Brown says Levandowski downloaded the files, which total 234GB of material, including 2GB of LIDAR subdirectories, in December 2015.
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Brown says Levandowski downloaded the files, which total 9.7GB of material, including 2GB of LIDAR subdirectories, in December 2015.
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First spotted by MalwareHunterTeam and first reported by BleepingComputer, PUBG Ransomware is a bizarre program that encrypts a user's desktop files—including all subdirectories—with a .
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I'm using the shell command find to match every file (specified f for file following to the -type argument) in the given directory (but not any further subdirectories, per the -maxdepth argument) with the .
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"The 'Clean Cache' command permanently deleted substantial and numerous Files and Data that were not within the 'Media Cache' folder or any of its subdirectories, including but not limited to Files and Data that had never been associated with [Premiere Pro,]" the lawsuit said.
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The file on many Linux systems defines the subdirectories created for users by default.
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When IBM and Microsoft introduced PC DOS 1.0 and MS-DOS 1.0, subdirectories were not yet supported. This state of affairs was remedied with the release of DOS 2.0, which introduced support for subdirectories and directory nesting; however, it had no built-in facility for deleting entire subdirectory trees. Through the release of MS-DOS 5.0, removing nested subdirectories required removing all of the files in the lowest subdirectories, then removing the subdirectory itself, then repeating the process up the directory tree. By 1991 at least one competing product, DR-DOS, had introduced a well-received utility that enabled recursive file deletion.
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The following Access Control List (ACL) permissions can be granted: ;Lookup (l) :allows a user to list the contents of the AFS directory, examine the ACL associated with the directory and access subdirectories. ;Insert (i) :allows a user to add new files or subdirectories to the directory. ;Delete (d) :allows a user to remove files and subdirectories from the directory. ;Administer (a) :allows a user to change the ACL for the directory.
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A Btrfs subvolume can be thought of as a separate POSIX file namespace, mountable separately by passing `subvol` or `subvolid` options to the utility. It can also be accessed by mounting the top-level subvolume, in which case subvolumes are visible and accessible as its subdirectories. Subvolumes can be created at any place within the file system hierarchy, and they can also be nested. Nested subvolumes appear as subdirectories within their parent subvolumes, similarly to the way a top-level subvolume presents its subvolumes as subdirectories.
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Like MS-DOS 1.25, the first version of MSX-DOS did not have subdirectories, but in 1988 it evolved to version 2, offering facilities such as subdirectories, memory management and environment strings. Later versions of MSX computers (MSX-2) added an internal real-time clock, which MSX-DOS could use for time stamping files.
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Copy a directory, including all its files and subdirectories, to another directory: cp -R /home/nick/clients /home/nick/customers This copies the directory clients, including all its files, subdirectories, and the files in those subdirectories, to the directory customers/clients. Some Unix systems behave differently in this mode, depending on the termination of directory paths. Using `cp -R /home/nick/clients/ /home/nick/customers` on a GNU system it behaves as expected; however, on a BSD system, it copies all the contents of the "clients" directory, instead of the directory clients itself. The same happens in both GNU and BSD systems if the path of the source directory ends in .
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Setting the `setgid` permission on a directory ("`chmod g+s`") causes new files and subdirectories created within it to inherit its group ID, rather than the primary group ID of the user who created the file (the owner ID is never affected, only the group ID). # Newly created subdirectories inherit the `setgid` bit. Thus, this enables a shared workspace for a group without the inconvenience of requiring group members to explicitly change their current group before creating new files or directories. # only affects the group ID of new files and subdirectories created after the `setgid` bit is set, and is not applied to existing entities.
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Diagram of a hierarchical directory tree. The root directory is here called "MFD", for Master File Directory. Historically, and even on some modern embedded systems, the file systems either had no support for directories at all or had only a "flat" directory structure, meaning subdirectories were not supported; there were only a group of top-level directories, each containing files. In modern systems, a directory can contain a mix of files and subdirectories.
