138 Sentences With "top quark" | Random Sentence Generator

The heaviest of these is the relatively enormous top quark.

The top quark is unstable and can only be created and studied inside powerful particle accelerators.

This has to do with coupling between the Higgs and a particle known as the top quark.

When I was in grad school, the big question was: What is the mass of the top quark?

Except rather than a cake, it was the "top" quark, the biggest of the six different flavors of quarks.

The most massive fundamental subatomic particle known is the top quark, discovered in 1995 at Fermilab, located outside Chicago.

If we had not already measured the mass of the top quark, this could have been used as a prediction.

And further refining measurements of the top quark and Higgs boson masses might prove we actually live in a stable universe.

Tevatron researchers discovered the top quark, another subatomic particle, and helped lay the groundwork for CERN's discovery of the Higgs boson.

Several years ago, a project called LHCSound built a library of the "sounds" of a top quark jet and the Higgs boson, among others.

Because the Higgs boson interacts most strongly with the top quark, measurements like the ones announced Monday have the potential to answer these mysteries.

This might seem like a small difference, but an entirely different type of physicists study these collisions involving nuclei, and might use the top quark for completely unrelated reasons.

"This first measurement paves the way for further detailed investigations of top-quark production in nuclear interactions," the authors write in the study, published this week in Physical Review Letters.

Like many of my age cohort of particle physics researchers, I collaborated in the discovery of the top quark in 1995, the Higgs boson in 2012, and now today's announcement.

Early in her career, when her peers were fanning out in search of the top quark, now known to be the heaviest elementary particle, she broke ranks to seek out the neutrino, the lightest.

Everybody expected me to join one of the collider experiments to find the top quark and measure its mass, and instead I was looking around and was quite interested in what was going on in the neutrino world.

I was on the experiment that discovered the top quark, the heaviest known form of matter, and I actually designed and led the construction of one of the last of the giant particle accelerators in the United States.

For over twenty years, he worked as a high-energy physicist and particle accelerator designer at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and was a member of the team that discovered the top quark, the heaviest known form of matter.

By the mid-0003s, all the quarks had been accounted for experimentally except the top quark, and by the early 2010s, the main remaining unproved ingredient was the Higgs boson, named after the British theoretical physicist Peter Higgs.

For over 20 years, he worked as a high-energy physicist and particle accelerator designer at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and was a member of the team that discovered the top quark, the heaviest known form of matter.

I was more interested in the funny little anomalies that were already showing up in the neutrino world than I was in a particle which had to exist—the top quark—and the question of what was its precise mass.

Dr. Neal also led Michigan's team in researching the top quark, whose existence had been only theorized until an international group of about 21996,22016 physicists was able to produce it in 255 in the federal Department of Energy's Fermilab particle accelerator.

The downgrade from 500 to 250 giga-electron volts (the "electron volt" is how particle physicists measure energy) would still yield a machine capable of studying the Higgs, although it would be outside the threshold of studying the heaviest quark, the top quark.

A longtime professor at the university, Dr. Neal ran groups there that were involved in finding the top quark and the Higgs boson, the last remaining particles — or building blocks of matter — that were ascribed to the Standard Model of physics, a best-guess description of the subatomic world.

"Though we should be skeptical that today's paper on ALEPH data is the first step toward a major discovery," Strassler concludes, "at minimum it is important for what it indirectly confirms: that searches at the LHC are far from complete, and that discoveries might lie hidden, for example in rare Z decays (and in rare decays of other particles, such as the top quark.) Neither ATLAS, CMS nor LHCb have ever done a search for rare but spectacular Z particle decays, but they certainly could, as they recently did for the Higgs particle; and if Heister's excess turns out to be a real signal, they will be seen to have missed a huge opportunity."

Additionally, CLIC will operate at the top quark pair-production threshold around 350 GeV with the aim of precisely measuring the properties of the top quark.

A top quark event at 3 TeV reconstructed in a simulated detector for CLIC The top quark, the heaviest of all known fundamental particles, has currently never been studied in electron- positron collisions. The CLIC linear collider plans to have an extensive top quark physics programme. A major aim of this programme would be a threshold scan around the top quark pair-production threshold (~350 GeV) to precisely determine the mass and other signiﬁcant properties of the top quark. For this scan, CLIC currently plans to devote 10% of the running time of the ﬁrst stage, collecting 100 fb−1.

Ann Heinson is an American high-energy particle physicist known for her work on single top quark physics. She established and lead the DØ Single Top Group which first published experimental observations of the top quark, and in 1997 she co-authored a paper which laid the foundations for further investigation into the top quark.

"Discovery of the Top Quark." Collider Detector at Fermilab. 25 Apr. 2009 .

Since 1988, Grassmann has developed a method for detecting the top quark. The method makes use of the different kinematic properties of production and decay of top quark particles and background events, such as the production of W particles together with hadronic jets. In 1994, this analysis was successfully applied by Grassmann, G. Bellettini and M. Cobal. The top quark was observed in Tevatron collider data.

The idea was described by Yoichiro Nambu and subsequently developed by Miransky, Tanabashi, and Yamawaki (1989) and Bardeen, Hill, and Lindner (1990), who connected the theory to the renormalization group, and improved its predictions. The renormalization group reveals that top quark condensation is fundamentally based upon the ‘infrared fixed point’ for the top quark Higgs-Yukawa coupling, proposed by Pendleton and Ross (1981). and Hill, The ‘infrared’ fixed point originally predicted that the top quark would be heavy, contrary to the prevailing view of the early 1980s. Indeed, the top quark was discovered in 1995 at the large mass of 175 GeV.

The large mass of the top quark caused the top quark to decay almost instantaneously, within the order of 10−25 seconds, making it extremely difficult to observe. The Standard Model predicts that the top quark may decay leptonically into a bottom quark and a W boson. This W boson may then decay into a lepton and neutrino (t→Wb→ѵlb). Therefore, CDF worked to reconstruct top events, looking specifically for evidence of bottom quarks, W bosons neutrinos.

The top quark was ultimately discovered in 1995 by physicists at Fermilab with a mass near 175 GeV.

However, extended versions of the theory, introducing more particles, can be made consistent with the observed top quark mass.

