The Eumenophorinae have stridulatory spike setae on the coxae of all legs, and a "comb" of stiffened setae on the palpal femur. In 2005, Richard Gallon described the monotypic genus Mascaraneus, which lacks the stridulatory spike setae.
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No stridulatory signals have been observed; sex recognition is done by contact only.
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Field, L.H. 1993. Structure and evolution of stridulatory mechanisms in New Zealand Wetas (Orthoptera: Stenopelmatidae). International Journal of Insect Morphology and Embryology (22): 163-183. In the case of D. heteracantha there is a wide variation in the gross morphology of their stridulatory structures.
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The form of the spermathecae, stridulatory hairs and urticating hairs are characteristic of the genus Grammostola.
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They have a major peak at 20 kHz and a minor peak around 40–50 kHz. The shape of their stridulatory mechanism is why they can produce these frequency ranges.Field, L.H. 1981. Stridulatory structures and acoustic spectra of seven species of New Zealand wetas (Orthoptera: Stenopelmatidae).
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Several stridulatory structures are found in these beetles including alary-elytral, abdomen-femur and thorax-femur combinations of surfaces.
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Insects of this tribe are usually slender and like other members of the subfamily Acridinae lack stridulatory pegs and are silent.
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Karstarma is distinguished from the closely related Sesarmoides by the lack of a stridulatory structure on the cheliped which is present in the latter genus.
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In addition to glandular organs, juveniles also have stridulatory organs that produce sounds for communicating with ants. Stridulation by late instar larvae and pupae allows ants to locate them more easily.
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Annandaliella pectinifera has stout stridulatory setae on the inside of both chelicerae, to form a primitive stridulatory organ, in the young and male specimens as well as the females. The male has unique colouration: brown, deepening in darkness as the height gets lower, and the underside having long golden hairs and reddish hair on the margin of the chelicerae. The embolus is long and slender, but is not very evenly curved and very curved at all.
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Selenogyrus has no rastellum (spines for digging) on the front of the chelicerae. This distinguishes it from Euphrictus. The stridulatory setae on the chelicerae are clavate (scimitar shaped).Smith, A. M. (1990c).
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Acoustic communication in fish involves the transmission of acoustic signals from one individual of a species to another. The production of sounds as a means of communication among fish is most often used in the context of feeding, aggression or courtship behaviour. The sounds emitted can vary depending on the species and stimulus involved. Fish can produce either stridulatory sounds by moving components of the skeletal system, or can produce non-stridulatory sounds by manipulating specialized organs such as the swimbladder.
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Genera of the subfamily Scorpioninae are extremely similar to each other and Pandinus is especially close to the Southeast Asian genus Heterometrus. They differ mainly in details of the stridulatory organ and sensory bristles (trichobothria).
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An interesting feature of Mascaraneus remotus is the lack of any stridulatory organ on the upper prolateral surfaces of the first two coxae of the legs. Such an organ, consisting of many robust setae and long plumose setae, is found on nearly every eumenophorine theraphosid (with the exception being Monocentropus that only has plumose setae). As a near constant rule, large terrestrial theraphosids have a stridulatory organs of some shape or form. It has been suggested by some (for example, James Wood-Mason, in 1877Wood-Mason, J. (1877).
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Selenogyrus aureus lacks a stridulatory organ between the chelicerae. The male is known only. There is no clypeus and there is a covering of soft tissue on the chelicerae. It has a uniform brownish-yellow colour, with golden tinge.
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It lacks any stridulatory setae, and was therefore considered as ischnocoline but was not placed there, on account of the lack of any medial and proximal hairs on the tibial leg sections, and the presence of integral tarsal scopulae.
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O. philippinus is orange in colour. It is 28 mm long, or 30 mm with chelicerae included. The fovea is procurved. The retrolateral face of the chelicerae is setae-less and the stridulatory setae on the maxillae are butter knife-shaped.
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Phymata americana males actively search for females. After finding and mounting the female, males produce tactile and stridulatory courtship behaviors thought to be assessed by the female during mate choice decisions. During this time, males may also guard the female from competitors.
