Trinitrotoluene, or TNT, was first used in artillery shells by the German Army in 1902.
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The "nitro" in many explosives such as nitroglycerine, TNT (trinitrotoluene), and C4 (trinitroperhydrotriazine) are all forms of fixed nitrogen, as are many poisonous gases like cyanides—the most famous being Zyklon B—and a few varieties of mustard gas.
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The action probably isn't unwarranted—a 2013 fireball over Chelyabinsk, Russia "had an energy equivalent of almost 500 kilotons of trinitrotoluene (TNT), or roughly 20-30 times greater than the energy released from the first atomic bombs," according to the report.
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Nitration of toluene give mono-, di-, and trinitrotoluene, all of which are widely used. Dinitrotoluene is the precursor to toluene diisocyanate, which used in the manufacture of polyurethane foam. Trinitrotoluene is the explosive typically abbreviated TNT.
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These may include the solar mass (), the megaton (the energy released by detonating one million tons of trinitrotoluene, TNT) and the electronvolt.
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Many chemical compounds are aromatic rings with other functional groups attached. Examples include trinitrotoluene (TNT), acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), paracetamol, and the nucleotides of DNA.
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Chen J. (1995). "Development of fungal degrading system to detoxify 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in liquid phase bioreactors". PhD dissertation, Texas A&M; University. 127 pp.
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The Volunteer Army Ammunition Plant (VAAP) operated as a TNT (trinitrotoluene) manufacturing facility from 1942 to 1977 and supported a fertilizer production facility from 1962 to 1982.
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Trinitrotoluene (; TNT), or more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. This yellow solid is occasionally used as a reagent in chemical synthesis, but it is best known as an explosive material with convenient handling properties. The explosive yield of TNT is considered to be the standard comparative convention of bombs and the destructiveness of explosives. In chemistry, TNT is used to generate charge transfer salts.
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John S. Kauer is a professor emeritus at the Tufts University School of Medicine. He developed device to locate land mines by detecting the odor of 2,4-Dinitrotoluene (DNT), a precursor to trinitrotoluene (TNT).
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2,4-Dinitrotoluene (DNT) or dinitro is an organic compound with the formula C7H6N2O4. This pale yellow crystalline solid is well known as a precursor to trinitrotoluene (TNT) but is mainly produced as a precursor to toluene diisocyanate.
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Trinitrotoluenes and Mono- and Dinitrotoluenes, Their Manufacture and Properties, New York 1918, S. 17-18. but the compound's use as an explosive was not developed until later. Wilbrand obtained trinitrotoluene or TNT by the nitration of toluene.
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Composition C-1 contained a slightly smaller proportion of RDX, but used an explosive plasticiser, which contained tetryl, nitrocellulose and a mixture of nitroaromatics produced during the manufacture of TNT (containing trinitrotoluene, dinitrotoluene and mononitrotoluene), and a trace of solvent.
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On 7 September 2010, fire broke out at power station's hall. On 9 September 2010, Russian security forces defused an explosive device equivalent to of trinitrotoluene in the room. On 31 January 2011, a stick of dynamite was discovered at the power station.
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Nitration reactions are notably used for the production of explosives, for example the conversion of guanidine to nitroguanidine and the conversion of toluene to trinitrotoluene (TNT). However, they are of wide importance as chemical intermediates and precursors. Millions of tons of nitroaromatics are produced annually.
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It has been discovered that the CODH/ACS enzyme in the bacteria M. theroaceticum can make dinitrogen (N) from nitrous oxide in the presence of an electron-donating species. It can also catalyze the reduction of the pollutant, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and catalyze the oxidation of n-butyl isocyanide.
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For example, the first atomic bomb liberated about 1 gram of heat, and the largest thermonuclear bombs have generated a kilogram or more of heat. Energies of thermonuclear bombs are usually given in tens of kilotons and megatons referring to the energy liberated by exploding that amount of trinitrotoluene (TNT).
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Some military testing grounds are contaminated with TNT. Wastewater from munitions programs including contamination of surface and subsurface waters may be colored pink because of the presence of TNT. Such contamination, called "pink water", may be difficult and expensive to remedy. TNT is prone to exudation of dinitrotoluenes and other isomers of trinitrotoluene.
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Nitramex has much the same formula as nitramon but with the addition of trinitrotoluene (TNT). This explosive was used in the removal of Ripple Rock. Large quantities of Nitramex 2H (over a thousand tonnes) were packed into tunnels. The explosion, in 1958, was one of the largest non-nuclear explosions in history.
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Julius Bernhard Friedrich Adolph Wilbrand (August 22, 1839 – June 22, 1906)Familienarchiv Familie Wilbrand O13, Nr. 139, Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt. was a German chemist. Born in Gießen to Franz Joseph Julius Wilbrand and Albertine Knapp, he discovered trinitrotoluene in 1863,Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, Bd. 128, 1863, S. 178-179.G. Carlton Smith: TNT.