In 1997, she co- authored the paper "Single Top Quarks at the Fermilab Tevatron," which laid the conceptual foundations for the next decade of top quark experimental research. Under her leadership, the single top working group discovered the first evidence of single top quark production at Fermi labs Tevatron. She retired in 2012.

In theoretical physics, topcolor is a model of dynamical electroweak symmetry breaking in which the top quark and anti-top quark form a composite Higgs boson by a new force arising from massive "top gluons." This is analogous to the phenomenon of superconductivity where Cooper pairs are formed by the exchange of phonons. The pairing dynamics and its solution was treated in the Bardeen-Hill-Lindner model. The solution to composite Higgs models was actually anticipated in 1981, and found to be the Infrared fixed point for the top quark mass.

A future electron–positron collider would be able to provide the precise measurements of the top quark needed for such calculations.

In particle physics, the top quark condensate theory (or top condensation) is an alternative to the Standard Model fundamental Higgs field, where the Higgs boson is a composite field, composed of the top quark and its antiquark. The top quark-antiquark pairs are bound together by a new force called topcolor, analogous to the binding of Cooper pairs in a BCS superconductor, or mesons in the strong interactions. The idea of binding of top quarks is motivated because it is comparatively heavy, with a measured mass is approximately 173 GeV (comparable to the electroweak scale), and so its Yukawa coupling is of order unity, suggesting the possibility of strong coupling dynamics at high energy scales. This model attempts to explain how the electroweak scale may match the top quark mass.

Kim was a postdoctoral fellow and a research investigator at the University of Michigan before moving to Boston University in 1996. He took up his current position at Seoul National University in 1998. He jointly led the efforts of discovering the top quark in 1994 and measuring its mass in 1995 using the Fermilab Tevatron hadron collider as a member of the CDF collaboration."Observation of top-quark production in collisions with the collider detector at Fermilab", Physical Review Letters, 74, 2626-2631 (1995) The top quark was the heaviest fundamental fermion yet to be observed before the experiment.

This study would allow the top quark mass to be ascertained in a theoretically well-deﬁned manner and at a higher precision than possible with hadron colliders. CLIC would also aim to measure the top quark electroweak couplings to the Z boson and the photon, as deviations of these values from those predicted by the Standard Model could be evidence of new physics phenomena, such as extra dimensions. Further observation of top quark decays with flavour-changing neutral currents at CLIC would be an indirect indication of new physics, as these should not be seen by CLIC under current Standard Model predictions.

These effects become much larger for higher values of the top mass and therefore could indirectly see the top quark even if it could not be directly detected in any experiment at the time. The largest effect from the top-quark mass was on the T parameter, and by 1994 the precision of these indirect measurements had led to a prediction of the top-quark mass to be between and . It is the development of techniques that ultimately allowed such precision calculations that led to Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman winning the Nobel Prize in physics in 1999.

All possible final states of the decay of a top-quark pair Because of its enormous mass, the top quark is extremely short-lived with a predicted lifetime of only . As a result, top quarks do not have time before they decay to form hadrons as other quarks do, which provides physicists with the unique opportunity to study the behavior of a "bare" quark. The only known way the top quark can decay is through the weak interaction, producing a W-boson and a bottom-type quark. In particular, it is possible to directly determine the branching ratio .

Finally in February 1995, CDF had enough evidence to say that they had "discovered" the top quark.Quigg, Chris. "Discovery of the Top Quark." 1996.

The general idea of a composite Higgs boson, connected in a fundamental way to the top quark, remains compelling, though the full details are not yet understood.

Rajendran Raja (14 July 1948 – 15 February 2014) was an Indian-American physicist who played a key role in the discovery of the top quark at Fermilab.

T mesons are hypothetical mesons composed of a top quark and either an up (), down (), strange () or charm antiquark (). Because of the top quark's short lifetime, T mesons are not expected to be found in nature. The combination of a top quark and top antiquark is not a T meson, but rather toponium. Each T meson has an antiparticle that is composed of a top antiquark and an up (), down (), strange () or charm quark () respectively.

In the following years, more evidence was collected and on April 22, 1994, the CDF group submitted their article presenting tentative evidence for the existence of a top quark with a mass of about . In the meantime, DØ had found no more evidence than the suggestive event in 1992. A year later, on March 2, 1995, after having gathered more evidence and reanalyzed the DØ data (which had been searched for a much lighter top), the two groups jointly reported the discovery of the top at a mass of . In the years leading up to the top-quark discovery, it was realized that certain precision measurements of the electroweak vector boson masses and couplings are very sensitive to the value of the top-quark mass.

Examples of quarkonia are the J/ψ meson (the ground state of charmonium, ) and the meson (bottomonium, ). Because of the high mass of the top quark, toponium does not exist, since the top quark decays through the electroweak interaction before a bound state can form (a rare example of a weak process proceeding more quickly than a strong process). Usually, the word "quarkonium" refers only to charmonium and bottomonium, and not to any of the lighter quark–antiquark states.

The top quark, sometimes also referred to as the truth quark, (symbol: t) is the most massive of all observed elementary particles. It derives its mass from its coupling to the Higgs Boson. This coupling y_{t} is very close to unity; in the Standard Model of particle physics, it is the largest (strongest) coupling at the scale of the weak interactions and above. The top quark was discovered in 1995 by the CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab.

David Samuel Kestenbaum is an American radio producer - as of 2019, for Planet Money and This American Life. He was formerly a correspondent for National Public Radio. He generally covers science and economic issues. Kestenbaum earned a Ph.D in physics from Harvard University in 1996 with a thesis entitled Observation of Top Quark Anti-Top Quark Production Using a Soft Lepton B Tag in Proton Anti-Proton Collisions at 1.8 TeV working under the supervision of Melissa Franklin.

Like all other quarks, the top quark is a fermion with spin and participates in all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. It has an electric charge of + e. It has a mass of , which is close to the rhenium atom mass. The antiparticle of the top quark is the top antiquark (symbol: , sometimes called antitop quark or simply antitop), which differs from it only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign.

This process of hadronization occurs before quarks, formed in a high energy collision, are able to interact in any other way. The only exception is the top quark, which may decay before it hadronizes.

By 1991 a precise measurement for the mass of the Z boson from LEP had become available. Using the ratio of the W mass to Z mass, a first precise measurement of the W mass could be made. These mass values could be used to predict the top quark from its virtual effect on the W mass. The result of this study gave a top quark mass value in the range of 110 GeV to 220 GeV, beyond the reach for direct detection by UA2 at the SpS.