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At night, adults of diverse species fly to houses attracted by light. Adults produce a pungent odor (isobutyric acid) when disturbed, and are also capable of producing a particular sound by rubbing the rostrum over a stridulatory sulcus under its head (stridulation).
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At night males share perches. At least seven locations have been proposed for the sonic mechanism of Hamadryas butterflies. Non-destructive experimental methods and scanning electron microscopy suggest that both sexes emit sound and the sound apparatus, located in the forewing, is percussive, not stridulatory.
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Transverse occipital ridge or carina absent. Occiput without stridulatory file. Longitudinal axis of head (from occipital foramen to mouth cavity) inclined at an angle of less than 45 degrees, or inclined at an angle of 45 to 90 degrees. Frontal region not to moderately, gradually declined.
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Scutellum well developed; not abruptly elevated, or abruptly elevated; anteriorly simple; posteriorly broadly rounded or obtusely angulate, or truncate. Mesoscutum without stridulatory file. Mesoventrite without paired procoxal rests, or with paired procoxal rests. Paired mesoventral procoxal rests absent, horizontal or slightly oblique, or moderately to strongly oblique.
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These insects are medium to large and brown or gray in color. They eat plant leaves, flowers, and fruits and can occasionally cause economic damage. Their eggs are deposited in pith, bark, or wood. Eneopterinae show a great diversity in stridulatory apparatus, signals emitted, and associated behaviour.
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The forewing of males bears the stridulatory organ, with a sound being created when a file on one wing is rubbed by a scraper on the other. There are two cerci at the tip of the abdomen and there is no stylus on the subgenital plate.
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The velvet ant has multiple defensive strategies, but is best known for its extremely painful sting, earning it the nickname of "cow killer". Its defenses include a thickened exoskeleton, the ability to run fast and evasively, warning coloration, stridulatory warning sounds, a chemical secretion, and venom.
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C. brunneus produce song by moving stridulatory pegs against their elytra. The normal calling song consists of 5-12 notes that range between 0.25 and 0.50 seconds in length. Notes are followed by a 3-second period of rest. Males will repeat the song at intervals.
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More specifically, in long-whiskered catfishes, drumming sounds are used as a threatening signal and stridulations are used as a defense signal. Kaatz investigated 83 species from 14 families of catfish, and determined that catfishes produce more stridulatory sounds in disturbance situations and more swimbladder sounds in intraspecific conflicts.
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The carapace (upper surface of the cephalothorax) is light to dark brown and hairy. The legs are also hairy, with spines except on the femora. There are no stridulatory bristles. Neischnocolus species have modified Type I urticating hairs on the abdomen, similar to those of Proshapalopus and Citharacanthus livingstoni.
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Orphnaecus is a genus of tarantulas that was first described by Eugène Louis Simon in 1892. They have close to fifty lanceolate stridulatory spines on the chelicerae, known as "strikers". The male embolus has a single strong retrolateral keel. It is considered a senior synonym of Chilocosmia and Selenobrachys.
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D. heteracantha possesses a stridulatory apparatus. This apparatus is the sound producing organ based on the mechanism of rubbing one body part against another body part. There is a great variety in these structures seen in Orthoptera. Certain behaviours are associated with the sounds being produced by the Orthoptera.
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A spine is present on the upper side of the tip. Sound-producing ridges on the chelicerae (stridulatory organs) are absent in females but present in males. The chewing appendages (maxillae) are located immediately behind the chelicerae. They are strongly curved on the outside edges and tapers into a blunt tip.
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D. fallai also use an abdominal stridulatory apparatus in which the membrane between the second and third abdominal tergites contains two small groups of lateral spines. When the wētā is annoyed, abdominal segment contractions cause the spines to rub together, producing a hissing sound. Sound production is restricted to defense behaviour.
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This process involves rocking of the entire body with the subsequent vibrations being transferred through the legs to the substrate on which the insect is walking or standing. ; Stridulation: Insects and other arthropods stridulate by rubbing together two parts of the body.A stridulating cricket. These are referred to generically as the stridulatory organs.
