72 Sentences With "storage organs" | Random Sentence Generator

Simultaneous blooms are very rare since blooms occur only when individual plants have accumulated enough energy in their underground storage organs.

The male has to be precise about the timing, doing it just a few days before molting when the female's genitalia and sperm storage organs are fully developed but not yet exposed.

For example, geophytes growing in woodland under deciduous trees (e.g. bluebells, trilliums) die back to underground storage organs during summer when tree leaf cover restricts light and water is less available. However, perennating organs need not be storage organs. After losing their leaves, deciduous trees grow them again from 'resting buds', which are the perennating organs of phanerophytes in the Raunkiær classification, but which do not specifically act as storage organs.

Equally, storage organs need not be perennating organs. Many succulents have leaves adapted for water storage, which they retain in adverse conditions.

A sugar source is any part of the plant that is producing or releasing sugar. During the plant's growth period, usually during the spring, storage organs such as the roots are sugar sources, and the plant's many growing areas are sugar sinks. After the growth period, when the meristems are dormant, the leaves are sources, and storage organs are sinks. Developing seed-bearing organs (such as fruit) are always sinks.

The flowers produce 200–300 seeds. The plants form hard black tubers as storage organs. Aside from its flowers resembling poppies, the red single wild form flowers resemble the flowers of the red single wild form of Ranunculus asiaticus.

Thus circumscribed, this order consists mostly of herbaceous plants, but lianas and shrubs also occur. They are mostly perennial plants, with food storage organs such as corms or rhizomes. The family Corsiaceae is notable for being heterotrophic. The order has worldwide distribution.

This herbaceous perennial plant develops upright rhizomes, which function as food-storage organs. Its leaves and stems are long, soft, silver-grey and hairy. It grows to high and when it is fruit-bearing up to . The roots go deep into the soil.

A number of herbaceous flowering plants form clonal colonies via horizontal surface stems termed stolons, or runners; e.g. strawberry and many grasses. Non-woody plants with underground storage organs such as bulbs and corms can also form colonies, e.g. Narcissus and Crocus.

Horticultural crops include vegetables (examples are chickpeas, lettuce, broccoli, and beans) and small fruit crops (examples are grape, strawberry, and raspberry), these are most severely affected and devastated by gray mold. Plant organs affected include fruits, flowers, leaves, storage organs, and shoots.

Necroses are caused due to necrosis or death of plant cells. The affected plant tissue usually turns brown to black in color. Necrotic symptoms could appear in any part of the plant such as in storage organs, in green tissues, or in woody tissues.

Tulips (Tulipa), a popular species of bulbous plant Lilium regale A group of crocuses (Crocus) in flower Ornamental bulbous plants, often called ornamental bulbs or just bulbs in gardening and horticulture, are herbaceous perennials grown for ornamental purposes, which have underground or near ground storage organs. Botanists distinguish between true bulbs, corms, rhizomes, tubers and tuberous roots, any of which may be termed "bulbs" in horticulture. Bulb species usually lose their upper parts during adverse conditions such as summer drought and heat or winter cold. The bulb's storage organs contain moisture and nutrients that are used to survive these adverse conditions in a dormant state.

Common mole-rats are fossorial and can live in a wide range of substrates. They are herbivorous, mainly eating geophytes (plants with underground storage organs) and grass rhizomes. Common mole-rats are very widespread, thus their abundance is not well known. This species shows signs of localization due to soil requirements.

P. colocasiae is an oomycete and is thus characterized by oospores and coenocytic hyphae. Oospores have very thick-walls which provide durable survival structures. As a result, oospores overwinter in soil, underground storage organs, or on leaf debris left in the field after harvest. However, inoculum does not survive for very long on leaf tissue.

Rhizomes frequently have an additional storage function and rhizome producing plants are considered geophytes (Tillich, Figure 11). Other geophytes develop bulbs, a short axial body bearing leaves whose bases store food. Additional outer non-storage leaves may form a protective function (Tillich, Figure 12). Other storage organs may be tubers or corms, swollen axes.