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Chilwell filling factory, Nottinghamshire, in 1917. Photo: Imperial War Museums The Canary Girls were British women who worked in munitions manufacturing trinitrotoluene (TNT) shells during the First World War (1914–1918). The nickname arose because exposure to TNT is toxic, and repeated exposure can turn the skin an orange-yellow colour reminiscent of the plumage of a canary.
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A watusi is a type of Christmas firework that is popular in the Philippines. Its ingredients are yellow phosphorus, potassium chlorate, potassium nitrate, and trinitrotoluene. (PMC link) The ingredients in the firework are highly toxic, and ingestion can lead to painful death. In particular, children are killed by watusi fireworks after sucking on them or mistaking them for sweets.
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Ammonal used for military mining purposes was generally contained within metal cans or rubberised bags to prevent moisture ingress problems. The composition of ammonal used at Messines was 65% ammonium nitrate, 17% aluminium, 15% trinitrotoluene (TNT), and 3% charcoal. Ammonal remains in use as an industrial explosive. Typically, it is used for quarrying or mining purposes.
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Herbicides are used to kill weeds, especially on pavements and railways. They are similar to auxins and most are biodegradable by soil bacteria. However, one group derived from trinitrotoluene (2:4 D and 2:4:5 T) have the impurity dioxin, which is very toxic and causes fatality even in low concentrations. Another herbicide is Paraquat.
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Munitionettes worked with hazardous chemicals on a daily basis without adequate protection. Many women worked with trinitrotoluene (TNT), and prolonged exposure to the nitric acid that turned the women's skin a yellow colour. The women whose skin was turned yellow were popularly called canary girls. Prolonged exposure to the chemicals also created serious health risks for the munitionettes.
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In industry, TNT is produced in a three-step process. First, toluene is nitrated with a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid to produce mononitrotoluene (MNT). The MNT is separated and then renitrated to dinitrotoluene (DNT). In the final step, the DNT is nitrated to trinitrotoluene (TNT) using an anhydrous mixture of nitric acid and oleum.
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Dichromate and chromate salts are oxidizing agents. For the tanning of leather, sodium dichromate is first reduced with sulfur dioxide. In the area of organic synthesis, this compound oxidizes benzylic and allylic C-H bonds to carbonyl derivatives. For example, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene is oxidized to the corresponding carboxylic acid. Similarly, 2,3-dimethylnaphthalene is oxidized by Na2Cr2O7 to 2,3-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid.
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It is produced by oxidizing trinitrotoluene (TNT) with a solution of sodium hypochlorite. HNS boasts a higher insensitivity to heat than TNT, and like TNT it is insensitive to impact. When casting TNT, HNS is added at 0.5% to form erratic micro-crystals within the TNT, which prevent cracking. Because of its insensitivity but high explosive properties, HNS is used in space missions.
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TNT Creek is a small tributary of Hills Creek in Lane County, in the U.S. state of Oregon. It enters the larger stream about above its confluence with the Middle Fork Willamette River at Hills Creek Reservoir. TNT Creek was named for an incident by a United States Forest Service ranger's mule that threw off a load of trinitrotoluene (TNT) by the creek.
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The interior of the monument in its early days. Construction of the monument began on 23 January 1974 under architect Georgi Stoilov, a former mayor of Sofia and co-founder of the Union of Architects in Bulgaria. Trinitrotoluene (TNT) was used to level the peak into a stable foundation, reducing the mountain's height from to . More than 15,000 cubic metres of rock were removed in the process.
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A street in Hamburg, 1933 Hamburg was a small town in St. Charles County, Missouri, United States. Hamburg was one of three towns, along with nearby Howell and Toonerville, that were evacuated in 1940–1941 when the area was taken over by the U.S. Department of the Army for the Weldon Spring Ordnance Works, which manufactured trinitrotoluene (TNT) and dinitrotoluene (DNT) and later processed uranium.
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In 1940 the Trojan Powder Company obtained a contract to operate the Plum Brook Ordnance Works in Sandusky, Ohio. Trojan operated the works from December 1941 to September 1945 during which period it produced over 1 billion pounds of nitroaromatic explosives. These included trinitrotoluene (TNT), dinitrotoluene (DNT), and pentolite. The factory operated around the clock, seven days a week throughout the remainder of the war.
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"Upper Creek Archaeology" p. 247 The Alabama Army Ammunition Plant, a munitions plant, was established in Childersburg in 1941 and operated throughout World War II until August 1945. Operated by DuPont, the plant produced explosives, such as nitrocellulose, trinitrotoluene (TNT), and dinitrotoluene (DNT).United States Army Environmental Center Base Closure Division, Site Management Plan; Alabama Army Ammunition Plant, Talladega County, Alabama, May 10, 1995.
