Yet tempting, specie-type mistakes happen not just among children, but their parents too.
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Name one male specie that wasn't in love with her in The Blue Lagoon.
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Night Blooming Cereus (Epiphyllum oxypetalum): This is hands down one of my favorite specie of plant.
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So you may want to steer clear of this specie if you have very curious pets.
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Make sure you identify the specie and find out when it will bloom – cactus blooms are AMAZING!
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Fine Art Specie Adjusters, the palace's insurance company, says they may offer up to £100,000 (~$129,000) for its return.
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If you're a plant collector, there are quite a few unusual philodendron specie that you could grow indoors as well.
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Euphorbia lactea 'Ghost': For the true arid plant collector, the Ghost euphorbia is like the unicorn of the Euphorbia specie.
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The child has heard the slightly rarefied word "species" and assumed it was the plural of something called a specie.
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But just as with specie, at some point English people misanalysed pease as a plural, and the new singular pea was born.
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The Amsterdam Exchange Bank was founded and run by city officials to accept specie and coins and certify their value in terms of florins.
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Contemplating the matter sub specie aeternitatis, Klosterman plumps for a third possibility as the true avatar of rock, whose identity I'll reveal later in this review.
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After bringing the old frogs to laboratories in India and comparing them, Biju and his team made a startling discovery: the frogs were an evolutionary outcome of the lost frog/specie and had a new set of genes.
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Other related Reichsthaler units of account include the Danish rigsdaler courant, worth a Rigsdaler specie, and the Swedish riksdaler riksmynt, worth th a Riksdaler specie.
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During the real union between Denmark and Norway, Danish currency circulated alongside Norwegian. Norway itself issued currency denominated in two different rigsdaler, the rigsdaler courant and the rigsdaler specie, with 96 skilling to the rigsdaler courant and 120 skilling to the rigsdaler specie. In 1816, following the establishment of the union between Sweden and Norway, the rigsdaler specie was renamed the speciedaler and became the standard unit of currency in Norway.
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However, the abundance of this specie is low due to the high trawling intensity.
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ISI Books. 2002. p. 248 Michael Oakeshott, in Historical Experience, wrote: > Pretending to organize and elucidate the real world of experience sub specie > aeternitatis, history succeeds only in organizing it sub specie > praeteritorum.Experience and its Modes by Michael Oakeshott. Digital > printing. 2002. p.
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F. quadrangularis is considered to be nationally rare and are a high conservation significance specie.
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Sub specie aeternitatis (Latin for "under the aspect of eternity")Philosophical Dictionary: "sub specie aeternitatis". is, from Baruch Spinoza onwards, an honorific expression describing what is universally and eternally true, without any reference to or dependence upon the temporal portions of reality. In clearer English, sub specie aeternitatis roughly means "from the perspective of the eternal". Even more loosely, the phrase is used to describe an alternative or objective point of view.
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Wades actual captors were US Navy gunboats and Wade was carrying pineapples, turtles and 20,000 dollars in specie. Lloyd's List reported that American gunboats in St Mary's River had taken the Wade, Johnson, master, and another vessel, Pindar, master, from Nassau and carrying specie.
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No. 26: 1-199. So io pangio occiole best specie Il Pangio Weeb è la seconda.
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The old Yokohama Specie Bank Building was completed in 1924. The Yokohama Specie Bank Building is a seven-story building in The Bund, Shanghai. It is now a branch of the Shanghai Textile Holding Corporation. The building was designed by architects at P & T Architects & Engineers Ltd.
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Bordo 1983, p. 237 Apart from distinguishing money from money substitute, he also distinguished between bank notes offered as receipts for specie deposits and bank notes circulating beyond the quantity of specie—or fiduciary media—suggesting that the volume of fiduciary media is strictly limited by people's confidence in its redeemability.Spengler , pp. 414–15 He considered fiduciary media a useful tool to abate the downward pressure that hoarding of specie has on the velocity of money.
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Markham, Jerry W. A Financial History of the United States. Vol. 1. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2002. Print. New Orleans also faced a boom in railroad growth, which helped build specie in its banks. The large quantities of specie being built up were consistently desired for much-wanted large capital investments. This abundance of trade and specie build up allowed New Orleans’ banks to focus solely on monetary policy without having to worry about aiding capital formation.
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Payments in specie were able to start up again in April, during the time of the Capture of New Orleans. This short absence in the ability to make specie payments was not believed to have been caused by any wrongdoings of the banks. In November 1877, an anonymous writer from The Banker’s Magazine reported that the stipulations associated with the law establishing the Forstall System were strictly adhered to, including the reserves of specie and short-term paper.
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The Specie Circular was a reaction to the growing concerns about excessive speculations of land after the Indian removal, which was mostly done with soft currency. The sale of public lands increased five times between 1834 and 1836. Speculators paid for these purchases with depreciating paper money. While government law already demanded that land purchases be completed with specie or paper notes from specie-backed banks, a large portion of buyers used paper money from state banks not backed by hard money.
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Rivista delle specie del genere Nepenthes. Malesia 3: 1–15. William E. Dixon (1888),Dixon, W.E. 1888. Nepenthes notes.
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Finally, on January 16, 1837, when the Jacksonians had a majority in the Senate, the censure was expunged after years of effort by Jackson supporters. The expunction movement was led, ironically, by Benton. In 1836, in response to increased land speculation, Jackson issued the Specie Circular, an executive order that required buyers of government lands to pay in "specie" (gold or silver coins). The result was high demand for specie, which many banks could not meet in exchange for their notes, contributing to the Panic of 1837.
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William McKinley ran for president on the basis of the gold standard. The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns. Legally, the gold specie standard was not repealed. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie.
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In addition, speculations also collapsed in South African and Australian properties. Because European investors were concerned that these problems might spread, they started a run on gold in the U.S. Treasury. Specie was considered more valuable than paper money; when people were uncertain about the future, they hoarded specie and rejected paper.Nelson, Scott Reynolds. 2012.
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The Yokohama Specie Bank (now The Kanagawa Prefectural Museum of Cultural History) also known as the Yokohama Museum of Cultural History is a history museum in Naka-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan. Its exhibition focuses on the culture and history of Kanagawa Prefecture. It is located in the building of the former Yokohama Specie Bank.
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Although the Independent Treasury did restrict the expansion of credit, it also posed a new set of economic problems. In periods of prosperity, revenue surpluses accumulated in the Treasury, reducing hard money circulation, tightening credit, and restraining inflation of trade and production. In periods of depression and panic, when banks suspended specie payments and hard money was hoarded, the government’s insistence on being paid in specie tended to aggravate economic difficulties by limiting the amount of specie available for private credit. In 1857, another panic hit the money market.
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It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa, that the gold specie standard was officially ended. The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but "only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy [12 kg] of fine gold".
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Chilean pink color is a shade of Chilean pink flower (Lapageria r. specie), resembling light pale red-orange, pale vermilion nuance.
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Captain Downes had so much specie aboard that he was able to bribe Lord Cochrane into allowing the Macedonian to pass Cochrane's blockade.
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V. Una nuova specie di Pediasia Hübner delle isole di Capo Verde (Lepidoptera, Crambidae). Bollettino della Società Entomologica Italiana 123 (3): 245–248.
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Until the expiration of its charter in 1843, it provided most of the scrip and bills of credit in northern Ohio, provided the underpinning for nearly all of Cleveland's business community, and was one of only a few major banks where the state and federal government deposited specie. Kelley pushed the bank to become involved with the Ohio & Erie Canal. It received specie payments from Eastern bond investors and disbursed scrip and specie on behalf of the Canal Fund Commission. Kelley also became a major investor in the Franklin Bank of Columbus (probably no later than June 1836).
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Each year, the supply of specie in the colonies decreased due to international factors. The dearth of specie rendered it ineffective as a means of exchange for day-to-day purchases. Colonists frequently adopted a barter system to acquire the goods and services they required. Essentially, this method proved to be ineffective and a commodity system was adopted in its place.
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The Yokohama Specie Bank (now The Kanagawa Prefectural Museum of Cultural History) Yatarō Mishima, Head of Yokohama Specie Bank from 1911 to 1913. was a Japanese bank founded in Yokohama, Japan in the year 1880. Its assets were transferred to The Bank of Tokyo (now MUFG Bank) in 1946. The bank played a significant role in Japanese overseas trade, especially with China.
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In April 1803 the officers and crew of Lowestoffe and of Bonetta received payment for the salvage of the specie that Lowestoffe was carrying.
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Willard v. Tayloe, 75 U.S. 557, 559-562. Worse, due to inflation, the Notes were worth only about half what gold specie was worth.
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Notes on the new Nepenthes. The Gardeners' Chronicle, new series, 17(420): 56. Odoardo Beccari (1886),Beccari, O. 1886. Rivista delle specie del genere Nepenthes.
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The Yokohama Specie Bank Building – built in 1924 (No. 24, The Bund) The original bank building is now the Kanagawa Prefectural Museum of Cultural History.
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After signing with EMI, she released her fifth studio album in 2011, titled Evoluzione della specie. During the same year, she appeared on the Italian version of Professor Green's single "Read All About It (Tutto quello che devi sapere)", which was also included in the 2012 edition of Evoluzione della specie, released after Dolcenera's participation in the Sanremo Music Festival 2012 with "Ci vediamo a casa".
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In May, New York banks suspended specie payments, meaning that they refused to redeem credit instruments in specie at full face value. Over the next several years, domestic trade slumped, the price of banking, railroad, and insurance company stocks declined, and unemployment rose. 194 of the 729 banks with charters closed their doors. Thousands of people in manufacturing districts lost their jobs as credit dried up.
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Whig leaders in Congress, meanwhile, blamed Democratic economic policies, especially the 1836 Specie Circular. That policy had required the use of specie (coins), rather than paper money, in the purchase of government-held lands, and had had the effect of transferring specie from Eastern banks to Western banks and undermining confidence in banknotes. Whigs also blamed Jackson's dismantling of the Second Bank of the United States, thereby allowing state banks to engage in lending and the printing of paper money without effective regulation. Another contributing factor to the panic was the sudden contraction of English credit, which had helped to finance a period of strong economic growth since 1830.
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Over the years as the number of invasive species increase throughout New Zealand, this has started putting pressure on the plants survival rate and is now causing a decrease in how often the plant is occurring. A new climber specie related to supplejack called Geitonoplesium cymosum has somehow been brought over to New Zealand. This specie is very similar to the native supplejack but there is a threat that if this new specie continues to thrive and spread throughout New Zealand that it could out-compete supplejack. Wild pigs also have a negative impact on juvenile supplejack as they forage through the forest floor.
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Philosophy, however, is not a modal interest. At this stage of his career Oakeshott saw philosophy as the world seen sub specie aeternitatis, literally "under the aspect of eternity", free from presuppositions, whereas science and history and the practical mode rely on certain assumptions. Later (there is some disagreement about exactly when) Oakeshott adopted a pluralistic view of the various modes of experience, with philosophy just one voice among others, though it retained its self-scrutinising character. According to Oakeshott, the dominating principles of scientific and historical thought are quantity (the world sub specie quantitatis) and being in the past (the world sub specie praeteritorum) respectively.
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Nuove specie di Aspergillus dei terreni della savana spinosa somala. Allionia. 2(2):247-257 It has been reported to produce a butyrolactone and terrequinone A.
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He made a large sum of money by returning with valuable cargoes to Britain in 1824, including $400,000 of specie and 300 bales of cochineal from Havana.
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It shows little fear of humans or dogs, and is easily tamed. People had rarely seen this animal in mountain. Only some Locals had seen this specie.
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What Are the Seven Wonders of the World? First Anchor Books, p. 192. The name "Juno" may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one", "unique", "unit", "union", "united") and "Moneta" either from the Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique). In the Western world, a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie, stemming from Latin in specie, meaning 'in kind'.
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The Panic of 1837 caused holders of banknotes to turn them in at such a rate that the bank could not deliver specie on demand, and the bank suspended specie payments; to avoid a charter provision forcing liquidation on suspension for 60 days, the state legislature made indefinite suspension legal twice, once in July 1837 and once in 1839. Nonetheless, the prosperity of the mid-1830s boosted the confidence of bankers.
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It required the Secretary of the Treasury to redeem greenbacks in specie on demand on or after 1 January 1879. The Act, however, did not provide for a specific mechanism for redemption. The Act, though, did allow the Secretary of Treasury to acquire gold reserves either via any federal surpluses or the issuance of government bonds. An established gold reserve allowed for daily variations in specie flows and facilitated resumption.
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The Trust Co. was highly respected at the outset. As expected, it served as a depository institution for the state of Ohio, receiving and disbursing scrip and specie. It also did a large amount of business with private banks in addition to its real estate mortgage business. The Panic of 1837 significantly damaged the financial standing of the Trust Co. In October 1839, the company stopped making payment in specie.
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Advertisement for the furniture store Rasmus Jørgensen, known as Specie-Jørgensen, purchased the building in 1833. In 1846, he sold it to royal furniture maker Christopher Bagnæs Hansen.
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With J. P. Morgan the elder, he was one of five bankers who saved Grover Cleveland from giving up specie payments in 1896, with their $65,000,000 gold loans.
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Large foreign banks including the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corp. (HSBC), National City Bank (Citibank), Deutsch-Asiatische Bank and Yokohama Specie Bank opened branches in the Legation Quarter.
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While Whig leader Henry Clay promoted his own American System as the best means for economic recovery, Van Buren's response to the panic focused on the practice of "strict economy and frugality." The potential repeal of the Specie Circular policy split the Democratic Party, with prominent Democrats like William Cabell Rives and Nathaniel Tallmadge urging it as part of a move away from Jackson's hard currency policies. After a long period of consideration, Van Buren announced in May 1837 that he would not revoke the Specie Circular. Van Buren feared that revoking the Specie Circular would hurt western banks, and was reluctant to depart from a Jacksonian policy so quickly after taking office.
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The Specie Payment Resumption Act of 1875 required the treasury to redeem any outstanding greenbacks in gold, thus retiring them from circulation and restoring the gold standard. Hayes and Secretary of the Treasury Sherman both support a restoration of the gold standard, and the Hayes administration stockpiled gold in preparation for the exchange of greenbacks for gold. Once the public was confident that they could redeem greenbacks for specie (gold), however, few did so; when the act took effect in 1879, only $130,000 out of the $346,000,000 outstanding dollars in greenbacks were actually redeemed. Together with the Bland–Allison Act, the successful specie resumption effected a workable compromise between inflationists and hard money men.
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As the number of pet banks increased from 33 to 81, regulation of the government's deposits became more difficult, and lending increased. The growing number of loans contributed to a boom in land prices and land sales; the General Land Office sold 12.5 million acres of public land in 1835, compared to 2 million acres in 1829. Seeking to curb land speculation, Jackson issued the Specie Circular, an executive order that required buyers of government lands to pay in specie. The Specie Circular undermined the public's trust in the value of paper money; Congress passed a bill to revoke Jackson's policy, but Jackson vetoed that bill on his last day in office.
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The circular simply stated that as of August 15 1836, banks and others who received public money were required to accept only gold and silver coins in payment for public lands. Instead of the intended results, the circular spelled the end of a time of economic prosperity. The circular set into motion a panic, and the public began hoarding specie. Without specie to pay out, banks and merchants began having financial troubles.
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242 Cantillon also considered changes in the velocity of money (quantity of exchanges made within a specific amount of time) influential on prices, although not to the same degree as changes in the quantity of money.Cantillon 2010, pp. 147–48 While he believed that the money supply consisted only of specie, he conceded that increases in money substitutes—or bank notes—could affect prices by effectively increasing the velocity of circulating of deposited specie.
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The construction took 25 months, and the completed building occupied 1.3 hectares, with an area of 23,415 m². The architect's firm, Palmer & Turner, also designed numerous other buildings on the Bund including the Yokohama Specie Building, Yangtze Insurance Building, and Bank of China Building. HSBC Building at night During the Second World War, the HSBC building was occupied by the Japanese Yokohama Specie Bank. HSBC moved back at the end of the war.
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Instead of promissory notes paid off by future promissory notes, business transactions were supported by specie. This reduced transaction costs, increased the coverage of the market, and opened incentives and opportunities to participate in cash transaction. Demand arose for luxury goods from Asia, such as silk and pepper, which created new markets. The increased supply of specie made tax collection easier, allowing the government to build up fiscal capacity and provide for public goods.
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Altre razze (in Italian). Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Specie Bufalina. Accessed September 2013. Cows usually lactate during 272 days with an average milk yield of in this period.Sethi, R. K. (2003).
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In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called "greenbacks".
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In January 2014, through a distribution in specie and re-listing of Frasers Centrepoint Limited by way of introduction on the Singapore stock exchange, the Group de-merged its Properties business.
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The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced the need to transport gold and silver, which was risky; it facilitated loans of gold or silver at interest, since the underlying specie (money in the form of gold or silver coins rather than notes) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed a division of currency into credit- and specie-backed forms. It enabled the sale of stock in joint-stock companies and the redemption of those shares in a paper. But there were also disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more notes than they had specie to back them with.
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Before the Civil War, the only money issued by the United States was gold and silver coins, and only such coins ("specie") were legal tender; that is, payment in that form had to be accepted. Paper currency in the form of banknotes was issued by privately owned banks; the notes being redeemable for specie at the bank's office. They were not legal tender. Such notes had value only if the bank could be counted on to redeem them.
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Urtheil In Sachen Des Pfarrer Mayers zu Riedbach contra Einige der Gemeind zu Syndringen: Puncto der in vorstehender Specie Facti contra den Pfarrer Mayer berührten Diffamation, in specie aber den Calumnianten Edelmann betreffend: Geben Bartenstein den 20. Martii 1745 online at books.google.com In 1745 he moved to Kupferzell, near Crailsheim, where he was pastor until his death in 1798. There in the garden of his clergy house, Mayer conducted agricultural experiments and observed farm work on nearby farms.
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"Ci vediamo a casa" (English: See you at home) is a single by Italian singer Dolcenera, released by EMI Music Italy on 15 February 2012. It is included on the album Evoluzione della specie², a new edition of 2011's Evoluzione della specie. The song competed in the Sanremo Music Festival 2012, placing sixth in a field of fourteen. It is also the main song from the film of the same title, directed by Maurizio Ponzi.
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Although twenty years later, Chemical would stand alone and continue to make payments in specie, in this crisis the bank followed others in suspending payments. Chemical was one of the earliest to resume payments in specie. Mason died on September 26, 1839, but his legacy of conservatism was taken on by his successors. Isaac Jones and later his cousin John Quentin Jones would lead Chemical, both serving as president, across the next forty years through 1878.
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The Treasury was to pay out its own funds and be completely independent of the banking and financial system of the nation. All payments by and to the government were to be made in either specie or Treasury Notes. The separation of the Treasury from the banking system was never completed; however, the Treasury’s operations continued to influence the money market, as specie payments to and from the government affected the amount of hard money in circulation.
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On 6 September Implacable sailed from Cadiz to Havana as escort to two Spanish 3-deckers. From there she sailed to Vera Cruz, Mexico, to pick up specie. She returned to Cadiz on 18 February 1811 with 2,000,000 dollars on board.Cockburn benefited personally from this mission in that under the regulations of the period a captain was entitled to a commission of a half to one percent of the value of the specie carried in his vessel.
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A. vaginalis was first recovered from vaginal discharges and ovarian abscesses although this bacteria can also be found in pressure ulcers and diabetic foot. Some strains from this specie can be indole-positive.
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Plumper was wrecked on 5 December 1812 while en route to Halifax with £70,000 in specie for the purchase of arms for the military in St John. She struck on the ledges off Dipper Harbour in the Bay of Fundy and sank immediately with the loss of the specie and 42 of the 60 people on board, consisting both of crew and passengers. Bray and all his officers were among the men drowned. LL reported the loss on 8 January 1813.
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In order to preserve a specie, knowledge of the mating system is crucial: scientists can stabilize wild populations through captive breeding, followed by the release in the environment of new individuals. This task is particularly difficult by considering the species with homomorphic sex chromosomes and a large genome. For example, in the case of amphibians, there are multiple transitions among male and/or female heterogamety. Sometimes even variation of sex chromosomes within amphibian populations of the same specie were reported.
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97 The most important feature of the Forstall System was that newly rechartered banks were required to maintain specie reserve requirement equal to one third of their note and deposit liabilities. The other two thirds was to be in the form of ninety-day paper. The combination of specie and ninety-day paper ensured a safe ratio of quick to non-liquid assets. This was the first system under which reserves be counted against notes as well as deposit liabilities.
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On July 11, 1836, Jackson ordered Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury to issue the Specie Circular under federal law whereby the government refused to take anything but gold and silver specie for sales of public lands of over 320 acres after August 15, 1836. It did make a special exception to accept certain types of Virginia scrip. The executive order allowed legitimate settlers (non- speculators, or those purchasing plots of 320 acres or less) to use paper until December 15, 1836.
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All banknotes produced by the Yokohama Specie Bank were printed by the Printing Bureau of the Imperial Japanese Government. Today all banknotes produced by the Yokohama Specie Bank during the late Qing dynasty period between 1902 and 1911 are rare and bring exceedingly high prices on the private collectors market, the sole exception to this rule being the 1 dollar banknote which was issued in 1902, this banknote occasionally becomes available to collectors. In general Yokohama Specie Bank varieties provide private collectors with a rather wide field from which they could build up a notaphilic collection. The problem many collectors of banknotes today face is that, due to tight management by the Japanese and a near total banknote redemption, very few of these paper notes remained unredeemed making them relatively rare today.
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The Specie Payment Resumption Act of 1875 required the treasury to redeem any outstanding greenbacks in gold, thus retiring them from circulation and restoring a single, gold-backed currency. Sherman agreed with Hayes's favorable opinion of the Act, and stockpiled gold in preparation for the exchange of greenbacks for gold. But once the public was confident that they could redeem greenbacks for specie (gold), few did so; when the Act took effect in 1879, only $130,000 of the outstanding $346,000,000 in greenbacks were actually redeemed. Together with the Bland–Allison Act, the successful specie resumption effected a workable compromise between inflationists and hard money men and, as the world economy began to improve, agitation for more greenbacks and silver coinage quieted down for the rest of Hayes's presidency.
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The Specie Circular is a United States presidential executive order issued by President Andrew Jackson in 1836 pursuant to the Coinage Act. It required payment for government land to be in gold and silver.
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In Collezione d'osservazioni e reflessioni di chirurgia. Rome, Michele A Ripa Presso Lino Contedini, 1802;3:270–273. and Antonio Giuseppe Testa,Testa, AG. Delle malattie del cuore, loro cagioni, specie, segni e cura. Bologna, 1810.
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In 1942, it was declared an 'enemy company' and Jinushi Ennosuke became custodian.American Multinationals, p. 120. In 1943, Tokyo Electric (Toshiba) bought its assets and business. Ennosuke put the money in the Yokohama Specie Bank.
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A bank closed for business in New York that August, and by October, three banks in New Orleans stopped paying in specie. This triggered a mass of demands for redemptions at both Galveston banks, which prompted Williams to refuse to honor some depositors' checks. An early closing triggered a sharp discount on his bank notes, but local fears were allayed after local merchants honored the Williams notes at par, and Williams reversed his policy, resuming payments in specie. Williams survived the Panic of 1857.
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These banknotes were circulated by the branch in the port city of Dairen. Peak circulation of the Yokohama Specie Bank's paper notes was reached in the year 1911 when a total 7,200,000 dollars its banknotes were paid out. Over its many years of operating in China the Yokohama Specie Bank issued a large variety of paper notes. At different times it issued banknotes that were denominated in taels, dollars, silver yen, gold yen, big money, small money, local currency and even fractional small denominational sen notes.
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The speciedaler (or specie-dollar) was the currency of Norway between 1816 and 1875. It replaced the rigsdaler specie at par and was subdivided into 5 marks or 120 skilling (called skilling species on some issues), each mark therefore subdivided into 24 skillings. It was replaced by the Norwegian krone when Norway joined the Scandinavian Monetary Union. An equal valued krone/krona of the monetary union replaced the three currencies at the rate of 1 krone/krona = Danish rigsdaler = Norwegian speciedaler = 1 Swedish riksdaler.
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Reactions as to the effects of the Resumption Act are mixed. Contemporaries did not consider it an outright victory for hard money. The legislation stood as a compromise engineered by Senators John Sherman and George Edmunds between hard and soft money advocates. Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz argue that the Resumption Act had mixed effects on actual resumption of specie payments, saying that primary economic product of the Act was that it instilled confidence in the business community on the maintenance of specie payments.
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Local bankers and politicians annoyed by the controls exerted by Nicholas Biddle grumbled loudly. Jackson did not like any banks (paper money was anathema to Jackson; he believed only gold and silver ["specie"] should circulate.) After Herculean battles with Henry Clay, his chief antagonist, Jackson finally broke Biddle's bank. Jackson continued to attack the banking system. His Specie Circular of July 1836 rejected paper money issued by banks (it could no longer be used to buy federal land), insisting on gold and silver coins.
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On January 14, 1875, Grant signed the Resumption of Specie Act, and he could not have been happier; he wrote a note to Congress congratulating members on the passage of the act. The legislation was drafted by Ohio Republican Senator John Sherman. This act provided that paper money in circulation would be exchanged for gold specie and silver coins and would be effective January 1, 1879. The act also implemented that gradual steps would be taken to reduce the number of greenbacks in circulation.
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In 1713, the government introduced notes for 1, 2 and 3 mark, 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 rigsdaler. The Copenhagen Assignation, Exchange and Loans Bank issued notes between 1737 and 1804 for 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 100 rigsdaler courant. Between 1791 and 1797, the Danish-Norwegian Specie Bank issued notes for 4, 8, 20, 40 and 80 rigsdaler specie. The treasury issued notes for 2 and 20 rigsdaler courant in 1808, followed by 8, 12 and 24 skilling notes in 1809-1810.
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Additionally, he asked state banks to keep one dollar in specie for every three issued as paper, and he discouraged the use of federal or state bonds as security on bank notes to avoid future inflation.
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Throughout this period about half the value of the issued notes was backed by specie reserves. The notes issued were in five denominations, one hundred, ten, five and one yuan and five chiao (one-half yuan).
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24, The Bund) During the early years of the Yokohama Specie Bank it had survived an economic recession, after which the Yokohama Specie Bank received loans from the imperial Japanese government and permission to issue its own paper notes. At first the bank used the silver standard was used to back the banknotes it put into circulation but, due to global depreciation of silver during the late 19th century, the Meiji period imperial Japanese government had turned to use the gold standard for its currency in the year 1897, using the war indemnity money due to them after the defeat of the Qing dynasty in the First Sino-Japanese War as backing for the new gold yen banknotes. After the first Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars the Yokohama Specie Bank shifted its focus northwards to Manchuria where it first took over the grain trade from the Chinese and later the railroad activities from the Russians. The branch offices of the Yokohama Specie Bank tasked with producing banknotes in Manchuria were located at Dairen, Harbin, Yingkou (Newchwang), Tsinan, Liaoyang, Mukden, and Tiehling, these offices were initially established in support of Japanese military personnel stationed in Manchuria.
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Norwegian Coat of Arms on the reverse, the obverse showing Christian IV. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, coins were issued in denominations of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 skilling, , , , , and 1 rigsdaler specie.
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On January 14, 1875, Grant signed the Specie Payment Resumption Act, which required gradual reduction of the number of greenbacks allowed to circulate and declared that they would be redeemed for gold beginning on January 1, 1879.
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In the Treasury, as in the Senate, Sherman was confronted with two tasks: first, to prepare for specie resumption when it took effect in 1879; second, to deal with the backlash against the diminution of silver coinage.
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Captain Downes often kept his midshipmen and other trusted aides busy counting specie. Many deposits were made, with many single deposits of over 100,000. The men complained bitterly about their treatment, writing of how they were forced to eat mealy grain while counting hundreds of thousands of dollars in specie. Many of the men felt that Captain Downes was doing this for the "good of the Captain" and wondered when they would be used for the purpose they joined the Navy for rather than for the Captain's personal enrichment.
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His goal was to retire the notes of the Bank of the United States prevalent in society at that time and to replace them with specie gold. In addition, he realized that the ratio between gold and silver must be adjusted if gold specie was to remain in circulation. At that time, the gold to silver ratio was 15:1 while in Europe, the ratio was 15.5:1. This led to the practice of melting down contemporary U.S. gold coins for profit because there was a slightly higher gold content than the face value.
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Across the Atlantic, British legislation exacerbated the damage wrought by the bursting land speculation bubble. The monetary strain imposed by the Napoleonic Wars and withdrawals by panicked depositors had greatly depleted the coin and bullion reserves of the Bank of England. This prompted Parliament to pass the Bank Restriction Act of 1797, which halted specie payments. The disruption of access to British gold and silver, coupled with the inability for financiers in the United States to successfully access Continental specie markets, unraveled the Atlantic credit web, hastening the collapse of Morris’s and other speculation schemes.
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Over the next two years, Sherman worked to develop what became the Specie Payment Resumption Act. The Act was a compromise. It required gradual reduction of the maximum value of greenbacks allowed to circulate to $300 million and, while earlier drafts had allowed the Treasury the choice between paying in bonds or coin, the final version of the Act required payment in specie, starting in 1879. The bill passed on a party-line vote in the lame duck session of the 43rd Congress, and President Grant signed it into law on January 14, 1875.
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They knew their > duty and they did it. While in a town they made no braggadocio > demonstration. They did not gallop through the streets, shoot, and yell. > They had a specie of moral discipline which developed moral courage.
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Leucospis dorsigera can reach a length of .J.K. Lindsey Ecology of Commanster This rather variable vespid- like specie mimics a stinging wasp. Body is quite robust, with yellow stripes on a black ground color. The fore wings are folded longitudinally.
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Watkins's treatment of the Americans was not approved by British officials and upon the appointment of a new commander for the British Jamaica station he was stripped of his command and the specie he had seized was returned.Palmer 1987, p. 277.
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Utilitarianism: For and Against by Bernard Williams. Cambridge > University Press, 1973. Peter L. Berger, in The Sacred Canopy, wrote: > Just as institutions may be relativized and thus humanized when viewed sub > specie aeternitatis, so may the roles representing these institutions.
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The Speciethaler was the currency of Schleswig-Holstein until 1866, located in the border region of present day Denmark and Germany. It was divided into 60 Schilling Courant, each of 12 Pfennig. The Speciethaler was equal to the Danish rigsdaler specie.
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A. provencensis was isolated from a cervical abscess. This specie can ferment lactose, unlike A. tetradius, A. prevotii, and A. octavius. The first analysis made on Anaerococcus provencensis showed it is susceptible to penicillin G, imipenem, amoxillin, metronidazole, cefotetan and vancomycin.
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One Norwegian skilling, 1816 From 1816, the Norwegian skilling () was equivalent to of a speciedaler, and before that of a rigsdaler specie, or of a rigsdaler courant. It was introduced in Norway in the early 16th century and was abolished 1875.
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This practice led to significant coin rarities in the Capped Bust series of gold coins minted from 1808-1834. Gold specie fineness was reduced from .9167 fine to .8992 fine and the gold to silver ratio was increased to 16:1.
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In 1913, Mishima joined the Yokohama Specie Bank, and was assigned to its branch office in Tsingtao, China, where he remained until 1939. His death at his home in Meguro, Tokyo in 1954 was largely overlooked by the Japanese media.
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Raphitoma ferrierii is an extinct species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Raphitomidae.Brunetti, M. Mauro, and G. D. Bella. "Leufroyia ferrierii: una nuova specie per il Pliocene toscano (Gastropoda: Conidae)." Bollettino Malacologico 42.9/12 (2006): 118.
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Wordsworth stayed at his post and went down with his ship. About 90 to 100 people survived the sinking. The total value of Earl of Abergavennys cargo was estimated to be £200,000. It consisted of porcelain and some £70,000 in specie.
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In November 1798, Lowestoft returned to service with Plampin in command for operations in the West Indies. After three years on convoy escort duty in the Caribbean, Lowestoft was wrecked in the Windward Passage with three merchant ships. As the frigate was carrying a large quantity of specie, Plampin summoned the small ship and successfully transferred the money and all of the frigates crew into the tiny vessel. For saving the specie, Plampin was paid the reward he had originally been promised for bringing it safely to Britain and was subsequently cleared of any wrongdoing in the loss of his ship.
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Thomas Nagel, in The Absurd, wrote: > Yet humans have the special capacity to step back and survey themselves, and > the lives to which they are committed... Without developing the illusion > that they are able to escape from their highly specific and idiosyncratic > position, they can view it sub specie aeternitatis—and the view is at once > sobering and comical. Later in the article he states: > If sub specie aeternitatis there is no reason to believe that anything > matters, then that does not matter either, and we can approach our absurd > lives with irony instead of heroism or despair.Thomas Nagel. "The Absurd".
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Her first studio album for a major label, Dolcenera nel paese delle meraviglie, was released for Sony Music in 2009 and spawned the hit single "Il mio amore unico". Dolcenera later signed a new recording deal with EMI. Evoluzione della specie, her fifth studio album, was released in 2011, and re-released the following year under the title Evoluzione della specie², with additional tracks including the single "Ci vediamo a casa". After releasing the singles "Niente al mondo", "Accendi lo spirito", "Fantastica" and "Un peccato" between 2014 and 2015, Dolcenera released a new album, Le stelle non-tremano, in September 2015.
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On 8 April 2011, Dolcenera released the single "Il sole di domenica", which was later included in her fifth studio album, Evoluzione della specie, recorded from June to November 2010 and released on 17 May 2011 by EMI Music Italy. The Evoluzione della specie tour started on 9 June 2011 in Falcade, province of Belluno (Veneto). The second single from the album, "L'amore è un gioco", was released on 26 August 2011. To promote the music video for the song, starring four Playboy Playmates, Dolcenera appeared on the cover of the Italian version of the men's magazine Playboy.
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The recovery from the depression that followed the Panic of 1837 began in 1843 and lasted until the Panic of 1857. The panic was triggered by the August 24 failure of the well regarded Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Co. A manager in the New York branch, one of the city's largest financial institutions, had embezzled funds and made excessive loans. The company's president announced suspension of specie redemption, which triggered a rush to redeem banknotes, causing many banks to fail because of lack of specie. The United States had been running a trade deficit, draining gold out of the country.
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In May 1833 she was back at the Cape, and on the 16th she sailed for Mauritius. She arrived there on 3 June. A month later, on 6 June, she left Mauritius for Colombo with specie to pay the troops in Ceylon.
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Hume's essay is the first known establishment of the concept of the Price-Specie Flow Mechanism, and perhaps still the best, cited by Paul Krugman and John Maynard Keynes on one end of the political spectrum, and Austrian economists on the other.
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Gabriela Concepcion (née Roldan) is a Filipino television host, actress, lawyer, and professor. She is wife to former University of the Philippines president, lawyer Danilo Concepcion. A hisbiscus hybrid specie was named after her by the University of the Philippines Los Baños.
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At this point, in July, the French had conquered most of the southern states of the Holy Roman Empire, forcing them into separate peace agreements. The French extracted large amounts of coin (hard specie) and materials to feed and clothe the troops.
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It tried to ensure steady growth by forcing state-chartered banks to keep specie reserves. This meant that smaller banks lent less money, but that their notes were more reliable. Jackson would not publicly air his grievances with the B.U.S. until December 1829.
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Pronotum is long and wide, with parallel sides. The size of the black markings and the color of elytra are very variable (hence the specie name variabilis). Normally they have three black bands. The 1st and 2nd bands are sometimes divided into four distinct spots.
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Loch Arkaig in Lochaber. The treasure of Loch Arkaig, sometimes known as the Jacobite gold, was a large amount of specie provided by Spain to finance the Jacobite rising in Scotland in 1745, and rumoured still to be hidden at Loch Arkaig in Lochaber.
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Takahashi was named president of the Yokohama Specie Bank in 1906. He was made a baron (danshaku) under the kazoku peerage system in 1907. Takahashi was Governor of the Bank of Japan from 1 June 1911, through 20 February 1913.BOJ, List of Governors.
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New York adapted a free banking system while Louisiana set up a banking system with specie reserve requirements.Klebaner, Benjamin J. American Commercial Banking: A History. Washington: Beard Books, 1990. Print. The Forstall System propelled Louisiana to economic maturity with its sound and credible banking system.
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The choice of a name in Latin allows the organisation to have a unique name across the four linguistic regions of Switzerland. Other organisations with similar names include Pro Helvetia, Pro Infirmis, Pro Juventute, Pro Patria, Pro Senectute, Pro Specie Rara, Pro Velo, etc.
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In medieval and early modern Germany, the Münzmeister ("mint master", the Latin term is monetarius) was the director or administrator of a mint, a moneyer with responsibility for the minting of coins, or specie. His duties were defined differently at different locations and ages.
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On 31 January 1823 Roberts commissioned the sloop .Gentleman's Magazine, (April 1849), p.427. In her he cruised to the West Indies and Havana, returning to England in July 1825. Reportedly, in October 1818 the Spanish returned the specie that they had looted from Tay.
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This makes them less financially cumbersome as a monetary asset than other forms of commodity money, cryptocurrency, or any other physical or digital item which may be considered taxable property. UPMA accounts are denominated exclusively in Specie Legal Tender, like this 1oz Gold Eagle Coin.
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Arago Launched in January 1855, Arago made her maiden voyage, with Captain David Lines in command, on June 2, 1855. Along with over 450,000 dollars in specie, her 215 passengers that trip included prince J. Bonaparte, the honorable Aaron Vail, and newspaperman G. W. Kendall.
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Additional branches of the Yokohama Specie Bank in China were located in Beijing, Tianjin, Qingdao, Shanghai, and Hankou. Although the issues of paper money by the bank were small and managed in a good manner, the banknotes principally served the Japanese population in China and Manchuria, as the Chinese people rejected them due to resentments they harboured over the Japanese encroachment in their country. The 1903 silver yen notes produced by the Niuzhuang branch played an important role in financing local soy bean production in the region of Manchuria. By the year 1907 the Yokohama Specie Bank's paper notes enjoyed circulation throughout all of Manchuria.
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The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold, Chapter 1, p. 10. John Rawls, in A Theory of Justice, wrote in the final paragraph of the book: > Thus to see our place in society from the perspective of this position is to > see it sub specie aeternitatis: it is to regard the human situation not only > from all social but also from all temporal points of view.A Theory of > Justice by John Rawls. 2005. Harvard University Press, p. 587 Bernard Williams, in Utilitarianism: For and Against, wrote: > Philosophers... repeatedly urge us to view the world sub specie > aeternitatis, but for most human purposes that is not a good species to view > it under.
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This became a source of trouble for the merchants in Yokohama, as specie rather than banknotes came to be demanded for foreign trade. On February 28, 1880, a syndicate of 22 people with the support of Fukuzawa Yukichi and Inoue Kaoru established a bank in accordance with the National Bank Act to ensure the availability of specie for the trading community. The bank had an initial capitalization of three million Yen, of which one million was invested by the Ministry of Finance. The bank was modeled after the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, which had a great influence on Japan's overseas trade and foreign exchange at the time.
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With the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 to 1905, the Yokohama Specie Bank established branches in the Kwantung Leased Territory and served as paymaster for the Imperial Japanese Army. From 1906, under its 7th president, Takahashi Korekiyo the bank was permitted to issue its own banknotes for use in the Kwantung Leased Territory and in China. In July of the same year, Japan's first leased line telephone opened between the Bank of Japan and the Yokohama Specie Bank head office. In 1911, the bank signed an underwriting agreement with the Imperial Chinese Chunghwa Post for the establishment of a postal banking system in China.