Female polymorphism could in fact be a result of evolution due to sexual conflict. Male spiders Harpactea sadistica perform extra-genitalic traumatic insemination with their needle- like intromittent organs that puncture the female's wall, resulting in direct insemination. Males also puncture females with their cheliceral fangs during courtship. Females have atrophied spermathecae (sperm-storage organs).

In the drier Mediterranean climate the asparagus genus evolved in the Tertiary into thorny, drought-adapted species. Root tubers are storage organs developed by Asparagus spp. and are a valuable source of moisture and nutrition for species growing under drought conditions. Many species, particularly from Africa, were once included in separate genera such as Protasparagus and Myrsiphyllum.

The Mediterranean climate produces hot, dry summers, and many of the plants have underground storage organs allowing them to resprout after fires. A typical species is the silver tree, which grows naturally only on Table Mountain. Fire kills many of the trees but triggers the germination of the seeds, founding the next generation of these short-lived trees.

Mouse eating seeds Plant seeds are important sources of nutrition for animals across most ecosystems. Seeds contain food storage organs (e.g., endosperm) that provide nutrients to the developing plant embryo (cotyledon). This makes seeds an attractive food source for animals because they are a highly concentrated and localized nutrient source in relation to other plant parts.

Plant senescence is the process of aging in plants. Plants have both stress- induced and age-related developmental aging. Chlorophyll degradation during leaf senescence reveals the carotenoids, such as anthocyanin and xanthophylls and is the cause of autumn leaf color in deciduous trees. Leaf senescence has the important function of recycling nutrients, mostly nitrogen, to growing and storage organs of the plant.

Inside the root, the fungus forms arbuscules, which are highly branched hyphal structures that serve as sites of nutrient exchange with the plant. Arbuscules are formed within plant cell walls but are surrounded by an invaginated cell membrane, so remain within the apoplast. The fungus may also form vesicles, swollen structures which are thought to function as food storage organs.

Vesicles are lipid storage organs of AMF and these and the hyphae in the soil contain the fatty acids 18:2 w6c (often used as an indicator of fungal content of the PLFA analysis) as well as containing the fatty acid 16:1 w5c which has been recommended as a biomarker for AMF (PLFA fraction:AMF hyphae and NLFA fraction:AMF spores).

Although named specifically for Damaraland, the mole-rats are found across much of southern Africa, including Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. They inhabit warm, semi-arid environments dominated by savannah scrubland or sandy grasslands. They are most commonly associated with red Kalahari psamments, and are found only where there is a sufficient supply of plants with subterranean storage organs.

Females mate multiple times, so sperm competition could be an important aspect of male-male competition for being reproductively successful. Males have a limited number of sperm and allocate it depending on various factors. Male Indian-meal moths ejaculate a greater amount of sperm to females that have mated multiple times previously. This is to ensure a greater chance of success in sperm competition in the females' storage organs.

The following section is based on the following Drosophila species: Drosophila melanogaster, Drosophila simulans, and Drosophila mauritiana. Sperm competition is a process that polyandrous Drosophila females use to increase the fitness of their offspring. The female Drosophila has two sperm storage organs that allows her to choose the sperm that will be used to inseminate her eggs. Females have little control when it comes to cryptic female choice.

Ulluku (Ullucus tuberosus) tubers Tubers are enlarged structures in some plant species used as storage organs for nutrients. They are used for the plant's perennation (survival of the winter or dry months), to provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing season, and as a means of asexual reproduction. Stem tubers form thickened rhizomes (underground stems) or stolons (horizontal connections between organisms). Common plant species with stem tubers include the potato and yam.

Death of cells in storage organs terminates in decomposition or decay referred to as a rot. Two types of rots are identified as Dry rot and Wet rot on storage tissues. Soft rots are those where the pathogen breaks down the host cell walls, resulting in the exudation of juices from the infected tissue. The organ becomes mushy or pulpy and a foul smell often develops due to colonization by secondary invaders.

