517 Sentences With "textual criticism" | Random Sentence Generator

In many ways, Christopher Tolkien's editorial projects resemble the textual criticism practices of medievalists.

Which is a lot to ask of a book and more to ask of a play, as textual criticism tends to offer limited catharsis and thrills.

Try to imagine this today: For almost a year, textual criticism was happening, and red-hot copies of The New York Review of Books flew off the newsstands.

Ehrman, who considers himself a historian but has done extensive work in textual criticism, has managed to achieve his remarkable renown by writing a string of best sellers that skillfully mine and simplify his more scholarly work.

Edmund Wilson once suggested that what made Housman so adept at textual criticism was his ability to think like a poet, not only like a scholar, and that his fetish for accuracy stemmed from a real passion for his texts.

He specialized in the dry-as-dust business of textual criticism, determining the correct version of a classical text by comparing different manuscripts and judging which variant was the most likely—whether in a certain line of Propertius it should be " et" or " aut ," and deciding where the commas belonged in Catullus.

Lower criticism (textual criticism) is concerned with determining the original wording of the text. In the words of Paul Maas: "The business of textual criticism is to produce a text as close as possible to the original (constitutio textus)"., page 1 The importance of textual criticism means that the term 'lower criticism' is no longer a term used much in twenty-first century studies.

Digital textual criticism is a relatively new branch of textual criticism working with digital tools to establish a critical edition. The development of digital editing tools has allowed editors to transcribe, archive and process documents much faster than before. Some scholars claim digital editing has radically changed the nature of textual criticism; but others believe the editing process has remained fundamentally the same, and digital tools have simply made aspects of it more efficient.

Codex Beratinus Φ (043): at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism Aland did not categorize Uncial 080.

Jacobs concludes: "there is nothing to deter the faithful Jew from accepting the principle of textual criticism".

She also spent a year studying Greek metrics and Greek textual criticism at the University of St Andrews.

1-5; ibid., "Fifty Years behind the Text: Post-Retirement Reflections on a Career in NT Textual Criticism" (paper presented at the 68th annual meeting of the ETS, San Antonio, Tex., 15 November 2016). Clark's influence on Robinson focused on a skepticismThe same skepticism is also apparent in Eldon J. Epp, with whom Robinson shared a meeting and lunch in Cleveland at the urging of Clark and whose following articles he found "strongly influential" (Robinson, "Fifty Years," 5): Eldon J. Epp, “The Twentieth Century Interlude in New Testament Textual Criticism,” Journal of Biblical Literature 93 (1974) 386–414; “The Eclectic Method in New Testament Textual Criticism: Solution or Symptom?” Harvard Theological Review 69 (1976) 211–57; “New Testament Textual Criticism in America: Requiem for a Discipline,” Journal of Biblical Literature 98 (1979) 94–98; and, “A Continuing Interlude in New Testament Textual Criticism?” Harvard Theological Review 73 (1980) 131–51.

Ranging from ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt to the twentieth century, textual criticism covers a period of about five millennia.

Evangelical Christians generally accept the findings of textual criticism,Bacote, VE., Miguélez, LC. and Okholm, DL., Evangelicals & Scripture: Tradition, Authority and Hermeneutics, InterVarsity Press, 2009. and nearly all modern translations, including the New Testament of the New International Version, are based on "the widely accepted principles of ... textual criticism".Today's new International Version: New Testament, Introduction. Since textual criticism suggests that the manuscript copies are not perfect, strict inerrancy is only applied to the original autographs (the manuscripts written by the original authors) rather than the copies.

Delnero, Paul. 2012. The Textual Criticism of Sumerian Literature. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. p.65. Unfortunately, it is unclear whether this house is the school texts' original place of use.Delnero, Paul. 2012. The Textual Criticism of Sumerian Literature. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. pp. 65-66. Another Old Babylonian home in which scribal training took place is the house of a man named Ur-Utu, located in the ancient city of Sippar-Amnanum.Delnero, Paul. 2012. The Textual Criticism of Sumerian Literature. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research. p.78.

Prince Wan won many academic honours and is regarded as one of the founding fathers of philological textual criticism in Thailand.

Edward Miller, the editor of the 4th edition, in 1886 estimated the 3rd edition: > The labour spent by Dr. Scrivener upon Textual Criticism is well known from > his admirable Introduction to the Science, a handbook which leaves hardly > anything, if anything, to be desired.Edward Miller, A Guide to the Textual > Criticism of the New Testament (1886), p. 31. Eberhard Nestle, editor of Novum Testamentum Graece, wrote in 1901: > Scrivener have rendered great service in the way of collating manuscripts, > (...) as well as Gregory in Germany has also catalogued them.Eberhard > Nestle, Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament, > (1901), p.

The two main processes of textual criticism are recension and emendation. Recension is the selection of the most trustworthy evidence on which to base a text. Emendation is the attempt to eliminate the errors which are found even in the best manuscripts. Jerome McGann says these methods innately introduce a subjective factor into textual criticism despite its attempt at objective rules.

Its empirical standards were applied in one of the first and certainly strongest homes for serious textual criticism. As the same text often existed in several different versions, comparative textual criticism was crucial for ensuring their veracity. Once ascertained, canonical copies would then be made for scholars, royalty, and wealthy bibliophiles the world over, this commerce bringing income to the library.

Pune: Deccan College. (1952a) (1962c: 125; 1963a: 279-281; 1974: 553-559; 1978a: 79, etc.). He studied English, which introduced him to textual criticism (p.

He also suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one. Keith Small, in Textual Criticism and Qur’ān Manuscripts, has concluded that it is not possible to develop a reliable critical text of the Quran based on the sources currently available.Small, Keith E. (2011). Textual Criticism and Qur’ān Manuscripts.

245-247 Knittel examined also other manuscripts (e.g. Minuscule 126, 429). Knittel defended a traditional point of view in theology and was against the modern textual criticism.

For some verses the Darby New Testament has detailed footnotes which make reference to his scholarly textual criticism comparisons. Critics of the Darby Bible include Charles Spurgeon.

Some scholars have recently called to abandon older approaches to textual criticism in favor of new computer-assisted methods for determining manuscript relationships in a more reliable way.

Lectio brevior potior (Latin for "the shorter reading is stronger") is one of the key principles in textual criticism, especially biblical textual criticism. The principle is based on the widely accepted view that scribes showed more tendency to embellish and harmonise by additions and inclusions than by deletions. Hence, when comparing two or more manuscripts of the same text, the shorter readings are considered more likely to be closer to the original.

Maurice Arthur Robinson (born October 13, 1947) is an American professor of New Testament and Greek (retired) and a proponent of the Byzantine-priority method of New Testament textual criticism.

"Textual Criticism for Luke-Acts." Perspectives in Religious Studies 5 (1978) 152–165. "The Domestic Code and Final Appeal: Ephesians 5:21—6:24." Review & Expositor 76 (1979) 541–552.

HarperSanFrancisco, 2005, pp. 87-89 In 2014 Eldon J. Epp raised the estimate as high as 750,000.Eldon J. Epp, "Why Does New Testament Textual Criticism Matter?," Expository Times 125 no.

The ideal of textual criticism was to establish the author's intention, which might well have been lost when the publisher edited the original manuscript or distorted when the printer set type.

Retrieved 15 August 2008Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism, Collected Papers at oxfordscholarship.com. Retrieved 14 August 2008 The distinction of Barrett's scholarship was recognised by a fellowship of the British Academy.

Interest in applying textual criticism to the Quran has also developed after the discovery of the Sana'a manuscripts in 1972, which possibly date back to the 7th–8th centuries. In the English language, the works of William Shakespeare have been a particularly fertile ground for textual criticism—both because the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation, and because the effort and expense of producing superior editions of his works have always been widely viewed as worthwhile.Jarvis 1995, pp. 1–17 The principles of textual criticism, although originally developed and refined for works of antiquity and the Bible, and, for Anglo-American Copy-Text editing, Shakespeare,Montgomery 1997 have been applied to many works, from (near-)contemporary texts to the earliest known written documents.

Anatoly Liberman wrote in a review of volume 7: "As far as the textual criticism and decipherment of skaldic poetry are concerned, after this edition not much is left for anyone to add".

Karl Lachmann. Karl Konrad Friedrich Wilhelm Lachmann (; 4 March 1793 – 13 March 1851) was a German philologist and critic. He is particularly noted for his foundational contributions to the field of textual criticism.

Dittography is the accidental, erroneous act of repeating a letter, word, phrase or combination of letters by a scribe or copyist.Paul D. Wegner, A student's guide to textual criticism of the Bible: its history, methods, and results, InterVarsity Press, 2006, p. 48. The term is used in the field of textual criticism. The opposite phenomenon, in which a copyist omits text by skipping from a word or phrase to a similar word or phrase further on, is known as haplography.

Journal of Theological Studies, NS, Vol 62, Pt. 1, pages 20–50.Wasserman, Tommy (2015). "Historical and Philological Correlations and the CBGMas Applied to Mark 1:1". TC: A Journal of Biblical Textual Criticism.

Marvin R. Vincent, A History of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament (The Macmillan Company: New York, 1899), p. 91. Codex Alexandrinus became a basis for criticizing the Textus Receptus (Wettstein, Woide, Griesbach).

Codex Coislinianus Hp (015) — at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism All these books, belonging to the Pauline epistles, have survived only in fragments. Romans, Philippians, Ephesians, 2 Thes, and Phil have been lost altogether.

Gaius Julius Victor (4th century) was a Roman writer of rhetoric, possibly of Gaulish origin. His extant manual is of some importance as facilitating the textual criticism of Quintilian, whom he closely follows in many places.

In 2008, Journals, Volume 1: 1832-1839 received the Special Award in Textual Criticism and Bibliography from the Association for Mormon Letters., and the Steven F. Christensen Best Documentary Award from the Mormon History Association in 2009.

Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, p. 44. The text was edited in 1911 by Grenfell and Hunt. Currently housed at the Cambridge University Library (Add. 5893) in Cambridge.

14th century AD), the poems of Catullus were copied by hand from other hand-written copies, a process that gradually led to a few errors in the received text. Scholars have applied methods of textual criticism to undo these errors and reconstruct Catullus' original text as much as possible. As an early example, Puteolano stated in the second edition (1473) that he made extensive "corrections" of the previous (1472) edition. In 1577, J. J. Scaliger published an emended version of Catullus' works, using the then novel genealogical method of textual criticism.

The ultimate objective of the textual critic's work is the production of a "critical edition" containing a text most closely approximating the original. There are three fundamental approaches to textual criticism: eclecticism, stemmatics, and copy-text editing. Techniques from the biological discipline of cladistics are currently also being used to determine the relationships between manuscripts. The phrase "lower criticism" is used to describe the contrast between textual criticism and "higher criticism", which is the endeavor to establish the authorship, date, and place of composition of the original text.

Philology also includes the study of texts and their history. It includes elements of textual criticism, trying to reconstruct an author's original text based on variant copies of manuscripts. This branch of research arose among Ancient scholars in the 4th century BC Greek-speaking world, who desired to establish a standard text of popular authors for the purposes of both sound interpretation and secure transmission. Since that time, the original principles of textual criticism have been improved and applied to other widely distributed texts such as the Bible.

Therefore, he required a collation from Vaticanus. Unfortunately, the text of the collation was irreconcilable with Codex Alexandrinus and he abandoned the project.William L. Petersen, What Text can New Yestament Textual Criticism Ultimately Reach, in: B. Aland & J. Delobel (eds.) New Testament Textual Criticism, Exegesis and Church History (Pharos: Kampen, 1994), p. 137. A further collation was made by Andrew Birch, who in 1798 in Copenhagen edited some textual variants of the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles,Andreas Birch, Variae Lectiones ad Textum Actorum Apostolorum, Epistolarum Catholicarum et Pauli (Copenhagen 1798).

Sana'a manuscripts of the Quran. Andrew Rippin has stated that the discovery of Sana'a manuscript is significant, and its variant readings suggest that the early Quranic text was less stable than previously claimed. Textual criticism of the Quran is a beginning area of study,Christian-Muslim relations: yesterday, today, tomorrow Munawar Ahmad Anees, Ziauddin Sardar, Syed Z. Abedin – 1991 For instance, a Christian critic engaging in textual criticism of the Quran from a biblical perspective will surely miss the essence of the quranic message. Just one example would clarify this point.

Marsh gave this opinion: : "The text of this edition is neither the common text nor a revision of it, but a mere copy from a single manuscript, and that not a very ancient one".Marsh, Lectures, part II, 1848, p. 148. It was not the Textus Receptus, and it was not an important edition for textual criticism, but Alter's comparison of Slavic and Greek texts did provide material for future textual criticism. Alter also edited Homer's Iliad (1789) and Odyssey (1794) and wrote an essay on Georgian literature (1798).

In 2009, it received the Steven F. Christensen Best Documentary Award (Mormon History Association) and a Special Award in Textual Criticism and Bibliography (Association for Mormon Letters). Ashurst-McGee is expected to edit future volumes of Smith's papers.

It has also some Psalms. The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Western text-type.David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 65. Aland did not place it in any Category.

Bauernfeind confirmed also Origenian links of the text of Epistle to the Romans in minuscule 1739.J. Neville Birdsall, Collected papers in Greek and Georgian textual criticism, Texts and Studies vol. 3, Gorgias Press LLC, 2006, p. 82.

Perilli’s main fields of research include Ancient Greek medicine (Temple medicine, Hippocrates, Galen, empiricism), the history of ideas, Ancient Greek philosophy and science, textual criticism and classical philology. He is also recognised as an expert in humanities computing.See e.g.

The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text-type.David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 64. The text contains rare readings. Kurt Aland did not place it in any Category.

The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text-type.David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 64. Kurt Aland did not place the Greek text of the codex in any Category.

Rudolf Hercher Rudolf Hercher (; 11 January 182126 March 1878) was a German classical philologist, who worked as a Grammar school teacher in Rudolstadt (1847–1859) and Berlin (1861–1878). He is especially known for his textual criticism of diverse Greek authors.

In textual criticism, Christian interpolation generally refers to textual insertion and textual damage to Jewish source texts during Christian scribal transmission, but may also refer to possible interpolation in secular Roman texts, such as the case of Tacitus on Christ.

An Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism, by J. Harold Greenlee. Review and Expositor 62 (Spring 1965) 230–231. The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption and Restoration, by Bruce M. Metzger. Review and Expositor 62 (Spring 1965) 230.

Hyperkino is a standardized system of referencing and annotating films on digital carriers - attaching related content and analysis to individual frames. The name of the method, Hyperkino, is based on the intertwining of the concepts of textual criticism and hypertext.

Diplomatics is one of the auxiliary sciences of history. It should not be confused with its sister- discipline of palaeography. In fact, its techniques have more in common with those of the literary disciplines of textual criticism and historical criticism.

Studies on Islam Merlin L. Swartz – 1981 One will find a more complete bibliographical review of the recent studies of the textual criticism of the Quran in the valuable article by Jeffery, "The Present Status of Qur'anic Studies," Report on Current Research on the Middle East as Muslims have historically disapproved of higher criticism being applied to the Quran.Religions of the world Lewis M. Hopfe – 1979 "Some Muslims have suggested and practiced textual criticism of the Quran in a manner similar to that practiced by Christians and Jews on their bibles. No one has yet suggested the higher criticism of the Quran." In some countries textual criticism can be seen as apostasy.Egypt's culture wars: politics and practice – Page 278 Samia Mehrez – 2008 Middle East report: Issues 218–222; Issues 224–225 Middle East Research & Information Project, JSTOR (Organization) – 2001 Shahine filed to divorce Abu Zayd from his wife, on the grounds that Abu Zayd's textual criticism of the Quran made him an apostate, and hence unfit to marry a Muslim. Abu Zayd and his wife eventually relocated to the Netherlands Muslims consider the original Arabic text to be the final revelation, revealed to Muhammad from AD 610 to his death in 632.

The British Library in London According to Bentley this manuscript is "the oldest and best in the world". Bentley assumed that by supplementing this manuscript with readings from other manuscripts and from the Latin Vulgate, he could triangulate back to the single recension which he presumed existed at the time of the First Council of Nicaea.William L. Petersen, What Text can New Yestament Textual Criticism Ultimately Reach, in: B. Aland & J. Delobel (eds.) New Testament Textual Criticism, Exegesis and Church History (Pharos: Kampen, 1994), p. 137.R. C. Jebb, Richard Bentley (New York 1882), p. 163.

Ehrman recounts his personal experiences with the study of the Bible and textual criticism. He summarizes the history of textual criticism, from the works of Desiderius Erasmus to the present. The book describes an early Christian environment in which the books that would later compose the New Testament were copied by hand, mostly by Christian amateurs. Ehrman concludes that various early scribes altered the New Testament texts in order to de-emphasize the role of women in the early church, to unify and harmonize the different portrayals of Jesus in the four gospels, and to oppose certain heresies (such as Adoptionism).

By the mid-15th century humanism described a curriculum – the studia humanitatis – consisting of grammar, rhetoric, moral philosophy, poetry, and history as studied via Latin and Greek literary authors. Humanism offered the necessary intellectual and philological tools for the first critical analysis of texts. An early triumph of textual criticism by Lorenzo Valla revealed the Donation of Constantine to be an early medieval forgery produced in the Curia. This textual criticism created sharper controversy when Erasmus followed Valla in criticizing the accuracy of the Vulgate translation of the New Testament, and promoting readings from the original Greek manuscripts of the New Testament.

Modern critical editions of the New Testament tend to conform most often to Alexandrian witnesses—especially Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus. The earliest Church Father to witness to a Byzantine text-type in substantial New Testament quotations is John Chrysostom (c. 349 – 407); although the fragmentary surviving works of Asterius the Sophist († 341) have also been considered to conform to the Byzantine text,Gordon D. Fee, "The Use of Greek Patristic Citations in New Testament Textual Criticism: The State of the Question," pp. 344–359 in Studies in the Theory and Method of New Testament Textual Criticism (ed.

As a scholar, Grigely's work covers a range of topics that include textual criticism; exhibition studies; and body criticism. As a textual critic, his most important work is Textualterity: Art, Theory, and Textual Criticism, which was published in 1995 by the University of Michigan Press. Textualterity examines artworks as dynamic objects and the ways they are made, unmade, and remade as they are disseminated in culture. The book challenges the long-held assumption of the ‘ideal’ text or ideal state, and replaces it with a consideration that what is ideal in textual studies is what is real.

He received his Ph.D. (in 1985) and M.Div. from Princeton Theological Seminary, where he studied textual criticism of the Bible, development of the New Testament canon and New Testament apocrypha under Bruce Metzger. Both baccalaureate and doctorate were conferred magna cum laude.

Kurt Aland et Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism, trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 119.

Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, p. 42. It was examined by Grenfell, Hunt, Wessely,Karl Wessely, Les plus anciens monuments du christianisme, PO 4/2 (1907), pp. 145–148. Schofield, Comfort, and Barrett.

Manuscripts were marked by symbols (from α to ις). He used Polyglotta Complutensis (symbolized by α) and 15 Greek manuscripts. Among them are included Codex Bezae, Codex Regius, minuscules 4, 5, 6, 2817, 8, 9. The first step towards modern textual criticism was made.

Minuscule 33 at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism The manuscript was examined by many scholars, such as Griesbach,J. J. Griesbach, Symbolae criticae ad supplendas et corrigendas variarum N. T. lectionum collectiones (Halle, 1793), pp. 87-148 who collated its text in Matthew 1-18.

Most later 18th-century editors of Shakespeare dismissed Pope's creatively motivated approach to textual criticism. Pope's preface continued to be highly rated. It was suggested that Shakespeare's texts were thoroughly contaminated by actors' interpolations and they would influence editors for most of the 18th century.

99–100; Kurt Aland – Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament. An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism, Translated by Erroll F. Rhodes. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987. Second edition, revised and enlarged, 1989, p.

For example, if a story was spread by oral tradition, and then later written down by different people in different locations, the versions can vary greatly. There are many approaches or methods to the practice of textual criticism, notably eclecticism, stemmatics, and copy-text editing. Quantitative techniques are also used to determine the relationships between witnesses to a text, with methods from evolutionary biology (phylogenetics) appearing to be effective on a range of traditions. In some domains, such as religious and classical text editing, the phrase "lower criticism" refers to textual criticism and "higher criticism" to the endeavor to establish the authorship, date, and place of composition of the original text.

Both of these other works were also written in Latin.Sharpe Handlist of Latin Writers p. 754 The Alda was modeled closely on the style of Matthew of Vendôme, so much so that it is difficult to distinguish the Alda from Matthew's own works.Sedgwick "Textual Criticism" Speculum p.

Philip W. Comfort, Encountering the Manuscripts. An Introduction to New Testament Paleography & Textual Criticism, Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005, p. 69. The nomina sacra are contracted (ΙΛΗΜ, ΠΝΑ, ΑΝΟΣ, ΑΝΟΝ, ΘΣ, ΘΥ, ΚΥ).Carl H. Kraeling, Two Selections from Acts, in: Lake F/S, p. 169.

Besides the obvious differences between the two religious, there are also many similarities in their outlooks and attitudes to faith (especially with Sunni Islam), especially in respect to textual criticism, iconoclasm, tendencies to fundamentalism, rejection of marriage as a sacrament, or the rejection of monastic orders.

The methods of kaozheng were imported into Edo-era Japan as kōshō or kōshōgaku.Josephson, 109-110. This approach combined textual criticism and empiricism in an effort to find ancient, "original" meanings of texts. The earliest use of kaozheng methods in Edo Japan was Keichū's critical edition of the Man'yōshū.

It has a number of non-Byzantine readings, they are Alexandrian.Minuscule 1424 At the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism Some of these manuscripts are not classified to the Byzantine text-type. Aland stated, that "the whole of Family 1424 deserves a more thorough textual study than it has yet received".

The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Western text-type in Acts of the Apostles.David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 65. In rest of books it represents the Alexandrian text-type. Kurt Aland did not place it in any Category.

David Charles Parker OBE (b.1953) was the Edward Cadbury Professor of Theology (2005-2017) and the Director of the Institute for Textual Scholarship and Electronic Editing at the Department of Theology and Religion, University of Birmingham. His interests include New Testament textual criticism and Greek and Latin palaeography.

This process is called textual criticism. Textual criticism of the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) centers on the comparison of the manuscript versions of the Masoretic text to early witnesses such as the Septuagint, the Vulgate, the Samaritan Pentateuch, various Syriac texts, and the biblical texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The New Testament has been preserved in more manuscripts than any other ancient work, creating a challenge in handling so many different texts when performing these comparisons. The King James Version (or Authorized Version) was based on the Textus Receptus, an eclectic Greek text prepared by Erasmus based primarily on Byzantine text Greek manuscripts, which make up the majority of existing copies of the New Testament.

Willem Canter (1542-1575) was a classical scholar from Utrecht. He edited the Eclogues of Stobaeus and the tragedies of Euripides, Sophocles and Aeschylus. Canter studied under Jean Daurat in Paris before becoming an independent scholar in Louvain. His Ratio emendandi (Basle, 1566) was a guide to editing and textual criticism.

Beatus Rhenanus Beatus Rhenanus (22 August 148520 July 1547), born as Beatus Bild, was a German humanist, religious reformer, classical scholar,The modern monograph is John F. D'Amico, Theory and Practice in Renaissance Textual Criticism. Beatus Rhenanus Between Conjecture and History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. and book collector.

The manuscript is dated by the INTF to the 9th-century. The manuscript came from the Dionysiou monastery at Athos to Moscow in 1655.Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, pp. 107-108. It was examined by Scholz and collated by Matthaei.

Hélène Vachon (born 1947) is a Canadian writer living in Quebec. She was born in Quebec City, and studied modern French literature at the Université de Paris X and textual criticism at Laval University. She then worked for the Quebec Ministry of Culture and Communications. Vachon lives on the Île d'Orléans.

Since there are more textual variants in the New Testament (200–400 thousand) than it has letters (c. 140 thousand),Bart D. Ehrman: Misquoting Jesus – The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, p. 90 (review). scholars use textual criticism to determine which gospel variants could theoretically be taken as 'original'.

59 He writes that "according to some rabbis, [the Pentateuch] was given to Moses at intervals during the sojourn in the Wilderness". But he also comments that given the arguments of textual criticism "no work of Jewish apologetics, however limited in scope, can afford to fight shy of the problem".Jacobs (1965), p.

The provenance and early history of the codex is uncertain; Rome (Hort), southern Italy, Alexandria (Kenyon,Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, p. 88. BurkittF. C. Burkitt, "Texts and Studies", p. VIII-IX.), and Caesarea (T. C. Skeat) have been suggested as the origin.

A later contribution by Gerardus Vossius Ars Historica was a genre of humanist historiography in the later Renaissance. It produced a small library of treatises underscoring the stylistic aspects of writing history as a work of art, but also introducing the contributions of philology and textual criticism in its precepts and evaluations.

Laxdæla saga is preserved in numerous manuscripts. The oldest manuscript to contain the saga in its entirety is Möðruvallabók dating to the mid-14th century. There are also five vellum fragments, the oldest dating to ca. 1250, and numerous young paper manuscripts, some of which are valuable for textual criticism of the saga.

This was published as the 説文解字繫傳 Shuowen Jiezi xichuan. Xu Xuan's textual criticism has been especially vital for all subsequent scholarship, since his restoration of the damage done by Lǐ Yángbīng resulted in the closest version we have to the original, and the basis for all later editions. Xu Kai, in turn, focused on exegetical study, analyzing the meaning of Xu Shen's text, appending supplemental characters, and adding fǎnqiè pronunciation glosses for each entry. Among Qing Shuowen scholars, some like Zhū Jùnshēng (朱駿聲, 1788–1858), followed the textual criticism model of Xu Xuan, while others like Guì Fù (桂馥, 1736–1805) and Wáng Yún (王筠, 1784–1834) followed the analytical exegesis model of Xu Kai.

It can be calculated that the original codex contained 462 leaves.Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, pp. 110. Before each Gospel, the tables of κεφάλαια (tables of contents) were placed. The text is divided according to the κεφάλαια (chapters), whose numbers are given at the margin.

Mnemosyne is an academic journal of classical studies published by Brill Publishers. It was established in 1852 as a journal of textual criticism. It publishes articles mainly in English, but also in French, German, and Latin. The journal is abstracted and indexed in the Arts and Humanities Citation Index, Current Contents, and MLA International Bibliography.

Where the editor concludes that the text is corrupt, it is corrected by a process called "emendation", or emendatio (also sometimes called divinatio). Emendations not supported by any known source are sometimes called conjectural emendations.McCarter 1986, p. 62 The process of selectio resembles eclectic textual criticism, but applied to a restricted set of hypothetical hyparchetypes.

Much of the research is in Hebrew and German language periodicals.The treatise Ta'anit of the Babylonian Talmud: Henry Malter – 1978 It goes without saying that the writings of modern authors dealing with textual criticism of the Talmud, many of which are scattered in Hebrew and German periodicals, are likewise to be utilized for the purpose.

Tov, Emanuel. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis: Fortress Press: 1992. In accordance to Tov, professor of Theology at the University of Notre Dame, Eugene Ulrich writes that a number of scribal errors occurred by the hand of a Masorete ancestor(s) that were never corrected in the later traditions of the Masoretic Text.

The Greek text of the codex Aland did not place in any Category.Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", transl. Erroll F. Rhodes, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 133, 139.

Harold D. Roth is a professor of religious studies and the Director of the Contemplative Studies Initiative at Brown University. Roth is a specialist in Methods of Textual Criticism and Textual History, Classical Chinese Religious Thought, Classical Daoism, the Comparative Study of Mysticism and one of the pioneers of the new interdisciplinary academic field of Contemplative Studies.