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Annandaliella travancorica lacks a tibial comb or any setae on the distal end of the tibia of the first leg. The male lacks any stridulating hairs on the inside of the chelicerae. The female, however, has a stridulatory organ. The male's coxae, femur, metatarsi, tarsi and carapace have a matt of white hairs.
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Once these eight species were distinguishable by song, tiny morphological differences were discovered between them, such as the precise number of teeth on the stridulatory mechanism. None of these species are the Jamaican field cricket, which was first described in 1775 by the Danish zoologist Johan Christian Fabricius, the type locality being Jamaica.
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The chelicerae have long fangs and a stridulatory apparatus on the lateral surface. The palpal bulb has a relatively wide base and a long, pointed embolus. Females have a similar coloration. The female paratype has a total body length of 3.15 mm, the carapace making up 1.1 mm, both lengths being very similar to the male holotype.
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Synodontis is the largest genus of mochokid catfishes. It is the biggest genus within the 10 genera and 190 different species in the family Mochokidae. Synodontis has over 131 different species within the genera. Synodontis are also known as squeakers, due to their ability to make stridulatory sounds through their pectoral fin spines when handled or disturbed.
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The adults have a lepturoid aspect, having like those (except for a small number of cases) a divided stridulatory area. Nevertheless, the head is extremely short, the mandibles are strongly bowed and the anterior coxae are globular. The antennae are long, nearly filiform in most of the genera, and bearing very long setae in the Malagasy genus Nethinius.
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Sound is made by rasping the proboscis against ridges in this groove stridulitrum (stridulatory organ). These sounds are often used to discourage predators. When harassed, many species can deliver a painful stab with the proboscis, injecting venom or digestive juices. The effects can be intensely painful and the injection from some species may be medically significant.
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They also quickly move their legs up and down to make a crackling or rasping sound over their stridulatory apparatus for the duration of annoyance. This fearsome display strongly deters any potential predators. Nymphs up to the fifth instar display protective behaviours by burrowing head first into the soil, leaving only their hind tibia and tarsi exposed.
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Some butterflies have organs of hearing and some species make stridulatory and clicking sounds. Heteronympha merope taking off Many species of butterfly maintain territories and actively chase other species or individuals that may stray into them. Some species will bask or perch on chosen perches. The flight styles of butterflies are often characteristic and some species have courtship flight displays.
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The prairie mole cricket (Gryllotalpa major Saussure) is the largest of the North American crickets, measuring up to 5 cm long, weighing up to 2.6 g, and is typically brown to reddish-brown in color. Like other mole crickets (Gryllotalpidae), G. major has a bullet-shaped, heavy pronotum and large robust fore limbs used for digging complex burrows. Like other Orthoptera males, they have modified fore wings with a stridulatory apparatus which they use in conjunction with acoustic burrows to perform an acoustic sexual advertisement call to attract females during their brief mating season beginning in late spring. Females of G. major have similar stridulatory files as males, though smaller and weaker, and they are in fact capable of producing sound, though it seems the sound serves no function in other species sound production by females is linked to aggression and defense.
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S. austini has a characteristic crescent shaped layout of the granules on the labium, and also has unique layout of the labio-sternal "mounds": the anterior pair being larger than in other species. It also has relatively stout stridulatory clavate ("club-shaped" ) setae on the chelicerae. The spermathecae are quite narrow at their base, and the clypeus is small but not absent. It is 41mm in length.
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Note on Mygale stridulans. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London 1877: 281-282) that this is used to deter predators. The tiny islet of Serpent Island has only one type of mammal, bats, and the birds of the islet are all diurnal (active by day), therefore they rarely come into contact with the tarantula. This may have led to the lack of the stridulatory organ.
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For a long time humans have employed animal sounds to recognise and find them. Bioacoustics as a scientific discipline was established by the Slovene biologist Ivan Regen who began systematically to study insect sounds. In 1925 he used a special stridulatory device to play in a duet with an insect. Later, he put a male cricket behind a microphone and female crickets in front of a loudspeaker.