1993; Barton 2008). Utilizing stored reserves may be an important tolerance mechanism for plants which have abundant time to collect and store resources, such as perennial plants (Tiffin 2000; Erb et al. 2009). Resources are often stored in leaves and specialized storage organs such as tubers and roots, and studies have shown evidence that these resources are allocated for regrowth following herbivory (Trumble et al. 1993; Tiffin 2000; Erb et al. 2009).

In botany, perennation is the ability of organisms, particularly plants, to survive from one germinating season to another, especially under unfavourable conditions such as drought or winter. It typically involves development of a perennating organ, which stores enough nutrients to sustain the organism during the unfavourable season, and develops into one or more new plants the following year. Common forms of perennating organs are storage organs (e.g. tubers, rhizomes and corm), and buds.

Bulb of a red onion, cut vertically A true bulb (i.e. a bulb in the botanical sense) is an underground vertical shoot that has modified leaves (or thickened leaf bases) that are used as food storage organs by the plant. The bottom of the bulb is made up of a short section of stem forming the basal plate. Storage leaves are produced from the top of the basal plate, roots from the underside.

Tulips (Tulipa) form a genus of spring-blooming perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes (having bulbs as storage organs). The flowers are usually large, showy and brightly colored, generally red, pink, yellow, or white (usually in warm colors). They often have a different colored blotch at the base of the tepals (petals and sepals, collectively), internally. Because of a degree of variability within the populations, and a long history of cultivation, classification has been complex and controversial.

The movement in phloem is multidirectional, whereas, in xylem cells, it is unidirectional (upward). After the growth period, when the meristems are dormant, the leaves are sources, and storage organs are sinks. Developing seed-bearing organs (such as fruit) are always sinks. Because of this multi-directional flow, coupled with the fact that sap cannot move with ease between adjacent sieve- tubes, it is not unusual for sap in adjacent sieve-tubes to be flowing in opposite directions.

Fertilization bias depends on the control of sperm transport to the sperm storage organs. The inhibition of sperm storage by female crickets can act as a form of cryptic female choice to avoid the severe negative effects of inbreeding. Controlled-breeding experiments with the cricket Gryllus firmus demonstrated inbreeding depression, as nymphal weight and early fecundity declined substantially over the generations' this was caused as expected by an increased frequency of homozygous combinations of deleterious recessive alleles.

Animals evolved to exploit plant tissues and energy stores and in response plants developed a number of defenses, including neurotoxins. The presence and concentration of these toxins vary by plant tissue, with leaves and organs central to reproduction and energy conservation displaying high toxin concentrations (e.g. pistils/stamens and storage organs) and absent in tissue central to seed dispersion (e.g. fruit). The power and effectiveness of plant neurotoxic substances has been shaped by ~400 million years of evolution.

It has been observed in locusts, that the nervous system initiates female reproductive muscular contractions. In some species, such as R. prolixus, the contractions that move spermatozoa into sperm storage are initiated by a male secretion in the ejaculate. Male secretions, such as the glycoprotein ACP36D in Drosophila, can also play a role in preparing the female reproductive system for sperm storage. It causes changes in uterine shape allowing spermatozoa access to the sperm storage organs.

A storage organ is a part of a plant specifically modified for storage of energy (generally in the form of carbohydrates) or water. Storage organs often grow underground, where they are better protected from attack by herbivores. Plants that have an underground storage organ are called geophytes in the Raunkiær plant life-form classification system.The underground storage organ itself is sometimes called a geophyte, but this is not the original usage of the term in the Raunkiær plant life-form classification.

Storage organs may act as perennating organs ('perennating' as in perennial, meaning "through the year", used in the sense of continuing beyond the year and in due course lasting for multiple years). These are used by plants to survive adverse periods in the plant's life-cycle (e.g. caused by cold, excessive heat, lack of light or drought). During these periods, parts of the plant die and then when conditions become favourable again, re-growth occurs from buds in the perennating organs.