Aland the Greek text of the codex did not place it in any Category. According to Black it represents the Alexandrian text-type.David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 64. According to the Claremont Profile Method in Luke 1; 10; 20 it is close to Codex Tischendorfianus III and related to 1443.

In his unending quest for knowledge, he enrolled for the doctoral programme in Arabic language and literature at the University of Ibadan in 1981 with speciality in Arabic Literary History and Textual Criticism of the Early Islamic and Umayyad Poetry. He concluded his doctoral programme in July 1984 –few months after the demise of his father, Malam Idrees-Oboh.

Being the cultural climax of all that has been done in the Middle Ages, the humanist wave of erudition superbly retrieved the Latin, Greek and Christian classical literature, with its proper techniques, methods, forms and tastes.Cf. ibid.: 33-46. It developed sciences, such as philology, palaeography, epigraphy, archaeology, numismatics, textual criticism and literary criticism, geography and history.

The movement known as New Philology has rejected textual criticism because it injects editorial interpretations into the text and destroys the integrity of the individual manuscript, hence damaging the reliability of the data. Supporters of New Philology insist on a strict "diplomatic" approach: a faithful rendering of the text exactly as found in the manuscript, without emendations.

According to critical scholarship, the entire Priestly Code is a later addition, within the Priestly Source, to the earlier Holiness Code. However, textual criticism indicates it as having several different authors, some of whom appear, according to textual critics, not only to have added laws, but to have added modifications onto earlier ones within the Code.

The Greek text of this codex is mostly Byzantine with some Alexandrian readings.Encyclopedia of New Testament Textual Criticism Aland placed it in Category III. In Ephesians 4:16 it reads συνβιβαζομενον for συμβιβαζομενον; the reading is supported by Papyrus 46, Papyrus 99, Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, Ephraemi Rescriptus, Bezae, Augiensis, Boernerianus.Klaus Wachtel, Klaus Witte, Das Neue Testament auf Papyrus: Gal.

In 1845 he became director of the gymnasium in Weimar, and in 1856 was appointed professor of ancient languages at the University of Göttingen. At Göttingen he was responsible for establishment of the Pedagogical Seminary. Sauppe died in Göttingen. Sauppe specialized in the field of epigraphy, and was also known for his work involving textual criticism.

During an academic career spanning over three decades, Roth has done ground- breaking work in three major intellectual fields. In the first, textual criticism, following the lead of the late SOAS professor Paul Thompson, Roth did the first complete textual history of a major Classical Chinese philosophical work, which he published in his first book, The Textual History of the Huai-nan Tzu. Working towards the goal of establishing modern critical editions of all the major extant works of the classical period, Roth developed a distinctive method he called "Filiation Analysis", a technique for determining the broadest range of possibly authentic textual variants using the bare minimum number of editions. This is detailed in his very first publication, "Filiation Analysis and the Textual Criticism of the Huai-nan Tzu".

The Parallel Aligned Text of the Greek and Hebrew Bible (division of the CATSS database, directed by R. A. Kraft and E. Tov), module in the Accordance computer program, 2002 (with updates 2003–). 3a. The Parallel Aligned Text of the Greek and Hebrew Bible (division of the CATSS database, directed by R. A. Kraft and E. Tov), module in the Logos computer program, 2004 (with updates, 2005–). 3b. With F. H. Polak: The Parallel Aligned Text of the Greek and Hebrew Bible (division of the CATSS database, directed by R. A. Kraft and E. Tov), module in the Bible Works computer program, version 7, 2005 (with updates, 2006–). 4\. “Electronic Resources Relevant to the Textual Criticism of Hebrew Scripture,” TC: A Journal of Biblical Textual Criticism 8 (2003) 5\.

Textual criticism has been practiced for over two thousand years, as one of the philological arts. Early textual critics, especially the librarians of Hellenistic Alexandria in the last two centuries BC, were concerned with preserving the works of antiquity, and this continued through the Middle Ages into the early modern period and the invention of the printing press. Textual criticism was an important aspect of the work of many Renaissance humanists, such as Desiderius Erasmus, who edited the Greek New Testament, creating the Textus Receptus. In Italy, scholars such as Petrarch and Poggio Bracciolini collected and edited many Latin manuscripts, while a new spirit of critical enquiry was boosted by the attention to textual states, for example in the work of Lorenzo Valla on the purported Donation of Constantine.

The manuscript was written by a scribe named Ioannes Tzoutzounas and was held in Asia Minor.Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, p. 134. It was purchased by John Covel, chaplain of the Levant Company at Constantinople 1670-1676. It was examined by Mill, Griesbach, Bloomfield, Henri Omont, and F. H. A. Scrivener.

According to some scholars, it is only a hypothetical text-type (Aland).Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", transl. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 336. There are no pure Caesarean manuscripts.

Textual criticism examines the text itself and all associated manuscripts to determine the original text. It is one of the largest areas of Biblical criticism in terms of the sheer amount of information it addresses. The roughly 900 manuscripts found at Qumran include the oldest extant manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible. They represent every book except Esther, though most are fragmentary.

Latin manuscripts of the New Testament are handwritten copies of translations from the Greek originals. Translations of the New Testament are called versions. They are important in textual criticism, because sometimes versions provide evidence (called a witness) to an earlier reading of the Greek, i.e. to the text that may have been lost (or preserved only very poorly) in the subsequent Greek tradition.

The authorship usually is attributed to one Euthalius. He was identified as Bishop of Sulci in Sardinia, but according to Tregelles he was a Bishop of Sulca in Egypt.S. P. Tregelles, An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London 1856, p. 26 According to Wake and L. A. Zacagni Euthalius was a Bishop of Sulce, near Syene.

Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why (published as Whose Word Is It? in United Kingdom) is a book by Bart D. Ehrman, a New Testament scholar at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.Interview with Bart Ehrman, Publishers Weekly, January 25, 2006. The book introduces lay readers to the field of textual criticism of the Bible.

His particular fields of research are Greek and Latin literature, text tradition, textual criticism and history of classical scholarship. He has also discovered several manuscripts of Greek and Latin authors: for instance an anonymous Greek translation of the Disticha Catonis in the Cod. Monacensis Gr. 551Una traduzione greca inedita dei Disticha Catonis, in Sileno. Rivista di sudi classici e cristiani, 16, 1990, pp.

Here he would discuss with scholars such as J.A. Smith, Harold Joachim, and W.D. (later Sir David) Ross the minutiae of Aristotelian philology, textual criticism, and translation. The Society's discussions led to the full translation of Aristotle's works, first under the joint editorship of J.A. Smith and W.D. Ross and later under Ross as sole editor, between 1912 and 1954.

David Alan Black (born 9 June 1952, Honolulu, Hawaii) is Professor of New Testament and Greek and the Dr. M. O. Owens Jr. Chair of New Testament Studies at the Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. He specialises in New Testament Greek grammar (Koine Greek), the application of linguistics to the study of the Greek New Testament, and New Testament textual criticism.

The term haplography is commonly used in the field of textual criticism to refer to the phenomenon of a scribe's, copyist's or translator's inadvertently skipping from one word or phrase to a similar word or phrase further on in the text, and omitting everything in between.This usage can be seen at It is considered to be a form of parablepsis.

These are called interpolations. In modern translations of the Bible, the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses, words and phrases being left out or marked as not original. For example, there are a number of Bible verses in the New Testament that are present in the King James Version (KJV) but are absent from most modern Bible translations.

The Greek text of the codex according to Aland is a representative of the Byzantine text-type, but according to David Alan Black of the Alexandrian text-type.David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 64. Aland placed it in Category V. It was not examined by using the Claremont Profile Method. Possibly it is a mixture of text types.

In Matthew 1:16 it has the same textual reading as Codex Koridethi, the Curetonian Syriac, and rest of the manuscripts of the Ferrar Family.Frederic G. Kenyon, Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London2, 1912, p. 132. In John 12:5 it reads διακοσιων for τριακοσιων along with other manuscripts of the family 13 and 1424;UBS3, p. 290.

Smits was born at Kevelaer in the Duchy of Guelders. He entered the Order of Friars Minor at the age of eighteen. As a religious he applied himself to the study of Biblical languages and Sacred Scripture and was appointed lector. From 1732 to 1744, he published, at Antwerp, several Biblical theses dealing with questions of textual criticism and chronology.

Hermann von Soden classified its to the Ia, which would make it "Western" or "Caesarean".Minuscule 372 at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism Kurt Aland the Greek text of the codex did not place in any Category. According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents mixed text in Luke 1, Luke 10, and Luke 20. Wisse stated that its text is very strange.

The first formulations of the doctrine of inerrancy had not been established according to the authority of a council, creed, or church, until the post-Reformation period.Hendel, Ronald. "The Dream of a Perfect Text: Textual Criticism and Biblical Inerrancy in Early Modern Europe," in e.d. Collins, J.J., Sibyls, Scriptures, and Scrolls: John Collins at Seventy, Brill, 2017, 517-541, esp. 524-531.

The textual variation among manuscript copies of books in the New Testament prompted attempts to discern the earliest form of text already in antiquity (e.g., by the 3rd- century Christian author Origen). The efforts began in earnest again during the Renaissance, which saw a revival of the study of ancient Greek texts. During this period, modern textual criticism was born.

The Greek text of the codex is a mixture of text-types. In Book of Acts it is a representative of the Western text-type.David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 65. Kurt Aland did not place it in any Category. According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents the textual family Kx in Luke 1 and Luke 20.

The text of the Codex Vaticanus stays in closest affinity to the Neutral Text. After discovering the manuscripts and the Neutral text and Alexandrian text were unified.Gordon D. Fee, P75, P66, and Origen: THe Myth of Early Textual Recension in Alexandria, in: E. J. Epp & G. D. Fee, Studies in the Theory & Method of NT Textual Criticism, Wm. Eerdmans (1993), pp. 247-273.

The family derives from an archetype of about the 5th or 6th century and was the product of scholarly activity, probably in the library of Caesarea.J. Neville Birdsall, Collected papers in Greek and Georgian textual criticism, Texts and Studies vol. 3, Gorgias Press LLC, 2006, p. 81. According to G. Zuntz, the Pauline epistles of the family 1739 represent the Caesarean text-type.

Elton Jay Epp, Coptic Manuscript G67 and the Role of Codex Bezae as a Western Witness in Acts, in: Perspectives on New Testament Textual Criticism (Leiden 2005), p. 27 The manuscript is also important as a witness of the Coptic language, because it is one of few manuscripts that are written in the dialect of Coptic used in Middle Egypt.

Ramkrishna Bhattacharya is an academic author and exponent of an ancient school of Indian materialism called Carvaka/Lokayata. He has authored 27 books and more than 175 research papers on Indian and European literature, textual criticism (Bangla and Sanskrit), the history of science in India, the history of modern India, and philosophy - particularly on the Carvaka/Lokayata system, materialism and rationalism.

In textual criticism, eclecticism is the practice of examining a wide number of text witnesses and selecting the variant that seems best. The result of the process is a text with readings drawn from many witnesses. In a purely eclectic approach, no single witness is theoretically favored. Instead, the critic forms opinions about individual witnesses, relying on both external and internal evidence.

Afterwards he worked in the area of orientalism and wrote, among other things, a Syriac grammar. During his later years, his focus changed to textual criticism of the New Testament. Between 1898 and 1912 he worked as professor at the Evangelical Seminaries of Maulbronn and Blaubeuren. In 1880, he married Klara Kommerell (1852–87) in Tübingen; they had one son, Erwin Nestle.

Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia is a learned society founded in 1947 at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville to promote interest in books and manuscripts, maps, printing, the graphic arts, and bibliography and textual criticism. The society sponsors exhibitions, contests for student book collectors and Virginia printers, an international speakers’ series, and an active publications program which has produced over 175 separate publications in addition to its journal Studies in Bibliography.Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia, "History" The society was led for many years by Fredson Bowers, a University of Virginia faculty member, and was influential in applying and spreading the theories of textual criticism developed by Bowers and W. W. Greg which brought about changes in the study of manuscripts and the printing of books to ascertain the original intentions of authors.

When an Inland Revenue tax inspector once challenged his tax return, questioning whether a computer was an allowable expense for a classicist, Barrett was able to show that for an understanding of the text of Pindar it was essential to know how Mount Etna had appeared to a sailor passing the mountain in a ship. His other principal research interest was the Greek lyric, and he made outstanding contributions on the poets Stesichorus, Bacchylides and Simonides of Ceos. A collection of his work on Stesichorus, Pindar, Bacchylides and Euripides was edited by M. L. West of All Souls and published in 2007 under the title Greek Lyric, Tragedy, and Textual Criticism: Collected Papers.Table of contents for Greek lyric, tragedy, and textual criticism : collected papers / W. S. Barrett ; assembled and edited by M. L. West at catdir.loc.gov.

Kirsopp Lake found that this manuscript shares traits with Family Π.K. Lake, Family Π and the Codex Alexandrinus. The Text According to Mark (London 1936), p. 57. According to Metzger this manuscript "deserves to be studied more thoroughly than has hithero been the case".Bruce M. Metzger, Chapters in the History of New Testament Textual Criticism, Wm. B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids 1963, p. 38.

After completing his studies, Martini quickly pursued a successful academic career. In 1962, he was given the Chair of Textual Criticism at the Pontifical Biblical Institute. In 1969 he was appointed rector of the Pontifical Biblical Institute.Shaw, Russell. "What Cardinal Martini Said, and What He Didn’t Say", The Catholic World Report, 20 September 2012 Throughout these years, he edited a number of scholarly works.

" The divisions of poems gradually approached something very close to the modern divisions, especially with the 1577 edition of Joseph J. Scaliger, Catulli Properti Tibulli nova editio (Paris). :"Sixteenth-century Paris was an especially lively center of Catullan scholarship," one Catullus scholar has written. Scaliger's edition took a "novel approach to textual criticism. Scaliger argued that all Catullus manuscripts descended from a single, lost archetype.

A crux is a textual passage that is corrupted to the point that it is difficult or impossible to interpret and resolve. Cruxes are studied in palaeography, textual criticism, bibliography, and literary scholarship. A crux is more serious or extensive than a simple slip of the pen or typographical error. The word comes from Latin crux, Latin for "cross", used metaphorically as a difficulty that torments one.

Eberhard Nestle, writing in Germany at the end of 19th century, said, "The fact that it [the Comma Johanneum] is still defended even from the Protestant side is interesting only from a pathological point of view."Eberhard Nestle, Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament (transl. by William Edie from the 2nd ed. [1899, Gottingen, page 260]) (1901, London) page 327.

Juxta is an open- source tool for performing bibliographical collations for scholarly use in textual criticism. It was developed by ARP at the University of Virginia under the direction of textual theorist Jerome McGann. The original application was a Java-based client available for free download. In October 2012, the Research and Development team at NINES released Juxta Commons, a fully online version of the software.

Tov, E. 2001. Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible (2nd ed.) Assen/Maastricht: Van Gocum; Philadelphia: Fortress Press. As cited in Flint, Peter W. 2002. The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls as presented in Bible and computer: the Stellenbosch AIBI-6 Conference: proceedings of the Association internationale Bible et informatique, "From alpha to byte", University of Stellenbosch, 17–21 July, 2000 Association internationale Bible et informatique.

The codex contains a small parts of the Gospel of Mark 11:11-17, on one parchment leaf (13 cm by 11 cm). It is written in two columns per page, 21 lines per page, in uncial letters. The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Caesarean text-type,David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism. A Concise Guide, Grand Rapids 2006, p. 65.

There he bucked the prevailing classical methods of the day--textual criticism and grammar--presenting classics, even in translation, as worthy of study as literary works in their own right. He embraced television as a tool for education, becoming a telelecturer and a pundit on broadcast television. He also recorded classical works on phonograph and tape. His daughter Rachel Hadas is a poet, teacher, essayist, and translator.

Spellings occasionally change. Synonyms may be substituted. A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun (such as "he said" becoming "Jesus said"). John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatusAdam Fox, John Mill and Richard Bentley: A Study of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament 1675–1729 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954), pp.

W. W. Greg noted, "That if a scribe makes a mistake he will inevitably produce nonsense is the tacit and wholly unwarranted assumption."Greg 1950, p. 20 Franz Anton Knittel defended the traditional point of view in theology and was against the modern textual criticism. He defended an authenticity of the Pericopa Adulterae (John 7:53–8:11), Comma Johanneum (1 John 5:7), and Testimonium Flavianum.

The goal of the Wartburg Project is to create a balanced, accurate translation, as described in their translation rubrics. The translators are using a variety of ancient manuscripts to ensure accuracy. Rather than selecting one side of the common textual criticism debates, they have elected to use a combination of the texts. Where they disagree, they favor more complete passages, or the older tradition.

In what ways do different sections derive from different schools of thought within early Judaism? Can these early sources be identified, and if so, how? Investigation of questions such as these are known as higher textual criticism. (The term "criticism" is a technical term denoting academic study.) Religious scholars still debate the precise method by which the text of the Talmuds reached their final form.

The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. Aland placed it in Category V. Textually it is close to Codex Mosquensis I.Codex Mosquensis I Kap (018): at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism C. R. Gregory dated it to the 12th century. Currently it is dated by the INTF to the 9th century. Formerly it was classified as minuscule 414p.

Textology is mainly about organization, emendation, exegesis and collection of ancient works. Zhang Chao kept close contact with famous textual criticism scholars, such as Zhang Erqi () and Yan Ruoqu (), so he knew a lot about textology and showed extraordinary skills on it. He paid much attention to textual research. He not only had the abundant theory about textology, but also laid emphasis on books and material objects.

In textual criticism, particularly Biblical scholarship, the count noun recension is a family of manuscripts sharing similar traits;"Synoptic Gospels Primer: Recension" for example, the Alexandrian text-type may be referred to as the "Alexandrian recension". The term recension may also refer to the process of collecting and analyzing source texts in order to establish a tree structure leading backward to a hypothetical original text.

The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Byzantine text- type. Aland placed it in Category V.Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 138. It was not examined by Claremont Profile Method.

The codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. Aland placed it in Category V.Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism, trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 133. It belongs to the textual family K1, the oldest form of the Byzantine text.

The capitals at the beginning of the sections stand out in the margin as in codices Ephraemi and Basilensis. Codex Alexandrinus is the oldest manuscript to use capital letters to indicate new sections.Eberhard Nestle and William Edie, "Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament", London, Edinburgh, Oxford, New York, 1901, p. 59. The interchange of vowels of similar sounds is very frequent in this manuscript.

Mustanoja was born in Tampere, Finland, in 1912. He studied modern and classical languages and modern literature at the University of Helsinki. He graduated in 1938 and then studied at the University of Cambridge in 1938–1939, taking post-graduate courses in medieval literature and textual criticism. Shortly after his return to Finland, Mustanoja's career as a teacher, academic and writer was interrupted by the Second World War.

He published a translation of the Nibelungenlied, with the title ‘The Fall of the Nebelungers; otherwise the book of Kriemhild’, in 1850. He edited from the author's manuscripts William Sidney Walker's ‘Shakespeare's Versification’ (1854) and his ‘Critical Examination of the Text of Shakespeare’ (1860). His friend Alexander Dyce was assisted by Lettsom in his preparation of his edition of Shakespeare. Lettsom also interested himself in textual criticism of the New Testament.

The divisions of the New Testament textual families were Alexandrian (also called the "Neutral text"), Western (Latin translations), and Eastern (used by Antioch and Constantinople). Forerunners of modern textual criticism can be found in both early Rabbinic Judaism and the early church. Rabbis addressed variants in the Hebrew texts as early as AD 100. Tradition played a central role in their task of producing a standard version of the Hebrew Bible.

David Charles Parker, while lauding the 1881 Westcott and Hort "purified text", writes of "the ridiculous business of the Johannine Comma" Textual Criticism and Theology, 2009, p. 324. Parker writes of "the presence in a few manuscripts, most of them Latin". The actual number is many thousands of manuscripts. Daniel Wallace comments that the verse "infected the history of the English Bible in a huge way", referring to a "rabid path".

Helmut Koester, "Häretiker im Urchristentum" RGG, 3rd ed. III pp 17–21, gives a bibliography of works influenced by Bauer. Bart Ehrman has written widely on issues of New Testament and early Christianity at both an academic and popular level, with over twenty books including three New York Times bestsellers (Misquoting Jesus, God's Problem, and Jesus, Interrupted). Much of his work is on textual criticism and the New Testament.

Wilamowitz is one of the central figures of 19th and 20th century Classical philology. As a great authority of the literature and history of Ancient Greece, Wilamowitz took a stance against traditional methodology and textual criticism. As a representative of Postclassicism, he concentrated less on literary history but rather aimed to extract biographical information on the respective authors from the preserved texts. Thus, he employed historical perspectives to serve philology.

Since 1805 it has been held in the Imperial Public Library in Petersburg. The manuscript was examined and briefly described by Eduard de Muralt (along with the codices 565-566, 568, 570-572, 574, 575, and 1567), but he did not collate any of its readings. In 1966 Kurt Treu examined the manuscript more thoroughly for the needs of textual criticism. The manuscript is in the National Library of Russia (Gr.

Paolo Canettieri (born 1965, Viterbo) is a romance philologist, researcher in cognitive science, and author, working in Italy. He is a professor at the University of Rome and researcher in the Department of European, American and Intercultural Studies. He is one of the founders of Cognitive philology and Editor in chief of the Journal with the same name. Canettieri's research interests include cognitive poetics and textual criticism (ecdotics).

White graduated with a BA from Grand Canyon University (formerly known as Grand Canyon College) and an MA from Fuller Theological Seminary. He earned ThM, ThD and DMin degrees from Columbia Evangelical Seminary (formerly Faraston Theological Seminary), an unaccredited online school. In March 2017, White announced that he is working on an accredited PhD at North-West University in Potchefstroom, South Africa in the field of textual criticism.

This collation was imperfect and revised in 1862.Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, p. 78. Another collation was made in 1720 for Bentley by Mico, revised by Rulotta, although not published until 1799. Bentley was stirred by Mill's claim of 30,000 variants in the New Testament and he wanted to reconstruct the text of the New Testament in its early form.

All texts are subject to investigation and systematic criticism where the original verified first document is not available. Believers in sacred texts and scriptures sometimes are reluctant to accept any form of challenge to what they believe to be divine revelation. Some opponents and polemicists may look for any way to find fault with a particular religious text. Legitimate textual criticism may be resisted by both believers and skeptics.

Caspar René Gregory did not try to estimate its date.Frederic G. Kenyon, Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London2, 1912, p. 120. Friedrich Rösch suggested the 5th or 6th century, according to him the earlier date of the codex is excluded by presence 1 Epistle of Clement.Friedrich Rösch, Bruchstücke des ersten Clemensbriefes nach dem achmimischen Papyrus der Strassburger Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek (Strasbourg, 1910), p. XXVII.

If a scholar has several versions of a manuscript but no known original, then established methods of textual criticism can be used to seek to reconstruct the original text as closely as possible. The same methods can be used to reconstruct intermediate versions, or recensions, of a document's transcription history, depending on the number and quality of the text available.Vincent. A History of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament "... that process which it sought to determine the original text of a document or a collection of documents, and to exhibit, freed from all the errors, corruptions, and variations which may have been accumulated in the course of its transcription by successive copying." On the other hand, the one original text that a scholar theorizes to exist is referred to as the urtext (in the context of Biblical studies), archetype or autograph; however, there is not necessarily a single original text for every group of texts.

The bible scholar Emanuel Tov has criticised BHS somewhat for having errors, and for correcting errors in later editions without informing the reader.He states: "The edition of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (BHS) originally appeared in fascicles which were corrected in the final printing, which carried the date 1967-1977. It was corrected again in the 1984 printing, yet even this printing contains mistakes". Textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible, Emanuel Tov, page 3.

In the 21st century, historical criticism is the more commonly used term for higher criticism, and textual criticism is more common than the loose expression "lower criticism". Historical criticism began in the 17th century and gained popular recognition in the 19th and 20th centuries. The perspective of the early historical critic was rooted in Protestant Reformation ideology since its approach to biblical studies was free from the influence of traditional interpretation.Gerhard Ebeling.

As a Chair of the People's Commissariat, Kasym not only organized numerous ethnographic research expeditions within Kyrgyzstan, but coordinated and took part in joint expeditions from other Soviet Republics. His many publications were based on the analysis of the findings of such expeditions. Based on such analysis he introduced such fundamental trends in Kyrgyz linguistics as Textual Criticism (Textology) and Dialectology. As a result of his dialectological research he created an orthographic system.

He also gave a big collection of biblical citations in the writings of Chrysostom.Edward Miller, A Guide to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament (The Dean Burgon Society Press: 2003), p. 17. He issued at Riga in 12 parts, between 1782 and 1788, an edition of the Greek text with the Latin Vulgate. His printed text is of little value because it is based on manuscripts of recent date, but his apparatus is valuable.

The edition of Westcott and Hort began a new epoch in the history of textual criticism. Most critical editions published after Westcott and Hort share their preference of the Alexandrian text-type and therefore are similar to The New Testament in the Original Greek. An exception is the text edited by Hermann von Soden. Soden's edition stands much closer to the text of Tischendorf than to the text of Westcott and Hort.

Bart Denton Ehrman (; born October 5, 1955) is an American New Testament scholar focusing on textual criticism of the New Testament, the historical Jesus, the origins and development of early Christianity. He has written and edited 30 books, including three college textbooks. He has also authored six New York Times bestsellers. He is currently the James A. Gray Distinguished Professor of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies defines the field as a set of various, and in some cases independent disciplines for the study of the collection of ancient texts generally known as the Bible.The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies by J. W. Rogerson and Judith M. Lieu (May 18, 2006) page xvii These disciplines include but are not limited to archaeology, hermeneutics, textual criticism, cultural anthropology, history, sociology and theology, patristics and related thomistic philosophy.

Although he was not the first one to point out this principle, he was the first one to demonstrate it in an exemplary manner. His Dushu zazhi (讀書雜誌 Miscellaneous Notes on the Classics) is also a philological treasure house, especially valuable for its textual criticism of ancient texts. His son Wang Yinzhi () was also an important philologist. They are often referred together as "Father and Son Wang of Gaoyou" ().

Coislinianus Hp (015): at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism. According to Eberhard Nestle it is "one of the most valuable manuscripts". Kurt and Barbara Aland gave the following textual profile of it 71, 01/2, 122, 3s. This means the text of the codex agrees with the Byzantine standard text 7 times, it agrees 12 times with the original text against the Byzantine and that it has 3 independent or distinctive readings.

Other ancient Jewish translations, such as the Aramaic Targums, conform closely to the Masoretic Text, and all medieval and modern Jewish translations are based upon the same. Christian translations also tend to be based upon the Hebrew, though some denominations prefer the Septuagint (or may cite variant readings from both). Bible translations incorporating modern textual criticism usually begin with the Masoretic Text, but also take into account possible variants from all available ancient versions.

Minuscule 713 at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism Hermann von Soden lists it as Is (along with codices 157, 235, 245, 291, 1012). According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents mixed text in Luke 1 and Luke 20. In Luke 10 it has Byzantine mixed text. In Matthew 17:26 it has additional reading εφη Σιμων ναι λεγει ο Ιησους δος ουν και συ ως αλλοτριος αυτων; this reading can be found in Ephraem.