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On the other hand, deactivating substituents destabilize the intermediate cation and thus decrease the reaction rate by either inductive or resonance effects. They do so by withdrawing electron density from the aromatic ring. The deactivation of the aromatic system means that generally harsher conditions are required to drive the reaction to completion. An example of this is the nitration of toluene during the production of trinitrotoluene (TNT).
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OPR has shown to also function in the reduction of explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). Because TNT is a known toxic, environmental pollutant that is difficult to degrade, the use of phytoremediation to clean up sites contaminated with TNT is of significant interest. OPR1 degraded TNT faster and with greater amount of degraded products than other isozymes. This enzyme could therefore be used in phytoremediation.
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There is evidence that TNT adversely affects male fertility.Toxicological Profile for 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene. atsdr.cdc.gov TNT is listed as a possible human carcinogen, with carcinogenic effects demonstrated in animal experiments with rats, although effects upon humans so far amount to none (according to IRIS of March 15, 2000). Consumption of TNT produces red urine through the presence of breakdown products and not blood as sometimes believed.
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The tonne of trinitrotoluene (TNT) is used as a proxy for energy, usually of explosions (TNT is a common high explosive). Prefixes are used: kiloton(ne), megaton(ne), gigaton(ne), especially for expressing nuclear weapon yield, based on a specific combustion energy of TNT of about 4.2 MJ/kg (or one thermochemical calorie per milligram). Hence, 1 t TNT = approx. 4.2 GJ, 1 kt TNT = approx.
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Dunnite, also known as Explosive D or systematically as ammonium picrate, is an explosive developed in 1906 by US Army Major Beverly W. Dunn, who later served as the chief inspector of the Bureau of Transportation Explosives.Dunnite Smashes Strongest Armor, The New York Times, August 18, 1907 Ammonium picrate is a salt formed by reacting picric acid and ammonia. It is chemically related to the more stable explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT).
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Ammonite was using the facility to salvage the contents of artillery shells for use as agricultural fertilizer. That salvage occurred after trinitrotoluene (better known as TNT) was extracted from the shells at the nearby Raritan Arsenal by Columbia Storage Company, owned by aeronautic pioneer Charles A. Levine. The Ammonite building reportedly contained of ammonium nitrate in storage and fifteen tank cars, each holding of ammonium nitrate in the process of crystallization.
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Ammonal is an explosive made up of ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder, not to be confused with T-ammonal which contains trinitrotoluene as well to increase properties such as brisance. The ammonium nitrate functions as an oxidizer and the aluminium as fuel. The use of the relatively cheap ammonium nitrate and aluminium makes it a replacement for pure TNT. The mixture is affected by humidity because ammonium nitrate is highly hygroscopic.
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German armour-piercing shells were far more effective than the British ones, which often failed to penetrate heavy armour.Campbell, pp. 386–387 The issue particularly concerned shells striking at oblique angles, which became increasingly the case at long range.Marder III p. 170 Germany had adopted trinitrotoluene (TNT) as the explosive filler for artillery shells in 1902, while the United Kingdom was still using a picric acid mixture (Lyddite).
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Locations of the attacks on a metro map The first explosion occurred on the Red Arrow – 75 years train at the Lubyanka station at approximately 7:56 am local time (03:56 UTC). The train started from Yugo- Zapadnaya, and stopped at Lubyanka station. Once the train doors opened, explosives worn by a woman standing at the second carriage's second exit detonated. The explosive had a force of up to 1.5 kg of trinitrotoluene (TNT).
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On March 31, 1989, LAAP was listed as a Superfund site on the National Priorities List. The United States Environmental Protection Agency found that the ground water was contaminated by explosive wastes including cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) and trinitrotoluene (TNT). On August 24, 2006, an explosion of the Explo Systems, Inc., site leased at Camp Minden, where bombs were disassembled and recycled led to the evacuation of six hundred pupils nearby but caused no injuries or fatalities.
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This ensures that the xenobiotic is safely stored, and does not affect the functioning of the plant. However, preliminary studies have shown that these plants can be toxic to small animals (such as snails), and, hence, plants involved in phytotransformation may need to be maintained in a closed enclosure. Hence, the plants reduce toxicity (with exceptions) and sequester the xenobiotics in phytotransformation. Trinitrotoluene phytotransformation has been extensively researched and a transformation pathway has been proposed..