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The value of the Treasury Notes fell below that of specie. New England states were unsympathetic to the war and when the government attempted to withdraw deposits from a Boston bank to make interest payments on October 1, 1814, the bank took the position that it could tender Treasury Notes to the government which were then rejected by the holders of the government bonds who expected payment in specie. These developments led to changes in the final Treasury Note act of the era signed on February 24, 1815. These last notes were divided into large ($100 and over) and small (under $100) denominations, and did not expire at any predetermined time.
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The face value of cash coins were often not contingent on intrinsic value of the metal they contained. The silver-purity standards entailed long business disputes, while many local Chinese archives repetitively documented mounting concerns to specie and silver forgeries which circulated at the time. It seems that the primary service of the early qianzhuang involved primarily with the necessity of silver-specie exchange, and thus the market demand created qianzhuang spontaneously. Through the financial exchanges between qianzhuang and qianzhuang, qianzhuang and piaohao , qianzhuang and domestic and foreign commercial banks, a rather large financial network was established to communicate cross-regional trade and foreign trade within and with the Chinese Empire.
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On 29 June 1835 Adonis, Hawks, master, was sailing from Mauritius to China when she wrecked on a reef near the Maldives and her crew abandoned her. The specie she was carrying and her crew were saved.Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany (March 1836), Vol. 19, p.231.
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2 Issue 3, pp 29-46 At the beginning of the war the Confederacy had some $47 million in bank deposits (compared to $189 million in Northern banks), and $27 million in specie (gold and silver coins) holdings (compared to $45 million worth in the northern states).
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Once they realized they were in the wine locker rather than the specie room, Capt. Bayerle flew to London and appeared on ITV and BBC radio, offering a £25,000 reward for the construction plans of the Republic.The Telegraph Herald, Dubuque, Iowa. Salvor Looks for Help Aug.
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In addition to these two, the Borsippa based family, Ea-iluta-bani, were also active during the Neo-Babylonia time- period and later. All three families are classified as merchant bankers by Nemet-Nejat.< Specie > was sourced at The Free Dictionary, specifically Princeton University 2003-2008., Clipart.
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Metal-catalyzed intermolecular carbenoid cyclopropanations are organic reactions that result in the formation of a cyclopropane ring from a metal carbenoid specie and an alkene.Davies, H. M. L.; Antoulinakis, E. G. Org. React. 2001, 57, 1. In the Simmons–Smith reaction the metal involved is zinc.
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Lloyd's List, no.4756, - accessed 6 July 2015. Rosamond ran on shore on Point Hicacos where her captain and 24 men drowned in attempting to reach the land. Rosamond had on board $100,000 in specie and valuable merchandize, the plunder of various English and Spanish vessels.
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After years of high inflation, in 1749 Massachusetts withdrew its paper money from circulation and returned to specie. Massachusetts once again began issuing paper money after the American Revolutionary War began in 1775. The state currency depreciated greatly and was replaced by the U.S. dollar in 1793.
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This was the first measure to finance the war. In July 1861, Congress authorized $50,000,000 in Demand Notes. They bore no interest, but could be redeemed for specie "on demand". They were not legal tender (before March 1862), but like Treasury Notes could be used to pay customs duties.
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The > Sacred Canopy by Peter L. Berger. 1990. Anchor Books, p. 99 Luciano Floridi, in The Philosophy of Information, wrote: > First, sub specie aeternitatis, science is still in its puberty, when some > hiccups are not necessarily evidence of any serious sickness."The Philosophy > of information" by Luciano Floridi. 2011.
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China was generally self-sufficient. The main effect of the Old China Trade was an increased import of opium and related outflow of specie, which resulted in China being incorporated into the capitalist world system after 1830. However, the maritime fur trade played a minor role in this process.
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Bream brought with her the mails for Bermuda that the packet ship Diana had brought from Falmouth. While in Bream, Simpson carried specie to St. John's, Newfoundland and was frozen up at Louisburg, Cape Breton, which materially harmed his health. On 14 November 1811 Simpson was promoted to Lieutenant.
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Now a fully independent international merchant, Astor began to fund trading voyages to China along with several partners. Cargoes often amounted to $150,000 in such as otter and beaver pelts, in addition to needed specie. Astor ordered the construction of the Beaver in 1803 to expand his trade fleet.
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Awo-Omamma (also Awo-Omamma), in the Northeast of Niger Delta is an oil-rich town on the banks of Njaba River in Nigeria's South East Imo State. It is a potential tourism hub in the region due to its specie of wildlife in Umuezukwe and green vegetation.
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An individual may take his promissory notes or bills of exchange to the bank for discount. Banks would issue their own bank notes to the borrowers. Bank notes were usually backed by specie or government bonds. The holder of the bank note had a claim on the bank's assets.
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Buchanan wanted the state banks to follow the federal government, specifically the Independent Treasury system, which allowed the federal government to keep up with specie payments. That helped to alleviate some of the financial stress that had been brought on by the bank suspensions. In his State of the Union message December 7, 1857, Buchanan said: He also revealed the new strategy of "reform not relief" and expressed his feeling that "the government sympathized but could do nothing to alleviate the suffering individuals." To avoid further financial panics, Buchanan encouraged the US Congress to pass a law to provide the immediate forfeiture of a bank's charter if a bank suspended specie payments.
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The specie-centered monetary organization had its own price-level stabilization property: rising commodity prices led to a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary metals, and therefore less incentive to mine them and more incentive to use them for non-monetary purposes. This stabilizing adjustment of the money supply led to long-run stability of price levels regardless of permanent shifts in money demand over time. Therefore, the long-run inflation can only be explained either by the devaluation of coins or by shifts in the supply of the specie. An increase in the productivity of mining in Peru led to a fall in the price of metals relative to rising prices for other commodities in Europe.
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One of the kadıs suggested that the pasha circulate the newly minted specie amongst the population by trading the copper coins for their existing money. Although this was not the pasha's original plan (which was to make the copper into wedges and send it to Takrur and sub-Saharan Africa, and reimburse the sultan's 300,000 gold coins out of his own pocket), he soon warmed up to the idea. The distribution of the copper began on January 13, 1634 and lasted until October of that year. Most citizens received the equal specie for their money, but as the distribution continued, eventually in February 1635, the people were given 80 kuruş for 100 lbs.
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After World War I, governments and banks generally still promised to convert notes and coins into their nominal commodity (redemption by specie, typically gold) on demand. However, the costs of the war and the required repairs and economic growth based on government borrowing afterward made governments suspend redemption by specie. Some governments were careful of avoiding sovereign default but not wary of the consequences of paying debts by consigning newly printed cash not associated with a metal standard to their creditors, which resulted in hyperinflation – for example the hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic. From 1944 to 1971, the Bretton Woods agreement fixed the value of 35 United States dollars to one troy ounce of gold.
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The Bank's directors raised interest rates from three to five percent and restricted some of the open trade practices that they had previously granted to American import merchants. The directors had grown alarmed that their specie reserves had dwindled to four million pounds, which they blamed on the purchase of American securities and poor harvests that forced England to import much of its food (if food imports created a trade deficit, this could lead to specie exports). Within months, cotton prices entered a full free-fall. In March 1837, Hermann, Briggs & Company, a major cotton commission house in New Orleans, declared bankruptcy, prompting the New York bill brokerage company, J.L. & S. Joseph & Company, to do the same.
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The KSS failure, although unique in some ways, was part of a national bank crisis known as the Panic of 1837 that began in May of that year. Underlying causes of the nationwide financial panic included speculative and inflationary selling of public lands in western states like Michigan, Ohio and Missouri. The economic policies of the previous President Andrew Jackson, including the Specie Circular and the withdrawal of government funds from the Second Bank of the United States, also contributed to the crisis. On May 10, 1837 in New York, every chartered bank stopped payment in specie (gold and silver coinage), leaving banks and local institutions like the KSS holding notes without adequate liquid assets.
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The loans were dispersed in banknotes, paper money similar to scrip but which was redeemed by the bank's own specie (rather than federal specie on deposit). Contractors, suppliers, and others accepted these banknotes only at a discount, and even then many doubted they could be redeemed. But the commissioners had no choice. Later in 1841, a third institution, the Bank of Wooster, agreed to loan the Canal Fund $199,355 ($ in dollars) at 6 percent, the entire principal due in one year. These loans were not enough to cover essential costs, however, and the Canal Fund was forced to borrow $275,000 ($ in dollars) in high-interest, very short-term loans from New York City banks.
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After resupplying at San Jacinto, Sémillante intended to sail for Mexico in March 1805 to fetch specie for the Philippines; the encounter with Phaeton and Harrier foiled the plan. Motard returned to the Indian Ocean, operating for the next three years against British shipping from Île de France.James, Vol. 4, p.
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The contemporary sterling is a fiat currency which is backed only by securities; in essence IOUs from the Treasury that represent future income from the taxation of the population. Some economists term this "currency by trust", as sterling relies on the faith of the user rather than any physical specie.
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Dawkinsia tambraparniei is a species of cyprinid fish found in the Tambraparni River basin in the Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. This species can reach a length of SL.Dawkinsia tambraparniei specie was originally described as Puntius arulius tambraparniei from Tamiraparani River by Silas (1953) (Kannan, K, Johnson. A.J, Malleshappa. H., 2013).
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This attempt at unified action represented a significant step forward in colonial unity and cooperation. The Virginia House of Burgesses sent a protest of the taxes to London in December 1764, arguing that they did not have the specie required to pay the tax.Weslager pp. 58–59. Ferling p. 33.
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Malesia, III (1886–1890): Rivista delle specie del genere Nepenthes, p. 1–15. but is now considered conspecific with N. bicalcarta. Nepenthes bicalcarata was introduced to Europe in 1879 by British explorer Frederick William Burbidge, who collected plants for the famous Veitch Nursery. These were cultivated to larger size and distributed in 1881.
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Marshall (1831, Supplement 3, Part 1, p.223. However, he only Mends in September, with Mends returning to Swiftsure, from whence he had come. On 8 July, Indian captured the American brig Mary and Elizabeth. Mary Elizabeth, of 167 tons (bm), was sailing from St Ubes, Portugal, in ballast but carrying specie.
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Chang married Charlotte Ah Tye on March 14, 1897, in San Francisco. Between 1888 and 1895, Chang worked for the Chinese Consulate in San Francisco as an advisor.Lani Ah Tye Farkas, Bury My Bones in America (1998), p. 91. He then worked for the Yokohama Specie Bank of Japan in San Francisco.
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A. hydrogenalis it is present in vaginal discharges and oarian abscesses. Presence of Anaerococcus hydrogenalis in the gut metabolism and their coline consumption has been associated to cardiovascular diseases. Contrary to most of the species in this genus, Anaerococcus hydrogenalis is indole-positive. Also, some strains in this specie can produce urease.
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Andrialavidrazana's show at the Caroline Smulders gallery in 2019 featured digitally collaged and over-painted works that take maps and bank notes as a starting point to revisit the visual heritage of the colonial period. Her Figures 1842, Specie degli animali (2018) was sold during the preview of Art Paris for €17,000.
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A few number of Astor markhor and an endangered specie of wild goat lives in the reserve. Other large mammals present include the Alpine ibex, snow leopard, brown bear, grey wolf, red fox, beech marten and leopard cat. Almost 35 species of birds have been recorded in the valley, including Brooks's leaf warbler.
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Barnes, p. 68 In response to the investigation of Freedman's Savings and Trust, he sponsored legislation designed to better secure the company's assets. He also made notable speeches on the subjects of the Civil Rights Act of 1871 and the resumption of specie payments. Philip B. Thompson, Jr. defeated Durham in 1878.
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Farmers and planters suffered from price deflation and debt-default spirals. By the summer of 1842, eight states and the Florida territory had defaulted on their debts, which outraged international investors. Whigs and Democrats blamed each other for the crisis. The Whigs attacked Jackson's specie circular and demanded recharter of the Bank.
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Flowers are bell-shaped, tepals white with green or purple midveins and white anthers. Ovary at flowering time yellow-green.Tenore, Michele. 1811. Flora Napolitana: ossia, Descrizione delle piante indigene del regno di Napoli, e delle piu rare specie di piante esotiche coltivate ne' Giardini ... Napoli : Nella Stamperia reale 1: 165, t. 30.
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On 26 January 1812 a violent gale, together with a strong current, drove Carlotta onto Cape Passaro, wrecking her. Oliver's exertions in saving a cargo of specie and consequent fatigue aggravated a previous wound, costing him the sight in one eye. Still, in 1813 he was appointed first lieutenant on .Marshall (1833), Vol.
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Heptanema is an extinct genus of prehistoric coelacanth from the Middle Triassic (Ladinian) of northern Italy. The type and only species is Heptanema paradoxum. Woodward (1891) suggested that Coelacanthus minor could be a species of Heptanema.Bellotti C. (1857) - Descrizione di alcune nuove specie di pesci fossili di Perledo e di altre località Lombarde.
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The production of the Potosi mine increased greatly in the 1560s after mercury deposits had been discovered in the Andes, as mercury was necessary to process the silver. Based on the records of Earl J. Hamilton (1934), the total imports of specie from the Americas during the 16th century amounted to around 210 million pesos, with 160 million of these pesos being imported in the second half of the 16th century. The total amount of silver imported added up to about 3,915 metric tons of silver. However these numbers underestimate the total amount imported to Spain because Hamilton only counted imports recorded by the official Casa de Contraction in Seville, not including the specie shipped directly to Cadiz by the Dutch and British East India Companies.
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In the first years of the Forstall System, attempts to renew the issued ninety-day paper often led to strong objection, and the creator was often shamed. In addition, banks could not continue to conduct business once reserve of specie fell below one-third. As a result, the businessmen of New Orleans felt a disadvantage in comparison to other ports such as New York or Charleston. This was because the loans in those cities could often be renewed for six months of even a year at six percent. Merchants’ banks followed commercial conventions while the majority did not. During 1861–1862 (following Louisiana’s secession from the union), both political and military pressures caused conflicts with banks’ abilities to make specie payments.
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A new law, adopted on March 8, 1842, permitted the sale of canal land at $2.50 ($ in dollars) an acre or its appraised value, whichever was higher. The value of some Miami Extension Canal lands, which had sharply risen in value, was reduced by law to $4.00 ($ in dollars) an acre. The law required that land be purchased only in "cash", which meant specie, banknotes from specie-paying banks, or state-issued scrip (essentially allowing contractors, paid in state-issued scrip, to redeem the scrip for valuable land). Bonds still needed to be sold to raise revenue for the rest of 1842 and early 1843, and in April 1842 Kelley went to New York City to sell the bonds authorized by the legislature.
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However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, the U.S. reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system. Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the U.S. Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie.
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The 1875-CC Liberty Head design The 1924 Double eagle, Saint Gaudens' design Hard money policies (as opposed to fiat currency policies) support a specie standard, usually gold or silver, typically implemented with representative money. In 1836, when President Andrew Jackson's veto of the recharter of the Second Bank of the United States took effect, he issued the Specie Circular, an executive order that all public lands had to be purchased with hard money. A hard money policy is one in which the government recognizes currency which is based on an actual, fixed item which is considered valuable. Hard money is considered the opposite of fiat money, which is currency that takes its value from the government declaration or law which assigns the said value to it.
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In 1811 its twenty-year charter expired and was not renewed by Congress. Absent the federally chartered bank, the next several years witnessed a proliferation of federally issued Treasury Notes to create credit as the government struggled to finance the War of 1812; a suspension of specie payment by most banks soon followed as well.
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He was elected by 96-58 over Franklin H. Elmore. His term as governor was marked by the aftermath effects of the Panic of 1837 resulting in the Charleston banks suspending specie payments. Noble died on April 7, 1840 before the expiration of his term and he was buried in Willington at the family cemetery.
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There was a single specimen of Pickfordiateuthis pulchella found when testing 246 specimens available in the area of Cabo de São Tomé (22°S) and Cananéia (25°S) at depths down to 200 meters from 1991 to 2005. The amount of this specie peaked in different areas and were associated with distinct oceanographic conditions.
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As it happened, the refugees had carried off almost half of the specie in Portugal and the French were barely able to raise enough money to maintain the occupation army. Nevertheless, the harsh taxes caused bitter resentment among the population. By January 1808 there were executions of persons who resisted the exactions of the French.
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The Americans repaired the damage to Peacocks rigging within an hour. Peacocks first lieutenant took charge of the prize and succeeded in preventing it from sinking; the prize crew had the brig ready to sail by nightfall. Epervier was found to be carrying $118,000 in specie, which was private rather than Government property.Forester, p.
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He also blasted the Jackson administration for issuing the Specie Circular, requiring that all payment for government land be made in gold or silver.Kirwan, p. 112 He pointed out that the principles of the circular had been presented in a resolution on the Senate floor, but had been tabled by a large majority.Kirwan, p.
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The Spaniards did take possession of the specie, which they took to Mahón.El apresamiento del cutter HMS Penelope. Accessed 2 November 2018 Admiral Sir Kieth pursued Bruix to Brest but was not able to bring him to action. The Spaniards discovered that a 13-year old midshipman and four sailors of Penelopes crew were Spaniards.
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Studies show that many foxes risk of catching the deadly bacteria inclines as they age leaving many older foxes vulnerable. Although the disease is prevalent in this specie little to nothing is known about this diseaseHidalgo-Hermoso, Ezequiel, et al. Hemoplasmas are Endemic and Cause Asymptomatic Infection in the Endangered Darwin's Fox (Lycalopex Fulvipes).
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Two weeks before Ono's birth, Eisuke was transferred to San Francisco by his employer, the Yokohama Specie Bank. The rest of the family followed soon after, with Ono meeting her father when she was two. Her younger brother Keisuke was born in December 1936. Ono was enrolled in piano lessons from the age of 4.
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Within 20 years, the average daily clearing topped $100 million. Today, the average is in excess of $20 billion. The New York Clearing House brought order to what had been a tangled web of exchanges. Specie certificates soon replaced gold as the means of settling balances at the Clearing House, further simplifying the process.
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If one exchanges 1,000 Silver Dollars for a used car, that is not a trade: it is a purchase. Notable, the U.S. Mint passively acknowledges this disparity by "selling" Specie Dollars for their melt value, seemingly in contradiction to the notion that there are not, in fact, multiple parallel currencies circulating within the United States.
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Circuitism is easily understood in terms of familiar bank accounts and debit card or credit card transactions: bank deposits are just an entry in a bank account book (not specie – bills and coins), and a purchase subtracts money from the buyer's account with the bank, and adds it to the seller's account with the bank.
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Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems. Governments, demanding specie as payment, could drain the money out of the economy. Economic development expanded need for credit. The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed.
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But Spinoza teaches that the way to attain the knowledge which confers immortality is the progress from sense- knowledge through scientific knowledge to philosophical intuition of all things sub specie æternitatis, while Maimonides holds that the road to perfection and immortality is the path of duty as described in the Torah and the rabbinic understanding of the oral law.
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The original notes were restricted by area and duration, as in the Song dynasty, but in the later years, facing massive shortages of specie to fund their rule, the paper money began to be issued without restrictions on duration. Venetian merchants were impressed by the fact that the Chinese paper money was guaranteed by the State.
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The first was commodity money, using the staple of a given region as a means of exchange. The second was specie, or gold or silver money. Lastly, paper money (or fiat money), issued in the form of a bill of exchange or a banknote, mortgaged on the value of the land that an individual owned.Finkelstein, 39.
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Migmocera flavicauda is a species of longhorn beetles belonging to the family Cerambycidae, the only species in the genus Migmocera.Bezark, Larry G. A Photographic Catalog of the Cerambycidae of the World . Retrieved on 22 May 2012. The beetle larvae in this specie usually drills into wood and can cause damage to living wood trunks or felled wood.
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Despite such arguments, with support from Polk and his cabinet, Van Buren chose to back the Specie Circular. Polk and Van Buren attempted to establish an Independent Treasury system that would allow the government to oversee its own deposits (rather than using pet banks), but the bill was defeated in the House. It eventually passed in 1840.Bergeron, p.
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Speaking several times on the matter, Blaine said that the greenbacks had only ever been an emergency measure to avoid bankruptcy during the war. Blaine and his hard money allies were successful, but the issue remained alive until 1879, when all remaining greenbacks were made redeemable in gold by the Specie Payment Resumption Act of 1875.
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Most of the cheese was sold in Christiania, and some in Trondheim, the butter was traded locally, and the whey was distributed among the shareholders. The gross return was 845 specie- dollars, which was considered a good result. During the winter, Hiestand offered guidance in caring for livestock in the village, for which he received favorable reports.
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Ben-my-Chree was designed primarily for the carriage of passengers, but she could also accommodate a quantity of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail. A specified area was allocated for the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables).
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Following the occupation government offices re-opened on 26December 1941. Japanese companies were brought in and granted monopolies in essential goods. In early 1942 the first branch of Yokohama Specie Bank opened in Kuching in the former building of Chartered Bank. The Japanese Southern Development Treasury also opened an office to oversee investment throughout northern Borneo.
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In the general election, Letcher won by landslide over Judge Richard French. Letcher's fiscally conservative policies helped Kentucky recover from the financial Panic of 1837. By the end of his term, the state was experiencing budget surpluses and state banks had resumed specie payments. After Letcher left office, he was appointed Minister to Mexico by President Zachary Taylor.
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The next year, the General Assembly eliminated the summer terms of the circuit courts, effectively delaying some foreclosure hearings. Letcher also encouraged banks to make new small loans, and the legislature followed suit by moderately increasing the credit extended by state banks. As the state's economy recovered, its banks resumed specie payments. State bonds increased in value.
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The spesmilo Unique to the Esperanto script is the spesmilo (1000 specie) sign, an Sm monogram for a now-obsolete international unit of auxiliary Esperanto currency used by a few British and Swiss banks before World War I. It has been assigned the Unicode value U+20B7, though in ordinary fonts it is often transcribed as Sm, usually italic.
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Habib Bourguiba has been compared to Atatürk (Mustafa Kemal) of Turkey, as a unique national modernizing leader. Yet, what may be called an inclination to arbitrary methods when making government decisions, and to a specie of personality cult, detracted from Bourguiba's insight and substantial achievements. Perkins, A History of Modern Tunisia (2004), e.g., pp. 130, 204–209.
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When a New York delegation visited him to complain about problems being faced by the state's merchants, Jackson responded saying: > Go to Nicholas Biddle. We have no money here, gentlemen. Biddle has all the > money. He has millions of specie in his vaults, at this moment, lying idle, > and yet you come to me to save you from breaking.
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After the Panic of 1837, the Safety Fund System was nearly bankrupt. The stress put on the system by the Panic eventually caused it to fail as deflation soared because the banks of New York began to only accept specie. Upon its initial passing, lawmakers did not realize the impact this insurance could have.Holdsworth 1971, p.
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There were three general types of money in the Colonies of British America: the specie (coins), printed paper money and trade-based commodity money.Flynn, "Credit in the Colonial American Economy" . Commodity money was used when cash (coins and paper money) were scarce. Commodities such as tobacco, beaver skins, and wampum, served as money at various times in many locations.
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He was said to have helped with the Thoughts on the Restriction of Payments in Specie (1803) of Peter King, 7th Baron King. He published an anonymous memoir of Smithson Tennant in 1815. The Pope of Holland House: Selections from the Correspondence of John Whishaw and His Friends 1813–1840 was published in 1906, edited by Lady Seymour.
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She was secretly assigned the task of teaching Struan "civilized" (Chinese) ways. In 1841, Struan & Company was on the brink of ruin, about to be destroyed by rival Tyler Brock. In desperation, Dirk Struan turned to Jin-Qua, who lent him one million sterling in specie. Six hundred thousand of the million cleared out the Cohong's debt to Struan's.
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In 1908 there were nine, but since then Sir Richard Baker, C. C. Kingston, and J. M. Stuart had died. He received considerable praise for his conduct of the prosecution in the 1902 Miles Flynn case, in which £1500 in notes and specie was stolen by highway robbers near the Block 14 company's smelting works at Port Adelaide.
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Innovations introduced by economists, traders and merchants of the Muslim world include the earliest uses of credit, cheques, savings accounts, transactional accounts, loaning, trusts, exchange rates, the transfer of credit and debt, and banking institutions for loans and deposits. In Europe, paper money was first introduced in Sweden in 1661. Sweden was rich in copper, thus, because of copper's low value, extraordinarily big coins (often weighing several kilograms) had to be made. The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus lowered the risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier since the specie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie backed forms.
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Unlike Australia, in the critical period between 1914 and the Great Depression, New Zealand did not have anything that corresponded to a central bank or a monetary authority. New Zealand's link to the pound sterling was purely through the gold specie standard, and when the gold specie standard was suspended at the outbreak of the First World War, the linkage was based on nothing other than existing practice. The banks controlled telegraphic transfers between New Zealand and London, and so the exchange rate was entirely in their hands. New Zealand was now effectively on a sterling exchange standard, controlled by the largely Australian trading banks, and this sterling exchange standard became a gold exchange standard for the period between 1925 and 1931 when the United Kingdom was on a gold bullion standard.
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Peveril was designed to carry a mixture of passengers and cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail. A specified area was allocated for the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables). In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs.
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Eventually the Chinese and the British came to agreement that henceforth American vessels would not be permitted sell at Canton prize goods from British vessels. Jacob Jones had on board 40 chests of opium, $10,000 dollars in specie, and some other goods.Dennett (1922), pp.82-3. Captain O'Brien found he could not sell his prize, Arabella, on the China coast.
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Before long, China was being drained of specie and saturated with Western goods. At the same time, intense speculation in the China trade by American and British merchant companies began. By the 1820s, too many firms were competing for an overstocked market, resulting in bankruptcies and consolidation. The inevitable commercial crisis struck in 1826–27, after the Panic of 1825.
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A half-Italian version of the song, titled "Read All About It (Tutto quello che devi sapere)" and featuring Italian singer-songwriter Dolcenera, was released as a digital single in Italy on 9 December 2011. This version of the song was included on the Italian version of Professor Green's At Your Inconvenience, as well as on Dolcenera's Evoluzione della specie².
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In April 2012, the Daily Telegraph disclosed that Hunt had reduced his tax bill by over £100,000 by receiving dividends from Hotcourses in the form of property which was promptly leased back to the company. The dividend in specie was paid just before a 10% rise in dividend tax and Hunt was not required to pay stamp duty on the property.
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2, p.371. They arrived on 10 October and retrieved both crew (only one of whom had drowned), and the specie. Whilst carrying this out, Shannon encountered and subsequently captured an enemy privateer, which she took back to Halifax with her. In October 1812 Simpson volunteered, with his whole crew, and joined Statira, under Captain Hassard Stackpoole, to cruise with her.
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Without real estate backing the currency it became worthless fiat money.White, 247. The viability of the mandats and paper currency in general were further diminished by a law passed on Thermidor 5 IV that allowed contracts to be negotiated in whatever units individuals preferred. Precious metals were strongly preferred but negotiation also included commodities in situations where specie was not available.
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Scarpelli is a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and the Linnean Society of London and teaches History of Philosophy at the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia. He is the author of books about philosophy and science, including: Il Cranio di Cristallo. Evoluzione della specie e spiritualismo (1993), Il dio solo. Alle origini del monoteismo (1997), La scimmia, l’uomo e il superuomo.
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This is the most common type of àmàlà which is derived from yam. The particular yam specie best for preparing àmàlà is Dioscorea cayenensis because of its high starch content. Yam, the common name for species in the genus Dioscorea, grows in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, Oceania, and Latin America. However, 95% of it is cultivated and harvested in West Africa.
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Extensive exploration in the range of the genus in the Western Ghats of India suggests an under- estimation of the number of species in the genus. A study of the diverse specie of the genus show that the separate isolated massifs of the Western Ghats played a major role in the speciation and habitat specificity seen in the genus of bush frogs.
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This protein is coded by the 'SbtB' gene, also called 'CMM_2535' gene. Assembled in the genome of the clavibacter michiganensis specie, It is a putative serine protease gene that belongs to the PTHR10795 family, which contains 23545 species. It is assembled in the genome of the species Clavibacter michiganensis. This species is part of the family Microbacteriaceae, and has five subspecies.
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Tynwald was designed to carry a mixture of passengers and cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail. A specified area was allocated for the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables). In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs.
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Empress Queen was designed primarily for the carriage of passengers, but she could also accommodate a quantity of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail. Situated on the main deck was a specified area, allocated for the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables).
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Further, Stanton accused Sherman of recklessly opening a path by which Jefferson Davis might flee the country with specie Davis purportedly took with him after abandoning Richmond. The latter claim was based in Sherman's removal of Maj. Gen. George Stoneman's forces from the Greensboro railway—Greensboro was the place to which Davis and other Confederate officials fled. Stanton's words were damning.
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At the time, Royal Navy captains were authorized to carry specie for merchants. For this safe-keeping service the consignor paid them a commission of about half a percent, a commission the captain did not share with his officers or crew. On 1 May 1809 he was promoted to post-captain and removed to . In June 1809 Commander Henry Fraser took command.
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The working electrode is the semiconductor material and the electrolyte is composed of a solvent, an electrolyte and a redox specie. A UV-vis lamp is usually used to illuminate the working electrode. The photoelectrochemical cell is usually made with a quartz window because it does not absorb the light. A monochromator can be used to control the wavelength sent to the WE.
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Sphenomorphus maindroni is a species of lizard in the family Scincidae. The species was originally described by Sauvage in 1879. According to the Catalogue of Life, the species Sphenomorphus maindroni does not have known subspecies. The size of this specie is small, and the snout–vent length is between 24 and 59 mm; tail varies from nearly oval to square in cross-section.
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Uruguay was in a state of turmoil and civil strife; there were repeated runs on the banks. Mauá Bank survived a brief run in January 1864. It floated a loan for the government of Gen. Flores in December, and when it suffered another run in 1865, the government suspended specie payments for the two note-issuing banks and demanded forced loans.
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EuchomenelliniGiglio-Tos E (1916) Mantidi esotici, generi e specie nuove. Bullettino della Società Entomologica Italiana 47: 35−36. is a recently (2017) restored, southeast Asian tribeSchwarz CJ (2017) Update on Tagalomantis manillensis (Saussure), with description of the female and comments on its systematic placement and life history (Insecta: Mantodea: Deroplatyinae). Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde A, Neue Serie 10: 19–39.
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Electorate of Saxony, Reichstaler from 1575 from the Dresden mint, Mmz. HB The Reichsthaler () was a standard Thaler silver coin of the Holy Roman Empire, established in 1566 by the Leipzig convention. This original Reichsthaler specie was supplemented in the 16th century by various Reichsthaler units of account in northern Germany in the 17th century and by a Prussian Reichsthaler coin in 1750.
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"Il sole di domenica" is a single by Italian singer Dolcenera, released by EMI Music on 8 April 2011. It will be included in her fifth studio album, Evoluzione della specie, released in Italy on 17 May 2011. The song is written by Dolcenera with Alessandro Finazzo, and it is produced by Dolcenera and Roberto Vernetti. Dolcenera also arranged the song.
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Tomeurus gracilis is a species of poeciliid fish native to South America, in Brazil, Surinam and Venezuela. This species grows to a length of TL. It is the only known member of its genus. This specie sis classified in the tribe Cnesterodontini in the 5th edition of Fishes of the World. but other workers place it in its own tribe, the Tomeurini.
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The need for currency was relatively low during Merovingian times. The Münzmeister produced coins in small workshops, working alone or with the aid of a few assistants, and handled the precious metals required. During Carolingian times, minting of specie became the task of royally appointed officials. During the High Middle Ages they were replaced by the Münzerhausgenossenschaft, or minting house cooperative.
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Moorella is a genus of saprophytic fungi within the Ascomycota (it has been originally classified within the former taxa Dematiaceae, Helicosporae). It is named Moorella in honour of mycologist Royall T. Moore, because of his contributions to Helicosporae. Moorella speciosa is the type specie of this genus, an anamorph fungus that has been collected growing on dead bark in Nizamabad, India.
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With supply of molasses well exceeding demand, the islands prospered with their reduced expenses while New England ports saw revenue from their rum exports decrease. Also the West Indies had been the primary colonial source for hard currency, or specie, and as the reserves of specie were depleted the soundness of colonial currency was threatened.Miller p. 101–102. Two prime movers behind the protests against the Sugar Act were Samuel Adams and James Otis, both of Massachusetts. In May 1764 Samuel Adams drafted a report on the Sugar Act for the Massachusetts assembly, in which he denounced the act as an infringement of the rights of the colonists as British subjects: In August 1764, fifty Boston merchants agreed to stop purchasing British luxury imports, and in both Boston and New York City there were movements to increase colonial manufacturing.
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Abraeinae is a subfamily of clown beetles in the family Histeridae. There are at least 20 genera and at least 440 described species in Abraeinae. Acritus nigricornis Many of the groups are tiny, with adults less than 2 mm in length. These beetles are diverse in form with a small oval specie that separates them from all the other histerids expect for the Bacaniini.
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Over time, this practice was changed: the members, who were primarily farmers and laborers, had difficulty fasting on a day of regular labor, so the day of observance was changed to Sunday. When money, in the form of specie instead of barter, became more available in Utah Territory, members were encouraged to make their donations in cash, which could better be held until needed to purchase food.
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The specie had already been loaded on Duc de Lauzun and Barry decided to escort her home. The inevitable delays kept both ships in port until 6 March. The next day, they encountered two Royal Navy frigates that gave chase. Barry chose not to fight these warships rather than risk losing the funds his consort carried, and the American vessels successfully eluded their pursuers.
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According to this theory, the annulment pulsion induces the change of the capability to react into vitality, a specie-specific human characteristic. Fagioli considered vitality as a biological sensitivity developed by the foetus during the last weeks of pregnancy. The fusion between the annulment pulsion and vitality induces the onset of the capability to imagine, which determines the appearance of a first mental image.
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Snaefell was designed to carry a mixture of passengers and cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail. A specified area was allocated for the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables). In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs and even motor cars.
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Douglas was designed to carry a mixture of passengers and cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail. A specified area was allocated for the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables). In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs and even motor cars.
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Douglas was designed to carry a mixture of passengers and cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail. A specified area was allocated for the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables). This was situated in the forecastle beneath the crew's quarters and was accessible only by specified ship's officer.
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Specie flowed through Spain, increasing Spanish prices, and then spread over Western Europe as a result of Spanish balance of payments deficit. This enlarged the monetary supply and price levels of many European countries. Combined with this influx of gold and silver, population growth and urbanization perpetuated the price revolution. According to this theory, too many people with too much money chased too few goods.
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The Santa Gertruyda was captured, and found to be shipping 1,125,000 dollars of specie from Peru and Mexico to Spain. Lawford commissioned the 74-gun in June 1805, and moved from there to command the 74-gun HMS Impetueux in October 1806. He served initially in the English Channel, followed by service in the North Sea in 1809 and then off Portugal from March 1810.
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Ultimately, Douglas won the state in the 1860 presidential election by a margin of 429 votes over John Bell, the Constitutional Unionist. In early December, most of Missouri's banks suspended payment in specie given the political uncertainty surrounding South Carolina's withdrawal from the union. The effect of the economic turmoil was high unemployment in St. Louis and a scarcity of currency in the surrounding area.
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In 2013, FCL's parent company, Fraser and Neave, was acquired by Thai billionaire Charoen Sirivadhanabhakdi's TCC Group for $11 billion. In August of that year, it was announced that Fraser and Neave would spin off FCL as its own separate listing on the Singapore Exchange through an in specie distribution of stock, effectively making the property group an independent entity under the broader TCC Group umbrella.
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Until recently, the genus Anaerococcus have 14 known species. Six of the species were initially classified in the genus Peptostreptococcus but then based on their characteristics were re-classified in the new genus Anaerococcus: A. hydrogenalis, A. lactolyticus, A. octavius, A. prevotii, A. tetradius, and A. vaginalis. Throughout the years, the specie who has been more commolny found on the body within this genus is A. prevotii.
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Endemism is often the result of adaptive radiation. Adaptive radiation is when a single specie colonizes an area and rapidly diversifies to fill all of the available niches. A common example is the assemblage of finch species documented by Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands. Darwin’s finches exhibited adaptive radiation by evolving different beak sizes to exploit the diversity of seeds present on the different islands.
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Cyclopropanes may be formed through the reaction of a metal carbenoid specie (generated through the reaction of a diazo compound with a transition metal) and an olefin. Although the intramolecular variant of this reaction has been known since 1961,Burke, S. D.; Grieco, P. A. Org. React. 1979, 26, 361. chemo- and stereoselective intermolecular metal-catalyzed cyclopropanation reactions employing diazocarbonyl compounds are more recent.
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A roughtail stingray caught in the Gulf of Mexico; this specie was fished in United States waters. With its large size and long, venomous spine, the roughtail stingray can inflict a severe wound and can be very dangerous for fishers to handle. However, it is not aggressive and usually occurs too deep to be encountered by beachgoers. It has been reported to damage farmed shellfish beds.
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Scolia procera can reach a length of about .G. Gribodo Descrizione di un nuovo genere e di nuove species di imenotteri scolidei con osservazioni supra nuove specie già conosciute Males are smaller and slimmer than females and have longer antennae. These insects have a black stout body with red spots on the thorax and abdomen. The head is black with a large almost square yellow-red marking.
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Among the most striking animals of the park can be cited typically alpine species like chamois, alpine marmot, golden eagle and black grouse. The presence of wolves, sign of a good environmental state of the area, dates back to mid-1990s, when settled in the Park the first documented pack of wolves in the Italian Alps after the disappearance of the specie of the 19th century.
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The beautiful type of this unique specie is widely seen in grounds of Choa Saiden Shah. Pangolins have large, protective keratin scales covering their skin; they are the only known mammals with this feature. They live in hollow trees or burrows, depending on the species. Pangolins are nocturnal, and their diet consists of mainly ants and termites, which they capture using their long tongues.
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One reason a government will debase its currency is financial gain for the sovereign at the expense of citizens. By reducing the silver or gold content of a coin, a government can make more coins out of a given amount of specie. Inflation follows, allowing the sovereign to pay off or repudiate government bonds. However, the purchasing power of the citizens’ currency has been reduced.
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The National Bank of New Zealand (Ltd) Act gave it the right to issue banknotes redeemable (in specie or gold). Though the bank was technically domiciled in London (which provided certain advantages) the major portion of its shareholders were New Zealand resident or associated. In 1894 its headquarters were moved from Dunedin to Wellington. Lloyds Bank acquired a small interest in The National Bank in 1919.
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The effects of the Baring financial crisis of 1890 were severe for Uruguay (and Argentina). Banco Nacional's notes were refused by some other banks, and it suspended specie payments on 5 July 1890. Panic resulted; businesses failed and there was a run on all the banks. Just as in 1875, the business community and the sound banks honored their obligations in gold and refused depreciated paper.
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The Confederate debt was repudiated and never repaid. The biggest puzzle was dealing with $428 million in greenbacks, in an age where McCulloch like all orthodox economists, rejected paper money. His remedy was a rapid return to specie payment using gold and silver and retiring the greenbacks. This contraction policy removed money from circulation, lowered prices, wages and profits, and put heavy pressures on debtors.