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Users always have this right on their home directory, even if they accidentally remove themselves from the ACL. Permissions that affect files and subdirectories include: ;Read (r) :allows a user to look at the contents of files in a directory and list files in subdirectories. Files that are to be granted read access to any user, including the owner, need to have the standard UNIX "owner read" permission set. ;Write (w) :allows a user to modify files in a directory.
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Unix also popularized the hierarchical file system with arbitrarily nested subdirectories, originally introduced by Multics. Other common operating systems of the era had ways to divide a storage device into multiple directories or sections, but they had a fixed number of levels, often only one level. Several major proprietary operating systems eventually added recursive subdirectory capabilities also patterned after Multics. DEC's RSX-11M's "group, user" hierarchy evolved into VMS directories, CP/M's volumes evolved into MS-DOS 2.0+ subdirectories, and HP's MPE group.
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The version of Commodore DOS built into the 1581 added support for partitions, which could also function as fixed-allocation subdirectories. PC-style subdirectories were rejected as being too difficult to work with in terms of block availability maps, then still much in vogue, and which for some time had been the traditional way of inquiring into block availability. The 1581 supports the C128's burst mode for fast disk access, but not when connected to an older Commodore machine like the Commodore 64. The 1581 provides a total of 3160 blocks free when formatted (a block being equal to 256 bytes).
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All components of the VisualWorks system are installed on Windows 7 or later in a Program Files\Cincom directory named after the version number of the installed system – for instance, `vw7.5nc`. This directory contains several subdirectories including bin, doc, examples and many others.
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This DOS used a command-line interface. Was not compatible with DOS 2.0, but could read DOS 2.0 disks. Supports subdirectories and hard drives being capable of handling filesystems sized up to 16 MB. Included the capability to create primitive batch files.
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Quota groups only apply to subvolumes and snapshots, while having quotas enforced on individual subdirectories, users, or user groups is not possible. However, workarounds are possible by using different subvolumes for all users or user groups that require a quota to be enforced.
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Arrows denote projections, i.e., mappings from a tuple to one of its components. AHEAD implements tuples as file directories, so f is a directory containing file gf and subdirectories sf and df. Similarly, directory sf contains files c1…cn, and directory df contains files h1…hk.
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Run file to be executed (i.e. $.!Boot.!Run in Acorn pathname syntax). This file then causes various files to be executed, OS modules loaded, standard icons to be loaded and filetypes defined, and defines a number of standard variables through which its various subdirectories are accessed.
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This structure imposes a length-limit of 66 characters on the full path of each working directory, and thus implicitly also limits the maximum possible depth of subdirectories. DOS Plus and older issues of DR DOS (up to DR DOS 6.0 in 1991) had no such limitation due to their implementation using a DOS emulation on top of a Concurrent DOS- (and thus CP/M-86-)derived kernel, which internally organized subdirectories as relative links to parent directories instead of as absolute paths. Since PalmDOS and DR DOS 6.0 (since 1992) and higher switched to use a CDS for maximum compatibility with DOS programs as well, they faced the same limitations as present in other DOSes.
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Firefox 3 stores bookmarks, history, cookies, and preferences in a transactionally secure database format (SQLite). Internet Explorer's "Favorites" (also "Internet Shortcuts") are stored as individual files named with the original link name, and the filename extension ".URL", for example "Home Page.URL" collected in a directory named "Favorites" which may have subdirectories.
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Thus, the name may confuse some people into thinking it only provides the MD5 algorithm when the package supports many more. md5deep can be invoked in several different ways. Typically users operate it recursively, where md5deep walks through one directory at a time giving digests of each file found, and recursing into any subdirectories within.
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File systems typically have directories (also called folders) which allow the user to group files into separate collections. This may be implemented by associating the file name with an index in a table of contents or an inode in a Unix-like file system. Directory structures may be flat (i.e. linear), or allow hierarchies where directories may contain subdirectories.