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He created methods to form highly uniform nanotriangles and introduced a new family of materials called mesoflowers. Combining luminescent atomically precise clusters with mesoflowers and nanofibres, he developed sensors at sub- zeptomole levels which are probably the limits of fast molecular detection. A single mesoflower has been shown to detect nine molecules of trinitrotoluene (TNT). A recent example of this chemistry is the detection of 80 ions of Hg2+ with single nanofibers.
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The ALAAP was built in 1941 as a production facility for nitrocellulose (NC), trinitrotoluene (TNT), dinitrotoluene (DNT), tetryl, and single-base smokeless powder. The facility, operated by DuPont, had a peak production rate of nearly 40 million pounds (18 million kg) of munitions per month. It also produced heavy water for the Manhattan Project.United States Army Environmental Center Base Closure Division, Site Management Plan; Alabama Army Ammunition Plant, Talladega County, Alabama, May 10, 1995.
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During World War I, the US Army tasked her with solving a mysterious ailment striking workers at a munitions plant in New Jersey. She led a team that included George Minot, a professor at Harvard Medical School. She deduced that the workers were being sickened through contact with the explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT). She recommended that workers wear protective clothing to be removed and washed at the end of each shift, solving the problem.
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In the Second World War, atomic research also took place on the site, under the codename Tube Alloys, whereby uranium hexafluoride was made. Plastics were also made on the site from 1934,History of Billingham which were used in the construction of aircraft cockpits. The plant also made explosives, as synthetically originated nitrogen compounds (such as trinitrotoluene) all derive from ammonia, due to the immense energetic difficulty in splitting bonds in the nitrogen molecule.
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Settlers arrived by 1770, but fled in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War. They returned and the creek served as the southern boundary of Lycoming County when it was formed on April 13, 1795. A logging railroad ran along the creek from 1901 to 1904 for timber clearcutting, and small-scale lumbering continues. During World War II a Trinitrotoluene (TNT) plant, which became a federal prison in 1952, was built in the watershed.
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Individual DNDs before and after annealing at 520 °C Electron micrograph of aggregated DNDs Trinitrotoluene (TNT) structure Hexogen (RDX) structure Detonation nanodiamond (DND), also known as ultradispersed diamond (UDD), is diamond that originates from a detonation. When an oxygen-deficient explosive mixture of TNT/RDX is detonated in a closed chamber, diamond particles with a diameter of c. 5 nm are formed at the front of the detonation wave in the span of several microseconds.
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Aromatic nitro compounds are typically synthesized by nitration. Nitration is achieved using a mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid, which produce the nitronium ion (), which the electrophile: Benzene + Nitronium ion Nitrobenzene The nitration product produced on the largest scale, by far, is nitrobenzene. Many explosives are produced by nitration including trinitrophenol (picric acid), trinitrotoluene (TNT), and trinitroresorcinol (styphnic acid). Another but more specialized method for making aryl–NO2 group starts from halogenated phenols, is the Zinke nitration.
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At the beginning of the 1940s, the major U.S. explosive manufacturers, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company and Hercules, had several decades of experience of manufacturing trinitrotoluene (TNT) and had no wish to experiment with new explosives. U.S. Army Ordnance held the same viewpoint and wanted to continue using TNT. RDX had been tested by Picatinny Arsenal in 1929, and it was regarded as too expensive and too sensitive. The Navy proposed to continue using ammonium picrate.
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Additionally, there are environmental diseases caused by the aromatic carbon compounds including : benzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, toluene diisocyanate, phenol, pentachlorophenol, quinone and hydroquinone. Also included are the aromatic nitro-, amino-, and pyridilium-deratives: nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, trinitrotoluene, paramethylaminophenol sulfate (Metol), dinitro-ortho-cresol, aniline, trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (tetryl), hexanitrodiphenylamine (aurantia), phenylenediamines, and paraquat. The aliphatic carbon compounds can also cause environmental disease. Included in these are methanol, nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, dimethylnitrosamine, and the halogenated hydrocarbons: methyl chloride, methyl bromide, trichloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and the chlorinated naphthalenes.
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The 1970 Propane vapor cloud explosion in Port Hudson in Missouri resulted from a propane pipeline break, which led to the formation of a large, dense vapor cloud. Upon ignition, the vapor cloud exploded with tremendous force. Both near- and far-field damage indicate that this explosion may be attributed to the detonation of propane in air with an energy release equivalent to that from about 50 tons of detonating trinitrotoluene (TNT). The violence of the explosion is likely unprecedented.
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A World War I explosive factory, which was to be later known as NEF Pembrey was built, by Nobel's Explosives, with British Government approval, near the village of Pembrey, Carmarthenshire, Wales. The factory was built on a site consisting of mainly sandhills and sand dunes to provide some protection against damage caused by an explosion. Its main product was TNT (Trinitrotoluene) used for shell filling. The same site was used in World War II to build another explosive factory ROF Pembrey, which also made TNT.