No matter what the initial starting value of the coupling is, if it is sufficiently large it will reach this quasi-fixed point value, and the corresponding quark mass is predicted. The value of the quasi-fixed point is fairly precisely determined in the Standard Model, leading to a predicted top quark mass of 230 GeV. The observed top quark mass of 174 GeV is slightly lower than the standard model prediction by about 30% which suggests there may be more Higgs doublets beyond the single standard model Higgs boson.

The quasi-infrared fixed point subsequently became the basis of top quark condensation theories of electroweak symmetry breaking, in which the Higgs boson is composite at extremely short distance scales, composed of a pair of top and antitop quarks. The predicted top-quark mass comes into improved agreement with the fixed point if there are additional Higgs scalars beyond the standard model and may be indicating that a rich spectroscopy of new Higgs fields lies at energy scales that can be probed with the LHC and its upgrades.

In particle physics, a hyperon is any baryon containing one or more strange quarks, but no charm, bottom, or top quark. This form of matter may exist in a stable form within the core of some neutron stars.

Similar matches have been found for triplets of quarks depending on running masses. With alternating quarks, chaining Koide equations for consecutive triplets, it is possible to reach a result of 173.263947(6) GeV for the mass of the top quark.

Throughout the runs with the upgraded detector, the UA2 collaboration was in competition with experiments at Fermilab in the US in the search for the top quark. Physicists had anticipated its existence since 1977, when its partner — the bottom quark — was discovered. It was felt that the discovery of the top quark was imminent. During the 1987-1990 run UA2 collected 2065 W \rightarrow e u decays, and 251 Z decays to electron pairs, from which the ratio of the mass of the W boson and the mass of the Z boson could be measured with a precision of 0.5%.

This was sometimes misreported as the Higgs boson "ending" the universe. If the masses of the Higgs boson and top quark are known more precisely, and the Standard Model provides an accurate description of particle physics up to extreme energies of the Planck scale, then it is possible to calculate whether the vacuum is stable or merely long-lived. A 125–127 GeV Higgs mass seems to be extremely close to the boundary for stability, but a definitive answer requires much more precise measurements of the pole mass of the top quark. New physics can change this picture.

Like all flavour quantum numbers, topness is preserved under strong and electromagnetic interactions, but not under weak interaction. However the top quark is extremely unstable, with a half-life under 10−23 s, which is the required time for the strong interaction to take place. For that reason the top quark does not hadronize, that is it never forms any meson or baryon, so the topness of a meson or a baryon is always zero. By the time it can interact strongly it has already decayed to another flavour of quark (usually to a bottom quark).

He is an originator of Parke–Taylor amplitudes, which represent a new approach to computing scattering amplitudes in quantum chromodynamics using symmetry methods such as supersymmetry. Parke is also an expert on neutrino physics as well as the physics of the top quark.

Collider Detector at Fermilab. Collider Detector at Fermilab. 28 Apr. 2009 . The existence of the top quark was hypothesized after the observation of the Upsilon at Fermilab in 1977, which was found to consist of a bottom quark and an anti-bottom quark.

She worked on supersymmetry, in the 4-body decay of the stop particle. She studied light scalar top quark and supersymmetric dark matter She looked at collisional damping, which considers the impact of dark matter and standard model particles with the cosmic microwave background.

The and bosons decay to fermion pairs but neither the nor the bosons have sufficient energy to decay into the highest-mass top quark. Neglecting phase space effects and higher order corrections, simple estimates of their branching fractions can be calculated from the coupling constants.

In the minimal supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model (MSSM), there are two Higgs doublets and the renormalization group equation for the top quark Yukawa coupling is slightly modified. This led to a fixed point where the top mass is smaller, 170–200 GeV. Some theorists believed this was supporting evidence for the MSSM, however no signs of any predictions of the MSSM have emerged at the Large Hadron Collider and most theorists believe the theory is now ruled out. The value of the quasi-fixed point is fairly precisely determined in the Standard Model, leading to a predicted top quark mass of 230 GeV.

Proposed hypothetical mechanisms to destroy the universe within that timeframe range from superheavy gravitinos to a heavier-than-observed top quark triggering "death by Higgs".Boddy, K. K., & Carroll, S. M. (2013). Can the Higgs Boson Save Us From the Menace of the Boltzmann Brains?. arXiv preprint arXiv:1308.4686.

No matter what the initial starting value of the coupling is, if it is sufficiently large it will reach this quasi-fixed point value, and the corresponding quark mass is predicted. The "infrared quasi-fixed point" was proposed in 1981 by B. Pendleton, G. G. Ross and C. T. Hill. The prevailing view at the time was that the top quark mass would lie in a range of 15 to 26 GeV. The quasi-infrared fixed point has formed the basis of top quark condensation theories of electroweak symmetry breaking in which the Higgs boson is composite at extremely short distance scales, composed of a pair of top and anti-top quarks.

This is about a twentieth of the timescale for strong interactions, and therefore it does not form hadrons, giving physicists a unique opportunity to study a "bare" quark (all other quarks hadronize, meaning that they combine with other quarks to form hadrons and can only be observed as such). Because the top quark is so massive, its properties allowed indirect determination of the mass of the Higgs boson (see below). As such, the top quark's properties are extensively studied as a means to discriminate between competing theories of new physics beyond the Standard Model. Top quark is the only quark that has been directly observed due to the fact that it decays faster than the hadronization time.

The corrections from the Yukawa couplings are negligible for the lower-mass quarks. One of the prevailing views in particle physics is that the size of the top-quark Higgs–Yukawa coupling is determined by a unique nonlinear property of the renormalization group equation that describes the running of the large Higgs–Yukawa coupling of the top quark. If a quark Higgs–Yukawa coupling has a large value at very high energies, its Yukawa corrections will evolve downward in mass scale and cancel against the QCD corrections. This is known as a (quasi-) infrared fixed point, which was first predicted by B. Pendleton and G. G. Ross and by C. T. Hill.

Charlton was educated at the University of Oxford, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Physics in 1985. He went on to study for a PhD in Particle Physics at the University of Birmingham, which he was awarded in 1989 for work on the UA1 experiment, searching for the top quark.