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Associazione Italiana Piante Carnivore. A fourth special issue was published in 2012 to cover the many carnivorous plant taxa described the previous year. This issue is also available in English. Associazione Italiana Piante Carnivore. Nepenthes rosea was formally described as a new species in the December 2014 issue of AIPC Magazine, Catalano, M. 2014. Nepenthes rosea, una nuova specie dalla Thailandia peninsulare. AIPC Magazine 36: 24–31.
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Because the order was one of Jackson's last acts in office, most of its consequences occurred during and were attributed to the Presidency of Martin van Buren. The devaluation of paper currency only increased with Jackson's proclamation. This sent inflation and prices upwards. Many at the time (and historians subsequently) blamed the Specie Circular for the rise in prices and the following Panic of 1837.
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Questa specie d'amore (aka, This Kind of Love) is a 1972 Italian drama film directed by Alberto Bevilacqua. It is based on the novel with the same name written by Bevilacqua himself.Ernesto Guidorizzi, La narrativa italiana e il cinema, Sansoni, 1973 The film was awarded with the David di Donatello for best film and two Nastro d'Argento awards for best screenplay and for best story.
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On December 16, the actions of the British cabinet reached New York: the stock exchange fell across the board, with government securities dropping by 2.5 per cent and the sterling exchange rising by two points, and an overall suspension seemed imminent.Jenkins, Britain and the War for the Union, p. 223; Wesley C. Mitchell, "The Suspension of Specie Payments, December 1861", Journal of Political Economy vol. 7, no.
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In a late work, Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind (1938), Adler turns to the subject of metaphysics, where he integrates Jan Smuts' evolutionary holism with the ideas of teleology and community: "sub specie aeternitatis". Unabashedly, he argues his vision of society: "Social feeling means above all a struggle for a communal form that must be thought of as eternally applicable... when humanity has attained its goal of perfection... an ideal society amongst all mankind, the ultimate fulfillment of evolution."Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind, Alfred Adler, 1938, translated by Linton John, Richard Vaughan, p. 275 Adler follows this pronouncement with a defense of metaphysics: This social feeling for Adler is Gemeinschaftsgefühl, a community feeling whereby one feels he or she belongs with others and has also developed an ecological connection with nature (plants, animals, the crust of this earth) and the cosmos as a whole, sub specie aeternitatis.
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See later in this article for the date which was long after the "rush") Some enterprising Argonauts set up businesses to furnish, feed, and entertain the region's growing population. Some merchants, gamblers, saloon keepers, entertainers, hotel owners, restaurant owners etc. were as likely to prosper as the successful prospectors. The lack of money (specie) often meant that transactions and wages were paid in several different currencies or in gold dust.
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When they returned with the paper to that person, their coins would be returned. True paper money, called "jiaozi", developed from these promissory notes by the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. By 960, the Song government was short of copper for striking coins, and issued the first generally circulating notes. These notes were a promise by the ruler to redeem them later for some other object of value, usually specie.
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In 1690, Massachusetts became the first colony to issue paper currency. This currency was employed as a means to finance its share of the debt from King William's War. Other colonies quickly followed suit, and by 1715 ten of the thirteen had resorted to the issuance of paper currency. Economist Stanley Finkelstein highlights the advantage of paper currency, "that unless it is backed by specie it is cost-free currency".
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Israel (1989), p. 256 This worldwide primacy in trade would not have been possible if it only rested on Dutch primacy in the carrying trade. After all, one has to trade something. Even where the counterparty is primarily interested in gold and silver as means of exchange, as in South-East Asia, that specie must be earned by a surplus on the balance of payments with other trading partners.
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147 Carl Jung, in Memories, Dreams, Reflections, wrote: > What we are to our inward vision, and what man appears to be sub specie > aeternitatis, can only be expressed by way of myth."Memories, Dreams, > Reflections" by Carl Jung and Aniela Jaffé. 1989. Vintage, p. 3. Philip K. Dick, in Galactic Pot-Healer: wrote: > The stewardess began setting up the SSA machine in a rapid, efficient > fashion, meanwhile explaining it.
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Mercedes is shown exploding, while alongside is Sutton's Amphion. Sutton remained in the Mediterranean with Nelson's fleet, initially patrolling off Toulon, before transferring to Cadiz. On 3 October 1804 Amphion was one of four frigates sent to intercept four Spanish frigates approaching Cadiz with a large cargo of specie. The British ships, consisting of Amphion, , and , sighted the Spanish early on the morning of 5 October, and gave chase.
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One might expect in (I) that A would migrate in preference to B seeing as such a migration would place the developing charge on a 2° carbon and pass the specie through a more favorable chair-like intermediate. This is not seen. Only 38% of the product exhibits A migration. To account for why A migration is not dominant in the expansion of I, the authors assert a least movement argument .
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Boutwell and Grant finally met on Thursday, September 23, and agreed to release gold from the treasury if the gold price kept rising. Grant wanted $5,000,000 in gold to be released while Boutwell wanted $3,000,000 released. Then, on (Black) Friday, September 23, 1869, when the price of gold had soared to $160 an ounce, Boutwell released $4 million in gold specie into the market and bought $4,000,000 in bonds.
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There is also a type of fungal specie that grows and covers supplejacks stems and leaves. This fungus is described as a sooty mould and is called Trichopeltheca asiatica. This fungus is common across New Zealand and since it tends to ‘smother’ the supplejack, this can greatly affect the plants ability to photosynthesize. There are also some various species of moths from the order Lepidoptera that are found throughout New Zealand.
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Santa Brigida and Thetis left Vera Cruz (Mexico) on 21 August 1799. Santa Brigada was under the command of Captain Don Antonio Pillon. She was carrying a cargo of drugs, annatto, cochineal, indigo and sugar, and some 1,500,000 Spanish dollars (£313,000). Thetis was under the command of Captain Don Juan de Mendoza and carried a cargo of cocoa, cochineal and sugar, and more importantly, specie worth 1,385,292 Spanish dollars (£312,000).
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The browncheek blenny (Acanthemblemaria crockery) is a species of chaenopsid blenny found in coral reefs in the Gulf of California, in the eastern central Pacific ocean. It can reach a maximum length of TL. This species feeds primarily on zooplankton. The identity of the person honoured in the specific name of this specie was not specified but it is thought to be the explorer and philanthropist Charles Templeton Crocker (1884-1948).
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Successfully slipping through the blockade, she unloaded at Wilmington and took on board a valuable cargo of cotton, turpentine, and tobacco. In addition, $50,000 in Confederate specie reposed in the ship's safe. On 15 May 1864, the steamer attempted to slip to sea under the protective covering of a rain squall. The ship was darkened to avoid detection by roving Union patrols, but her funnels suddenly commenced throwing highly visible flames.
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Cantillon 2010, pp. 227–30 Addressing the mercantilist belief that monetary intervention could cause a perpetually favourable balance of trade, Cantillon developed a specie-flow mechanism foreshadowing future international monetary equilibrium theories.Rothbard 1995, p. 359 He suggested that in countries with a high quantity of money in circulation, prices will increase and therefore become less competitive in relation to countries where there is a relative scarcity of money.
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On 14 April Epervier sailed from Port Royal, Jamaica, calling at Havana, where she took on board $118,000 in specie. She left Havana on 25 April bound for Halifax. The 22-gun sloop-of-war captured Epervier off Cape Canaveral, Florida, on 29 April, during the War of 1812. Eperviers crew consisted mainly of invalids from the hospital, giving her the worst crew of any ship on her station.
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The taglines include "What doesn't kill you can make you stronger", "Have you ever felt like you're not human anymore?" and "The Evolution of the Specie." Several film posters were released, some for abroad, such as the Swedish poster with the tagline "Vem kan du lita på vif fullmåne?" ("Whom can you trust during the full Moon?"); the unrated version's poster has a red color palette, rather than the standard American.
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In 1875, Connor was a candidate for the Republican gubernatorial race, to which his nomination was successful, moving onwards to win the General Election. During his time in politics, Connor advocated civil service reform, and supported the resumption of specie payments. Connor was also responsible for promoting a free public school system, in which he was successful. Connor resigned from office on January 8, 1879, after failing to win reelection.
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The Epsom Gold Cup was an English Thoroughbred horse race run annually at Epsom Downs Racecourse in Epsom, Surrey. Raced in late May, it was open to horses age three and older. During the latter part of the 19th century, the race offered a purse of five hundred sovereigns in plate or specie and attracted top horses of the era. It was superseded by the Coronation Cup in 1902.
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On 24 June 1817, Falcon commissioned , a sixth- rate of 26-guns in which he served in American waters. In October 1820, he returned to England laden with £700,000 of silver specie. Falcon's next ship was the 50-gun super frigate , which he was assigned to on 1 March 1823. Isis was awaiting completion at Chatham Dock, having been brought from Woolwich, where she was built, in October 1819.
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The issue first arose in 1825, when the British government passed an imperial Order-in-council which was designed to encourage the circulation of sterling coinage throughout the British Empire, including the Canadian colonies.Order-in-council, March 23, 1825; re-printed in Chalmers, p. 425. The Order-in-council actually had the reverse effect in the Canadas, driving out what little sterling specie coinage did actually circulate.Chalmers, p.
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In Congress, Mellish responded to the Panic of 1873 by advocating a stable monetary system based on "soft money"—the concept that paper money backed by the strength and credit of the federal government would provide more stability and economic opportunity for farmers and the working class than "hard money"—gold or silver reserves in banks sufficient to allow holders of paper money to redeem their currency for specie on demand.
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Together with Ed Roberts, a wealthy rancher and associate of Musgrave, they planned to rob the International Bank of Nogales in Arizona, located near the international border. Roberts was to arrange to withdraw $10,000 in specie and bills, purportedly to pay the unpopular tariff for importing some Mexican cattle. But, Roberts intended to have the High Fives steal the money. A map of Nogales, Arizona, in May of 1898.
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He and his wife Hatsu Shibata returned to Seattle. They had two daughters, both of whom attended Seattle public schools. Building on his success as a merchant, Furuya became a banker. He founded the Japanese Commercial Bank in 1907; it became the cornerstone of a banking empire that eventually consolidated the Oriental American Bank, and the Seattle Specie Bank in 1928 under his Pacific Commercial Bank and Pacific Holding Company.
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While in prison, Koji had nothing in his mind but Biotrog. He wished to once and for all destroy his enemy. As if fate intervened, Koji's wishes were about to come true because hovering above the city is an alien spacecraft containing the same alien specie that resurrected Biolante. Using their advanced technology, Koji was transported to the alien craft where his foot was replaced with cybernetic parts.
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The two ships had crossed the Atlantic together but got separated at the Grand Banks during a storm. The most significant single prize the British captured in 1756 was the Arc-en-Ciel. The ship was captured on 12 June off Scatarie after a long chase and a five-hour gun battle. The warship had on board sixty thousand livres in specie and as many as 200 recruits.
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For many years prior to the 1880s Barrows took an active part in public education. For much of the time during fifteen years he served as a member of the school board of Los Angeles. In 1867 he was elected city superintendent, and in 1868, county superintendent. Barrows wrote on many subjects for the local press, and especially on financial questions, including resumption of specie payment and bimetallism.
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Active served in the navy's Egyptian campaign between 8 March 1801 and 2 September, which qualified her officers and crew for the clasp "Egypt" to the Naval General Service Medal that the Admiralty issued in 1847 to all surviving claimants. From October Active came under Commander Thomas Shortland, also temporary. On 25 October she captured the Genoese pinco St Anna. In 1802 Active sailed to Egypt with specie.
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These animated drawings have yet to poke fun at the poop-de-oop singers, or 'elbow' routines of the hot dancing choruses which have become standardized by repetition. To delve into the modern era and its tunes might be a bet, unless royalty for use of melodies prevents. Nothing the matter with this Disney series which Columbia is releasing. Their reception invariably outstrips any two one-reelers of the vaude specie.
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Let there be no > disobedience!Evans, p. 53. A political cartoon published in the April 25, 1874 issue of Harper's Weekly. Entitled "Rags for Our Working Men—Specie for the Foreigners", the caption for this cartoon reads "Columbia: Dear me, I do think it very wrong that the good nice trade dollar (worth 100 cents) should be sent out of the country for the benefit of the 'heathen Chinee,' for if these gentlemen are permitted to have their own way, it will take a basket full of greenbacks (worth —?) to buy dinner for my children."Julian, p. 964. In 1874, trade dollars began appearing in American commerce. In early 1875, Congress passed the Specie Redemption Act, allowing the Treasury to pay out silver coins in exchange for paper currency. That act, combined with a drop in the price of silver, caused hoarded or exported silver coins to reappear in commerce within the United States.Taxay, p. 265.
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The Scottish joint-stock banks, in contrast, followed a "hard money policy", whereby they would issue a banknote only if they had enough specie to cover it. They avoided speculative risk because if they failed, their shareholders were responsible for the full loss. Since the banks did not require a legislated charter, many more banks could be founded, and they were more competitive, thereby endangering the solvency of the speculative chartered banks.
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The Bank of England risked a national financial catastrophe in the 1730s when customers demanded their money be changed into gold in a moment of crisis. Eventually London's merchants saved the bank and the nation with financial guarantees. Another step in the evolution of money was the change from a coin being a unit of weight to being a unit of value. A distinction could be made between its commodity value and its specie value.
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Ibn Tumart created a hierarchy from among his followers which persisted long after the Almohad era (i.e., in Tunisia under the Hafsids), based not only on a specie of ethnic loyalty,"Every member of the community had to belong to a tribe" under the control of their chief. Too, only Berbers of the Masmuda tribe could claim the title muwahiddin (Almohad). Abun-Nasr A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 105, 110.
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For the Memoirs he also translated the 1721 dissertation Dissertatio critica de hominibus orbis nostri incolis specie et ortu by Vincentius Rumpf (which has been incorrectly attributed to Johann Albert Fabricius). It argued for the inheritance of acquired characters, in connection with climatic variation of race.Conway Zirkle, The Early History of the Idea of the Inheritance of Acquired Characters and of Pangenesis, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 35, No. 2 (Jan.
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If a bank failed, its notes became worthless. National governments had in the past issued paper money and made it legal tender, but usually with at least the pretense that the notes would be redeemable for specie at some time. Continental dollars issued by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution had no such backing. They soon became almost worthless largely due to massive British counterfeiting of them as an act of war.
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Siro was built by William Flanagan, reportedly at a cost of US$40,000, and launched in 1812 at Baltimore for her owner George Stiles. She was a relatively expensive vessel, having been made of the finest materials. On her first trip her captain was Henry Levely. In the autumn of 1812 she was sailing to France when she captured , of ten guns, which was carrying specie worth US$23,500, and a cargo of indigo.
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Farragut, who was Captain Porter's foster son, remained with the ship for the next two years. Essex capturing Alert. Essex sailed in South Atlantic waters and along the coast of Brazil until January 1813. On 11 December 1812 she captured the Post Office Packet Service packet as Nocton was returning to England from Rio de Janeiro. The Americans removed the specie that she was carrying (about £16,000) and some of her crew.
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F. solani is a very generalistic fungal specie and has been known to infect peas, beans, potatoes, and many types of cucurbits. There has been increasing evidence that F. solani can also act as a causal agent of mycoses in humans . F. solani can also cause damping off, corn rot, and root rot, as well as sudden death of soybeans(SDS) . Symptoms include general plant decline, wilting, and large necrotic spots on tap roots.
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The new administration policy announced in October would be to make all the paper convertible into specie, if Congress so voted. The House of Representatives passed the Alley Resolution on December 18, 1865 by vote of 144 to 6. In the Senate it was a different matter, for the key player was Senator John Sherman, who said that inflation contraction was not nearly as important as refunding the short-term and long-term national debt.
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Oxford University Press, p. 345 Christopher Dawson, in The Christian View of History, wrote: > For the Christian view of history is a vision of history sub specie > aeternitatis, an interpretation of time in terms of eternity and of human > events in the light of divine revelation. And thus Christian history is > inevitably apocalyptic, and the apocalypse is the Christian substitute for > the secular philosophies of history.Dynamics of World History by Christopher > Dawson.
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He supported Jackson during the Bank War and proposed a land payment law that inspired Jackson's Specie Circular executive order. Benton's prime concern was the westward expansion of the United States. He called for the annexation of the Republic of Texas, which was accomplished in 1845. He pushed for compromise in the partition of Oregon Country with the British and supported the 1846 Oregon Treaty, which divided the territory along the 49th parallel.
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The shortage of precious metals during the late 15th and early 16th centuries eased in the second half of the 16th century. The Spanish mined American gold and silver at minimal cost and flooded the European market with an abundance of specie. This influx caused a relative decrease in the value of these metals in comparison with agricultural and craft products. Furthermore, depopulation – specifically in southern Spain – resulted in a high rate of inflation.
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Instead of finding a way to silence Adams, Polk frequently engaged in useless shouting matches, leading Jackson to conclude that the Speaker should have shown better leadership.Remini, p. 406 Van Buren and Polk faced pressure to rescind the Specie Circular, Jackson's 1836 order that payment for government lands be in gold and silver. Some believed this had led to the crash by causing a lack of confidence in paper currency issued by banks.
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Spengler , p. 418; Rothbard 1995, pp. 358–59 Thus, Cantillon also held that increases in the supply of money, regardless of the source, cause increases in the price level and therefore reduce the competitiveness of a particular nation's industry in relation to a nation with lower prices.Bordo 1983, p. 244 However, Cantillon did not believe that international markets tended toward equilibrium, and instead suggested that government hoard specie to avoid rising prices and falling competitiveness.
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The national currency in Mexico had been replaced by paper money issued by revolutionary factions without backing by specie. In response to this, many people used the more stable U.S. paper dollars. The lack of currency meant that in agriculture there was no incentive to produce for the market, which led to food shortages. In addition, malnourished populations are more vulnerable to disease, and Mexico had suffered from the influenza pandemic of 1918.
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Being opportunistic feeders snubfins consume a large array of prey items. Snubfin dolphin consume a wide array of prey, that can be narrowed down to coastal, estuarine, and reef‐associated fishes throughout the water column and at the bottom. The most common prey items by specie are cardinal fish (Apogon), proceeded by the cuttlefish (Sepia), the squid Uroteuthis (Photololigo), and the toothpony fish (Gazza). Another big part of the snubfin diet are cephalopods.
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Many provide the opportunity to buy assets in-specie, which helps the investor to switch investment without unnecessary charges. These services also cut down on paperwork as transactions are centralised. Although Fund Platforms are a way to invest using DIY ethic, many investors choose to take independent financial advice, in the selection of a fund platform provider, in the selection of funds and 'tax wrappers' and in the ongoing monitoring of performance.
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The Coinage Act of 1857 repealed prior legal tender laws concerning foreign specie. It fixed the weight and measure of US one-cent pieces at 4.655 grams, which was composed of 88% copper and 12% nickel. It also mandated that this new copper/nickel alloy be received as payment for the worn gold and silver coins turned in at the mint. The effective aim was to limit the domestic money supply by crushing European competition.
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The next two acts, those of March 4, 1814 and Dec 26, 1814, called for Note issues both to independently raise revenue as well as to substitute for unsubscribed loans. A total of $18,318,400 were emitted under these acts which included Notes of $20 and $50 denominations in addition to the larger Notes. During 1814 federal finances deteriorated as the war dragged on, and banks outside New England suspended specie payment on August 31, 1814.
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The new administration policy announced in October would be to make all the paper convertible into specie, if Congress so voted. The House of Representatives passed the Alley Resolution on December 18, 1865 by vote of 144 to 6. In the Senate it was a different matter, for the key player was Senator John Sherman, who said that inflation contraction was not nearly as important as refunding the short-term and long-term national debt.
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Several thousand people from North Carolina, mainly from Orange County, Anson County, and Granville County in the western region, were extremely dissatisfied with the wealthy North Carolina officials whom they considered cruel, arbitrary, tyrannical, and corrupt. With specie scarce, many inland farmers found themselves unable to pay their taxes and resented the consequent seizure of their property. Local sheriffs sometimes kept taxes for their own gain and sometimes charged twice for the same tax.
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During Plaisted's term, the state legislature remained solidly Republican. As a result, legislators were able to block many of Plaisted's appointments, and he vetoed a much higher than normal number of bills, including 31 vetoes of measures to re-charter banks that issued specie-backed currency. By 1883, voter concern over the economic downturn that had begun in the 1870s had largely abated, and Plaisted was defeated for reelection by Republican Frederick Robie.
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The Specie Payment Resumption Act of January 14, 1875 was a law in the United States that restored the nation to the gold standard through the redemption of previously-unbacked United States Notes and reversed inflationary government policies promoted directly after the American Civil War. The decision further contracted the nation's money supply and was seen by critics as an exacerbating factor of the so-called Long Depression, which struck in 1873.
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Beaver then began eliminating French harbours in the western Indian Ocean, sending the brig HMS Eclipse to attack Tamatave on Madagascar, which was captured on 12 February. After the end of the hurricane season in March, Beaver personally sailed in HMS Nisus to invade the Seychelles, before collecting specie from Madras to refloat the Mauritian economy. In his absence, Mauritius came under the command of Captain Charles Marsh Schomberg in HMS Astraea.Gardiner, p.
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The new administration policy announced in October would be to make all the paper convertible into specie, if Congress so voted. The House of Representatives passed the Alley Resolution on December 18, 1865 by vote of 144 to 6. In the Senate it was a different matter, for the key player was Senator John Sherman, who said that inflation contraction was not nearly as important as refunding the short-term and long-term national debt.
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Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the New World exported large quantities of silver and gold to Europe, some of which added to the English money supply. There were multiple results that all expanded the English economy, according to Dr. Nuno Palma of the University of Manchester. The key features of the growth pattern included specialisation and structural change, and increases in market participation. The new supply of specie (silver and gold) increased the money supply.
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In ransacking the home, the soldiers discovered Tucker's trunk with his personal effects and £1500 in unsigned paper money. However, the specie money was hidden by the family in the bottom of tubs in the cellar, covered with broken dishes and household utensils. The tubs escaped close inspection and the money was kept from British hands. The house is currently home to the Hamilton Township Historical Society and is open to the public.
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Woollen, p. 136 Morton's action was politically astute. In Indiana the demands for easy money topped the Democrats' list of priority issues, and in the fall of 1874, they carried the state's elections largely on that basis. However, within a year, Morton joined other Republicans in supporting the Specie Payment Resumption Act, which effectively suspended new currency issues and gave the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury the authority to withdraw currency from circulation.
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The EIC put the value of the cargo it had lost at £79,710.Reports from the Select Committee of the House of Commons appointed to enquire into the present state of the affairs of the East India Company, together with the minutes of evidence, an appendix of documents, and a general index, (1830), Vol. 2, p.977. Subsequent salvage attempts recovered the specie, which was in the form of 62 chests of dollars.
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Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing. Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification, often in conjunction with silver.
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Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A U.S. silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver. Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs.
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HMS Pelorus at Sydney on 16 June 1838 On 31January 1837, Pelorus was recommissioned under Captain Francis Harding who had taken command on 21January. She then sailed for the Cape of Good Hope on 9 April, having received specie from London that she was to take to Mauritius via the Cape. She arrived at the Cape on 1 June. Pelorus — under Commander Harding — called at the Cocos (Keeling) Islands on 16December, and stayed for six days.
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After declaring his innocence to the Justice, Frank confronts his accuser, who is none other than Morris. Morris, a government paymaster, has been robbed of his mysterious box, which contained gold specie with which to pay the English troops in the area. Frank's prior light-hearted interest in Morris' box on the journey north is the basis for the charge. Upon Frank's vehement declaration of innocence, and the Justice's sympathetic acquittal, Morris abandons his suit against Frank.
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The chartered banks, in contrast, protected their shareholders with limited liability and hence from major loss; they thus encouraged speculation. The chartered banks would loan out many more banknotes (little more than bank issued I.O.U.s) than they had specie (legal tender) to exchange for those notes once redeemed. The more banknotes they loaned out the more interest they made, but at the increased risk of bankruptcy. Protected by limited liability, their shareholders put profit above risk.
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In 1788 Massachusetts sold its rights to the entire six million acres (24,000 km²) to Oliver Phelps and Nathaniel Gorham for $1,000,000, payable in specie or in certain Massachusetts securities then trading at about 20 cents on the dollar, the money used to repay some of the state's debt from the Revolutionary War. Similar western boundary issues involving these and other states were resolved by the Northwest Ordinance passed by the Congress of the Confederation in July 1787.
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During the first weekend of every October the International Black Bass Fishing Championship is held, the most prestigious of all those held in Europe. Another specie, the catfish, due to its large size, difficult and tiring fishing, is highly appreciated by the uninitiated. It is interesting to note that both black bass and catfish are newly introduced species. However, carp, crucian carp and alburno are the most abundant fish and the most fish, both spontaneously and in competition.
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He took at least 2.6 million in specie during his trip. He so angered his associates, whom he kept busy counting money under poor conditions, that one of his midshipmen, William Rodgers, resigned from the Navy after coming ashore from this three-year voyage. He cited not being able to "do what I joined this man's Navy to do. Not being able to serve my country but to simply be serving for the monetary good of Captain Downes".
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The man himself, > one man is more valuable as a spiritual being. And immortal soul also > follows from the recognition of God, faith in the world order and justice. > It would not be justice, there would be perfect equality without eternal > souls. Immortality are experiencing now, in this life; we have no experience > of life after death, but we have, we have the experience now that life truly > and fully human only live sub specie aeternitatis.
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Spinoza's "eternal" perspective is reflected in his Ethics (Part V, Prop. XXIII, Scholium), where he treats ethics through a geometric investigation that begins with God and nature and then analyzes human emotions and the human intellect. By proceeding with sub specie aeternitatis, Spinoza seeks to arrive at an ethical theory that is as precise as Euclid's Elements. In the history of philosophy, this way of proceeding may be most clearly contrasted with Aristotle's manner of proceeding.
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444 Along with Condy Raguet, Gouge proposed the creation of an independent treasury system, whereby the federal government would store its funds as specie in government- controlled vaults, rather than relying on state banks or the national bank. Influenced by this proposal, President Van Buren (who took office following the 1836 presidential election) called for the establishment of the Independent Treasury,Wilentz (2005), pp. 458–459 and Congress approved it in June 1840.Wilson (1984), pp.
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This genus is provisionally included in the family Clavatulidae as the characters of the shell and the radula of this genus resemble more the characters of this family than those of the family Horaiclavidae. However, it differs from the other genera in this family by its weak columellar pleats and the multispiral protoconch in the Recent specie. However the extinct species type has a paucispiral, globose and almost smooth protoconch. This must then be considered an apomorphic character state.
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Charoen Sirivadhanabhakdi expanded his ThaiBev drinks and property empire to include about two-thirds of this Singaporean conglomerate. This was possible after Japan's Kirin Brewery Company sold its 15% stake for US$1.6 billion to Sirivadhanabhakdi. In January 2014, through a distribution in specie and re-listing of Frasers Centrepoint Limited by way of introduction on the Singapore stock exchange, the group de- merged its properties business. In February 2018, Frasers Centrepoint Limited was renamed Frasers Property globally.
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Mitchell, 1902, p. 552. After the New York banks suspended specie payments (quickly followed by Boston and Philadelphia)Mitchell, 1903, p. 41. the premium on gold rose from 1–3% over paper in early January 1862 to 9% over paper in June 1862, by which time one paper dollar was worth 91.69 cents in gold. This fueled currency speculation (e.g., redeeming banknotes for silver coin which was then sold at a premium as bullion),Mitchell, 1902, p. 540.
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Vengeance was bound for France under Capitaine de Vaisseau François Pitot, carrying passengers and specie, and initially attempted to outrun Constellation. Truxton gave chase, and eventually came within range during the evening. Before dawn, Vengeance hoisted her flag, and Constellation answered with a red-tailed flag and a blue jack that the French did not understand. After Pitot refused a request to surrender, the two began to exchange broadsides, with Vengeance aiming high to damage Constellations rigging.
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It enabled the sale of stock in joint stock companies, and the redemption of those shares in the paper. However, these advantages are held within their disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it increased the money supply, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by David Hume in the 18th century.
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The next day the Liverpool Mercury reported "The steamship Tara has arrived from Brisbane with £6600 in specie." In 1897 Percival Pitman Outridge (1863-1938) a pearl fleet owner, reported details of the coins. The Spanish dollars were dated 1713-1823, and the single gold coin recovered was a Spanish onza [ounce] dated 1819. In 1911 Jardine disclosed that the wreck was located "in a lagoon of Portlock Reef", but did not give the exact location.
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With the introduction of the company card money also came severe inflation. By 1725 both the company vouchers and cards had been redeemed. In the early 1730s, again faced with a shortage of specie and letters of exchange, the Count of Maurepas recommended applying a card money system, similar to the one then in use in Canada, in French Louisiana. This was intended for domestic trade, without any mark-up, and to be backed through letters of exchange.
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Overseas branches of the Yokohama Specie Bank (横浜正金銀行 Yokohama Shōkin Ginkō, est. 1880) were chartered to act as agents of Imperial Japan. The Honolulu branch was the first successful Japanese bank in Hawaii. The building at 36 Merchant Street dates from 1909 and was designed by one of Honolulu's most prolific architects, Henry Livingston Kerr, who considered it not just his own finest work, but the finest in the city at the time.
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He strongly opposed the Republican policy of Reconstruction in the Southern States. He was not re-elected in 1872. His hard money views on financial questions did not meet with favor in his agrarian constituency, where he openly antagonized the inflationists and the Greenback element and favored the resumption of specie payments. In 1874, however, after a sharp contest he won the seat back, and on his re-entry into Congress was elected to the speakership.
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On 14 May 1813, while in the latitude of the Cape Verde Islands, Burbank was able to capture the British packet ship , an 8, 11, or 12-gun brig with a crew of 38, sailing from Rio de Janeiro to England. After a fight lasting over half-an-hour, Express struck. Shaler took out $75,000 in specie and then divested the packet after ransoming her for $8000. In June, Anaconda took the 8-gun brig Mary, sailing from Gibraltar.
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The Paper Money Riot, or Exeter Rebellion, was an armed uprising in Exeter, New Hampshire, on September 20, 1786. Following the American Revolution, the nation, states, and many individuals were deeply in debt. The lack of specie and paper currency in circulation made the payment of debts difficult for poor farmers. A group calling themselves Regulators called for the printing of paper money, believing that issuing paper notes on credit would help to stimulate the state's economy.
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The new administration policy announced in October would be to make all the paper convertible into specie, if Congress so voted. The House of Representatives passed the Alley Resolution on December 18, 1865, by a vote of 144 to 6. In the Senate it was a different matter, for the key player was Senator John Sherman, who said that inflation contraction was not nearly as important as refunding the short-term and long-term national debt.
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Chthonerpeton onorei is a species of amphibian in the family Typhlonectidae, endemic to Ecuador. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, rivers, swamps, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, pastureland, irrigated land, seasonally flooded agricultural land, and canals and ditches. Originally the specie was limited to only southern Brazil, Uruguay, and northern Argentina.Then in 1984 and 1985 two specimens were collected by Dr. G. Onore in Ecuador and this helped extend the known range of the species.
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Shortly after Van Buren took office, a major economic downturn known as the Panic of 1837 began. Webster and his Whig allies blamed Jackson's policies, including the Specie Circular, for the panic, but a worldwide economic downturn was a major contributing factor. The panic hit the country hard and proved disastrous for Webster's personal finances. With the help of Nicholas Biddle and other friendly bankers, Webster had gone into debt to engage in land speculation on a broad scale.
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He reduced the civil list, saved money by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightened accounting procedures, and demanded the national government's full share of money and supplies from the individual states. Congress used four main methods to cover the cost of the war, which cost about 66 million dollars in specie (gold and silver).Oliver Harry Chitwood, A History of Colonial America (1961) pp. 586–89 Congress made issues of paper money in 1775–1780 and in 1780–81.
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Ward first became active in politics in 1756 when he was elected as a Deputy from Westerly. The divisive political issue of the day was the use of hard money (or specie) versus the use of paper money, and Ward sided with the former group. His chief rival was Stephen Hopkins of Providence who sided with the paper money view. So bitter was the animosity between these two men that Hopkins commenced an action for slander against Ward.
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Ardaseer, Henry Lovett, master, was on her way from China to Calcutta via Singapore on 4 April 1851 when she caught fire off Penang. Unable to defeat the fire, her crew and passengers took to the boats and the next day the Bremen ship Liebnitz rescued them. Ardaseer had been carrying specie and this was put on her boats; the crew and passengers lost all their possessions. Leibnitz landed the people it had rescued at Penang on the 12th.
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As their previous commercial ties with the British empire were broken, war debts were astronomical, and economic dislocation was widespread, specie was rare for the planters who struggled to recover their economic footing. Many of the oldest families were subsumed into their fellow planters, moved westward, and some even forced out for being Loyalists. However, those which survived found an opportunity with the abolition of the slave trade. For, paradoxically, with slavery abolition, the value of slaves increased.
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Two views dominated this debate. Conservatives and the creditor class favored "hard money," that is, they favored resumption as a method for making up losses incurred due to dollar depreciation during the past decade. The resumption of specie payments was perceived as a method to curb the rise in the price level and eventually equate currency with gold. For creditors that had issued debts in inflated greenbacks, resumption would increase the real interest rate that they received.
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His origins lay near Arequipa (a provincial capital far to the south).Lamb (1985) at 88 (Moyobamba); at 38 (Iberian ancestry).Calvo (1981; 1995) at 152 (Uru), 155 (Arequipa), 163 (Uru, Arequipa). Calvo's poetic work here is a specie of creative nonfiction.Besides Calvo above, Córdova is described as a mestizo by Ott (1993) at 242, and by Beyer (2009) at 159, 175, 198, 302, 329.Cf., Huxley and Capa (1964) at 225 (history of the city of Iquitos).
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Bonne Citoyenne was based at the River Plate, and Greene was the senior officer of the station from December 1811 to September 1812 when Captain Peter Heywood arrived.Marshall (1828), Supplement, Part 2, pp.335-8. With the outbreak of the War of 1812 Greene took on a cargo of specie, worth some half a million pounds, and sailed from Rio de Janeiro. Unfortunately, a grounding damaged Bonne Citoyenne and he was forced to put into Salvador for repairs.
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Diagram of the battle between Constitution and Java William Bainbridge, senior to Hull, took command of "Old Ironsides" on 8 September and prepared her for another mission in British shipping lanes near Brazil, sailing with on 27 October. They arrived near São Salvador on 13 December, sighting in the harbor.Hollis (1900), pp. 177–178. Bonne Citoyenne was reportedly carrying $1.6 million in specie to England, and her captain refused to leave the neutral harbor lest he lose his cargo.
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Auxarthron species, like most Onygenaceae, have usually been isolated from strongly anthropized soil, enriched with human or animal keratinaceous remnants. The genus Auxarthron is considered as keratinolytic on the basis of hair perforation studies. However, the keratin degradative ability was not found in the specie A. californiense, different from other species in the genus. By Phylogenetic studies, this absence of keratinolytic ability shows that during the course of evolution the keratinolytic ability of Auxarthron genus is decreasing.
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It was his duty to produce weights used in minting and often he would also be charged with the safekeeping of minting irons when they were not used in producing specie. The occupational name came from the French word gardien (= supervisor). Via the Northern French wardien and the Dutch wardijn the word entered the German language and replaced the previously used words Probierer (= tester), Hüter (= safekeeper) and Aufzieher (= puller). The first Wardein to be so called worked in mining.
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After the expiration of the charter of the Second Bank of the United States, federal revenues were handled by the Independent Treasury beginning in 1846. The Second Bank of the U.S. had also maintained some control over other banks, but in its absence banks were only under state regulation. One of the main problems with banks was over-issuance of banknotes. These were redeemable in specie (gold or silver) upon presentation to the chief cashier of the bank.
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When people lost trust in a bank they rushed to redeem its notes, and because banks issued more notes than their specie reserves, the bank couldn't redeem the notes, often causing the bank to fail. In 1860 there were over 8,000 state chartered banks issuing notes. In 1861 the U.S. began issuing United States Notes as legal tender. Banks began paying interest on deposits and using the proceeds to make short term call loans, mainly to stock brokers.
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Because of the tariff revenues, the U.S. Treasury held a considerable amount of gold, which kept it out of circulation. On September 12, the SS Central America, which was carrying $1.5 million in gold from California, sank, contributing to the panic. Secretary of the Treasury Howell Cobb came to the aid of New York mercantile interests by buying back some of the national debt. On September 25 the Bank of Pennsylvania suspended specie payment, starting a nationwide bank run.
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Between 1853 and 1913, the U.S. experienced rapid economic expansion as well as ten financial panics. One of the Clearing House’s first challenges was the panic of 1857. When the panic began, leaders of the member banks met and devised a plan that would shorten the duration of the panic–and more importantly, maintain public confidence in the banking system. When specie payments were suspended, the Clearing House issued loan certificates that could be used to settle accounts.
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In the late 1760s, tensions between Piedmont farmers and coastal planters developed into the Regulator movement. With specie scarce, many inland farmers found themselves unable to pay their taxes and resented the consequent seizure of their property. Local sheriffs sometimes kept taxes for their own gain and sometimes charged twice for the same tax. Governor William Tryon's conspicuous consumption in the construction of a new governor's mansion at New Bern fueled the resentment of yeoman farmers.
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When Congress returned to Washington in December 1861, Sherman and the Finance Committee continued their attempts to fix the deepening financial crisis caused by the war. The financial situation had continued to worsen, resulting that month in banks suspending specie payments—that is, they refused to redeem their banknotes for gold. Gold began to disappear from circulation. With the 500,000 soldiers in the field, the government was spending the then- unheard-of sum of $2 million per day.
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Food and alcohol were treated similarly to each other, split equally. The necessaries of life were distributed equally, unlike booty, which was usually given in higher proportions to officers, as directed in their articles. Bread, butter, cheese, and meat were items that were considered luxuries by many low level mariners, but items that a pirate would look forward to as often as possible. There is evidence pirates specifically hoped to find edibles in their loot over specie.
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B.T. Roberts of New York served as chairman, and Jonathan Blanchard was the keynote speaker. The platform supported the Reconstruction Amendments to the Constitution, international arbitration, the reading of the scriptures in public schools, specie payments, justice for Native Americans, abolition of the Electoral College, and prohibition of the sale of alcoholic beverages. It declared the first day of the week to be a day of rest for the United States. The platform opposed secret societies and monopolies.
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In the US, hard money is sometimes referred to as Bentonian, after Senator Thomas Hart Benton, who was an advocate for the hard money policies of Andrew Jackson. In Benton's view, fiat currency favored rich urban Easterners at the expense of the small farmers and tradespeople of the West. He proposed a law requiring payment for federal land in hard currency only, which was defeated in Congress but later enshrined in an executive order, the Specie Circular.
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In early 1891 one of Jardine's large pearl and trepang (beche-de-mer) fleet, schooner Lancashire Lass (1869-1895), Captain Samuel Rowe, reported finding a shipwreck on a coral reef whilst trepanging. The items recovered included an anchor, a small non-ferrous cannon, and 160 lbs (72 kg) of Spanish dollars, estimated to be worth over £300. The dates of three coins were given, the oldest 1800, 1814, and a very indistinct 1833 appeared to be the youngest. The exact location of the wreck was kept secret. The Thursday Island exports for 1891 May 22 included "6 boxes of specie" (coins) sent to London, England via the steamer Taroba. In 1911 Jardine disclosed that he equipped one of his fleet for salvage and recovered a further ~15 cwt (~760 kg) of Spanish silver pillar dollars. The Queensland steamer Tara from Brisbane, called at Thursday Island about 1891 Nov 20 on its way to London, England. The Pall Mall Gazette (London) 1892 Jan 5 reported the arrival of a large quantity of specie, value many thousand pounds, being Torres Straits treasure.