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The first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867 and gelignite (the latter two being sophisticated stabilized preparations of nitroglycerin rather than chemical alternatives, both invented by Alfred Nobel). World War I saw the adoption of TNT in artillery shells. World War II saw an extensive use of new explosives (see List of explosives used during World War II).
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The original company was formed as a partnership in 1873 (becoming a limited company in 1881) by John Brunner and Ludwig Mond. They built Winnington Works in Northwich, Cheshire and produced their first soda ash in 1874. In 1911 it acquired soap and fat manufacturer Joseph Crosfield and Sons and Gossage, another soap company that owned palm plantations. A few years later it sold the soap and chemical businesses to Unilever. In 1917, the company's trinitrotoluene (TNT) factory in Silvertown, London exploded having caught fire.
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The mines were specially developed for the operation by Ministry of Defence 1 (MD1, Churchill's Toyshop), a British weapon research and development organisation. The mine, known as the 'W' Bomb, was designed by Millis Jefferis, who had received the request for the device on 10 November and had completed the first demonstration model by 24 November. A delayed-action fuze based on a soluble chemical pellet was devised by Jefferis' assistant, Stuart Macrae, using an Alka-Seltzer tablet, which was found to dissolve at a predictable rate. Each mine contained of Trinitrotoluene (TNT).
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The Nebraska Ordnance Plant, located near Mead, Nebraska was a military facility that produced bombs, rockets, and shells from 1942-1956. For their production, highly explosive materials like 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) were used; to reduce the plant's workers' chemical exposure to these materials, RDX and TNT residues that collected on the floor were washed away with water routinely. The water flowed outside into unlined ditches contaminated the soil around the plant with RDX and TNT. Trichloroethylene (TCE) to degrease pipelines further contaminated the area.
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The big problem was how to bring 21 kilograms of trinitrotoluene into the building, because main Post office was under constant guard of Ustasha and Germans soldiers. The problem was solved so that they themselves sent a package, three days before the sabotage. The package was received by Slavko Markon on 12 September, who placed it in a handy magazine, near to automatic exchanges facilities. Slavko Markon, Josip Čuljat and Nada Galjer (telephone operator) were able somehow to adjust their attendance so that all three are found in service on Saturday night at pm.
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A study involving 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene utilized respirometric techniques to measure Pollution-Induced Community Tolerance in soil microbial communities in response to the presence of TNT. The results of this study further corroborate the PICT Theory, in that treatments with long-term exposure to TNT had a larger proportion of TNT-resistant bacteria than soils with low levels of TNT. This PICT caused by TNT was also present in another study. Ideally, pollution-induced community tolerance can be assessed in the field by using a representative sample of the natural community in response to environmental contamination.
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The most common military variety of pentolite (designated "Pentolite 50/50") is a mixture of 50% pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) and 50% trinitrotoluene (TNT). (Unlike other compound explosives, the number before the slash is the mass percentage of TNT and the second number is the mass percentage of PETN). This 50:50 mixture has a density of 1.65 g/cm3 and a detonation velocity of 7400 m/s. Civilian pentolite sometimes contains a lower percentage of PETN, usually around 2% ("Pentolite 98/2"), 5% ("Pentolite 95/5") or 10% ("Pentolite 90/10").
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In 1915 he was appointed by the Canadian Government to chair a Commission to inquire into the feasibility of refining zinc and copper in Canada, and he also conducted an inquiry into what coke oven capacity existed in Canada for the production of toluol (a key component of trinitrotoluene). He was Chairman of the Inventions Committee in Canada. He was appointed an Honorary Lieutenant-Colonel of the Canadian Militia in 1915, and became an Honorary Colonel in 1916, on his appointment as Consulting Technical Ordnance Adviser to the Department of Militia and Defence.
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In 1863, the German chemical industry developed trinitrotoluene (TNT). This had the advantage that it was difficult to detonate, so it could withstand the shock of firing by artillery pieces. It was also advantageous for land mines for several reasons: it was not detonated by the shock of shells landing nearby; it was lightweight, unaffected by damp, and stable under a wide range of conditions; it could be melted to fill a container of any shape, and it was cheap to make. Thus, it became the standard explosive in mines after the First World War.
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Musk xylene is an analogue of the explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT), so it is unsurprising that its safety characteristics have been studied in some detail. Indeed, the nitro musks were first discovered in an attempt to produce new high explosives. It has also been used – albeit in very small amounts – in mass-market consumer products for the last hundred years. The discovery of musk xylene residues in the environment prompted new concerns about its possible long-term toxicity, and led to the sharp decline in its use from the mid to late 1980s.
