world, a world organized and understandable through reference to his life, as the country of the meaning of his life".
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Simply put, this criterion amounts to a thought experiment: to attempt to universalize the maxim (by imagining a world where all people necessarily acted in this way in the relevant circumstances) and then see if the maxim and its associated action would still be conceivable in such a world. For instance, holding the maxim kill anyone who annoys you and applying it universally would result in self termination. Thus holding this maxim is irrational as it ends up being impossible to hold it. Universalizing a maxim (statement) leads to it being valid, or to one of two contradictions—a contradiction in conception (where the maxim, when universalized, is no longer a viable means to the end) or a contradiction in will (where the will of a person contradicts what the universalization of the maxim implies).
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The End of History and the Last Man (1992) is a book of political philosophy by American political scientist Francis Fukuyama which argues that with the ascendancy of Western liberal democracy—which occurred after the Cold War (1945–1991) and the dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991)—humanity has reached "not just... the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: That is, the end-point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government." For the book, which is an expansion of his essay, "The End of History?" (1989), Fukuyama draws upon the philosophies and ideologies of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Karl Marx, who define human history as a linear progression, from one socio-economic epoch to another.
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When Taiwanese had resumed the cultural activities, which were outlawed by the Japanese in 1937, the Nationalist attitude was that Taiwanese had been Japanese "slaves" and would therefore have to complete a period of moral and ideological tutelage before they could enjoy their full rights as citizens of the Republic of China. The February 28 Incident destroyed Taiwan's urban elite and the arrival of the mainlander elite ensured Nationalist domination of urban cultural centers. In 1953, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek issued his first major opinion on culture to complete Sun Yat- sen's Three Principles of the People, which included prescribing Nationalist curriculum for education, building facilities for intellectual and physical recreation and the major state cultural program of promoting anti-communist propaganda. In regard to Taiwanese cultural life, the major thrust was for "universalization" of education in Mandarin, which was enforced by law.
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The Bank also has interventions in other areas that affect children and adolescents in the region, such as education inputs, equity, and compensatory programs. The initiatives in these fields are support projects for the reconstruction of educational infrastructure in Haiti; a support project for the consolidation and expansion of the Plan Ceibal in Uruguay; a community education program in Mexico, which aims to raise quality of educational services for marginalized communities; a project to support the education plan in the Dominican Republic; the National Infrastructure Program for the universalization of education quality and equality in Ecuador; a program to support policies for the improvement of education equity in Argentina (PROMEDU); a project to improve education activities and learning quality in Mexico; and a comprehensive care program for children in Nicaragua, which contributes to the development of children living in extreme poverty within rural areas under 6 years old.
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The series of international comparative research projects on Eastern Europe coordinated by Genov included: Personal and Institutional Strategies for Coping with Transformation Risks (UNESCO/MOST, 1997-2001); Ethnic Relations in South Eastern Europe (Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, 2003-2005); Inter-ethnic Integration (EU, 2005-2007); Migration in the Post-Soviet Space (Volkswagen Foundation, 2008-2010). The monograph "Global Trends in Eastern Europe"(2010, reprinted 2016) contains the detailed analysis and conclusions of the studies on the transformation of Eastern European societies. The monograph is a conceptual turning point since the theoretical framework used by Genov gradually changed from the focus on the concept of societal transformation to the development and use of the concept of global social trends. The new framework is organized around the idea of four such trends called upgrading the rationality of organizations, individualization, spread of instrumental activism and universalization of value-normative systems.
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The CMC is now campaigning for accession and ratification of this comprehensive ban by all states its full and effective implementation by all States Parties; the universalization of its norms; and the rigorous monitoring of states' compliance with it. The CMC is an example of the emerging model of international diplomacy that involves the coordination of global grassroots initiatives to promote a specific goal, engaging in an international diplomatic process in partnership with like- minded states. An important focus for the CMC was to ensure those affected by cluster munitions were able to play a key role in shaping the outcome of the campaign and the international treaty it has brought about. This has been demonstrated by affected states such as Lebanon and Laos, who were at the forefront of the diplomatic negotiations, as well as the active roles played within the CMC by individual survivors of cluster bombs (such as Branislav Kapetanovic and others involved with the Ban Advocates initiative set up by Handicap International).