The most recent translation of the Bible was published in 2007 by Hið íslenska Biblíufélag (The Icelandic Bible Society). In the early 20th century, liberal theology was introduced in Iceland, causing great theological strife between liberal and conservative adherents. Textual criticism of the Scriptures and radical theological liberalism was quite influential in the Department of Theology within the newly founded University of Iceland. Spiritism and theosophical writings were also influential in intellectual circles.

Paul Meyvaert was a Benedictine monk who turned to medieval scholarship, and became a renowned scholar whose philological and historical work focused on medieval conceptions of authorship. Largely self-taught, he published on forgeries, iconography, and textual criticism. He taught at Duke University and in 1971 was appointed at Harvard University, where he spent the rest of his life. He was executive director of the Medieval Academy of America, and editor of Speculum, its journal.

Scheme of descent of the manuscripts of Pseudo-Apuleius Herbarius by Henry E. Sigerist (1927) Stemmatics or stemmatology is a rigorous approach to textual criticism. Karl Lachmann (1793–1851) greatly contributed to making this method famous, even though he did not invent it.Sebastian Timpanaro, The Genesis of Lachmann's Method, ed. and trans. by Glenn W. Most (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005) [trans. from Genesi del metodo del Lachmann (Liviana Editrice, 1981)].

First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Oxoniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule. Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive. The texts of Plato as received today apparently represent the complete written philosophical work of Plato and are generally good by the standards of textual criticism.. See also : "... primary MSS. together offer a text of tolerably good quality" (this is without the further corrections of other sources).

Elton Jay Epp, Coptic Manuscript G67 and the Role of Codex Bezae as a Western Witness in Acts, in: Perspectives on New Testament Textual Criticism (Leiden 2005), p. 16 The nomina sacra are written in contracted forms. The text of the codex is a representative of the Western text-type, very close to the Codex Bezae. Currently, it is the main manuscript that supports the text of the Codex Bezae in the Acts.

Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte, focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism. Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida. In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible.

Lambeth Palace Library Philip Traheron made first collation and description of the codex. According to Scrivener it was careful collation, but Traheron never before examined manuscripts and his notes shew his ignorance of textual criticism. He bent his attention to its illustration. He has neglected to distinguish readings of prima manu from the corrections made by later hand, both in the text and margin, but Scrivener very seldom detected him in absolute error.

Additionally, many extant works have been ascribed to Ephrem despite his authorship of these documents being doubtful. This has created significant difficulty in the area of textual criticism. T. L. Frazier states, "Collections of works ascribed to Ephrem exist in several languages, the largest body of texts being Greek. Nearly all the surviving texts attributed to Ephrem in languages other than Syriac and Armenian are derived from this Greek corpus, including the Latin corpus."T.

It was also possible that any edition published during the author's life might have his own corrections or changes. Hayford studied the techniques of textual criticism that bibliographers such as Fredson Bowers had developed to analyze Elizabethan texts. The textual editor was to first chose a "copy text," then compare all other possible texts with it. Punctuation and spelling were known as "accidentals," since they had probably been decided on by the publishing house.

Of course, there can be no certain conclusions concerning the composition of the "Sheiltot" until the manuscript has been examined. The printed text, while it contains much matter of later date, lacks much that, according to older authorities, was formerly included. An accurate edition of the Sheiltot would be very valuable for textual criticism of the Babylonian Talmud, as indeed for Aramaic philology in general, since Aḥa wrote in the Aramaic vernacular.

The McKenzie Lectures are a series of annual public lectures delivered by "a distinguished scholar on the history of the book, scholarly editing, or bibliography and the sociology of texts". The lectures are held in Oxford at the Centre for the Study of the Book (Bodleian Libraries). The series was inaugurated in 1996, in honour of Donald Francis McKenzie (1931–1999), upon his retirement as Professor of Bibliography and Textual Criticism, University of Oxford.

The codex contains the text of the New Testament (except Gospels) on 149 parchment leaves (size ), with some lacunae. The order of books: Pauline epistles, Acts of the Apostles, Catholic epistles, Apocalypse. It contains non-biblical material at the end with a list of the errors condemned by the Seven Ecumenical Councils.R. Waltz, Minuscule 203 at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism It is written in one column per page, in 32-33 lines per page.

The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. Aland placed it in Category V.Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 138. According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents textual family Kx in Luke 1 and Luke 20.

The Old Testament portion was also published in 1816-1828 by Baber, in three folio volumes.Eberhard Nestle and William Edie, "Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament", London, Edinburgh, Oxford, New York, 1901, p. 58. The entire manuscript was issued in photographic facsimile by the British Museum, under the supervision of E. M. Thompson in 1879 and 1880. Frederic G. Kenyon edited a photographic facsimile of the New Testament with reduced size in 1909.

Scriveners facsimile edition with text of Luke 18:26-27 Tischendorfs facsimile edition with text of Luke 3:22.26-27 The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type, but slightly different from typical Byzantine text. It has some Caesarean readings.F.G. Kenyon, Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London2, 1912, p. 118. Tischendorf as the first found some textual affinities to the textual family today known as f13.

He also invented the system of Greek diacritics, wrote important works on lexicography, and introduced a series of signs for textual criticism. He wrote introductions to many plays, some of which have survived in partially rewritten forms. The fifth head librarian was an obscure individual named Apollonius, who is known by the epithet ("the classifier of forms"). One late lexicographical source explains this epithet as referring to the classification of poetry on the basis of musical forms.

Tacitus mentions a king who ruled several territories as a loyal ally of Rome into the later part of the first century,Tacitus, Agricola 14 called Cogidumnus in most manuscripts but Togidumnus in one.Charles E Murgia (1977) "The Minor works of Tacitus : a study in textual criticism", Classical Philology 72, p.339 A damaged inscription, naming him "..gidubnus", places him in Chichester.J. E. Bogaers (1979) "King Cogidubnus in Chichester: another reading of RIB 91", Britannia 10, pp.

G.S.S. is prominent among the small band of scholars who have negotiated ancient Kannada literature from the perspective of a modern literary critic and a historian. He has not evinced much interest in elementary disciplines such as textual criticism and manuscriptology. He has not pursued disciplines like prosody and grammar in a mechanical manner. However, he has examined literary works in their cultural context and made a successful attempt to make them relevant in the modern society.

His master's degree thesis, "Bishop Bartholomew", is based on a detailed analysis of the Greek and Hebrew texts of Habakkuk, complemented with the Slavic manuscripts. The work shows the deep erudition and a multifaceted approach to the subject. The author focused on textual criticism and the historical interpretation of the book of Habakkuk. Beyond his work as a historian and biblical scholar, Remov was known as an expert on liturgy and the Old Church Slavonic language.

Sometimes the Vorlage of a translation may be lost to history. In some of these cases the Vorlage may be reconstructed from the translation. Such a reconstructed Vorlage may be called a retroversion, and it invariably is made with some amount of uncertainty. Nevertheless, the Vorlage may still be reconstructed in some parts at such a level of confidence that the translation and its retroversion can be used as a witness for the purposes of textual criticism.

The scholarly Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch into Greek at Alexandria, Egypt, in about 280 BC worked from a Hebrew text that was edited in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.Charles M. Laymon (editor), The Interpreter's One-Volume Commentary on the Bible, Abingdon Press, Nashville (1971), p. 1227. This would be centuries older than the proto–Masoretic Text selected as the official text by the Masoretes.Emanuel Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible (1992), pp. 11, 352.

Pasquali's greatest claim to fame is the book Storia della tradizione e critica del testo (History of the tradition and textual criticism). It was born as a reaction to Textkritik by Paul Maas, of which Pasquali first wrote a long review that appeared in several instalments in the journal Gnomon. His book, which came out in 1934, complements the work of Maas rather than refuting it. A thoroughly revised second edition appeared in 1952, the year of Pasquali's death.

F. G. Kenyon, Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London2, 1912, p. 132. The initial letters in colour. The text is divided according to the (chapters), whose numbers are given at the margin, and the (titles of chapters) at the top of the pages. There is also a division according to the Ammonian Sections (in Mark 234, the last section in 16:9), with references to the Eusebian Canons (added by later hand).

An 11th-century Byzantine manuscript containing the opening of the Gospel of Luke. Textual criticism deals with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts. Ancient scribes made errors or alterations (such as including non-authentic additions).Ehrman, Misquoting Jesus (2005), p. 46 In attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books, some modern textual critics have identified sections as additions of material, centuries after the gospel was written.

A faction of those in the "King James Only movement" rejects the whole discipline of textual criticism and holds that the translators of the King James Version English Bible were guided by God and that the KJV thus is to be taken as the authoritative English Bible. One of its most vocal, prominent and thorough proponents was Peter Ruckman, whose followers were generally known as Ruckmanites. He was generally considered to hold the most extreme form of this position.

Textual criticism deals with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts. Ancient scribes made errors or alterations (such as including non-authentic additions). The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian. Even if the original Greek versions were lost, the entire New Testament could still be assembled from the translations.

Otherwise, they may also replace some text of the original with an alternative reading. Spellings occasionally change. Synonyms may be substituted. A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun (such as "he said" becoming "Jesus said"). John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatusAdam Fox, John Mill and Richard Bentley: A Study of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament 1675–1729 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954), pp.

Origen of Alexandria ( 184 – 253),The New Catholic Encyclopedia (Detroit: Gale, 2003). also known as Origen Adamantius, was an early Christian scholar, ascetic, and theologian who was born and spent the first half of his career in Alexandria. He was a prolific writer who wrote roughly 2,000 treatises in multiple branches of theology, including textual criticism, biblical exegesis and hermeneutics, homiletics, and spirituality. He was one of the most influential figures in early Christian theology, apologetics, and asceticism.

Otherwise, they may also replace some text of the original with an alternative reading. Spellings occasionally change. Synonyms may be substituted. A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun (such as "he said" becoming "Jesus said"). John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatusAdam Fox, John Mill and Richard Bentley: A Study of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament 1675–1729 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954), pp.

The Greek text of this codex is too short to put in a family. Grenfell and Hunt noticed its agreement with Codex Bezae, 1597, and some Old-Latin manuscripts.B. P. Grenfell & A. S. Hunt, Oxyrynchus Papyri XIII, (London 1919), p. 10. According to Aland it is a "free text" and it was placed by him in Category I. According to Bruce M. Metzger and David Alan BlackDavid Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 65.

The Codex Gigas from the 13th century, held at the Royal Library in Sweden. When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text—especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line—and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text. See textual criticism.

Otherwise, they may also replace some text of the original with an alternative reading. Spellings occasionally change. Synonyms may be substituted. A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun (such as "he said" becoming "Jesus said"). John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatusAdam Fox, John Mill and Richard Bentley: A Study of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament 1675–1729 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954), pp.

Howarth began his career as a specialist in American literary manuscripts and textual criticism, and in 1972 he became editor in chief of The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau. In 1974-75 he served as 21st president of the Thoreau Society. He published eight books on Thoreau, covering his studies of maps, landscapes, and North American travels. His account of Thoreau as writer, The Book of Concord, is the first critical history of Thoreau's two-million-word Journal.

Otherwise, they may also replace some text of the original with an alternative reading. Spellings occasionally change. Synonyms may be substituted. A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun (such as "he said" becoming "Jesus said"). John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatusAdam Fox, John Mill and Richard Bentley: A Study of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament 1675–1729 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954), pp.

In 1959 Colwell, together with M. M. Parvis, developed a new method of dealing with the multitude of witnesses available to those engaged in the textual criticism of the New Testament. This method usually is known as the Claremont Profile Method. This method was developed in part to provide a means of selecting Greek minuscule manuscripts for the International Greek New Testament Project (IGNTP).Wolfgang Haase, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (Berlin 1992), p. 154.

He was an authority on the Gospels (esp. Gospel of Mark), the Apostle Paul, early Christology, the Jewish background of the New Testament, and New Testament textual criticism. He was perhaps most well known for his studies on the early emergence of a devotion to Jesus expressed in beliefs about Jesus sharing God's glory, and in a "devotional pattern" in which Jesus features prominently. Hurtado argued that this Jesus-devotion comprises a novel "mutation" in ancient Jewish monotheistic practice.

One observation that can be made is that after each colophon, in Leviticus, there is a new introduction, of the form and the said unto Moses.... Several critical scholars have proposed that these introductions are an attempt to patch over the breaks between sources, and therefore conclude that everywhere there is a new introduction, there must be a break between sources. In addition to the colophons, and narrative breaks, this adds additional borders at Leviticus 4:1, 5:14, 6:1, 6:19, 6:24, 7:22, 7:28, 13:1, 14:33, and 15:1. More detailed textual criticism, comparing vocabulary, writing styles, and so forth, is seen, by critical scholars, to support the idea that both the colophons, and the introductions, mark the borders between works originating from different writers, except for Leviticus 6:1. Leviticus 5:15-19 and 6:2-18 are usually regarded, under textual criticism, to have been from a continuous work, due to identical writing style, such as a ram without blemish out of the flock, with thy estimation ..., and trespass (ed) against the .

The earliest recorded assessments of the Samaritan Pentateuch are found in rabbinical literature and Christian patristic writings of the first millennium CE. The Talmud records Rabbi Eleazar b. Simeon condemning the Samaritan scribes: "You have falsified your Pentateuch...and you have not profited aught by it." Some early Christian writers found the Samaritan Pentateuch useful for textual criticism. Cyril of Alexandria, Procopius of Gaza and others spoke of certain words missing from the Jewish Bible, but present in the Samaritan Pentateuch.

Textual scholars produce their own editions of what they discovered. Disciplines of textual scholarship include, among others, textual criticism, stemmatology, paleography, genetic criticism, bibliography and history of the book. Textual scholar David Greetham has described textual scholarship as a term encompassing "the procedures of enumerative bibliographers, descriptive, analytical, and historical bibliographers, paleographers and codicologists, textual editors, and annotators-cumulatively and collectively". Some disciplines of textual scholarship focus on certain material sources or text genres, such as epigraphy, codicology and diplomatics.

The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. Aland placed it in Category V.Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 138. According to the Claremont Profile Method in represents Kx in Luke 1 and Luke 20; in Luke 10 no profile was made.

The first quest, which started in 1778, was almost entirely based on biblical criticism. This took the form of textual and source criticism originally, which were supplemented with form criticism in 1919, and redaction criticism in 1948. Form criticism began as an attempt to trace the history of the biblical material during the oral period before it was written in its current form, and may be seen as starting where textual criticism ends.The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology by Alan Richardson 1983 pp.

In translations and commentaries, ArtScroll accepts midrashic accounts in a historical fashion, and at times literally; it disagrees with textual criticism. Page "X" of the preface to Artscroll's first publication set the tone: A long paragraph includes "No non-Jewish sources have even been consulted, much less quoted. I consider it offensive that the Torah should need authentication from the secular or so-called 'scientific' sources."The first of these sentences was the end of a series of italicized sentences.

Photo of Amneus Daniel Amneus (October 15, 1919 - December 18, 2003) was an emeritus professor of English at California State University, Los Angeles. He specialized in Shakespearean textual criticism. Amneus was the only man listed in Who's Who of American Women. According to Richard Doyle, editor of The Liberator and author of the book The Rape of the Male, and president of Men's Defense Association, "Amneus is the leading theoretician and articulator of the Father's rights and Men's rights movements".

Kaozheng 考證 ("search for evidence"Quirin, 36 n.9.), also kaoju xue 考據學 ("evidential scholarship") – a school and approach to study and research in China from about 1600 to 1850. It was most prominent during the rule of Qianlong and Jiaqing Emperors of the Qing dynasty (hence the alternate name :zh:乾嘉學派). The approach corresponds to the methods of modern textual criticism, and was sometimes associated with an empirical approach to scientific topics as well.

Chen Yuan (陈垣 1880–1971) was a Chinese historian and educator. Chen, together with Lü Simian, Chen Yinke and Ch'ien Mu, was known as the "Four Greatest Historians" of Modern China (現代四大史學家). He is known by his work in the fields of religious history, Yuan Dynasty history, textology and textual criticism. Chen was professor of Peking University, Beijing Normal University and Fu Jen Catholic University, and later served as the president of Beijing Normal University.

Rofé has contributed to three fields of study in the Hebrew Bible: textual criticism, history of literature, and history of the Israelite religion. In his research he strives to integrate these fields, because each one of them is advanced by perceptions obtained in the other two. 1\. His first book, The Israelite Belief in Angels (Ph.D. dissertation, 1969, Hebrew, published 1979 ) hypothesizes that the Hebrew belief in angels was an attempt at fitting ancient polytheistic traditions into the frame of a monotheistic faith.

The study of these corrections contributes to understanding the beliefs of the scribes that transmitted the Biblical books in the first generations after their composition. 2b. Another aspect of textual criticism is its contact with the history of Biblical literature. Rofé emphasized that these two realms are interdependent. Thus he argued, on the basis of literary-stylistic considerations, that in Deuteronomy 5 the shorter text presented by the tefillin from Qumran should be preferred over against all other textual witnesses.

One scholar now disputes the single-author hypothesis, supposing that the poem may be the work of between two and five authors, depending upon how authorship is defined. In keeping with contemporary scholarly trends in textual criticism, critical theory, and the history of the book, Charlotte Brewer, among others, suggests that scribes and their supervisors be regarded as editors with semi- authorial roles in the production of Piers Plowman and other early modern texts, but this has nothing to do with Manly's argument.

Image of the opening of Piers Plowman from manuscript Laud misc. 581 in the Bodleian Library Piers Plowman from the early-15th century manuscript in the National Library of Wales Piers Plowman is considered to be one of the most analytically challenging texts in Middle English textual criticism. There are 50–56 surviving manuscripts, some of which are fragmentary. None of the texts are known to be in the author's own hand, and none of them derive directly from any of the others.

They also believed that the combination of Codex Bezae with the Old Latin and the Old Syriac represents the original form of the New Testament text, especially when it is shorter than other forms of the text, such as the majority of the Byzantine text-type. In this they followed one of the primary principles of their fledgling textual criticism, lectio brevior, sometimes taken to an extreme, as in the theory of Western non-interpolations, which has since been rejected.

Dr. Hills integrates his theological perspective alongside New Testament criticism. Reading Dean John William Burgon inspired Dr. Hills to approach textual criticism from a "logic of faith" (1952 is the year that Dr. Hills made a definite commitment to this view).. As to the relationship of the King James Bible to the Received Text, Hills wrote "the King James Version ought to be regarded not merely as a translation of the Textus Receptus but also as an independent variety of the Textus Receptus.".

The first quest, which started in 1778, was almost entirely based on biblical criticism. This took the form of textual and source criticism originally, which were supplemented with form criticism in 1919, and redaction criticism in 1948. Form criticism began as an attempt to trace the history of the biblical material during the oral period before it was written in its current form, and may be seen as starting where textual criticism ends.The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology by Alan Richardson 1983 pp.

Those churches (Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic) which follow the Rite of Constantinople, provide an epistle and Gospel reading for most days of the year, to be read at the Divine Liturgy; however, during Great Lent there is no celebration of the liturgy on weekdays (Monday through Friday), so no epistle and Gospel are appointed for those days. As a historical note, the Greek lectionaries are a primary source for the Byzantine text-type used in the scholarly field of textual criticism.

Islam and Protestantism have in common a reliance on textual criticism of the Book. This historical precedence combines to fact that Islam incorporates to a certain extent the Jewish and Christian traditions, recognizing the same God and defining Jesus as a prophet, as well as recognizing Hebrew prophets, thus having a claim to encompassing all the religions of the Book. The Quran itself regards the Christian Bible as corrupt, and holds that Jesus was not physically crucified (Sura 4:156–159).

His best known editions are those of Plato (1816–1823), Oratores Attici (1823–1824), Aristotle (1831–1836), Aristophanes (1829), and twenty-five volumes of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. The only Latin authors edited by him were Livy (1829–1830) and Tacitus (1831). Bekker confined himself entirely to manuscript investigations and textual criticism; he contributed little to the extension of other types of scholarship. Bekker numbers have become the standard way of referring to the works of Aristotle and the Corpus Aristotelicum.

A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun (such as "he said" becoming "Jesus said"). John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatusAdam Fox, John Mill and Richard Bentley: A Study of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament 1675–1729 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954), pp. 105–115; John Mill, Novum Testamentum Graecum, cum lectionibus variantibus MSS (Oxford 1707) which was based on "nearly 100 [Greek] manuscripts."Metzger and Ehrman (2005), p.

Born in Surrey, Davey studied theology and history at the University of Birmingham and gained a PGCE at the Institute of Education in 1963. She then gained an MA in Theology, where she specialised in New Testament textual criticism. Entering work, she taught near Wolverhampton at the Regis Comprehensive School (now the King's Church of England School) on Regis Road in Tettenhall. After her marriage she moved to Tanzania and taught at the Ilboru Secondary School on Ilboru Road in Arusha.

Luke 11:2 in Codex Sinaiticus Various scholars have developed guidelines, or canons of textual criticism, to guide the exercise of the critic's judgment in determining the best readings of a text. One of the earliest was Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687–1752), who in 1734 produced an edition of the Greek New Testament. In his commentary, he established the rule Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua, ("the harder reading is to be preferred"). Johann Jakob Griesbach (1745–1812) published several editions of the New Testament.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) includes the Book of Mormon as a foundational reference. LDS members typically believe the book to be a literal historical record. Although some earlier unpublished studies had been prepared, not until the early 1970s was true textual criticism applied to the Book of Mormon. At that time BYU Professor Ellis Rasmussen and his associates were asked by the LDS Church to begin preparation for a new edition of the Holy Scriptures.

Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as Vetus Latina texts. Christian translations also tend to be based upon the Hebrew, though some denominations prefer the Septuagint (or may cite variant readings from both). Bible translations incorporating modern textual criticism usually begin with the masoretic text, but also take into account possible variants from all available ancient versions. The received text of the Christian New Testament is in Koine Greek, and nearly all translations are based upon the Greek text.

The Complutensian Polyglot was signified by α'. The critical collation was the new subject, and although Estienne omitted hundreds of important variants from used witnesses, it was the first step towards modern Textual Criticism. The oldest manuscript used in this edition was the Codex Bezae, which had been collated for him, "by friends in Italy" (secundo exemplar vetustissimum in Italia ab amicis collatum). The majority of these manuscripts are held in the National Library of France to the present day.

Otherwise, they may also replace some text of the original with an alternative reading. Spellings occasionally change. Synonyms may be substituted. A pronoun may be changed into a proper noun (such as "he said" becoming "Jesus said"). John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatusAdam Fox 1954, John Mill and Richard Bentley: A Study of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament 1675–1729 Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp. 105–15.

Critical Inquiry is a peer-reviewed academic journal in the humanities published by the University of Chicago Press. While the topics and historical periods it covers are diverse, the journal is known as a long-standing, highly regarded critical theory driven venue for interpretive scholarship, especially but not exclusively in literature and textual criticism. It was established in 1974 by Wayne Booth, Arthur Heiserman, and Sheldon Sacks. From 1978 to 2020, the journal was edited by W. J. T. Mitchell.

Edward John Kenney, (29 February 1924 – 23 December 2019), usually known as E. J. Kenney, was a British Latinist who served as the Kennedy Professor of Latin until his retirement in 1984. Specialising in transmission and textual criticism, he was considered a leading expert on the work of Ovid and Lucretius. He spent the majority of his career at Cambridge University, where he was an emeritus fellow of Peterhouse until his death in 2019. He was known for his exacting but constructive criticism.

Initially making a name for himself editing the Codex Bezae Cantabrigiensis, Scrivener edited several editions of the New Testament and collated the Codex Sinaiticus with the Textus Receptus. For his services to textual criticism and the understanding of biblical manuscripts, he was granted a Civil list pension in 1872. He was an advocate of the Byzantine text (majority text) over more modern manuscripts as a source for Bible translations. He was the first to distinguish the Textus Receptus from the Byzantine text.

In 1566 Jean Bodin published his Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem, a seminal work. Using the critical apparatus of humanist historiography Bodin reviews and evaluates the classical and contemporary bibliography of historical writing. The idea of method was also a leading systematic concept of the era, expanding the scope of the classical ars.Neal W. Gilbert,(1960) Renaissance Concepts of Method, New York, Columbia UP. Bodin's Methodus reflects the search for new historical principles based on intellectual reform of textual criticism.

On the basis of watermarks and textual criticism, the greater part of the manuscript was probably copied in Leipzig in 1723–1724, while the copyist of the first five lines of the Partita suggest it may have been begun slightly earlier, between 1722 and 1723 in Köthen.Hans-Peter Schmitz, "Partita A-moll für Flauto traverso solo, BWV 1013", in Johann Sebastian Bach, Neue Ausgabe sämtlicher Werke, Serie VI, Band 3 Werke für Flöte: Kritischer Bericht, 7–9 (Kassel, Basel, Paris, London, New York: Bärenreiter, 1963): 7–8.

HTML page version of "Notes on the text, interpretation, and translation problems of Catullus", by S.J. Harrison and S.J. Heyworth, from an Oxford University Web site, accessed February 10, 2007 Research on Catullus was the first application of the genealogical method of textual criticism. Lines 1-10 represent the preserved core of the poem. Lines 11-13 are denoted as "Catullus 2b" and differ significantly in tone and subject from the first 10 lines. Hence, these latter three lines may belong to a different poem.

Soon after the merger of the Ramayapatnam Baptist Theological Seminary with Andhra Christian Theological College in 1969, the campus moved to Secunderabad; Carder followed, and continued teaching there until 1976. At that time Carder enrolled as a doctoral candidate at the Toronto School of Theology and was awarded a Th.D. in 1969, based on her thesis entitled An Inquiry into the Textual Transmission of the Catholic Epistles.W. L. Richards, Textual Criticism on the Greek Text of the Catholic Epistles: A Bibliography, Andrews University Seminary Studies, pp.

An authoritative version of Marco Polo's book does not and cannot exist, for the early manuscripts differ significantly, and the reconstruction of the original text is a matter of textual criticism. A total of about 150 copies in various languages are known to exist. Before the availability of printing press, errors were frequently made during copying and translating, so there are many differences between the various copies. Polo related his memoirs orally to Rustichello da Pisa while both were prisoners of the Genova Republic.

Conjecture (conjectural emendation) is a critical reconstruction of the original reading of a clearly corrupt, contaminated, nonsensical or illegible textual fragment. Conjecture is one of the techniques of textual criticism used by philologists while commenting on or preparing editions of manuscripts (e.g. biblical or other ancient texts usually transmitted in medieval copies). Conjecture is far from being just an educated guess and it takes an experienced expert with a broad knowledge of the author of the text, period, language and style of the time.

The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. Hermann von Soden classified it to the textual family Kx. Aland placed it in Category V.Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 138. According to the Claremont Profile Method it belongs to the textual group Π473.

The earliest Christians believed Jesus would soon return, and their beliefs are echoed in the earliest Christian writings. Much of Ehrman's writing has concentrated on various aspects of Walter Bauer's thesis that Christianity was always diversified or at odds with itself. Ehrman is often considered a pioneer in connecting the history of the early church to textual variants within biblical manuscripts and in coining such terms as "Proto- orthodox Christianity." Ehrman brought this thesis, and textual criticism in general, through his popular level work Misquoting Jesus.

Lambin was one of the greatest scholars of his age, and his editions of classical authors are still useful. In textual criticism he was a conservative, but by no means a slavish one; indeed, his opponents accused him of rashness in emendation. His chief defect is that he refers vaguely to his manuscripts without specifying the source of his readings, so that their relative importance cannot be estimated. But his commentaries, with their wealth of illustration and parallel passages, are a mine of information.