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Kahurangi ground wētā females have a medium-length ovipositor. Male and females have fore tibiae with a single superior prolateral spine (excluding apical spine); mid tibiae with two superior prolateral spines and three superior retrolateral spines (excluding apical spines). Morphological they are very similar to the Otago ground wētā H. maia, but can be distinguished by number of tergal stridulatory pegs and male terminalia.
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Under similar circumstances, the female raises its tegmina vertically and extends its wings laterally. This exposes the bright red underside of the tegmina in a "startle" display. The wings are translucent and dark brown, with black venation, and produce metallic reflections in sunlight. While holding the tegmina open, the wings move rapidly forwards and backwards, rubbing against the tegmina and producing a stridulatory sound.
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Lateral extensions of a tergite are known as paranota (Greek for "alongside the back") or carinae (Latin for "keel"), exemplified by the flat-backed millipedes of the order Polydesmida. Kinorhynchs have tergal and sternal plates too, though seemingly not homologous with those of arthropods. Tergo-tergal is a stridulatory mechanism in which fine spines of the abdominal tergites are rubbed together to produce sound. This process is known as abdominal telescoping.
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The adult Chlorobalius leucoviridis is a large, cryptically-coloured, long-horned grasshopper. The body, wings and legs are barred and spotted in green and white. The legs bear short spines and both males and females have stridulatory organs, the male has a file-and-scraper structure on the tegmen (fore-wing) while the female has pegs on the hind wing which rub against certain veins on the fore-wing.
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Grammostola anthracina is characterized by having an entirely brown body; females have long spermathecae with a rounded apex. The total length of a female's body is about 45 mm; the fourth (last) leg is longest at about 60 mm. The forward-facing side of the coxa of the first leg has stridulatory hairs. Urticating hairs of types III and IV are present on the upper surface of the abdomen.
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Ceratogyrus dolichocephalus Ceratogyrus is a genus of tarantulas found in southern Africa. They are commonly called horned baboons for the foveal horn found on the peltidium in some species. They are readily distinguished from other African theraphosid genera by the combined presence of a retrolateral cheliceral scopula, composed of plumose, stridulatory setae, and the strongly procurved fovea. The fovea is typically strongly procurved and in some species surrounds a distinct protuberance.
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C. foliata have a reddish-brown cephalothorax and greyish yellow abdomen. While males and females of this species are of a similar size with a cephalothorax width of approximately 5.8mm, males have significantly longer chelicerae compared to females. While males of other Cambridgea species possess a stridulatory organ on the dorsal surface of the pedicel and abdomen, it is absent in male C. foliataForster, R.R.; Wilton, C.L. 1973. The spiders of New Zealand.
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Some species make a hissing noise while other cockroaches make a chirping noise. The Madagascar hissing cockroach produces its sound through the modified spiracles on the fourth abdominal segment. Several different hisses are produced, including disturbance sounds, produced by adults and larger nymphs; and aggressive, courtship and copulatory sounds produced by adult males. Henschoutedenia epilamproides has a stridulatory organ between its thorax and abdomen, but the purpose of the sound produced is unclear.
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The legs are terminated by claws for gripping. The hind leg is particularly powerful; the femur is robust and has several ridges where different surfaces join and the inner ridges bear stridulatory pegs in some species. The posterior edge of the tibia bears a double row of spines and there are a pair of articulated spurs near its lower end. The interior of the thorax houses the muscles that control the wings and legs.
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Low genetic variation was found to occur between the three song characteristics in C. brunneus and C. jacobsi and no sex linkage was found. Peg numbers on the stridulatory file, while different between the two species, are surprisingly not dependent on song characteristics. Genetics cannot account for the difference in peg number. Instead additive effects explain the phenotypic variation in both song characteristics and peg number between C. brunneus, C. jacobsi, and their hybrids.
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Bacillochilus is a monotypic genus of African tarantulas containing the single species, Bacillochilus xenostridulans. The genus and sole species were both described by R. C. Gallon in 2010, and is found in Angola. The name is a combination of the Ancient Greek "xénos" (), meaning "foreign" or "strange", and the Latin "stridulere", meaning "to creak". It is a reference to the unusual form of the stridulatory organ that distinguishes it from other members of the subfamily Harpactirinae.