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Internally, the explosive – initially ammonal but later approximately of trinitrotoluene filling – was connected to a detonator, and a pull cord ran from the detonator down the length of the hollow handle, emerging from the base. To use it, a soldier would simply pull the string downwards, dragging a rough steel rod through the igniter within the fuse. The rod's abrasive contact would cause sparks and a flame to light from within, setting the fuse burning. This fuse took approximately four and a half seconds to reach the detonator before exploding.
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The Newport Chemical Depot, previously known as the Wabash River Ordnance Works and the Newport Army Ammunition Plant, was a bulk chemical storage and destruction facility that was operated by the United States Army. It is located near Newport, in west central Indiana, thirty-two miles north of Terre Haute. The site was used as a production site for the solid explosives trinitrotoluene and RDX, as well as for heavy water. It also served as the production site for all of the U.S. military's nerve agent VX, when it was in use.
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Ammonal's ease of detonation depends on fuel and oxidizer ratios, 95:5 ammonium nitrate and aluminum being fairly sensitive, however not very oxygen balanced. Even copper metal traces are known to sensitize bulk amounts of ammonium nitrate and further increase danger of spontaneous detonation during a fire, most likely due to the formation of tetramines. More oxygen balanced mixtures are not easily detonated, requiring a fairly substantial shock, though it remains more sensitive than trinitrotoluene and C-4. The detonation velocity of ammonal is approximately 4,400 metres per second or 9,842 miles per hour.
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Being a powerful oxidizing acid, nitric acid reacts violently with many organic materials and the reactions may be explosive. The hydroxyl group will typically strip a hydrogen from the organic molecule to form water, and the remaining nitro group takes the hydrogen's place. Nitration of organic compounds with nitric acid is the primary method of synthesis of many common explosives, such as nitroglycerin and trinitrotoluene (TNT). As very many less stable byproducts are possible, these reactions must be carefully thermally controlled, and the byproducts removed to isolate the desired product.
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In 1987, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) placed the Milan Army Ammunition Plant on the National Priorities List. Contamination of the city's groundwater in the Memphis Sand Aquifer of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and RDX was of particular concern. In 1989, the EPA, United States Army and Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC) signed a Federal Facilities Agreement (FFA) for the site. The FFA ensures that the parties would fully investigate environmental impacts associated with past and present activities at the installation and complete appropriate cleanup actions through established schedules and enforceable milestones.
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This reaction is highly exothermic and carries with it the risk of a runaway reaction leading to an explosion. In the laboratory, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene is produced by a two-step process. A nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids is used to nitrate toluene to a mixture of mono- and di-nitrotoluene isomers, with careful cooling to maintain temperature. The nitrated toluenes are then separated, washed with dilute sodium bicarbonate to remove oxides of nitrogen, and then carefully nitrated with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and sulfuric acid.
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TNT is poisonous, and skin contact can cause skin irritation, causing the skin to turn a bright yellow-orange color. During the First World War, female munition workers who handled the chemical found that their skin turned bright yellow, which resulted in their acquiring the nickname "canary girls" or simply "canaries". People exposed to TNT over a prolonged period tend to experience anemia and abnormal liver functions. Blood and liver effects, spleen enlargement and other harmful effects on the immune system have also been found in animals that ingested or breathed trinitrotoluene.
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The net explosives weight (NEW) is the total weight of all explosives substances in a single item. NEW is used to calculate safe separation distances (see Quantity-Distance). NEW for a specific explosive may be adjusted by its TNT equivalence which is the weight of trinitrotoluene (TNT) required to produce a shockwave of equal magnitude as that produced by one pound of the explosive in question. For example, C-4 has a TNT equivalency for overpressure of 1.34 (one pound of C-4 is equal to 1.34 pounds of TNT).
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Cyathus stercoreus has been investigated for its ability to break down lignin and cellulose in agricultural byproducts, like wheat straw or grasses. It selectively breaks down lignin, leaving much of the cellulose intact, which increases the amount of digestible carbohydrate for ruminant mammals, and enhances both its value as a food source and its biodegradability. The enzymes responsible, laccase and manganese peroxidase, also have industrial applications for lignin degradation and removal in the pulp and paper industry. Liquid cultures of C. stercoreus have also been shown to biodegrade the explosive compound 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT).
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The entire facility includes approximately , and is constructed on a parcel of the Enterprise South Industrial Park in eastern Chattanooga. The industrial park comprises land that was once an ammunition plant known as the Volunteer Army Ammunition Plant (VAAP), which manufactured up to of TNT (trinitrotoluene) per month during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The Volkswagen facility is near a remaining storage area containg storage bunkers once used to store TNT. The site features nearby hiking, biking and walking trails, picnic areas, and overlooks, known as the Enterprise South Nature Park.