Philology is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics. Philology is more commonly defined as the study of literary texts as well as oral and written records, the establishment of their authenticity and their original form, and the determination of their meaning. A person who pursues this kind of study is known as a philologist. In older usage, especially British, philology is more general, covering comparative and historical linguistics.

Gilby is accredited with supervising the translation and writing the annotations. However, his weakness was textual criticism, since he relinquished this part of the process to the other translators - Thomas Sampson, Thomas Bentham, William Cole, and Whittingham. The key attributes of the Geneva Bible were its print-type and size, the separation into quartos and octavos, the sectioning into verses, and the use of italics to signify the addition of words. But to Gilby’s acclaim, the most meaningful of all the characteristics were the annotations.

The book has not been translated into English. The book makes several major contributions to textual criticism, and especially to its sub-field of stemmatics. Pasquali concentrates on ancient Greek and Latin texts, which we know mostly through manuscript copies written in the Middle Ages or the Renaissance. Before him, scholars had concentrated on abstract relationships between the manuscripts and drew up geometric stemmata codicum or "manuscript family trees"; Pasquali shows the benefit of seeing the transmission of a text as a historical process.

A variorum, short for (editio) cum notis variorum, is a work that collates all known variants of a text. It is a work of textual criticism, whereby all variations and emendations are set side by side so that a reader can track how textual decisions have been made in the preparation of a text for publication. The Bible and the works of William Shakespeare have often been the subjects of variorum editions, although the same techniques have been applied with less frequency to many other works.

Bohuslav Martinů Complete Edition The Bohuslav Martinů Complete Edition (BMCE; Souborné vydání děl Bohuslava Martinů in Czech) aims to publish the complete works of Czech composer Bohuslav Martinů (1890–1959). The BMCE is a complete historical critical edition of all the finished and unfinished compositions of Bohuslav Martinů. It is based on the scholarly assessment of all available sources and analysed with the newest methods of textual criticism and music philology. The BMCE is a highly complex undertaking that offers numerous organisational, legal, and academic challenges.

John Leonard Hug, Writings of the New Testament, translated by Daniel Guildford Wait (London 1827), p. 165. Cardinal Angelo Mai prepared the first typographical facsimile edition between 1828 and 1838, which did not appear until 1857, three years after his death, and which was considered unsatisfactory.Eberhard Nestle and William Edie, "Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament", London, Edinburgh, Oxford, New York, 1901, p. 60. It was issued in 5 volumes (1–4 volumes for the Old Testament, 5 volume for the New Testament).

The manuscript contains the text of the First Epistle to the Corinthians (1:25-27; 2:6-8; 3:8-10; 3:19-20). The manuscript is written in 1 column per page. The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text-type. Aland placed it in Category II. It was discovered in Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt by J. Rendel Harris,Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, p. 44.

The uppercase letter Η is used as a symbol in textual criticism for the Alexandrian text-type (from Hesychius, its once-supposed editor). In chemistry, the letter H as symbol of enthalpy sometimes is said to be a Greek eta, but since enthalpy comes from ἐνθάλπος, which begins in a smooth breathing and epsilon, it is more likely a Latin H for 'heat'. In information theory the uppercase Greek letter H is used to represent the concept of entropy of a discrete random variable.

Holmes' primary research areas are in New Testament textual criticism and the Apostolic Fathers. His publications include several books, fifty articles, essays, or chapters in books, and more than 220 book reviews (covering more than 240 books in 23 journals). He has presented papers and invited lectures in the U.S., Canada, England, Germany, France, and Belgium. He speaks and teaches frequently at Twin Cities churches, universities, and seminaries, has served as an interim pastor, and is a long- term member of Trinity Baptist Church (Maplewood, MN).

For many years now, he has worked extensively on textual studies and editorial theory. His book The Metaphysics of Text combines the insights of traditional bibliography and textual criticism with recent editorial theory and theories of language. Besides his editions of Shakespeare and Early Modern texts cited above, his textual inquiries have led him to the field of digital humanities, as centred in the School of Cultural Texts and Records at Jadavpur University. His work covers digital archiving, database creation and computational analysis of texts.

Strugnell had come increasingly under controversy for his slow progress in publishing the scrolls, and his refusal to give scholars free access to the unpublished scrolls. Some argue the removal of Strugnell from his editorial post ended the more than three-decade blockade that he and other Harvard-educated scholars, such as Notre Dame's Eugene Ulrich, had maintained to keep other scholars from accessing the scrolls.'Copies Of Dead Sea Scrolls To Go Public -- Release Would End Scholars' Dispute' - The Seattle Times 22 September 1991 The blockade on the publication of the scrolls effected by Strugnell and other members of Harvard's academic community was broken by the combined efforts of Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Review (who had personally waged a 15-year campaign to release the scrolls) and Ben Zion Wacholder of Hebrew Union College, along with his student, Martin Abegg, who published the first facsimile of the suppressed scrolls in 1991.James R. Adair, Jr, "Old and New in Textual Criticism: Similarities, Differences, and Prospects for Cooperation," A Journal of Biblical Textual Criticism (1996)] Strugnell insisted that he tried to publish the scrolls as quickly as he could but that his team was the limiting factor.

An Introduction to New Testament Paleography & Textual Criticism, Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005, p. 89. According to Aland the quality of the text is higher in Gospel of Mark, and lower in Matthew and Luke.Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland, The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism, trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 133. In John manuscript 565 is a member of Family 1. According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents the Alexandrian text in Luke 1 and Kx in Luke 10 and Luke 20. In John 1:29 it lacks ο Ιωαννης along with manuscripts Sinaiticus, Alexandrinus, Vaticanus, Cyprius, Campianus, Petropolitanus Purpureus, Vaticanus 354, Nanianus, Macedoniensis, Sangallensis, Koridethi, Petropolitanus, Athous Lavrensis, 045, 047, 0141, 8, 9, 1192;The Gospel According to John in the Byzantine Tradition (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: Stuttgart 2007), p. 7 In John 14:14 the entire verse is omitted along with the manuscripts: X f1 1009 1365 ℓ 76 ℓ 253 b vgmss syrs, pal arm geo Diatessaron.

The Altaras edition was republished in Mantua in 1777, in Pisa in 1797 and 1810 and in Livorno in many editions from 1823 until 1936: reprints of the vocalized Livorno editions were published in Israel in 1913, 1962, 1968 and 1976. These editions show some textual variants by bracketing doubtful words and passages, though they do not attempt detailed textual criticism. The Livorno editions are the basis of the Sephardic tradition for recitation. As well as being printed on its own, the Mishnah is included in all editions of the Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmuds.

Born and died in Ludwigsburg, near Stuttgart. At age 12 he was sent to the evangelical seminary at Blaubeuren, near Ulm, to be prepared for the study of theology. Two of the principal masters in the school were Professors Friedrich Heinrich Kern (1790–1842) and Ferdinand Christian Baur, who instilled in their pupils a deep appreciation for the ancient classics and the principles of textual criticism, which could be applied to texts in the sacred tradition as well as to classical ones. In 1825, Strauss entered the University of Tübingen—the Tübinger Stift.

The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. Aland placed it in Category V.Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 138. It belongs to the textual family Family Kx.F. Wisse, The profile method for the classification and evaluation of manuscript evidence, William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1982, p. 54.

It has some the Caesarean readings in the Catholic epistles.K. W. Clark, Eight American Praxapostoloi (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1941) In Pauline epistles its text is almost pure the Byzantine text.Robert Waltz, Encyclopedia of New Testament Textual Criticism 2003, p. 230. Bruce M. Metzger noted: "It contains a large number of pre-Byzantine readings, many of them of the Western type of text."Bruce M. Metzger, Bart D. Ehrman, "The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption and Restoration", Oxford University Press (New York - Oxford, 2005), p. 89.

Tischendorf's Editio Octava and The New Testament in the Original Greek of Westcott and Hort were sufficient to make the Textus Receptus obsolete for the scholarly world. According to Eberhard Nestle the text of the eighth edition differs from the seventh edition in 3,572 places. Nestle has accused this edition of giving weight to the evidence of Codex Sinaiticus. Nestle used Editio octava in his Novum Testamentum Graece for its extensive representation of the manuscript tradition and Westcott-Hort's text for its development of the methodology of the Textual Criticism.

Pedagogy is at the heart of the Juvenilia Press. Each volume edited by established scholars and their student/s includes an introduction on an authors creative background and their early writings in relation to their adult works. A note on the text discusses the nature of the original handwritten manuscript and the technical irregularities of young authorship, including errors in spelling and punctuation. As part of the process, students give consideration to textual criticism and actively observe the impact of the practical application of their editing approach to the manuscripts they are working with.

John Mill (1645–1707) collated textual variants from 82 Greek manuscripts. In his Novum Testamentum Graecum, cum lectionibus variantibus MSS (Oxford 1707) he reprinted the unchanged text of the Editio Regia, but in the index he enumerated 30,000 textual variants.T. Robertson, An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, Nashville: Broadman, 1925, pp. 107-108. Shortly after Mill published his edition, Daniel Whitby (1638–1725) attacked his work by asserting that the text of the New Testament had never been corrupted and thus equated autographs with the Textus Receptus.

Rudolf Bultmann later picked up this approach, and it became particularly influential in the early- twentieth century. George Ricker Berry says the term "higher criticism", which is sometimes used as an alternate name for historical criticism, was first used by Eichhorn in his three-volume work Einleitung ins Alte Testament (Introduction to the Old Testament) published between 1780 and 1783. The term was originally used to differentiate higher criticism, the term for historical criticism, from lower, which was the term commonly used for textual criticism at the time.

All of this contributes to textual criticism being one of the most contentious areas of biblical criticism as well as the largest. It uses specialized methodologies, enough specialized terms to create its own lexicon, and is guided by a number of principles. Yet any of these can be contested, as well as any conclusions based on them, and they often are. For example, in the late 1700s, textual critic Johann Jacob Griesbach developed fifteen critical principles for determining which texts are likely the oldest and closest to the original.

771-772 The modern Chinese nation must rethink its history in order to survive. To this end, Gu used textual criticism to challenge traditional Chinese historiography. One example is the myth of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, a supposed golden age in China's antiquity that had scarcely been doubted up to the early twentieth century. Gu questioned the historicity of this myth not only to rectify errors in understanding, but also to destroy the entire philosophy of history that revolved around looking back to this supposed golden age.

The textual character of the codex is representative of the late Alexandrian text-type, and is similar to the Codex Regius.R. Waltz, Codex Zacynthius Ξ (040) at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism Kurt and Barbara Aland gave the following textual profile of it: 21, 82, 21/2, 3s. This means the text of the codex agrees with the Byzantine standard text 2 times, it agrees 8 times with the original text against the Byzantine and it agrees both with the Byzantine and original text 2 times. There are 3 independent or distinctive readings.

Hayashi Gahō later published a commentated version of Gongyang Zhuan (公谷白文) in 1688, attributing the comments to his father. During the Qing Dynasty the study of textual criticism flourished with successive scholars researching the Gongyang Zhuan and reinvigorating its ideas. This re-evaluation of the work was probably a response to the massive social and political changes of the period which caused scholars to reassess the dominant official interpretation of Confucianism. Gongyang Zhuan played an important role in the works of the Changzhou School of Thought (常州學派) proponents.

Behr completed a Master of Theology degree from St Vladimir's in 1997. His thesis, a complete textual criticism of On the Apostolic Preaching by Irenaeus of Lyons, was subsequently published by St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. Behr has been Distinguished Lecturer at the Fordham University Theology Faculty, Visiting Professor of Historical Theology at the Nashotah House Theological Seminary, adjunct lecturer and faculty member of the St. Athanasius College which specialises in Coptic Orthodox theological studies. In September 2019, he was also appointed as professor in divinity at the Aberdeen University's School of Divinity, History and Philosophy.

It is well established that some Ming scholars responded to a misguided scholastic urge to rearrange old texts that they considered disorganized, and the "stylistic device" of adding sub-headings to works of random jottings first became widespread during the Ming (Greatrex 1987: 30). Three authors wrote supplements to the Bowuzhi (Greatrex 1987: 26). During the Southern Song dynasty, Li Shi 李石 compiled the (mid-12th century) Xu bowuzhi 續博物志 "Continuation to the Bowuzhi" in 10 chapters, which quotes early sources without any textual criticism.

The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Byzantine text-type. The non-Byzantine readings are confirmed by Codex Monacensis and minuscule 1071, though there is no real reason to think they are related.Codex Nanianus, U (30): at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism The manuscript stands in some relationship to the Codex Basilensis and other textual members of the textual family Family E, but Nanianus does not belong to this family. Hermann von Soden classified its text to his textual group Io which refers to nine manuscripts in Luke.

The modern debate began with the Prolegomena of Friedrich August Wolf (1795). According to Wolf, the date of writing is among the first questions in the textual criticism of Homer. Having satisfied himself that writing was unknown to Homer, Wolf considers the real mode of transmission, which he purports to find in the Rhapsodists, of whom the Homeridae were an hereditary school. Wolf reached the conclusion that the Iliad and Odyssey could not have been composed in the form in which we know them without the aid of writing.

He received honorary degrees from various universities, and was elected corresponding member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. He is chiefly known for his editions of Greek philosophical works: Heracliti Ephesii Reliquiae (1877); Prisciani Lydi quae extant (edited for the Berlin Academy in the Supplementum Aristotelicum, 1886); Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea (1890), De Arte Poetica (1898); Contributions to the Textual Criticism of the Nicomachean Ethics (1892). Bywater was associated with the Oxford Aristotelian Society from its inception in the early 1880s and remained its principal guiding force until his retirement in 1908.

In the field of palaeography and textual criticism, homeoteleuton has also come to mean a form of copyist error present in ancient texts. A scribe would be writing out a new copy of a frequently reproduced book, such as the Bible. As the scribe was reading the original text, his eyes would skip from one word to the same word on a later line, leaving out a line or two in the transcription. When transcripts were made of the scribe's flawed copy (and not the original) errors are passed on into posterity.

In addition to his writings on Christian origins and the Gnostic Gospels, Perrin has authored a number of popular lay introductions to works such as the Gospel of Judas and Gospel of Thomas. In 2007 Lost in Transmission was published as a response to Bart Ehrman's popular Misquoting Jesus dealing with issues of textual criticism of the New Testament. In 2008 Perrin delivered a public lecture on the historical Jesus at the University of Georgia. Perrin was announced as the 16th president of Trinity International University in 2019, succeeding David Dockery.

The Münster Matthew is a printed version of the Gospel of Matthew, written in Hebrew published by Sebastian Münster in 1537 and dedicated to King Henry VIII of England. It is disputed as to whether Münster‘s prefatory language refers to an actual manuscript that he used. Horbury, William, “The Hebrew Matthew and Hebrew Study,” in Hebrew Study from Ezra to Ben-Yehuda (Edinburgh, 1999), 124-125 Münster’s text closely resembles the Du Tillet Matthew. Since the places where Münster altered the text are indeterminate, using the Münster text for textual criticism is problematic.

Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that is concerned with the identification and removal of transcription errors in texts, both manuscripts and printed books. Ancient scribes made errors or alterations when copying manuscripts by hand. Given a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document, the textual critic seeks to reconstruct the original text (the urtext, archetype or autograph) as closely as possible. The same processes can be used to attempt to reconstruct intermediate editions, or recensions, of a document's transcription history.

In several biographies of the Buddha's life, a shrine is mentioned which was placed at the point where Kaṇṭhaka passed during the Great Departure. Classicist Edward J. Thomas (1869–1958) thought this shrine to be historical. On a similar note, Xuan Zang claimed that the pillar of Aśoka which marks Lumbinī was once decorated at the top with a horse figure, which likely was Kaṇṭhaka, symbolizing the Great Departure. Many scholars have argued that this is implausible, however, saying this horse figure makes little sense from a perspective of textual criticism or art history.

He was opposed to the religious and political opinions of the poet Willem Bilderdijk (his son Dirk on the other hand admired Bilderdijk very much) and preferred theologians like Prof Johannes van der Palm of the University of Leiden. Van der Palm was a keen (although quite conservative) supporter of textual criticism but dismissed higher criticism. Van Hogendorp preferred to read Van der Palm's (highly conservative) reconstruction of the text of the New Testament. When he was suffering from gout and unable to attend Church on Sunday, he used to read devotional literature.

Doubts had been swirling about Wettstein's orthodoxy as early as the publication of his thesis in 1713, and he ultimately fell under suspicion of Socinianism when he was unwilling to defend the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1728 his one-time friend and mentor Johann Ludwig Frey accused Wettstein of using textual criticism as a means of advancing Socinian theology, which was investigated by a committee of clergy at Basel. The charge was formally upheld and he was ultimately dismissed, in 1730, from his position at St. Leonhard's.

Wettstein rendered service to textual criticism by his collection of various readings and his methodical account of the manuscripts and other sources. Through his laborious study of Codex Alexandrinus, he believed he found misinterpretations or calculated mistakes of New Testament written in Greek. He came under particular fire for disputing the passage of 1 Timothy 3:16, believing the original reading to be "which was manifest in the flesh," rather than "God was manifest in the flesh." Through his studies he developed an increasingly critical attitude on textual matters and their relationship to doctrinal issues.

Together with professor Leonard S. Kravitz, Olitzky has authored a series of Tanakh commentaries. Their commentaries draw on classical Jewish works such as the Mishnah, Talmud, Targums, the midrash literature, classical Jewish bible commentators such as Gersonides, Rashi and Abraham ibn Ezra, modern-day rabbis, and higher textual criticism, but are not academic books using source criticism to deconstruct the Tanakh. The authors claim that they do not follow either the path of classical Reform scholars or more secular projects such as the Anchor Bible series. These books are distributed by Behrman House.

Nigel Guy Wilson (born 23 July 1935) is a British scholar, emeritus fellow and tutor in Classics, Lincoln College, Oxford. His field of research is ancient Greek history, language and literature, and culture, art and archaeology of the Byzantine world. Since retiring in 2002 he has continued his researches into Greek palaeography, textual criticism and the history of classical scholarship. In the series of Oxford Classical Texts his edition of Aristophanes appeared in 2007, and a new edition of Herodotus for the same series will shortly go into production.

Hu Shih (December 17, 1891 – February 24, 1962) was a Chinese philosopher, essayist and diplomat. Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese liberalism and language reform in his advocacy for the use of written vernacular Chinese. He was influential in the May Fourth Movement, one of the leaders of China's New Culture Movement, was a president of Peking University, and in 1939 was nominated for a Nobel Prize in literature. He had a wide range of interests such as literature, history, textual criticism, and pedagogy.

He earned his M.A. in 1897 and from that year to 1904 he served as curate of St. Mary the Virgin, Oxford, a much more academic atmosphere. During these years, to supplement his income, he also took a job cataloguing Greek manuscripts in the Bodleian Library. That activity aroused in him an interest in the Synoptic problem and matters of New Testament textual criticism, and saw the publication of his first book, the very useful handbook The Text of the New Testament (1900). Some sixty years later Stephen Neill describes the 6th ed.

Supporters of formal translation such as the King James Version criticize translations that use dynamic equivalence because the accuracy is compromised because this technique tends to reword the meaning of the text instead of translating it accurately in a word for word fashion. Additionally, these supporters are critical of translations using the critical text because they believe that biblical text has been deliberately deleted from the original autographs. Debates of this type involve theological concepts as well as translation techniques which are outlined in the process of textual criticism.

Considering the scientific potentials and activities of the Department of Persian Language and Literature of the University of Isfahan, the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology agreed to establish a Center of Excellence on Theosophical and Mystic texts in this department in August 2006. This center performs activities in editing, describing, histories, analyzing comparative studies and compiling. The journals of Literary Arts, Textual Criticism of Persian Literature and Journal of Persian Language and Literature (Gawhar-i Guya), which is a "scientific-research" journal, are currently being published by the center.

Conflation of readings is the term for intentional changes in the text made by the scribe, who used two or more manuscripts with two or more textual variants and created another textual form. The term is used in New Testament textual criticism. Fenton Hort gave eight examples from Mark (6:33; 8:26; 9:38, 39) and Luke (9:10; 11:54; 12:18; 24:53) in which the Byzantine text-type had combined Alexandrian and Western readings. It was one of the three Hort's arguments that the Alexandrian text is the youngest.

Paul Rhodes Eddy & Gregory A. Boyd, The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. (2008, Baker Academic). 309-262. gospel sources and oral tradition,Craig L. Blomberg, Historical Reliability of the Gospels (1986, Inter-Varsity Press).19–72.Paul Rhodes Eddy & Gregory A. Boyd, The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. (2008, Baker Academic).237–308. textual criticism,Craig L. Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey (2nd Edition).424. and historical authenticity of specific sayings and narrative events.

These issues include the level of observance, the methodology for interpreting and understanding Jewish law, biblical authorship, textual criticism, and the nature or role of the messiah (or messianic age). Across these movements, there are marked differences in liturgy, especially in the language in which services are conducted, with the more traditional movements emphasizing Hebrew. The sharpest theological division occurs between Orthodox and non- Orthodox Jews who adhere to other denominations, such that the non-Orthodox movements are sometimes referred to collectively as the "liberal denominations" or "progressive streams".

The Afrikaner religion had stemmed from the Protestant practices of the Reformed church of Holland during the 17th century, later on being influenced in South Africa by British ministries during the 1800s. A landmark in the development of the language was the translation of the whole Bible into Afrikaans. While significant advances had been made in the textual criticism of the Bible, especially the Greek New Testament, the 1933 translation followed the textus receptus and was closely akin to the . Before this, most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the Dutch .

' Some Judaic and Christian traditions hold that the Torah or Pentateuch of the Hebrew Bible was physically written by Moses—not by God himself, although in the process of transcription many thousands of times copyists have allowed errors, or (some suggest) even forgeries in the text to accumulate. Tov, Emanuel, Textual criticism of the Hebrew Bible, Uitgeverij Van Gorcum, 2001, p. 213 According to this position, God originally spoke through a select person to reveal his purpose, character and plan for humanity. However, the Bible does record some direct statements from God (i.e.

Since the eighteenth century, they have employed the techniques of textual criticism to reconstruct how the extant manuscripts of the New Testament texts might have descended, and to recover earlier recensions of the texts. However, King James Version (KJV)-only inerrantists often prefer the traditional texts (i.e., Textus Receptus, which is the basis of KJV) used in their churches to modern attempts of reconstruction (i.e., Nestle-Aland Greek Text, which is the basis of modern translations), arguing that the Holy Spirit is just as active in the preservation of the scriptures as in their creation.

Codex Boreelianus, Mark 1:1-5a Textual variants in the Gospel of Mark are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Origen, writing in the 3rd century, was one of the first who made remarks about differences between manuscripts of texts that were eventually collected as the New Testament.

Many ancient works, such as the Bible and the Greek tragedies, survive in hundreds of copies, and the relationship of each copy to the original may be unclear. Textual scholars have debated for centuries which sources are most closely derived from the original, hence which readings in those sources are correct. Although biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original, the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed.Tanselle, (1989) A Rationale of Textual Criticism.

Textual criticism originated in the classical era and its development in modern times began with classics scholars, in an effort to determine the original content of texts like Plato's Republic.Habib 2005, p. 239 There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible, so scholars can use stemmatics and, in some cases, copy text editing. However, unlike the New Testament where the earliest witnesses are within 200 years of the original, the earliest existing manuscripts of most classical texts were written about a millennium after their composition.

This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation; since some words differ only in their vowels their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.Menachem Cohen, The Idea of the Sanctity of the Biblical Text and the Science of Textual Criticism in HaMikrah V'anachnu, ed. Uriel Simon, HaMachon L'Yahadut U'Machshava Bat-Z'mananu and Dvir, Tel-Aviv, 1979.

Textual variants in the Epistle to the Galatians are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Indology as a discipline involves textual criticism and exegesis for the purposes of historical and cultural explanation. Cardona's involvement in this field has concerned the analysis and interpretation of ancient Indian grammatical treatises. One puzzle in this sub-field involves the absolute and relative dating of grammatical texts. While scholars of previous generations ‒ such as Albrecht Weber, Bruno Liebich, and Sylvain Lévi ‒ did not shy away from making claims about dating these texts, Cardona summed up the prevailing contemporary sentiment when he concluded: 'non liquet' (Latin for 'it is not clear').

Workshop of Raphael, The Donation of Constantine. Stanze di Raffaello, Vatican City During the Middle Ages, the Donation was widely accepted as authentic, although Emperor Otto III did possibly raise suspicions of the document "in letters of gold" as a forgery, in making a gift to the See of Rome.Monumenta Germaniae Historica. DD II 820. pp. 13–15. It was not until the mid-15th century, with the revival of Classical scholarship and textual criticism, that humanists, and eventually the papal bureaucracy, began to realize that the document could not possibly be genuine.

Textual variants in the New Testament are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text. If their eye skips to an earlier word, they may create a repetition (error of dittography).

Urged by Kurt Åland, Matthew Black, and Bruce Metzger, he concentrated attention on ancient manuscripts underlying the Greek New Testament, and chaired the New Testament Textual Criticism Section of the Society of Biblical Literature 1984–90. In 1987, Osburn was invited to Abilene Christian University, where he was Carmichel-Walling Distinguished Professor of New Testament Language and Literature until 2004.“First $1 Million Endowed Chair Established.” ACU Today 41.4 (Winter, 1990): 1. He was named “Honors Professor of the Year” in 1992 and 1996, and was Chair of the Faculty Senate in 1999–2000.

He lectured on the history of dogma, church history, patristics, and after Knapp's death, on the New Testament. He is remembered for his planned series of editions of apocrypha, Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti of which the first volume appeared in 1832, which set a new standard in textual criticism in this field. His editions appeared of Acts of Thomas (1823), Acts of Peter and Paul (1838), Acta Andreae et Matthiae apud Anthropophagos (1846), Acts of John by "Leucius Charinus" (1847). He also edited a second edition of Knapp's Vorlesungen über die christlichen Glaubenslehre.

Georg Koës Georg Hendrick Carl Koës (1782-1811) was a Danish philologist of the early 19th century. Koës was born in Antvorskov, the third son of Anna Mathea Falch and Georg Frederik Koës, and was christened on 4 February 1782 in St Peter's, Slagelse. He studied classical philology under F.A. Wolf at the University of Halle, writing pioneering works of textual criticism on ancient Greek works, including Homer, whose work he demonstrated to be by more than one writer (Specimen observationum in Odysseam criticarum, acc. commentatio de discrepantiis quibusdam in Odyssea occurrentibus, Copenhagen 1806).

The Sinai and Comparative New Testament was published in 1881 by Edwin Leigh. The New Testament was published following the Authorized Version, with variations in the Greek texts of the Sinai, Vatican, Alexandrian and Received noted with different styles of font. This New Testament edition allowed readers who were not familiar with Greek, or did not have had the income to purchase scholarly works, to quickly look and see what the latest discoveries in textual criticism were. The first edition was bound in leather with the Gospels and a preface.

Along with his scientific fame, Newton's studies of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were also noteworthy. Newton wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John.Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John 1733 He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which agrees with one traditionally accepted date.John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, v. 1, pp. 382–402.

During the 1860s Rotherham began work on a translation of the Bible in which he tried: This he proposed to do by giving "special heed to the Greek Article, to the Tenses, and to the Logical Idiom of the Original." In 1872 his New Testament Critically Emphasised was published, with the Old Testament appearing in 1902. During this interval great advances occurred in textual criticism culminating at the end of the 19th century with Brooke Foss Westcott's and Fenton John Anthony Hort's Greek text of the New Testament. This led Rotherham to revise his New Testament twice to stay abreast of scholarly developments.