D. dadantii is phytopathogenic bacterium causing soft rot diseases on many host plants including some which are economically important. D. dadantii, more commonly known as: soft rot, brown rot or blackleg, causes characteristic symptoms associated with other bacterial wilts, causing final diagnosis to be difficult. The pathogen primarily seeks to attack the plant's xylem vessels located in leaves, stems, blossoms and storage organs of herbaceous plants. D. dadantii is able to infect hosts at any point in its life cycle.

Erycina pusilla Erycina pusilla is a species of flowering plants, which is a tiny orchid with an overall size of 2.5 to 3.5 cm from the orchid family, Orchidaceae.Psygmorchis pusilla ( Oncidium pusillum ) Its species are native to Mexico, Central America, South America and Trinidad.Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families The leaves are shaped like a lance head (lanceolate) and arranged in a fan. Unlike other similar orchids, E. pusilla never develops lengthwise folded leaves (conduplicate leaves) or extra storage organs (pseudobulbs).

The upper body of A. africanus is more apelike than that of the East African A. afarensis. A. africanus, unlike most other primates, seems to have exploited C4 foods such as grasses, seeds, rhizomes, underground storage organs, or creatures which eat those such as locusts, termites, grazing mammals, or even animals which eat those creatures. Nonetheless, the species had a highly variable diet, making it a generalist. It may have eaten lower quality, harder foods, such as nuts, in leaner times.

This is a cheap and simple process for those plants that readily produce offsets as it does not usually require specialist materials and equipment. Offsets form when meristem regions of plants, such as axillary buds or homologous structures, differentiate into a new plant with the ability to become self-sustaining. This is particularly common in species that develop underground storage organs, such as bulbs, corms and tubers. Tulips and lilies are examples of plants that display offset characteristics by forming cormlets around the original mother corm.

Some aquatic plant species produce overwintering turions, especially in the genera Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Aldrovanda and Utricularia. These plants produce turions in response to unfavourable conditions such as decreasing day-length or reducing temperature. They are derived from modified shoot apices and are often rich in starch and sugars enabling them to act as storage organs. Although they are hardy (frost resistant), it is probable that their principal adaptation is their ability to sink to the bottom of a pond or lake when the water freezes.

The colony structure of this ant is unusual; there are both winged and wingless males, and three types of female, queens, intercastes and workers. New colonies are founded when winged males copulate with winged females after a nuptial flight. These females then shed their wings, find a suitable nesting site and start laying eggs, but their function in the colony is later taken over by intercastes. These females differ from workers in having spermathecae (sperm storage organs) and are mated by wingless males inside the colony.

The female insect nervous system affects many of the processes involved in sperm storage. The nervous system may signal for muscular contractions, fluid absorption, and hormone release, all of which aid in moving the sperm into the storage organs. When the nervous system of female fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) was replaced with a masculinized nervous system through genetic manipulation, sperm storage was affected suggesting that the female nervous system is unique and required to store sperm properly. The nervous system is responsible for several fertilization methods.

Accumulations of up to of vegetable matter have been found in burrows but a more normal size store is about one tenth of this size. The zokors show a preference for the underground storage organs of plants but also eat a broad range of roots and shoots of grasses, herbs and a few shrubby plants. Zokors are active throughout the year. Even though the temperature conditions above ground vary greatly, in the burrow the temperature is much less extreme and these zokors do not hibernate in winter, although their activity level is reduced.

A geophyte (earth+plant) is a plant with an underground storage organ including true bulbs, corms, tubers, tuberous roots, enlarged hypocotyls, and rhizomes. Most plants with underground stems are geophytes but not all plants that are geophytes have underground stems. Geophytes are often physiologically active even when they lack leaves. They are able to survive during adverse environmental conditions by going into a state of quiesce and later resume growth from their storage organs, which contain reserves of carbohydrates and water, when the environmental conditions are favourable again.