Bortoletto moved to Purdue University to pursue a postdoctoral fellowship. In 1994, she received a NSF Career Advancement Award and became the Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellow. While part of the CDF collaboration in 1995, she co-discovered the top quark. Two years later, she won a NSF Faculty Early Career Development Award.

The production of single top quarks via weak interaction is a distinctly different process. This can happen in several ways (called channels): Either an intermediate W-boson decays into a top and antibottom quarks ("s-channel") or a bottom quark (probably created in a pair through the decay of a gluon) transforms to a top quark by exchanging a W boson with an up or down quark ("t-channel"). A single top quark can also be produced in association with a W boson, requiring an initial-state bottom quark ("tW- channel"). The first evidence for these processes was published by the DØ collaboration in December 2006, and in March 2009 the CDF and DØ collaborations released twin articles with the definitive observation of these processes.

From 2002 to 2004, Lockyer served as co-spokesperson for a 600-person international collaboration known as CDF, the Collider Detector at Fermilab experiment at the laboratory's Tevatron particle accelerator. The project achieved world acclaim for discovering and studying the top quark, one of the fundamental building blocks of nature, a counterpart to the bottom quark.

Charged particle tracking was performed in the central detector, and energy measurements were performed in the calorimeters. Unlike UA1, UA2 had no muon detector. Detector for the UA2 experiment. The picture shows the detector after the 1985-1987 upgrade, when new end-cap calorimeters were added to improve the search for the top quark and new physics.

In other theories belonging to the SUSY family, the same role can be played by the lightest squark (usually the stop, i.e. the partner of the top quark). In the following, for sake of illustration, the R-hadron will be assumed to originate from a gluino created in a pp collision at LHC, but the observational features are completely general.

In other models the Higgs scalar is a composite particle. For example, in technicolor the role of the Higgs field is played by strongly bound pairs of fermions called techniquarks. Other models, feature pairs of top quarks (see top quark condensate). In yet other models, there is no Higgs field at all and the electroweak symmetry is broken using extra dimensions.

The Standard Model, which today is the most widely accepted theory describing the particles and interactions, predicted the existence of three generations of quarks. The first generation quarks are the up and down quarks, second generation quarks are strange and charm, and third generation are top and bottom. The existence of the bottom quark solidified physicists’ conviction that the top quark existed.Lankford, Andy.

These results were confirmed when the analysis was repeated on a larger data sample. After the top quark discovery, Grassmann worked on a connection between the classic information theory of Claude Shannon, Gregory Chaitin and Andrey Kolmogorov et al. and physics. From work done by Leó Szilárd, Rolf Landauer and Charles H. Bennett, there is a connection between physics and information theory.

Also top quark pairs have been examined in the D0 experiment (2012). They showed that the cross section production of these pairs doesn't depend on sidereal time during Earth's rotation. Lorentz violation bounds on Bhabha scattering have been given by Charneski et al. (2012). They showed that differential cross sections for the vector and axial couplings in QED become direction dependent in the presence of Lorentz violation.

Like other massive particles (e.g. the top quark and W and Z bosons), Higgs bosons decay to other particles almost immediately, long before they can be observed directly. However, the Standard Model precisely predicts the possible modes of decay and their probabilities. This allows the creation and decay of a Higgs boson to be shown by careful examination of the decay products of collisions.

In 1988 she became an assistant professor at the University of Illinois, and worked at Fermilab in Chicago. In 1987 she joined Harvard University, later becoming the physics department's first tenured woman professor. For over a decade, Franklin traveled between Boston and Chicago every few weeks, to check on and fix equipment at Fermilab. In 1995, her team proved the existence of the top quark.

James T. Linnemann from Michigan State University, was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society, after he was nominated by the Division of Particles and Fields in 2009, for original research in high energy physics and particle astrophysics through electronics and software applications, seminal contributions to the discoveries of the top quark and TeV gamma-ray sources, searches for supersymmetry, and applications of statistics.

In 1983, Kernan worked with Professor Carlo Rubbia and Dr Simon van der Meer. She led the US team on the CERN international Nobel-prize winning experiment to discover the two sub-atomic particles, W and Z bosons. Kernan was invited to the Nobel Prize ceremony in Stockholm. Kernan was part of the team that went on to discover the top quark in 1995.

Don Lincoln (born 1964) is an American physicist, author, host of the YouTube channel Fermilab, and science communicator. He conducts research in particle physics at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, and is an adjunct professor of physics at the University of Notre Dame. He received a Ph.D. in experimental particle physics from Rice University in 1994. In 1995, he was a co-discoverer of the top quark.

The top quark interacts with gluons of the strong interaction and is typically produced in hadron colliders via this interaction. However, once produced, the top (or antitop) can decay only through the weak force. It decays to a W boson and either a bottom quark (most frequently), a strange quark, or, on the rarest of occasions, a down quark. The Standard Model determines the top quark's mean lifetime to be roughly .

At , it was the world's fourth-largest particle accelerator in circumference. One of its most important achievements was the 1995 discovery of the top quark, announced by research teams using the Tevatron's CDF and DØ detectors. It was shut down in 2011. In addition to high-energy collider physics, Fermilab hosts fixed-target and neutrino experiments, such as MicroBooNE (Micro Booster Neutrino Experiment), NOνA (NuMI Off-Axis νe Appearance) and SeaQuest.

The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964. Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and there was little evidence for their physical existence until deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968. Accelerator experiments have provided evidence for all six flavors. The top quark, first observed at Fermilab in 1995, was the last to be discovered.

S.W. Herb et al. (1977) The top quark (the last and heaviest quark to be discovered till date) was first observed at Fermilab in 1995. Each meson has a corresponding antiparticle (antimeson) where quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks and vice versa. For example, a positive pion () is made of one up quark and one down antiquark; and its corresponding antiparticle, the negative pion (), is made of one up antiquark and one down quark.

Senjanović is also known for his work on supersymmetric gauge coupling unification. Following the original suggestions of Savas Dimopoulos, Stuart Raby and Frank Wilczek, and Luis Ibáñez and Graham G. Ross, together with William J. Marciano, he showed in 1981 that the supersymmetric unification was tied to the large top quark mass, around 200 GeV, years before experiment. In 2010, an international conference was organized in the honour of his 60th birthday in Split, Croatia.ICTP note on Goranfest.