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Charles III of Spain (afterwards the emperor Charles VI) then had his court at Barcelona, and Norris stationed some ships off the coast of Catalonia, the command of which was assigned to Forbes, who was directed to co-operate as much as possible with the Spanish court, and was permitted to reside on shore. Two Genoese ships of war, of 50 and 70 guns respectively, were at Cadiz taking in specie, alleged to be for the use of the French faction in Italy. The Spanish king proposed that Forbes should put out to sea and seize the vessels on their return voyage. Forbes explained that England was at peace with the Genoese republic; but being pressed by the king, and the queen offering him her sign-manual for his indemnification, he started with his own ship, the Grafton of 70 guns, and the Chatham of 50 guns, Captain Nicholas Haddock, took the Genoese ships into Port Mahon, discharged the officers and crews to shore, landed the specie, amounting to 1,600,000 dollars, and returned with the ships to Barcelona.
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Mercantilism in its simplest form is bullionism, yet mercantilist writers emphasize the circulation of money and reject hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money-supply. Fiat money and floating exchange rates have since rendered specie concerns irrelevant. In time, industrial policy supplanted the heavy emphasis on money, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity.
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During the next twelve years, Santo Domingo's economy suffered. Most farming was solely for subsistence, there was little specie on the island, and, once political stability returned to Spain in 1814, its focus was on the more productive island of Cuba. However, during the second decade of the 19th century the colonial neglect acquired epic proportions. In fact, for all practical purposes, the colony in Santo Domingo during these years (1809–1821) was governed as an afterthought through the more significant Cuban administration.
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Meanwhile, Whigs won gains in state elections across the country, including in Van Buren's home state of New York. In early 1838, most banks ended their moratorium on converting paper into money into gold or silver, temporarily bringing an end to the monetary crisis. The economy began to recover, and an alliance of Democrats and Whigs repealed the Specie Circular that year. A second economic downturn, known as the Panic of 1839, began as the result of a cotton glut.
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Gomphosus caeruleus can reach a length of about . This is a dark specie of wrasse which has an extended 'beak-like' snout. The male has a light blue edge running along his pectoral fin and lime green dorsal and anal fins, The females have the lower head and breast pale with a marked dark stripe through eye they also have a yellow anal and caudal fins. Juveniles are pale with a dusky streak from their snout through the eye and onto the body.
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Tablet dedicated to George Washington and honoring Jeremiah Wadsworth When the war started, Wadsworth was appointed to a committee charged with buying 5,000 pairs of yarn stockings for the army (which had already been sent to Canada). He served on another committee to procure 1,800 pounds of "lawful money in specie" in exchange for bills for use by the army. The Connecticut General Assembly later commissioned him and Col. Jonathan Fitch to find a large number of tin kettles for the army.
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Although the euro became the currency of the eurozone countries including Ireland on 1 January 1999, it was not until 1 January 2002 that the state began to withdraw Irish pound coins and notes, replacing them with euro specie. All other eurozone countries withdrew their currencies in a similar fashion, from that date. Irish pound coins and notes ceased to be legal tender on 9 February 2002, although they are intended to be exchangeable indefinitely for euro at the Central Bank.
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The hospital took in the mentally ill as well as invalids (who were typically poor, homeless and unemployed) and patients with skin conditions. Chiarugi was the chief author of new humanitarian regulations for the hospital that were introduced in 1789. In 1793-1794 Chiarugi's main published psychiatric work, his three volume On Insanity and Its Classification (Della Pazzìa in Genere e in Specie), was published in Florence. He also published works on dermatology and agriculture, and a book about his home town.
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Territory in the Maine district of Massachusetts was occupied in July, in August the White House and Capitol were burned, and by September the British were advancing further in Maine and the Lake Champlain area of New York. A naval assault on Boston was expected in the near future. Free trade with the rest of the world had virtually ceased, thousands were thrown out of work, and by August banks were suspending specie payment. The federal government was approaching bankruptcy.
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Until food production could catch up with the increasing population, prices, especially those of the staple food, bread, continued to rise. Hamilton's theory pointed to evidence of agricultural price growth, slow nonagricultural price growth and poor timing (of the specie outflow to the East) as tangible evidence of the failure to fix prices and feed the growing populace. Hamilton also pointed to monopolistic and other non-competitive techniques as the typical pricing behavior for European products and factor markets of the period.
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In addition to these fish species, Somenos Lake and associated marsh habitats are an important winter refuge for numerous specie of ducks, geese and swans. Of particular interest to conservation is the large number of Trumpeter Swans (Cygnus buccinator) that arrive at Somenos Lake in October and remain until early April. During the past two decades Somenos Lake has been subject to persistent cyanobacteria blooms during the summers. These blooms render the lake unsuitable for human uses like swimming, canoeing and birding.
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Reed, p. 298. In late 1861, to help finance the Civil War, the U.S. government borrowed gold coin from New York City banks in exchange for Seven-thirties treasury notesMitchell, 1903, pp. 27–32. and the New York banks sold them to the public for gold to repay the loan. In December 1861, the Trent Affair shook public confidence with the threat of war on a second front. The United States Department of the Treasury suspended specie paymentsMitchell, 1902, p. 537.
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The first complete edition – consisting of all five beforementioned books, and dialogues entitled: De utraque specie Coenae Domini ('On the twofold nature of the Lord's Table') – was published in 1554 in Basel by Johannes Oporinus, after which Modrzewski was forced to leave the capital. The first Polish translation by Cyprian Bazylik was published in Łosk in 1577. The book was widely read and praised across Renaissance Europe. It was translated into German, French, Spanish, and Russian in the 17th century.
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Harlequin had captured an American ship (under Swedish colours) sailing from Cape François, St. Domingo, (present day Cap-Haïtien) to Philadelphia with a cargo of coffee and sugar. On 7 November Coghlan captured the one-gun Spanish letter of marque schooner Posta de Caracas. She was sailing from Campeche in Yucatan, Mexico, to Havana with a cargo of leather and rope and twenty-four thousand dollars in specie. During the chase she threw overboard the mails she was carrying and her gun.
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Roberto De Mattei A sinistra di Lutero: sette e movimenti religiosi nell'Europa del '500 1999 "Il gruppo manifestò la sua consistenza nel sinodo di Venezia del settembre 1550, una specie di concilio che rappresenta ... Aveva partecipato al concilio di Venezia e aveva quindi percorso come "ministro" l'Italia centro- settentrionale," The exact attendance list is unknown, since the conclusions were published anonymously, but various significant figures were likely to have been among the sixty. Among the names suggested is Celio Secondo Curione.
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As for the accuracy of the narrative, Marina considers that it needs to serve the imagination: "I am interested in scientific writing at the level of speculation and invention."elmundo.es/cultura/2014/03/10/531d8b73268e3ed82f8b4571.html In her books miscegenation between good and evil, men and women, animals and people is commonly used. Marina says that the best creation is when you take the best of each specie or object and create a perfect fusion, following some guidelines and not randomly.
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Twice Nelson was nearly cut down and both times his life was saved by a seaman named John Sykes who took the blows and was badly wounded. The British raiding force captured the Spanish boat and towed her back to Theseus.Reports of the attack from Jervis and Nelson. During this period Nelson developed a scheme to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife, aiming to seize a large quantity of specie from the treasure ship Principe de Asturias, which was reported to have recently arrived.
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The Court instructed the jury that whatever amount they awarded could be paid with legal tender notes of the United States. Mr. Knox appealed, as he contended that this instruction was equivalent to telling the jury to add a premium for the discount of paper currency relative to specie. The case of Parker v. Davis was resolved in the same decision where Davis wished to compel specific performance requiring Parker to convey a lot to Davis in return for payment of money.
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Roman Republic denarius, depicting Vacuna Vacuna was an ancient Sabine goddess, identified by ancient Roman sources and later scholars with numerous other goddesses, including Ceres, Diana, Nike, Minerva, Bellona, Venus and Victoria. She was mainly worshipped at a sanctuary near Horace's villa (now in the commune of Licenza), in sacred woods at Reate, and at Rome. The protection she was asked to provide remains obscure. Pomponius Porphyrion calls her incerta specie (of an uncertain kind) in his commentaries on Horace.
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They claimed the bank was more likely to loan money to a farmer with assets than to private enterprises.Dunn, p. 447–448 The Free Bankers were dominant at the 1851 Constitutional Convention and instituted clauses that would end the state bank and authorize other banks to begin operating in Indiana, ending the bank's monopoly. Many of the competing banks lost solvency in the Panic of 1857, but the bank of Indiana remained strong and did not require the suspension of specie payment.
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Some of her boats washed away. A boat set out for the mainland to seek help, leaving survivors on the reef. After 14 days they were rescued by the whaler Lady Blackwood. The other boat eventually made Double Island Bay, but when the occupants set out overland for Moreton Bay they were tracked down by aborigines and all but the captain and one seaman were killed. When lost, Thomas King carried 3,500 pounds of specie and 8,000 pounds of gold dust.
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Amazon was the first of the five sister ships to enter service. In December 1851 she reached Southampton to prepare for her maiden voyage. She carried 1,000 tons of coal for her bunkers and loaded several hundred tons of cargo. Her strong room contained 500 bottles of mercury for use in the production of mining explosive in Mexico and £20,000-worth of specie. The mercury was worth over £5,000 and the total value of the cargo was estimated at about £100,000.
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The situation was exacerbated by the B.U.S. under Bank President William Jones through fraud and the rapid emission of paper money. He eventually began to call in loans, but nonetheless was removed by the Bank's directors. Langdon Cheves, who replaced Jones as president, worsened the situation by reducing the Bank's liabilities by more than half, lessening the value of Bank notes, and more than tripling the Bank's specie held in reserve. As a result, the prices of American goods abroad collapsed.
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Side view Megalomus tortricoides can reach a body length of approximately , with a wingspan of .De Sancti Petri Fabrica per il riconoscimento dei Neuropterida adulti (specie) e stadi preimmaginali (quando va bene, generi, se non famiglie) dell’area geografica ± europea Naturspaziergang In Megalomus tortricoides the head and the body are glossy, black or brown black. Antennae are mostly dark brown. The membrane of the forewings is distinctly spotted, a recurrent vein is present and the radial sector shows at least five ribs.
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Culberson served in the United States House of Representatives from 1875–1897, supporting prohibition and opposing federal interference in state government. In 1876, he favored the repeal of the Specie Act, and in 1888 he introduced antitrust legislation in Congress. He represented both the 2nd and later the 4th district and served as Chairman of the Judiciary Committee. Though in many ways, a populist himself, Culberson campaigned against the Populist Party which was quite strong in Texas in the 1890s.
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In the late 1760s, tensions between Piedmont farmers and county officers welled up in the Regulator movement, which had its strongest support in Hillsborough. With specie scarce, many inland farmers found themselves unable to pay their taxes and resented the consequent seizure of their property. Local sheriffs sometimes kept taxes for their own gain and sometimes charged twice for the same tax. Governor William Tryon's conspicuous consumption in the construction of a new governor's mansion at New Bern exacerbated the movement's resentment.
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From left to right: The Peace Hotel, Old Bank of China Building (second building) and Yokohama Specie Bank Building The Bank of China Building is a tower located at No. 23 on the Bund, in Shanghai, People's Republic of China. Previously the headquarters of the Bank of China, it now houses the Shanghai Branch of the Bank of China. It was built on the site of the old German Club (c. 1907). It housed the headquarters of the Bank of China.
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A branch office was opened in Kobe later the same year. In 1884 the bank was appointed by the Ministry of Finance to manage Japan's foreign exchange. A branch office in London was opened in December. In July 1887, the government promulgated the Yokohama Specie Bank Ordinance, which stipulated that branch offices be established everywhere that was regarded as important to Japanese foreign trade and authorized that an administrator from the Ministry of Finance would be assigned to monitor the bank's operations.
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The brownspotted wrasse is a relatively large species of wrasse with specimens measuring up to in standard length. The males of this specie have a dark brown or greyish brown background colour, with an interrupted horizontal white band running the length of the body. They also have gold or brown markings on their scales. The females and juveniles are a lighter shade of brown than the males or may be greenish, with white blotches on scales, and grey and brown barring across body.
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In the decade before the Clearing House was founded, banking had become increasingly complex. From 1849 to 1853 –years highlighted by the California gold rush and construction of a national railroad system–the number of New York banks increased from 24 to 57. Settlement procedures were unsophisticated, with banks settling their accounts by employing porters to travel from bank to bank to exchange checks for bags of coin, or “specie.” As the number of banks grew, exchanges became a daily event.
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Lieutenant Henry Smithwick then sailed Tays yawl to the mainland in search of help. On 18 November the Spanish guarda costa Valencey, Captain Varines, arrived, together with the schooner Zaragozana. After the Spaniards had verified that all the crew were safely on the island, they proceeded to demand, at gunpoint, that Captain Roberts and his crew surrender and deliver over their arms and any specie on board Tay. Roberts surrendered, declaring he and his men "prisoners of war", a status the Spaniards acknowledged.
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Twigleg, and his eleven other Homunculus brothers, were made as Nettlebrand's caretakers. When the Silver Dragons went into hiding, Nettlebrand killed the alchemist and eventually ate all of Twigleg's brothers, then went hunting on his own. Zubeida showed Firedrake not only the tomb of the original Dragon Rider, but also a specie of flower which collects moonlight in the form of dewdrops on its leaves. Having drunk this "moon-dew", Firedrake is able to fly even if there's no moon at all.
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UPMA is also distinct in their exclusive use of Specie Legal Tender. This niche family of precious metals comprises American Gold/Silver Eagles and Gold Buffalo Coins. Essentially, if a coin is made of gold or silver and has the word "Dollar" on it, you can keep it in a UPMA account. Unlike bullion coins, bars or chips, these coins are considered legal money by the Federal Government, and therefore do not generate a capital gain when used as a medium of exchange.
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Although they lacked the minimum capital needed to found the bank, they persuaded the government to subscribe for a quarter of its shares. During the 1830s, a third of the bank's board were Legislative or Executive Councillors, and the remaining all magistrates. Despite repeated attempts, the elected Legislature - which had chartered the bank - could obtain no details about the bank's workings. Mackenzie saw the bank as a prop of the Government and demanded farmers withdraw their support from it, by withdrawing their specie.
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Rook also received a share, with many other ships in the British fleet at Copenhagen in August–September 1807, of the prize money for the capture of Odifiord and Benedicta (4 and 12 September). In 1808 Lieutenant James Lawrence took command of Rook. On 28 June, under orders from Admiral Young, she set sail from Plymouth in England to the West Indies. After refitting and taking on specie, on 13 August she left Port-Royal (Jamaica) for Britain with despatches.
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In 1810 James Auchie & Co., London, sued their insurers for six cases of specie, each containing $2000, carried in Rook and consigned to the company. However, as Lawrence had signed the Bill of Lading "contents unknown" and as there was no other evidence beyond some notations in the margin of the bill, the judge dismissed the suit.Taunton, William Pyle. Reports of cases argued and determined in the Court of common pleas, and other courts, from Michaelmas term, 48 Geo. III.
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This section opens by stressing the important influence of the stars before it deals with topics concerning human sexual intercourse. The book then moves onto the topics of conception and birth, and the author then explores the physical signs of pregnancy. The final two chapters of this section deal with animals; the penultimate chapter focuses on "animals in genere et in specie" (i.e. in regards to genus and species), while the final details an idiosyncratic system for differentiating the various types of animals.
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After the close of the session, Sherman returned to Ohio to campaign for the Republican nominee for governor there, former governor Rutherford B. Hayes. The issue of specie payments was debated in the campaign, with Hayes endorsing Sherman's position and his Democratic opponent, incumbent Governor William Allen, in favor of increased circulation of greenbacks redeemable in bonds. Hayes won a narrow victory and was soon mentioned as a possible presidential candidate in 1876. The controversy over resumption carried into the presidential election.
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By once more pledging the 1836 surplus and raising the interest rate on the bonds from 6 to 7 percent, they were able to sell all the securities. The 1843 bond sale greatly stabilized the finances of the Canal Fund Commission and the state of Ohio. Canal Fund Commission checks, which were trading (but still not being cashed) at a 40 to 50 percent discount, now rose almost to par. Contractors began to be paid in specie- paying bank notes.
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Former Bank of Tokyo headquarters, now The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ Nihonbashi Branch (MUFG Plaza) was a Japanese foreign exchange bank that operated from 1946 to 1996. In January 1996, it merged with Mitsubishi Bank to form The Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi (now MUFG Bank). Its headquarters was in the Nihonbashi district of Tokyo, adjacent to the Bank of Japan. BOT was the successor to the Yokohama Specie Bank, a state-chartered foreign exchange bank, and initially operated as an ordinary bank using the YSB's assets.
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He was the son of Anthony Francis Haldimand (1741–1817), a London merchant, nephew and heir of Sir Frederick Haldimand. He was one of twelve children, most of whom died young, and was born in London 9 September 1784. At sixteen he entered his father's counting-house, showed talent for business, and at twenty-five became a director of the Bank of England. Haldimand was an advocate of the resumption of specie payments, and gave evidence in the parliamentary inquiry which led to the act of 1819.
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Aurobindo foresaw that a Power of Consciousness will eventually work a collective transformation in human beings, inviting us as a specie then to actually be able to form and sustain societies of liberté, égalité, fraternité.Zaehner, Evolution in Religion (1971). The Power of Consciousness is also called the divine "descent of the 'Supermind'," a spirit of pure consciousness. Otherwise, without such a divine transformation of selfish humans, Aurobindo considered any utopia impossible, and that promised by communists as a vain illusion leading to tyranny (pp.
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While Madison presided over the implementation of new legislation, Secretary of the Treasury Dallas reorganized the Treasury Department, brought the government budget back into surplus, and put the nation back on the specie system that relied on gold and silver.Raymond Walters Jr, "The origins of the Second Bank of the United States." Journal of Political Economy 53.2 (1945): 115-131. online In 1816, pensions were extended to orphans and widows of the War of 1812 for a period of 5 years at the rate of half pay.
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The Panic of 1857 began in the middle of that year, ushered in by the sequential collapse of fourteen hundred state banks and five thousand businesses. While the South escaped largely unscathed, Northern cities saw numerous unemployed men and women take to the streets to beg. Reflecting his Jacksonian background, Buchanan's response was "reform not relief". While the government was "without the power to extend relief", it would continue to pay its debts in specie, and while it would not curtail public works, none would be added.
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Viktor E. Frankl, in Man's Search for Meaning, wrote: > It is a peculiarity of man that he can only live by looking to the > future—sub specie aeternitatis.Man's Search for Meaning by Viktor E. Frankl. > 1946. p. 94. Dietrich Bonhoeffer wrote: > From all this it now follows that the content of ethical problems can never > be discussed in a Christian light; the possibility of erecting generally > valid principles simply does not exist, because each moment, lived in God’s > sight, can bring an unexpected decision.
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On September 5, 1795, American negotiator Joseph Donaldson signed a peace treaty with the Dey of Algiers, that included an upfront payment of $642,500 in specie (silver coinage) for peace, the release of American captives, expenses, and various gifts for the Dey's royal court and family. An additional indefinite yearly tribute of $21,600 in shipbuilding supplies and ammunition would be given to the Dey. The treaty, designed to prevent further piracy, resulted in the release of 115 American sailors held captive by the Dey.
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American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House. New York: Random House, 2009 (279). At the close of the Jackson presidency, Benton led a successful "expungement campaign" in 1837 to remove the censure motion from the official record.Meacham, Jon. American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House. New York: Random House, 2009 (335–337). Benton was an unflagging advocate for "hard money", that is gold coin (specie) or bullion as money—as opposed to paper money "backed" by gold as in a "gold standard". "Soft" (i.e.
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Galium noricum is a species of flowering plant in the family Rubiaceae. It is native to the eastern Alps of Austria, Slovenia, Bavaria and northern Italy (Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia). The species is named for the ancient Roman Province of Noricum, which included most of present-day Austria and much of Slovenia.Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant FamiliesAltervista Flora Italiana, Caglio noricoActa Plantarum, Indice dei nomi delle specie botaniche presenti in Italia Galium noricum is a small plant with shiny green leaves and cream-colored flowers.
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Clark helped organize the Whig Party in Kentucky, and as a reward, he was chosen as the party's nominee for governor in 1836. He won the canvass, defeating Democrat Matthew Flournoy 38,587 to 30,491. In his first address to the legislature, he outlined an ambitious agenda of reforms, including the establishing a public school system, strengthening the office of state auditor, and combating an increase in crime. Believing that banks should be held to their responsibilities, he insisted that the state banks not suspend specie payments.
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Card money (French Louisiana colony) Between 1716 and 1720, John Law and his privately held (French government backed) Banque Royale issued paper currency in colonial French Louisiana far in excess of the reserve set aside to back these issues. When investors attempted to redeem notes for specie, the bank stopped payment. The "Mississippi Bubble" began to burst in May 1720, when Banque Royale notes were depreciated by 50% followed by a financial crisis in France. For nearly 18 months there was no official circulating currency.
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On 26 September, in company with , Romulus captured an enemy ship, Aballata, loaded with specie. She took another prize in January the following year, and a further vessel in July 1796. Romulus was also in sight when captured the Danish ship, Concordia on 27 February 1796, and was therefore entitled to a share of the spoils. In January 1797, Romulus assisted in the evacuation of the island of Elba along with under Commodore Nelson, the frigates, and ; the storeships Dromedary and , and two sloops.
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Germany and republican China, William C. Kirby 1984, p143, accessed September 2009 Throughout this period about half the value of the issued notes was backed by specie reserves. The notes issued were in five denominations, one hundred, ten, five and one yuan and five chiao (one-half yuan), and typically depicted Qing dynasty rulers of China on the obverse. To keep up with the inflationary pressures typically experienced by Japanese-controlled areas towards the end of World War II, a 1,000 yuan note was issued in 1944.
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113 Crittenden maintained that the tabling of the resolution was a condemnation by the Senate, yet the administration issued the circular only months later, overstepping, as Crittenden saw it, the bounds of the executive branch's authority.Kirwan, p. 114 Crittenden debated the issue at length with Senator Benton, and Congress ultimately passed a bill requiring the government to accept the notes of specie-paying banks for the purchase of government lands, but President Jackson employed his pocket veto to prevent it from becoming law.Kirwan, p.
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The American Numismatic Association (ANA) is an organization founded in 1891 by George F. Heath. Located in Colorado Springs, Colorado, it was formed to advance the knowledge of numismatics (the study of specie) along educational, historical, and scientific lines, as well as to enhance interest in the hobby. The ANA has more than 24,000 individual members who receive many benefits, such as discounts, access to website features, and the monthly journal The Numismatist. The ANA's Colorado Springs headquarters houses its administrative offices, library, and money museum.
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The vowel represented by ie in words spelled cie is rarely the "long e" vowel of FLEECE (), so few words are exceptions to the version of the rule restricted to that sound. Among them are specie, species. For those with happy-tensing accents, the final y in words ending -cy has the FLEECE vowel, and therefore so do inflected forms ending -cies or -cied (fancied, policies, etc.). If the vowel of NEAR () is considered as "long e", then words ending -cier may also be exceptions.
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Dyer's mother, Lucy Jones Brown, was born November 25, 1822, daughter of Cyrus and Rebecca (Tyler) Jones. During the War of 1812, Cyrus Jones, Dyer's maternal grandfather, helped to defend Portland, Maine. He also carried a load of specie in a four-ox team in the winter time from Portland to Canada for the government. On September 2, 1817, he was commissioned by Governor John Brooks, Captain of a company in the Third Regiment of Infantry, First Brigade, Twelfth Division, of the militia of Massachusetts.
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The two men also argued over the distribution of $18,000 in specie that had been found in Santa Anna's treasure chest. Burnet insisted that the money should go to the Texas treasury, but Houston had already given $3,000 to the Texas Navy and distributed the rest among his men. Santa Anna, in his distrust of civil government, had requested that he be allowed to negotiate a treaty with Houston. His request was rejected, and Burnet took him into custody, first to Galveston Island and then to Velasco.
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In December 1790, Hamilton called for the creation of the Bank of the United States, and in February 1791 President George Washington signed the charter allowing it to open. Investors paid $25 for a stock, called a scrip, and were required to make three additional payments in six-month intervals totaling $375. These payments were to be 25% in specie and 75% in US debt securities.Cowan, Sylla & Wright "Alexander Hamilton, Central Banker: Crisis Management During the US Financial Panic of 1792," Business History Review, Vol.
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The species appeared very rarely in trade; even less frequently after the almost entire destruction of its habitat. Most of the fish, distributed among hobbyist, go back to a few private imports. Because of the risk of confusion with the frequently traded specie of the bintan-group (spec. “blue line” etc.), fish labelled as “harveyi” should be examined more closely. On the other hand, it has real harveyi may have been traded under the wrong appellation “deissneri” (probably from captive breeding in the hobby).
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First edition published 1841, second edition 1852 to attract capital. Law's pioneering note-issuing bank thrived until the French government was forced to admit that the number of paper notes being issued by the Banque Royale exceeded the value of the amount of metal coinage it held. The "bubble" burst at the end of 1720, when opponents of the financier attempted to convert their notes into specie (gold and silver) en masse, forcing the bank to stop payment on its paper notes.Davies, Roy and Davies, Glyn.
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Esox cisalpinus was distinguished from Esox lucius (northern pike) and described scientifically as a new species in 2011 independently by two research groups. The description by Bianco & Delmastro was printed earlier,Bianco, P. G. & Delmastro, G. B. (2011): Recenti novità tassonomiche riguardanti i pesci d’acqua dolce autoctoni in Italia e descrizione di una nuova specie di luccio. Researches on Wildlife Conservation (IGF publ.), 2 (suppl.): 1–13. PDF and the name Esox cisalpinus is therefore accepted, whereas the alternative name published somewhat later by Lucentini et al.
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The pheromone signal laid down by Trigona spinipes have been found, surprisingly, to be a deterrent to the more dominant stingless bee species Trigona hyalinata. The reason for this is not clear, but it is hypothesized that the dominant specie wants to avoid costs and injuries associated with seizing a food source from Trigona spinipes rather than finding its own source. Trigona hyalinata are attracted to food sources with fewer Trigona spinipes foragers, because they can easily overpower a small number of their competitors.
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It is important to monitored properly the plants because they are one of the best bioindicators of how climate changes is affecting the planet. Flowering phenology is one of the most important features of plant in order to survive any type of adversity. Thanks to different modern techniques and constant monitoring we can assure which ecological strategy the plants are using in order to multiply their specie. In alpine meadow of the eastern Tibet notorious variances and similarities were observed between annual and perennial plants.
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Le Tourneau, The Almohad Movement (1969) pp. 28–29.His writing are contained in Le Livre de Mohammed Ibn Toumert [The Book of M. ibn Tumart], edited by Jean–Dominique Luciani (Algiers 1903), introduced by Ignaz Goldziher. Ibn Tumart created a hierarchy from among his followers which persisted long after the Almohad era (i.e., in Tunisia under the Hafsids), based not only on a specie of ethnic loyalty,"Every member of the community had to belong to a tribe" under the control of their chief.
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After seizing and appropriating the bullion reserves stored at the facilities, the Confederate Treasury, led by C. G. Memminger, determined that the cost of minting coins far outweighed the benefits. Circulating specie would be virtually nonexistent in the Confederacy throughout the entirety of the war. A wide variety of local token and scrip would attempt to fill this void, to little avail. In late April 1861, four Confederate half dollars were struck on a hand press by certain employees of the New Orleans Mint.
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He obtained funding for a survey of public lands in Oregon and got the headquarters of the Columbia military department moved to Oregon.History of Oregon, Illustrated biographical, Vol. II, Charles Henry Carey, The Pioneer Historical Publishing Company, Chicago-Portland, 1922, p. 307 with corrections by hand by Henry W. Corbett's grandson Elliott R. Corbett in possession his grandson W. I. Macadam The bill he introduced for the return of specie payment (coinage rather than paper money) did not get through Congress but was notably later adopted.
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However, Quebec was constantly faced with a trade imbalance, debt, and a certain amount of financial insecurity. As with other colonial societies, there was little hard money throughout the colony. To merchants in Quebec, such a situation proved a particular challenge, as they lacked hard specie, or currency, with which to trade. At one point, the colony began the use of playing cards as money in order to reimburse soldiers and other government employees for services rendered when shipments of hard currency failed to arrive.
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Appleton and his allies then paid individuals called "runners" to travel throughout the country, turning in to the issuing institutions the bank notes the Boston merchants had accepted as payment for goods and services and demanding payment in specie. When the banks proved unable to redeem their paper currency, they collapsed.Robert Charles Winthrop, Memoir of the Hon. Nathan Appleton, LL.D., 1861, pages 40 to 42 By 1809 the extent of Dexter's fraud became widely known, and his wife and he fled to Nova Scotia to avoid prosecution.
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When the nation fell into a depression after the Panic of 1873, Congress responded by passing Bill S.617, dubbed the "inflation bill," that would add $400 million greenbacks (paper currency) into circulation. The bill also advanced an equivalent amount of specie-backed moneys. Both houses overwhelming approved the bill, believing it would bring relief, to a cash depleted nation, expecting Grant, to quickly sign it. Grant however, contemplated that matter and discussed it with his cabinet, having received the bill on April 14, 1874.
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Increased Treasury cash balances, continued issuance of national bank notes, and capital outflows together depreciated the currency. These factors further caused a reduction in reserves held by monetary institutions because higher prices increased domestic demand for currency. Reserves held by banks were insufficient to be able to meet seasonal demands in autumn of 1873 as greenback reserves declined from $34 million in September 1873 to $5 million in October 1873. Tensions surrounding the Panic of 1873 between creditors and debtors revived the specie payment resumption debate.
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Cries of "Rescind the circular!" went up and former President Jackson sent word to Van Buren asking him not to rescind the order. Jackson believed that it had to be given enough time to work. Lobbying efforts, especially by bankers, increased in Washington in an attempt to revoke the Specie Circular. Others, like Nicholas Biddle, believed that Jackson's defeat of the Second Bank of the United States was directly responsible for the irresponsible creation of paper money by the state banks which had precipitated this crisis.
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Despite disruptions to supply from the Union blockades, advertisements indicate at least occasional availability of staples, such as sugar, coffee, and soap; clothing, including pants, shirts, and footwear; and building supplies, like brick, and even milled pine.Levengood (April 1998), pp. 414–415. However, the supply of goods was not consistent, and there were periodic shortages of some staples, causing hyperflation and the need to find substitute goods, such as flavoring hot drinks with okra seeds in place of coffee. Specie was in short supply throughout the war.
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A fundamental cause of the Panic of 1837 was depletion of Mexican silver mines. Despite the deflation and depression, GDP rose 16 percent from 1839 to 1843, partly because of rapid population growth. In order to dampen speculation in land, Andrew Jackson signed the executive order known as the Specie Circular in 1836, requiring sale of government land to be paid in gold and silver. Branch mints at New Orleans; Dahlonega, Georgia; and Charlotte, North Carolina, were authorized by congress in 1835 and became operational in 1838.
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While returning to Louisiana in 1782, his two ships and crew were captured by the British and sent to Kingston, Jamaica, where St. Maxent was held under house arrest and his men put in prison. They obtained lenient treatment through bribes. The revolutionary war ended with the Treaty of Paris (1783), and St. Maxent's fortunes quickly soured. One of the British benefactors was arrested in Havana, St. Maxent was implicated in smuggling specie (gold), and the Spanish revoked his titles and embargoed his property.
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The period of good economic conditions ended with the onset of the Panic of 1837. Jackson's Specie Circular, albeit designed to reduce speculation and stabilize the economy, left many investors unable to afford to pay loans in gold and silver. The same year there was a downturn in Great Britain's economy, resulting in decreased foreign investment in the United States. As a result, the U.S. economy went into a depression, banks became insolvent, the national debt increased, business failures rose, cotton prices dropped, and unemployment dramatically increased.
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Four large Spanish ships came out from Vigo but then retreated when the three British frigates made ready to receive them. Alcmene had one man killed and nine wounded, and Triton had one man wounded; had two men killed and eight men wounded. The vessel that Ethalion captured turned out to be Thetis, under the command of Captain Don Juan de Mendoza. She was homeward- bound from Vera Cruz (Mexico) with a cargo of cocoa, cochineal, and sugar, and more importantly, specie worth 1,385,292 Spanish dollars (£312,000).
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The Panic of 1837 was a detrimental blow to James Petigru’s financial affairs. He had invested heavily in Mississippi’s speculated land market, and the new requirement of gold specie backing forced him to sell, among other items, his land holdings, his rice plantation, and most of his 137 slaves. Payments to creditors took almost the entirety of his wealth, and left him with only his home and his law office. Because of these dramatic losses Sue’s mother, Jane Amelia, pushed both daughters to marry for wealth.
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In the years following the passage of the Old Deluder Satan Law, Dedham was occasionally fined for not spending enough money of its school but, for the most part, the appropriations to the school were generous. The schoolmaster's salary was initially set at £20 and was raised in 1695 to £25 pounds. As there was little specie in the colony at the time, salaries were instead paid in wheat and corn. Michael Metcalf, for example, received five pounds of each crop at every six months.
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He also implemented a number of unpopular reforms at the request of the proprietor. Export of tobacco was limited to high-quality cask tobacco more easily produced by large landholders. In addition, Calvert had ordered that all future tax payments were to be made in specie rather than in tobacco. When news reached the colony that the King had been deposed, Joseph attempted to maintain control by asking planters to turn in their weapons and temporarily cancelling the meeting of the colonial assembly scheduled for April.
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As early as 1835, Shipherd envisioned a series of Oberlin-like schools, proceeding westward. He first tried to establish the Grand River Seminary just west of Lansing, Michigan, along with several members of the Oberlin colony. In June 1836, Shipherd issued an announcement of the new institution, together with a plea for financial aid. Caught between President Jackson's "Specie Circular" that required payment for government lands with gold and the Panic of 1837, Shipherd's New York supporters could not pay their pledges and the effort failed.
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Gilbert Ryle wrote a critical yet positive review of Being and Time. Ludwig Wittgenstein made a remark recorded by Friedrich Waismann: "To be sure, I can imagine what Heidegger means by being and anxiety"Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle: Conversations Recorded by Friedrich Waismann, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1979, p. 68 which has been construed by some commentatorsJames Luchte, ‘Under the Aspect of Time ("sub specie temporis"): Heidegger, Wittgenstein, and the Place of the Nothing,’ Philosophy Today, Volume 53, Number 2, 2009. as sympathetic to Heidegger's philosophical approach.
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The silver standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is a fixed weight of silver. The silver specie standard was widespread from the fall of the Byzantine Empire until the 19th century. Following the discovery in the 16th century of large deposits of silver at the Cerro Rico in Potosí, Bolivia, an international silver standard came into existence in conjunction with the Spanish pieces of eight. These silver dollar coins played the role of an international trading currency for nearly four hundred years.
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Many "soft money" Democrats wanted Congress to repeal the Specie Payment Resumption Act and authorize the printing of more greenbacks, banknotes that had first been printed during the Civil War. The printing of more greenbacks would result in inflation and potentially benefit farmers by raising prices and helping them pay down their debts. Like most Republicans and "hard money" members of the conservative business establishment, Tilden believed that the termination of greenback circulation (which would return the country to the gold standard) was the best way to solve the ongoing economic crisis.
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The specie came from twelve Philippine banks emptied of their assets, absent the paper money, all of which had been burned to prevent it from falling into Japanese hands. She also loaded securities, mail, and United States Department of State dispatches before submerging shortly before daybreak to wait at the bottom in Manila Bay until the return of darkness. That evening, the submarine was loaded with more mail and securities before she was escorted to open water. Trout set a course for the East China Sea which she entered on 10 February.
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These policies all led to a humongous confusion over what should actually be done with the Hubu Guanpiao. Provincial governments refused to follow the stipulations set by the imperial Chinese government, provinces like Jiangsu and Zhejiang paid parts of their taxes using Hubu Guanpiao banknotes and the province of Fujian allowed them to be redeemed in silver specie within its borders.He Wenkai, Paths toward the Modern Fiscal State: England (1642–1752), Japan (1868–1895), and China (1850–1911) (Ph.D. dissertation, mit, 2007, Cambridge, Massachusetts - Harvard University Press, 2013), chapter 6.
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By 1859, the Panic began to level off, and the economy had begun to stabilize. President James Buchanan announced that the paper-money system seemed to be the root cause of the Panic and then decided to withdraw the usage of all bank notes under twenty dollars. He also "advised the State banks to break away from the banks [and urged] them to follow the example of the Federal Government." He felt that would decrease the paper money supply to allow the specie supply time to increase and to reduce inflation rates.
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This was a blow to the war effort and put Greene in a difficult tactical situation as he had been waiting the entire night for those men to launch a counter attack on the British. It quickly became clear to Steele that Greene was in need of aid. She gave him breakfast to help bolster his spirits. Once Steele learned of his current situation, she went into the backroom of her tavern and, upon her return, drew from under her apron two small bags full of specie, probably the earnings of a number of years.
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This compromise was still too much for the Eastern Democrats and Republicans who favored the gold standard, and the Banking Committee refused to approve the bill. Payne contrived to bypass his committee and bring the bill for a vote by the whole House, but it was voted down, 81 to 157. The House later passed a complete repeal of the Resumption Act, 133 to 120, but the Senate declined to take up the matter. Specie resumption remained the law of the land when the 44th Congress's term expired.
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The comfort women were paid for their work and many of them had individual savings accounts for their earnings.Choi Kilsong, 韓国の米軍慰安婦はなぜ生まれたのか (Tokyo: Hatoshuppan, 2014), 146-147. One of Mr. Park's regular duties was to deposit the comfort women's earnings, at their request, at the Yokohama Specie Bank or to remit their wages back to Korea. The diary notes that many military brothels in Burma and Singapore were operated by Koreans, though others were operated by Japanese or by locals.
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Palmer 1987, p. 201 Upon their return to Curaçao, the Americans discovered that Watkins had failed to keep his word, and instead of protecting American property, had embargoed forty-one ships in the harbor of which seven were American. The Nereid commander also impounded a large quantity of specie belonging to Consul Phillips and set privateers cruising with orders to seize American shipping. In his reports, Watkins completely ignored the assistance the Americans had provided in seizing the island and failed to even mention their presence during the action.
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Griswold that Congress could not require creditors to accept United States Notes, but overturned that ruling the next year in the Legal Tender Cases. In 1875, Congress passed the Specie Payment Resumption Act, requiring the Treasury to allow US Notes to be redeemed for gold after January 1, 1879. The Treasury ceased to issue United States Notes in 1971. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 abandoned the bimetallic standard and defined the dollar as of gold, equivalent to setting the price of 1 troy ounce of gold at $20.67.
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The increased importation of specie to Spain started in Central Europe around the beginning of the sixteenth century. According to Michael North (1994) central European silver output doubled between 1470 and 1520, and increased even more in the 1520s with the new mine of Joachimsthal. Also during this time the Spanish and Portuguese brought a large amount of gold from the New World to Europe. Starting in the 1540s a growing amount of silver was shipped to Europe from mines in Mexico and the Potosi mountain in Peru.