The process of translocation within the phloem Unlike xylem (which is composed primarily of dead cells), the phloem is composed of still-living cells that transport sap. The sap is a water-based solution, but rich in sugars made by photosynthesis. These sugars are transported to non-photosynthetic parts of the plant, such as the roots, or into storage structures, such as tubers or bulbs. During the plant's growth period, usually during the spring, storage organs such as the roots are sugar sources, and the plant's many growing areas are sugar sinks.

In addition, P. robustus may have also consumed fruits, underground storage organs, and perhaps honey and termites. P. robustus may have used bones as tools to extract and process food. It is unclear if P. robustus lived in a harem society like gorillas or a multi-male society like baboons. P. robustus society may have been patrilocal, with adult females more likely to leave the group than males, but males may have been more likely to be evicted indicated by higher male mortality rates and assumed increased risk of predation to solitary individuals.

A. afarensis was likely a generalist omnivore. Carbon isotope analysis on teeth from Hadar and Dikika 3.4–2.9 million years ago suggests a widely ranging diet between different specimens, with forest-dwelling specimens showing a preference for C3 forest plants, and bush- or grassland- dwelling specimens a preference for C4 CAM savanna plants. C4 CAM sources include grass, seeds, roots, underground storage organs, succulents, and perhaps creatures which ate those such as termites. Thus, A. afarensis appears to have been capable of exploiting a variety of food resources in a wide range of habitats.

In Pisaura mirabilis, the male pushes up the female during mating and performs alternate pedipalp insertions into the female sperm storage organs place ventrally on the abdomen. After each insertion the male returns to a face-to- face position with the female, grabbing the gift in the chelicerae. Females often control mating duration and they often attempt to run away with the gift upon terminating the copulation. Females are less likely to succeed in stealing a wrapped – rather than an unwrapped – gift due to the silk wrapping of the gift.

Carrot roots in various shapes and colors Root vegetables are underground plant parts eaten by humans as food. Although botany distinguishes true roots (such as taproots and tuberous roots) from non-roots (such as bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers, although some contain both hypocotyl and taproot tissue), the term "root vegetable" is applied to all these types in agricultural and culinary usage. Potatoes are technically tubers, not roots, and sweet potatoes are tuberous roots. Root vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates.

Annual species complete their life cycle during favourable seasons and pass unfavourable ones as seeds. Bulbous plants, on the other hand, have developed storage organs as a reserve to allow them to survive unfavourable conditions in a resting condition in order to begin growth again when environmental conditions become more favourable. The dormant or resting period may be in summer or winter, or may depend on rainfall, as in the tropics. The different strategies enable bulbous plants to survive adverse conditions such as extremely hot and dry summers, very cold winters, or periods of drought.

Plant covered in snow after an ice storm in 2013, Ontario, Canada Rosa canina whilst frost, Swabian Jura Plants in temperate and polar regions adapt to winter and sub zero temperatures by relocating nutrients from leaves and shoots to storage organs. Freezing temperatures induce dehydrative stress on plants, as water absorption in the root and water transport in the plant decreases. Water in and between cells in the plant freezes and expands, causing tissue damage. Cold hardening is a process in which a plant undergoes physiological changes to avoid, or mitigate cellular injuries caused by sub-zero temperatures.

A similar scheme may have been in use by P. boisei. Such a strategy is similar to that used by modern gorillas, which can sustain themselves entirely on lower quality fallback foods year-round, as opposed to lighter built chimps (and presumably gracile australopithecines) which require steady access to high quality foods. Reconstruction of MGL 95211 skull and jaw In 1980, anthropologists Tom Hatley and John Kappelman suggested that early hominins (convergently with bears and pigs) adapted to eating abrasive and calorie-rich underground storage organs (USOs), such as roots and tubers. Since then, hominin exploitation of USOs has gained more support.

Flowering plants often produce no stolons. Convolvulus arvensis is a weed species in agriculture that spreads by under ground stolons that produce rhizomes. In studies on grass species, with plants that produce stolons or rhizomes and plants that produce both stolons and rhizomes, morphological and physiological differences were noticed. Stolons have longer internodes and function as means of seeking out light and are used for propagation of the plant, while rhizomes are used as storage organs for carbohydrates and the maintenance of meristem tissue to keep the parent plant alive from one year to the next.