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Like MS-DOS 1, MSX disks (formatted) under MSX-DOS 1 have no support for subdirectories. In September 2012, AGE Labs extended the standard by including support for 1.44Mb 3.5” format. The 1.44Mb diskette size goes in two configurations: Standard (1 sector per cluster, 9 FAT sectors), and Compatible (4 sectors per cluster, 3 FAT sectors).
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Subdirectories are supported, and the concept of a "prefix" (working directory or current path) was provided to make working with subdirectories easier. File, directory, and volume names can be 1 to 15 characters, starting with a letter, then containing more letters, digits or periods. Each file entry also contains the 16 bit (2 byte) pointer to the block containing the beginning of the file (or its block index); a 16-bit block count; a 24-bit (3-byte) file size; an 8-bit (1-byte) filetype; a 16-bit auxiliary type (the meaning of which depends upon the filetype); creation and modification timestamps; and data related to how the file is stored on the volume. Sparse files are supported, but files are never "sparsified" by removing zero-filled blocks.
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A Maildir directory (often named `Maildir`) usually has three subdirectories named `tmp`, `new`, and `cur`. The `tmp` subdirectory temporarily stores e-mail messages that are in the process of being delivered. This subdirectory may also store other kinds of temporary files. The `new` subdirectory stores messages that have been delivered, but have not yet been seen by any mail application.
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With respect to the original design, two new features have been developed to promote modularization and large-scale reuse of configurations: the name-spacing and load-path mechanisms. A full site configuration typically consists of a large number of templates organized into directories and subdirectories. The Pan template name-spacing mimics (and enforces) this organization much as is done in the Java language.
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27 brought a major source code reorganization, prior to some significant upcoming changes. The DRM source code tree was moved to its own source directory `/drivers/gpu/drm/` and the different drivers were moved into their own subdirectories. Headers were also moved into a new `/include/drm` directory. The increasing complexity of video memory management led to several approaches to solving this issue.
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Solaris has a configurable kernel module load path, it defaults to `/platform/platform-name/kernel /kernel /usr/kernel`. Most kernel modules live in subdirectories under `/kernel`; those not considered necessary to boot the system to the point that init can start are often (but not always) found in `/usr/kernel`. When running a DEBUG kernel build the system actively attempts to unload modules.
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In this organization, subclusters are subdirectories. For example, under standard organizational and casing conventions, `x.e` might be the name of a file that defines a class called X. A class contains features, which are similar to "routines", "members", "attributes" or "methods" in other object-oriented programming languages. A class also defines its invariants, and contains other properties, such as a "notes" section for documentation and metadata.
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Eagle achieved this by using the same hard-disk subsystem (Xebec hard-disk controller card, Eagle SASI card, and hard disk) as in the CP/M models. Subdirectories are not supported in the MS-DOS version that the Eagles used, just as in CP/M. MS-DOS does not offer CP/M's 16 numbered "user zones" either, which limits the usefulness of the hard disks.
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Within the `Contents` folder there is usually also a directory called `Resources`, which contains the resources of the application. Among other things, the `Resources` folder contains localized versions of the application's nib files. Other common subdirectories include `Plugins`, `Frameworks`, and `Shared Frameworks`. The `Frameworks` directory contains frameworks used by the application, and are used even if another version of the framework exists on the system.
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Users of the initial release of the `print` command commented on the slow print speed and high resource usage, as well as the lack of support for the newly introduced subdirectories. The command was among the first RAM-resident programs and was the first to achieve widespread use, with many users disassembling the binary in order to determine how RAM-resident programs should be written.
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Sam Varshavchik, the author of the Courier Mail Server and other software, wrote an extension to the Maildir format called Maildir++ to support subfolders and mail quotas. Maildir++ directories contain subdirectories with names that start with a '.' (dot) that are also Maildir++ folders. This extension is not a violation of the Maildir specification, which explicitly provides for the possibility to add more than tmp, new, cur to a maildir.
