There is a fun surface element to the witch-discourse: gifs of The Craft; jokes playing off the difference between the two chief witch stereotypes, oversexed teen and withered crone; ten thousand funny Tumblr usernames; an excuse to re-watch Buffy.
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Surface integrals have applications in physics, particularly with the theories of classical electromagnetism. The definition of surface integral relies on splitting the surface into small surface elements. An illustration of a single surface element. These elements are made infinitesimally small, by the limiting process, so as to approximate the surface.
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The Derjaguin approximation is unique given its simplicity and generality. To improve this approximation, the surface element integration method as well as the surface integration approach were proposed to obtain more accurate expressions of the forces between two bodies. These procedures also considers the relative orientation of the approaching surfaces.
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The ARES Mars airplane proposal was selected as a Mars Scout Program candidate, but not selected for flight. In 2015, a Mars aircraft was considered as an option in the re-boot of the Japanese MELOS mission. One early design proposed a wing- span of 1.2m, a mass of 2.1 kg, and with the following mission profile: During the landing phase of the surface element of MELOS, the aircraft would be released at an altitude of 5 km then fly 4 minutes, covering 25 horizontal km.
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Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time. It is commonly expressed as average irradiance in watts per square meter (W/m2). Direct insolation is the solar irradiance measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun's rays, excluding diffuse insolation (the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky). Direct insolation is equal to the solar constant minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering.
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Thus, a second-order tensor is needed. If a particular surface element inside the material is singled out, the material on one side of the surface will apply a force on the other side. In general, this force will not be orthogonal to the surface, but it will depend on the orientation of the surface in a linear manner. This is described by a tensor of type , in linear elasticity, or more precisely by a tensor field of type , since the stresses may vary from point to point.
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The Mercury Surface Element (MSE) was canceled in 2003 due to budgetary constraints. At the time of cancellation, MSE was meant to be a small, , lander designed to operate for about one week on the surface of Mercury. Shaped as a diameter disc, it was designed to land at a latitude of 85° near the terminator region. Braking manoeuvres would bring the lander to zero velocity at an altitude of at which point the propulsion unit would be ejected, the airbags inflated, and the module would fall to the surface with a maximum impact velocity of .
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Block on a ramp and corresponding free body diagram of the block showing the surface force from the ramp onto the bottom of the block and separated into two components, a normal force N and a frictional shear force f, along with the body force of gravity mg acting at the center of mass. Surface force denoted fs is the force that acts across an internal or external surface element in a material body. Surface force can be decomposed into two perpendicular components: normal forces and shear forces. A normal force acts normally over an area and a shear force acts tangentially over an area.
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Assume a rotating spherical asteroid has two wedge-shaped fins attached to its equator, irradiated by parallel rays of sunlight. The reaction force from photons departing from any given surface element of the spherical core will be normal to the surface, such that no torque is produced (the force vectors all pass through the centre of mass). Thermally-emitted photons reradiated from the sides of the wedges, however, can produce a torque, as the normal vectors do not pass through the centre of mass. Both fins present the same cross section to the incoming light (they have the same height and width), and so absorb and reflect the same amount of energy each and produce an equal force.
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