Sphicas continued work on the CDF through the 1990s as part of MIT's team in the CDF experiments. The MIT Team was responsible for three Collider components: the forward calorimeter, the Data Acquisition System and the Third Level Trigger. The 18 MIT scientists, by then led by Sphicas, were part of the team that produced the first evidence for the Top quark in 1994. Sphicas began participating in the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment at CERN in 1994.

The composite Higgs boson arises naturally in Topcolor models, that are extensions of the standard model using a new force analogous to quantum chromodynamics. To be natural, without excessive fine-tuning (i.e. to stabilize the Higgs mass from large radiative corrections), the theory requires new physics at a relatively low energy scale. Placing new physics at 10 TeV, for instance, the model predicts the top quark to be significantly heavier than observed (at about 600 GeV vs.

The bottom quark or b quark, also known as the beauty quark, is a third- generation quark with a charge of − e. All quarks are described in a similar way by electroweak and quantum chromodynamics, but the bottom quark has exceptionally low rates of transition to lower-mass quarks. The bottom quark is also notable because it is a product in almost all top quark decays, and is a frequent decay product of the Higgs boson.

The present false vacuum state is called dS (De Sitter space), while tentative true vacuum is called AdS (Anti-de Sitter space). The diagrams show the uncertainty ranges of Higgs boson and top quark masses as oval-shaped lines. Underlying colors indicate if the electroweak vacuum state is likely to be stable, merely long-lived or completely unstable for given combination of masses. The "electroweak vacuum decay" hypothesis was sometimes misreported as the Higgs boson "ending" the universe.

The first sequential new Higgs bosons are accessible to the LHC. The original topcolor naturally involved an extension of the standard model color gauge group to a product group SU(3)×SU(3)×SU(3)×... One of the gauge groups contains the top and bottom quarks, and has a sufficiently large coupling constant to cause the condensate to form. The topcolor model anticipates the idea of dimensional deconstruction and extra space dimensions, as well as the large mass of the top quark.

Carena's research is focused on models of new physics beyond the Standard Model and their manifestations in particle physics experiments. She explores possible connections between Higgs boson, Supersymmetry, Grand Unification, Flavor Physics and Dark Matter. For example, she has developed a particle physics model which explains the matter – anti-matter asymmetry of the universe (also known as baryogenesis). This model posits key super-symmetric particles, such as a light stop (scalar top) quark, as well as a relatively light Higgs boson.

This equation describes how the Yukawa coupling changes with energy scale . Solutions to this equation for large initial values cause the right-hand side of the equation to quickly approach zero, locking to the QCD coupling . The value of the fixed point is fairly precisely determined in the Standard Model, leading to a top-quark mass of 220 GeV. This is about 25% larger than the observed top mass and may be hinting at new physics at higher energy scales.

By this logic the most common decay should be into a top–antitop quark pair. However, such a decay would only be possible if the Higgs were heavier than ~, twice the mass of the top quark. For a Higgs mass of the SM predicts that the most common decay is into a bottom–antibottom quark pair, which happens 57.7% of the time. The second most common fermion decay at that mass is a tau–antitau pair, which happens only about 6.3% of the time.

Diagram showing the Higgs boson and top quark masses, which could indicate whether our universe is stable, or a long-lived 'bubble'. As of 2012, the 2 ellipse based on Tevatron and LHC data still allows for both possibilities. In the Standard Model, there exists the possibility that the underlying state of our universe – known as the "vacuum" – is long-lived, but not completely stable. In this scenario, the universe as we know it could effectively be destroyed by collapsing into a more stable vacuum state.

If there is more than one Higgs doublet, the value will be reduced by an increase in the 9/2 factor in the equation, and any Higgs mixing angle effects. The observed top quark mass of 174 GeV is slightly lower than the standard model prediction by about 30% which suggests there may be more Higgs doublets beyond the single standard model Higgs boson. If there are many additional Higgs doublets in nature the predicted value of the quasi-fixed point comes into agreement with experiment.

The top quark was found eventually in 1995 at the Fermilab in the USA. After the commissioning of HASYLAB in 1980 the synchrotron radiation, which was generated at DORIS as a byproduct, was used for research there. While in the beginning DORIS was used only ⅓ of the time as a radiation source, from 1993 on the storage-ring solely served that purpose under the name DORIS III. In order to achieve more intense and controllable radiation, DORIS was upgraded in 1984 with wigglers and undulators.

When he returned to Fermilab in the fall of 1988, he became deputy director of the lab. After Leon M. Lederman stepped down from the Fermilab directorship, Peoples became director on July 1, 1989. During Peoples's time as Fermilab's director, the lab increased the Tevatron's luminosity by a factor of 20 between 1990 and 1994, which made it possible for Fermilab's experiments CDF and D0 to discover the top quark. He also oversaw the construction of Fermilab's Main Injector from proposal in 1990 to completion in 1999.

In particle physics, B mesons are mesons composed of a bottom antiquark and either an up (), down (), strange () or charm quark (). The combination of a bottom antiquark and a top quark is not thought to be possible because of the top quark's short lifetime. The combination of a bottom antiquark and a bottom quark is not a B meson, but rather bottomonium which is something else entirely. Each B meson has an antiparticle that is composed of a bottom quark and an up (), down (), strange () or charm antiquark () respectively.

Cancellation of the Higgs boson quadratic mass renormalization between fermionic top quark loop and scalar top squark Feynman diagrams in a supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model The original motivation for proposing the MSSM was to stabilize the Higgs mass to radiative corrections that are quadratically divergent in the Standard Model (hierarchy problem). In supersymmetric models, scalars are related to fermions and have the same mass. Since fermion masses are logarithmically divergent, scalar masses inherit the same radiative stability. The Higgs vacuum expectation value is related to the negative scalar mass in the Lagrangian.

The Tevatron confirmed the existence of several subatomic particles that were predicted by theoretical particle physics, or gave suggestions to their existence. In 1995, the CDF experiment and DØ experiment collaborations announced the discovery of the top quark, and by 2007 they measured its mass (172 GeV) to a precision of nearly 1%. In 2006, the CDF collaboration reported the first measurement of Bs oscillations, and observation of two types of sigma baryons. In 2007, the DØ and CDF collaborations reported direct observation of the "Cascade B" () Xi baryon.