Smith uses information from her fundamental studies to examine starch turnover in crop plants. Current research on starch synthesis in cereal grains has the potential to increase crop yield, and to change important functional and nutritional properties of flour. Her lab is also investigating the genetic, biochemical and molecular control of starch degradation in leaves and storage organs, and how this is coordinated with plant growth, germination and sprouting. With George Coupland, Liam Dolan, Nicholas Harberd, Jonathan D. G. Jones, Cathie Martin, Robert Sablowski and Abigail Amey, Alison is a co-author of the textbook Plant Biology.

In 2004, a study by the Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES) on heavy metal pollution in red deer and roe deer, found high concentrations of lead and cadmium in the area of the silver smelting works in their livers and kidneys and partly also in their muscles. However, the residues of arsenic, antimony and mercury in muscles and storage organs were only small. The levels of cadmium in the organs exceeded the residue levels of the EU's Contaminants Regulation, in some cases, considerably. However, this regulation does not apply to the meat and edible tissues of wild game.

The winter rainfall region's bulbs on the other hand are mostly from arid habitats and are found fairly deep below the surface, usually flowering before producing leaves. The genus produces relatively large bulbs that act as food and water storage organs, and consist of fleshy leafbases or tunics that may be arranged in two obvious ranks - termed a distichous arrangement. The morphology of the bulbs is useful in taxonomy and identification. Haemanthus have from one to six leaves, ranging from broad, leathery and prostrate to narrow, crisped or succulent and erect, with a variety of surface textures from smooth to extremely hairy or even sticky.

Furthermore, the individual differences are greater than the average differences, which isn't therefore a valid prediction of a man or woman cognitive ability. This hypothesis argues that males needed the ability to follow prey over long distances and to accurately target their game with projectile technology, and, as a result, male specialization in hunting prowess would have spurred the selection for increased spatial and navigational ability. Similarly, the ability to remember the locations of underground storage organs and other vegetation would have led to an increase in overall efficiency and decrease in total energy expenditure since the time spent searching for food would decrease.David C. Geary.

Carbon isotope analysis indicates a diet of predominantly C4 savanna foods, such as grasses, sedges, underground storage organs (USOs), or rhizomes. There is a smaller C3 portion which may have comprised more typical ape food items such as fruits, flowers, pods, or insects. This indicates that, like contemporary and future australopiths, A. bahrelghazali was capable of exploiting whatever food was abundant in its environment, whereas most primates (including savanna chimps) avoid C4 foods. However, despite 55–80% of δ13C deriving from C4 sources similar to Paranthropus boisei and the modern gelada (and considerably more than any tested A. afarensis population), A. bahrelghazali lacks the specialisations for such a diet.

They found that the microwear patterns in P. robustus suggest hard food was infrequently consumed, and therefore the heavy build of the skull was only relevant when eating less desirable fallback foods. Such a strategy is similar to that used by modern gorillas, which can sustain themselves entirely on lower quality fallback foods year-round, as opposed to lighter built chimps (and presumably gracile australopithecines) which require steady access to high quality foods. In 1980, anthropologists Tom Hatley and John Kappelman suggested that early hominins (convergently with bears and pigs) adapted to eating abrasive and calorie-rich underground storage organs (USOs), such as roots and tubers. Since then, hominin exploitation of USOs has gained more support.

Whether cane-like (with many joints) or spherical (with one or few joints), they are all produced from a long-lived creeping stem called a rhizome which may itself be climbing or pendulous. The pseudobulbs are relatively short lived (1–5 years), but are continually produced from the growing tip of the rhizome and may persist for years after its last leaves senesce. The term pseudobulb is used to distinguish the above-ground storage organ from other storage organs derived from stems that were underground, namely corms or true bulbs, a combination of an underground stem and storage leaves. Strictly speaking, there is no clear distinction between the pseudobulb and corm structures.

