The radii have strongly flared proximal ends, and are noticeably shorter than the ulnae since these extend along the edges of the radiales. The ulnae are relatively curved. The radiales are strong, heavy bones, almost as wide as the radii, while the ulnares are poorly preserved. The manus are very large, and have strange fourth digits; each one has six phalanges, rather than the normal four, although the total length is still only around 80% of that of the other digits.
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Its ulnae and radii are not fused, which also contributes to a greater range of motion when climbing trees and stalking prey. Clouded leopards weigh between . Females vary in head-to-body length from , with a tail long. Males are larger at with a tail long.
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Possible ceratopsians from the Southern Hemisphere include the Australian Serendipaceratops, known from an ulna, and Notoceratops from Argentina is known from a single toothless jaw (which has been lost).Rich, T.H. & Vickers- Rich, P. 2003. Protoceratopsian? ulnae from the Early Cretaceous of Australia. Records of the Queen Victoria Museum.
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Originally referred as a ceratopsian by Tapia in 1918, it was later dismissed because no other members of that group were known from the Southern Hemisphere. However, the 2003 discovery of another possible ceratopsian, Serendipaceratops, from Australia could change this view. T. Rich and P. Vickers-Rich. 2003. Protoceratopsian? ulnae from Australia.
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In the scholarly Latin of manuscript terminology, a recto page is "on the right side". The verso or "turned side" (the other side of the page) is therefore a left-hand page. This terminology has nothing to do with Długosz. Durink states the width (latitudo) and length (longitudo) of each flag in units he calls ulne (classical ulnae).
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FSAC-OB 202 consists of a thighbone with shinbone. The describing authors admitted that a connection between the holotype and the referred specimens is hard to proof, in view of the lack of overlapping material. However, the wide ulnae fit the exceptional distal width of the humerus. The thighbones were, more tentatively, referred because they seemed to be pteranodontid.
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The clavicles are attached to the medial edge of the scapulae. The scapulae have highly developed dorsal wings, which are posteriorly directed and taper to blunt points. The proximal ends of the humeri are mostly covered by the scapulae, and the deltapectoral flanges are not highly developed. The humeri are 10 mm long, and have unequal attachments for the ulnae and radii.
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Smith et al. (2008) reported Megaraptor-like ulnae from Australia, and found evidence that Megaraptor was a spinosauroid. The same year, Orkoraptor was described as an unusual giant coelurosaurian with some similarities with the much smaller compsognathids. Aerosteon was considered a relative of Allosaurus in its description less than a year later, while Australovenator was considered to be the sister taxon to Carcharodontosauridae.
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The ulnae is no wider than the radii are, and they are both 5 mm long. An unknown carpal bone, probably an intermedium as it is quite elongate, is preserved between the ulna and radius of the right forelimb and there are three rounded carpal elements preserved in the left forelimb, one of which is the ulnare. The phalangeal formula is not known due to incomplete preservation.
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The globular osteocyte lacunae become more flattened as you get closer and closer to the midshaft of the humerus. While the vasculature is present, the humerus contains no secondary osteons. The radii and ulnae of Thrinaxodon represent roughly the same histological patterns. In contrast to the humerii and femora, the parallel-fibred region is far more distinct in the distal bones of the forelimb.
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Each humerus has a short but highly expanded deltapectoral crest and a slender shaft. There is no olecranon process on the ulnae, and the radii are slender and rod-like with large proximal ends. The radiales and centrales are thick and heavy, and carpals 3 and 4 are fused into one bone. The metacarpals grow longer and thinner from I to IV, but V is slightly shorter and very thin.
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The left or underside of the skeleton was preserved in carbonaceous clay, making it difficult to expose the skin. The skeleton was articulated, and only missing about the last of the tail and the forelimbs. Both scapulae and coracoids are preserved in position, but the rest of the forelimbs are gone, except for phalanges and pieces of humeri, ulnae and radii. Apparently the remaining forelimbs were weathered or eroded away.