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Insensitive munitions are almost always filled with fire resistant, shock resistant insensitive high explosives (IHE) such as triaminotrinitrobenzene (TATB) or various insensitive explosive mixtures, or plastic/polymer-bonded explosives, which are similar to reactive materials. TATB particularly will not detonate if impacted by typical fragments or burned in a fire. A new IHE called Insensitive Munitions Explosive (IMX-101), has been qualified and approved by the U.S. Army to replace trinitrotoluene (TNT). IMX-101 is said to have the “same lethality as traditional TNT, but is far less likely to explode if dropped, shot at or hit by a roadside bomb during transport”.
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Short on money, she decided to take the job even though it would mean having to postpone her degree. The job turned out to be at the Plum Brook Ordnance Works munitions factory, charged with the responsibility of manufacturing explosives trinitrotoluene (TNT), dinitrotoluene (DNT), and pentolite. The site produced more than one billion pounds of ordnance throughout World War II. Mary Sherman became pregnant in 1943 out of wedlock, a difficult dilemma in an era when this was considered extremely shameful and women were often given back-alley abortions or hidden from their friends and family. At that time she was living with her first cousin in Huron, Ohio.
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Chunks of explosives-grade TNT Trinitrotoluene melting at M107 artillery shells. All are labelled to indicate a filling of "Comp B" (mixture of TNT and RDX) and have fuzes fitted Analysis of TNT production by branch of the German army between 1941 and the first quarter of 1944 shown in thousands of tons per month Detonation of the 500-ton TNT explosive charge as part of Operation Sailor Hat in 1965. The passing blast-wave left a white water surface behind and a white Condensation cloud is visible overhead. TNT was first prepared in 1863 by German chemist Julius Wilbrand and originally used as a yellow dye.
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Figure 4: Graphitic Carbon (produced as byproduct of detonation synthesis; Van Der Waals interactions partially shown) Other than explosions, methods of synthesis include hydrothermal synthesis, ion bombardment, laser bombardment, microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition techniques, ultrasound synthesis, and electrochemical synthesis. In addition, the decomposition of graphitic C3N4 under high pressure and high temperature yields large quantities of high purity diamond nanoparticles. However, detonation synthesis of nanodiamonds has become the industry standard in the commercial production of nanodiamonds: the most commonly utilized explosives being mixtures of trinitrotoluene and hexogen or octogen. Detonation is often performed in a sealed, oxygen-free, stainless steel chamber and yields a mixture of nanodiamonds averaging 5 nm and other graphitic compounds.
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The UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods are contained in the UN Model Regulations prepared by the Subcommittee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). They cover the transport of dangerous goods by all modes of transport except by bulk tanker. They are not obligatory or legally binding on individual countries, but have gained a wide degree of international acceptance: they form the basis of several international agreements and many national laws. "Dangerous goods" (also known as "hazardous materials" or "HAZMAT" in the United States) may be pure chemical substance (for example, trinitrotoluene (TNT), nitroglycerin), mixtures (for example, dynamite, gunpowder) or manufactured articles (for example, ammunition, fireworks).
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The site started producing bombs, boosters, and shells in 1942 during World War II. It consisted of four bomb load lines, an explosive booster assembly plant, an ammonium nitrate plant, two explosives burning areas, a proving ground, a landfill, a wastewater treatment plant, analytical laboratories, and storage and administration facilities. From 1942-1945 the Nebraska Defense Corporation operated the site for the Army. Ammunitions were loaded with trinitrotoluene (TNT), amatol (TNT and ammonium nitrate), tritonal (TNT and aluminum), and Composition B ( RDX and TNT). A 1943 article said that the Firestone Company operated the plant for the Army. From 1950-1956, the plant was reactivated and produced weapons for the Korean War.
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An Explosive ROF was a UK Government-owned Royal Ordnance Factory (ROF), which specialised in manufacturing explosives during and after World War II. Note: In World War I, the name used in the UK for Government-owned explosives factories was National Explosives Factory; and the Cordite factory at Gretna was known as HM Factory, Gretna. These Second World War factories were built for the Ministry of Supply with the Ministry of Works, in all cases except ROF Irvine, acting as agent. Explosive ROF's specialised in producing either high- explosives, such as TNT (trinitrotoluene) or RDX; or propellants, such as cordite, but there were minor exceptions to this demarcation. The products from these Explosive ROFs were shipped to Filling Factories for filling into munitions.
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PETN is practically insoluble in water (0.01 g/100 ml at 50 °C), weakly soluble in common nonpolar solvents such as aliphatic hydrocarbons (like gasoline) or tetrachloromethane, but soluble in some other organic solvents, particularly in acetone (about 15 g/100 g of the solution at 20 °C, 55 g/100 g at 60 °C) and dimethylformamide (40 g/100 g of the solution at 40 °C, 70 g/100 g at 70 °C). PETN forms eutectic mixtures with some liquid or molten aromatic nitro compounds, e.g. trinitrotoluene (TNT) or tetryl. Due to steric hindrance of the adjacent neopentyl-like moiety, PETN is resistant to attack by many chemical reagents; it does not hydrolyze in water at room temperature or in weaker alkaline aqueous solutions.