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Hymenaea mexicana is known from a series of fossil flowers and leaves which are inclusions in transparent chunks of Mexican amber. The species where the amber was also found in was in Brazil which could indicate where the specie Hymenaea mexicana could have been located as well. The specimens were collected over the course of twenty five years with a total of thirty amber specimens being examined for the description of the species. Mexican amber is recovered from fossil-bearing rocks in the Simojovel region of Chiapas, Mexico.
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The relief of Specific Performance is an equitable relief which is usually remedial or protective in nature. In the civil law (the law of continental Europe and much of the non English speaking world) specific performance is considered to be the basic right. Money damages are a kind of "substitute specific performance." Indeed, it has been proposed that substitute specific performance better explains the common law rules of contract as well, see (Steven Smith, Contract Law, Clarenden Law ). In English law, in principle reparation must be done in specie unless another remedy is ‘more appropriate’.
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The endangered population of Little Penguin is significant as the only population of this species which breeds on the mainland of NSW. The characteristics which have enabled this population to persist in one of the busiest commercial harbours in the world are important for scientific study. The endangered population of Long-nosed Bandicoot is also scientifically important as a remnant population of a specie which was formerly common and widespread in the Sydney region. The few remaining trees of Camfields Stringybark are a significant component of the entire genetic resource of this vulnerable species.
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The Roux du Valais is endangered, largely due to lack of interest in the breed in favor of faster growing breeds. It nearly became extinct in the 1980s, but a breeders association formed in 1994, The Swiss Breeding Association for Valais Rural Sheep, along with Pro Specie Rara, has helped improve the breed's genetics and seen its numbers rebound somewhat. The expansion of the breed into Romandie and German-speaking Switzerland has also helped its population increase. Still, there are estimated to be only about 1,000 Roux du Valais sheep left in the world.
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260 This led Cantillon to separate economic science from politics and ethics to a greater degree than previous mercantilist writers. This has led to disputes on whether Cantillon can justly be considered a mercantilist or one of the first anti-mercantilists,Brewer 1988; Thornton ; Thornton 2007 given that Cantillon often cited government-manipulated trade surpluses and specie accumulation as positive economic stimuli.Brewer 1988, p. 447 Others argue that in instances where Cantillon is thought to have supported certain mercantilist policies, he actually provided a more neutral analysis by explicitly stating possible limitations of mercantilist policies.
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Linderman strongly advocated a redemption law to relieve the glut of small coins: Henry Linderman (seen on the 1879 Assay medal) strongly objected to the government's refusal to redeem the three-cent nickel. In 1866, Treasury Department official John Jay Knox was sent to examine the San Francisco Mint. After his return to Washington, he submitted a report that recommended many changes to how the Mint did business, including reform of the base-metal coinage. Knox complained that the various enactments for non-specie coinage were "entirely disconnected and incongruous".
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Goh was born in 1927 a second-generation Singapore-born Hokkien Chinese to a family of five siblings. His father was a clerk in the Yokohama Specie Bank (the former Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank) at Clifford Pier while his mother was a housewife. Three generations had lived on 104 Telok Ayer Street for most of their lives, before relocating to River Valley Road. He had primary education at the Royal English School in the River Valley vicinity, and went on to the St. Joseph's Institution together with his eldest brother, Charlie Goh.
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Bank of China's Dalian Branch The colorful building at No. 9 Zhongshan Square, between Minsheng Street and Shanghai Road, is now Bank of China's Dalian Branch, together with the new main building on the back side, added in 2005, where the bank transactions are done mostly. It was built in 1909 as Dalian Branch of Yokohama Specie Bank (in ), designed by Tsumaki Yorinaka (in ) and his disciple, Satoshi Ōta (). It was used as the Soviet Union's Far East Bank from 1945 to 1955. The building's interior was massively changed in the 2005 renovation.
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Washington Irving records an emergency use of paper money by the Spanish for a siege during the Conquest of Granada (1482–1492). In 1661, Johan Palmstruch issued the first regular paper money in the West, by royal charter from the Kingdom of Sweden, through a new institution, the Bank of Stockholm. While this private paper currency was largely a failure, the Swedish parliament eventually assumed control of the issue of paper money in the country. By 1745, its paper money was inconvertible to specie, but acceptance was mandated by the government.
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By requiring all African men to pay a tax in Portuguese currency, the government created a situation in which a large percentage of men in any given year could only earn the specie needed to pay the tax by going to work for a colonial employer. In practice, this enabled settlers to use forced labor on a massive scale, frequently leading to horrific abuses. Following the Second World War, the colonial system was subject to growing dissatisfaction, and in the early 1950s the United Kingdom launched a process of decolonization. Belgium and France followed suit.
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There have been four significant periods of deflation in the United States. The first and most severe was during the depression in 1818–1821 when prices of agricultural commodities declined by almost 50%. A credit contraction caused by a financial crisis in England drained specie out of the U.S. The Bank of the United States also contracted its lending. The price of agricultural commodities fell by almost 50% from the high in 1815 to the low in 1821, and did not recover until the late 1830s, although to a significantly lower price level.
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In calm conditions, Maitland managed to drive off the Spanish brig Vivo but was forced to surrender soon afterwards to the frigate Carmen. In the hold the captors found a large cargo of specie that had inadvertently been left on board.James, p. 266 Between 10 and 12 July the combined fleet arrived at Cádiz, where the two ships left at Toulon rejoined the fleet although Censeur was discovered to be damaged beyond repair and so was transferred to the Spanish Navy, the French receiving the San Sebastian, renamed Alliance, in return.
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The legislature shall have no power to pass any act granting any special charter for banking purposes, or any special act to increase the capital stock of any chartered bank; but corporations may be formed for such purposes, or the capital stock of chartered banks may be increased, under general laws. The legislature shall provide by law for the registry of all notes or bills authorized by general laws to be issued or put in circulation as money; and shall require ample security for the redemption of such notes in specie.
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For a time, the Washington System was a system many in the West thought would be implemented. However, this never happened, partly due to wars, and, more importantly, due to the "Gold Franc Dispute", where some countries insisted that China pay its Boxer indemnity payments through gold specie instead of the Franc, which had by then depreciated in value,Arthur Waldron, From War to Nationalism: China's Turning Point, 1924–1925, 31–32. a demand that V. K. Wellington Koo rejected adamantly, leading to France refusing to ratify the treaties.
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In November 1878, Yoshihara accompanied Matsukata Masayoshi and Aoki Shuzo to Paris in another unsuccessful attempt at revision of the unequal treaties. On February 28, 1880, he was made a director of the Yokohama Specie Bank and also held the post of Vice-Finance Minister. With the creation of the Bank of Japan, per the recommendation of Matsukata Masayoshi, Yoshihara was selected as the 1st Governor of the Bank of Japan on October 6, 1882. During his tenure, he established the use of compound interest, promissory notes and bank checks.
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Toward the end of the nineteenth century, bimetallism became a center of political conflict. During the civil war, to finance the war the U.S. switched from bimetallism to a fiat currency, greenbacks. In 1873, the government passed the Fourth Coinage Act and soon resumed specie payments without the free and unlimited coinage of silver. This put the U.S. on a mono-metallic gold standard, angering the proponents of monetary silver, known as the silverites. They referred to this act as "The Crime of ’73", as it was judged to have inhibited inflation.
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This was the first major step towards the government essentially having a monopoly over the money supply. The act drastically altered American business. For decades, those who had accepted any form of payment as long as it was made of specie began to immediately only tolerate those newly minted with a fresh seal from the US government. Due to insatiable demand early on for the new federal cents and the profits to be made by collecting the foreign silver, many individuals, along with banks, competed with each other.
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Soon afterward, Jackson signed the Specie Circular, an executive order mandating that sales of public lands in parcels over 320 acres be paid for only in gold and silver coin. Both of these measures diverted precious metals from the Atlantic Coast to western regions, leaving the nation’s financial centers vulnerable to external shocks. Another major problem was that bountiful crop harvests in cotton from the United States, Egypt, and India created a supply glut. The resulting drop in the price of cotton precipitated much of the damage of the financial panic.
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44 Although there were increasing demands for banking services in the South Carolina interior in the 1820s, the state legislature rarely authorized the chartering of any new banks or the expansion of the BSSC which only had branches in Charleston, Georgetown, Camden, and Columbia at the time.Downey 2006 pp. 150-151Freehling 1965 p. 43 The President of the BSSC, Stephen Elliot, argued for innovative banking practices, such as breaking paper money away from specie, but in actuality he ran one of the most conservative banking institutions in the country.
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This money has to be paper; otherwise, a bank can only lend as much as it takes in and hence new currency cannot be created out of nothing. Paper money was therefore necessary to grow the economy. Banks making too many loans would print an excess of paper money and deflate the currency. This would lead to lenders demanding that the banks take back their devalued paper in exchange for specie, as well as debtors trying to pay off loans with the same deflated currency, seriously disrupting the economy.
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The Bank had largely recovered in the public eye since the Panic of 1819 and had grown to be accepted as a fact of life. Its role in managing the nation's fiscal affairs was central. The Bank printed much of the nation's paper money, which made it a target for supporters of hard money, while also restricting the activities of smaller banks, which created some resentment from those who wanted easy credit. As of 1830, the Bank had $50 million in specie in reserve, approximately half the value of its paper currency.
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The Panic of 1796–1797 was a series of downturns in credit markets in both Great Britain and the newly reestablished United States in 1796 that led to broader commercial downturns. In the U.S., problems first emerged when a land speculation bubble burst in 1796. The crisis deepened when the Bank of England suspended specie payments on February 25, 1797 under the Bank Restriction Act of 1797. The Bank's directors feared insolvency when English account holders, who were nervous about a possible French invasion, began withdrawing their deposits in sterling rather than bank notes.
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She returned to Japan after one year, leaving her husband (who was later assigned to the branch of the Yokohama Specie Bank in London) behind. The couple lived apart for most of their lives. After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake which devastated Tokyo and the surrounding Kantō region, Kujō sponsored various humanitarian efforts, which led to the reconstruction of the Tsukiji Hongan-ji temple, and the foundation of Asoka Hospital, one of Japan's first modern medical centers. Kujō was also a noted poet, having studied under Nobutsuna Sasaki.
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The Bank's notes were not required to be redeemable in specie. Due to worldwide fluctuations in the price of silver during the 1930s, Manchukuo took the yuan off a silver standard in 1935 and subsequently pegged the yuan to, and later reached approximate exchange parity with, the Japanese yen. Central Bank of Manchou 1 yuan (1932) The Bank initially issued approximately 150 million yuan in notes in 1932. By 1936, their aggregate value exceeded 200 million yuan, rising to 300 million in 1937, 400 million in 1938 and 620 million by the end of 1939.
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In the Taisho period, the Yokohama Specie Bank became one of the three major exchange banks in the world. The bank continued in its role as the paymaster for the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War and Pacific War, assisted by its widespread branch office network. Its assets in New York and Honolulu were seized by the United States government in 1941. In 1946, following the surrender of Japan, the bank was officially merged with the The Bank of Tokyo as part of anti-zaibatsu ordinances issued by the American occupation authorities.
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Treasure from Xerxes' campaign in mainland Greece was found and taken as well. Some statuary from Athens, such as the bronze statue of Harmodius and Haristogiton, "the Tyrant-slayers", was recovered by Alexander in Susa. Susa was the co-capital of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, but the "hoarding of specie" does illustrate the "shortsightedness of Achaemenid fiscal policy" according to C. J. Brunner. As Alexander was preparing to move into Persis, he left a garrison under the Macedonian Xenophilus (who replaced the Persian commandant Mazarus), and reconfirmed Abulites as satrap of Susania, "holding civil jurisdiction".
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The Treaty of Turkey Creek Prairie, unofficially called the Treaty of the Potawatomi, was signed March 26, 1836 between Mes-quaw-buck, a chief of the Potawatomi tribe of Native Americans, and the United States of America, represented by Abel C. Pepper. The accord originally contained six articles, with Article 6 stricken out by the Senate. The treaty ceded four sections of land on the Tippecanoe River, effective October 27, 1832. The United States paid the Chief and his band $2,560 "in specie at the next payment of annuity" once the treaty was ratified.
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As in the case of the United Kingdom, there was no return to a gold specie standard, but rather the introduction of a gold bullion standard. This once again formally locked the Australian pound to parity with the pound sterling. The return to the gold standard in association with its parity to the pound sterling, suddenly increased the Australian pound's value (imposed by the nominal gold price) which unleashed crushing deflationary pressures. Both the initial 1914 inflation and the subsequent 1926 deflation had far-reaching economic effects throughout the British Empire, Australia and the world.
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Late in 1861, seeking to raise revenue for the American Civil War effort without exhausting its reserves of gold and silver, the United States federal government suspended specie payments, or the payments made in gold and silver in redemption of currency notes. Early in 1862, the United States issued legal-tender notes, called greenbacks. By war's end, a total of $431 million in greenbacks had been issued, and authorization had been given for another $50 million in small denominations, known as fractional currency or "shin plasters." The issuance of greenbacks caused inflation during the period.
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However, in practice the effect was mild: the total quantity of greenbacks in circulation fell from $382 million at the end of 1874 to $300 million following the passage of the Resumption Act. The Resumption Act was hotly debated during the 1880 presidential election, with most western politicians opposed to it. Specie payments finally resumed during the presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes. Aided by the return of prosperity in 1877, Secretary of the Treasury John Sherman accumulated a gold reserve to be redeemed for existing greenbacks mostly from transactions with Europe.
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By 1895 the Yokohama Specie Bank opened a branch in Honolulu and the merchant importer/exporter Hackfeld & Co. went into banking. Following the annexation of Hawaii in July 1898, plans were set in motion to establish the First American Bank of Hawaii backed by investors in New York and California. A prospectus soliciting stock subscriptions was released on May 8, 1899, and the bank opened for business on September 5, 1899. The founding board of directors included Cecil Brown (President), B.F. Dillingham (Vice-President), M.P. Robinson, Bruce Cartwright, and G.W. Macfarlane.
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This fact should have been a great motivator for the foresters and officers in the region to look out for this species which till recently was thought to be extinct from India until its reappearance in Satpuda region in 1997. Search for this specie continues and avifauna lovers are much hopeful that one day, the elusive Forest Owlet reappears in the last remaining Teak patches in the forests of Khariar. Teak patches are favored by the Forest owlet. If that happens, that would be the biggest boost for the region including the cause of tiger.
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The price–specie flow mechanism is a model developed by Scottish economist David Hume (1711–1776) to illustrate how trade imbalances can self-correct and adjust under the gold standard. Hume expounded his argument in Of the Balance of Trade, which he wrote to counter the Mercantilist idea that a nation should strive for a positive balance of trade (i.e., greater exports than imports). In short, the "increase in domestic prices due to the gold inflow would discourage exports and encourage imports, thus automatically limiting the amount by which exports would exceed imports".
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The price–specie flow mechanism can also be applied to a state's entire balance of payments, which accounts not only for the value of net exports and similar transactions (i.e., the current account), but also the financial account, which accounts for flows of financial assets across countries, and the capital account, which accounts for non-market and other international transactions. But under a gold standard, transactions in the financial account would be conducted in gold—or currency convertible into gold—which would also affect the quantity of money in circulation.
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Torres plays on Anglo-American rivalry by arguing for the importance of establishing American over British commercial interests in this critical region, just as revolutionary agents in Britain suggested the opposite. Applying political economy, he observes that a country with a negative balance of trade—like the United States—needs a source of gold and silver specie—like South America—to stabilize its currency and economy. The political commentary is interwoven with practical advice to merchants, followed by conversion tables between currencies and units of measure. He momentarily returned to economics in April1818.
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As nearly everything in common use in New France had to be imported and purchased from France, the colony's export revenue fell far short of its expenditure on imported goods. (McLaghlan, 1911, p. 6). As a result, not only were funds hard to come by, but the scarcity of actual currency and coinage in New France created a persistent problem in daily transactions (Bank of Canada, 1966, p. 6). Typically, when short of funds, the government simply delayed paying merchants for their purchases until a fresh supply of specie arrived from France.
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With the financial crisis abated, many in Congress wanted the greenbacks to be withdrawn from circulation. The public had never seen greenbacks as equivalent to specie, and by 1866 they circulated at a considerable discount, although their value had risen since the end of the war. Hugh McCulloch, the Treasury Secretary under Lincoln and Johnson, believed the notes were an emergency measure only and thought they should be gradually withdrawn. McCulloch proposed a bill, the Contraction Act, to convert some of the greenbacks from notes redeemable in bonds to interest-bearing notes redeemable in coin.
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Still, Sherman (and others) desired an eventual return to a single circulating medium: gold. As he said in an 1874 speech, "a specie standard is the best and the only true standard of all values, recognized as such by all civilized nations of our generation". If greenbacks were not to be withdrawn from circulation, therefore, they must be made equal to the gold dollar. While Sherman stood against printing additional greenbacks, as late as 1872 he remained a proponent of keeping existing greenbacks backed by bonds in circulation.
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A species of woodlizard--Enyalioides binzayedi—was named after him as the creator of the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund that provided financial support to the expeditions leading to the discovery of the specie in the Cordillera Azul National Park in Peru. In 2017, a rare and majestic species of maple tree was named after him. Acer binzayedii is found in the mountainous cloud forest of Jalisco in Western México. He has pledged $15 billion towards the development of solar, wind, and hydrogen power technologies in his country.
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Smith argued that protecting particular producers would lead to inefficient production, and that a national hoarding of specie (i.e. cash in the form of coinage) would only increase prices, in an argument similar to that advanced by David Hume. His systematic treatment of how the exchange of goods, or a market, would create incentives to act in the general interest, became the basis of what was then called political economy and later economics. It was also the basis for a theory of law and government that gradually superseded the mercantilist regime then prevalent.
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These funds were quickly wasted, and since frontier Arkansas did not offer many services to its citizens, revenues from taxes and fees were incapable of supporting the state government. President Jackson's Specie Circular also hurt the state economy by forcing land purchases to be made with gold and silver rather than paper money. In addition to affecting private citizens who were land speculating, the policy stymied state revenues since Arkansas had been relying on the tax revenue from each land purchase as its primary source of income.Worley 1949, p. 184.
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Ambrosi was born to a family of herders in Borgo Valsugana, the present day Italian province of Trentinoat that time part of the (Princely) County of Tyrol, a crown land of the Austrian Empire. He was not able to attend school, but he pursued self-taught studies in the natural sciences, history, philosophy and, in particular, botany. He devoted himself to botany by studying under Francesco Angelo Facchini and Casimiro Sartorelli, focusing on the flora of the Trentino region. He published many scientific works, notably, in 1851, Prospetto delle specie zoologiche conosciute nel Trentino.
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1837 "Not One Cent for Tribute" token (HT#293) In 1832, President Andrew Jackson ran for re-election and called for the abolition of the Second Bank of the United States. While he won the election, he worked to weaken the bank before the charter expired in 1836. Without the Bank of the United States, state banks attempted to fill the paper money gap and issued a large number of bank notes, which fueled inflation. Hoping to halt the inflation and speculation in public lands, Jackson and his Treasury secretary, Levi Woodbury, issued the Specie Circular on July 11, 1836.
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I know no method to secure the repeal of > bad or obnoxious laws so effective as their stringent execution. Grant then went into the Civil War and reassured the American citizens that he would fight to retire the debt from the war. > A great debt has been contracted in securing to us and our posterity the > Union. The payment of this, principal and interest, as well as the return to > a specie basis as soon as it can be accomplished without material detriment > to the debtor class or to the country at large, must be provided for.
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James, Vol. 2, p. 346. Returning to Île de France with little to show for his three-month cruise, Lhermitte was intercepted off Port Louis by the blockade squadron of Adamant and at the Action of 11 December 1799 and Preneuse was driven onshore and destroyed.Clowes, p. 524. Sercey had already sent Brûle-Gueule back to France at the end of September with political prisoners from Île de France and more than a million in specie, the corvette eventually being wrecked with the loss of 132 lives on the Pointe du Raz on the Breton coast.Parkinson, p. 130.
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Fenella was designed to carry a mixture of passengers and cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail. A specified area was allocated for the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables). In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs and even motor cars. During early March 1900, there were several rumours spread throughout the Isle of Man concerning the possibility of a banking crisis, which ultimately led to a run on the Island’s banks.
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The Panic of 1837 was largely influenced by the monetary policies of U.S. President Andrew Jackson, including the executive order known as the Specie Circular, which required hard money for the purchase of federal land in the west, in addition to subsequent changes in banking policy. These resulted in widespread rising prices and bank failures. Within two months the losses from bank failures in New York alone aggregated nearly $100 million. Out of 850 banks in the United States, 343 closed entirely, 62 failed partially, and the system of State banks received a shock from which it never fully recovered.
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When U.S. President Andrew Jackson issued his Specie Circular of 1836 due to credit shortages, Virginia Scrip was accepted as payment for federal lands. In 19th-century Western Canada, the federal government devised a system of land grants called scrip. Notes in the form of money scrip (valued at $160 or $240) or land scrip, valued at or , were offered to Métis people in exchange for their Aboriginal rights."Free Land!" in Moving Here, Staying Here: The Canadian Immigrant Experience at Library and Archives Canada During the Great Depression, at the height of the crisis, many local governments paid employees in scrip.
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An adjective, "choice, select," used to denote the high quality required of sacrificial victims: "Victims (hostiae) are called 'select' (eximiae) because they are selected (eximantur) from the herd and designated for sacrifice, or because they are chosen on account of their choice (eximia) appearance as offerings to divine entities (numinibus)."Macrobius, Saturnalia III 5, 6, quoting a passage from Veranius, De pontificalibus quaestionibus: eximias dictas hostias quae ad sacrificium destinatae eximantur e grege, vel quod eximia specie quasi offerendae numinibus eligantur. The adjective here is synonymous with egregius, "chosen from the herd (grex, gregis)."F. SiniSua cuique civitati religio Torino 2001 p.
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A parliamentary writ of 23 November 1304 is addressed to Barton and Fitzwilliam, with two others, but their names do not appear in the later and greater commission for all the counties. He was appointed a commissioner to inquire as to a specie chest found on the Yorkshire coast and claimed as wreck by the king, and also in 8 Edward II to levy scutage in Yorkshire. In 24 Edward I Barton was summoned to military service against the Scots, and was on the commission of array for Yorkshire in 28 Edward I, and again in 31 Edward I.
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The process of adjustment of these imbalances relates to the price specie flow mechanism of the classical gold standard, which was smooth, in general, with exception of the Barings Crisis in 1890 for some countries. During the First World War, the participating countries abandoned gold convertibility, with exception of the United States. After the war, by 1926, the major countries got back to a gold standard, where the countries held reserves in dollars, sterling and francs, and the United States, Great Britain and France held gold. But this system had some serious flaws which prevented that the imbalances generated were adjusted smoothly.
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Wiese had a 22% shareholding in Steinhoff, the European component of which appears to have been subject to margin loans with different banks. In December 2017 Absa Bank and Investec Plc applied for the liquidation of Mayfair Speculators, when Mayfair's Steinhoff shares failed to provide sufficient collateral for its overdraft facilities. Absa, who was owed R350 million, expressed suspicion about R1.5 billion of assets that were transferred as a dividend in specie to Mayfair's holding company in August 2017. According to court documents, Mayfair owed Sanlam capital markets, Investec Plc and Absa more than R1.2 billion ($94 million) in total.
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Alden sent a party of two officers and 15 enlisted men aboard President Hoover to secure her specie vault, whose contents included registered mail and other valuables, and both destroyers sent landing parties ashore to restore order among the survivors. On 12 December at about 1500 hrs a Japanese cargo ship, Toriyama Maru, arrived to deliver food and other necessities to the survivors. On 13 December American Mail Line's President McKinley arrived offshore. On the morning of 14 December news reached Alden and Barker that two days earlier Japanese aircraft had sunk the US gunboat USS Panay in the Yangtze River near Nanjing.
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The studio set became her second top 5 album in Italy. Dolcenera was also a member of the supergroup Artisti Uniti per l'Abruzzo, which released the charity single "Domani 21/04.09", and she appeared as a featured artist on the Italian version of British rapper Professor Green's single "Read All About (Tutto quello che devi sapere)", included both in his album At Your Inconvenience and in Dolcenera's Evoluzione della specie². During her career Dolcenera appeared on the albums of other Italian recording artists, including Roberto Vecchioni, Claudio Baglioni and the progressive rock band Premiata Forneria Marconi.
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The failure of the Spanish to control the influx of gold and the price fluctuations of gold and silver from the American mines, combined with war expenditures, led to three bankruptcies of the Spanish monarchy by the end of the 16th century. In the 16th century, prices increased consistently throughout Western Europe, and by the end of the century prices reached levels three to four times higher than at the beginning. The annual inflation rate ranged from 1% to 1.5%. Since the monetary system of the 16th century was based on specie (mostly silver) this inflation rate was significant.
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Despite his loss, Polk was determined to become the next vice president of the United States, seeing it as a path to the presidency.Merry, pp. 43–44 Van Buren was the frontrunner for the 1844 Democratic nomination, and Polk engaged in a careful campaign to become his running mate.Merry, pp. 50–53 The former president faced opposition from Southerners who feared his views on slavery, while his handling of the Panic of 1837—he had refused to rescind the Specie Circular—aroused opposition from some in the West (today's Midwest) who believed his hard money policies had hurt their section of the country.
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Although the Bank was originally a private institution, by the end of the 18th century it was increasingly being regarded as a public authority with civic responsibility toward the upkeep of a healthy financial system. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was soon accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes, a charge which the Bank denied. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state.
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The proceeds would be distributed among owners and crew according to a contractual arrangement. Privateers were also authorized to attack an enemy's navy warships and then apply to the sponsoring government for direct monetary reward, usually gold or gold specie (coins). In the early days of the war, enthusiasm for The Confederacy was high, and many ship owners responded to the appeal by applying for letters of marque. Not all of those who gained authorization actually went to sea, but the numbers of privateers were high enough to be a major concern for US Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles.
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The traditional explanation, of unsecured loans extended to Edward III of England, is currently considered simplistic. In fact, several factors destabilized the network of trade. The war with Castruccio Castracane of Lucca bled Florentine specie to pay for mercenaries, while France and England went to war over Aquitaine, and the peasants of Flanders rose up in a revolt that was put down with the aid of mercenaries purchased with Peruzzi florins. Not all of the family fortunes were lost in the bankruptcy, and the Peruzzi continued to figure among the prominent families of Florence, the patrizii di Firenze.
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His writing style was characterized by simplicity, candor, and an extraordinary success in presenting statistics in a day when educated people did not understand percentages. He wrote The Relation of the Government to the Telegraph (1873); The Cremation Theory of Specie Resumption (1875); The Silver Question (1877); Why We Trade and How We Trade (1878); Our Merchant Marine (1882); A Primer of Tariff Reform (1884); Practical Economics (1885); Recent Economic Changes (1889), a major description and analysis of the national economy; Breakers Ahead: Cause of the Present Crisis (1896); and The Theory and Practice of Taxation (1900).
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Principe was armed with twenty-four 9-pounder guns and four swivels. Her crew of 160 men, under the command of Captain François Beck, were principally French. She had been out five weeks and had captured the packet Prince of Wales from Lisbon, and the letter of marque Lady Nelson, which had been sailing from Virginia to Glasgow. A number of Lady Nelsons crew were aboard Principe, as was a considerable amount of specie. Amazon was back in the Atlantic in 1806, this time as part of Sir John Borlase Warren’s pursuit of Jean-Baptiste Philibert Willaumez.
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By the 1740s the administrators of Fort de Chartres, in the Illinois Country, were using card money to pay their troops; the numismatist Harry Wigington suggests that the currency was introduced by administrators who had experience with similar notes in Canada or New Orleans. Known as Solde de Troupe notes, this card money did not have official government backing. Rather, it was authorized by the fort's commanders and applied by the guardians of its warehouse. These notes were discontinued when the British – who, by law, had to pay their soldiers in specie – assumed control of the fort in 1763.
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In 1801, he was named United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania and served in that capacity until 1814. His friend Albert Gallatin was Treasury Secretary when the War of 1812 began and Dallas helped Gallatin obtain funds to fight Britain. The war nearly bankrupted the federal government by the time Dallas replaced Gallatin as Treasury Secretary. Dallas reorganized the Treasury Department, brought the government budget back into surplus, championed the creation of the Second Bank of the United States, and put the nation back on the specie system based on gold and silver.
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The greatest threat to the survival of F. quadrangularis colonies is demersal fishing activities. This specie has very limited distribution that it is restricted to the deep basins, sensitivity to bottom fishing activities, and low resilience to physical disturbance which make them vulnerable to fishing activities. Trawling often happens at places where Norway lobsters and shrimps present; F. quadrangularisis a typical of essential habitat for these species. Since F. quadrangularishas a rigid axial rod that is unable to withdraw into the sediment unlike other UK sea pen species, bottom trawling would cause F. quadrangularissignificant physical disturbance.
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Commencing on 23 March 1887, the naval collection campaign raised more than ¥2 million by that September. Rich industrialists and aristocrats also provided large contributions: Prince Shimazu and Prince Mori, the former daimyōs of Satsuma and Chōshu, respectively, each donated ¥100,000; Iwasaki Yataro of Mitsubishi shipbuilding and his eldest son, Hisaya, each provided ¥50,000; Kawasaki Hachiroemon of Kawasaki banking and shipbuilding provided ¥50,000; and Hara Rokurō, president of the Yokohama Specie Bank, donated ¥50,000. These donations provided funds to cover purchases as well as the cost overruns associated with the construction of Kure and Sasebo naval stations.
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Today, the face value of specie and base-metal coins is set by government fiat, and it is only this value which must be legally accepted as payment for debt, in the jurisdiction of the government which declares the coin to be legal tender. The value of the precious metal in the coin may give it another value, but this varies over time. The value of the metal is subject to bilateral agreement, just as is the case with pure metals or commodities which had not been monetized by any government. As an example, gold and silver coins from other non-U.
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Episodes of deflation have been rare and brief since the Federal Reserve was created (a notable exception being the Great Depression) while U.S. economic progress has been unprecedented. A financial crisis in England in 1818 caused banks to call in loans and curtail new lending, draining specie out of the U.S. The Bank of the United States also reduced its lending. Prices for cotton and tobacco fell. The price of agricultural commodities also were pressured by a return of normal harvests following 1816, the year without a summer, that caused large scale famine and high agricultural prices.
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Jackson continued to denounce the "perfidy and treachery" of banks and urged his successor, Van Buren, to repudiate the Specie Circular as president. As a solution to the panic, he supported an Independent Treasury system, which was designed to hold the money balances of the government in the form of gold or silver and would be restricted from printing paper money so as to prevent further inflation. A coalition of conservative Democrats and Whigs opposed the bill, and it was not passed until 1840. During the delay, no effective remedy had been implemented for the depression.
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Farmers developed a clandestine cattle trade New York City, where such animals brought a high price in specie or in British notes rather than in questionable trouble paper. During most of the period from about 1777, the family of Pierre Van Cortlandt were absent from their home at Croton. Pierre first moved his family out of the Croton Manor House in 1776 to another family home, the Upper Manor House he built in Peekskill in 1756. However, by 1777, the Upper Manor House, too, had become an unsafe home for the family of one of the state's most prominent patriot officials.
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The policy has roots going back to the days of the American colonies, when such a type of currency called colonial scrip was the medium of exchange. As early as 1837, John C. Calhoun called for a debt-free currency issued and controlled by the government. Such a policy would reduce the profits of the banks, and in response to this, the banking institutions threw their support behind the British school, espousing the gold standard throughout the 1800s. In the Civil War, a shortage of specie led to the issue of such a fiat currency, called United States Notes, or "greenbacks".
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Their French counterparts were not as ready for an engagement. Pitot's frigate was carrying a large quantity of specie as well as 36 American prisoners of war and 80 passengers, two of whom were generals. Under such circumstances Pitot intended to avoid an engagement if possible, even though La Vengeance was a more heavily armed vessel carrying eight 42-pounder carronades, twenty-eight 18-pounders, and sixteen 12-pounder cannon. The French also had a distinct advantage in the event of a boarding action, as Constellation had only 310 men to La Vengeance's complement of 380 crew.
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On 1 October 2008, after building a 24.9% stake in Lonmin, Xstrata announced it was not proceeding with a takeover pitched at £33 per Lonmin share, blaming the failure of its bid on "unprecedented uncertainty in financial markets" caused by the Global financial crisis. Xstrata and its 24.9% stake in Lonmin was later acquired by Glencore on 2 May 2013. Glencore announced on 11 February 2015 that it intends to divest its 23.9% stake in Lonmin, which it inherited through the acquisition of Xstrata. Glencore's divestment in Lonmin will be implemented by way of a distribution in specie to Glencore shareholders.
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He presented five state-charted "pet" banks with drafts endorsed by the U.S. Treasury totaling $2.3 million. If Biddle presented any of the state banks with notes and demanded specie as payment, the banks could present him with the drafts to remove the deposits from the Bank and protect their liquidity. However, one of the banks drew prematurely on B.U.S. reserves for speculative ventures. At least two of the deposit banks, according to a Senate report released in July 1834, were caught up in a scandal involving Democratic Party newspaper editors, private conveyance firms, and elite officers in the Post Office Department.
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They cited "expediency" and "necessity," not principle. Opponents of the Bank defeated recharter by a single vote in both the House and Senate in 1811. State banks opposed recharter of the national bank because when state bank notes were deposited with the First Bank of the United States, the Bank would present these notes to state banks and demand gold in exchange, which limited the state banks' ability to issue notes and maintain adequate reserves of specie, or hard money. At that time, bank notes could be exchanged for a fixed value of gold or silver.
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When the crisis had passed, many in both parties, especially in the East, wanted to return the nation's currency to a gold standard as soon as possible. The Specie Payment Resumption Act, passed in 1875, ordered that greenbacks be gradually withdrawn and replaced with gold-backed currency beginning in 1879. At the same time, economic depression had made it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had contracted when currency was less valuable. Farmers and laborers, especially, clamored for the return of coinage in both gold and silver, believing the increased money supply would restore wages and property values.
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The next Congress moved in the other direction, with the Republican leadership making use of steamroller tactics in order to finally resolve the dual currency situation through passage of the Specie Resumption Act of 1875.Kleppner, "The Greenback and Prohibition Parties," pg. 1557. Under the plan the government would accumulate a sufficient gold reserve over the next several years through the sale of interest-bearing bonds for gold, using the accumulated metal to redeem the greenback currency on January 1, 1879. This deflationary move further tightened the already contracting economy, moving currency reform higher on the list of objectives of politically minded farmers.
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Megalomus hirtus has a wingspan of the front wings barely exceeding . Usually it reaches a wingspan of . In these brown lacewings the radial sector of the fore wings shows at least five ribs, preferably six or seven. Moreover the front and hind wings are rather dark, with well contrasted brown speckling and cross bands. Aspöck H., Aspöck U. & Hölzel H. (1980) - Die Neuropteres Europas – Goecke & Evers, Krefeld De Sancti Petri Fabrica per il riconoscimento dei Neuropterida adulti (specie) e stadi preimmaginali (quando va bene, generi, se non famiglie) dell’area geografica ± europea The head and the body are glossy, black or brown black.
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The Cambridge economic history of the United States: the colonial era: Volume 1 (2000), p. 372. As the charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811, the federal government was ill-prepared to finance the war and so resorted to such expediencies as the suspension of specie payment and the issuance of Treasury Notes. Those actions set a precedent for future federal responses to financial crises. Also, the exposure of the nation's financial weaknesses partly explained the decision for Congress to charter the Second Bank of the United States in 1816.
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By 1780, Congress was making requisitions for specific supplies of corn, beef, pork, and other necessities, an inefficient system which barely kept the army alive.Erna Risch, Supplying Washington's Army (1982)E. Wayne Carp, To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783 (1990) Starting in 1776, the Congress sought to raise money by loans from wealthy individuals, promising to redeem the bonds after the war. The bonds were redeemed in 1791 at face value, but the scheme raised little money because Americans had little specie, and many of the rich merchants were supporters of the Crown.
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This act, which turned all banknotes from "convertible" to "inconvertible" notes, suspended these so-called 'specie payments' until 1821. This move was perhaps inevitable owing to high taxation levels in place to fund the Napoleonic Wars, but the Battle of Fishguard immediately preceded the first occasion when banknotes issued by a central bank could not be redeemed for the underlying wealth that they represented, a precedent that has defined the modern use of banknotes ever since."The Bank of England Restriction. 1797-1821". North American Review, Vol 105, No 217, Oct 1867, at JSTOR—subscription needed.
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Offered in 1/10 oz, 1/4 oz, 1/2 oz, and 1 oz denominations, these coins are guaranteed by the U.S. government to contain the stated amount of actual gold weight in troy ounces. By law, the gold must come from sources in the United States, alloyed with silver and copper to produce a more wear-resistant coin. In addition, sales of these and other specie coins from the US Mint are mandated, at least in part, to pay off the national debt.31 U.S.C.A. § 5116(2) The 22 kt gold alloy is an English standard traditionally referred to as "crown gold".
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The 1876 Democratic platform demanded the repeal of the Specie Payment Resumption Act, condemned the Grant Administration's corruption, reaffirmed the Reconstruction Amendments, denounced Congressional Reconstruction as both coercive and corrupt, supported a tariff only for revenue, conservation of public lands, and civil service reform. Meanwhile, the Republicans "waved the bloody shirt" by associating the Democrats with the Confederacy and criticized Tilden's questionable tax returns, early association with Boss Tweed, poor health, and conflicting views on the "money question" in comparison to his running mate. A painting of the Electoral Commission with spectators. Justice Joseph P. Bradley, the decisive vote on the Electoral Commission.
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The government owed it large sums and came to its aid by suspending banknote convertibility into specie until 1 December 1866. Banco Comercial and Londres y Río de la Plata were sound and did not need this protection, so when another major crisis occurred in 1868 and the government again suspended convertibility, they continued paying out gold for their notes. An economic revival followed, only to end in 1875, due to further political disorder. The Uruguayan banks weathered the worldwide depression that began in 1873, but the government was overthrown in January 1875, and Mauá Bank declared bankruptcy in February.
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For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables), of space in her holds was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks; three Americans and two Britons, who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily. The ship's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another was taken up by first- and second-class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs, and a 1912 Renault Type CE Coupe de Ville motor car.
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Bristow was one of Grant's most popular Cabinet members among reformers. Bristow supported Grant's Resumption of Specie Act of 1875, that helped stabilize the economy during the Panic of 1873. As the United States' first solicitor general, Bristow aided President Ulysses S. Grant and Attorney General Amos T. Akerman's vigorous and thorough prosecution and destruction of the Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstructed South.Department of Justice, Benjamin Bristow Solicitor General Bristow advocated African American citizens in Kentucky be allowed to testify in a white man's court case and that education was for all races to be paid for by public funding.
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This rate was in fact unrealistic and it had the adverse effect of actually driving out what little sterling-specie coinage was already circulating. Remedial legislation was introduced in 1838 but it was not applied to the British North American colonies due to recent uprisings in Upper and Lower Canada. In 1841, the Province of Canada adopted a new system based on the Halifax rating. The new currency was equal to 4 U.S. dollars (92.88 grains gold), making one pound sterling equal to £1 4s 4d Canadian. Conversely the new Canadian pound was worth approximately 16s d sterling.