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A fragmented distal left ulna was found consisting of the distal articulation and a small part of the shaft. A distinct foramen is observable between the tuberculum carpale and the condylus ventralis ulnae. This foramen is present in extant Leptoptilos species. When comparing the minimum width and minimum depth of the robustus ulna to other extant Leptoptilos members, the values fell within the upper size range of L. dubius suggesting similar body length.
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The scapulae are preserved relatively well in places, although many parts are missing. The blades are broad and flat, and the scapulae have thick anterior edges. The coracoid is constricted in the middle, but has a thick process for attachment to the scapulae and is expanded over the chest into a broad surface. The humeri are estimated to be about 82 mm long and the ulnae to be 76 mm long, giving Chimaerasuchus rather short front legs.
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The humeri in the upper arms are proportionally massive, and the radii and ulnae of the forearms are short and compact, indicating the animal had strong flippers in life. The flippers would have had a spread of between , though most likely the more conservative estimate. Stretch marks on the limb bones indicate fast growth, with similarities to the leatherback sea turtle, the fastest growing turtle known, whose juveniles have an average growth rate of per year.
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Modern equines possess only a single toe; however, their feet are equipped with hooves, which almost completely cover the toe. Rhinos and tapirs, by contrast, have hooves covering only the leading edge of the toes, with the bottom being soft. The ulnae and fibulae are reduced in horses. A common feature that clearly distinguishes this group from other mammals is the saddle-shaped ankle between the astragalus and the scaphoid, which greatly restricts the mobility of the foot.
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Eurotrochilus specimens are some of the smallest fossil birds and are referred to the order Apodiformes due to their strongly abbreviated humeri and ulnae. They are most similar to another early Oligocene member of the stem-group Trochilidae, Jungornis. Both Eurotrochilus and Jungornis have morphological adaptations for sustained hovering flight, a characteristic of extant hummingbirds, including the Apodifmore synapomorphy (abbreviated ulna and humerus) as well as pronounced distal protrusions on the humeral heads. These adaptions in Eurotrochilus are more pronounced though.
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Hummingbirds have specific morphological adaptations that enable them to fly forwards, backwards, sideways as well as hover for extended periods of time. Hovering flight specifically is supported in Eurotrochilus by abbreviated ulnae and humeri and developed humeral protrusions. The ulna of Eurotrochilus measures between 6.7 and 8.8 millimeters, which is shorter than the ulna of Jungornis, which measures 13 millimeters. While Jungornis and Eurotrochilus both have abbreviated ulnas, the extreme abbreviation in Eurotrochilus supports monophyly of the clade that includes only Eurotrochilus and crown-group Trochilidae.
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Another synapomorphy of Eurotrochilus and crown- group Trochilidae includes the presence of deep fossae, or depressions, on the caudal surface of the proximal end of the ulnae. The humeri of Eurotrochilus have been measured to be between 6.0 and 6.5 millimeters. It is considered short and stout when compared to other Apodiformes, except extant hummingbirds. In addition, the humeri have a wide proximal articular part and there are pronounced distal protrusions on the caput humeri, which is a synapomoprhy of Jungornis, Eurotrochilus, and crown group Trochilidae.
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Ursus maritimus tyrannus (meaning tyrant polar bear) is an extinct subspecies of polar bear, known from a single fragmentary ulna found in the gravels of the Thames at Kew Bridge, London. It was named by the Finnish paleontologist Björn Kurtén in 1964 and is interpreted to represent a relatively large subadult individual: the ulna is estimated to have been long when complete, for comparison, modern subadult polar bear ulnae are long. An unpublished reinvestigation of the fossil suggests that the fossil is actually a brown bear.
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The specific name refers to Comodoro Rivadavia. Notohypsilophodon is based on the holotype specimen UNPSJB -- PV 942, a partial skeleton including four neck, seven back, five hip, and six tail vertebrae, four rib fragments, a partial left scapula (shoulder blade), partial right coracoid, a right humerus (upper arm bone), both ulnae, and most of a left leg (minus the foot), a right fibula and astragalus, and thirteen phalanges. Because the neural arches are not fused to the bodies of the vertebrae, its describer regarded the individual as not fully grown.