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The `diff` command is invoked from the command line, passing it the names of two files: `diff original new`. The output of the command represents the changes required to transform the original file into the new file. If original and new are directories, then will be run on each file that exists in both directories. An option, `-r`, will recursively descend any matching subdirectories to compare files between directories.
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The architectural limit on version numbers is 32767. The versioning behavior is easily overridden if it is unwanted. In particular, files which are directly updated, such as databases, do not create new versions unless explicitly programmed. ODS-2 is limited to eight levels of subdirectories, and only uppercase, alphanumeric names (plus the underscore, dash, and dollar sign) up to 39.39 characters (39 for the filename and another 39 for the extension).
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The BSD mandoc however only supports bold and underlined text via the typewriter overstrike-with-backspace sequence, which needs to be translated into ECMA-48 by .. "Font styles are applied by using back-spaced encoding..." Man pages are usually written in English, but translations into other languages may be available on the system. The GNU and the mandoc is known to search for localized manual pages under subdirectories.
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Deletes a directory along with all of the files and subdirectories that it contains. Normally, it will ask for confirmation of the potentially dangerous action. Since the RD (RMDIR) command can not delete a directory if the directory is not empty, the DELTREE command can be used to delete the whole directory. The `deltree` command is included in certain versions of Microsoft Windows and MS-DOS operating systems.
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Subdirectories were not supported. Most game publishers did not include DOS on their floppy disks, since they needed the memory it occupied more than its capabilities; instead, they often wrote their own boot loaders and read-only file systems. This also served to discourage "crackers" from snooping around in the game's copy-protection code, since the data on the disk was not in files that could be accessed easily.
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Subdirectories begin at one block, and grow automatically as needed. Normal files are progressively indexed. Single- block files (under 513 bytes) have no index block; the directory entry points directly to the block of file data. Files with between 2 and 256 blocks (513 bytes to 128 kB) of data have a single index block, to which the directory entry points, which contains a list of up to 256 data block addresses.
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In macOS, keychain files are stored in `~/Library/Keychains/` (and subdirectories), `/Library/Keychains/`, and `/Network/Library/Keychains/`, and the Keychain Access GUI application is located in the Utilities folder in the Applications folder. It is free, open source software released under the terms of the APSL. The command line equivalent of Keychain Access is `/usr/bin/security`. The keychain file(s) stores a variety of data fields including a title, URL, notes and password.
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BASICA versions are the same as their respective DOS, beginning with v1.00 and ending with v3.30. The early versions of BASICA do not support subdirectories and some graphics commands functioned slightly differently. As an example, if the LINE statement was used to draw lines that trailed off- screen, BASIC merely intersects them with the nearest adjacent line while in BASIC 2.x and up, they go off the screen and do not intersect.
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In addition, TFC includes the ability to customize its operations to include deeper search of subdirectories, brute force deletion, root path specification, and the addition of more advanced cleaning protocols such as Windows debug files, Hibernation files, and System Restore Data. TFC allows a "test run" of its operation, offering users the ability to preview the files that would be deleted upon normal execution as well as the amount of space that would be freed.
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A directory is a logical section of a file system used to hold files. Directories may also contain other directories. The command can be used to change into a subdirectory, move back into the parent directory, move all the way back to the root directory or move to any given directory. Consider the following subsection of a Unix filesystem, which shows a user's home directory (represented as ) with a file, , and three subdirectories.
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By early 1985, it was clear that the Macintosh needed additional storage space, in particular a hard drive. Apple announced their first hard drive for the Mac in March 1985. However, the MFS file system did not support subdirectories, making it unsuitable for a hard disk. Apple quickly began adopting for the Mac the hierarchical based SOS filing system introduced with the Apple III and long since implemented in ProDOS for the Apple II series and the Lisa.
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Like many programming languages, Perl has mechanisms to use external libraries of code, making one file contain common routines used by several programs. Perl calls these modules. Perl modules are typically installed in one of several directories whose paths are placed in the Perl interpreter when it is first compiled; on Unix-like operating systems, common paths include /usr/lib/perl5, /usr/local/lib/perl5, and several of their subdirectories. Perl comes with a small set of core modules.