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At the time, California regulated neither the banking nor the express industry, so both fields were wide open. Anyone with a wagon and team of horses could open an express company; and all it took to open a bank was a safe and a room to keep it in. Because of its comparatively late entry into the California market, Wells Fargo faced well-established competition in both fields. From the beginning, the fledgling company offered diverse and mutually supportive services: general forwarding and commissions; buying and selling of gold dust, bullion, and specie (or coin); and freight service between New York and California.
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At 06:00 on 26 April 1797, the 74-gun ship of the line HMS Irresistible under Captain George Martin and the 36-gun frigate HMS Emerald under Captain Velterers Cornewall Berkeley were sailing at the southern edge of Jervis' (now known as Earl St. Vincent) fleet. While cruising close to the Spanish coast two unknown ships were sighted. Martin immediately ordered his ships to give chase and the strangers fled with Martin's vessels in pursuit. The new arrivals were two Spanish 34-gun frigates, the Santa Elena and Ninfa, bound to Cádiz from Havana with a cargo of silver specie.
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Seeking greater efficiency, Morris reduced the civil list, saved money by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightened accounting procedures, and demanded the federal government's full share of money and supplies from the states.Charles Rappleye, Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution (2010) pp 225–52 Congress used four main methods to cover the cost of the war, which cost about 66 million dollars in specie (gold and silver).Oliver Harry Chitwood, A History of Colonial America (1961) pp 586–589 Congress made two issues of paper money, in 1775–1780, and in 1780–81. The first issue amounted to 242 million dollars.
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3 (June, 1899), p. 320. On December 20, Salmon P. Chase's broker refused to sell some of the secretary's holdings of railway stock because they were almost worthless, and informed him that the business community "trust you will have allayed this excitement with England: one war at a time is enough".Jenkins, Britain and the War for the Union, vol. 1, pp. 223–24. A run on New York banks followed the stock market troubles, with $17,000,000 being withdrawn in three weeks, and on December 30 the banks voted by 25-15 to suspend specie payments.
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A cartoon from the April 9, 1870 issue of Harper's Weekly anticipates the resumption of government payments in precious-metal coins. At the same time as he sought to reform the coinage, Sherman worked for "resumption"—the policy of resuming specie payment on all bank notes, including the greenbacks. The idea of withdrawing the greenbacks from circulation altogether had been tried and quickly rejected in 1866; the notes were, as Sherman said, "a great favorite of the people". The economic turmoil of the Panic of 1873 made it even more clear that shrinking the money supply would be harmful to the average American.
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Sherman and Hayes agreed to stockpile gold in preparation for the exchange of greenbacks for specie. The Act remained unpopular in some quarters, leading to four attempts to repeal it in the Senate and fourteen in the House—all unsuccessful. By this time, public confidence in the Treasury had grown to the extent that a dollar in gold was worth only $1.05 in greenbacks. Once the public was confident that they could redeem greenbacks for gold, few actually did so; when the Act took effect in 1879, only $130,000 out of the $346,000,000 outstanding dollars in greenbacks were redeemed.
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This placed its charter at risk, for state law allowed the company to suspend payment of specie only for 30 days. As a director of the bank, Kelley faced a dilemma: The Trust Co. held more than $1 million ($ in dollars) in canal and state bonds. The only way the company could survive was if it sold these bonds. However, this risked driving down the price of the bonds the Canal Fund Commission was trying to sell at the same time and could imperil work on the many Ohio & Erie branch canals under construction as well as other state- backed canals.
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The original Mesha Stele is on display at the French Louvre Museum and Jordan has been constantly demanding return. The human statues found at 'Ain Ghazal constitute one of the world's oldest human statues ever made by human civilization dating back to 7000 BC. 'Ain Ghazal is a major Neolithic village in Amman that was discovered in 1981. The Dead Sea Copper Scroll was found near Khirbet Qumran, which is an inventory of hidden gold and silver in specie, but also some vessels, presumably taken from the Temple in Jerusalem in circa 68 CE. It is written in a Mishnaic-style of Hebrew.
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The illustration that accompanied the 1904 description of the mouse catshark, as Pristurus murinus. Galeus, derived from the Greek galeos meaning "shark", is one of the oldest carcharhiniform generic names. It was first used in a binomial by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in his 1810 Caratteri di alcuni nuovi generi e nuove specie di animali (principalmente di pesci) e piante della Sicilia: con varie osservazioni sopra i medesimi."Characters of various new genera and species of animals (mostly fishes) and plants, with various observations about them" Rafinesque listed G. melastomus, G. vulpecula (=Alopias vulpinus), G. mustelus (=Mustelus mustelus), and G. catulus (=Scyliorhinus canicula).
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In March 1943, the Japanese occupation government ceased issuing military notes; at the time, military currency to the value of 353 million gulden was in circulation. Printing operations were moved to Kolff in Batavia (now Jakarta), Java. These banknotes, which experienced no change in appearance, were issued by the Southern Development Bank (SDB), which had been established the preceding year and was managed by Yokohama Specie Bank and Bank of Taiwan. Under the SDB, an increasingly large amount of currency was issued; the professor writes that, by the end of 1943, the total circulation had almost doubled to 674 million gulden, reaching almost two billion by the end of 1944.
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Initially, the coinage was used essentially for export purposes in order to pay for imports of luxury goods from China, such as silk. As gold and silver were in short supply, and also because the government was running a deficit, the content of gold in coins was decreased on two occasions, in 1695 and 1706-1711, in order to generate more revenues from seigneurage, but with the effect of generating inflation. With the beginning of the 18th century, Japan started to restrict the export of bullion currency, which came to be seen as a loss for the country. An export ban on monetary specie was imposed by Arai Hakuseki in 1715.
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These women arriving in nearly every ship from Panama soon changed the character of women scarce California as they rapidly outnumbered the prostitutes who had initially flocked there. Money in California was scarce as very few had brought much with them and the costly living expenses soon exhausted much of it. Shipments of specie from several different countries were brought in but they never seemed to be enough and workers were happy to be paid in an amalgam of several different coins from several different countries. Loose gold dust was valued at $16.00 per troy ounce then and almost all merchants, bars, gambling dens, brothels etc.
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Black, Parry & Company, 1815 Anson took his prize back to Macao, sold her cargo to the Chinese, kept the specie, and sailed for England via the Cape of Good Hope. Passing by means of a thick fog a French fleet then patrolling the Channel, he reached England on 15 June 1744. The prize money earned from the capture of the galleon made Anson a rich man for life and bought him considerable political influence. He initially refused promotion to Rear-Admiral of the Blue however, out of anger that the admiralty refused to sanction a captain's commission he had given one of his officers.
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The Hubu Guanpiao were originally intended to be used to pay the salaries of government officials, this was because the Ministry of Revenue reported that its actual silver stock in its vault was too low for these immediate payments. In the summer of the year 1853, the use of the Hubu Guanpiao was extended to all other government expenditures in order to replace actual silver. The Regulations for the Trial Introduction of Guanpiao (試行官票章程) stated that the Hubu Guanpiao banknotes were redeemable in specie in both silver sycees or copper-alloy cash coins (or banknotes denominated in cash coins) at local banks.
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United States Notes were created as fiat currency, in that the government has never categorically guaranteed to redeem them for precious metal - even though at times, such as after the specie resumption of 1879, federal officials were authorized to do so if requested. The difference between a United States Note and a Federal Reserve Note is that a United States Note represented a "bill of credit" and was inserted by the Treasury directly into circulation free of interest. Federal Reserve Notes are backed by debt purchased by the Federal Reserve, and thus generate seigniorage for the Federal Reserve System, which serves as a lending intermediary between the Treasury and the public.
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Buchanan urged the states to restrict the banks to a credit level of $3 to $1 of specie, and discouraged the use of federal or state bonds as security for bank note issues. Though the economy recovered by 1859, the panic inflamed sectional tensions, as many Northerners blamed the Southern-backed Tariff of 1857 (passed during Pierce's last day in office) for the panic. Southerners, as well as Buchanan, instead blamed the over-speculation of Northern bankers. In part due to the worsened economy, by the time Buchanan left office the federal deficit stood at $17 million, higher than it had been when Buchanan took office.
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Hayes placed fifth on the first ballot of the convention, behind Blaine, Morton, Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin Bristow, and Conkling. After six ballots, Blaine remained in the lead, but on the seventh ballot, Blaine's adversaries rallied around Hayes, granting him the presidential nomination. For the vice presidency, the convention selected Representative William A. Wheeler, a man about whom Hayes had recently asked, "I am ashamed to say: who is Wheeler?" Hayes's views were largely in accord with the party platform, which called for equal rights regardless of race or gender, a continuation of Reconstruction, the prohibition of public funding for sectarian schools, and the resumption of specie payments.
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When the 44th United States Congress assembled, the House was controlled by the Democrats for the first time since the Civil War. Payne was placed on the Banking and Currency Committee and the Committee for the Reform of Civil Service. At the time, the currency circulating in the United States was a mix of gold-backed dollars and "greenbacks" that were backed only by the credit of the United States, with the public considering greenbacks to be worth less than gold dollars. The previous Congress, controlled by Republicans, had passed the Specie Payment Resumption Act, which would return the United States to the gold standard by 1879.
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The parallel use of both metals is called bimetallism, and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States greenback, to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed. By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium.
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Inglis managed to save her diary but her husband's personal journal was destroyed in the water. Most of the cargo of specie and a replacement shaft for the SS Alma, disabled at Aden, were recovered by divers from the frigate HMS Chesapeake. The ship’s surgeon was Dr. James Little, who also kept a diary recording his time with P & O. He recorded his experience during the shipwreck, describing spending a night in an open boat before landing on shore the next morning. He then spent some time in a tent on the beach while the crew attempted to recover what they could from the wreck.
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Crippled by debt in the aftermath of the revolution, the state of Massachusetts levied upon its towns and citizens tax burdens higher than had been in place during British rule. Those who suddenly found themselves in arrears to the state quickly discovered that their land, livelihood and possibly even their freedom were at stake. Many who could not assuage their debts faced the unpleasant prospect of serving time in a debtors' prison. The high tax burden, combined with the demand that it be paid in specie and the high-handed control of the government by merchant interests, transformed rural resentment into a full-blown agrarian revolt.
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Jackson's political target was Nicholas Biddle, financier, politician, and president of the Bank of the United States. Apart from a general hostility to banking and the belief that specie (gold and/or silver) were the only true monies, Jackson's reasons for opposing the renewal of the charter revolved around his belief that bestowing power and responsibility upon a single bank was the cause of inflation and other perceived evils. During September 1833, President Jackson issued an executive order that ended the deposit of government funds into the Bank of the United States. After September 1833, these deposits were placed in the state chartered banks, commonly referred to as Jackson’s “pet banks”.
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The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan, issued paper money known as Chao in his reign. Chinese paper money was guaranteed by the State and not by the private merchant or private banker. The concept of banknotes was not brought up in the world ever since until during the 13th century in Europe, with proper banknotes appearing in the 17th century. The original notes during the Yuan dynasty were restricted in area and duration as in the Song dynasty, but in the later course of the dynasty, facing massive shortages of specie to fund their ruling in China, began printing paper money without restrictions on duration.
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The Action of 16 October 1799 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars between a squadron of British Royal Navy frigates and two frigates of the Spanish Navy close to the Spanish naval port of Vigo in Galicia. The Spanish ships were a treasure convoy, carrying silver specie and luxury trade goods across the Atlantic Ocean from the colonies of New Spain to Spain. Sighted by British frigate HMS Naiad enforcing the blockade of Vigo late on the 15 October, the Spanish ships were in the last stages of their journey. Turning to flee from Naiad, the Spanish soon found themselves surrounded as more British frigates closed in.
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The mentioned project was undertaken by the joint venture of ASRC with the Gobi Coal & Energy Limited (GCE) company. SRC also invested in PT ABM Investama TBK, that operates in the energy resources, energy services, and energy infrastructure sectors in Indonesia up to US$120 million (RM366.68 million) through published share prices listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange. During the meeting on 14 February 2012, CEO of SRC reported an estimated profit on the investment amounting to US$4 million. On 15 February 2012, SRC's shareholding by 1MDB was transferred to the Ministry of Finance Incorporation (MOFI) by way of acquisition of shares through interim dividend- in-specie payments.
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Therefore, time is the means by which an intuited phenomenon is subsumed under a pure concept. Schemata are transcendental time determinations. "Hence it will be possible for the category to be applied to appearances by means of the transcendental time determination, which, as the schema of the concepts of the understanding, mediates the subsumption of appearances under the category." Entities that are known sub specie æternitatis (out of time, not through the form of time) do not have the predicate (Greek Κατηγορίαι Katēgoriai) of reality. Some examples are Plato’s Ideas, religious gods, undead souls, Parmenides’ One, Spinoza’s Substance, Sherlock Holmes (it is always eighteen ninety-five), etc.
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Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States greenback, to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed. Banknotes of different currencies with a face value of 5000 By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of a gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Private banks and governments across the world followed Gresham's law: keeping gold and silver paid but paying out in notes.
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On 12 November 2011, Dolcenera embarked on a new leg of her tour, performing in theaters throughout Italy. She also featured on the Italian version of Professor Green's song "Read All About It (Tutto quello che devi sapere)", included in British rapper's second studio album, At Your Inconvenience, and released as a digital single on 9 December 2011. In February 2012, Dolcenera participated in the 62nd Sanremo Music Festival, placing sixth with the song "Ci vediamo a casa", written for the soundtrack of Maurizio Ponzi's film with the same title. The song was included on the 2012 version of her fifth album, Evoluzione della specie², released on 15 February 2012.
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She and Alcmene then exchanged fire with the Spanish frigate, which surrendered before Naiad could catch up. Four large Spanish ships came out from Vigo but then retreated when the three British frigates made ready to receive them. Alcmene had one man killed and nine wounded, and Triton had one man wounded; had two men killed and eight men wounded. The vessel that Ethalion had captured turned out to be Thetis, under the command of Captain Don Juan de Mendoza. She was homeward-bound from Vera Cruz (Mexico) with a cargo of cocoa, cochineal and sugar, and more importantly, specie worth 1,385,292 Spanish dollars (£312,000).
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In 1870, Treasury Secretary George Boutwell sent Congress a draft bill to replace the outdated 1837 Mint Act and the bits of legislation passed over the years regarding the mint and coinage. Even in the draft bill, no provision was made for the three-cent silver, though some in Congress wished to retain the coin in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments. After much debate in Congress, President Ulysses S. Grant signed the Coinage Act of 1873 on February 12 of that year. The law abolished the two- cent piece, three-cent silver, half dime, and standard silver dollar (later restored in 1878).
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One of the Acanti they captured was of unusual size (its rib cage alone was the size of a mountain range.) They used it as their main base, and, when it died and crashed onto a planet, used it as their main city. The corpse was so large, it took centuries just to rot halfway. However, predators from the planet they landed on infested the area of the dead Acanti's brain, so the Brood avoided it. Thousands of years before the modern Marvel Universe, its revealed the Kree had captured some Brood's species and experimented on them as they considered the specie could be used as a biological weapon.
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Australia returned to the gold standard in 1925 in conjunction with the United Kingdom and South Africa. As in the case of the United Kingdom, there was no return to a gold specie standard, but rather the introduction of a gold bullion standard. This once again formally locked the pound in Australia to parity with the pound in the United Kingdom. During the period between 1914 and 1925, the telegraphic money transfers between London and Australia had deviated somewhat from parity, but at that time, it was merely seen as a temporary hitch due to the emergency and the suspension of the gold standard.
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Frequent crises of credit and the wars with France kept prices and markets in constant flux, but men such as William Lux and the Christie brothers produced a maturing economy and a thriving metropolis by the 1770s.Paul K. Walker, "Business and Commerce in Baltimore on the Eve of Independence," Maryland Historical Magazine 1976 71(3): 296-309, The population reached 14,000 in 1790, but the decade was a rough one for the city. The Bank of England's suspension of specie payments caused the network of Atlantic credit to unravel, leading to a mild recession. The Quasi-War with France in 1798-1800 caused major disruptions to Baltimore's trade in the Caribbean.
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In April 1782 he escorted a convoy from Cork to Quebec. Joining him for this task, and placed under his command was Captain Horatio Nelson, in command of the frigate . Nelson was not looking forward to the tedious and difficult task of escorting a convoy through the Atlantic storms, nor did he rate Pringle highly, thinking that he wanted to go to Canada only because of the money he could make shipping specie. In the event Nelson found the voyage to be not as bad as he had feared, and also realised that he had misjudged Pringle, subsequently declaring that Pringle was 'my particular friend, and a man of great honour.
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In July 1782, following Shelburne's promotion to Prime Minister and Dunning's appointment as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Baring fulfilled the new Prime Minister's need "to have recourse from time to time to mercantile advice".Barings archives, Northbrook MSS, B1. Baring, by instinct a Whig, became Shelburne's confidential adviser on commerce, or his "handy City man", according to a discontented William Cobbett. Baring's ideas on political economy and commerce were well ahead of his time; in 1799 he defended the Bank of England's decision (in 1797) to suspend specie payments as both correct and inevitable, in the face of hostile opposition from many of his peers.
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The Confederation was led by criollos, but was not able to appeal to the lower classes, despite attempts to do so, because of a declining economic situation. Cut off from Spain, Venezuela lost the market for its main export, cocoa. As a result, Venezuela experienced severe losses of specie, using it to purchase much needed supplies from its new trading partners, such as the British and the Americans, which could not take the full output of agricultural products as payment. The federal government resorted to printing paper money to pay its debts with Venezuelans, but the paper money rapidly lost value, turning many against the government.
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Charles III, greatly pleased, made Forbes a grant of the duty payable at the mint for coinage of the amount, and urged him to go back to Menorca and fetch the specie. Forbes, doubting the legality of the capture, excused himself until he should receive instructions from home, or from General Stanhope, the British ambassador and commander-in-chief in Spain, and, to avoid any appearance of backwardness, set out to confer with Stanhope. He joined the part of the allied army under Marshal Staremberg, and was slightly wounded while charging with Brigadier Lepell's regiment at the battle of Villaviciosa, 10 December 1710. Stanhope had surrendered at Brihuega the day previous.
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The party's platform focused upon repeal of the Specie Resumption Act of 1875 and the renewed use of non-gold-backed United States Notes in an effort to restore prosperity through an expanded money supply. The convention nominated New York economics pamphleteer Peter Cooper as its Presidential standard-bearer. Cooper declared to the convention: The Greenback movement argued that the previous effort of using an unbacked currency had been sabotaged by monied interests, which had prevailed upon Congress to restrict the functionality of the notes — declaring them unsuitable for the payment of taxes or national debt.William D.P. Bliss and Rudolph M. Binder (eds.), The New Encyclopedia of Social Reform.
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As a theorist, he does not want to recommend what the monetary ought to be, nor does he explore how money could be put to use in order to attain certain goals. Drawing almost entirely on examples set in 19th century Europe, he derives from them a genetic and then a functional classification. In the process, the book reveals that some of what had been previously thought to be 'specie' money, was simply what he calls 'chartal hylogenic money'. An avowed Chartalist, Knapp does not advocate paper money pure and simple, he points out effectively that the Metallists with their theory cannot effectively explain some observed phenomena which they call 'anomalies'.
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At some point between 28 February and 20 May 1800, Nimrod captured the Spanish felucca Victoria, which was sailing from Tobasco to Jamaica with a cargo of specie, logwood, and cochineal. It is not clear who her commander was while she was in the Caribbean. Between 21 May and 8 August, Nimrod, , and captured two Spanish vessels: a Spanish felucca that was sailing from Havanah to Vera Cruz, and a xebec sailing from Campeachy to Havana. Nimrod and Crescent also captured or detained three other Spanish vessels: a felucca carrying wax, a xebec carrying hides and leather, and a schooner sailing from Saint Domingo to Curacoa carrying mahogany.
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Among the several issues of Treasury Notes of special note are the "Small Treasury Notes" authorized by the Act of February 24, 1815 which were intended to circulate as currency in the aftermath of the 1814 suspension of specie payment. The Act had been drafted during the financial disarray late in the War of 1812 and called for Notes of denomination less than $100 which would bear no interest. The issued denominations were as low as $3, their size was typical of banknotes and, unlike the previously issued Notes, they were payable to bearer rather than to order. However, they were not a Legal Tender for private transactions.
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During the economic recovery in 1838/39, outstanding notes were gradually retired but the recovery failed to take hold and the panic turned into a depression which lasted through the early 1840s and several acts from 1838 to 1843 authorized further issues of Treasury Notes. Of note during this period were agitation by the Whig Party for a central bank and a flirtation with the Treasury Notes as currency. Particularly controversial was an issue by Secretary Spencer of about $850,000 of Treasury Notes endorsed with a promise for immediate repurchase, principal and interest, by the sub-treasury in New York at par in specie.
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The gold standard was the primary transmission mechanism of the Great Depression. Even countries that did not face bank failures and a monetary contraction first hand were forced to join the deflationary policy since higher interest rates in countries that performed a deflationary policy led to a gold outflow in countries with lower interest rates. Under the gold standard's price–specie flow mechanism, countries that lost gold but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline (deflation).Peter Temin, Gianni Toniolo, The World Economy between the Wars, Oxford University Press, 2008, , p.
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The next year, a division among Iberville Parish Whigs gave him a seat at the 1852 Louisiana Constitutional Convention which adopted a new state constitution that was strongly pro-Whig. As a result, Governor Walker resigned early and an election was called. Since John Slidell, the leader of one faction of Louisiana Democrats was focusing on his campaign for the U.S. Senate, the Democrats turned to Hébert as their nominee for governor. He campaigned against some features of the new constitution, called for internal improvements, reform of the state militia, a banking system by general laws and redemption in specie of all paper money.
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In the aftermath of the Whiskey Ring prosecutions, including Babcock's trial, and an upcoming 1876 presidential election, Bristow's position on Grant's cabinet became untenable. Grant was grieved at Bristow's prosecution of Babcock, whom Grant maintained was innocent. Also, rumors swirled that Bristow prosecuted the Whiskey Ring, to get the Republican nomination, that caused Grant to feel betrayed by Bristow. Largely owing to friction between himself and the president, Bristow resigned his portfolio in June 1876; as Secretary of the Treasury he advocated the resumption of specie payments and at least a partial retirement of "greenbacks"; and he was also an advocate of civil service reform.
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His role as a merchant and banker allowed him entree into circles not usually open to Japanese Americans. He was a member of the Seattle Chamber of Commerce, an honorary member of the United States Chamber of Commerce, was praised in Clarence Bagley's History of Seattle (1916) as "a man of unusual business ability and keen insight," and was listed in Who’s Who in Washington State in 1927. However, the Great Depression and mismanagement of the Seattle Specie Bank turned him from a millionaire to bankrupt. Like many Japanese American (and other American) bankers of the time, he had overextended, invested in stocks that plummeted, and made unsecured loans.
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He sought but failed to obtain a rescue from the Sumitomo Bank and the Yokohama Specie Bank. This was before the time of deposit insurance in the United States, and Furuya's failure was an economic disaster for Seattle's Japanese community, leading to the failure of many businesses along Seattle's Main Street. Furuya moved to Southern California and tried unsuccessfully to reestablish himself, finally returning, ill, to Japan, where he died in Yokohama on February 15, 1938. The First National Bank (later Seafirst Bank, eventually absorbed by Bank of America) saw opportunity in the financial void left by Furuya's collapse, and started its "International Branch" on Jackson Street April 10, 1934.
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A credit contraction caused by a financial crisis in England drained specie out of the U.S. The Bank of the United States also contracted its lending. The price of agricultural commodities fell by almost 50 percent from the high in 1815 to the low in 1821, and did not recover until the late 1830s, although to a significantly lower price level. Most damaging was the price of cotton, the U.S.'s main export. Food crop prices, which had been high because of the famine of 1816 that was caused by the year without a summer, fell after the return of normal harvests in 1818.
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His attention had been drawn to this record by journalist Dircksey Cowan, daughter of Edith Cowan. She had been interviewing Burt in regard to the Deadwater Wreck, north of Busselton, which he had also seen in 1876 in company with Captain Archdeacon, while still engaged in the Admiralty survey. The Vergulde Draak had been carrying 78,600 guilders, which went down with the ship, not being recovered until after the wreck was located in 1963. Burt, however, believed the Circle of Stones may have marked the location of a ‘Treasure Trove’, the specie from the Vergulde Draak, and it would seem that this was his reason for informing the Commissioner of Police.
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Phillips v Brooks Ltd [1919] 2 KB 243 Fourth, and important in practice to prevent unjust enrichment is that counter-restitution must be possible. There is confusion over whether in cases at law, rather than in equity, counter-restitution must be precise (i.e. a thing received must be given back in specie) or whether, as in Erlanger, substantial counter-restitution may be in money.In Smith New Court Securities Ltd v Scrimgeour Vickers (Asset Management) Ltd [1994] 2 BCLC 212, 221, Nourse LJ held that precise counter-restitution was necessary, but on appeal on a different point, [1997] AC 254, 262, Lord Browne-Wilkinson thought it was not.
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He leaned heavily toward the Radical camp and often sided with their Reconstruction policies, signing into law Force Acts to prosecute the Ku Klux Klan. In foreign policy Grant won praise for the Treaty of Washington, settling the Alabama Claims issue with Britain through arbitration. Economically he sided with Eastern bankers and signed the Public Credit Act that paid U.S. debts in gold specie, but was blamed for the severe economic depression that lasted 1873–1877.C-SPAN 2009 Historians Presidential Leadership Survey Grant, wary of powerful congressional leaders, was the first president to ask for a line item veto—though Congress never allowed one.
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After the Chinatown fire of 1900, 37 Japanese businessmen formed the Emergency Japanese Association to help Japanese immigrants who became homeless because of the fire. The organization was soon renamed the Honolulu Japan Merchants Association (Honolulu Nipponjin Shonin Doshikai). Once all of the Japanese immigrants were rehoused and claims were filed with the Hawaiian government, the group changed their focus to issues of trade between Hawaii and Japan that affected issei business owners. In 1908 the organization changed its name again to the Honolulu Japanese Chamber of Commerce, and from 1916 onward they worked out of an office above the Yokohama Specie Bank branch in Honolulu.
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From her first voyage through March 1861, Arago operated as a transatlantic mail steamer, transporting passengers, cargo, mail, and specie between her home port of New York, Southampton, Liverpool and Le Havre. In June 1859, abolitionist Gamaliel Bailey died aboard the Arago en route to Europe. It was the Arago which, in December 1859, returned Senator Seward from his eight-month tour of Europe and the Middle East, to begin his unsuccessful bid for the Republican Presidential nomination. Due to the outbreak of the American Civil War, government contracted mail service ceased with the Arago's last voyage in this capacity, beginning from New York on March 30, 1861.
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The British Government called on Keynes's expertise during the First World War. While he did not formally re-join the civil service in 1914, Keynes traveled to London at the government's request a few days before hostilities started. Bankers had been pushing for the suspension of specie payments – the convertibility of banknotes into gold – but with Keynes's help the Chancellor of the Exchequer (then Lloyd George) was persuaded that this would be a bad idea, as it would hurt the future reputation of the city if payments were suspended before it was necessary. In January 1915 Keynes took up an official government position at the Treasury.
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A confidential letter from V. M. Grayburn to Douglas Clague, member of the British Army Aid Group in November 1942. After the Hong Kong government's surrender, J. J. Paterson, the chairman of the HSBC, V. M. Grayburn and his successor D. C. Edmondston and other Britons in Hong Kong were in the hand of Japanese army. Grayburn and his wife were sent to a hotel in Central and he was forced to help the Japanese bank Yokohama Specie Bank take over the HSBC. The Japanese army took over the bank's main building as headquarters of the Japanese military government and acquired large amount of unsigned banknotes from the bank's reserve.
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Van Buren blamed the economic collapse on greedy American and foreign business and financial institutions, as well as the over-extension of credit by U.S. banks. Whig leaders in Congress blamed the Democrats, along with Andrew Jackson's economic policies, specifically his 1836 Specie Circular. Cries of "rescind the circular!" went up and former president Jackson sent word to Van Buren asking him not to rescind the order, believing that it had to be given enough time to work. Others, like Nicholas Biddle, believed that Jackson's dismantling of the Bank of the United States was directly responsible for the irresponsible creation of paper money by the state banks which had precipitated this panic.
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The decisive thing is not the reality of the object, but the reality of the subjective factor, i.e. the primordial images, which in their totality represent a psychic mirror-world. It is a mirror, however, with the peculiar capacity of representing the present contents of consciousness not in their known and customary form but in a certain sense sub specie aeternitatis, somewhat as a million-year old consciousness might see them. Such a consciousness would see the becoming and the passing of things beside their present and momentary existence, and not only that, but at the same time it would also see that Other, which was before their becoming and will be after their passing hence.
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International payments have always posed a problem in international trade. Though exchange rate risks were less in the era in which the intrinsic value of money was usually equal to the face value (at least absent debasement of the coin, of course), there was the problem of the risk and inconvenience of transporting money or specie. An early innovation was therefore the bill of exchange (called wisselbrief in Dutch, or wissel for short), which obviated the need to transport coins in payment. After the development of this financial instrument by Italian and later Iberian merchants and bankers, Antwerp added a number of legal innovations in the mid-16th century that enhanced its value as such an instrument appreciably.
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Van Buren's decision to uphold the Specie Circular represented the first step in his commitment to the separation of the government from all banking operations, a policy that would become the central economic policy of his tenure. During Jackson's presidency, the federal government had moved its funds from the Second Bank of the United States to so-called "pet banks." Both the Second Bank of the United States and the pet banks had used those federal deposits to engage in regular banking activities, specifically the extension of loans. Van Buren sought to fully divorce the federal government from banking operations by establishing the Independent Treasury system, essentially a series of vaults, to hold government funds.
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The Independent Treasury took its name from its supposed independence from banks and British creditors, as British creditors had made large investments in the Second Bank of the United States. The Independent Treasury was inspired by the writings of William M. Gouge, a hard currency advocate who argued that any federal collaboration with banks both risked corruption and reinforced a speculative boom and bust cycle that led to economic downturns. When the 25th Congress convened in September 1837, Van Buren introduced his legislation to create the Independent Treasury system. Van Buren's plan allowed the government to accept paper money as payment, but the government would seek to convert that paper money to specie as quickly as possible.
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Hume starts out with an important point that touches upon a key fact of economics that many fail to recognize even in the 21st century: Allowing the sale or export of a good actually increases its production. Economic activity in trade is not a fixed-slice pie, but one where freedom to trade can create more, rather than less. He uses, as example, the ridiculous (his word) behavior of the ancient Athenian government, in banning the export of a certain kind of fig deemed too delicious for mere foreigners...but he goes on to cite similar errors in contemporary England and France, as well. In modern economic terms, this is equilibration through the price-specie flow mechanism.
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Residents of Wigtown and the surrounding area earned their livings in a variety of ways. An 18th-century observer, Samuel Robinson commented that from its 'peculiar position in relation to the sea', the county of Wigtown offered 'many singular advantages to the landing of smuggled goods and smugglers were not slow in taking advantage of this'. Wigtown town council in July 1774 recognised the 'pernicious and fatal consequences' of smuggling all types of prohibited goods, particularly tea, from the Isle of Man. The council further denounced the drinking of tea and brandy as their purchase drained specie from the county which could be more naturally employed in the manufacture of their own wool.
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During the Civil War, Congress had authorized a new form of currency, redeemable not in specie (gold or silver coin) but in 6% government bonds. These United States Notes, popularly known as "greenbacks," had helped to finance the war when the government's gold supply did not keep pace with the expanding costs of maintaining the armies. When the crisis had passed, many in Congress (including Bayard) wanted to return the nation's currency to a gold standard as soon as possible. The process of retiring the greenbacks had already begun when Bayard was elected, but stopped when many congressmen thought the fiscal contraction too severe, and likely to be harmful to the economy.
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The second theory is that there is first a radical increase in the amount of circulating medium, which can be called the "monetary model" of hyperinflation. In either model, the second effect then follows from the first—either too little confidence forcing an increase in the money supply, or too much money destroying confidence. In the confidence model, some event, or series of events, such as defeats in battle, or a run on stocks of the specie that back a currency, removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent—whether a bank or a government. Because people do not want to hold notes that may become valueless, they want to spend them.
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The title of one of her books, Sub Specie Aeternitatis (1937, 'from the perspective of eternity'), makes visible her concern to connect what is (or may be) universally true with the individual experiences that fall within our often narrow perceptions. She is much concerned with how the human quest for truth and meaning in a life are shaped by our notions of experience, transcendence (as developed by Romero), freedom, and will. One of her lines of argument holds that a satisfactory life requires a certain degree of detachment as well as the ability to resist trying to organize all experience through rigid and predetermined categories. Harris was a member of numerous professional organizations, including the American Philosophical Association.
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The British enjoyed a virtual monopoly on modern banking for forty years. The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (香港上海匯豐銀行), now HSBC, established in 1865 in Hong Kong, later became the largest foreign bank in China. In the early 1890s, Germany's Deutsch-Asiatische Bank (德華銀行), Japan's Yokohama Specie Bank (橫濱正金銀行), France's Banque de l'Indochine (東方匯理銀行), and Russia's Russo-Asiatic Bank (華俄道勝銀行) opened branches in China and challenged British ascendancy in China's financial market. By the end of the nineteenth century there were nine foreign banks with forty-five branches in China's treaty ports.
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While certain families of Mesopotamia might be thought of as banking families, according to one source, these families' economic activities were not banking proper. This is because the families charged the same for loans as they gave in interest on deposits, so accordingly, their situation with foreign enterprises was one in which they did not participate in arbitrage, in addition to the absence of an economic situation where-by credit provision might increase the quantity of specie (i.e. coins) present with individuals. The House of Egibi were such a family, living during the Neo- Babylonian and Persian periods, and the House Murashu were another, living at a time during the 5th century BCE.
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2 of the Big 3 Swiss Banks To Join to Seek Global Heft . The New York Times, December 9, 1997 The Bank of Tokyo had historically focused on foreign exchange business since its foundation as the Yokohama Specie Bank in 1880, while Mitsubishi had had a stronger focus on domestic corporate and retail banking. Both banks were relatively healthy in the wake of the Japanese asset price bubble. Until the Tokyo-Mitsubishi merger took place in 1996, Sanwa Bank, which was based in Osaka and was the anchor of the Sanwa Group keiretsu, had been considered the strongest bank in Japan, and it had aimed to be the world's largest bank during the "bubble era".
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Oakeshott distinguished the academic perspective on the past from the practical, in which the past is seen in terms of its relevance to our present and future. His insistence on the autonomy of history places him close to Collingwood, who also argued for the autonomy of historical knowledge. The practical world view (the world sub specie voluntatis) presupposes the ideas of will and of value in terms of which practical action in the arenas of politics, economics, and ethics makes sense. Because all action is conditioned by presuppositions, Oakeshott was inclined to see any attempt to change the world as reliant upon a scale of values, which themselves presuppose a context of experience.
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Private individuals and firms similarly refused them beyond the legal tender limit; those with a surplus of base metal coins often sold them at a discount. Congress took no action on a redemption bill, and in 1868 Linderman wrote again in his annual report, urging that the public be allowed to redeem small- denomination coins, as commerce was flooded with them. He disclosed that he had been redeeming the old copper-nickel cents with three-cent pieces and nickels. Carothers pointed out that exchanging the copper-nickel pieces for cents violated the 1865 and 1866 acts, that stated the three-cent piece and nickel could not be purchased with cents, but only for greenbacks or specie.
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In 1878, events including wage cuts that precipitated the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 caused Plaisted to leave the Republican Party because of dissatisfaction with their monetary policy. As did many farmers and laborers, Plaisted opposed currency backed by gold and silver, arguing that it caused the post-Panic of 1873 deflation that reduced wages and prices paid to farmers, laborers, and producers of raw materials. Instead, he favored federal government-issued currency not backed by gold and silver, believing that this would prevent deflation and make business easier to transact by holding costs and salaries steady. Both the national Republican and Democratic parties favored specie-backed currency issued by state-chartered banks.
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Seed yellowish white to brownish, suborbicular or flattened. Most of the species belonging to Corynopuntia show a very similar morphology, apparently with few differences, so this genus was little studied. Recent in-depth field and lab researches are improving the knowledge about these plants, showing the existence of many undescribed species.Rebman, J. (2006) A new club cholla, Grusonia robertsii (Cactaceae) from Baja California Sur, Mexico. Madrono 53(3):278-281Donati, D.(2010) Una nuova, eccezionale specie appartenente al genere Corynopuntia Knuth: Corynopuntia guccinii sp. nov., in Piante Grasse 30(3): 115-119Donati, D. (2011) Nuovo studio sul gruppo clavata del genere Corynopuntia Knuth: riscoperta di C. agglomerata e descrizione di C. bulbispina subsp.
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It was the beginning of a golden era for Britain, and the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill coined a new gold sovereign in 1817. At the same time, the Spanish Empire was in decline with revolutions underway in the New World. The silver Spanish pieces of eight that had formed the staple international currency for nearly four hundred years were mostly minted at the New World mints at Potosí, Mexico, and Lima. The supplies of these silver dollars were cut off due to revolutionary wars, and since Britain had formally adopted a successful gold specie standard in 1821, the British government decided in 1825 to introduce the sterling coinage in all of its colonies.
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Clause 16 of the San Francisco Treaty stated that Japan would transfer its assets and those of its citizens in countries which were at war with any of the Allied Powers or which were neutral, or equivalents, to the Red Cross, which would sell them and distribute the funds to former prisoners of war and their families. Accordingly, the Japanese government and private citizens paid out £4,500,000 to the Red Cross. According to historian Linda Goetz Holmes, many funds used by the government of Japan were not Japanese funds but relief funds contributed by the governments of the US, the UK and the Netherlands and sequestred in the Yokohama Specie Bank during the final year of the war.
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One of Gemma's more scientifically significant worksDe prodigiosa specie, naturaque Cometae, qui nobis effulsit altior lunae sedibus, insolita prorsus figura, ac magnitudine, anno 1570. dealt with the Great Comet of 1577, which he first observed on 14 November of that year. Gemma was one of the few astronomers — most famously Tycho Brahe, but also Helisaeus Roeslin, William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel and Michael Mästlin — who identified the comet as superlunary.Robert S. Westman, "The Comet and the Cosmos: Kepler, Mästlin, and the Copernican Hypothesis," in The Reception of Copernicus' Heliocentric Theory: Proceedings of a Symposium Organized by the Nicolas Copernicus Committee of the International Union of the History and Philosophy of Science, Torun, Poland, 1973 (Springer, 1973), pp.
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Either one, or both of these together, is the root cause of hyperinflation and in both models, one follows from the other. In the confidence model, some event, or series of events, such as defeats in battle, or a run on stocks of the specie that back a currency, removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent—whether a bank or a government. Because people do not want to hold notes that may become valueless, they want to spend them in preference to holding notes that will lose value. Sellers, realizing that there is a higher risk for the currency, demand a greater and greater premium over the original value.
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White, p. 334 Any losses were to be paid by the individual shareholders up to an amount equal to their stock value. At it highest point, in 1851, the bank had $4 million of bank notes in circulation and $2 million in specie reserves.White, p. 339 The bank was an early success. Many who had purchased the stock on credit found that the dividends paid out exceeded the interest they were charged, and by the time the bank's charter expired almost all of the public stock had been paid for with investors receiving as much a 650% return on investment when the bank closed. The state used the bank to continue financing its internal improvements.