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From the syntype material assigned by von Huene to T. robustus José Fernando Bonaparte et al. in 1978 chose four lectotypes, specimens MLP 26-250, MLP 26-252, MLP 26-254, and MLP 26-259, a left femur, both ulnae, and a left radius.Bonaparte, J.F. and Gasparini, Z., 1978, "The sauropods of the Neuquén and Chubut Groups and their chronological relations", VII Congreso Geologico Argentino, Neuquén 11 pp 393–406 In 1986, Jaime Eduardo Powell, concluding that Titanosaurus australis was less similar than Laplatasaurus araukaicus to Titanosaurus indicus, named a separate genus: Neuquensaurus.
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The ends of epiphyses are covered with hyaline cartilage ("articular cartilage"). The longitudinal growth of long bones is a result of endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plate. Bone growth in length is stimulated by the production of growth hormone (GH), a secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. The long bone category includes the femora, tibiae, and fibulae of the legs; the humeri, radii, and ulnae of the arms; metacarpals and metatarsals of the hands and feet, the phalanges of the fingers and toes, and the clavicles or collar bones.
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The holotype, PBMNH.P.10.113.T, was found in a sandstone layer of the upper Hell Creek Formation, dating from the late Maastrichtian. It consists of a partial skeleton, lacking the skull, of an adult individual. It contains a piece of a back vertebra, ten tail vertebrae, both humeri, both ulnae, both radii, the first and second right metacarpals, three claws of the left hand, a right thighbone, both shinbones, a left astragalus bone, a left calcaneum, the left second, third and fourth metatarsal, the right fourth metatarsal, and the second and third claw of the right foot.
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However, Protoavis is also remarkedly non-bird like in that it possess only a single exit for the trigeminal. However, these characters are not robust enough to identify Protoavis as a bird. The skull has an extremely narrow parietal with block like dorsal aspect, very broad, T-shaped frontals that form the "lateral wings" that Chatterjee applies to the lack of postorbitals. There are short curved ulnae with olecranon processes, and a possible scapula with bent shaft, and the cervicals have profiles and aspects to their exterior that are very similar to the Megalancosaurus cervical series.
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Analysis of the bones found in the chamber took place in the 1820s. At the time, it was noted that most of the bones were broken into small pieces—something the examiner believed had been caused by the workmen who recovered them—but that they included pieces of skull, ribs, thigh, leg, and arm bones. There were two right sides of mandibles and two portions of ulnae including the olecranon, indicating that the remains of at least two individuals were present in the chamber. Analysis of the recovered teeth showed that the molars were worn down and flattened, indicating that the deceased had been of middle age.
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Serendipaceratops was originally described as a member of the Neoceratopsia and one of the earliest known ceratopsian dinosaurs, and the only one known from the southern hemisphere, with the possible exception of the dubious South American genus Notoceratops, which also may be another kind of ornithischian dinosaur. In addition to the holotype ulna, another supposed ceratopsian ulna was found at Dinosaur Cove, in south-west Victoria. It is a little younger at 106 million years old, having been found in the Eumeralla Formation. The scientists who first studied the ulnae said that they most closely resembled those of Leptoceratops, but subsequent studies have shown that this interpretation is likely incorrect.
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Janensch based his description of B. brancai on "Skelett S" (skeleton S) from Tendaguru, but later realized that it comprised two partial individuals: S I and S II. He at first did not designate them as a syntype series, but in 1935 made S I (presently MB.R.2180) the lectotype. Taylor in 2009, unaware of this action, proposed the larger and more complete S II (MB.R.2181) as the lectotype. It includes, among other bones, several dorsal vertebrae, the left scapula, both coracoids, both sternals (breastbones), both humeri, both ulnae and radii (lower arm bones), a right hand, a partial left hand, both pubes (a hip bone) and the right femur, tibia and fibula (shank bones).