A Western Australian field study found that most males took 6 to 8 weeks to travel around with occasional journeys of over , but that only around 11–13% successfully found a mate. They are attracted by pheromones, which are secreted by unmated sexually mature female redback spiders onto their webs and include a serine derivative (N-3-methylbutyryl-O-(S)-2-methylbutyryl-L-serine). This is thought to be the sole method by which males assess a female's reproductive status, and their courtship dismantles much of the pheremone-marked web. During mating, the male redback attempts to copulate by inserting one of its palps into the one of the female's two spermathecae (sperm storage organs), each of which has its own insemination orifice.

The presumed male OH 80 may have been tall and in weight (assuming improbable humanlike proportions), and the presumed female KNM-ER 1500 tall (though its species designation is unclear). The arm and hand bones of OH 80 and KNM-ER 47000 suggest P. boisei was arboreal to a degree and was possibly capable of manufacturing tools. P. boisei was originally believed to have been a specialist of hard foods, such as nuts, due to its heavily built skull, but it was more likely a generalist feeder of predominantly abrasive C4 plants, such as grasses or underground storage organs. Like gorillas, the apparently specialised adaptations of the skull may have only been used with less desirable fallback foods, allowing P. boisei to inhabit a wider range of habitats than gracile australopithecines.

One of the most familiar members of the family to gardeners are the African violets in Streptocarpus section Saintpaulia. Gesneriads are divided culturally into three groups on the basis of whether, and how, their stems are modified into storage organs: rhizomatous, tuberous, and "fibrous-rooted", meaning those that lack such storage structures (although all gesneriads have fibrous roots). Botanists who have made significant contributions to the systematics of the family are George Bentham, Robert Brown, B.L. Burtt, C.B. Clarke, Olive Mary Hilliard, Joseph Dalton Hooker, William Jackson Hooker, Karl Fritsch, Elmer Drew Merrill, Harold E. Moore, Jr., John L. Clark, Conrad Vernon Morton, Henry Nicholas Ridley, Laurence Skog, W.T. Wang, Anton Weber, and Hans Wiehler. Several researchers are currently working on this group and the generic classification has been changing rapidly.

Nature's Magic: Synergy in Evolution and the Fate of Humankind By Peter Corning One hypothesis is that carbohydrate tubers (plant underground storage organs) may have been eaten in high amounts by pre-agricultural humans. It is thought that the Paleolithic diet included as much as per day of fruit and vegetables. The relative proportions of plant and animal foods in the diets of Paleolithic people often varied between regions, with more meat being necessary in colder regions (which weren't populated by anatomically modern humans until BP).) It is generally agreed that many modern hunting and fishing tools, such as fish hooks, nets, bows, and poisons, weren't introduced until the Upper Paleolithic and possibly even Neolithic. The only hunting tools widely available to humans during any significant part of the Paleolithic were hand-held spears and harpoons.

Nonetheless, Neanderthals still would have had to have eaten a varied enough diet to prevent nutrient deficiencies and protein poisoning, especially in the winter when they presumably ate mostly lean meat. Any food with high contents of other essential nutrients not provided by lean meat would have been vital components of their diet, such as fat-rich brains, carbohydrate-rich and abundant underground storage organs (including roots and tubers), or, like modern Inuit, the stomach contents of herbivorous prey items. For meat, they appear to have fed predominantly on hoofed mammals, namely red deer and reindeer as these two were the most abundant game, but also on other Pleistocene megafauna such as ibex, wild boar, aurochs, mammoth, straight-tusked elephant, woolly rhinoceros, and so on. There is evidence of directed cave and brown bear hunting both in and out of hibernation, as well as butchering.

In 1954, Robinson proposed that A. africanus was a generalist omnivore whereas P. robustus was a specialised herbivore; and in 1981, American palaeoanthropologist Frederick E. Grine suggested that P. robustus specialised on hard foods such as nuts whereas A. africanus on softer foods such as fruits and leaves. Based on carbon isotope analyses, A. africanus had a highly variable diet which included a notable amount of C4 savanna plants such as grasses, seeds, rhizomes, underground storage organs, or perhaps grass-eating invertebrates (such as locusts or termites), grazing mammals, or insectivores or carnivores. Most primates do not eat C4 plants. A. africanus facial anatomy seems to suggest adaptations for producing high stress on the premolars, useful for eating small, hard objects such as seeds and nuts that need to be cracked open by the teeth, or for processing a large quantity of food at one time.