He researched and taught there until just before his death. His research was devoted to textual criticism and editions of Greek fragments and scholia, and to interpretation of Homer, Herodotus, and Thucydides. Erbse acted as co-editor of the well- known journals Glotta and Hermes, and in 1965 was one of the editors of the Lexikon der Alten Welt (LAW), alongside Carl Andresen, Olof Gigon, Karl Schefold, Karl Friedrich Stroheker, and Ernst Zinn. With Kurt Latte he published the Lexica Graeca minora, but he remains best known for his masterpiece, a huge seven-volumes critical edition of Iliad's Scholia vetera.

Eoin MacNeill, one of the pioneers in modern studies of Irish medieval history Due to the rich amount of written sources, the study of Irish history 800–1169 has, to a large extent, focused on gathering, interpretation and textual criticism of these. Only recently have other sources of historical knowledge received more attention, particularly archaeology. Since the modern excavations of Dublin started in 1961, followed by similar efforts in Wexford, Waterford and Limerick, great advances have been made in the understanding of the physical character of the towns established during this period.Wallace, The archaeology..., pp. 814–15.

By the end of November, the text of the Vulgate was finished. Sixtus' editing work on the Vulgate was sent on 25 November 1589 to the Congregation of the Index. The aim of his work was less for the text to be satisfactory from the point of view of textual criticism, and way more to strengthen the faithfuls. The publication of the text was delayed for five months at the Congregation of the Index since most of its members, three out of five, were opposed to the publication of the text; those were Ascanio Colonna, William Allen and Girolamo Della Rovere.

The Hebrew text they produced stabilized by the end of the second century, and has come to be known as the Masoretic text, the source of the Christian Old Testament. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 has created problems. While 60% of the Dead Sea manuscripts are closely related to Masoretic tradition, others bear a closer resemblance to the Septuagint (the ancient Greek version of the Hebrew texts) and the Samaritan Pentateuch. For textual criticism, this has raised the question of whether or not there is such a thing that can be considered "original text".

Robert Waltz, Euthalian Apparatus, in: Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism To the Euthalian Apparatus belong: a chronology of the Apostle Paul, the martyrdom of Paul, a list of places at which the Epistles were thought to be written, and the names associated with Paul in the headings to the Epistles.Bruce M. Metzger & Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption and Restoration, Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 40. The quotations from the Old Testament cited in the Pauline epistles are numbered and catalogued in a list. Overall, the Apparatus is a collection of varied aids for the reader.

Smith's edition is described by David C. Douglas as "an enormous advance" on previous ones, adding that textual criticism of Bede hardly then changed until 1896, when the Plummer edition appeared. Subsequently, the most notable edition was that of Charles Plummer, whose 1896 Venerabilis Bedae Opera Historica, with a full commentary, has been a foundation-stone for all subsequent scholarship.Colgrave comments that his omission of manuscript L "does not impair the value of his text, which can fairly be described as final. The width of his interests and the accuracy of his learning must be the envy of any successor".

The American Oriental Society was chartered under the laws of Massachusetts on September 7, 1842. It is one of the oldest learned societies in America, and is the oldest devoted to a particular field of scholarship. The Society encourages basic research in the languages and literatures of the Near East and Asia and covers subjects such as philology, literary criticism, textual criticism, paleography, epigraphy, linguistics, biography, archaeology, and the history of the intellectual and imaginative aspects of Eastern civilizations, especially of philosophy, religion, folklore and art. It is closely associated with Yale University, which is the site of its library.

During his life he destroyed 800 books and made 3,600 scraps. In 1848 he published his Life of Shakespeare, illustrated by John Thomas Blight (1835–1911), which had several editions; in 1853–1865 a sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of Shakespeare in folio, with full critical notes. After 1870 he entirely gave up textual criticism, and devoted his attention to elucidating the particulars of Shakespeare's life. He collated all the available facts and documents in relation to it, and exhausted the information to be found in local records in his Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare.

Minuscule 482 at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism It has many singular and unusual readings. Scrivener gave a list of the singular readings of the codex: Matthew 7:18; 8:22; 10:30; 15:23; 17:25; 22:6; 25:17; 26:7.10.22; 27:7; Mark 1:16; 5:35.38; 7:18; 8:7; 10:29; 13:27; Luke 1:21.75; 4:24; 5:5; 6:15.16; 7:11; 8:32; 10:32; 11:52; 14:32; 16:25; 18:32; 22:64; John 2:11; 4:21.39.42; 10:12; 13:24; 14:25; 16:14; 17:4; 18:20.

Codex Beratinus contains only the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark, with several considerable lacunae (Matthew 1:1-6:3, 7:26-8:7, 18:23-19:3, and Mark 14:62-end). The codex contains 190 extant parchment leaves measuring 31.4 × 26.8 cm, or approximately the same size as those of Codex Alexandrinus, and have two columns per page, but the letters are much larger.Frederic G. Kenyon, Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London2, 1912, p. 120. It is written with 17 lines per page, 8-12 letters per line, in very regular letters, in silver ink.

Textual criticism or stemmatics: Cladistic methods have been used to reconstruct the phylogeny of manuscripts of the same work (and reconstruct the lost original) using distinctive copying errors as apomorphies. This differs from traditional historical-comparative linguistics in enabling the editor to evaluate and place in genetic relationship large groups of manuscripts with large numbers of variants that would be impossible to handle manually. It also enables parsimony analysis of contaminated traditions of transmission that would be impossible to evaluate manually in a reasonable period of time. Astrophysics infers the history of relationships between galaxies to create branching diagram hypotheses of galaxy diversification.

The importance of Hesychius for textual criticism lies in the fact that many of his paraphrases echo the wording of his exemplar, and still more in his frequent citation of variants from other columns of the Hexapla or Tetrapla, particularly readings of Symmachus, whereby he has saved many rare variants. He is likewise of importance in Biblical stichometry. His "Capitula"Patrologia Graeca, XCIII, 1345-86. and commentaries show the early Christian division into chapters of at least the Twelve Minor Prophets and Isaiah, which corresponds to the inner sequence of ideas of the respective books better than the modern division.

Similarly, Der einzig wahre Bibeltext?, published in 2006 by K. Martin Heide. Special interest has been given to the studies of the Codex Vaticanus umlauts by Philip Barton Payne and Paul Canart, senior paleographer at the Vatican Library.Summarized with pictures on the web site KJV Today Umlaut in Codex Vaticanus, although the conclusion "an early scribe of Vaticanus at least knew of a significant textual variant here" is only one theory. Discussions have continued on the Evangelical Textual Criticism web site, the Yahoogroups textualcriticism forum and helpful is the web page of Wieland Willker, Codex Vaticanus Graece 1209, B/03 The Umlauts .

He took up the Cairo offer, moving there in 1937. He worked there at the University of Cairo, teaching Textual criticism and Semitic Languages,Encounters and Reflections By Seth Benardete and Ronna Burger, University of Chicago Press 2002, , as well as at the French Archeological Institute of Cairo. In 1938 Kraus discovered the Al-Farabi manuscript (the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle and the Commentary on the Laws) in an Istanbul library, and notified his future brother-in-law, Leo Strauss, about it. The two were excited about the prospects of translating, publishing and researching the manuscript.

That autumn he became instructor in Hebrew. He took additional courses in Hebrew with Ernest Renan at the Collège de France. He was also influenced, as to biblical languages and textual criticism, by the Abbé Paulin Martin, and as to a consciousness of the biblical problems and a sense of form by the historical intuition and irony of Abbé Louis Duchesne. He took his theological degree in March 1890, by the oral defense of forty Latin scholastic theses and by a French dissertation, Histoire du canon de l'ancien testament, published as his first book in that year.

Kenyon F.G., Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London2, 1912, p. 132. The common characteristics of Family 13 were initially identified in a group of four witnesses (minuscules 13, 69, 124, and 346); but the category has subsequently been extended, and some authorities list thirteen family members. Prior to the publication of Reuben Swanson's "New Testament Greek Manuscripts" in 1995, Swanson misidentified minuscule 1346 to be a member of family 13. The most obvious characteristic of the group is that these manuscripts place John 7:53-8:11 after Luke 21:38, or elsewhere in Luke's Gospel.

Epistle to the Hebrews is placed after Epistle to Philemon. The text is divided according to the (chapters), whose numbers are given at the margin, and the (titles) at the top of the pages. It contains Prolegomena, tables of the (contents) before each book, lectionary markings at the margin, (lessons), subscriptions at the end of each book, numbers of , and μαρτυριαι cited from the Scripture and profine writers. 1 John 5 is said to have the Comma Johanneum in the margin in this manuscript, but Elijah Hixson has shown that it does not on the Evangelical Textual Criticism blogsite.

Hu Shih} (; 17 December 1891 – 24 February 1962), also known as Hu Suh in early references,} was a Chinese philosopher, essayist and diplomat. Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese liberalism and language reform in his advocacy for the use of written vernacular Chinese. He was influential in the May Fourth Movement, one of the leaders of China's New Culture Movement, was a president of Peking University, and in 1939 was nominated for a Nobel Prize in literature. He had a wide range of interests such as literature, philosophy, history, textual criticism, and pedagogy.

A folio from Papyrus 46, one of the oldest extant New Testament manuscripts Textual criticism of the New Testament is the analysis of the manuscripts of the New Testament, whose goals include identification of transcription errors, analysis of versions, and attempts to reconstruct the original. The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian. There are approximately 300,000 textual variants among the manuscripts, most of them being the changes of word order and other comparative trivialities.

Note also that the NRSV encloses 14:33b–36 in parentheses to characterize it as a parenthetical comment that does not fit in smoothly with the surrounding texts. Various groups of highly conservative Christians believe that when Ps.12:6–7 speaks of the preservation of the words of God, that this nullifies the need for textual criticism, lower, and higher. Such people include Gail Riplinger, Peter Ruckman, and others. Many theological organisations, societies, newsletters, and churches also hold to this belief, including "AV Publications", Sword of The LORD Newsletter, The Antioch Bible SocietyAntioch Bible Society and others.

24:35, and others, claiming that "perfect preservation" was promised, often basing this reasoning on the fact that these verses utilize the plural form "words", supposedly indicating that it is more than merely "the word" that will be preserved. The issue also extends to which edition is being used, particularly, the Pure Cambridge Edition. Most biblical scholars, however, believe that knowledge of ancient Hebrew and Greek has improved over the centuries. Coupled with advances in the fields of textual criticism, biblical archaeology, and linguistics, this has enabled the creation of more accurate translations, whichever texts are chosen as the basis.

In Iron Age IIa (corresponding to the Monarchal period) Judah seems to have been limited to small, mostly rural and unfortified settlements in the Judean hills. This contrasts to the upper Samaria which was becoming urbanized. This archaeological evidence as well as textual criticism has led many modern historians to treat Israel/Samaria and Judah as arising separately as distinct albeit related entities centered at Shechem and Jerusalem, respectively, and not as a united kingdom with a capital in Jerusalem. Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa, an Iron site located in Judah, support the biblical account of a United Monarchy.

In 1587, Florimond de Raemond, a magistrate in the parlement de Bordeaux and an antiquary, published his first attempt to deconstruct the legend, Erreur Populaire de la Papesse Jeanne (also subsequently published under the title L'Anti-Papesse). The tract applied humanist techniques of textual criticism to the Pope Joan legend, with the broader intent of supplying sound historical principles to ecclesiastical history, and the legend began to come apart, detail by detail. Raemond's Erreur Populaire went through successive editions, reaching a fifteenth as late as 1691. In 1601, Pope Clement VIII declared the legend of the female pope to be untrue.

In this context, Christian humanists such as Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus promoted a return to the original Greek of the New Testament. This was the beginning of modern New Testament textual criticism, which over subsequent centuries would increasingly incorporate more and more manuscripts, in more languages (i.e., versions of the New Testament), as well as citations of the New Testament by ancient authors and the New Testament text in lectionaries in order to reconstruct the earliest recoverable form of the New Testament text and the history of changes to it.Metzger, Bruce M.; Ehrman, Bart D. (2005).

Codex Boreelianus, beginning of Luke Textual variants in the Gospel of Luke are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the Second Epistle to the Corinthians are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the First Epistle to Timothy are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the Acts of the Apostles are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the Second Epistle to Timothy are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Minuscule 321, first page of Colossians Textual variants in the Epistle to the Colossians are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

The Quine corners and have at least two uses in mathematical logic: either as quasi-quotation, a generalization of quotation marks, or to denote the Gödel number of the enclosed expression. Half brackets are used in English to mark added text, such as in translations: "Bill saw ⸤her⸥". In editions of papyrological texts, half brackets, ⸤ and ⸥ or ⸢ and ⸣, enclose text which is lacking in the papyrus due to damage, but can be restored by virtue of another source, such as an ancient quotation of the text transmitted by the papyrus.M.L. West (1973) Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique (Stuttgart) 81.

Textual variants in the Epistle to the Philippians are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

The Western text-type is one of several text-types used in textual criticism to describe and group the textual character of Greek New Testament manuscripts. It is the predominant form of the New Testament text witnessed in the Old Latin and Syriac Peshitta translations from the Greek, and also in quotations from certain 2nd and 3rd-century Christian writers, including Cyprian, Tertullian and Irenaeus. The Western text had many characteristic features, which appeared in text of the Gospels, Book of Acts, and in Pauline epistles. The Catholic epistles and the Book of Revelation probably did not have a Western form of text.

Hebrews 1:7-12 from Textual variants in the Epistle to the Hebrews are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the First Epistle of Peter are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the Second Epistle of Peter are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the First Epistle of John are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Revelation 1:4-7 in Textual variants in the Book of Revelation are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Textual variants in the Epistle to the Ephesians are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

This tradition was continued in an edition published in 1830, where even greater parts of the text were enclosed in brackets, but eventually fell out of favor; in the New Testament edition published in 1848, all traces of textual criticism were removed. The British and Foreign Bible Society, which at that time also had operations in Norway, published two Bible versions for Norwegian distribution in 1829 and 1834. These differed from the other contemporary Danish and Norwegian Bibles in omitting the Apocrypha. For a long time the British and Foreign Bible Society sold more Bibles in Norway than the Norwegian Bible Society.

The Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae (Latin: "Corpus of Byzantine history sources") or CFHB is an international project aiming to collect, edit and provide textual criticism on the historical sources from the time of the Byzantine Empire (4th–15th centuries AD). Its purpose is to make the works of Byzantine authors, especially those that had previously been unedited, available to modern research in an updated form. The project was undertaken at the 13th International Congress of Byzantine Studies in Oxford in 1966, and is under the auspices Association Internationale des Études Byzantines (AIEB) and its national branches.

Sengyou # A discussion on the provenance of translated scriptures, # A record of (new) titles and their listings in earlier catalogues, # Prefaces to scriptures, # Miscellaneous treatises on specific doctrines, and # Biographies of translators. "By subjecting Buddhist scriptures to the textual criticism similar to that applied to the Confucian classics, Sengyou managed to elevate the literary and social status of the Tripiṭaka.".Storch 2014: 68 In the Liang court, Sengyou's work was overshadowed by the catalogue of Baochang () who produced his catalogue in 521 CE. However, it is Sengyou's catalogue that survives. Sengyou was assisted in his literary work by his student, Liu Xie,Knechtges and Chang 2014: 806.

He also wrote hundreds of reviews, including a notably caustic rejection of J. Churton Collins's 1905 Oxford edition of Robert Greene. At the beginning of World War II, Greg moved to Sussex, where he spent the war working on his edition of Faustus. In addition, he began to prepare his great works of the 1950s: The Editorial Problem in Shakespeare (1951), The Shakespeare First Folio: Its Bibliographical and Textual History (1955), Some Aspects and Problems of London Publishing, 1550–1650 (1954), and the essay "The rationale of copy-text" (1950), which had a significant influence on textual criticism. He was Lyell Reader in Bibliography at Oxford University, 1954–5.

References to all of Etruria united against Rome are therefore considered unhistorical. The original Roman records perhaps stated there had been fighting against "the Etruscans" without specifying the city. Later writers have then expanded this to involve all of Etruria including plausible, but fictitious, meetings of the Etruscan league.Oakley (1997), pp. 402–404 The many similarities between accounts of the campaigns of 389 and 386—in both Camillus is placed in command, defeats the Volsci and comes to the aid of Sutrium—has caused several modern authors to consider these to be doubletsIn textual criticism a doublet is a term used when two different narrative accounts describe the same actual event.

As a comparison, the next best-sourced ancient text is Homer's Iliad, which is found in more than 1,900 manuscripts, though many are of a fragmentary nature. Numbers and dates for these texts change: scholars constantly update, and not all scholars count texts the same way. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, a functional count excluded texts that were dependent on others, whereas twenty-first cemtury textual criticism is much more inclusive, resulting in higher numbers of texts and a more varied textual basis for reconstructing the New Testament. The Rylands fragment P52 verso is the oldest existing fragment of New Testament Papyrus; it contains phrases from the Book of John.

23 In the early 20th century, although the New Culture Movement took a critical view of the Confucian classics, the scholar Hu Shih used the tools of textual criticism to put the novel in an entirely different light, as a foundation for national culture. Hu and his students, Gu Jiegang and Yu Pingbo, first established that Cao Xueqin was the work's author. Taking the question of authorship seriously reflected a new respect for fiction, since the lesser forms of literature had not been traditionally ascribed to particular individuals. Hu next built on Cai Yuanpei's investigations of the printing history of the early editions to prepare reliable reading texts.

Smith undertook his major work, an edition of Bede's Historia, under the influence of Thomas Gale, encouraged by Ralph Thoresby, and with assistance of Humfrey Wanley on Old English. He spent the majority of his time residing in Cambridge, and working on it, but did not live to complete the preparation. His son George brought out in 1722 the Historiæ Ecclesiasticæ Gentis Anglorum Libri Quinque, auctore Venerabili Bæda … cura et studio Johannis Smith, S. T. P., Cambridge University Press. This edition is described by David C. Douglas as "an enormous advance" on previous ones, adding that textual criticism of Bede hardly then changed until 1896, when the Christopher Plummer edition appeared.

By Stubbs' contemporaries and after his death Stubbs was considered to have been in the front rank of historical scholars both as an author and a critic, and as a master of every department of the historian's work, from the discovery of materials to the elaboration of well founded theories and literary production. He was a good palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition. His merits as an author are often judged solely by his Constitutional History. However, Stubbs' work is not entirely unquestionable.

A three-year process of reviewing and updating the text of the NRSV was announced at the 2017 Annual Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature. The update will be managed by the SBL following an agreement with the copyright-holding NCC. The stated focuses of the review are incorporating advances in textual criticism since the 1989 publication of the NRSV, improving the textual notes, and reviewing the style and rendering of the translation. A team of more than fifty scholars, led by an editorial board, is responsible for the review, which goes by the working title of the New Revised Standard Version, Updated Edition (NRSV-UE).

In Westphal's theory, geocriticism is based on three theoretical concepts: spatio- temporality, transgressivity, and referentiality. The idea that space and time form a continuum (space-time) is a tenet of modern physics. In the field of literary theory, geocriticism is an interdisciplinary method of literary analysis that focuses not only on such temporal data as relations between the life and times of the author (as in biographical criticism), the history of the text (as in textual criticism), or the story (as studied by narratology), but also on spatial data. Geocriticism therefore has affinities with geography, architecture, urban studies, and so on; it also correlates to philosophical concepts such as deterritorialization.

Especially his edition of the erotic authors (Erotici Graeci, two volumes, Leipzig 1858–1859), his first edition Astrampsychi oraculorum decades (Berlin 1863), his two volume edition of Aelian (Leipzig 1864–1866) and the Epistolographi Graeci (Paris 1873) attracted attention. In his edition of Aineias Taktikos (Berlin 1870) it first occurred to him, to restore the text which was distorted by many interpolations and to stress the Atticising style of the Late Antique prose author. Of his edition of Plutarch's Moralia, only one volume appeared (Leipzig 1872). As well as these and other monographs, Hercher wrote hundreds of shorter articles on textual criticism and exegesis.

Linguistic criticism is probably the oldest form of biblical criticism or textual criticism to develop.Queens University of Charlotte, History Department It relies heavily upon the study and knowledge of the Biblical languages - not just Koine Greek and Hebrew, but also Aramaic (the language Jesus himself most likely spoke) and Egyptian (Moses' mother tongue). Besides the influence that Aramaic and Egyptian would have on particular texts, i.e. the words we have written down in the extant Hebrew and Greek manuscripts being shaped into that form after first being contrived in the minds of writers whose mother tongues were Aramaic and Egyptian, we also have portions of texts written directly in those languages.

The group takes its name from minuscule 13, now in Paris. The subscription of manuscript 13 states that Matthew was written in Hebrew eight years after our Lord's Ascension, and contained 2522 and 2560 , Mark was written in Latin ten years after the Ascension with 1675 and 1604 , Luke in Greek fifteen years after with 3803 and 2750 stichoi, and John thirty two years after with 1838 .Eberhard Nestle and Willima Edie, Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament (London, 1901), pp. 84-85. One of notable examples of Syriac affinity is Matthew 1:16, where Ferrar group has the same reading as Curetonian Syriac.

Biblical studies is the academic application of a set of diverse disciplines to the study of the Bible (the Tanakh and the New Testament).Introduction to Biblical Studies, Second Edition by Steve Moyise (Oct 27, 2004) pages 11–12 For its theory and methods, the field draws on disciplines ranging from archaeology, ancient history, cultural anthropology, textual criticism, literary criticism, historical backgrounds, mythology, and comparative religion. Many secular as well as religious universities and colleges offer courses in biblical studies, usually in departments of religious studies, theology, Judaic studies, history, or comparative literature. Biblical scholars do not necessarily have a faith commitment to the texts they study, but many do.

The society publishes an edition of Tönnies′ complete works which has been reconstructed using the "textual criticism" technique (Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe, 24 vols., edited by Lars Clausen ( -2010), Alexander Deichsel, Cornelius Bickel, Rolf Fechner ( -2006,), Dieter Haselbach, Carsten Schlüter-Knauer, and Uwe Carstens (2006–2020); Berlin and New York, Walter de Gruyter 1998- ). The FTG also publishes the bi-annual Tönnies-Forum magazine. It also organizes publications and research conferences on sociological topics, namely the "Tönnies Symposia", which have so far taken place in Kiel 1980, 1983, and 1987, in Klagenfurt 2004, in Kiel 2005, in Paris 2007, in Husum 2011, 2013 and 2015, in Kiel 2019.

It was during this period of his life that he composed and published his books of historical criticism. His editions of the Catalecta (1575), of Festus (1575), of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius (1577), are the work of a man determined to discover the real meaning and force of his author. He was the first to lay down and apply sound rules of criticism and emendation, and to change textual criticism from a series of haphazard guesses into a "rational procedure subject to fixed laws" (Mark Pattison). But these works, while proving Scaliger's right to the foremost place among his contemporaries as Latin scholar and critic, did not go beyond mere scholarship.

Although some earlier unpublished studies had been prepared, not until the early 1970s was true textual criticism applied to the Book of Mormon. At that time BYU Professor Ellis Rasmussen and his associates were asked by the LDS Church to begin preparation for a new edition of the church's scriptures. One aspect of that effort entailed digitizing the text and preparing appropriate footnotes, another aspect required establishing the most dependable text. To that latter end, Stanley R. Larson (a Rasmussen graduate student) set about applying modern text critical standards to the manuscripts and early editions of the Book of Mormon as his thesis project—which he completed in 1974.

Lapidge has written or edited more than fifty books and published some 200 articles, on subjects ranging from Greek cosmology and Classical Latin literature to medieval palaeography and textual criticism, especially the literature of Anglo-Saxon England, in both Latin and Old English. He is, for instance, an expert on the Leiden Glossary. He has devoted much of his scholarly energy to editing scholarly journals and series, having been general editor for many years of Anglo-Saxon England, Oxford Medieval Texts, Scriptores Latini Hiberniae, and Henry Bradshaw Society Publications, as well as Compendium Auctorum Latinorum Medii Aevi (C.A.L.M.A.) and Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon England (both of which he founded).

The journal has covered the subject of concrete poetry, the Fluxus art movement, painted text, textual criticism, the abstraction of symbols, articulatory synthesis and text, and the evolution of the page from print to on-screen display. Guest editor-authors have included Colin Banks, John Cage, Adrian Frutiger, Dick Higgins, Richard Kostelanetz, Craig Saper, and George Steiner. The journal was edited for 26 years (1987–2012) by Sharon Poggenpohl of the Illinois Institute of Technology's Institute of Design, with administrative offices at the Rhode Island School of Design. It is currently edited by Mike Zender of the University of Cincinnati, which publishes and provides administrative offices for the journal.

Codex Bezae, text of John 1:1-16 Textual variants in the Gospel of John are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Origen, writing in the 3rd century, was one of the first who made remarks about differences between manuscripts of texts that were eventually collected as the New Testament. In , he preferred "Bethabara" over "Bethany" as the location where John was baptizing (Commentary on John VI.40 (24)).

According to textual criticism, Deuteronomy is only remotely related to the Priestly Code and there are certainly no verbal parallels. Some of the institutions and observances codified in the Priestly Code are indeed mentioned, mainly burnt-offerings, peace offerings, heave-offerings, the distinction between "clean" and "unclean", and rules about leprosy. However, they are destitute of the central significance with which they are placed in the Priestly Code. Conversely, the distinction between priests and other Levites, the Levite cities, the jubilee year, the offering of cereal crops, sin offerings, and Yom Kippur, which are fundamental institutions in the Priestly code, are not mentioned at all in the Deuteronomic Code.

Carmina Cantabrigiensia, Manuscript C, folio 436v, 11th century Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and of literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants, or different versions, of either manuscripts or of printed books. Such texts may range in dates from the earliest writing in cuneiform, impressed on clay, for example, to multiple unpublished versions of a 21st-century author's work. Historically, scribes who were paid to copy documents may have been literate, but many were simply copyists, mimicking the shapes of letters without necessarily understanding what they meant. This means that unintentional alterations were common when copying manuscripts by hand.

The first page of 1 Corinthians in Minuscule 223 (14th century) Textual variants in the First Epistle to the Corinthians are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or of Hebrew variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than previously thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("Vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts.Menachem Cohen, The Idea of the Sanctity of the Biblical Text and the Science of Textual Criticism in HaMikrah V'anachnu, ed.

The first page of the Epistle to Titus in Minuscule 699 Textual variants in the Epistle to Titus are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Those who place great emphasis on the baptisms in Acts often likewise question the authenticity of in its present form. Most scholars of New Testament textual criticism accept the authenticity of the passage, since there are no variant manuscripts regarding the formula, and the extant form of the passage is attested in the Didache and other patristic works of the 1st and 2nd centuries: Ignatius, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Cyprian, and Gregory Thaumaturgus. Commenting on , Gerhard Kittel states: > This threefold relation [of Father, Son and Spirit] soon found fixed > expression in the triadic formulae in and in . The form is first found in > the baptismal formula in ; Did.

In his edition of Quintilian's Institutiones Oratoria ("Institutes of Oratory") Regius was the first to attempt corrections of the numerous errors ("depravationes") in Quintilian's text. In his treatise on the text of Quintilian, the ProblemataDucenta problemata in Quintiliani depravationis, printed by Bonetus Locatellus. (probably 1492), he laid out his methods in textual criticism, which offer "insights that are still valid and useful for the modern textual critic,"Johan Schloemann, reviewing Dopp 1999, (Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2001). though Regius depends more on his own rationalization ("ratio") for resolution of textual difficulties than on an appreciation of the relationships among manuscripts, for which a modern scholar would strive.