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In 2001, Agon was named President of L'Oréal USA. He was instrumental in launching the Garnier Fructis line. In 2006, Agon was appointed as CEO of L’Oréal. He became Chairman of the company in February 2011. Known for his views on the "universalization" of beauty, Agon began the process of opening three new L’Oréal factories outside France – in Mexico, Egypt and Indonesia. Agon is also dedicated to environmental protection and aims to reduce the company’s carbon dioxide emissions, water consumption, and waste production by 50% between 2005 and 2015. Under his guidance, L’Oreal has continued to appear in the rankings of the 100 most sustainable companies in the world for four years in a row. Agon, along with 16 other executives and investors such as Stéphane Richard and Liliane Bettencourt, signed a petition in 2011 calling for a tax on the rich, as a way of contributing to society during troubled times.
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The presuppositions of communication express a universal obligation to maintain impartial judgment in discourse, which constrains all affected to adopt the perspectives of all others in the exchange of reasons. From this Habermas extracts the following principle of universalization (U), which is the condition every valid norm has to fulfill: > (U) All affected can accept the consequences and the side effects that [the > norm's] general observance can be anticipated to have for the satisfaction > of everyone's interests, and the consequences are preferred to those of > known alternative possibilities for regulation. (Habermas, 1991:65) This can be understood as the deep structure of all acceptable moral norms, and should not be confused with the principle of discourse ethics (D), which presupposes that norms exist that satisfy the conditions specified by (U). > (D) Only those norms can claim to be valid that meet (or could meet) with > the approval of all affected in their capacity as participants in a > practical discourse.
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A recurrent opportunity for States to indicate their support for the ban on antipersonnel mines is their vote on the annual UN General Assembly (UNGA) resolution calling for universalization and full implementation of the Mine Ban Treaty. UNGA Resolution 66/29, for example, was adopted on 2 December 2011 by a vote of 162 in favor, none opposed, and 18 abstentions. Since the first UNGA resolution supporting the Mine Ban Treaty in 1997, the number of states voting in favor has ranged from a low of 139 in 1999 to a high of 165 in 2010. The number of states abstaining has ranged from a high of 23 in 2002 and 2003 to a low of 17 in 2005 and 2006. Of the 19 states not party that voted in support of Resolution 66/29 on 2 December 2011, nine have voted in favor of every Mine Ban Treaty resolution since 1997 (Armenia, Bahrain, Finland, Georgia, Oman, Poland, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and the United Arab Emirates); 10 that consistently abstained or were absent previously now vote in favor (Azerbaijan, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao PDR, Marshall Islands, Micronesia FS, Mongolia, Morocco, and Tonga).
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It should be added that international psychology, global psychology, and cross-cultural psychology share the common goal of making psychology more universal and less ethnocentric in character, whereas transnational psychology is concerned with uncovering the particularities of the psychology of groups without regard to nation-state boundaries and is opposed to universalization. Because American psychologists dominated the field of psychology especially in the decades after World War II, they frequently ignored contributions from other parts of the world and claimed, whether explicitly or implicitly, that their theories, concepts, ethical standards, and empirical findings applied to all—or at least most—people around the world. In addition, because they largely ignored books and journals not written in English, American psychology became a largely monocultural and monolinguistic discipline (Draguns, 2001). Consequently, it is a key goal of internationally oriented psychologists both in the US and elsewhere to turn psychology into a more universally and less culturally biased discipline that contributes to human welfare everywhere while strengthening "world consciouness" rather than ethnocentric and potentially violent forms of nationalism or extremist religious preoccupations (Leong, Pickren, Leach, & Marsella, 2012).
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