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P. robustus (SK 48) There is currently no clear consensus on the validity of Paranthropus. The argument rests upon whether the genus is monophyletic—is composed of a common ancestor and all of its descendants—and the argument against monophyly (that the genus is paraphyletic) says that P. robustus and P. boisei evolved similar gorilla-like heads independently of each other by coincidence (convergent evolution), as chewing adaptations in hominins evolve very rapidly and multiple times at various points in the family tree (homoplasy). In 1999, a chimp-like ulna forearm bone was assigned to P. boisei, the first discovered ulna of the species, which was markedly different from P. robustus ulnae, which could suggest paraphyly.
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Basilosaurids and dorudontids are the oldest obligate aquatic cetaceans for which the entire skeleton is known. They display a number of aquatic adaptations not present in earlier archaeocetes: In the vertebral column, the neck vertebrae are short, the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae are of similar length, the sacral vertebrae are unfused, the sacroiliac joints are absent, and the short tail has a ball vertebra (indicating the presence of a fluke). The scapulae are broad and fan-shaped with anterior acromions and small supraspinous fossae. The ulnae are large and have transversely flat olecranons, the wrists and distal forearms are flattened in the plane of the hands, and the hind limbs are tiny.
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Workmen quarrying the Feldhofer Grotte in the Neander Valley, near Düsseldorf in northern Germany, in 1856 unearthed human bones in the floor of the cave. A local schoolmaster Johann Carl Fuhlrott, who was interested in geology and paleontology, learned of the discovery and went to the site to collect the unusual bones. They consisted of the top portion of a skull, a clavicle and scapula, the right and left ulnae, a radius bone, the left hip bone, and the right and left femora. Fuhlrott was immediately struck by the fact that the bones appeared to be completely fossilized and the geological location of the bones in the cave, both suggesting that the bones were extremely old.
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Elaltitan is known only from a single individual, represented by an associated partial postcranial skeleton. The holotype includes both PVL 4628 and MACN-CH 217 comprising three dorsal vertebrae, two caudal vertebrae, left scapula, left humerus, left radius, both ulnae, right pubis, proximal half of right femur, distal part of left tibia, distal two-thirds of left fibula, right astragalus and calcaneum. Elaltitan is the first titanosaur skeleton to preserve an associated calcaneum. Although all of the material was originally housed in the Colección de Paleontología de Vertebrados de la Fundación Instituto Miguel Lillo in Tucumán, Argentina and accessioned as PVL 4628, the dorsal vertebrae and complete caudal vertebra were subsequently moved to the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales “Bernardino Rivadavia” in Buenos Aires, where they were accessioned as MACN-CH 217\.
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The genus name honours Bernardo de Miera y Pacheco, the first European scientist to enter what is now Utah. The type species for Mierasaurus is Mierasaurus bobyoungi, named after Robert Glen Young, a paleontologist who researched the Early Cretaceous of Utah. Along with its closest relative Moabosaurus, also from the Early Cretaceous of Utah, Mierasaurus is among the last-surviving members of the Turiasauria, an otherwise Jurassic and European group which can be distinguished by heart-shaped teeth, slender humeri, and the presence of an extra depression on the surface of the ulnae, among other characteristics. Mierasaurus differs from Moabosaurus in characteristics such as lacking vertical ridges on its teeth, having relatively smooth bottom surfaces on its cervical vertebrae, having cervical ribs that do not prominently split into two at their tips, and lacking a bulge on the side of the femur.
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In 1985, Jensen could report a considerable amount of additional material, among it the first skull elements.Jensen, J.A., 1985, "Uncompahgre dinosaur fauna: A preliminary report", Great Basin Naturalist, 45: 710-720 The fossils from Colorado were further described by Brooks Britt in 1991.Britt, B., 1991, "Theropods of Dry Mesa Quarry (Morrison Formation, Late Jurassic), Colorado, with emphasis on the osteology of Torvosaurus tanneri", Brigham Young University Geology Studies 37: 1-72 The holotype BYU 2002 originally consisted of upper arm bones (humeri) and lower arm bones (radii and ulnae). The paratypes included some back bones, hip bones, and hand bones. When the material described in 1985 is added, the main missing elements are the shoulder girdle and the thighbone. The original thumb claw, specimen BYUVP 2020, was only provisionally referred as it had been found in a site 195 kilometres away from the Dry Mesa Quarry.