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Prior to 1838 a bank charter could be obtained only by a specific legislative act, but in that year New York adopted the Free Banking Act, which permitted anyone to engage in banking, upon compliance with certain charter conditions. The Michigan Act (1837) allowed the automatic chartering of banks that would fulfill its requirements without special consent of the state legislature. These banks could issue bank notes against specie (gold and silver coins) and the states regulated the reserve requirements, interest rates for loans and deposits, the necessary capital ratio etc. Free banking spread rapidly to other states, and from 1840 to 1863 all banking business was done by state-chartered institutions.
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The Murašû Archive comprises business records regarding legal issues, loans, rents, transactions, trips to various capital cities, and the use of agents and subordinates to manage affairs. In essence, the Murašû Archive was the business repository of the Murašû firm - a business house dealing mainly with the management of agriculture. The Murašû firm would lease land and water from its owners, farm the land to produce crops, pay rents and taxes to the owners, and even sublet the leased lands to tenants, who would work the land with livestock, seeds, and equipment provided by the firm. In addition, the Murašû firm converted the produce from the lands they managed into specie—silver.
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In the newly created union after the Revolutionary War and up until 1792 and the establishment of the US mint, the sole medium of exchange in terms of specie was foreign coin. Alexander Hamilton had proposed that foreign coin (of which he specially based the dollar) circulate freely for a period of three years until the new mint in Philadelphia was running at full capacity in order to have a smooth transition. This clause was renewed several times after being first specifically spelled out on April 10, 1806. By 1830, about 25% of all circulating coins were milled of Spanish origin. “When Foreign Coins Circulated Freely by Gerard Muhl.” Crooked Lake Review. Web.
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Woodbury ensured that banks' specie ratios remained consistent with those of the early 1830s. However, since lending was tied directly to the amount of gold and silver that banks stored in their vaults, the influx of precious metals into the United States encouraged American banks to print more paper money. The money supply and number of bank notes in circulation increased significantly in these years. State-chartered financial institutions, unshackled from the regulatory oversight previously provided by the B.U.S., started engaging in riskier lending practices that fueled a rapid economic expansion in land sales, internal improvement projects, cotton cultivation, and slavery. The federal government earned an average of about $2 million each year from land sales in the 1820s.
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Before the national bank came into operation, he then led the passage of a bill that required all debts to the government to be paid in specie, Treasury notes, or notes issued by the national bank. In the tariff debate, he occupied a middle ground; he favored using tariff rates to protect domestic manufacturing, but did not want tariff rates to be so high that they would harm his home state's trading concerns. Though he took an active role in crafting the tariff bill, he ultimately missed the final vote on the Tariff of 1816. Seeking more lucrative legal work, he began to strongly consider relocating to Boston or New York during his time in Congress.
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Many Northern Democrats joined the anti-Jacksonians in supporting recharter. The final bill sent to Jackson's desk contained modifications of the Bank's original charter that were intended to assuage many of the President's objections. The Bank would have a new fifteen-year charter; would report to the Treasury Department the names of all of the Bank's foreign stockholders, including the amount of shares they owned; would face stiff penalties if it held onto property for longer than five years, and would not issue notes in denominations of less than twenty dollars. Jacksonians argued that the Bank often cheated small farmers by redeeming paper with discounted specie, meaning that a certain amount was deducted.
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During the lease, the American Civil War broke out and property values in Washington, D.C., skyrocketed.Willard v. Tayloe, 75 U.S. 557, 559. Nearly all Northern banks suspended the use of specie (money backed by gold deposits) due to bank runs, and the federal government followed suit shortly thereafter.Wilson, The Business of Civil War: Military Mobilization and the State, 1861-1865, 2006, p. 111; Johnson and Buel, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, 1888, p. 484.McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era, 1988, p. 444-447. In 1863, Congress passed the National Banking Act, which authorized the federal government to issue United States Notes (paper money) rather than coins made of gold or silver.
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The following day the King had directed his Finance Minister, Jacques Necker, to meet with them. The loan was made, the bulk of it for military supplies, 3 million of it in gold specie, and the promise that France would underwrite with Dutch agents a later loan for 10 million should it be needed. Purchases began, and by early May Laurens sailed with 3 ships and Jackson went to Holland where John Adams had contracted with a Captain for the 4th ship. That ship vanished, either because Adams had been deceived about the honesty of the Captain or because the British Navy, with orders to hunt down all 4 ships, had sunk it.
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Almost from the beginning the Hussites divided into two main groups, though many minor divisions also arose among them. Shortly before his death Hus had accepted the doctrine of Utraquism preached during his absence by his adherents at Prague: the obligation of the faithful to receive communion in both kinds, bread and wine (sub utraque specie). This doctrine became the watchword of the moderate Hussites known as the Utraquists or Calixtines, from the Latin calix (the chalice), in Czech kališníci (from kalich). The more extreme Hussites became known as Taborites (táborité), after the city of Tábor that became their center; or Orphans (sirotci), a name they adopted after the death of their leader and general Jan Žižka.
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Following the signing of the Treaty of Amity and Commerce in 1859, Yokohama was opened as a port for foreign trade and quickly grew in importance. Through the New Currency Act of 1871, Japan adopted the gold standard along international lines, with 1 yen corresponding to 1.5g of pure gold. Silver coins were also issued for trade with Asian countries who favoured silver as a currency, thus establishing a de facto gold-silver standard.Japan Currency Museum (日本貨幣博物館) permanent exhibit However, inflation caused by the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion and the outflow of a large amount of silver due to increased imports, a large discrepancy arose between government- issued banknotes and specie coin.
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In 1878, events including wage cuts that precipitated the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 caused Plaisted to leave the Republican Party because of dissatisfaction with their monetary policy. As did many farmers and laborers, Plaisted opposed currency backed by gold and silver, arguing that it caused the post-Panic of 1873 deflation that reduced wages and prices paid to farmers, laborers, and producers of raw materials. Instead, he favored federal government-issued currency not backed by gold and silver, believing that this would prevent deflation and make business easier to transact by holding costs and salaries steady. Both the national Republican and Democratic parties favored specie-backed currency issued by state-chartered banks.
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Supporters of the Resumption Act argued that the Panic of 1873 might not have occurred had there been sufficient reserves of gold in the United States Treasury as would have been the case if specie payments were resumed. Opposed to resumption, a new coalition of agrarian and labor interests found common cause during Reconstruction in advocating for "soft money" or the promotion of inflationary monetary policies. These groups viewed the Panic of 1873 as the result of insufficient currency that should have been used to fuel the growth in production that occurred in the South and the West. These regions relied on cheap money – that is low interest rates – to be able to continue to grow.
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At the same time as the Reichsthaler was being issued as a coin, efforts were made starting in the mid-17th century to define a new Reichsthaler unit of account for use throughout Northern Germany but worth a fraction of the circulating Reichsthaler coin. One example, the 1690 Leipzig thaler worth of a mark or th of the original Reichsthaler specie, was widely used though not universally adopted. In 1754 the Conventionsthaler became the standard coin in most of Northern Germany with the Reichsthaler unit of accounts defined as 1/(13) of a mark or th of a Conventionsthaler (or 17.54 g fine silver). Most states divide this Reichsthaler into 24 groschen or Gutegroschen, each worth 12 pfennig.
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Capps was sworn in to serve a full 2-year term as a Kansas State Representative on January 14. 2019. Prior to the start of the 2019 legislative session, Capps pre-filed his first piece of legislation, HB 2025, aimed at including a person who has filed a petition for adoption in the definition of an interested party in the child in need of care code. While HB 2025 never emerged from committee, Capps spoke frequently during the 2018 election campaign on the importance of reforming the Kansas Department of Children and Families. Capps also introduced HB 2285, a bill creating the Kansas legal tender act; providing for sales exemption from and modification for sales of specie legal tender.
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The first of these, the second Treaty of Prairie du Chien, concluded on July 29, 1829, was between the United States and representatives of the Council of Three Fires (also known as the "United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi Indians"). By this treaty, the tribes ceded to the United States an area in present-day northwestern Illinois and southwestern Wisconsin, as well as the areas currently occupied by the cities of Wilmette, Evanston, and about half of Chicago. In exchange the U.S. promised 16 thousand dollars "in specie" per annum and fifty barrels of salt per annum. This treaty established reservation areas in western Illinois for the Prairie Band of Potawatomi Nation.
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The new ship left the Thames on 12 January 1854 for Southampton, arriving the following day, and then on 21 January sailed on her maiden voyage to Alexandria, via Gibraltar and Malta, with passengers, mail and specie for onward carriage to India and China. By the time she returned to Southampton on 16 February, Himalaya had been chartered to carry troops to Constantinople. In early March she sailed from Southampton and Plymouth for the Mediterranean with 1452 troops and equipment. P&O; had concluded that Himalaya was a larger vessel than the passenger traffic demanded and, with coal becoming more expensive with the advent of war in the Crimea, would not be economic.
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On March 18, 1869, he signed the Public Credit Act of 1869 that guaranteed bondholders would be repaid in "coin or its equivalent", while greenbacks would gradually be redeemed by the Treasury and replaced by notes backed by specie. The act committed the government to the full return of the gold standard within ten years. This followed a policy of "hard currency, economy and gradual reduction of the national debt." Grant's own ideas about the economy were simple and he relied on the advice of wealthy and financially successful businessman that he courted. In April 1869, railroad tycoons Jay Gould and Jim Fisk, conspired to corner the gold market in New York, the nation's financial capital.
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The fifth part argues that reason can govern the affects in the pursuit of virtue, which for Spinoza is self-preservation: only with the aid of reason can humans distinguish the passions that truly aid virtue from those that are ultimately harmful. By reason, we can see things as they truly are, sub specie aeternitatis, "under the aspect of eternity," and because Spinoza treats God and nature as indistinguishable, by knowing things as they are we improve our knowledge of God. Seeing that all things are determined by nature to be as they are, we can achieve the rational tranquility that best promotes our happiness, and liberate ourselves from being driven by our passions.
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On taking office Grant's first move was signing the Act to Strengthen the Public Credit, which the Republican Congress had just passed. It ensured that all public debts, particularly war bonds, would be paid only in gold rather than in greenbacks. The price of gold on the New York exchange fell to $130 per ounce – the lowest point since the suspension of specie payment in 1862. On May 19, 1869, Grant protected the wages of those working for the U.S. Government. In 1868, a law was passed that reduced the government working day to 8 hours; however, much of the law was later repealed that allowed day wages to also be reduced.
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As a result, card money was used as currency in Canada intermittently for the remainder of the French regime (Pritchard, 2004). As a financial tool, card money played a significant role as a means of exchange. Despite the worries of French officials, colonial authorities were successful in arguing that card money served as a financial medium in Canada just as coinage did in France (Bank of Canada, 1990, p. 9). An economic substitute to the dangerous transfer of specie across the Atlantic, card money allowed France to benefit, since the King did not have the obligation to send coinage to Canada, which would have risked loss "either from the sea or from enemies" (Bank of Canada, 1990, p. 8).
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Exchanging paper money into copper or silver was known as duìxiàn (兌現, "convert into specie") which was the main reason why earlier forms of paper money were deemed reliable. As these regions were completely dependent on paper money inflation hit them more severely as their notes could not be converted into a currency based on any intrinsic value, for this reason the Mongols allowed their subjects to continue using copper-alloy cash coins and issued new ones every now and then. During the last few decades of the Yuan dynasty the inflation caused people to lose their trust in paper money and barter became the most common means of exchange.Williams, S. Wells (1975).
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The British enjoyed a virtual monopoly on modern banking for forty years. The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (香港上海匯豐銀行), now HSBC, established in 1865 in Hong Kong, later became the largest foreign bank in China. In the early 1890s, Germany's Deutsch- Asiatische Bank (德華銀行), Japan's Yokohama Specie Bank (橫濱正金銀行), France's Banque de l'Indochine (東方匯理銀行), and Russia's Russo-Asiatic Bank (華俄道勝銀行) opened branches in China and challenged British ascendancy in China's financial market. By the end of the nineteenth century there were nine foreign banks with forty-five branches in China's treaty ports.
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L&B; argued it could serve notice on Ladbroke in place of Co-op (and attempted to do so), L&B; having acquired new land; secondly it denied it now owned further servient land to accommodate Ladbroke's claimed interests under the contract with Co-op. In its view Ladbroke did not have a further easement (rights to bind L&B; to grant more parking) and could not have an easement in the first place. Ladbroke countered that even L&B; were bound by the agreement as it expressly created easements; the fact that its future enhanced parking rights related to uncertain land (therefore in specie) was not an invalid concept in law.
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"The presence among the assets of silver plate for an amount of more than 4,000 florins reveals at any rate that the Rome branch dealt more or less extensively in this product for which there was a demand among the high churchmen of the Curia who did a great deal of entertaining and liked to display their magnificence." de Roover (1966), p. 205. These payments were entirely one way, and not exchanges. Rome and Italy generally produced little to nothing of value and so the balance of trade was greatly unequal. It could be alleviated by the production from northern silver mines, but in general the main commodity Italy was willing to exchange specie for was English wool.
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Hus objected to some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church and wanted to return the church in Bohemia and Moravia to earlier practices: liturgy in the language of the people (i.e. Czech), having lay people receive communion in both kinds (bread and wine—that is, in Latin, communio sub utraque specie), married priests, and eliminating indulgences and the concept of purgatory. Some of these, like the use of local language as the liturgical language, were approved by the pope as early as in the 9th century. The leaders of the Roman Catholic Church condemned him at the Council of Constance (1414–1417) by burning him at the stake despite a promise of safe- conduct.
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The Battle of Cape Finisterre was a naval engagement fought off the Northern Spanish Atlantic coast near Cape Finisterre between British and French squadrons during the Seven Years' War. A British force comprising the 74-gun ship of the line HMS Bellona and 36-gun frigate HMS Brilliant was sailing from Lisbon to Britain with a cargo of specie when on 13 August they encountered a French force comprising the 74-gun Courageux and the 32-gun frigates Malicieuse and Hermine. The British ships immediately chased the French squadron, maintaining contact through the night, and on the following morning two separate engagements occurred as Brilliant fought the French frigates and Bellona battled Courageux. In a short but hard-fought engagement both ships of the line were damaged.
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Meanwhile, Williams maintained a large cache of specie to cover redemptions of his notes. Two members of the Texas Congress headed an opposition to the C & A Bank: Guy M. Bryan and Elisha M. Pease. Attorney General and Pease-ally John W. Harris filed a lawsuit against Williams, who retained Galveston-attorney, Ebenezer C. Allen. Harris filed a total of four suits against Williams with $75,000 in fines. In 1849, a District Court ruled that an 1841 law that gave Williams banking privileges was still valid.Henson (1976), pp. 141–144. In 1849, Williams gained an ally in the state congress. His former partner in the mercantile trade, Thomas McKinney gained a seat in the lower house and sought to repeal the 1848 banking laws.
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From the age of 19, James was in Paris co-ordinating the purchase of specie and bullion for his brother Nathan Mayer Rothschild (1777–1836), and in 1814 and 1815 he was the linchpin in Nathan's plan to furnish Wellington's armies with funds. In 1817 he expanded the family banking empire to the city, opening De Rothschild Frères. An adviser of ministers and kings, he became the most powerful banker in the country and following the Napoleonic Wars, played a major role in financing the construction of railroads and the mining business that helped make France an industrial power. Along the way, he added to his fortune with investments in such things as the importation of tea and the wine industry.
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This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose paper money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, the heterodoxy introduced by Wang Yangming permitted a more accommodating attitude. Zhang Juzheng's initially successful reforms proved devastating when a slowdown in agriculture produced by the Little Ice Age joined changes in Japanese and Spanish policy that quickly cut off the supply of silver now necessary for farmers to be able to pay their taxes. Combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was himself defeated shortly afterward by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty.
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This ignited a four-month debate in the Senate over whether and when the government should return to backing all of its currency with gold—including the remaining greenbacks. The majority, including Bayard, favored resumption, but in wording the resolution that passed the Senate, Republican John Sherman of Ohio left vague the exact timing; Bayard feared it would be put off indefinitely. The Sherman bill also proposed to remove greenbacks from circulation by exchanging them for bonds payable in gold; in response, Bayard proposed an amendment limiting the amount of debt the government could incur. When the amendment was rejected, Bayard voted against the bill (known as the Specie Payment Resumption Act), believing that it was likely to cause inflation.
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Rebecca Goldstein in Plato at the Googleplex: Why Philosophy Won't Go Away: > We are immortal only to the extent that we allow our own selves to be > rationalized by the sublime ontological rationality, ordering our own > processes of thinking, desiring, and acting in accordance with the perfect > proportions realized in the cosmos. We are then, while in this life, living > sub specie aeternitatis, as Spinoza was to put it, expanding our finitude to > encapture as much of infinity as we are able. In the article on Spinoza from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: > Sense experience alone could never provide the information conveyed by an > adequate idea. The senses present things only as they appear from a given > perspective at a given moment in time.
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Large-scale economic issues played a role in the decline of the maritime fur trade and the China trade in general. Before the 19th century, Chinese demand for Western raw materials or manufactured goods was small, but bullion (also known as specie) was accepted, resulting in a general drain of precious metals from the West to China. The situation reversed in the early 19th century for a variety of reasons. Western demand for Chinese goods declined relative to new options (for example, coffee from the West Indies began to replace tea in the United States), while Chinese demand for Western items increased, such as for English manufactures, American cotton goods, and opium which was outlawed but smuggled into China on a large and increasing scale.
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At the point when money velocity and prices rapidly accelerate in a vicious circle, hyperinflation is out of control, because ordinary policy mechanisms, such as increasing reserve requirements, raising interest rates, or cutting government spending will be ineffective and be responded to by shifting away from the rapidly devalued money and towards other means of exchange. During a period of hyperinflation, bank runs, loans for 24-hour periods, switching to alternate currencies, the return to use of gold or silver or even barter become common. Many of the people who hoard gold today expect hyperinflation, and are hedging against it by holding specie. There may also be extensive capital flight or flight to a "hard" currency such as the US dollar.
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Germany, 1923: banknotes had lost so much value that they were used as wallpaper. Hyperinflation increases stock market prices, wipes out the purchasing power of private and public savings, distorts the economy in favor of the hoarding of real assets, causes the monetary base (whether specie or hard currency) to flee the country, and makes the afflicted area anathema to investment. One of the most important characteristics of hyperinflation is the accelerating substitution of the inflating money by stable money—gold and silver in former times, then relatively stable foreign currencies after the breakdown of the gold or silver standards (Thiers' Law). If inflation is high enough, government regulations like heavy penalties and fines, often combined with exchange controls, cannot prevent this currency substitution.
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On 26 July, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed an executive order to seize Japanese assets in the United States in retaliation for the Japanese invasion of French Indochina. Tatsuta Maru was in San Francisco at the time, and American authorities confiscated a shipment of over nine million dollars in bonds by the Yokohama Specie Bank. On 30 July, the American government granted Tatsuta Maru a license to purchase enough fuel oil for the voyage back to Japan. This was last official oil export from the United States to Japan before the start of World War II. On the return voyage to Japan, the ship was struck with a case of food poisoning in which 125 passengers were affected, of which eight died.
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His interception of a Swedish convoy in the English Channel further strained relations between Britain and Sweden, though Lawford was also to be involved in the breakup of the League of Armed Neutrality, when he formed part of Rear-Admiral Horatio Nelson's fleet at the Battle of Copenhagen. Another highlight was the capture of a Spanish frigate carrying an immensely valuable cargo of specie. Lawford commanded several ships of the French and Spanish coasts throughout the rest of the wars, until being promoted to flag rank in 1811. He received further promotions throughout his long life, and the award of the KCB for his actions at Copenhagen, the only captain who fought at the battle to receive any honours related to it.
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As in every fiscal emergency, hard currency, particularly the United States dollar, has long served as a parallel currency on the black market, and many prices in shops would be posted in US dollars, even during periods when it was illegal to possess foreign currency or to transact business in US dollars. A unique form of circulating specie is the fuel ration coupon, which has been issued in 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008. Known denominations include 1, 5, 10, 20, 25, & 50 litres of petrol (gasoline), kerosene and/or diesel, and translate roughly into the local petrol price (about 1 UK pound sterling per litre or US$1.50 in late 2008).A Fuel Ration coupon for 25 litres of Kerosene Flickr (www.flickr.
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Concerning the various state-owned or state-involved banks in the United States during the first half of the 19th century, Susan Hoffmann writes: > Between the two extremes of mostly private commercial banks and almost > entirely public state central banks there existed just about every > arrangement imaginable. The state shared in ownership of some banks but not > in governance (beyond specifying the banks’ constitutions). When the state > was involved in a bank’s governance, its representation on the board of > directors ranged from minimal to a majority plus public selection of the > president. The capital of state banks consisted of various combinations of > specie, mortgages on land and slaves, and bonds issued by the chartering > state, other states, or the United States.
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The British captains were unaware that Spain had allied with France and was now at war with Britain, a fact known to their Spanish counterparts, and so unknowingly passed up the opportunity to attack the Spanish ships, which were heavily laden with specie from the Caribbean. Arriving with the convoy at the Cape of Good Hope, Buller spent some time on the station and was present with Lord Keith's fleet when the Dutch squadron surrendered at Saldanha Bay. He was then compelled to return home to attend to personal matters, and transferred into the 64-gun for the voyage home. Unable to take up a sea-going command due to his personal affairs, Buller accepted command of the Sea Fencibles based from the Lyme to Cawsand Bay.
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The name is derived from reference by R.W. McLachlan in an 1885 article about Canadian Numismatics, where he describes a specific coin of this series and says: > Previous to 1837, when the lack of specie caused copper change to be > accepted in bulk, there lived in Montreal a blacksmith of dissipated habits. > He prepared a die for himself, and when he wished to have a "good time" he > struck two or three dollars in these coppers, and thereby supplied himself > with sufficient change with which to gratify his wishes.McLachlan 1885 p. 85 While this description was intended to describe only a specific coin in the series, "blacksmith token" or "blacksmith copper" was the name that stuck, and was soon applied to all of these types of coins.
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Deprived of the original reason for the denomination's existence, no three-cent pieces were struck for circulation in 1886 (though several thousand proof coins were produced), and in the three remaining years of the piece's life, a total of less than 60,000 circulation strikes were minted. As the production of three-cent pieces dwindled, the other non-specie coins prospered, with record numbers of cents being struck in the 1880s to address the need to make change, and for penny arcade machines. The nickel proved popular in slot machines and street railways, which often set fares at five cents. With silver again circulating, the three-cent piece became more unpopular because it was almost the same diameter as the dime, leading to confusion and small frauds.
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He was active when Mocatta became a counterparty to the Hunt Brothers in the Hunts' attempted silver corner of 1980. Mocatta & Goldsmid had previously been involved with stabilization of the markets under similar circumstances, such as the 1913 rescue of the Indian Specie Bank. During his involvement with the Mocatta Group, Jarecki served as a director of the Futures Industry Association, the National Futures Association, COMEX, the Chicago Board of Trade, and the Chicago Metals board of trade, and was an adviser to the Commodity Futures Trading Commission in the years following its establishment. Jarecki was also the founder of a number of other business ventures, notably Brody, White & Co., a brokerage firm that is now a part of Newedge Group.
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Among their biggest clients was Baring Brothers, a British merchant bank based in London that was the world's second oldest merchant bank founded in 1762 and owned by the German- originated Baring family of merchants and bankers. In 1823, Baring bought Erie Canal bonds through the firm, causing other international investors to do the same. The success of the Canal bonds caused the firm to take the lead in financing American expansion out west. After the financial crisis of 1836 to 1837, the Bank of England in an effort to assist New York City banks in resuming specie payment, confided a loan of almost 5 million dollars of gold to the firm which was considered a remarkable sign of confidence.
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Spencer M. Clark, Supervisor of the Currency Bureau, placed his own likeness on the five-cent U.S. Fractional currency note, leading directly to legislation prohibiting the depiction of any living person on U.S. currency. The Civil War caused most American coins to vanish from circulation, with the gap filled by such means as merchant tokens, encased postage stamps, and United States fractional currency, issued in denominations as low as three cents. Although specie (gold or silver coins) was hoarded or exported, the copper-nickel cent, then the only base metal denomination being struck, also vanished. In 1864, Congress began the process of restoring coins to circulation by abolishing the three-cent note and authorizing bronze cents and two-cent pieces, with low intrinsic values, to be struck.
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The dirham is frequently mentioned in Jewish orthodox law as a unit of weight used to measure various requirements in religious functions, such as the weight in silver specie pledged in Marriage Contracts (Ketubbah), the quantity of flour requiring the separation of the dough-portion, etc. Jewish physician and philosopher, Maimonides, uses the Egyptian dirham to approximate the quantity of flour for dough-portion, writing in Mishnah Eduyot 1:2: "...And I found the rate of the dough-portion in that measurement to be approximately five-hundred and twenty dirhams of wheat flour, while all these dirhams are the Egyptian [dirham]." This view is repeated by Maran's Shulhan Arukh (Hil. Hallah, Yoreh Deah § 324:3) in the name of the Tur.
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The Carthaginian or Punic shekel was typically around 7.2 grams in silver and 7.5 grams in gold (suggesting an exchange rate of 12:1). They were apparently first developed on Sicily during the mid-4th century BC.. They were particularly associated with the payment of Carthage's mercenary armies and were repeatedly debased over the course of each of the Punic Wars, although the Carthaginian Empire's expansion into Spain under the Barcids before the Second and recovery under Hannibal before the Third permitted improving the amount and quality of the currency. Throughout, it was more common for Carthage's holdings in North Africa to employ bronze or no coinage except when paying mercenary armies and for most of the specie to circulate in Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily.
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By contrast little evidence has been found of widespread use of pure barter, where traders meet face to face and transactions are completed in a single swap. As cities, states, and empires were established, coins and other compact forms of specie were minted or printed as fiat money with set values, permitting the accumulation of assets that would not deteriorate over time as goods might and that had the relatively secure backing of a government which could adjust value by producing more or less of the currency. As fixed currencies were gradually replaced by floating currencies during the 20th century, and as the recent development of computer networks made electronic money possible, financial transactions have rapidly increased in speed and complexity.
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Randall E. Parker, Reflections on the Great Depression, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, , p. 20 Under the gold standards, price–specie flow mechanism countries that lost gold, but nevertheless wanted to maintain the gold standard, had to permit their money supply to decrease and the domestic price level to decline (deflation).Randall E. Parker, Reflections on the Great Depression, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, , p. 16 As long as the Federal Reserve had to defend the gold parity of the dollar it had to sit idle while the banking system crumbled. In March and April in a series of laws and executive orders, the government suspended the gold standard. Roosevelt stopped the outflow of gold by forbidding the export of gold except under license from the Treasury.
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On 4 May, the Gyeongin Railway Underwriting Association was formed, and Morse, via Ōkawa Heizaburō (ja), offered to sell the project to Shibusawa Eiichi. Morse later made plans to sell the railway to a French syndicate for 3 million yen, but this deal fell through on 8 March 1898, and finally on 31 October of that year, he agreed to sell the Gyeongin Railway project to the Underwriting Association for 1.8 million yen. After meeting with Morse at the Yokohama Specie Bank, Shibusawa finalised the acquisition of the Gyeongin Railway, and on 15 May the Gyeongin Railway Co. Ltd. (京仁鉄道合資会社, Keijin Tetsudō Gōshigaisha, 경인철도 합자회사 Gyeongin Cheoldo Habjahoesa) was officially established, with Shibusawa as president.
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In June 1822 the Knox County circuit court declared the First State Bank had forfeited its charter. In November 1823 the Indiana Supreme Court upheld the termination of the bank's charter and concluded that the First State Bank had "embezzled" $250,000 of federal deposits, issued more paper than it could redeem, had debt exceeding the limited allowed under its charter, established more branches than its capital and specie could support, paid shareholders large dividends, and took steps to dissolve without paying debts owed.Carmony, p. 24 For several years after the First State Bank's failure, Indiana citizens depended on the Bank of the United States, with a branch in Louisville, and the Farmers and Mechanics Bank of Madison for financial services.
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Although Veronese's work was severely criticised as unsound by Peano, he is now recognised as having priority on many ideas that have since become parts of transfinite numbers and model theory, and as one of the respected authorities of the time, his work served to focus Peano and others on the need for greater rigor. He is particularly noted for his hypothesis of relative continuity which was the foundation for his development of the first non-Archimedean linear continuum. Veronese produced several significant monographs. The most famous appeared in 1891, Fondamenti di geometria a più dimensioni e a più specie di unità rettilinee esposti in forma elementare, normally referred to as Fondamenti di geometria to distinguish it from Veronese' other works also styled Fondamenti.
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Within months of his return to Boston, James Magee became captain of the Astrea, one of four ships owned by Elias Hasket Derby that sailed from New England to Canton via the Cape of Good Hope in the late 1780s. With Magee's brother-in-law Thomas Handasyd Perkins as supercargo, the Astrea sailed in 1789 with a cargo including 38 tons of ginseng, about $30,000 in specie, and quantities of beeswax, butter, rum, cod, candles, snuff, and iron. It returned to Salem on 1 June 1790 with a cargo of tea and silk. While at Canton Magee encountered Captain Robert Gray of the Columbia Rediviva and John Kendrick of the Lady Washington, who inspired Magee and T.H. Perkins to enter the maritime fur trade themselves.
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As Ahl al-Kitab, lit. "The People of the Scriptures," the Jews were assured freedom of religion only in exchange for payment of a poll-tax (Arabic: jizya), imposed on certain non-Muslim monotheists (people of the Book). Their feudal overlords imposed the annual poll-tax upon Jews, which, under Islamic law, was to ensure their status as protected persons of the state. This tax (tribute) was assessed against every male thirteen years and older, and its remittance varied between the wealthy and the poor.Page 15 in: In the early 20th-century, this amounted to one Maria Theresa thaler (riyal) for a poor man, two of the same coins in specie for the middle classes, and four or more thalers for the rich.
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Sherman understood that "a radical change in existing laws relating to our currency must be made, or ... the destruction of the Union would be unavoidable ..." Secretary Chase agreed and proposed that the Treasury Department issue United States Notes that were redeemable not in specie but in 6% government bonds. The bills would be "lawful money and a legal tender in the payment of all debts". Nothing but gold and silver coin had ever been legal tender in the United States, but Congress yielded to the wartime necessities, and the resulting First Legal Tender Act passed both the House and the Senate. The Act limited the notes (later known as "greenbacks") to $150 million, but two subsequent Legal Tender Acts that year expanded the limit to $450 million.
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This institution, founded in 1816, became a depository for canal funds and disbursed specie and scrip on behalf of the Canal Commission, and Kelley was later elected to the bank's board of directors. Through Micajah Williams, Kelley also became a stockholder in the Franklin Bank of Cincinnati. Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Co. banknote from 1839 or 1840 Kelley's biggest role as a banker was his participation as an organizer and trustee of the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Company. The Trust Co., as it was more commonly known, was conceived by Connecticut and New York financier Isaac Bronson, his son Arthur Bronson, and New York lawyer and prominent Jacksonian Charles Butler (brother of U.S. Attorney General Benjamin Franklin Butler).
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One faction, led by Andrew Jackson, harbored a deep suspicion of the federal government. These "Jacksonians" viewed strong government as a threat to individual freedom, favored the farmer over the businessman, and believed that government programs (such as banking reform and regulation, infrastructure development, public education, and high tariffs) benefited the rich at the expense of the common man. The other faction, led by Clay and John Quincy Adams, favored high tariffs, believing they would prevent specie from going overseas and thus allow banks to expand capital and credit. Coupled with a strong and activist central government and system of federally-financed infrastructure improvement, these "National Republicans" hoped to expand the economy, empower producers (businessmen and farmers), and bring new and improved products to markets (consumers).
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The surname "Bethmann" likely was an occupational name (like "Bäcker"/"Baker") given to collectors of the , a tax requested () from freemen in the Middle Ages.Dictionary of American Family Names at Answers.com Subsequently, other Bethmanns – a Tile, a Bartold, a Hans and an Albrecht – appear in the records of Goslar, as owners of houses on Stonestrate and Korngasse, and as witnesses in the sale of houses. Another Tile buys a house on Knochenhauerstraße in 1492, serves on the town council, and is mentioned ten times between 1503 and 1520 as Munteherr, the title of an official responsible for minting of specie and weighing the metals produced from mining. In 1512, Henning Bethmann, the great-great-grandfather of Konrad Bethmann, is accepted into the merchants' guild.
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The marine account provides cover for hull, liability, war, terrorism, cargo, freight forwarders, political risk, specie, fine art and satellite. The aviation account insures airline hull and liability, general aviation, refuellers and aviation products. Property including treaty business, as well as direct and facultative coverage for commercial and industrial risks against physical damage and business interruption. The treaty account covers cedents on a global basis, predominantly on an “excess of loss” basis for both per risk and catastrophe coverage, with a limited amount of proportional treaty and reinsurance assumed business. Casualty and other including liability coverage for professional and commercial risks on a direct and treaty basis, crime and professional liability coverage for financial institutions, medical malpractice and excess workers’ compensation.
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The Bank of England gained a monopoly over the issue of banknotes with the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Originally, the banknote was simply a promise to the bearer that they could redeem it for its value in specie, but in 1833 the second in a series of Bank Charter Acts established that banknotes would be considered as legal tender during peacetime. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were the common form of currency throughout England, outside London. The Bank Charter Act of 1844, which established the modern central bank, restricted authorisation to issue new banknotes to the Bank of England, which would henceforth have sole control of the money supply in 1921.
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Allenson edited the following works of his old tutor Dr. Whitaker: Prælectiones (1599), Prælectiones, in quibus tractatur controversia de conciliis contra pontificios, imprimis Rob. Bellarminum (1600), and De Peccato Originali contra Stapletonum (1600). It appears that Allenson took notes of Whitaker's lectures and prepared them for the press. In 1624 John Ward edited at Frankfort Whitaker's Prælectiones de Sacramentis in Genere et in Specie de SS. Baptismo et Eucharistia, and in the dedication to Dr. Tobie Mathew, Archbishop of York, informed him that Dr. Whitaker had not himself published these lectures: quæ tamen de Sacramentis adversus Bellarminum in Scholis Academiæ publicis prælegit, vir diligentissimus D. Allensonius, collegii D. Joannis Evangelistæ socius, fideli calamo ex ore dictantis excepit et post authoris mortem, cum ipsius D. Whitakeri concisis annotiunculis in memoriæ subsidium scriptis, accurate contulit præloque destinabat.
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Chess problem #35 Alfonso also had the Libro de ajedrez, dados, y tablas ("Libro de los Juegos" (The Book of Games)) translated into Castilian from Arabic and added illustrations with the goal of perfecting the work. It was completed in 1283.. Although Musser Golladay is not the first to assert that 1283 is the finish date of the Libro de Juegos, the a quo information compiled in her dissertation consolidates the range of research concerning the initiation and completion dates of the Libro de Juegos. The Libro de juegos contains an extensive collection of writings on chess, with over 100 chess problems and chess variants.Wollesen, Jens T. "Sub specie ludi...: Text and Images in Alfonso El Sabio's Libro de Acedrex, Dados e Tablas", Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 53:3, 1990. pp. 277–308.
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By the turn of the 20th century HSBC had become the most important foreign banking company in imperial China leading to a great variety of banknotes being issued by the bank during this era. As the shareholders of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation had only very limited liability for the banknotes emissed by the company, HSBC was required to hold ⅓ specie reserve in their vaults at any given time. Thus resulted in the fact these banknotes were always secured to be paid out to the bearer and never faced being defaulted. The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation had effectively set the Shanghai foreign currency exchange rates are a fact which shows the extent of its sizable and growing dominant role in Chinese financial matters during the Qing dynasty and early Republican eras.
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"Haydn added the trumpet and timpani parts later but they are moulded into the texture in an eminently skilful manner and their omission would be unthinkable (although, unfortunately, not unheard-of)." #Vivace con brio, (D major) #Specie d'un canone in contrapunto doppio Andante, (D minor) #Allegretto, (D major) #Allegro con brio, (D minor, ending in D major) The first movement is a sonata form allegro in time, dominated by a motif established in the opening bars and consisting of two descending pairs of notes, firmly establishing the home key by using only notes in the D major triad. 500px The exposition is marked for repeat, as are the development and recapitulation. The development begins with a repetition of the exposition's ending, but on unison C-naturals in the woodwinds and strings.
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The research presented in the book differs from the traditional view and presents support from standard lexicons to explain how the Qur'anic/Arabic words were originally understood by Bedouins of the area. The book also argues that the phenomenon of Revelation is global and non-human, and several of its premises such as the human pair was born 59000 years ago from a female of a previous specie(s) are likely to generate a lot of controversy amongst the traditionalists of all faiths. The book suggests "collective scientific investigation" of the information by a panel of linguists, science historians and scientists of various disciplines, for in-depth verification of the research and premises made in the book. The book has outlined a mechanism based on information theory precepts for this purpose.
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They do not bother about the fact that capitalism emerged > only in the last two hundred years and that even today it is restricted to a > comparatively small area of the earth's surface and to a minority of > peoples. There were and are, say these critics, other civilizations with a > different mentality and different modes of conducting economic affairs. > Capitalism is, when seen sub specie aeternitatis, a passing phenomenon, an > ephemeral stage of historical evolution, just the transition from > precapitalistic ages to a postcapitalistic future. All these criticisms are > spurious.... Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, in Talks with T.G. Masaryk by Karel Čapek: > Many modern man is afraid of death, he is too luxurious—his life is not > great drama, he just wants to food and enjoyment; unbeliever is not there > enough trust and dedication.
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The bank was established by the Governor-General of Korea in 1910 as the Kankoku Ginkō, taking the place of the privately held Korean branch of Daiichi Kokuritsu Ginkō (First National Bank), which had established a branch in 1878. The Bank of Korea assumed responsibility for the banknotes issued by the Dai- Ichi Bank that were still in circulation (which totalled 12,000,000 yen), the Dai-Ichi Bank would further transfer to the Bank of Korea the 4,000,000 yen in specie reserves which backed its banknotes. The balance was converted by the Bank of Korea to a loan of 20 years without interest to the Dai-Ichi Bank. After the annexation of Korean Empire by Japan in 1910, the bank was reorganized and its name was changed to reflect the official name for Korea.
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Lulianos and Paphos (alt. sp. Julianus and Pappus) (2nd-century CE) were two wealthy Jewish brothers who lived in Laodicea in Asia Minor, contemporaries with Rabbi Yehoshua ben Hananiah,Midrash Rabba (Genesis Rabba, P. Toldot § 64:8) and who suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Roman legate. An anecdote about the lives of these two illustrious Grecian-Jewish citizens has come down in the Midrashic literature stating that, during the days of Hadrian, the emperor mulled over the thought of rebuilding Israel's Temple. When the news reached Lulianos and Paphos who were very wealthy, they set-up tables from Acco to Antioch, hoping thereby to allow Jewish pilgrims to exchange their local currency for coins in specie, or else provide other basic needs for the people before proceeding on to Jerusalem.
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In consequence of there being neither gold nor silver coins of any > denomination, nor any legal currency, as a substitute for specie in the > colony, the people have been in some degree forced on the expedient of > issuing and receiving notes of hand to supply the place of real money, and > this petty banking has thrown open a door to frauds and impositions of a > most grievous nature to the country at large…At present the agricultural and > commercial pursuits of the territory are very much impeded and obstructed by > the want of some adequately secured circulating medium.Governor Macquarie to > Viscount Castlereagh, 30 April 1810, HRNSW, Vol. VII, page 348. Under D’Arcy Wentworth, the Colonial Fund had a quasi-bank role, printing and issuing bank notes to people who had claims on the Fund.