The new version of the model was studied in and under an additional assumption, known as the "big desert" hypothesis, computations were carried out to predict the Higgs boson mass around 170 GeV and postdict the Top quark mass. In August 2008, Tevatron experiments excluded a Higgs mass of 158 to 175 GeV at the 95% confidence level. Alain Connes acknowledged on a blog about non-commutative geometry that the prediction about the Higgs mass was invalidated. In July 2012, CERN announced the discovery of the Higgs boson with a mass around 125 GeV/c2.

Melissa Eve Bronwen Franklin (born September 30, 1956) is an experimental particle physicist and the Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics at Harvard University. In 1992 Professor Franklin became the first woman to receive tenure in the Physics department at Harvard University and she served as Chair of the department from 2010 to 2014. While working at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Chicago, her team found some of the first evidences for the existence of the top quark. In 1993, Franklin was elected a fellow of the American Physical Society.

A W′-boson could be detected at hadron colliders through its decay to lepton plus neutrino or top quark plus bottom quark, after being produced in quark-antiquark annihilation. The LHC reach for W′ discovery is expected to be a few TeV. Direct searches for Z′-bosons are carried out at hadron colliders, since these give access to the highest energies available. The search looks for high-mass dilepton resonances: the Z′-boson would be produced by quark-antiquark annihilation and decay to an electron-positron pair or a pair of opposite-charged muons.

In 1994, Gerdes and his team at Fermilab made the first observations of the top quark subatomic particle. Using data collected from the Dark Energy Survey between 2013 and 2016, Gerdes led a team of physicists and students at the University of Michigan which discovered a previously unknown dwarf planet in the Kuiper Belt. The dwarf planet was known informally as DeeDee until it was given its official designation of . Gerdes helped to develop the camera used to make the discovery, although it was designed to create a map of distant galaxies.

These couplings are usually called the Higgs–Yukawa couplings, and they vary slowly as the energy scale at which they are measured is varied, due to a quantum effect called the renormalization group. In the Standard Model, all of the quark and lepton Higgs–Yukawa couplings are small compared to the top-quark Yukawa coupling. This hierarchy in the fermion masses remains a profound and open problem in theoretical physics. Higgs–Yukawa couplings are not fixed constants of nature, as their values vary slowly as the energy scale (distance scale) at which they are measured.

Martin is known for his research in the theory of elementary particles, which includes studies of mesic atoms, kaon physics, pi–pi scattering, hadron spectroscopy and the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon. His work on the W boson and top quark was used in early collider experiments. His ongoing projects include the determination of the parton distributions of the proton and studies in small x and diffractive physics, which are relevant to the experiments at the Large Hadron Collider. He is an author of well-known textbooks on particle physics.

The name 3 Quarks Daily comes from the elementary nuclear particles of physics which in turn were named after the word quark which James Joyce had used in Finnegans Wake. — Three quarks for Muster Mark! Sure he hasn't got much of a bark The confluence of references to both science and literature in a single word suited the intent of the blog perfectly and the founders also thought that the name would be short and memorable. They named their top three annual prizes the Top Quark (1st), the Strange Quark (2nd), and the Charm Quark (3rd).

However, it took another 18 years before the existence of the top was confirmed. Early searches for the top quark at SLAC and DESY (in Hamburg) came up empty-handed. When, in the early 1980s, the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) at CERN discovered the W boson and the Z boson, it was again felt that the discovery of the top was imminent. As the SPS gained competition from the Tevatron at Fermilab there was still no sign of the missing particle, and it was announced by the group at CERN that the top mass must be at least .

The best current determination of this ratio is . Since this ratio is equal to according to the Standard Model, this gives another way of determining the CKM element , or in combination with the determination of from single top production provides tests for the assumption that the CKM matrix is unitary. The Standard Model also allows more exotic decays, but only at one loop level, meaning that they are extremely suppressed. In particular, it is conceivable that a top quark might decay into another up-type quark (an up or a charm) by emitting a photon or a Z-boson.

In the same year there were the first tests of X-ray lithography at DESY, a procedure that was later refined to X-ray depth lithography. In 1987 the ARGUS detector of the DORIS storage ring was the first place where the conversion of a B-meson into its antiparticle, the anti-B-meson was observed. From this one could conclude that it was possible, for the second-heaviest quark - the bottom-quark - under certain circumstances to convert into a different quark. One could also conclude from this that the unknown sixth quark - the top quark - had to possess a huge mass.

The AA and AC pbar source complex machines remained from 1987 to 1996 the most highly automated set of machines in CERN's repertoire of accelerators. His prolific inventiveness to the whole park of accelerators at CERN that run so well today for physics, whether they might be for neutrinos sent to Gran Sasso, colliding proton beams at the LHC, or antiproton physics at the Antiproton Decelerator (AD), owe him an immense amount of gratitude. Likewise, the Fermilab antiproton programme that has been running since 1983–85 and the successes of the p–pbar Tevatron Collider up to 2011 and its discovery of the top quark, owe him considerable gratitude.

The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) was also proposed and constructed under his leadership. This facility allowed the verification of the standard model of particle physics, namely that it is a renormalizable field theory, leading to the award of the Nobel Prize to the theoreticians Veltman and t’Hooft. Furthermore, it enabled the precise determination of fundamental parameters of the electroweak force, such as the W± and Z masses, and proved the existence of three neutrino families. Thus, this particle accelerator transformed high energy physics into a field of precision measurements and provided estimates to the mass of the top quark, Higgs boson and other supersymmetric and hypothetical particles.

The stop squark is a key ingredient of a wide range of SUSY models that address the hierarchy problem of the Standard Model (SM) in a natural way. A boson partner to the top quark would stabilize the Higgs boson mass against quadratically divergent quantum corrections, provided its mass is close to the electroweak symmetry breaking energy scale. If this was the case then the stop squark would be accessible at the Large Hadron Collider. In the generic R-parity conserving Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) the scalar partners of right-handed and left-handed top quarks mix to form two stop mass eigenstates.

The properties of the top quark, discovered at Fermilab in 1995, have so far only been measured approximately. With much greater energy and greater collision rates, the LHC produces a tremendous number of top quarks, allowing ATLAS to make much more precise measurements of its mass and interactions with other particles. These measurements will provide indirect information on the details of the Standard Model, with the possibility of revealing inconsistencies that point to new physics. Similar precision measurements will be made of other known particles; for example, ATLAS may eventually measure the mass of the W boson twice as accurately as has previously been achieved.