Committee on Bible Translation, Gordon Fee Biography, accessed June 4, 2011. He also serves on the advisory board of the International Institute for Christian Studies.International Institute for Christian Studies, Board of Advisors , accessed June 4, 2011. He discovered that Codex Sinaiticus in Gospel of John 1:1-8:38 and in some other parts of this Gospel does not represent the Alexandrian text-type but the Western text-type.Gordon D. Fee, Codex Sinaiticus in the Gospel of John: A Contribution to Methodology in Establishing Textual Relationships, Studies in the Theory and Method of New Testament Textual Criticism, Wm. Eerdmans Publishing 1993, pp. 221-243.

Indologist C.A.F. Rhys Davids (1857–1942) stated he was "both the anchorite and the friend of mankind, even of the outcast". His figure unites the opposites of established monasticism and forest renunciation, and "transcends any particular Buddhist group or set of interests". Drawing from Przyluski's textual criticism, Ray argues that when Mahākāśyapa replaced Kauṇḍinya as the head of the saṃgha after the Buddha's passing away, his ascetic saint-like role was appropriated into the monastic establishment to serve the need for a charismatic leader. This led him to possess both the character of the anti- establishment ascetic, as well as that of the settled monastic governor.

A classical scholar and Marxist philosopher, he wrote on an extraordinarily wide range of subjects – "kinship, poetry, land tenure, textual criticism, word order, linguistics, religion, Marxism, Thomas Hardy, communist political strategy, and much else". The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein was also closely associated with the Highfield group: although living in Cambridge he found Birmingham's intellectual culture more outward- looking and made the city the focus of his primary social circle, being particularly close to Thomson and Bachtin, whom he visited frequently. He had had earlier links with Birmingham, visiting the city regularly in the years leading up to World War I to stay with his friend David Pinsent in Selly Park.

In 1887 his wife died after a short illness, and three years later, in 1890, Nestle married Elisabeth Aichele (1867–1944). In this second marriage, five daughters and one son were born. In 1898 Nestle published a handbook of textual criticism, and in 1898 published the first edition of a Greek New Testament under the title Novum Testamentum Graece cum apparatu critico ex editionibus et libris manu scriptis collecto. The text of this Greek New Testament was combined with the editions of Constantin von Tischendorf (Editio octava critica maior), The New Testament in the Original Greek of Westcott and Hort, and the edition of Richard Francis Weymouth.

Rudler was heavily influenced by Lanson's work and approach to literary criticism, and this was displayed in some of his work such as books on textual criticism published in 1902 and 1923. This approach was not to all tastes, and his influence in Britain led to a "scientific" approach to the study of French that was not appreciated by all. Rudler published extensively on the life and work of Constant, but also on the historian Jules Michelet, with editions of works by Jean Racine and Molière. He was the co-founder and first editor of the French Quarterly, a periodical that ran from 1919 to 1932 which was the first English-language periodical covering French literature.

Baiter's strong point was textual criticism, applied chiefly to Cicero and the Attic orators; he was very successful in finding the best manuscript authorities, and his collations were made with the greatest accuracy. Most of his works were produced in collaboration with other scholars, such as Johann Caspar von Orelli, who regarded him as his right-hand man. He edited Isocrates, Panegyricus (1831); with Hermann Sauppe, Lycurgus' Leocracea (1834) and Oratores Atticae (1838–1850); with Orelli and Winckelmann, a critical edition of Plato (1839–1842), which marked a distinct advance in the text, two new manuscripts being laid under contribution; with Orelli, Babrius, Fabellae Iambicae nuper repertae (1845); Isocrates, in the Didot collection of classics (1846).

" For the second edition, Darwin added these lines to the last chapter, with attribution to "a celebrated author and divine". In 1860 seven liberal Anglican theologians caused a much greater furore by publishing a manifesto titled Essays and Reviews in which they sought to make textual criticism of the Bible available to the ordinary reader, as well as supporting Darwin. Their new "higher criticism" represented "the triumph of the rational discourse of logos over myth." It argued that the Bible should not be read in an entirely literal manner, thus and would in the future become "a bogey of Christian fundamentalists ... but this was only because Western people had lost the original sense of the mythical.

Publications by Silva Tipple New Lake included a new translation of the New Testament in 1928, "The Caesarean Text of the Gospel of Mark" (a 1929 article written with Kirsopp Lake and Robert P. Blake), Six Collations of New Testament Manuscripts (1932, edited with Kirsopp Lake), and An Introduction to the New Testament (1937, also with Kirsopp Lake),Kirsopp Lake and Silva Lake, An Introduction to the New Testament (Harper & Brothers 1937). as well as many more technical reports. She was a founding editor of the textual criticism series Studies and Documents, and co-editor of Quantulacumque (1937), a collection of essays.Agnes Kirsopp Lake, Robert Pierce Casey, and Silva Tipple Lake, eds.

The codex is a book of 187 leaves of 20.5–21 cm by 13-14.5 cm with painted wooden covers, consisting of 26 quires (four to eight leaves).Léon Vaganay, Christian-Bernard Amphoux, Jenny Heimerdinger, An introduction to New Testament textual criticism (1991), p. 17. The text is written in one column per page, 30 lines per page. There are numerous corrections made by the original scribe and a few corrections dating to the late 5th or 6th century. John 1:1-5:11 is a replacement of a presumably damaged folio, and dates to around the 7th century. It is missing Mark 15:13-38 and John 14:26-16:7.

The more general value of the papyrus lies in its bearing on the wider question of the credibility of early scholiasts and commentators on matters of fact of the sort discussed in the manuscript. Because it was found at a remote and relatively unimportant center of Hellenic culture, it shows that such information was widely diffused and easily accessible throughout the Hellenic world. Given such diffusion, false statements of fact by ancient authors would have been easily detected, which makes it very unlikely that such authors would risk exposure by making things up. Thus this manuscript supports an assumption of the trustworthiness of ancient tradition as a sound principle of modern textual criticism.

Burgon supported his arguments with the opinion that the Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi, were older than the Sinaiticus and Vaticanus; and also that the Peshitta translation into Syriac (which supports the Byzantine Text), originated in the 2nd century. Miller's arguments in favour of readings in the Textus Receptus were of the same kind.Edward Miller, A Guide to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament (The Dean Burgon Society Press: 2003), pp. 30-37. 57-59. However, both Burgon and Miller believed that although the Textus Receptus was to be preferred to the Alexandrian Text, it still required to be corrected in certain readings against the manuscript tradition of the Byzantine text.

Publisher Humphrey Moseley was the first to link Cardenio with Shakespeare: the title page of his edition of 1647, entered at the Stationers' Register on 9 September 1653, credits the work to "Mr Fletcher & Shakespeare". In all, Moseley added Shakespeare's name to six plays by other writers, attributions which have always been received with scepticism. Theobald's claim of a Shakespearean foundation for his Double Falshood met with suspicion, and even accusations of forgery, from contemporaries such as Alexander Pope, and from subsequent generations of critics as well. Nonetheless Theobald is regarded by critics as a far more serious scholar than Pope, and as a man who "more or less invented modern textual criticism".

The Institut für Dokumentologie und Editorik (IDE - Institute for Documentology and Scholarly Editing) is a German association (with the legal status of "Eingetragener Verein") of researchers working on the application of digital methods to historical documents. Fields of interest include digitization, transcription, text encoding, textual criticism, critical scholarly editing, digital palaeography, and digital codicology. It was established in 2006 and has contributed in several ways to the field of digital humanities and has organized Summer Schools on a regular basis at various universities in Germany and Austria (Berlin, Chemnitz, Cologne, Rostock, Vienna). Most notably, the IDE publishes the series Schriften des Instituts für Dokumentologie und Editorik distributed in print and freely online.

During the twentieth century, the liturgical renewal granted, among other things, a prominent place to the Ambrosian hymns in the Roman Breviary of 1974: for example, Veni Redemptor gentium, Iam surgit hora tertia, Hic est dies verus Dei. The concerns of the Council for textual criticism, historical truth, theological renewal, variety in the choice of texts, prompted the writers of Liturgia Horarum to revise the everyday texts or replace them with new texts, especially for saints' feast days. Cistercian communities have since been trying, according to their different sympathies, to achieve a harmonious synthesis between the preservation of Cistercian heritage and an adaptation to the needs of our time and the liturgy of the universal Church.

In addition to his major work, his Novum Testamentum Graece (a text edition of the Greek New Testament), Scholz was also known for his efforts in Bible translation, in which he continued the work begun by Dominikus von Brentano and Anton Dereser. Scholz's work in textual criticism was particularly appreciated by the British. He was able to add to the list of Greek manuscripts of the New Testament 616 new minuscule manuscripts. His additions to the list of uncials comprise only Codex Sangallensis (Δ) and three fragments of the Gospels 0115 (formerly Wa), 054 (his Y), and the Vatican portion of N022 (his Γ). These manuscripts were partially examined and collated by him.

Ernst von Dobschütz, Zwei Bibelhandschriften mit doppelter Schriftart, Theologische Literaturzeitung, 1899, Nr. 3, 4. Febr. pp. 74-75 After the death of textual critic Caspar René Gregory, Dobschütz became his successor, and in 1933 he expanded the list of New Testament manuscripts, increasing the number of papyri from 19 to 48, the number of uncials from 169 to 208, the number of minuscules from 2326 to 2401, and the number of lectionaries from 1565 to 1609.Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", transl. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 74.

In Misquoting Jesus Ehrman tells how he was a born-again, fundamentalist Christian as a teenager. He recounts being certain in his youthful enthusiasm that God had inspired the wording of the Bible and protected its texts from all error. His desire to understand the original words of the Bible led him to the study of ancient languages, particularly Koine Greek, and to textual criticism. During his graduate studies, however, he became convinced that there are contradictions and discrepancies in the biblical manuscripts that could not be harmonized or reconciled: He remained a liberal Christian for 15 years, but later became an agnostic atheist after struggling with the philosophical problems of evil and suffering.

These have examined over 100 episodes about Guru Nanak in the different Janamsakhis. According to McLeod and other scholars, there are some historical elements in these stories but one so small that they can be summarized in less than one typeset page. Rest is fiction and ahistorical. McLeod's textual criticism, his empirical examination of genealogical and geographical evidence, examination of the consistency between the Sikh texts and their versions, philological analysis of historic Sikh literature, search for corroborating evidence in external sources and other critical studies have been influential among the Western academics and Indian scholars working outside India, but highly controversial within the Sikh community and some Sikh scholars based in Punjab.

He was descended from a family of French refugees named Perlechamp, was born at Groningen. He was professor of ancient literature and universal history at Leiden from 1822 to 1849, when he resigned his post and retired to Hilversum, where he died on 28 March 1865. He was the founder of the subjective method of textual criticism, which consisted in rejecting in a classical author whatever failed to come up to the standard of what that author, in the critic's opinion, ought to have written. His ingenuity in this direction, in which he went much further than Bentley, was chiefly exercised on the Odes of Horace (the greater part of which he declared spurious), and the Aeneid of Virgil.

The book presents a sustained argument from fields such as biblical hermeneutics, ancient history, textual criticism, archaeology, and Christian theology for why the Book of Revelation must have been written before the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, during the reign of Roman emperor Nero. Gentry argues that Nero Caesar is the "sixth king" presently ruling () who functions in Revelation as the Beast. In particular, Gentry focuses on the foundation of most external evidence for the late date hypothesis of the Book of Revelation, which is a statement by Ireneaus that 'the Apocalyptic vision was seen during Domitian's reign'.Book Review: Before Jerusalem Fell: Dating the Book of Revelation (An Exegetical and Historical Argument for a Pre-AD.

Rustichello wrote it in Franco-Venetian,Library of Congress Subject Headings, Volume 2Maria Bellonci, "Nota introduttiva", Il Milione di Marco Polo, Milano, Oscar Mondadori, 2003, p. XI [ITALIAN]Repertorio informatizzato dell’antica letteratura franco-italiana a cultural language widespread in northern Italy between the subalpine belt and the lower Po between the 13th and 15th centuries.Fragment of Marco Polo's Il Milione in Franco-Venetian language, University of Padua RIAlFrI Project It was originally known as Livre des Merveilles du Monde or Devisement du Monde ("Description of the World"). The book was translated into many European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but the original manuscripts are now lost, and their reconstruction is a matter of textual criticism.

Kirsopp Lake (7 April 187210 November 1946) was an English New Testament scholar, Church historian, and Winn Professor of Ecclesiastical History at Harvard Divinity School. He had an uncommon breadth of interests, publishing definitive monographs in textual criticism of the New Testament, Greek palaeography, theology, and archaeology. He is probably best known for the massive five-volume work The Beginnings of Christianity—an edition, translation, commentary, and study of the Acts of Apostles—that he conceived and edited with F. J. Foakes-Jackson and, among palaeographers, for the 10-volumes series of Dated Greek Manuscripts to the year 1200—edited with his second wife, Silva New—, one of the leading repertoires of facsimiles of Greek manuscripts.

According to subscriptions the Gospel of Matthew was written in Hebrew, Mark in Latin and Luke in Greek. The subscription states that Matthew was written in Hebrew eight years after our Lord's Ascension, and contained 2522 and 2560 , Mark was written in Latin ten years after the Ascension with 1675 and 1604 , Luke in Greek fifteen years after with 3803 and 2750 stichoi, and John thirty two years after with 1838 .Eberhard Nestle and Willima Edie, Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament (London, 1901), pp. 84-85. According to Ferrar it has 1523 errors of itacisms and another errors, but not more than in other manuscripts of that time.

He argued that modern philosophies legitimized their truth-claims not (as they themselves claimed) on logical or empirical grounds, but rather on the grounds of accepted stories (or "metanarratives") about knowledge and the world—comparing these with Wittgenstein's concept of language-games. He further argued that in our postmodern condition, these metanarratives no longer work to legitimize truth-claims. He suggested that in the wake of the collapse of modern metanarratives, people are developing a new "language-game"—one that does not make claims to absolute truth but rather celebrates a world of ever-changing relationships (among people and between people and the world). Derrida, the father of deconstruction, practiced philosophy as a form of textual criticism.

A parashah break creates a textual pause, roughly analogous to a modern paragraph break.For a general description of the section divisions and their purpose, see Emanuel Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 2nd revised edition (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001), pp. 50-51. Such a pause usually has one of the following purposes: #In most cases, a new parashah begins where a new topic or a new thought is clearly indicated in the biblical text. #In many places, however, the parashah divisions are used even in places where it is clear that no new topic begins, in order to highlight a special verse by creating a textual pause before it or after it (or both).

In philology, a commentary is a line-by-line or even word-by-word explication usually attached to an edition of a text in the same or an accompanying volume. It may draw on methodologies of close reading and literary criticism, but its primary purpose is to elucidate the language of the text and the specific culture that produced it, both of which may be foreign to the reader. Such a commentary usually takes the form of footnotes, endnotes, or separate text cross-referenced by line, paragraph or page. Means of providing commentary on the language of the text include notes on textual criticism, syntax and semantics, and the analysis of rhetoric, literary tropes, and style.

He often saw the Codex, but "it was under such restrictions that it was impossible to do more than examine particular readings."S. P. Tregelles, An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London 1856, p. 162. > "They would not let me open it without searching my pockets, and depriving > me of pen, ink, and paper; and at the same time two prelati kept me in > constant conversation in Latin, and if I looked at a passage too long, they > would snatch the book out of my hand".S. P. Tregelles, "A Lecture on the > Historic Evidence of the Authorship and Transmission of the Books of the New > Testament", London 1852, pp. 83–85.

First page of the Codex Boernerianus; in Romans 1:7 "in Rome" replaced into "in love" Textual variants in the Epistle to the Romans are the subject of the study called textual criticism of the New Testament. Textual variants in manuscripts arise when a copyist makes deliberate or inadvertent alterations to a text that is being reproduced. An abbreviated list of textual variants in this particular book is given in this article below. Most of the variations are not significant and some common alterations include the deletion, rearrangement, repetition, or replacement of one or more words when the copyist's eye returns to a similar word in the wrong location of the original text.

Tübingen also is the home of scholars of international renown such as the Idealist philosopher Immanuel Hermann von Fichte, the theologian Hans Küng, textual criticism pioneer F.C. Baur, jurisprudent Gerhard Anschütz, famous author Walter Jens, and developmental biologist Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard. Slovene refugee Protestant preacher Primož Trubar, who published the first two books in the Slovene language and is regarded as the key consolidator of the Slovene identity, lived in Tübingen and its suburb Derendingen and is buried there. Martin Luther's companion Philipp Melanchthon, called Praeceptor Germaniae (Teacher of Germany), studied here from 1512 to 1514. Former President of Germany Horst Köhler is a Tübingen alumnus as well, as was former Chancellor of Germany Kurt Georg Kiesinger.

There he studied, among other things, Greek testament textual criticism, Hebrew, and English poetry. Sugden was always grateful to his school for having taught him to sing by note, and at Manchester he studied harmony and counterpoint under (Sir) John Frederick Bridge, afterwards known as "Westminster Bridge", then organist at Manchester Cathedral. Sugden took his degree with honours in classics at University of London in 1873, and a year later was accepted for the Methodist ministry and appointed assistant tutor at Headingley theological college, Leeds. While in this position he took the degree of BSc (1876) He was seven years at Headingley college, was then appointed a junior circuit minister, and spent six successful years at this work.

The codex is one of only two known purple minuscules (minuscule 1143 is the other) written with gold ink.R. Waltz, Minuscule 565 (GA) at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism (2007) It contains the text of the four Gospels on 405 purple parchment leaves (17.6 by 19.2 cm) lacunae (Matthew 20:18-26, 21:45-22:9, Luke 10:36-11:2, 18:25-37, 20:24-26, John 11:26-48, 13:2-23, 17:1-12). The text is written in one column per page, 17 lines per page. The text is divided according to the (chapters), whose number are given at the margin, and the (titles of chapters) at the top of the pages (in silver uncials).

Bibliotheca Nordica website He was one of the founders and the first editor-in-chief (in the period 2011–2015) of the Parvum Lexicon StemmatologicumParvum Lexicon Stemmatologicum hosted at the University of Helsinki. Haugen has published widely on subjects within Old Norse philology and linguistics, textual criticism, textual and character encoding, and he has lectured at a number of European universities. He has published grammars of Old Norse (in GermanNorröne Grammatik im Überblick (2013) and NorwegianNorrøn grammatikk i hovuddrag (2015)) and has edited "Handbok i norrøn filologi" (1st edition 2004, 2nd edition 2013),Handbok i norrøn filologi (2013) which was translated into German as "Altnordische Philologie. Norwegen und Island" (1st edition 2007, 2nd edition in preparation).

The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia was started in 1948 as an annual journal dedicated to the study of books as physical objects and to textual criticism and scholarly editing; Bowers served as the journal's editor until his death in 1991. It was renamed Studies in Bibliography for volume 2. Bowers conceived of the journal as one that encompassed all bibliographical study, with no restriction as to the geographical origins or periods or genres of the material examined. The topics of articles in Volume I (1948-1949), for instance, ranged from an unpublished manuscript by Thomas Jefferson, Elizabethan drama, and the use of watermarks as bibliographical evidence to catalogs issued by 16th century booksellers.

The pro-monarchical source describes the divinely-appointed birth of Saul (a single word being changed by a later editor so that it referred to Samuel) and his leading of an army to victory over the Ammonites, which resulted in the clamouring of the people for him to lead them against the Philistines, when he is appointed king. Textual criticism also points to disparities in the account of David's rise to power as indicative of separate threads being merged later to create a Golden Age of a united monarchy. David is thought by scholars to have been a ruler in Judah, and Israel, which was comparatively immense and highly developed, continued unfettered. Modern archaeology also supports that view.

In 1513 he entered the congregation of the Order of the Augustinian Canons of San Salvatore of Bologna, taking up residence in the monastery of San Secundo, one of the order's houses in Gubbio. In 1524 he went to the mother cloister in Bologna, from where he briefly attended courses in Hebrew and rhetoric at the University of Bologna. In 1525 he was sent by his congregation to the Monastery of Sant' Antonio di Castello in Venice, where, due to his expertise in biblical languages and humanist textual criticism, he was placed in charge of the monastery's library, donated to the canons by Cardinal Domenico Grimani. Many of the collection's biblical, Hebrew, and philosophical works had once been owned by Pico della Mirandola.

Kurt Aland, and Barbara Aland, "The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Critical Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism", trans. Erroll F. Rhodes, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1995, p. 135. According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents textual cluster 827 in Luke 1, Luke 10, and Luke 20. It is a perfect member of the family. The cluster has following profile: : Luke 1: (4), 5, (6), 9, 28, 33, 34, (36), 37, 53. : Luke 10: 15, 19, 48, 51, 55, 57, 58, 62. : Luke 20: 1, (9), 21, 33, 42, 43, 48, 55, 65, 74. The cluster 827 consisting of manuscripts 827, 1050, 1446, 1457, 1593, and 2766.

Léon Vaganay (Saint-Étienne, 22 October 1882 - Vernaison, 30 March 1969) was a French Roman Catholic priest and biblical scholar. Vaganay was among the minority of modern scholars who considered the original text of the New Testament was closer to the Western text than to the Alexandrian text type.An Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism Léon Vaganay, Christian- Bernard Amphoux reprinted 1991 introduction "Vaganay was searching for the original text of the New Testament, which he sensed to be closer to the 'Western' text than to the Alexandrian type. I believe that the research and discoveries made over the last fifty years have confirmed and ..." His views on the Gospel of Peter also diverged from previous scholarship, with Vaganay disputing docetic origins.

According to Old Testament scholar Edward Young (1907–1968), Astruc believed that Moses did assemble the book of Genesis using the hereditary accounts of the Hebrew people. Biblical criticism can be said to have begun when Astruc borrowed methods of textual criticism (used to investigate Greek and Roman texts) and applied them to the Bible in search of those original accounts. Astruc believed that, through this approach, he had identified the separate sources that were edited together into the book of Genesis, thus explaining Genesis' problems while still allowing for Mosaic authorship. Astruc's work was the genesis of biblical criticism, and it became the "template" for all who followed him in source criticism; therefore he is called the "Father of Biblical criticism".

Under the direction of Gouldman, John Pearson and Anthony Scattergood, the nine-volume Critici Sacri was published in London in 1660 with a dedication to Charles II. Intended as a companion to the Polyglott Bible of Brian Walton (1657), Critici sacri was a collection of essays on Biblical interpretation, antiquities, textual criticism and exegesis by the most significant theologians of the time.Donald K. McKim, Dictionary of Major Biblical Interpreters (InterVarsity Press, 2007), p. 33. At the beginning of the 19th century, the theologian Adam Clarke considered Critici sacri the most important collection of Biblical criticism ever made,Adam Clarke, general preface to The Holy Bible (New York, 1811), p. xiii. and in the 21st century it is still recognized as a great work.

20th century Homeric scholarship had the shadow of Analysis and Unitarianism hanging over it, and much important work was done by old-style Analysts and Unitarians even up to the end of the century. Perhaps the most important Unitarian in the first half of the century was Samuel E. Bassett; and, as in the 19th century, some interpretive work argued for Unitarianism (e.g. George E. Dimock's 1989 The Unity of the Odyssey), while other literary criticism merely took a Unitarian perspective for granted. Some of the most important work on textual criticism and papyrology was done by Analyst scholars such as Reinhold Merkelbach and Denys L. Page (whose 1955 The Homeric Odyssey is a merciless but sometimes hilariously witty polemic against Unitarians).

The group was discovered by Hermann von Soden and designated by him with the symbol K1.Hermann von Soden, Die Schriften, I/2. Wisse included this group to the Kx (and Ki), and according to him it is the only subgroup or cluster of Kx. But the opinion of Wisse is based on a small sample size, only three chapters of Luke — chapters 1; 10; and 20. Based on age alone, it appears that K1 is independent of Kx.Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism The leading members of the group, according to Soden, are manuscripts S, V, and Ω. According to Soden the group K1 is the oldest form of the Kappa–text, dating from the 4th century and resulting from Lucian's recension.

The rise of the field of modern biblical textual criticism has led to a hunt for ancient manuscripts containing textual variants in the New Testament and Old Testament, as well as related Jewish and early Christian writings. Discovery, collection and study of these fragments have been instrumental to – as far as possible – reconstructing the original texts of the Bible and other religious scriptures of high interest, and how they evolved over the centuries. The importance of these fragments has considerably raised their market value, and finding an acquiring them became a multimillion-dollar trade after 1945, when the Nag Hammadi library and the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. Many forgers and fraudsters have sought to exploit this scholarly desire by fabricating manuscripts to sell them for profit.

In more recent years, the Comma has become relevant to the King James Only Movement, a largely Protestant development most prevalent within the fundamentalist and Independent Baptist branch of the Baptist churches. Many proponents view the Comma as an important Trinitarian text.James H. Sightler The King James Bible is Inspired (2011) "The modern versions… omit or cast doubt on I John 5:7. the most important Trinitarian verse in the Bible and the one verse most often attacked in history" The defence of the verse by Edward Freer Hills in 1956 as part of his defence of the Textus Receptus The King James Version Defended The Johannine Comma (1 John 5:7) was unusual due to Hills' textual criticism scholarship credentials.

The letters Θ Ε Ο Σ are round, the strokes of Χ Ζ Ξ are not prolonged below the line. It has a regular system of punctuation. The handwriting is similar to that in the Codex Alexandrinus, though not so regular and neat. The initial letters are decorated with green, blue, and vermilion. Certain disputed passages are marked with an asterisk – signs of the times (Matthew 16:2b-3), Christ agony (Luke 22:43-44), Luke 23:34, Pericope Adulterae (John 8:2-11).Robert Waltz, Codex Basilensis E (07): at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism It contains tables of the (tables of contents) before each Gospel and the text is divided according to the (chapters), the numbers of which are placed in the margins.

Page 1 of the works of Gaius Musonius Rufus, with critical apparatus Stemma codium constructed by Cesare Questa, representing relationships of textual witnesses (with their sigla; the lost source text is indicated by Ω) to the works of Roman playwright Plautus, with estimated dates from the IVth through Xth centuries. A critical apparatus () in textual criticism of primary source material, is an organized system of notations to represent, in a single text, the complex history of that text in a concise form useful to diligent readers and scholars. The apparatus typically includes footnotes, standardized abbreviations for the source manuscripts, and symbols for denoting recurring problems (one symbol for each type of scribal error). :The fullness of the critical apparatus may excite surprise.

And in language accessible to nonspecialists, Ehrman explains these procedures and their results. He further explains why textual criticism has frequently sparked intense controversy, especially among scripture-alone Protestants." Charles Seymour of the Wayland Baptist University in Plainview, Texas wrote, "Ehrman convincingly argues that even some generally received passages are late additions, which is particularly interesting in the case of those verses with import for doctrinal issues such as women's ordination or the Atonement." Neely Tucker of The Washington Post wrote that the book is "an exploration into how the 27 books of the New Testament came to be cobbled together, a history rich with ecclesiastical politics, incompetent scribes and the difficulties of rendering oral traditions into a written text.

It inaugurated the modern period of Roman Catholic biblical studies by encouraging the study of textual criticism (or lower criticism), pertaining to text of the Scriptures themselves and transmission thereof (for example, to determine correct readings) and permitted the use of the historical-critical method (or higher criticism), to be informed by theology, Sacred Tradition, and ecclesiastical history on the historical circumstances of the text. The general theme of the "Word of God" was covered by the Second Vatican Council in November 1965 in its Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation: Dei Verbum. The 1992 Catechism of the Catholic Church describes principles of Bible Study in paragraphs 101-141 and other sections. For Catholics, the Word of God is not a "dead letter" but is incarnate and living.