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The use of straight assembly language and a high amount of direct screen access gave WordPerfect a significant performance advantage over WordStar, which used strictly DOS API functions for all screen and keyboard access and was often very slow. In addition, WordStar, created for the CP/M operating system in which subdirectories are not supported, was extremely slow in switching to support sub-directories in MS-DOS. In 1983, WordPerfect 3.0 was released for DOS. This was updated to support DOS 2.
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The source code for an R package is contained in a directory with a master "description" file and separate subdirectories for documentation, code, optional data sets suits for unit or regression testing, and perhaps others. A formal package compilation process checks for errors of various types. This includes checking for syntax errors on both the documentation markup language and the code as well as comparing the arguments between documentation and code. Examples in the documentation are tested and produce error messages if they fail.
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To create a patch, one could run the following command in a shell: $ diff -u oldFile newFile > mods.diff # -u tells diff to output unified diff format To apply a patch, one could run the following command in a shell: $ patch < mods.diff This tells patch to apply the changes to the specified files described in `mods.diff`. Patches to files in subdirectories require the additional `-pnumber` option, where number is 1 if the base directory of the source tree is included in the diff, and 0 otherwise.
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The DIR command displays the contents of a directory. The contents comprise the disk's volume label and serial number; one directory or filename per line, including the filename extension, the file size in bytes, and the date and time the file was last modified; and the total number of files listed, their cumulative size, and the free space (in bytes) remaining on the disk. The command is one of the few commands that exist from the first versions of DOS. The command can display files in subdirectories.
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Due to the structure of the onboard DOS 3.0, there is only one main partition which contains the directory and all the saved files. There are no subdirectories so eventually you run into trouble when you type LOAD"$",8 and LIST, the directory list fills the screen and then scrolls away. You can pause the directory listing as with any Commodore computer. But if you have scores or hundreds of files saved, then the user must wait some time until the entire directory listing has finished scrolling.
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If Windows is installed on an NTFS volume, by default, the 'Program Files' folder can only be modified by members of the 'Administrators' user groups. This can be an issue for programs created for Windows 9x. Those operating systems had no file system security, and programs could therefore also store their data in 'Program Files'. Programs that store their data in 'Program Files' will usually not run correctly on Windows NT systems with normal user privileges unless security is lowered for the affected subdirectories.
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HTFS, adopted as the primary filesystem for SCO OpenServer in 1995, supports file versioning. Versioning is enabled on a per-directory basis by setting the directory's setuid bit, which is inherited when subdirectories are created. If versioning is enabled, a new file version is created when a file or directory is removed, or when an existing file is opened with truncation. Non-current versions remain in the filesystem namespace, under the name of the original file but with a suffix attached consisting of a semicolon and version sequence number.
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But for very large directories this is inefficient, and ext3 offers a second way of storing directories (HTree) that is more efficient than just a list of filenames. The root directory is always stored in inode number two, so that the file system code can find it at mount time. Subdirectories are implemented by storing the name of the subdirectory in the name field, and the inode number of the subdirectory in the inode field. Hard links are implemented by storing the same inode number with more than one file name.
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When System 7 was released, the Trash became a folder that retained its contents until the user chose to empty the trash. Microsoft first implemented the "trash can" concept in MS-DOS 6, under the name Delete Sentry: When a file was deleted, it was moved to a hidden SENTRY folder at the root of the drive. Microsoft introduced its current trash system, the Recycle Bin, with Windows 95, as an area to store and review files and folders prior to deletion. In this version, the original location record of the file is stored, but the folder itself didn't allow subdirectories.