In 1974, Rajendran Raja immigrated to the United States and became a physicist at Fermilab, a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory near Batavia, Illinois specializing in high-energy particle physics. During his forty years at Fermilab, Raja's important contributions to the lab's scientific work included playing a key role in the design of the hermetic DZero detector. He served as head of the top quark analysis group, and the multivariate algorithm he developed was a crucial tool in the discovery of this particle at Fermilab in 1995. During his last years at Fermilab, he served as spokesperson for the Main Injector Particle Production experiment.

Edwards was best known for leadership in the design, construction, commissioning and operation of the Tevatron, which for 25 years was the most powerful particle collider in the world. Tevatron recorded its first proton-antiproton collisions in 1985 and was used to find the top quark in 1995 and the tau neutrino in 2000, two of the three fundamental particles discovered at Fermilab. Between 1989-92, Edwards was also deeply involved in the eventually abandoned project of the Superconducting Super Collider in Texas. After 1992, Edwards made significant contributions to the development of high-gradient, superconducting linear accelerators as well as bright and intense electron sources.

There have been no principles so far to limit the number of vacua in the concept of a landscape of vacua. Some particle physicists became disappointed by the lack of experimental verification of supersymmetry, and some have already discarded it; Jon Butterworth at University College London said that we had no sign of supersymmetry, even in higher energy region, excluding the superpartners of the top quark up to a few TeV. Ben Allanach at the University of Cambridge states that if we do not discover any new particles in the next trial at the LHC, then we can say it is unlikely to discover supersymmetry at CERN in the foreseeable future.

The symbols encountered in these lists are: I (isospin), J (total angular momentum), P (parity), u (up quark), d (down quark), s (strange quark), c (charm quark), t (top quark), b (bottom quark), Q (electric charge), S (strangeness), C (charmness), B′ (bottomness), T (topness), as well as other subatomic particles (hover for name). Antiparticles are not listed in the table; however, they simply would have all quarks changed to antiquarks (and vice versa), and Q, B, S, C, B′, T, would be of opposite signs. I, J, and P values in red have not been firmly established by experiments, but are predicted by the quark model and are consistent with the measurements.C. Amsler et al.

Young-Kee Kim is a South Korea-born American physicist and Louis Block Distinguished Service Professor of Physics at the University of Chicago. She is Chair of the Department of Physics at the university. As an experimental particle physicist, she has devoted much of her research work to understanding the origin of mass for fundamental particles by studying the W boson and the top quark, two of the most massive elementary particles, at the Tevatron’s CDF experiment, and by studying the Higgs boson that gives mass to elementary particles at the LHC’s ATLAS experiment. She also works on accelerator science, playing a leadership role in NSF's Science and Technology Center, the Center for Bright Beams.

Since CP violations were seen in neutral kaon decays already in 1964, the emergence of the Standard Model soon after was a clear signal of the existence of a third generation of quarks, as pointed out in 1973 by Kobayashi and Maskawa. The discovery of the bottom quark at Fermilab (by Leon Lederman's group) in 1976 therefore immediately started off the search for the missing third-generation quark, the top quark. Note, however, that the specific values of the angles are not a prediction of the standard model: they are open, unfixed parameters. At this time, there is no generally accepted theory that explains why the measured values are what they are.

Later Cline was also a member of the Fermilab experiment that discovered the top quark and of one of the CERN experiments that discovered the Higgs boson in 2012. At UCLA he was also one of the pioneers of the use of liquefied noble gases as particle detectors and made innovative contributions to the development of the use of liquid argon and xenon to detect dark matter. In the early 1990s, the U.S. had plans to build the Superconducting Supercollider. Cline was among many other U.S. scientists who chose to work on a competing European based supercollider, CERN’s Large Hadron Collider . He continued working at CERN’s LHC and was a cofounder of the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment.

Electroweak vacuum stability landscape as estimated in 2012 Electroweak vacuum stability landscape as estimated in 2018 The stability criteria for the electroweak interaction was first formulated in 1979N. Cabibbo, L. Maiani, G. Parisi and R. Petronzio, Bounds on the Fermions and Higgs Boson Masses in Grand Unified Theories, 1979 as a function of the masses of the theoretical Higgs boson and the heaviest fermion. Discovery of the Top quark in 1995 and the Higgs boson in 2012 have allowed physicists to validate the criteria against experiment, therefore since 2012 Electroweak interaction is considered as the most promising candidate for metastable fundamental force. The corresponding false vacuum hypothesis is called either 'Electroweak vacuum instability' or 'Higgs vacuum instability'.

The Tevatron (background) and Main Injector rings On 1 March 2001, the Tevatron Proton- antiproton (p) collider at Fermilab near Chicago commenced its run 2. After run 1 (1992–1996), in which the collider had discovered the top quark, Tevatron had shut down for significant upgrades focused on improving the potential for finding the Higgs boson; the energies of the protons and antiprotons was bumped up to , and the number of collisions per second was increased by an order of magnitude (with further increases planned as the run continued). Even with the upgrades Tevatron was not guaranteed to find the Higgs. If the Higgs were too heavy (>), then the collisions would not have enough energy to produce a Higgs boson.

The UA2 detector shown in open position at the CERN Proton-Antiproton Collider in 1982The Underground Area 2 (UA2) experiment was a high-energy physics experiment at the Proton-Antiproton Collider (SpS) — a modification of the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) — at CERN. The experiment ran from 1981 until 1990, and its main objective was to discover the W and Z bosons. UA2, together with the UA1 experiment, succeeded in discovering these particles in 1983, leading to the 1984 Nobel Prize in Physics being awarded to Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer. The UA2 experiment also observed the first evidence for jet production in hadron collisions in 1981, and was involved in the searches of the top quark and of supersymmetric particles.

The Tevatron was a circular particle accelerator (active until 2011) in the United States, at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (also known as Fermilab), east of Batavia, Illinois, and is the second highest energy particle collider ever built, after the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) near Geneva, Switzerland. The Tevatron was a synchrotron that accelerated protons and antiprotons in a ring to energies of up to 1 TeV, hence its name. The Tevatron was completed in 1983 at a cost of $120 million and significant upgrade investments were made in 1983–2011. The main achievement of the Tevatron was the discovery in 1995 of the top quark—the last fundamental fermion predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics.