It contains also tables of the (tables of contents) before each book. The value of the codex is indicated by its subscription at the end of the Epistle to Titus: : Ἔγραψα καὶ ἐξεθέμην κατὰ δύναμιν στειχηρὸν τόδε τὸ τεῦχος Παύλου τοῦ ἀποστόλου πρὸς ἐγγραμμὸν καὶ εὐκατάλημπτον ἀνάγνωσιν… ἀντεβλήθη δὲ ἡ βίβλος πρὸς τὸ ἐν Καισαρίᾳ ἀντίγραφον τῆς βιβλιοθήκης τοῦ ἀγίου Παμφίλου χειρὶ γεγραμμένον αὑτοῦ. :I, Euthalius, wrote this volume of the Apostle Paul as carefully as possible in stichoi, so that it might be read with intelligence: the book was compared with the copy in the library at Caesarea, written by the hand of Pamphilius the saint.Eberhard Nestle and William Edie, Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the Greek New Testament, (New York, 1901), p. 78.

In the academic year 2001-02 he was a Forschungpreisträger of Alexander von Humboldt Foundation and in that capacity a visiting professor at the Faculty of Divinity at Göttingen University, Germany. He is Fellow of the Australian Academy of Humanities, and since 2006 Honorary Fellow of the Academy of the Hebrew Language. On 27 September 2017 he was awarded the Burkitt Medal for Hebrew Bible Studies by the British Academy, which judged that over the past six decades he had made outstanding contributions to the study of the Hebrew grammar and syntax, and the Septuagint (an ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament). Francis Crawford Burkitt (1864-1935) was a distinguished Cambridge professor with significant contributions on the textual criticism of the New Testament and Eastern churches.

Among the papers found after his death were a life of Cardinal de Bérulle, a treatise on the coming of Elias, a Hebrew grammar, and notes on the theory of Astruc touching the composition of Genesis. His works on Hebrew philology have fallen into oblivion; the deliberate discarding of vocal signs and the unlikely and unwarranted pronunciation adopted foredoomed them to failure. On the other hand, his Latin translation of the Bible is, for the clearness, energy, and polish of the language, deservedly praised; not so, however, all the rules of textual criticism laid down in the "Prolegomena", and the application of these rules in the "Biblia hebraica" marred by too many unnecessary and conjectural corrections of the Masoretic text.

Only a few of his works survive; his Setsuhei ("Discussions on Error") has been lost and may have been the reason for his separation from the Kaitokudō, and around nine other works' titles are known.Kato 1967, pg183 The surviving works are his Okina no Fumi ("The Writings of an Old Man"),"The Writings of an Old Man", translator Kato Shuichi, 1967 Shutsujō Kōgo ("Words after Enlightenment"; on textual criticism of Buddhist sutras), and three other works on ancient musical scales, ancient measurements, and poetry. He took a deep critical stance against normative systems of thought, partially based on the Kaitokudō's emphasis on objectivity, but was clearly heterodox in eschewing the dominant philosophies of the institution. He was critical of Buddhism, Confucianism and Shintoism.

Derek Pell has published work under various pseudonyms, some with fictional biographies, which serve to question the concept of authorial originalitySee Textual criticism#Uninfluenced final authorial intention intention while giving focus and outlet to his different faucets of creative expression.Some other frequency: interviews with innovative American authors By Larry McCaffery Edition: illustrated Published by University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996 page 286 ;Doktor Bey Bey is a fictional scholar, born in New York City and Tibet in 1877. Author of Doktor Bey's Suicide Guide (1977), Doktor Bey's Bedside Bedbug Book (1978), Doktor Bey's Handbook of Strange Sex (1978), Doktor Bey's Book of Brats (1979), Doktor Bey's Book of the Dead (1981). ;Norman Conquest This is Derek Pell's visual and performance focused alter-ego and digital artist.

Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London2, 1912, p. 83. In the New Testament, the Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text-type. Aland placed it in Category I. In the Gospels of Luke and John, it has been found to agree very closely with the text of Bodmer , which has been dated to the beginning of the 3rd century and hence is at least 100 years older than the Codex Vaticanus itself. This is purported to demonstrate (by recourse to a postulated earlier exemplar from which both P75 and B descend) that the Codex Vaticanus accurately reproduces an earlier text from these two biblical books, which reinforces the reputation the codex held amongst Biblical scholars.

10 [NA26] : Matthew 17:23 — τη τριημερα (the third day) for τη τριτη ημερα (the third day), it is singular reading;E. Miller, A Guide to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament (New Jersey, 1886), p. 58. : Matthew 21:31 — ὁ ὕστερος (the last) for ὁ πρῶτος (the first), ὁ ἔσχατος (the last), or ὁ δεύτερος (the second); ὁ ὕστερος is a singular reading;Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: Stuttgart 2001), p. 45.Eberhard Nestle, Erwin Nestle, Barbara Aland and Kurt Aland (eds), Novum Testamentum Graece, 26th edition, (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1991), p. 60 [NA26] : Matthew 23:38 — word ερημος (desert) is omitted, as in manuscripts Codex Regius, Corbeiensis II, Syriac Sinaiticus, copsa, bo;NA26, p. 67.

Different stages of precision are also thought evident in Numbers 8. Numbers 8:15b-26 repeats the rules of Numbers 8:6-15a, but also connects the ownership of the firstborn with the Exodus from Egypt, as well as adding rules concerning a minimum age and a retirement age. Standard textual criticism, as well as the repetition, is thought to indicate that the second portion is by a different writer, creating an explanation that wasn't originally present. Such increasing of precision is not only present in direct modification of the law, and there are examples of instances where narrative frameworks present modifications of the law, but openly admitting that they are extra rules, not present when the laws were originally given out.

At the same time, the critical text should document variant readings, so the relation of extant witnesses to the reconstructed original is apparent to a reader of the critical edition. In establishing the critical text, the textual critic considers both "external" evidence (the age, provenance, and affiliation of each witness) and "internal" or "physical" considerations (what the author and scribes, or printers, were likely to have done). The collation of all known variants of a text is referred to as a variorum, namely a work of textual criticism whereby all variations and emendations are set side by side so that a reader can track how textual decisions have been made in the preparation of a text for publication.McGann 1992, p.

They proposed nine critical rules, including a version of Bengel's rule, "The reading is less likely to be original that shows a disposition to smooth away difficulties." They also argued that "Readings are approved or rejected by reason of the quality, and not the number, of their supporting witnesses", and that "The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others." "The reading is to be preferred that makes the best sense, that is, that best conforms to the grammar and is most congruous with the purport of the rest of the sentence and of the larger context." (2.20) Many of these rules, although originally developed for biblical textual criticism, have wide applicability to any text susceptible to errors of transmission.

The notices of Virgil's text, though seldom or never authoritative in face of the existing manuscripts, which go back to, or even beyond, the time of Servius, yet supply valuable information concerning the ancient recensions and textual criticism of Virgil. In the grammatical interpretation of his author's language, Servius does not rise above the stiff and overwrought subtleties of his time; while his etymologies, as is natural, violate every modern law of sound and sense in favour of creative excursus. Servius set his face against the prevalent allegorical methods of exposition of text. For the antiquarian and the historian, the abiding value of his work lies in his preservation of facts in Roman history, religion, antiquities and language, which but for him might have perished.

Most of the information on Aristagoras and his actions comes from the writings of the ancient Greek historian Herodotus. On the one hand he is virtually the only literary source for the events he presents as history. While in many ways he reflects some of the best of ancient historiography, on the other hand, his work is sprinkled with motivational and logical lacunae, creating textual paradoxes everywhere, causing some scholars to be critical of his value as a historical source, especially regarding the Ionian Revolt. For purposes of this presentation, textual criticism may be polarized into two camps: the cynical, discrediting Herodotus as an unreliable source, and the affirmative, which credits him with being reliable as far as he goes.

These prohibitions are listed in Leviticus 18, and again in chapter 20, both times with the warning "lest the land vomit you out." While Leviticus 18 presents them as a simple list, Leviticus 20 presents them in a chiastic structure based on how serious a crime they are viewed, as well as presenting the punishment deemed appropriate for each, ranging from excommunication to execution. Leviticus 20 also presents the list in a more verbose manner. Furthermore, Leviticus 22:11–21 parallels Leviticus 17, and there are, according to textual criticism, passages at Leviticus 18:26, 19:37, 22:31–33, 24:22, and 25:55, which have the appearance of once standing at the end of independent laws or collections of laws as colophons.

A sampling of his discoveries was published, and is still being published today. Critics of his work doubt the value of some of his findings and attempt to dismiss more evident numerical patterns as random chance. Panin's claims, that the existence of such statistical anomalies is proof of divine inspiration, are still sharply debated by skeptics of his work, yet to date no thorough statistical analysis has been made either for or against his claims, as the spectrum of data that Panin used for demonstrating the patterns precludes linear analysis. While Panin spoke highly of the edition of Westcott and Hort of the New Testament, he found their textual criticism wanting and was obliged to produce his own critical text.

Shepherd finely comments on Valla's advantage in the literary dispute: the power of irony and satire (making a sharp imprint on memory) versus the ploddingly heavy dissertation (that is quickly forgotten). These sportive polemics among the early Italian humanists were famous, and spawned a literary fashion in Europe which reverberated later, for instance, in Scaliger's contentions with Scioppius and Milton's with Salmasius. Erasmus, in 1505, discovered Lorenzo Valla's Adnotationes in Novum Testamentum (New Testament Notes), which encouraged him to pursue the textual criticism of the Holy Scriptures, free of all academic entanglements that might cramp or hinder his scholarly independence—contributing to Erasmus's stature of leading Dutch Renaissance humanist.Marvin Anderson, "Erasmus the Exegete" (1969), Concordia Theological Monthly 40 (11): 722–746.

Joseph Bryant Rotherham's Emphasized Bible (abbreviated EBR to avoid confusion with the REB) is a translation of the Bible which uses various methods, such as "emphatic idiom" and special diacritical marks, to bring out nuances of the underlying Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic texts. Rotherham was a Bible scholar and minister of the Churches of Christ, who described his goal as "placing the reader of the present time in as good a position as that occupied by the reader of the first century for understanding the Apostolic Writings". The New Testament Critically Emphasised was first published in 1872. However, great changes occurred in textual criticism during the second half of the 19th century, culminating in Brooke Foss Westcott's and Fenton John Anthony Hort's Greek text of the New Testament.

Title page of Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies (1623), commonly referred to as the First Folio, which established the canonical status of the 36 plays included therein. Shakespeare attribution studies is the scholarly attempt to determine the authorial boundaries of the William Shakespeare canon, the extent of his possible collaborative works, and the identity of his collaborators. The studies, which began in the late 17th century, are based on the axiom that every writer has a unique, measurable style that can be discriminated from that of other writers using techniques of textual criticism originally developed for biblical and classical studies. The studies include the assessment of different types of evidence, generally classified as internal, external, and stylistic, of which all are further categorised as traditional and non-traditional.

In the Chichester inscription, the first two letters of the king's native name, given in the genitive case, are missing. It is usually reconstructed as "Cogidubnus", following the majority of manuscripts of Tacitus, but some, including Charles E Murgia,Charles E Murgia (1977) "The Minor works of Tacitus : a study in textual criticism", Classical Philology 72, p.339 believe "Togidubnus" is the more linguistically correct form as a Celtic name. The Roman names "Tiberius Claudius" indicate that he was given Roman citizenship by the emperor Claudius, or possibly by Nero, and probably not, as has been suggested, that he was related to Claudia Rufina, a woman of British descent whose marriage to Aulus Pudens in Rome in the 90s is mentioned by the poet Martial.Martial, Epigrams XI.53, ed.

It is believed probable that the clause was inserted here by assimilation because the corresponding version of this narrative, in Matthew, contains a somewhat similar rebuke to the Devil (in the KJV, "Get thee hence, Satan,"; Matthew 4:10, which is the way this rebuke reads in Luke 4:8 in the Tyndale [1534], Great Bible (also called the Cranmer Bible) [1539], and Geneva [1557] versions), whose authenticity is not disputed, and because the very same words are used in a different situation in Matthew 16:23 and Mark 8:33. The omission of this clause from Luke 4:8 in critical texts is so well-established that no comment about the omission appears in the Appendix to Westcott & Hort, in Scrivener's Plain Introduction to Textual Criticism, or in the UBS New Testament.

In the 20th century, as new forms of textual criticism and archaeological methods were developed, allowing for greater accuracy in understanding the past, various historians and archaeologists published books on the subject of the druids and came to their own conclusions. The archaeologist Stuart Piggott, author of The Druids (1968), accepted the Greco- Roman accounts and considered the druids to be a barbaric and savage priesthood who performed human sacrifices.Piggott (1968) pp. 92–98. This view was largely supported by another archaeologist, Anne Ross, author of Pagan Celtic Britain (1967) and The Life and Death of a Druid Prince (1989), although she believed that they were essentially tribal priests, having more in common with the shamans of tribal societies than with the classical philosophers.Ross (1967) pp. 52–56.

Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of corruption, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four children (most of whom were married off, presumably for the consolidation of power) while a cardinal.Catholic Encyclopedia, Alexander VI (Retrieved May 10, 2007) Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism of the New Testament. In October 1517 Luther published the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and criticizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard to instances of sold indulgences. The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe.

John Mill's 1707 Greek New Testament was estimated to contain some 30,000 variants in its accompanying textual apparatusAdam Fox, John Mill and Richard Bentley: A Study of the Textual Criticism of the New Testament 1675–1729 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1954), pp. 105–115; John Mill, Novum Testamentum Graecum, cum lectionibus variantibus MSS (Oxford 1707) which was based on "nearly 100 [Greek] manuscripts."Metzger and Ehrman (2005), p.154 Eberhard Nestle estimated this number in 1897 as 150,000-200,000 variants.E. Nestle, Einfürung in das Griechische Neue Testament, p. 23. In 2005, Bart D. Ehrman reported estimates from 200,000 to 400,000 variants based on 5,700 Greek and 10,000 Latin manuscripts, various other ancient translations, and quotations by the Church Fathers.Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why.

The journal was established in 1841 by Moriz Haupt as the Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum (older spelling) with the objective of applying the same rigour to the philology and textual criticism of medieval German texts as was already current with Greek and Latin. With volume 13 (1867) the Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum began a new series ().Kurt Ruh, "Kleine Chronik der Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur", Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 100 (1971) 163–65, p. 163 In 1876, with volume 19 (New Series 7) its name was changed to the present Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur and a supplement, the Anzeiger, began publication as a journal of reviews;Franz Josef Worstbrock, "Mitteilung des Herausgebers", Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 119 (1990) 1-3, p.

In 2005, Clivaz has suggested that Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2383 (Papyrus 69 Gregory-Aland) is coherent with what we know about the Marcionite edition of Luke's Gospel. In 2009, she signaled to the Institute for New Testament Textual Research (INTF) the publication of Papyrus 126.Papyrus 126: A New Fragment of Hebrews at the Evangelical Textual Criticism On October 22–24, 2009 Clivaz organized the conference «Egyptian New Testament Papyri among Others» that took place at the University of Lausanne.Lire les papyrus du Nouveau Testament avec les autres papyrus d'Egypte Since 2010, she has started with other colleagues in Lausanne activities in Digital Humanities, that have resulted in research projects, events such as the DH2014 meeting, and new developments, including her own present position at the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics.

Problems in translation: The Danish word kildekritik, like the Norwegian word kildekritikk and the Swedish word källkritik, derived from the German Quellenkritik and is closely associated with the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886). Historian Wolfgang Hardtwig wrote: > His [Ranke's] first work Geschichte der romanischen und germanischen Völker > von 1494-1514 (History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations from 1494 to 1514) > (1824) was a great success. It already showed some of the basic > characteristics of his conception of Europe, and was of historiographical > importance particularly because Ranke made an exemplary critical analysis of > his sources in a separate volume, Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber (On > the Critical Methods of Recent Historians). In this work he raised the > method of textual criticism used in the late eighteenth century, > particularly in classical philology to the standard method of scientific > historical writing.

The second part contains extracts from the halakhic works of Isaac Alfasi, Isaac ibn Ghiyyat and Isaac ben Abba Mari, a relative of Abraham's. The Manhig did not exert any important influence on halakhic literature and is only occasionally mentioned by rabbis of the Middle Ages. However, it must be considered as of some importance in the history of Jewish literature, for it contains numerous literal quotations from the two Talmuds and most of the halakhic and aggadic Midrashim, as well as from certain collections of aggadot which have been wholly lost; so that the Manhig contributes considerably to the textual criticism of all of those works. It gives interesting and instructive details concerning special synagogical usages, personally observed by the author in northern France, southwestern Germany, Burgundy, Champagne, Provence, England, and Spain, and for which there is no other source of information.

Richard Simon's Critical History (1685), an early work of biblical criticism Biblical criticism is the critical analysis of the Bible from two distinctive perspectives: the concern to avoid dogma and bias by applying a neutral, non- sectarian, reason-based judgment to the study of the Bible, and the belief that reconstructing Bible history would lead to a correct understanding of the texts. This basis in critical thinking set it apart from the pre-critical methods that came before it, the anti-critical methods of those who oppose critically based study, and the post-critical orientation that came after it. Biblical criticism historically included a wide range of approaches and questions within four major methodologies: textual, source, form, and literary criticism. Textual criticism examines the text and its manuscripts to identify what the original text would have said.

The last 20 years have seen a popular revival of interest in the historic verse controversies and the textual debate. Factors include the growth of interest in the Received Text and the Authorized Version (including the King James Version Only movement) and the questioning of Critical Text theories, the 1995 book by Michael Maynard documenting the historical debate on 1 John 5:7, and the internet ability to spur research and discussion with participatory interaction. In this period, King James Bible defenders and opponents wrote a number of papers on the Johannine Comma, usually published in evangelical literature and on the internet. In textual criticism scholarship circles, the book by Klaus Wachtel Der byzantinische Text der katholischen Briefe: Eine Untersuchung zur Entstehung der Koine des Neuen Testaments, 1995 contains a section with detailed studies on the Comma.

They were handwritten and invariably closed with the words, "I can recommend Mr. ---- or Miss ------ without any qualification whatever." She maintained that "whatsoever" was a solecism. Through a bequest, Marti established the Berthe M. Marti Fellowship at the American Academy in Rome to enable graduate students from Bryn Mawr College and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to study and carry out research in Rome in the fields of early, classical, and medieval Latin, Latin palaeography, Latin textual criticism, or some combination thereof. The Fellowship, now established as an Affiliated Fellowship of the American Academy in Rome, was first held by Eric Hutchinson of Bryn Mawr College in 2005-2006, followed by John Henkel of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (2007–2008) and Jessica M. Sisk of Bryn Mawr College (2010–2011).

The traditional point of view, most prominently argued by A. Rahlfs, says that Origen sought to correct the Septuagint in the proto-Masoretic text in order to deprive the Jews of the argument about the "depravity of Scripture" in the controversy with Christians, while for the scientist the main criterion was not the Septuagint, but the original. A similar point of view was expressed by F. Schaff, who, however, attributed Origen the goals of the Septuagint apology, which should be cleared of the distortions of copyists and protected from accusations of inaccuracy. I.S. Vevyurko cited the following counterarguments: indeed, Origen corrected the text of the Septuagint, but noted all the changes introduced by special signs, once worked by Alexandrian philologists for textual criticism. Other translations served Origen primarily as evidence to record the understanding of the original.

In 1837, John Hannah, then an undergraduate at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, published a spoof textual criticism of "Old Mother Hubbord", supposedly written in A.D. 3211 by a New Zealand academic who tries to relate the poem to the nearly forgotten 19th-century civilisation which produced it.; Another very popular parody was the sermon "illustrating the method upon which some parsons construct their discourses", with the rhyme's first stanza as text, that appeared anonymously in newspapers between the 1870s and 1880s. Beginning from Britain, the item spread under such titles as "A Model Sermon", "Modern Sermon" or "A sermon of the olden times", as far as the United StatesThe Warren Ledger for 6 June 1879, p.1 and New Zealand.The Otago Witness, 8 Jan 1881 In Britain it was incorporated into a chapter of the Earl of Desart's novel, Children of Nature (1878).

Eusebius's canon tables were often included in Early Medieval Gospel books Pamphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves with the textual criticism of the Septuagint text of the Old Testament and especially of the New Testament. An edition of the Septuagint seems to have been already prepared by Origen, which, according to Jerome, was revised and circulated by Eusebius and Pamphilus. For an easier survey of the material of the four Evangelists, Eusebius divided his edition of the New Testament into paragraphs and provided it with a synoptical table so that it might be easier to find the pericopes that belong together. These canon tables or "Eusebian canons" remained in use throughout the Middle Ages, and illuminated manuscript versions are important for the study of early medieval art, as they are the most elaborately decorated pages of many Gospel books.

The best example of this is House F in the city of Nippur. Nearly one and a half thousand fragments of tablets were found at this house. They date to the 17th century BCE (short chronology) (the early part of Samsu-iluna's reign), and the majority of them were students' school exercises.Robson, Eleanor. 2001. “The Tablet House: A Scribal School in Old Babylonian Nippur.” Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale 95: 39-66. p. 40. Two other possible "school houses" are located at the site of Ur. The first is a house called No. 7 Quiet Street, where a smaller number of school texts was found in situ and date to the late 18th or early 17th century BCE (short chronology) (reigns of Rim-Sin II or as late as Samsu-iluna year 11Delnero, Paul. 2012. The Textual Criticism of Sumerian Literature.

He found frequent agreement between Origen and 1739 (outside part of Romans), both agree with p46 against the lesser Alexamdrians.G. Zunts, The Text of the Epistles, British Academy 1953, pp. 151-156 According to C.-B. Amfhoux and B. Outtier (1884) the Catholic epistles of the family 1739 represent the Caesarean text-type, especially in the variants they share with Codex Ephraemi, Papyrus 72, and the Old Georgian version.Christian-Bernard Amphoux, An Introduction to New Testament textual criticism, Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 104-105 ; Textual features In 1 Corinthians 12:3 reads (no one speaking by the Spirit [of God] ever says "Jesus be cursed!" and no one can say "Jesus is Lord" except by the Holy Spirit); in other textual traditions we find the object phrases in the accusative case Ιησουν, Κυριον Ιησουν; αναθεμα Ιησους is found in Origen comments.

He was familiar with Petrus Hofman Peerlkamp, the founder of the subjective method of textual criticism, which consisted in rejecting in a classical author whatever failed to come up to the standard of what that author, in the critic's opinion, ought to have written.Jovan Skerlić is born on this day RTS, Serbia Writes Jovan Skerlić in Istorija Nove Srpske Književnosti (Second Edition, Belgrade, 1921, page 43): The authors of the 19th century, with all their differences nevertheless share a unity of literary ideas and theories. Each of the young poets of the 20th century had his own concepts and well-defined ideas. This phenomenon made it extremely difficult for the literary critic to label new poetic achievements as specific schools, and place them in a continuation of the organized pattern that evolved from Romanticism of the 1860–1870 decade, to Realism after 1870.

As there would have been twelve of these arches it is likely these portraits represent the Apostles, although there is no direct connection between the Canon Tables or the letter of Eusebius and the twelve Apostles. The numbers of corresponding Gospel sections, as listed in the London Canon Tables, differ strikingly from any other surviving manuscript of the Eusebian canons. Eberhard Nestle, who was among the first biblical scholars to call attention to the value of the Eusebian canons for the New Testament textual criticism, dismissed the London Canon Tables as an example of de luxe manuscripts whose "text-critical value stands in reverse proportion to their artistic". The art historian Carl Nordenfalk, however, suggested that the London Canon Tables, "instead of being an example of careless copying, presuppose another section division than that of Eusebius himself".

Greetham received his undergraduate degree from the University of Oxford in 1963 and completed his Ph.D. in English at the City University of New York. Marta Werner of D'Youville College describes Greetham as "drawn to texts that spill over the boundaries of genre, that exist in multiple versions, that explore intertextuality, and that complicate in various other ways the notion of text as fixed or stable." In his works, Greetham has sought to co-opt "the terminology and practice of literary theory in re-designating textual operations in the guise of ... literature, anthropology, sociology, gender studies, history, political science, linguistics, psychology, [and] philosophy." As a theorist of scholarly editing, Greetham has taken up a middle ground between intentionalist positions like that of G. Thomas Tanselle and the social textual criticism of Jerome McGann, maintaining the goal of establishing an authoritative text while allowing the possibility that multiple authorized versions can exist.

According to Claremont Profile Method in the three test chapters of the Gospel of Luke, manuscripts E, F, G, H did not have sufficient consistency to demonstrate its existence as an independent textual group. Wisse included them to the textual family Kx. Family e (Soden's Ki) becomes Wisse's textual cluster Ω, an early form of Kx. Wisse confirmed statement of Soden that it is an early form of Kx.Frederik Wisse, The profile method for the classification and evaluation of manuscript evidence, as Applied to the Continuous Greek Text of the Gospel of Luke, William B. Eerdmans Publishing, (Grand Rapids, 1982), p. 95 But Wisse used small sample size (three chapters of Luke), based on the age alone, it appears that Ki is independent of Kx. The text of the manuscripts could involved.Von Soden's Textual System at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism The agreement with Textus Receptus in Mark 4 is 94.5%.

The Hebrew Old Testament Text Project (HOTTP) was an international and interconfessional committee of six Hebrew Bible scholars organized in 1969 by Eugene Nida, then head of the translations department of the United Bible Societies (UBS). This UBS sponsored committee was made up of Dominique Barthélemy, Alexander R. Hulst, Norbert Lohfink, W.D. McHardy, Hans Peter Rüger, and James A. Sanders. Nida served as chair of the committee with secretaries Adrian Schenker and J. A. Thompson. As a result of holding annual meetings from 1969 to 1980 to review issues of textual criticism deemed significant for translators, the committee issued a five-volume Preliminary and Interim Report between 1973 and 1980 (edited by Schenker) which is also sometimes referred to and cited as "HOTTP." HOTTP is an important precursor to Biblia Hebraica Quinta and Barthélemy's five-volume final report entitled Critique textuelle de l’Ancien Testament (CTAT) published between 1982 and 2015.

66 In 1819 the British and Foreign Bible Society published the Almeida Version in a single volume. Later editions of the Almeida Version, the first of which was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1898, depart from its dependence on the Textus Receptus of the New Testament and take account to a greater or lesser extent of advances in textual criticism, making it conform more closely to what is today accepted as the original Greek text. An exception is the 1994 edition of the Trinitarian Bible Society of Brazil,SBTB: A Necessidade de Traduções Dignas de Confiança which is associated with the Trinitarian Bible Society and is not to be confused with the Bible Society of Brazil, the publisher of "revised and corrected" and "revised and updated" editions of Almeida in 1917, 1956, 1969, 1993, 1995 and 2009. None of these editions contain the deuterocanonical books.

J. Brill), co-editor-in-chief for the journal Vigiliae Christianae, and on several other editorial boards for journals and monographs. Ehrman formerly served as President of the Southeast Region of the Society of Biblical Literature, chair of the New Testament textual criticism section of the Society, book review editor of the Journal of Biblical Literature, and editor of the monograph series The New Testament in the Greek Fathers (Scholars Press). Ehrman speaks extensively throughout the United States and has participated in many public debates, including debates with William Lane Craig, Dinesh D'Souza, Mike Licona, Craig A. Evans, Daniel B. Wallace, Richard Swinburne, Peter J. Williams, James White, Darrell Bock, Michael L. Brown, and Robert M. Price. In 2006 he appeared on The Colbert Report and The Daily Show, to promote his book Misquoting Jesus, and in 2009 reappeared on The Colbert Report with the release of Jesus, Interrupted.