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Additionally, the Director General oversees six main subdirectories: Public Security, Investigations, Specialized Operative Areas, Land transportation, Rural Police, and Administration and Finances. The Deputy Director General is the second highest position in the PNC, overseeing the Deputy Directors of Investigations, Public Security, Administration, Intelligence, and Operational and Specialized Areas. The Inspector General (who reports to the Director General of the PNC) monitors the PNC for violations of human rights and the Peace Accords. The PNC also contains the Disciplinary Investigation Unit, the Control Unit, and the Internal Affairs Unit which all hold members of the PNC accountable.
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The disk drive uses group coded recording and contains an MOS Technology 6510T processor as a disk controller. The 6510T is a specialized version of the 6510 processor used in the C64, and it is only used in the 1551. The DOS limits the number of files per disk to 144 regardless of the number of free blocks on the disk because the directory is of a fixed size, and the file system does not allow for subdirectories. Its DOS is compatible with the 1541, so disks written by one drive can be utilized in the other.
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In addition to the higher storage capacity, the FD series also provided additional features not found on the Commodore 1581. A "`SWAP`" button on the front panel allowed the drive number to be easily switched with that of another Commodore drive on the serial bus, without the need to enter any commands into the computer. It also provided a "1541 emulation mode", allowing partitions on a 3½" disk to simulate the behavior of a 5¼" Commodore 1541 floppy. The ability to use partitions and subdirectories was also expanded beyond the rudimentary form found in the 1581.
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FTP Drive is an installable file system and network redirector for NT-based Microsoft Windows operating systems. This program is a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) client whose functionality can be accessed from any file manager in an OS. FTP servers have to be configured in a special applet and appear in Windows explorer (or any other file manager) as subdirectories of a (virtual) network drive (the drive letter also can be configured). As of October 28, 2007, this program is freeware. Read-only file access can be completely transparent to applications, as long as they do not use very large memory- mapped files.
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CP/M 2.2 had no subdirectories in the file structure, but provided 16 numbered user areas to organize files on a disk. To change user one had to simply type "User X" at the command prompt, X being the number of the user wanted; security was non- existent and not believed to be necessary. The user area concept was to make the single-user version of CP/M somewhat compatible with multi-user MP/M systems. A common patch for the CP/M and derivative operating systems was to make one user area accessible to the user independent of the currently set user area.
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Usually, on most filesystems, deleting a file requires write permission on the parent directory (and execute permission, in order to enter the directory in the first place). (Note that, confusingly for beginners, permissions on the file itself are irrelevant. However, GNU `rm` asks for confirmation if a write-protected file is to be deleted, unless the -f option is used.) To delete a directory (with `rm -r`), one must delete all of its contents recursively. This requires that one must have read and write and execute permission to that directory (if it's not empty) and all non-empty subdirectories recursively (if there are any).
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Specifically, the Shell namespace consists of two basic types of objects, namely files and folders. Folder objects, which are containers for file objects and other folders called subdirectories, are the nodes of the tree, while file objects are the leaves of the namespace tree. Objects in the Shell namespace can represent physically stored file system objects such as files and folders, or can be virtual objects such as the My Network Places and Recycle Bin "virtual folders". The folders and data files that reside on physical computer disk drives are the most numerous and familiar of these objects; although, through extensions the Shell also provides access to various virtual objects that may not involve physical storage at all.
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By 1991, XTree had sold over 3 million copies and was released in over a half-dozen languages. Even in its earliest version XTree contained features like listing all files of a branch, including subdirectories, listing of all files on a disk, or viewing a file's contents in text or hexadecimal format (regardless of its file extension), a feature never added to the built-in Windows file manager. XTree was supplemented by the enhanced XTreePro in 1988, which added features for working with multiple disk drives, speed improvements, and brought the keyboard commands more in line with other common DOS programs. A version of XTreePro with Novell NetWare connectivity debuted in late 1988.
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The location of the Linux root directory is supplied to the umsdos filesystem driver in the first place via an option to the `loadlin` command. So, for example, `loadlin` would be invoked with a command line such as loadlin c:\linux\boot\vmlinuz rw root=c:\linux . The installation of Linux into such a directory in the first place simply involves unpacking files from an archive into that directory and its subdirectories. Such an installation also generally requires the use of a swap file rather than a swap partition for Linux, however this is related to the desire not to repartition the hard disc and unrelated to the umsdos filesystem driver per se.