The Standard Model of particle physics is the theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces (the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, and not including the gravitational force) in the universe, as well as classifying all known elementary particles. It was developed in stages throughout the latter half of the 20th century, through the work of many scientists around the world, with the current formulation being finalized in the mid-1970s upon experimental confirmation of the existence of quarks. Since then, confirmation of the top quark (1995), the tau neutrino (2000), and the Higgs boson (2012) have added further credence to the Standard Model. In addition, the Standard Model has predicted various properties of weak neutral currents and the W and Z bosons with great accuracy.

The search continued at Fermilab in the United States, where the Tevatron the collider that discovered the top quark in 1995 had been upgraded for this purpose. There was no guarantee that the Tevatron would be able to find the Higgs, but it was the only supercollider that was operational since the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) was still under construction and the planned Superconducting Super Collider had been cancelled in 1993 and never completed. The Tevatron was only able to exclude further ranges for the Higgs mass, and was shut down on 30 September 2011 because it no longer could keep up with the LHC. The final analysis of the data excluded the possibility of a Higgs boson with a mass between and .

Hans Grassmann (Bamberg, 21 May 1960) is a German physicist, writer and entrepreneur, who teaches and works in Italy. Grassmann is the author of four books and more than 250 scientific publications, and is the founder and managing director of the research company Isomorph srl. His main contributions to physics include the development of a (Tl) calorimeter with a photodiode; developing the analysis of asymmetry in the production of the W particle; a contribution to the discovery of the top quark, the development of a physics theory of information; the design and development of a wind turbine with an external duct; and the realization of the linear mirror for the concentration of solar energy. Grassmann has worked in Italy since 1988.

John Ellis in his office at CERN in January 2012 In addition to his theoretical research, John Ellis has been an advocate and supporter of future accelerators, beginning with LEP and the LHC, and extending to Compact Linear Collider (CLIC), photon colliders, and future proton accelerators. Naturally his theoretical work reflected these connections, as when he showed that data from the Stanford Linear Collider (SLC) and from LEP could be used to predict the masses of the top quark and the Higgs boson. Such predictions are now a mainstream activity within particle physics, and constitute one of the most important bridges between the experimental and theoretical communities. Concerning the LHC, Ellis played a leading role in the seminal 1984 workshop on physics to be done with such an accelerator.

The observation and mass measurement of the particle opened a new field of "top quark physics". Kim received his Ph.D. degree in 1989, based on the successful measurement of solar neutrinos using the Kamiokande-II detector, which confirmed the existence of the solar neutrino problem."Real-time,directional measurement of B8 neutrinos in the Kamiokande-II detector", Physical Review D, 44, 2241-2260 (1991) He participated in the historical and first observation of neutrino burst from the Supernova 1987A"Observation of a Neutrino Burst from the Supernova SN1987A", Physical Review Letters, 58, 1490-1493 (1987) and jointly discovered the neutrino oscillations using the Super-Kamiokande detector in 1998."Evidence for oscillation of atmospheric neutrinos", Physical Review Letters, 81, 1562-1567 (1998) He then joined the effort of measuring neutrino oscillations using a neutrino beam produced by an accelerator.

The bottom quark's "bare" mass is around - a bit more than four times the mass of a proton, and many orders of magnitude larger than common "light" quarks. Although it almost-exclusively transitions from or to a top quark, the bottom quark can decay into either an up quark or charm quark via the weak interaction. CKM matrix elements Vub and Vcb specify the rates, where both these decays are suppressed, making lifetimes of most bottom particles (~10−12 s) somewhat higher than those of charmed particles (~10−13 s), but lower than those of strange particles (from ~10−10 to ~10−8 s). The combination of high mass and low transition-rate gives experimental collision byproducts containing a bottom quark a distinctive signature that makes them relatively easy to identify using a technique called "B-tagging".

Beyond this idealization of massless quarks, the actual small quark masses also break the chiral symmetry explicitly as well (providing non- vanishing pieces to the divergence of chiral currents, commonly referred to as PCAC: partially conserved axial currents). The masses of the pseudoscalar meson octet are specified by an expansion in the quark masses which goes by the name of chiral perturbation theory. The internal consistency of this argument is further checked by lattice QCD computations, which allow one to vary the quark mass and confirm that the variation of the pseudoscalar masses with the quark masses is as dictated by chiral perturbation theory, effectively as the square-root of the quark masses. For the three heavy quarks: the charm quark, bottom quark, and top quark, their masses, and hence the explicit breaking these amount to, are much larger than the QCD spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking scale.

After completing his Ph.D., Foster moved to the Fox Valley with his family to pursue a career in high-energy (particle) physics at Fermilab, a Department of Energy National Laboratory. During Foster's 22 years at Fermilab he participated in several projects, including the design of equipment and data analysis software for the CDF Detector, which were used in the discovery of the top quark, and the management of the design and construction of a 3 km Anti-Proton Recycler Ring for the Main Injector. He has been elected a fellow of the American Physical Society, was on the team receiving the 1989 Bruno Rossi Prize for cosmic ray physics for the discovery of the neutrino burst from the supernova SN 1987A, received the Particle Accelerator Technology Prize from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and was awarded an Energy Conservation award from the United States Department of Energy for his application of permanent magnets for Fermilab's accelerators.

M. Holder et al.: A detector for high-energy neutrino interactions Retrieved on 15 August 2018 One of the main objectives of the experiment was to determine the ratio between the neutral and the charged inclusive neutrino cross sections, from which the Weinberg angle could be inferred.CERN Document Server: W. D. Schlatter - Highlights from High Energy Neutrino Experiments at CERN Retrieved on 14 August 2018 Neutral currents had previously been discovered by the Gargamelle experiment, which had also provided first estimates of the Weinberg angle. The results were confirmed and measured with much higher precision by CDHS, allowing to predict the mass of the top quark, before it was discovered at the Tevatron, with approximately ±40 GeV precision.M. Holder et al.: Measurement of the neutral to charged current cross section ratio in neutrino and antineutrino interactions Retrieved on 15 August 2018 Other measurements regarding the electroweak interaction within the standard model included the measurement of more than one muon; i.e.