Instead, the hypothesis draws primarily upon historical testimony, rather than textual criticism, as the central line of evidence. The foundation of evidence for the hypothesis is the writings of the Church Fathers: historical sources dating back to as early as the first half of the 2nd century, which have been held as authoritative by most Christians for nearly two millennia. Adherents to the Augustinian hypothesis view it as a simple, coherent solution to the synoptic problem. The Augustinian hypothesis addresses certain fundamental points of contention surrounding the synoptic problem, such as how reliable the early Christian tradition is, which gospel was written first, whether there were other unknown sources behind the gospels, to what extent, if any, the gospels were redacted, and to what extent the gospels were altered between the time they were originally written and the time the first surviving manuscripts appear.

Louisville, Westminster John Knox Press); David Alan Beck, ed., Perspectives on the Ending of Mark – 4 Views (2008, Nashville, Broadman & Holman); Nicholas P. Lunn, The Original Ending of Mark – A new case for the authenticity of Mark 16:9–20 (2015, Cambridge, UK, James Clarke & Co.); J. Lee Magness, Sense and Absence: Structure and Suspension in the Ending of Mark's Gospel (1986, Atlanta, Ga., Society of Biblical Literature Semeia Studies) reprinted as Marking the End: Sense and Absence in the Gospel of Mark (2002, Eugene, Ore., Wipf & Stock); etc. and considerable attention is paid to these verses in many (or most) texts on textual criticism of the New Testament, and many articles in learned journals. According to Reuss, the 1849 Greek New Testament of Tischendorf was the first to remove these verses from the main text.Eduard Reuss, Bibliotheca Novi Testamenti Geaeci ... (1872, Brunswick) page 260.

The plays continued to be heavily cut and adapted, becoming vehicles for star actors such as Spranger Barry and David Garrick, a key figure in Shakespeare's theatrical renaissance, whose Drury Lane theatre was the centre of the Shakespeare mania which swept the nation and promoted Shakespeare as the national playwright. At Garrick's spectacular 1769 Shakespeare Jubilee in Stratford-upon-Avon, he unveiled a statue of Shakespeare and read out a poem culminating with the words "'tis he, 'tis he, / The God of our idolatry". In contrast to playscripts, which diverged more and more from their originals, the publication of texts developed in the opposite direction. With the invention of textual criticism and an emphasis on fidelity to Shakespeare's original words, Shakespeare criticism and the publication of texts increasingly spoke to readers, rather than to theatre audiences, and Shakespeare's status as a "great writer" shifted.

Hölderlin Monument in the Alter Botanischer Garten Tübingen The Berlin Edition was to some extent superseded by the Stuttgart Edition (Grosse Stuttgarter Ausgabe), which began to be published in 1943 and eventually saw completion in 1986. This undertaking was much more rigorous in textual criticism than the Berlin Edition and solved many issues of interpretation raised by Hölderlin's unfinished and undated texts (sometimes several versions of the same poem with major differences). Meanwhile, a third complete edition, the Frankfurt Critical Edition (Frankfurter Historisch-kritische Ausgabe), began publication in 1975 under the editorship of Dietrich Sattler. Though Hölderlin's hymnic style—dependent as it is on a genuine belief in the divine—creates a deeply personal fusion of Greek mythic figures and romantic mysticism about nature, which can appear both strange and enticing, his shorter and sometimes more fragmentary poems have exerted wide influence too on later German poets, from Georg Trakl onwards.

One would, therefore, suppose beforehand that such a code would exhibit evidence of gradual growth. Colophons, which, according to textual criticism, are best explained as survivals from previous collections, are found in parts of the priestly code, at Leviticus 6:7, 7:37-38, 11:46-47, 13:59; 14:54-57, and 15:32-33. Colophons generally occur at the end of sources, and it is for this reason that Biblical Critics assert that the priestly code is composed of several originally separate documents placed together, with these colophons marking the ends of some of the source texts. Aside from these colophons, and obvious breaks between laws, such as those caused by narrative elements, for example the break between Leviticus 7:31 and Leviticus 11:1, as well as those caused by the presence of the Holiness Code, it is more difficult to identify other potential borders between sources.

Another distinct style is that of case law, in which the basic outline of a brief problem is described, such as Leviticus 15:32-41, discussing how to deal with a man who has collected sticks on the sabbath, and whether that constitutes a violation of the rule not to commit work on that day, and then the solution is explained by Moses, often after he has consulted with God. This is present on multiple occasions, such as concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, as well when the issue of the little passover was raised at Numbers 9:1-14. While many of these instances have, according to textual criticism, the resemblance of a single source, there are nevertheless portions which appear to be later layers, such as the additional return to the daughters of Zelophehad in Leviticus 36 to discuss a slightly different matter.

The ritual of the two goats, one being a scapegoat sent to Azazel, as a ritual to atone for sin as a nation, is given before, rather than within, instructions laying out how to observe Yom Kippur, leading to arguments that there were originally two separate sources describing this event. Further study on this question lead to the suggestion, supported by a majority of critical scholars, that there were two originally separate rituals which have been intertwined, one involving the two goats, at Leviticus 16:5, 16:7-10, and 16:14-28, and the other involving bullocks, constituting the remainder of Leviticus 16. Textual criticism also produces a noteworthy observation concerning Leviticus 12. This brief chapter concerns the ritual of purification after childbirth, which is strikingly similar to the rituals for purification after menstruation, and other bodily discharges (bleeding, pus, vomit, etc.), at the end of Leviticus 15.

Through this, Schaeffer reveals not only the crucial role of textual criticism and scholarship in Tibetan Buddhist practice, but also how Tibetan books simultaneously functioned as relics and sites of devotional activity.The Culture of the Book in Tibet, 3-6. Beyond his monographs, Schaeffer has also edited several volumes, including Among Tibetan Texts: Essays on Tibetan Religion, Literature, and History by E. Gene Smith, (Wisdom Publications, 2001), Power, Politics, and the Reinvention of Tradition: Tibet in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Brill Publishers, 2006; co-edited with Bryan J. Cuevas). Most recently, Schaeffer edited two volumes in 2013 for Columbia University Press--Sources of Tibetan Tradition (co-edited with Gray Tuttle) and The Tibetan History Reader (co-edited with Gray Tuttle and Matthew Kapstein)--both of which make the recent research into Tibetan history, doctrine, and culture available for both academic researchers and for students in college classrooms.

The specific expression of Modern Orthodoxy, however, takes many forms, and particularly over the past 30-40 years, describes a political spectrum.William B. Helmreich and Reuel Shinnar: Modern Orthodoxy in America: Possibilities for a Movement under Siege Among the issues have been the extent to which Modern Orthodoxy should cooperate with the more liberal denominations, support secular academic pursuits combined with religious learning, and embrace efforts to give women a larger role in Jewish learning and worship; the acceptability of modern textual criticism as a tool for Torah study is also debated.Rabbi David Bigman: Finding A Home for Critical Talmud Study, The Edah Journal 2:1 For further discussion, see Orthodox Judaism#Diversity; Joseph B. Soloveitchik#Debate over world view; Torah im Derech Eretz#Interpretation. To the ideological right, the line between Haredi and Modern Orthodox has blurred in recent years; some have referred to this trend as "haredization".

Textual criticism (or broader: text philology) is a part of philology, which is not just devoted to the study of texts, but also to edit and produce "scientific editions", "scholarly editions", "standard editions", "historical editions", "reliable editions", "reliable texts", "text editions" or "critical editions", which are editions in which careful scholarship has been employed to ensure that the information contained within is as close to the author's/composer's original intentions as possible (and which allows the user to compare and judge changes in editions published under influence by the author/composer). The relation between these kinds of works and the concept "source criticism" is evident in Danish, where they may be termed "kildekritisk udgave" (directly translated "source critical edition"). In other words, it is assumed that most editions of a given works is filled with noise and errors provided by publishers, why it is important to produce "scholarly editions". The work provided by text philology is an important part of source criticism in the humanities.

Arnold Bogumil Ehrlich (15 January 1848 in Włodawa, Poland - November 1919 in New Rochelle, New York) was a scholar of bible and rabbinics whose work spanned the latter part of the 19th and the early 20th century. A formidable scholar, he is said to have possessed perfect recall, with an outstanding knowledge of Bible and Talmud, and to have spoken 39 languages. He is best known for his book Mikra Kiphshuto (The Bible according to its Literal Meaning) in three Hebrew volumes published from 1899–1901, in which he sought to bring the results of modern textual criticism of the Bible to a wider Hebrew audience, emphasising the Torah to be a document made by humans complete with scribal and copying errors, not a perfect work dictated to Moses at Sinai; and as a formative intellectual influence on the young Mordecai Kaplan. Ehrlich earned a living as a private tutor, and teaching at the Hebrew Preparatory School of the Temple Emanu-El Theological School of New York.

Michael Marx, Angelika Neuwirth and Nicolai Sinai, "Koran, aber in Kontext — Eine Replik" ("The Quran, but in context — a reply"), Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 6 November 2007. On the contrary, they asserted, classical commentaries within the Islamic tradition are concerned with the "occasions of revelation" (asbâb an-nuzûl) of particular suras, while Islamic literature discussing alternative interpretations of the Qur'an — "a sort of textual criticism avant la lettre" — can fill library shelves. In discussions with Iranian, Arab and Turkish scholars in Tehran, Qom, Damascus, Fez, Rabat, Cairo and Istanbul Marx, Neuwirth and Sinai had contended that even if one considered the Quran as the literal words of God, a contextual reading as a legitimate subject of historical inquiry could create a climate of healthy inquiry and debate among Islamic and non-Islamic researchers alike. The trio's letter also pointed out that the Corpus Coranicum project was in any case not directed to Islamic fundamentalists, but to Germans and other Europeans.

Robinson served as assistant professor of biblical studies and languages at St. Petersburg Baptist College (1982–1984), associate professor of biblical studies and languages at Luther Rice Seminary (1985–1991), and then joined the faculty of Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary in 1991, where he served as associate professor (1991–1996), professor (1996–2002), senior professor (2002–2014), and research professor (2014–2016) of New Testament and Greek. Robinson also served as pastor of two churches during the years 1985–1991 and 1993–1997. Robinson is best known as a proponent of the Byzantine-priority method of New Testament textual criticism. This method maintains that when differences appear among the manuscripts of the Greek New Testament the best representation of the original text is usually found in the agreement of most manuscripts, that is, a “consensus text” which “reflects a unified dominance that permeates the vast majority of manuscripts.”The New Testament in the Original Greek: Byzantine Textform 2005 (ed.

From 1989 to 1995 Bruno Chiesa (University of Pavia, then University of Turin) was the Editor-in-Chief; he was succeeded by Claudio Gianotto (University of Turin) from 1996 to 2004. In 2005 the journal moved to a new publisher, Morcelliana (Brescia, Italy), starting its 2nd series with the new subtitle "Studies in Judaism and Christianity from Second Temple to Late Antiquity" and shifting its focus from the broader field of Judaic Studies to the period following the Babylonian exile up to the rise of Islam. Gabriele Boccaccini (University of Michigan) was appointed as the new editor- in-chief. In 2012 the journal started its 3rd series with the subtitle "Historical and Textual Studies in Ancient and Medieval Judaism and Christianity", publishing on the history of Judaism broadly conceived, inclusive of the Second Temple, rabbinic and medieval periods, Christian origins and Jewish-Christian relations until the Early Modern Age, with priority given to studies that advance the discipline of textual criticism.

He was assistant librarian of Harvard University from 1856 to 1872, and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalog, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary catalogs with the grouping of the minor topics under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic catalogue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of New Testament Criticism and Interpretation in the Harvard Divinity School. Abbot's studies were chiefly in Oriental languages and textual criticism of the New Testament, though his work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future life, appended to W. R. Alger's History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages (1862), and published separately in 1864. Abbot's publications, though always of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, dictionaries, concordances, texts edited by others, Unitarian controversial treatises, etc.

The Greek text of the codex is mixed. According to Streeter it is a representative of the Caesarean text-type, but according to Kurt Aland it has some the Byzantine text-type element, though it is not pure Byzantine manuscript. Aland did not place it in any of Categories of New Testament manuscripts. D. A. Black classified it as the Caesarean text.David Alan Black, New Testament Textual Criticism, Baker Books, 2006, p. 65. Alison Sarah Welsby has placed the manuscript in the textual family f1 in John, as an ancestor manuscript of Minuscule 1210. According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents textual group 22b in Luke 1, Luke 10, and Luke 20 as a core member. Wisse listed 22, 134, 149, 351 (part), 1192, and 1210 as members of group 22b. Matthew 10:12 (see Luke 10:5) : It reads λεγοντες ειρηνη τω οικω τουτω (say peace to be this house) after αυτην.

Writing of the then as yet unpublished manuscript 4QpapLXXLevb, which contains the form Ιαω, he said: "This new evidence strongly suggests that the usage in question goes back for some books at least to the beginnings of the Septuagint rendering."Patrick W. Skehan, "The Qumran Manuscripts and Textual Criticism" in Vatus Testamentum supp. 4 (1957) 148–160, reprinted in By 1980, he had modified his view to the extent of explicitly excluding the prophetic books, much of which, he said, "comes to hand with its earliest attainable stage showing leanings toward Κύριος ὁ θεός as an equivalent for אדני יהוה, in accordance with the Palestinian qěrē. Also, as far back as it is possible to go, the Kyrios term is employed in these books for both יהוה and אדני, on the basis of the spoken Adonay that stood for either separately [...] This cannot have come about as exclusively the work of Christian scribes".

Frank Shaw, "Three Developments in New Testament Textual Criticism: Wettlaufer, Houghton and Jongkind(-Williams)" in Journal of Greco-Roman Christianity and Judaism, volume 14 (2018), pp. 114–115 Tentative agreement with the possibility ("may have had") that Shaw envisages is expressed by Pavlos D. Vasileiadis: "There is compelling evidence, both explicit and implicit, that some of the Greek Bible copies—like the ones read by Christians such as Irenaeus of Lyons, Origen, Eusebius of Caesarea, Tertullian, Jerome, and Ps-John Chrysostom—were employing the use of Ιαω for the Tetragram. If this conclusion is valid, this would imply that for a few centuries Ιαω was prevailingly present within the Bible copies read by the dispersed Christian communities, side-by-side with Hebrew Tetragrammata and the increasingly dominant scribal device of nomina sacra. As a result, a possible consequence is that Ιαω (or, less possibly, a similar Greek term) might well have appeared in the original NT copies".

Both, for example, involve two turtledoves, or two young pigeons brought to a priest, one for a sin offering and the other for a burnt offering, on the eighth day. According to textual criticism, the writing style, vocabulary, and so forth, is also indicative of a single author for the two chapters. Consequently, most biblical critics view Leviticus 12 as originally belonging immediately after Leviticus 15:30, as Leviticus 15 has the structure of discussion on male non-sexual discharges, followed by discussion on male sexual discharges (semen), followed by discussion on female non-sexual discharges, and thus Leviticus 12 completes the pattern, as it discusses childbirth, which can be viewed as sexually connected (conception) discharge (of a baby) by a female. Although there is not complete agreement about why this Chapter was moved, the currently most prominent reason given is that, at a later point in time, the view of childbirth changed, and it was no longer viewed as a sexual discharge.

Biblical critics assert that it is difficult to see why anyone would go to the extent of bringing a lamb, when flour is enough, and similarly, if flour is sufficient, they assert that mentioning more costly losses, such as lambs, would be unexpected from a single writer of the law. Textual criticism identifies quite different writing styles between each of these three sections, the first section not detailing any ritual whatsoever, merely what should be brought, the second giving quite detailed instructions of ritual, and each being progressively more verbose, the first merely writes shall make an atonement for him concerning his sin, whereas the third produces shall make an atonement for him as touching his sin that he hath sinned in one of these. For these reasons, critical scholars usually identify Leviticus 5:7-10 as a later addition to Leviticus 5:1-6, and Leviticus 5:11-13 as an even later addition, reflecting the ritual gradually being watered down over time.

Divino afflante Spiritu ("Inspired by the Holy Spirit") is a papal encyclical letter issued by Pope Pius XII on 30 September 1943 calling for new translations of the Bible into vernacular languages using the original languages as a source instead of the Latin Vulgate. The Vulgate, completed by Jerome and revised multiple times, had formed the textual basis for all Catholic vernacular translations until then. Divino afflante Spiritu inaugurated the modern period of Roman Catholic biblical studies by encouraging the study of textual criticism (or lower criticism), pertaining to text of the Scriptures themselves and transmission thereof (for example, to determine correct readings) and permitted the use of the historical-critical method (or higher criticism), to be informed by theology, Sacred Tradition, and ecclesiastical history on the historical circumstances of the text, hypothesizing about matters such as authorship, dating, and similar concerns. The eminent Catholic biblical scholar Raymond E. Brown described it as a "Magna Carta for biblical progress".

Fee is considered a leading expert in pneumatology and textual criticism of the New Testament. He is also the author of books on biblical exegesis, including the popular introductory work How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth (co-authored with Douglas Stuart), the "sequel," How to Read the Bible, Book by Book, How to Choose a Translation for all its Worth (co-authored with Mark L. Strauss) and a major commentary on 1 Corinthians as well as numerous other commentaries on various books in the New Testament. In the 1990s, he succeeded F.F. Bruce to become the editor of the notable evangelical commentary series, the New International Commentary on the New Testament of which his commentaries on 1 Corinthians and Philippians are a part. Fee is a member of the CBT (Committee on Bible Translation) that translated the New International Version (NIV) and its revision, the Today's New International Version (TNIV).

Woide's facsimile edition (1786), containing text of John 1:1-7 The Epistles of Clement of the codex were published in 1633 by Patrick Young, the Royal Librarian. A collation was made by Alexander Huish, Prebendary of Wells, for the London Polyglot Bible (1657). The text of the manuscript was cited as footnotes. Richard Bentley made a collation in 1675. The Old Testament was edited by Ernst Grabe in 1707–1720,Frederic G. Kenyon, "Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament", London², 1912, p. 73. and New Testament in 1786 by Carl Gottfried Woide, in facsimile from wooden type, line for line, without intervals between the words, precisely almost as in original.T. H. Horne, An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, (New York, 1852), vol. 1852, p. 224. In 1 Tim 3:16 he edits ΘΣ , and combats in his prolegomenon the opinion of Wettstein,J. J. Wetstein, Novum Testamentum Grecum, Amsterdam 1751, vol. 1, p. 8-22; also Bianchini, Evangeliarium quadruplex, Rome 1749, 1.

According to the Hebrew Bible, the Kingdom of Israel (), was one of two successor states to the former United Kingdom of Israel and Judah. Historians often refer to the Kingdom of Israel as the "Northern Kingdom" or as the "Kingdom of Samaria" to differentiate it from the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Some researchers in modern scholarship, incorporating textual criticism and archaeology, have challenged the biblical account that the northern kingdom of Israel broke off from a united monarchy with the southern kingdom of Judah, suggesting instead that the northern Kingdom of Israel developed independently of Judah (a comparatively small and rural area), and that it first reached the political, economic, military and architectural sophistication of a kingdom under the Omride dynasty around 884 BCE.Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002) The Bible Unearthed : Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, Simon & Schuster, The Kingdom of Israel existed roughly from 930 BCE until 720 BCE, when it was conquered by the Neo- Assyrian Empire.

The writers of the Tanakh sometimes mention sources they use. These include Acts of Solomon (1 Kings 11:41), Chronicles of the Kings of Judah (1 Kings 14:29 and in a number of other places), Chronicles of the Kings of Israel (1 Kings 14:19 and in a number of other places), the Book of Jashar (Josh 10:12–14, 2 Sam 1:18–27, and possibly to be restored via textual criticism to 1 Kings 8:12), and Book of the Wars of the Lord (Num 21:14). A more complicated and speculative form of source criticism results from critical evaluation of style, vocabulary, reduplication, and discrepancies. An example of this kind of source criticism is found in the book of Ezra–Nehemiah (typically treated by biblical scholars as one book) where scholars identify four types of source material: letters to and from Persian officials, lists of things, the Ezra memoir (where Ezra speaks in first person), and the Nehemiah memoir (where Nehemiah speaks in first person).

W H McLeod, a scholar with former missionary links, considered a portion of the hagiographic Janamsakhis of the Sikh gurus, though popular among Sikhs, as stories with myth and miracles, discounting some entirely, considering some as improbable, and some as merely possible, placing 87 of 124 sakhis in these categories. The remaining 37 he categorized as probable or established. McLeod considered the Guru Nanak of the janam-sakhis was the one "of legend and of faith, seen through the eyes of popular piety" decades after his death, distilling what he considered an accurate portrait of Guru Nanak in three paragraphs. McLeod's textual criticism, his empirical examination of genealogical and geographical evidence, examination of the consistency between the Sikh texts and their versions, philological analysis of historic Sikh literature, search for corroborating evidence in external sources and other critical studies have been influential popular among the Western academics and Indian scholars working outside India, but highly controversial within the Sikh community, and prompting a reaction similar to that of other faith communities.

Famously, the so- called "Lachmann fallacy", concerning the order of pericopae in Mark, was once used to argue for Marcan priority but is now seen as a largely neutral observation. Modern arguments for or against Marcan priority tend to center on redactional plausibility, asking, for example, whether it is more reasonable that Matthew and Luke could have written as they did with Mark in hand, or that Mark could have written as he did with Matthew and Luke in hand, and whether any coherent rationale can be discerned underlying the redactional activity of the later evangelists. It should also be remembered, where matters of detailed wording are concerned, that there is some uncertainty in the Gospel texts themselves, as textual criticism of the gospels is still an active field, which cannot even decide, for example, on Mark's original ending. Such issues often intersect with the synoptic problem; for example, B. H. Streeter famously dismissed many of the "minor agreements" so troublesome for the two-source theory by appealing to textual corruption driven typically by harmonization.

Connected with this epistle is the polemic Kelimmat ha-Goyim ("Shame of the Gentiles"), a criticism of Christian dogmas, written in 1397 at the request of Don Hasdai Crescas, to whom it was dedicated.Berger D. in Essays in honour.. 1998 p34, footnote 41 on p39 In it, Duran states the principle that the most convincing polemical technique is to argue within one's opponents own assumptions. Using the knowledge of Latin he gained from his medical studies and the indoctrination he received as a converso, he identifies what he sees as internal contradictions within the New Testament, and discrepancies between its literal text and church dogma. The work can be seen as a precursor of modern Textual Criticism. In about 1397 Duran wrote an anti-Christian polemic, Kelimat ha-Goyim (“Shame of the Gentiles”) which some have seen as having discredited the Gospels and other early Christian writings. Though he did not accept the defence used by Nahmanides at the Disputation of Barcelona (1263) of "two Jesuses" in the Talmud.

The French priest Richard Simon brought these critical perspectives to the Catholic tradition in 1678, observing "the most part of the Holy Scriptures that are come to us, are but Abridgments and as Summaries of ancient Acts which were kept in the Registries of the Hebrews," in what was probably the first work of biblical textual criticism in the modern sense. In response Jean Astruc, applying to the Pentateuch source criticism methods common in the analysis of classical secular texts, believed he could detect four different manuscript traditions, which he claimed Moses himself had redacted (p. 62–64). His 1753 book initiated the school known as higher criticism that culminated in Julius Wellhausen formalising the documentary hypothesis in the 1870s, which identifies these narratives as the Jahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist, and the Priestly source. While versions of the Documentary Hypothesis vary in the order in which they were composed, the circumstances of their composition, and the date of their redaction(s), their shared terminology continues to provide the framework for modern theories on the composite nature and origins of the Torah.

Kenyon suggested that the manuscript originated in Alexandria: "It is noteworthy that the section numeration of the Pauline Epistles in B shows that it was copied from a manuscript in which the Epistle to the Hebrews was placed between Galatians and Ephesians — an arrangement which elsewhere occurs only in the Sahidic version." A connection with Egypt is also indicated, according to Kenyon, by the order of the Pauline epistles and by the fact that, as in the Codex Alexandrinus, the titles of some of the books contain letters of a distinctively Coptic character, particularly the Coptic mu, used not only in titles but frequently at the ends of lines where space has to be economized.Frederic G. Kenyon, Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, London2, 1912, p. 84. According to Metzger, "the similarity of its text in significant portions of both Testaments with the Coptic versions and with Greek papyri, and the style of writing (notably the Coptic forms used in some of the titles) point rather to Egypt and Alexandria".

In textual criticism, the laws attributed to this writer are seen as having formed an earlier independent collection of laws, which were later added to the Priestly Code by an editor, and may, slightly, pre-date the Priestly Source. Another set of distinctive colophons are those of the form this is the law of [subject A], and [subject B], and [subject C], ...., which occur for Leviticus 7:28-38, 11:1-47, 13:47-59, 14:33-57, and 15:1-31. Of these, Leviticus 15 is noticeably repetitive, repeating both bathe [itself] in water and be unclean until the even, for almost every verse, as well as the detail of the atonement sacrifice. This chapter is therefore, under academic criticism, viewed as a late expansion of an earlier, much shorter, law, which simply laid out the basic rule that running issue of bodily fluids is ritually unclean, and contact with it, including with the person that possesses it, is ritually unclean, rather than detailing the atonement sacrifice, and listing examples of what constitutes contact. Another of these, Leviticus 11, which defines and lists animals which are ritually unclean, also provides an extensive list.

But the closest religious analogy to contemporary literary close reading, and the principal historical connection with its birth, is the rise of the higher criticism, and the evolution of textual criticism of the Bible in Germany in the late eighteenth century. In the practice of literary studies, the technique of close reading emerged in 1920s Britain in the work of I. A. Richards, his student William Empson, and the poet T.S. Eliot, all of whom sought to replace an "impressionistic" view of literature then dominant with what Richards called a "practical criticism" focused on language and form. American New Critics in the 1930s and 1940s anchored their views in similar fashion, and promoted close reading as a means of understanding that the autonomy of the work (often a poem) mattered more than anything else, including authorial intention, the cultural contexts of reception, and most broadly, ideology. For these critics, including Cleanth Brooks, William K. Wimsatt, John Crowe Ransom, and Allen Tate, only close reading, because of its attentiveness to the nuances and interrelation of language and form, could address the work in its complex unity.

The Florentine humanist Lorenzo Valla (d. 1457), in his 1457 commentaries on the New Testament, did much to establish that the author of the Corpus Areopagiticum could not have been St. Paul's convert, though he was unable to identify the actual historical author. William Grocyn pursued Valla's lines of textual criticism, and Valla's critical viewpoint of the authorship of the highly influential Corpus was accepted and publicized by Erasmus from 1504 onward, for which he was criticized by Catholic theologians. In the Leipzig disputation with Martin Luther, in 1519, Johann Eck used the Corpus, specifically the Angelic Hierarchy, as argument for the apostolic origin of papal supremacy, pressing the Platonist analogy, "as above, so below". During the 19th century modernist Catholics too came generally to accept that the author must have lived after the time of Proclus. The author became known as 'Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite' only after the philological work of J Stiglmayr and H Koch, whose papers, published independently in 1895, demonstrated the thoroughgoing dependence of the Corpus upon Proclus. Both showed that Dionysius had used, in his treatise on evil in Chapter 4 of The Divine Names, the De malorum subsistentia of Proclus. Dionysius' identity is still disputed.