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He has also driven development of a landmine detection system called "Hundnos" by the Swedish company Bofors, or "Bofors schnauzer". It works by sucking air, without sand, into a chamber with crystals coated with antibodies to trinitrotoluene (TNT). This so-called artificial bloodhound is both more efficient and cheaper than training dogs.in the Service of Peace and Electronic nose mimics hundnos for related newsA Cheap Landmine Detector that Acts like a Tumbleweed for alternative technologiesBiosensors Based on Piezoelectric Crystal Detectors: Theory and Application for a similar patent application on the technologyAntibody coated crystal chemical sensor for similar systems of antibody coated crystals With Per Askelöf and Stefan B. Svenson, Bartfai created the first acellular pertussis (whooping cough) vaccine that is part of the current triple vaccine.
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Log–log plot comparing the yield (in kilotons) and mass (in kilograms) of various nuclear weapons developed by the United States. The explosive yield of a nuclear weapon is the amount of energy released when that particular nuclear weapon is detonated, usually expressed as a TNT equivalent (the standardized equivalent mass of trinitrotoluene which, if detonated, would produce the same energy discharge), either in kilotons (kt—thousands of tons of TNT), in megatons (Mt—millions of tons of TNT), or sometimes in terajoules (TJ). An explosive yield of one terajoule is equal to . Because the accuracy of any measurement of the energy released by TNT has always been problematic, the conventional definition is that one kiloton of TNT is held simply to be equivalent to 1012 calories.
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Blast cloud from Halifax Explosion The war was seen as a blessing for the city's economy, but in 1917 a French munitions ship, , collided with a Norwegian ship, . The collision sparked a fire on the munitions ship which was filled with 2,300 tons of wet and dry picric acid (used for making lyddite for artillery shells), 200 tons of trinitrotoluene (TNT), 10 tons of gun cotton, with drums of Benzol (High Octane fuel) stacked on her deck. On December 6, 1917, at 9:04:35 AM the munitions ship exploded in what was the largest man- made explosion before the first testing of an atomic bomb, and is still one of the largest non-nuclear man-made explosions. Items from the exploding ship landed away.
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Pink water and red water are two distinct types of wastewater related to trinitrotoluene (TNT). Pink water is produced from equipment washing processes after munitions filling or demilitarization operations, and as such is generally saturated with the maximum amount of TNT that will dissolve in water (about 150 parts per million (ppm).) However it has an indefinite composition that depends on the exact process; in particular, it may also contain cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) if the plant uses TNT/RDX mixtures, or HMX if TNT/HMX is used. Red water (also known as "Sellite water") is produced during the process used to purify the crude TNT. It has a complex composition containing more than a dozen aromatic compounds, but the principal components are inorganic salts (sodium sulfite, sulfate, nitrite and nitrate) and sulfonated nitroaromatics.
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The hydroelectric plant uses one Kaplan turbine with an output of 2.88 MW (the installed output is 3.1 MW). In case of an island operation (in other words, if the plant is disconnected from the network system, such as in the case of a breakdown of the electric power transmission), the turbine can be used to set a gas combustion turbine in the heating plant “Červený mlýn” in motion. A small hydro in Brno-Komín serves as a buffer tank. At the end of the Second World War the retreating German Army placed mines in the nearby roads, placed a barrel with trinitrotoluene on the dam (the explosives were originally supposed to be placed into the dam piping, but it was sealed with concrete due to an order to protect it from sabotage), and stationed some machine guns in the house of the dam guard Šikula.
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John Kerry, the US Secretary of State, gives a speech at a memorial ceremony in honour of Mustafa Akarsu at the embassy on 1 March 2013 At approximately 13:15 EET (11:15 UTC) on 1 February 2013, a suicide bomber detonated his explosives— of trinitrotoluene (TNT) and a hand grenade—at a side entrance to the United States embassy in the Kavaklıdere area of Ankara, killing a Turkish security guard and wounding three others. The explosion also seriously wounded journalist Didem Tuncay, who was rushed to hospital shortly after the attack had occurred. After visiting Tuncay in hospital, Francis J. Ricciardone, Jr., the United States ambassador to Turkey, described her as "one of the best" and added that she was due to have tea with him at the embassy. Ricciardone also paid tribute to Mustafa Akarsu, identified as the security guard who was killed in the bombing, saying that he was "a hero who [had] lost his life to protect the embassy staff".
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