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A cast reconstruction of the skull by Michael Holland is displayed at Museum of the Rockies. The specimen also includes several cervical, dorsal, sacral, and caudal vertebrae; several chevrons; some cervical and dorsal ribs; left scapula and coracoid; the furcula; the left ulna; both femora, tibiae, and ulnae; the right calcaneum; right astragalus; and a number of pes phalanges. Femur of MOR 1125 from which demineralized matrix and peptides (insets) were obtained In the March 2005 Science magazine, Mary Higby Schweitzer of North Carolina State University and colleagues announced the recovery of soft tissue from the marrow cavity of a fossilized leg bone (a 1.15-m-long femur), from a 68-million-year-old Tyrannosaurus. The bone had been intentionally, though reluctantly, broken for shipping and then not preserved in the normal manner, specifically because Schweitzer was hoping to test it for soft tissue.
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Its only living relative is the eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus), which has proportionally larger wings than the oceanic eclectus parrot. The fossil material unearthed in November 1989 in Late Pleistocene and Holocene deposits on 'Eua, Lifuka, 'Uiha and Vanuatu and described in 2006 by David William Steadman include a complete femur, five radii, a quadrate bone, a mandible, a coracoid, two sterna, two humeri, two ulnae, two tibiotarsi, a carpometacarpus, a tarsometatarsus, and three pedal phalanges. The oceanic eclectus parrot became extinct on Tonga during the early settlement 3000 years ago, presumably due to human-caused factors. On Vava'u, it may have survived into historic times because among the drawings which were created in 1793 during Alessandro Malaspina's Pacific expedition, there is one sketch which appears to portray an Oceanic eclectus parrot.Olson, S. L: Birds, including extinct species, encountered by the Malaspina Expedition on Vava’u, Tonga and Brazil , in 1793.
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The single known species, elesitaiensis, is named after Elesitai, a village found in this region, near which the fossil remains of Alxasaurus were located. Five Alxasaurus specimens were recovered from the Bayin-Gobi Formation of Inner Mongolia, which dates to the Albian stage of the Early Cretaceous Period, or about 113 million to 100 million years ago. The holotype specimen, IVPP 88402 (large individual), which is considered to exemplify the genus and species, is the largest and most complete of the five, consisting of the right dentary (lower jaw) with some teeth, 5 cervical vertebrae, 28 caudal vertebrae, 5 sacral vertebrae, 9 ribs, 15 chevrons, an isolated scapula, both coracoids, both humeri, isolated radius, both ulnae, a virtually complete manus, both ilia, both ischia and both femora. The other four specimens are the paratypes IVPP 88301, IVPP 88402 (small individual), IVPP 88501 (immature individual) and IVPP 88510.
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Size (orange) compared to that of a human and other predators Body mass for sparassodonts is difficult to estimate, since these animals have relatively large heads in proportion to their bodies, leading to overestimations, particularly when compared with skulls of modern members of Carnivora, which have different locomotory and functional adaptations, or with those of the recent predatory marsupials, which do not exceed 30 kg of body mass. Recent methods, like Ercoli and Prevosti's (2011) linear regressions on postcranial elements that directly support the body's weight (such as tibiae, humeri and ulnae), comparing Thylacosmilus to both extinct and modern carnivorans and metatherians, suggest that it weighed between , with one estimate suggesting up to , about the same size as a modern jaguar. The differences in weight estimations may be due to the individual size variation of the specimens studied in each analysis, as well as the different samples and methods used. In any case, the weight estimations are consistent for terrestrial species that are generalists or have some degree of cursoriality.
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