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Like other Anostostomatidae, D. connectens can produce sound by using their hind legs to rub their abdominal tergites. The hind legs rub against tiny "peg" like structures, referred to as stridulatory pegs. Throughout the distribution of D. connectens, body colour shows extreme variation. In some populations, individuals may have mostly black bodies (for example, those in a population located at Spence Peak in Southland) whereas others may have a mix of red, grey and olive colours.
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French grunts – Haemulon flavolineatum There are some species of fish that can produce sounds by rubbing or grinding their bones together. These noises produced by bone-on- bone interactions are known as 'stridulatory sounds'. An example of this is seen in Haemulon flavolineatum, a species commonly referred to as the 'French grunt fish', as it produces a grunting noise by grinding its teeth together. This behaviour is most pronounced when the H. flavolineatum is in distress situations.
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The species was first described by Andreas Tinter in 1991, as Pseudotheraphosa apophysis. Tinter purchased an individual under the name "Pamphobeteus exsul", but realized that it could not be correctly named, as it possessed stridulatory organs. After further investigation, he named it as a new species in a new genus, Pseudotheraphosa. In 2001, based on a phylogenetic analysis, Rogério Bertani rejected this genus and placed the species in Theraphosa, a view followed since by other workers.
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Agromyza is a genus of flies belonging to the family Agromyzidae. The adults of these flies can be recognised by the presence of stridulatory files on the first two abdominal tergites in both males and females. Another useful identifying feature is the halteres which are usually white or yellow, although they are darker in a few tropical species. The larvae of these flies are mostly leaf miners on a wide range of plants, although a few form galls.
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The additional rDNA is not expressed in either C. brunneus or the hybrids that possess the rDNA sequence. C. brunneus and C. jacobsi can also be differentiated based on song and by the difference in number of stridulatory pegs located on the hind femur. Using a mark and recapture procedure, the lifetime dispersal of C. brunneus and C. jacobsi were estimated to be similar to other grasshopper species that form hybrid zones. C. brunneus and C. jacobsi are dominant during different months.
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Many hemipterans can produce sound for communication. The "song" of male cicadas, the loudest of any insect, is produced by tymbal organs on the underside of the abdomen, and is used to attract mates. The tymbals are drumlike disks of cuticle, which are clicked in and out repeatedly, making a sound in the same way as popping the metal lid of a jam jar in and out. Stridulatory sounds are produced among the aquatic Corixidae and Notonectidae (backswimmers) using tibial combs rubbed across rostral ridges.
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Acanthoplus discoidalis has several defensive mechanisms apart from the armoured exoskeleton. Their defence takes various forms, depending on the gender of the individual and the method of attack. When attacked from the side, both males and females will attempt to bite the attacker and males will stridulate (females have no functional stridulatory mechanism). In about half the attacks from the side, either gender may autohaemorrhage, squirting between 5 mg and 80 mg of possibly toxic haemolymph at the attacker at ranges of up to 3 cm.
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Coenobita rugosus is a species of land hermit crab native to Indonesia, Australia and the east African coast to the south west Pacific. C. rugosus has four walking legs, a small pincer, a large pincer, and antennae. When threatened C. rugosus is able to make a 'chirping' sound by rubbing its large pincer against its shell as a stridulatory apparatus. C. rugosus vary in colour depending on nutritional intake and common colours include green, brown and tan, but black, white, pink, and blue have also been observed.
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However, in a comparison of a few different species of tropical catfish, some fish put under distress conditions produced a higher intensity of stridulatory sounds than drumming sounds. Differences in the proportion of drumming versus stridulation sounds depend on morphological constraints, such as different sizes of drumming muscles and pectoral spines. Due to these constraints, some fish may not even be able to produce a specific sound. In several different species of catfish, aggressive sound production occurs during cover site defense or during threats from other fish.
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B. obscurus is known to be geographically parthenogenetic: North American populations of the species reproduce sexually, while European populations reproduce asexually and are triploids. A stridulatory apparatus has been observed on the upper sides of the wings of B. obscurus, the first known in representatives of the subfamily Eumolpinae. It takes a form of a darkened convex microstructure spot near the end of each wing, between the RS and Cu veins. Symbiotic bacteria are associated with symbiotic organs found in the gut of B. obscurus.