It is typically thought that the diets of early Homo had a greater proportion of meat than Australopithecus, and that this led to brain growth. The main hypotheses regarding this are: meat is energy- and nutrient-rich and put evolutionary pressure on developing enhanced cognitive skills to facilitate strategic scavenging and monopolise fresh carcasses, or meat allowed the large and calorie-expensive ape gut to decrease in size allowing this energy to be diverted to brain growth. Alternatively, it is also suggested that early Homo, in a drying climate with scarcer food options, relied primarily on underground storage organs (such as tubers) and food sharing, which facilitated social bonding among both male and female group members. However, unlike what is presumed for H. ergaster and later Homo, short-statured early Homo were likely incapable of endurance running and hunting, and the long and Australopithecus-like forearm of H. habilis could indicate early Homo were still arboreal to a degree.

Australopithecus bahrelghazali is an extinct species of australopithecine discovered in 1995 at Koro Toro, Bahr el Gazel, Chad, existing around 3.5 million years ago in the Pliocene. It is the first and only australopithecine known from Central Africa, and demonstrates that this group was widely distributed across Africa as opposed to being restricted to East and southern Africa as previously thought. The validity of A. bahrelghazali has not been widely accepted, in favour of classifying the specimens as A. afarensis, a better known Pliocene australopithecine from East Africa, because of the anatomical similarity and the fact that A. bahrelghazali is known only from 3 partial jawbones and an isolated premolar. The specimens inhabited a lakeside grassland environment with sparse tree cover, possibly similar to the modern Okavango Delta, and similarly predominantly ate C4 savanna foods—such as grasses, sedges, storage organs, or rhizomes—and to a lesser degree also C3 forest foods—such as fruits, flowers, pods, or insects.

It is a situation similar to lipocalins (from Greek lipos=fat and Greek kalyx=cup), where the name designates a superfamily of widely distributed and heterogenous proteins, which transport small hydrophobic molecules including steroids and lipids. However, in contrast to lipocalins, the “CSP” family refers to homogenous evolutionary-well conserved proteins with characteristic sequence (4 cysteines), tissue profiling (ubiquitously expressed), and rather highly diverse binding properties (not only to long fatty acids (FAs) and straight lipid chains, but also to cyclic compounds such as cinnamaldehyde) [34]. Therefore, it is rather difficult to name groups and sub-groups within the CSP family, although numerous CSP proteins are mainly produced in the gut and the fat body that are considered as the insect body’s principle storage organs for energy in the forms of FAs and lipids, which are mobilized through lipolysis process to provide fuel to other organs to develop, regenerate or grow and/or to respond to an infectious agent [4, 14, 50]. In moths, specific lipid chains are mobilized for pheromone synthesis [9-14].

OH 13 mandible compared to other hominin species It is typically thought that the diets of H. habilis and other early Homo had a greater proportion of meat than Australopithecus, and that this led to brain growth. The main hypotheses regarding this are: meat is energy- and nutrient-rich and put evolutionary pressure on developing enhanced cognitive skills to facilitate strategic scavenging and monopolise fresh carcasses, or meat allowed the large and calorie-expensive ape gut to decrease in size allowing this energy to be diverted to brain growth. Alternatively, it is also suggested that early Homo, in a drying climate with scarcer food options, relied primarily on underground storage organs (such as tubers) and food sharing, which facilitated social bonding among both male and female group members. However, unlike what is presumed for H. ergaster and later Homo, short-statured early Homo are generally considered to have been incapable of endurance running and hunting, and the long and Australopithecus- like forearm of H. habilis could indicate early Homo were still arboreal to a degree.