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SpartaDOS X 64-column text mode The proprietary file system format, called SpartaDOS FS (unrelated to and not compatible with MS-DOS FAT), offers full support for subdirectories, MS-DOS-like attributes (AHPS: Archived, Hidden, Protected, Subdirectory), modification date and time stamps, random access to data within a file, sparse files. The file naming convention is 8+3 (this scheme, inherited from CP/M, is normal on Atari). The directory structure is hierarchical, there are no other than practical limits in nesting directories. A directory can contain up to 1423 entries of files and other directories. The file system is 16-bit: a drive can contain up to 65,535 logical sectors (sector 0 does not exist on Atari disks).
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Plan 9 allows the user to collect the files (called names) from different directory trees in a single location. The resulting union directory behaves as the concatenation of the underlying directories (the order of concatenation can be controlled); if the constituent directories contain files having the same name, a listing of the union directory ( or ) will simply report duplicate names. Resolution of a single path name is performed top-down: if the directories and are unioned into with first, then denotes if it exists, only if it exists and does not exist, and no file if neither exists. No recursive unioning of subdirectories is performed, so if exists, the files in are not accessible through the union.
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Over the years, the file system has been expanded from FAT12 to FAT16 and FAT32. Various features have been added to the file system including subdirectories, codepage support, extended attributes, and long filenames. Third parties such as Digital Research have incorporated optional support for deletion tracking, and volume/directory/file-based multi-user security schemes to support file and directory passwords and permissions such as read/write/execute/delete access rights. Most of these extensions are not supported by Windows. The FAT12 and FAT16 file systems had a limit on the number of entries in the root directory of the file system and had restrictions on the maximum size of FAT- formatted disks or partitions.
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The file system and some design ideas from Apple SOS, the Apple III's operating system, were part of Apple ProDOS and Apple GS/OS, the major operating systems for the Apple II series following the demise of the Apple III, as well as the Apple Lisa, which was the de facto business-oriented successor to the Apple III. The hierarchical file system influenced the evolution of the Macintosh: while the original Macintosh File System (MFS) was a flat file system designed for a floppy disk without subdirectories, subsequent file systems were hierarchical. By comparison, the IBM PC's first file system (again designed for floppy disks) was also flat and later versions (designed for hard disks) were hierarchical.
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While this format was developed by Atari for their DOS 2.0D and their (canceled) 180K Atari 815 floppy drive, that double-density DOS was never widely released and the format was generally used by third-party DOS products. Under the Atari DOS II scheme, sector 360 is the VTOC sector map, and sectors 361-367 contain the file listing. The Atari-brand DOS II versions and compatible use three bytes per sector for housekeeping and to link-list to the next sector. Later, mostly third-party DOS systems added features such as double-sided drives, subdirectories, and drive types such as 720K, 1.2 MB, 1.44 MB. Well-known 3rd party Atari DOS products include SmartDOS (distributed with the Rana disk drive), TopDos, MyDos and SpartaDOS.
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In the Plan 9 operating system from Bell Labs (mid-1980s onward), union mounting is a central concept, replacing several older Unix conventions with union directories; for example, several directories containing executables, unioned together at a single directory, replace the variable for command lookup in the shell. Plan 9 union semantics are greatly simplified compared to the implementations for POSIX-style operating systems: the union of two directories is simply the concatenation of their contents, so a directory listing of the union may display duplicate names. Also, no effort is made to recursively merge subdirectories, leading to an extremely simple implementation. Directories are unioned in a controllable order; , where is a union directory, denotes the file called in the first constituent directory that contains such a file.