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They use their highly coordinated jumping ability to capture their prey and to move from one place to another. They are capable of capturing insects such as crane flies that are at least twice their own size. Male spiders of this species possess a stridulatory apparatus which consists of several long bristles on the palpal femur and a series of horizontal ridges on the outer side of the chelicerae. Sound is generated when the spider rubs these ridges up and down against the palpal teeth.
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D. fallai use an abdomino-femoral mechanism to produce sound by rubbing their hind legs against the tergites on their abdomen. Their specific type of mechanism is called Tergo-tergal stridulatory mechanism. They have one large crescent shaped file ridge on their second tergite plate, as well as many tiny spiny pegs on the ventro-posterior portion of their tergite and several additional blunt pegs that are dorsally faced. The leading edge of the convex crescent ridge is separated by a longitudinal groove that forms two lips.
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Ultrasonic recording and high-speed infrared videography of bat-moth interactions suggest the palatable tiger moth really does defend against attacking big brown bats using ultrasonic clicks that jam bat sonar. Very low sounds are also produced in various species of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Mantodea and Neuroptera. These low sounds are simply the sounds made by the insect's movement. Through microscopic stridulatory structures located on the insect's muscles and joints, the normal sounds of the insect moving are amplified and can be used to warn or communicate with other insects.
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The carapace is longer than wide, with a deep transverse pit (fovea) and distinct grooves radiating from it. The femur of the fourth leg has a dense pad of feathery (plumose) hair on the side facing away from the head of the animal (retrolateral); the metatarsus of the same leg has a divided and reduced trace of tuft-like (scopulate) hairs at the end furthest from the body. The first leg lacks stridulatory hairs. Females have spermathecae with a single lobe, expanded at the apex to form a P-shape in cross-section.
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The tibiae of the front legs bear one or more tympani which are used for the reception of sound. The wings lie flat on the body and are very variable in size between species, being reduced in size in some crickets and missing in others. The fore wings are elytra made of tough chitin, acting as a protective shield for the soft parts of the body and in males, bear the stridulatory organs for the production of sound. The hind pair is membranous, folding fan- wise under the fore wings.
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Members of Pandinus are generally large scorpions (about 120–200 mm total length), which are dark to black colored, sometimes with paler metasoma and legs. The pedipalp pincers are massive, while the metasoma is proportionally thin with a small vesicle and stinger (aculeus). They possess a stridulatory organ, composed of a rough area on the first segment (coxa) of the pedipalps and a 'scraper' made of bristles on the first segment of their first pair of walking legs. Scraping these bristles on the rough zone produces a scratching sound.
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On their femur they have raised, elongated pegs that are grooved to the middle of their femur and point radially away from the femur base. These pegs are also double lipped, separated by a longitudinal groove. Because the femur pegs are arranged in a radial fashion, they will rub laterally against the ridges on the tergite as the wētā moves its legs past its abdomen. When the wētā moves its back legs up and down against this stridulatory apparatus it creates a crackling or rasping sound that strongly deters potential predators.
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Most male specimens collected have two tibial spurs (spines located on the distal end of the tibia); the first spur is a long calcar and the second spur is short and thick. Adults have a stridulatory organ on the ventral side of the abdomen – unlike all other hymenopterans in which such organs are located dorsally. In all castes, these ants have six maxillary palps (palps that serve as organs of touch and taste in feeding) and four labial palps (sensory structures on the labium), a highly primitive feature. The females have a 12-segmented antenna, whereas males have 13 segments.
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Linshcosteus is a genus of assassin bugs in the subfamily Triatominae (the kissing bugs). It is the only genus of Triatomines restricted to the Old World within the mostly Neotropical subfamily Triatominae (a few Triatoma species are known from the Old World and one New World species Triatoma rubrofasciata has been spread by humans across the tropics) and consists of six species restricted to peninsular India. Within the Triatominae, the genus is differentiated by the lack of a prosternal stridulatory furrow and a short rostrum that does not reach the prosternum. Adults feed on vertebrate blood.
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Each sweep of sound consists of a number of discrete pulses created by the ridges lining the base of the pectoral spine as they pass over the rough surface of the girdle's channel. The stridulation sounds are extremely variable due to the range and flexibility of motion in fin use. Different sounds may be used for different functions in communication, such as in behavior towards predators and in asserting dominance. In many channel catfish, individuals favor one fin or another for stridulatory sound production (in the same way as humans are right-handed or left-handed).
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Augacephalus is separated from other harpactirines in the following ways: Distinguished from Harpactirella by the presence of a retrolateral cheliceral scopula composed of plumose setae (in males scopula not obviously composed of plumose setae). Separated from Harpactira and Trichognatha by the absence of a dense scopula on the upper prolateral cheliceral surface. Further separated from Harpactira by the absence of plumose stridulatory strikers on the prolateral maxillary surface, and by the absence of a discrete row of bristles below the retrolateral cheliceral scopula. Distinguished from Idiothele by the possession of digitiform distal segment on posterior spinnerets.
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In keeping with the lack of stridulatory adaptations, the fore tibiae do not bear tympanal organs such as those found in many Orthoptera. Rear wings generally are present, often longer than the abdomen, but their presence in any particular species need not imply that the insect is capable of flight. Tridactylidae give the impression of having two pairs of cerci; this is because, in addition to the true cerci, the two podical plates (comprising the divided sternum of the eleventh abdominal segment) are greatly elongated and each bears a terminal segment that looks like a stylus or cercus. The antennae are fairly short, typically filiform or moniliform, with eleven segments.
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Primary defensive adaptations against nocturnally active acoustically orienting predators such as leaf-nosed bats and other foliage-gleaners include the use of stridulatory signals characterized by a single tone at high frequency and of short duration. Secondary defensive adaptations include acoustical alarm displays, regurgitation of material from the stomach, and the use of their powerful mandibles to inflict a painful bite. Autohaemorrhaging of hemolymph, which contains toxic phytotoxins, is another defensive strategy used by many species of katydids and possibly also the members of genus Panoploscelis. In addition to these adaptations, their massive size and the strength of their heavily armored, thorny legs offers them significant protection.
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The name Phrynoponera first appeared in a paper by Wheeler (1920), merely as a new genus-group name with the designation of an already described species as the type species. A couple of years later Wheeler (1922) presented a formal description of the genus, a synopsis of newly discovered material from the Democratic Republic of Congo, mostly infraspecific taxa, and notes on a few previously described forms. The description of the genus that Wheeler (1922) presented was adequate for its time, but superficial by modern standards and mistaken in several characters. First, Wheeler noted that the "stridulatory surface is well developed", which it is not.
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Male grasshoppers spend much of the day stridulating, singing more actively under optimal conditions and being more subdued when conditions are adverse; females also stridulate, but their efforts are insignificant when compared to the males. Late-stage male nymphs can sometimes be seen making stridulatory movements, although they lack the equipment to make sounds, demonstrating the importance of this behavioural trait. The songs are a means of communication; the male stridulation seems to express reproductive maturity, the desire for social cohesion and individual well-being. Social cohesion becomes necessary among grasshoppers because of their ability to jump or fly large distances, and the song can serve to limit dispersal and guide others to favourable habitat.
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Though not deadly, the effects of the venom can be very unpleasant, including pain, swelling, and arthritis-like stiffness in the joints of the extremity affected. The theraphosid subfamily Ornithoctoninae is defined by a combination of characteristics: Presence of retrolateral scopula of filiform setae on the cheliceral base, a small row of larger filiform paddle setae retrolaterally ventrobasally in connection to the retrolateral cheliceral scopula, and arrangement of stridulatory spines prolaterally on maxilla. The characteristic of retrolateral scopula of filiform setae on the cheliceral base is shared by the African subfamily Harpactirinae, but the Ornithoctoninae can be distinguished from the Harpactirinae by the geographic distribution range and the presence of the other characteristics mentioned, which are lacking in the Harpactirinae.
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