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ProDOS was released to address shortcomings in the earlier Apple operating system (called simply DOS), which was beginning to show its age. Apple DOS only has built-in support for 5.25" floppy disks and requires patches to use peripheral devices such as hard disk drives and non-Disk-II floppy disk drives, including 3.5" floppy drives. ProDOS adds a standard method of accessing ROM-based drivers on expansion cards for disk devices, expands the maximum volume size from about 400 kilobytes to 32 megabytes, introduces support for hierarchical subdirectories (a vital feature for organizing a hard disk's storage space), and supports RAM disks on machines with 128kB or more of memory. ProDOS addresses problems with handling hardware interrupts, and includes a well-defined and documented programming and expansion interface, which Apple DOS had always lacked.
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In a flat file system, there are no subdirectories; directory entries for all files are stored in a single directory. When floppy disk media was first available this type of file system was adequate due to the relatively small amount of data space available. CP/M machines featured a flat file system, where files could be assigned to one of 16 user areas and generic file operations narrowed to work on one instead of defaulting to work on all of them. These user areas were no more than special attributes associated with the files; that is, it was not necessary to define specific quota for each of these areas and files could be added to groups for as long as there was still free storage space on the disk.
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Version 7 Unix filesystem layout: subdirectories of "/" and "/usr" An overview of a Unix filesystem layout In Unix and operating systems inspired by it, the file system is considered a central component of the operating system. It was also one of the first parts of the system to be designed and implemented by Ken Thompson in the first experimental version of Unix, dated 1969. As in other operating systems, the filesystem provides information storage and retrieval, and one of several forms of interprocess communication, in that the many small programs that traditionally form a Unix system can store information in files so that other programs can read them, although pipes complemented it in this role starting with the Third Edition. Also, the filesystem provides access to other resources through so-called device files that are entry points to terminals, printers, and mice.
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The target however need not exist or be available when the symbolic link is created: when the symbolic link will be accessed and the target will be checked for availability, NTFS will also check if it has the correct type (file or directory); it will return a not-found error if the existing target has the wrong type. They can also reference shared directories on remote hosts or files and subdirectories within shared directories: their target is not mounted immediately at boot, but only temporarily on demand while opening them with the `OpenFile()` or `CreateFile()` API. Their definition is persistent on the NTFS volume where they are created (all types of symbolic links can be removed as if they were files, using `DEL symLink` from a command line prompt or batch). The symbolic link data is similar to mount point data, in that both use an NT namespace path.
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A user's view of the file system in Unix-like systems begins with the home directory (often abbreviated to ). From there, the tree can spread into more subdirectories and/or files. If the user's current working directory is the home directory (), then entering the command `ls` followed by might produce the following transcript: user@wikipedia:~$ ls workreports games encyclopedia text.txt user@wikipedia:~$ cd games user@wikipedia:~/games$ The user is now in the "games" directory. A similar session in DOS (though the concept of a "home directory" may not apply, depending on the specific version) would look like this: C:\> dir workreports Wed Oct 9th 9:01 games Tue Oct 8th 14:32 encyclopedia Mon Oct 1st 10:05 text txt 1903 Thu Oct10th 12:43 C:\> cd games C:\games> DOS maintains separate working directories for each lettered drive, and also has the concept of a current working drive.
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The SOS API is divided into four main areas: #File Calls: Create, destroy, rename, open, close, read, write files; set, get prefix (current working directory); set, get file information; get volume information; set, set mark, EOF, and level of files #Device Calls: Get status, device number, information of a device; send device control data #Memory Calls: Request, find, change, release memory segment; get segment information; set segment number #Utility Calls: Get, set fence (event threshold); get, set time; get analog (joystick) data; terminate. The Apple III System Utilities program shipped with each Apple III computer. It provides the user interface of the operating system itself, for system configuration and file management. The System Utilities program is menu-driven and performs tasks in three categories: #Device-handling commands: copy, rename, format, verify volumes (drives); list devices; set time and date #File-handling commands: list, copy, delete, rename files; create subdirectories; set file write protection; set prefix (current working directory) #System Configuration Program (SCP): configure device drivers.
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