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De Soto appears to have entered service in August 1859,"Movements Of Ocean Steamers", The New York Times, 1859-08-25. carrying mail, passengers and specie between New York and New Orleans, with an intermediate stop at Havana, Cuba. She would maintain a regular service on this route, making a round trip about once a month,See Google News Archive search, for "steamer De Soto" from 1859 to 1861. Note that there was also a De Soto running between the United Kingdom and the U.S. in this period; this was a different vessel. until shortly after the outbreak of the Civil War in April 1861. The ship made a fast passage of less than four days from Havana to New York in April 1860, at an average speed of around 14 mph.
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Eventually even India and the Straits Settlements adopted a sterling exchange standard, leaving only Canada, Newfoundland, British Honduras, and Hong Kong totally outside the sterling system. This sterling monetary union existed throughout much the same period that the Latin Monetary Union existed, and in both cases, the First World War was the major factor that signalled the end of the union. In both cases, the union was maintained by virtue of the gold specie standard. During the period of monetary union, a standard issue of sterling coinage, minted at the Royal Mint at Tower Hill, London circulated in the United Kingdom, Australia and its dependencies such as Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and its dependencies such as Western Samoa, as well as in Fiji and the British Western Pacific Territories.
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The specie of this tropical crop grown by Awaka people had been long held as distinct from other species with well arranged light yellow grains on a cob that fattens towards the base. There are three villages that make up Awaka, namely Nde-Egbelu, Umuodu and Amuzi villages. The town had been ruled by His Royal Highness Eze Akujobi David-Osuagwu the Ezikoche II, since the mid nineties after a protracted tussle following the death of HRH Eze Chris David- Osuagwu (Ezikoche I). Awaka people are predominantly Christians with a large presence of Roman Catholics and Anglican faithfuls who worship at the Holy Trinity Catholic Parish and the Christ's Anglican Church respectively. There are two primary schools, each close to each of the two major churches, a customary court and two privately-owned hotels.
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The Ermellinata di Rovigo was created between 1959 and 1965 at the Stazione Sperimentale di Pollicoltura, or experimental chicken breeding centre, of Rovigo, in the Veneto. It was conceived as a dual-purpose breed, and based on Rhode Island Red and Sussex stock. It broadly resembles a Light Sussex, with the difference that it has yellow skin and legs, which are traditionally preferred by Italian consumers of chicken meat. A standard for the breed was published by the now-defunct Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Specie Avicole, or national association of breeders of avian species, in the latter part of the 20th century, and is published for historic interest on the website of the Federazione Italiana Associazioni Avicole, the federation of Italian poultry associations, the authority governing poultry breeding in Italy.
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Between the November 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln and the meeting of the Alabama Convention on January 7, 1861, Moore took several decisive steps to safeguard the state's financial status and defensive capabilities. He urged banks to suspend specie payments and to exchange large amounts of capital for state bonds. He ordered the state militia to seize the arsenal at Mt. Vernon and Forts Morgan and Gaines on Mobile Bay, and he contributed more than five hundred troops to assist Florida Governor Madison S. Perry in capturing the Federal forts at Pensacola. When the government of the Confederate States of America was organized in Montgomery in February 1861, Moore used his influence to help secure the election of the conservative Jefferson Davis over the more radical William Lowndes Yancey.
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There are conflicting theories concerning the origins of the European water buffalo: one, based on fossil bones found in the valleys of the Elbe and the Rhine, is that it descends from an extinct European wild species; others believe that water buffalo were brought to Europe in the sixth and seventh centuries by invading peoples such as the Pannonian Avars, or later, by crusaders returning from Mesopotamia. Detailed studies of the DNA of European buffalo have not been made. The buffalo may have been introduced into Italy in Roman times, or during the Barbarian invasions of the Italian peninsula. In 1979 a national association of buffalo breeders, the Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Specie Bufalina, was formed, and a genealogical herd-book for the buffalo was opened in the following year.
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The political use of the grain supply along with gladiatorial games and other entertainments gave rise to the saying "Bread and circuses" from one of the bitter satires of Juvenal (60-140 A.D) as if the population of the city did nothing but live off free grain and go to entertainments (circus races were actually held on average only 17 days a year and gladiatorial shows 5–7 days in a year). The machinery of the Annona civilis became more complex over time.Southern, Pat, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine (2004), pg. 326 With the devaluation of currency in the course of the third century, the army was paid in rationed supplies (annonae) as well as in specie from the later third century, through a cumbrous administration of collection and redistribution.
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Wilentz (2005), pp. 439–440 Gouge and Condy Raguet proposed the creation of an independent treasury system, whereby the federal government would store its funds as specie in government-controlled vaults, rather than relying on state banks or the national bank.Wilentz (2005), pp. 458–459 During his second term, President Andrew Jackson removed federal deposits from the national bank and shifted them to state-chartered banks that became known as "pet banks".Wilentz (2005), pp. 393–396, 438 The Jackson administration also banned the pet banks from issuing banknotes of denominations of less than $20.Wilentz (2005), pp. 441–442 The federal charter of the national bank had expired by the end of Jackson's second term, but many hard money advocates still favored the removal of all federal deposits from all banks.
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The government argued that this action was to defend against an invasion; the courts held that for the prerogative to be exercised, the government must demonstrate that a threat of invasion exists. This was backed up by The Zamora (1916),Privy Council, The Zamora, On Appeal from the High Court, Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division. (In Prize.) Powers of King in Council – Royal Prerogative – Extent to which Orders in Council are binding – Inherent Powers of the Court – Preservation of Property in Specie – Neutral Cargo – Contraband – Seizure as Prize – Requisition before Adjudication – Validity – Prize Court Rules. where the Privy Council, on appeal from the Prize Court, held generally that to exercise a power not granted by statute (such as a prerogative power) the government must prove to the court that the exercise is justified.
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Tsuruoka is known for dadacha-mame (だだちゃ豆), a specie of soybean, which have been called "the king of edamame"; they are also used for other products such as nattō and in manjū. There are two theories as to the origin of the name: one is that it derives from dadacha, the Shonai dialectical word for "father" – gagacha is the dialectical word for "mother", while the other is that the beans came from Date, Fukushima, and were originally called Date-no-chamame, which became Date-chamame and then Dadacha- mame.Yamagata foods: Dadacha-mame Dadachamame are used in any kind of meal: sweet, salty, spicy, bitter, sour, just boiled, crushed, grilled, and in sauces. Dadakko (だだっ子), are small cakes which contain a sweet dadachamame paste.
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1914 half sovereign from the Sydney mint Political conditions in the aftermath of the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 smoothed informal adoption of the British Pound Sterling in New South Wales with relative ease, such adoption proceeding to expand out to New Zealand and other regions of Oceania in time. Having adopted a successful Gold Specie Standard in 1821, the British Government decided in 1825 to introduce the sterling coinage to all of its colonies as a matter of policy. From the latter half of the 19th century until the outbreak of World War I, a monetary union, based on the British gold sovereign existed in a part of the British Empire which included all of both countries and their dependencies. In 1910, Australia introduced its own currency in the likeness of sterling currency.
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Put simply, any two individuals or entities can agree between themselves on the value of their money, whether that money is a piece of paper, a precious metal coin, or even a giant disk of stone, and no governing body cannot interfere in that transaction, unless there is a taxable gain of value by one or both parties. Specie Legal Tender is distinct in that, because it is created by the State and branded as money, it is exempt from taxable appreciation, as long as it is being used as the medium (not the commodity) of the transaction. If the Federal Reserve Note tripled in value tomorrow, it would be nonsensical for the IRS to tax every citizen on that "gain." The same is true in regard to other forms of legal US currency.
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A Demand Note (top) and a United States Note (bottom) The Civil War expenditures quickly strained the government's already fragile financial situation and Sherman, assigned to the Senate Finance Committee, was involved in the process of increasing the revenue. In July 1861, Congress authorized the government to issue Demand Notes, the first form of paper money issued directly by the United States government. The notes were redeemable in specie (i.e., gold or silver coin) but, as Sherman would note in his memoirs, they did not solve the revenue problem, as the government did not have the coin to redeem the notes should they all be presented for payment. To solve this problem, Chase asked for and Congress authorized the issuance of $150 million in bonds, which (as banks purchased them with gold) replenished the treasury.
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Roscoe Conkling Legal Dictionary Online Conkling was active in framing and pushing through Congress the reconstruction legislation, and was instrumental in the passage of the second Civil Rights Act of 1875, and of the act for the resumption of specie payments, in the same year. He was Chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Revision of the Laws of the United States (40th - 43rd Congresses), of the United States Senate Committee on Commerce (44th, 45th and 47th Congresses), of the U.S. Senate Committee on Engrossed Bills (46th and 47th Congresses). In the Republican National Convention at Cincinnati in 1876, Conkling first appeared as a presidential candidate, initially receiving 93 votes. His votes would later be thrown behind Rutherford B. Hayes in order to prevent the ascension of James G. Blaine.
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When the crisis had passed, many in both the Democratic and Republican parties, especially in the East, wanted to return the nation's currency to a gold standard as soon as possible (candidates who favored the gold-backed currency were called "hard money" supporters, while the policy of encouraging inflation was known as "soft money"). The Specie Payment Resumption Act, passed in 1875, ordered that greenbacks be gradually withdrawn and replaced with gold-backed currency, beginning in 1879. At the same time, economic depression had made it more expensive for debtors to pay debts they had contracted when currency was less valuable. Neither the Democrats nor the Republicans offered a home to those who favored retaining greenbacks, so many looked to create a third party that would address their concerns.
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In January 1844, Green established in New York City a short-lived journal, The Republic, to combat the spoils system and to advocate free trade. In September 1844, Calhoun, now secretary of state, sent Green to Texas ostensibly as consul at Galveston but actually, it appears, to report to the administration, which was then considering the question of the annexation of Texas, on the political situation in Texas and Mexico. After the close of the Mexican–American War, Green was sent to Mexico in 1849 by President Zachary Taylor to negotiate concerning the money that in the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States had agreed to pay, and he saved his country a considerable sum by arranging for payment in exchange instead of in specie. Subsequently, Green was engaged in railway building in Georgia and Alabama.
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In addition to Treasury Notes, in 1861, Congress authorized the Treasury to borrow $50 million in the form of Demand Notes, which did not bear interest but could be redeemed on demand for precious metals. However, by December 1861, the Union government's supply of specie was outstripped by demand for redemption and they were forced to suspend redemption temporarily. The following February, Congress passed the Legal Tender Act of 1862, issuing United States Notes, which were not redeemable on demand and bore no interest, but were legal tender, meaning that creditors had to accept them at face value for any payment except for public debts and import tariffs. However, silver and gold coins continued to be issued, resulting in the depreciation of the newly printed notes through Gresham's Law. In 1869, Supreme Court ruled in Hepburn v.
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The first "Glass–Steagall Act" was a law passed by the United States Congress on February 27, 1932, prior to the inclusion of more comprehensive measures in the Banking Act of 1933, which is now more commonly known as the Glass- Steagall Act. It was the first time that currency (non-specie, paper currency etc.) was permitted to be allocated for the Federal Reserve System. It was passed in an effort to stop deflation and expanded the Federal Reserve's ability to offer loans to member banks (rediscounts) on more types of assets such as government bonds as well as commercial paper. The "Glass–Steagall Act" is not the official title of the law; it is a colloquialism that refers to its legislative sponsors, Carter Glass, a US Senator from Virginia and Henry B. Steagall, the Congressman from Alabama's 3rd congressional district.
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When the news hit London a few days later, there was a run on the Bank of England by holders of banknotes, attempting to convert them into gold (a right enshrined in the wording that still exists on English notes of "I promise to pay the bearer on demand..."). However, owing to the gold standard, and the fact that the total face value of the notes in circulation was almost exactly twice the actual gold reserves held (£10,865,050 of notes, compared to £5,322,010 in bullion),War Finance in England; The Bank Restriction Act of 1797 - Suspension of Specie Payments for Twenty-four Years—How to Prevent Depreciation of the Currency. The New York Times, 27 Jan 1862. Accessed 22 April 2016 on 27 February 1797, Parliament passed the Bank Restriction Act 1797 (37 Geo. III. c. 45).
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The original park space was designed by the landscape architecture firm of Sakuma, James, and Peterson, led by S.K. Sakuma; the land was previously occupied by the Specie Bank of Seattle, built in 1911, and the park, originally , was completed in 1973. The pavilion and furniture were donated by the then Mayor of Taipei after a visit to Seattle in the early 1970s. He met with then King County Council member Ruby Chow, who explained to him that the city had purchased and torn down the condemned buildings on the land, proposing a park instead, but it needed to be as care free as possible because the city could not afford on going maintenance costs. After discussions with Ruby Chow, the mayor of Taipei offered to donate the brickwork, pavilion and bulletin board from his own private funds.
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Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper Delano shown pretending to be Grant's arms, while offering kitchen utensils and a receipt for $25,000 to Red Cloud, Chief of the Oglala Sioux, in exchange for the Black Hills, an offer Red Cloud refuses. In mid-May 1875, Red Cloud, Chief of the Oglala Lakota (Sioux), and other Indian tribal leaders were brought to Washington D.C. to negotiate the sale of the Black Hills. Rumors had spread throughout the country in 1874 of gold being discovered by George Custer's recent expedition, and the country was desperate for new wealth following the Panic of 1873. Grant sent the expedition, hoping to find gold in order to support his specie currency policy; Delano opposed the move, believing travel through and eventual occupation of hunting grounds violated the Treaty of Fort Laramie and could lead to an Indian war.
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The Farmville and Powhatan Railroad, later renamed the Tidewater and Western Railroad, ran to the headwaters of the Appomattox River at the town of Farmville through Cumberland, Powhatan. Although decisively helpful in keeping the agricultural community from total loss, especially in regards to bringing in valued specie into the local economy, it nonetheless failed in fulfilling its wider aims of putting the planter class back into financial prosperity. The Great Depression of 1873, and subsequent farming depressions, and most importantly the growth of Egyptian cotton and Indian cotton pushed aside American cotton, which had previously provided the prosperity of the planter class. Although this decreased the demand and forced a change to crops such as corn, and wheat thereby restoring soil health, the new crops did not bring in enough wealth or traffic to the growers, merchant class, and railroad.
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It "opposed to all attempts at centralisation and consolidation of power in the hands of the General Government" and advocated "to secure universal political rights and equality among both the white and the colored people of the United States". The resolution called for "payment of the public debt at the earliest practicable moment consistent with moderate taxation" and to "make the burdens of taxation equal, uniform, and just" with "adequate reform in the civil service". For government finances, "a strictly revenue tariff" was advocated, along with "all taxation ought to be based on wealth instead of population . . . That specie is the basis of all sound currency, and that the policy requires as speedy a return to that basis as is practicable without distress to the debtor-class The resolution stated "there is no necessary or irrepressible conflict between labor and capital.
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Scion of an old aristocratic family, he was the son of Conrad Friedrich Robert Heldreich and Amalia Charlotte Humbold. He initially studied philosophy. A love of botany, however, took him to Montpellier in 1837 to study under Professor Michel Félix Dunal. He later completed his botanical education in Geneva (1838–1842). His first botanical expedition was to Sicily, after which he published his first work “Tre nuove specie di piante scoverte nella Sicilia”. From 1843 to 1848 he travelled extensively throughout Italy, Greece, Asia Minor and Crete. During 1849 and 1850 he lived in England, and then for a year in Paris where he served as curator of P. Barker Webb’s herbarium. In 1851 he settled permanently in Greece, where he carried out rigorous botanical investigations, publishing thirteen volumes of the “Herbarium Graecum Normale” between 1856 and 1896.
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The gold standard was originally implemented as a gold specie standard, by the circulation of gold coins. The monetary unit is associated with the value of circulating gold coins, or the monetary unit has the value of a certain circulating gold coin, but other coins may be made of less valuable metal. With the invention and spread in use of paper money, gold coins were eventually supplanted by banknotes, creating the gold bullion standard, a system in which gold coins do not circulate, but the authorities agree to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price in exchange for the circulating currency. Lastly, countries may implement a gold exchange standard, where the government guarantees a fixed exchange rate, not to a specified amount of gold, but rather to the currency of another country that uses a gold standard.
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Critics who supported paper money in their memorials to the Qing throne stated that the Ministry of Revenue was too undecided on their monetary policies and that they came too late. Many critics demanded that government-issued banknotes would be made fully convertible in specie and that they should be treated as legal tender in 100% of all government transactions and could circulate throughout the Qing Empire without the restrictions that were currently set on them by the Ministry of Revenue. Some critics suggested that the Hubu Guanpiao should be forcefully introduced to the people as tax bonds, which would be repayable by the Chinese government over a few years in the form of discounts on the land tax. Many of these officials also stated their disapproval of the circulation of private cash shop notes and that this practice must cease to prevent the general over-circulation of paper currency.
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The game of astronomical tables, from Libro de los juegos The Libro de los Juegos ("Book of games"), or Libro de axedrez, dados e tablas ("Book of chess, dice and tables", in Old Spanish), was commissioned by Alfonso X of Castile, Galicia and León and completed in his scriptorium in Toledo in 1283,Sonja Musser Golladay, "Los Libros de Acedrex Dados E Tablas: Historical, Artistic and Metaphysical Dimensions of Alfonso X’s Book of Games" (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2007), 31. Although Golladay is not the first to assert that 1283 is the finish date of the Libro de Juegos, the a quo information compiled in her dissertation consolidates the range of research concerning the initiation and completion dates of the Libro de Juegos.Wollesen, Jens T. "Sub specie ludi...: Text and Images in Alfonso El Sabio's Libro de Acedrex, Dados e Tablas", Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 53:3, 1990. pp. 277–308.
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Under the gold specie standard, anyone in possession of gold bullion could deposit it at a mint where it would be processed into gold coins. Less a nominal seigniorage to cover processing costs, the coins would then be paid to the depositor; this was free coinage of gold by definition. The objective of the free silver movement was that the mints should accept and process silver bullion according to the same principle, notwithstanding the fact that the market value of the silver in circulating coins of the United States was substantially less than face value.Walter T. K. Nugent, Money and American Society, 1865–1880 (1968) As a result, the monetary value of silver coins was based on government fiat rather than on the commodity value of their contents, and this became especially true following the huge silver strikes in the West, which further depressed the silver price.
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Engraving of Boston's Exchange Coffee House, which Dexter was responsible for constructing To finance the construction of the Exchange Coffee House, Dexter took advantage of this unregulated system by starting or gaining control of banks located far from Boston, including rural Rhode Island, western Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine and Michigan, and issuing bank notes that far exceeded the banks' gold and silver deposits. His intent was to circulate in Boston bank notes from locations so far away that no one would ever redeem them for gold or silver. This meant that he could issue bank notes in unlimited quantities, as long as no one suspected there wasn't sufficient specie to back them.Horace White, Money and Banking: Illustrated by American History, 1911, pages 293 to 295 In 1807 President Thomas Jefferson implemented an embargo against Great Britain and France as a protest against violations of American neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars.
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2-4, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 2020. . The Ohio Company's purchase was enabled first by the passage on July 13, 1787, of the "Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States Northwest of the River Ohio," commonly known as the Northwest Ordinance, and second, by the Act of October 23rd, 1787, which authorized Congress to make contracts of public lands for not less than one million acres. On October 27, 1787, the Treasury Board under Secretary William Duer finalized the Ohio Company's purchase. Their first contract was for the Ohio Company to purchase 1,500,000 acres (6,000 km²) of land at the confluence of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers, from a point near the site of present-day Marietta, to a point nearly opposite present-day Huntington, West Virginia, for a payment of $1 million in government securities, then worth about 12¢ specie to the dollar.
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During the American Revolutionary War Spain sided with the French and United States against the British and St. Maxent was placed in charge of the militia (but not Spanish regulars), which saw action in the Gulf Coast campaign, including the Capture of Fort Bute, the Battle of Baton Rouge (1779) (which resulted in the capture of both Fort New Richmond and Fort Panmure (future Natchez, Mississippi), the Battle of Fort Charlotte (1780), and ultimately the Siege of Pensacola (1781). For his actions, he was named Commandant of the Militia of Louisiana, Lt. Governor of the Provinces of Louisiana and West Florida, Captain-General of the new Bureau of Indian Affairs of Louisiana and West Florida. In 1782, he traveled to Spain to get concessions from King Carlos III, including permission to import slaves without paying duty. As part of the negotiation, he agreed not to export specie (gold bars).
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Then in Government of Zanzibar v British Aerospace (Lancaster House) Ltd [2000] 1 WLR 2333 the High Court held that a contract for sale of a luxury jet could not be rescinded, despite misrepresentations about the plane's airworthiness, because the plane had already been repossessed by the Government of Zanzibar's finance company. Because they could not give the plane back, in specie rescission was barred, and the court went on to consider whether damages were available under MA 1967 s 2(2) given rescission was barred and held they were not. A statement of opinion by an expert, which proves false, will be taken as a factual misrepresentation, as in Esso Petroleum Co Ltd v Mardon.[1976] EWCA Civ 4 Depending on how a court construes negotiations, a representation could become a term of the contract, as well as one giving rise to the right to rescind.
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The greenback so despised by Garfield Throughout his political career, Garfield favored the gold standard and decried attempts to increase the money supply through the issuance of paper money not backed by gold, and later, through the free and unlimited coinage of silver. In 1865, he was placed on the House Ways and Means Committee, a long-awaited opportunity to focus on financial and economic issues. He reprised his opposition to the greenback, saying, "Any party which commits itself to paper money will go down amid the general disaster, covered with the curses of a ruined people." In 1868 Garfield gave a two-hour speech on currency in the House, which was widely applauded as his best oratory to that point; in it he advocated a gradual resumption of specie payments, that is, the government paying out silver and gold, rather than paper money that could not be redeemed.
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" John Jacob Astor purchased the rights to Mary Philipse's share of the Patent in 1809 Philipse family holdings belonging to other members, principally the Highland Patent, were also seized by the Commissioners of Forfeitures. Sale was withheld during the war, as its outcome was uncertain, confiscated lands had been pledged as collateral against monies borrowed by the provisional government to finance the conflict,Description of the Abstract of Sales, Commissioners of Forfeiture "Sales of the estates set aside on June 15, 1780, and of other forfeited lands were authorized by the state legislature on October 7, 1780. The Governor was to appoint commissioners to sell forfeited lands for gold, silver, or Congressional bills of credit, in order to pay off one-sixth the bills issued in pursuance of the act of Congress of March 18, 1780. These early transactions were not conducted by the Commissioners of Forfeitures, but rather by “commissioners of specie” who bridged the gap between the Commissioners of Sequestration and the Commissioners of Forfeitures.
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The Governor was to appoint commissioners to sell forfeited lands for gold, silver, or Congressional bills of credit, in order to pay off one-sixth the bills issued in pursuance of the act of Congress of March 18, 1780. These early transactions were not conducted by the Commissioners of Forfeitures, but rather by "commissioners of specie" who bridged the gap between the Commissioners of Sequestration and the Commissioners of Forfeitures. The majority of the forfeited estates, however, were not disposed of until after the conclusion of the war." and tenants lobbied for the right of preemptive purchase of leased land.Description of the Abstract of Sales, Commissioners of Forfeiture "On March 31, 1781, the right of tenants to preemption of purchase of their farms was again affirmed and the procedure for such sales further described. An act of the Provincial Congress on April 14, 1782, mandated that none of the seized lands in the Southern District was to be sold 'until the further order of the legislature.
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According to Sidney Buxton, On Financial Reform exercised a considerable influence on public opinion and "laid before the country the financial and fiscal policy that Peel and Gladstone afterwards carried through". He was one of the main representatives of the so-called "Free Banking School," which argued that the best way to achieve monetary stability was to revoke the Bank of England's monopoly on the issue of banknotes. These ideas were defended by Parnell and others in opposition to those of the "Currency School" (which advocated legal restrictions on the amount of notes that could be issued, with respect to their deposits in specie) and the "Banking School," which advocated discretionary policy by the banks in monetary matters. The influence of the "Free Banking School" declined significantly after Parnell's death in 1842, and the Bank Charter Act 1844 eliminated the right of new banks in England and Wales to issue notes, thus consolidating the Bank of England's monopoly, which Parnell had opposed.
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A major difference between how paper money was used under the Mongols and under the Song dynasty was that, in certain regions of the Yuan dynasty, paper notes were the only acceptable form of currency and could not be exchanged in either copper cash coins or silver sycees. Exchanging paper money into copper or silver was known as duìxiàn (兌現, "convert into specie") which was the main reason why earlier forms of paper money were deemed reliable. As these regions were completely dependent on paper money inflation hit them more severely as their notes could not be converted into a currency based on any intrinsic value, for this reason the Mongols allowed their subjects to continue using copper-alloy cash coins and issued new ones every now and then. During the last few decades of the Yuan dynasty the inflation caused people to lose their trust in paper money and barter became the most common means of exchange.
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If the influx of Spanish silver was not the initial cause of the European Price Revolution then the best explanation for the Price Revolution is population growth. This theory developed under Earl Hamilton argues that prices were not driven by specie (which, at most, sets a floor to prices) but by the actions of monopolists (or governments) whose positions in this period were enhanced by the steady population growth in Western Europe (The resurgence of population after the plague is linked to the "demand-pull" explanation of the price revolution, which states that an increase in the demand for money and the growth of economic activity produced the rise in prices and a pressure to increase the supply of money. The significant increase of European population in the period 1460–1620 meant that there were now more people to be fed, clothed, and housed raising the demand for goods of all kinds. Agricultural products then became crucial to the European market.
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An amicable arrangement was made between these two groups: that each should pay half the £20,000 in specie demanded by Governor Grey, that the surveyed area should be divided in two, which was done on 20 September 1845, and by some means it was resolved that the Association should have the northern moiety and the Princess Royal Company the southern. The Association wasted little time; they despatched ten Cornish miners, a blacksmith and a captain to the site and began blasting on 29 September, and soon bullock drays loaded with the red copper oxide ore were inching their way to Port Adelaide. Within seven months the Association had made a profit of £20,000; and £90,000 in the first eighteen months. Some shareholders sold up and returned to England with their new-found wealth; Emanuel Solomon realised £200 for every £5 share and went on to other projects, others held on and reaped enormous dividends every year until 1860.
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As of September 2019, the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund has supported 1,982 projects with $18.5 million dollars. Over the past several years, the fund has provided an average of an additional $1.5 million dollars each year to as many as 200 projects. There are many examples of its grant recipients rediscovering 'lost' species including a frog species in Zimbabwe known as the Cave Squeaker (Arthroleptis troglodytes) which had not been seen in 55 years and the Cropan's boa (Corallus cropanii) in Brazil which had not been seen in 64 years. Many grant recipients have discovered 'new' species including a species of woodlizard Enyalioides binzayedi was discovered through the support of the fund to the expeditions leading to the discovery of the specie in the Cordillera Azul National Park in Peru; and in 2017, a rare and majestic species of maple tree was discovered and named Acer binzayedii through the support of the fund and found in the mountainous cloud forest of Jalisco in Western México.
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The Robusta Maculata was created between 1959 and 1965 at the Stazione Sperimentale di Pollicoltura, or experimental chicken breeding centre, of Rovigo, in the Veneto. It was conceived as a dual-purpose breed, and derived from crossing the Buff Orpington with a commercial strain widely raised in Veneto in the 20th century, known in Italy as "White America". The White America is believed to have been based on mutant white Barnevelders, with contributions from White Leghorn, Rhode Island White and White Rock stock; in early 2012 it was no longer considered a breed. A standard for the Robusta Maculata was published by the now defunct Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Specie Avicole, or national association of breeders of avian species, in the latter part of the 20th century, and is published for historic interest on the website of the Federazione Italiana Associazioni Avicole, the federation of Italian poultry associations, the authority governing poultry breeding in Italy.
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The fragmentary nature of the surviving evidence makes it difficult to give a precise chronology of the development.Macdonald 2007 p.6 As the main source of specie in the kingdomMacdonald 2007, p.15 the burghs were specially summoned by royal letters to convene at the sittings of parliament.Rait 1924 The traditionally accepted date for the first occasion of their being present is 1326, when they were summoned to appear at the parliament of Robert I held at Cambuskenneth.Rait 1924, p.239 The reason appears to have been the King's need to restore damage done to the royal demesnes during the Wars of Independence,R L Mackie, A Short History Of Scotland, Oliver & Boyd 1962, p.85 It is not, however, clear whether the burgesses sat alongside the bishops and barons as a separate estate within the parliament itself.Rait 1924, p.240 A groat from the reign of David II in the 14th century.
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The Robusta Lionata was created between 1959 and 1965 at the Stazione Sperimentale di Pollicoltura, or experimental chicken breeding centre, of Rovigo, in the Veneto. It was conceived as a dual-purpose breed, and derived from crossing the Buff Orpington with a commercial strain widely raised in Veneto in the 20th century, known in Italy as "White America". The White America is believed to have been based on mutant white Barnevelders, with contributions from White Leghorn, Rhode Island White and White Rock stock; in early 2012 it was no longer considered a breed. A standard for the Robusta Lionata was published by the now defunct Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Specie Avicole, or national association of breeders of avian species, in the latter part of the 20th century, and is published for historic interest on the website of the Federazione Italiana Associazioni Avicole, the federation of Italian poultry associations, the authority governing poultry breeding in Italy.
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Gwent in south-east Wales was already under West Saxon lordship but, in the view of Charles-Edwards, this passage shows that the other Welsh kingdoms were under Mercian lordship until Edward took direct power over Mercia. No coins were issued with the name of Æthelred or Æthelflæd on them, but in the 910s silver pennies were minted in west Mercian towns with unusual ornamental designs on the reverse and this may have reflected Æthelflæd's desire to distinguish specie issued under her control from that of her brother. After her death, west Mercian coin reverses were again the same as those on coins produced in Wessex. No charters of Edward survive for the period between 910 and his death in 924, whereas two survive in Æthelflæd's sole name, S 224, possibly dating to 914 and S 225, dated 9 September 915, issued at Weardbyrig, one of the burhs she built at an unidentified location.
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There were several causes of the deflation of the severe depression of 1839–43, which included an oversupply of agricultural commodities (importantly cotton) as new cropland came into production following large federal land sales a few years earlier, banks requiring payment in gold or silver, the failure of several banks, default by several states on their bonds and British banks cutting back on specie flow to the U.S. This cycle has been traced out on the broad scale during the Great Depression. Partly because of overcapacity and market saturation and partly as a result of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, international trade contracted sharply, severely reducing demand for goods, thereby idling a great deal of capacity, and setting off a string of bank failures. A similar situation in Japan, beginning with the stock and real estate market collapse in the early 1990s, was arrested by the Japanese government preventing the collapse of most banks and taking over direct control of several in the worst condition.
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He was forced to resign by his superior, David Ames Wells, and was replaced by Francis Amasa Walker. Both were ardent supporters of specie money and opposed to Del Mar's convictions of fiat money. In 1866 he was appointed the American delegate to the International Monetary Congress which met in Turin, Italy. During the close-fought 1868 presidential election he was nominated for Secretary of the Treasury under Horatio Seymour's Democratic ticket. In 1869 he purchased the Washington-based National Intelligencer, merged it with the Washington Express and moved its offices to New York in January 1870. It later became the New York City and National Intelligencer which he edited and published until 1872. He ran under Horace Greeley's ticket for Secretary of the Treasury during the 1872 United States presidential election. The coalition between the Democrats and Greeley's Liberal Republican Party was soundly defeated, and the LRP ceased to exist shortly after.
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The price of tea in Europe fell suddenly from 30 to 33 French sols to 11 to 14 sols, or around sixty per cent. Disastrously, a sixth ship, the Belgioioso, carrying a large amount of silver specie for the purchase of Chinese goods, foundered in a storm in the Irish Sea soon after departing Liverpool, where she had fitted out for the voyage to Canton.The British Magazine, March 1783, p.239. Regardless of mounting losses, debts and liabilities, the Company invested in a further ship, the Kaiserliche Adler or Aigle Impériale [Imperial Eagle], a giant of 1,100 tons, specially built for the Company by the Fiume shipyards, which was launched in March 1784, bringing the Company’s fleet to a total of nine vessels. Matters came to a head in January 1785 when the Company suspended all payments, and shortly afterwards it was declared bankrupt, bringing the Proli banking house down with it.
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By December 1851, the Treasury Department submitted a report which indicated that the disappearance of U.S. currency had reached a critical point, and put forth recommendations to reduce the silver content in all forms of silver coinage. Following the recommendations of the Treasury, a bill passed through the Senate Finance Committee in March 1852 which would reduce nearly all U.S. fractions by around 7 percent, but—contrary to the Treasury's report—left the silver dollar unchanged. This was to make explicit, in the words of the Committee chair Robert M. T. Hunter, that the Committee had apprehension towards tampering with what they viewed as money's inherent value, and only intended the bill to be a temporary measure to restore some circulation of silver to the country. The bill would not be a drastic change, but would only mandate the smallest deviation possible necessary to "accomplish the object of retaining a specie currency for small transactions".
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It must not be supposed that this system ever was worked with absolute uniformity and completeness throughout the various parts of Catholic Christendom. There were continual disagreements and disputes: the central authorities endeavoring to maintain and extend this most important of their financial schemes and the subordinate ecclesiastics doing their best to get rid of the impost altogether or to transmute it into some less objectionable form. The easy expedient of rewarding the officials of the Curia and increasing the papal revenue by "reserving" more and more benefices was met by repeated protests, such as that of the bishops and barons of England (the chief sufferers), headed by Robert Grosseteste of Lincoln, at the council of Lyons in 1245. The subject frequently became one of national interest, on account of the alarming amount of specie which was thus drained away, and hence numerous enactments exist in regard to it by the various national governments.
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While both Mainland European and Japanese banks were latecomers into the Chinese market, these banks were also a lot more ready to engage the domestic Chinese sector. Kwan Man Bun showed how foreign banks such as the French (Saigon, French Indochina- based) Banque de l'Indochine, Russian Russo-Chinese Bank, and Japanese Yokohama Specie Bank were pivotal in helping Chinese salt merchants in Tianjin tide over their losses due to the Boxer Rebellion. There were large disparities between the structures of both Chinese qianzhuang banks and the overall Chinese banking sector and how foreign banks operated in China, this was partially due to the geographical distribution of the different kinds of banks. An advantage which Chinese banks like the qianzhuang had over foreign banks was the fact that they had leeway to popularise their banknotes in the vast Chinese hinterland that stretched far beyond the confines of the treaty ports, which the foreign banks were bound to.
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The price of tea in Europe fell suddenly from 30 to 33 French sols to 11 to 14 sols, or around sixty per cent. Disastrously, a sixth ship, the Belgioioso, carrying a large amount of silver specie for the purchase of Chinese goods, foundered in a storm in the Irish Sea soon after departing Liverpool, where she was fitted out, on the voyage to Canton.The British Magazine, March 1783, p.239. Regardless of mounting losses, debts and liabilities, the Company invested in a further ship, the Kaiserliche Adler or Aigle Impériale [Imperial Eagle], a giant of 1,100 tons, specially built for the Company by the Fiume shipyards, which was launched in March 1784, bringing the Company's fleet to a total of nine vessels. Matters came to a head in January 1785 when the Company suspended all payments, and shortly afterward it was declared bankrupt, bringing the Proli banking house down with it.
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Suffolk Bank was a clearinghouse bank in Boston, Massachusetts, that exchanged specie or locally backed bank notes for notes from country banks to which city-dwellers could not easily travel to redeem notes. The bank was granted its charter on February 10, 1818 by the Massachusetts General Court to a group of the Boston Associates (including Patrick Tracy Jackson and Daniel Pinckney Parker), and the charter's holders and bank's directors met periodically from February 27 to March 19 at the Boston Exchange Coffee House to discuss the organization of the bank. On April 1, 1818, the bank opened for business in rented offices on State Street until the bank moved permanently to the corner of State and Kilby Streets (currently occupied by either 75 State Street or Exchange Place) on April 17. In addition to Jackson and Parker, other prominent shareholders of the bank included William Appleton, Nathan Appleton, Timothy Bigelow, John Brooks, Gardiner Greene, Henry Hubbard, Augustine Heard, Amos Lawrence, Abbott Lawrence, Luther Lawrence, William Prescott, Dudley Leavitt Pickman, and Benjamin Seaver.
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These were assignment, endorsement, and discounting of bills of exchange. The Antwerpse Costuymen (commercial laws of Antwerp), which were adapted in Amsterdam from 1597, allowed unlimited chains of endorsement. This may have been convenient, but it increased the risk of default with each additional endorsement in the chain. For that reason the Amsterdam city government prohibited this practice. The Old Town Hall of Amsterdam (by Pieter Saenredam with Wisselbank Instead, in 1609 a new municipal institution was established (after the example of the Venetian Banco della Piassa di Rialto, established in 1587) in the form of the Amsterdamsche Wisselbank, also called the Bank of Amsterdam. This bank (with offices in the City Hall) took deposits of foreign and domestic coin (and after 1683 specie), effected transfers between such deposit accounts (the giro function), and accepted (i.e. paid) bills of exchange (the more important of which—over 600 guilders in value—could now be endorsed—to the bank—only once). The latter provision effectively forced Amsterdam merchants (and many foreign merchants) to open accounts with this bank.
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Yamamoto's first employment was as a teacher at the Osaka University of Commerce. At 26, he was appointed its principal. In 1883, Yamamoto turned towards commerce, and obtained a position at the Mitsubishi-affiliated shipping firm Nippon Yusen, in which he rapidly rose through the corporate ranks. In 1890, he joined the Bank of Japan (BOJ), and in 1895 was appointed the chairman of the Yokohama Specie Bank. In April 1896, in order to better acquaint himself with issues pertaining to the gold standard, he travelled to England, and while still in England the following year, was appointed to the board of directors of the Bank of Japan. In October 1898, at the strong request of Bank of Japan governor Iwasaki Yasunosuke, he was recalled to Japan to assume the role of governor of the Bank of Japan. He had been with the Bank of Japan for eight years and was 43 years old at the time. Yamamoto served as BOJ Governor from October 20, 1898, to October 19, 1903.
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To meet the extraordinary expenses of outfitting men and transports for the colony's use during the current French and Indian War, known as Queen Anne's War, an act was passed in July 1710 for the issue of bills of credit in the amount of 5000 pounds. While supported by the farmers, this policy had a detrimental effect on the merchants, best summarized by historian Samuel G. Arnold, "Thus commenced in Rhode Island a system of paper money issues fraught with disaster to the commercial interests of the Colony, whose baleful influence was to extend over nearly a century, distracting alike the political, financial, and even the social condition of the people, and which was to be the occasion of most bitter partisan strife long after the Revolutionary War had left us an independent State." Cranston, who had approved the first paper money issue was called to "repeat the folly again and again." This policy led to the creation of two parties, the specie, or hard-money party, and the paper-money party.
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In June 1758 he commanded York at the reduction of Louisbourg, and in September 1759 he commanded the 84-gun Royal William in the fleet of Sir Charles Saunders at the capture of Quebec. He was employed in Royal William for the remainder of the war in the Channel; and in May 1760, chased the Diadem, a French third rate of seventy-four guns, bound for Martinique with stores and specie for the payment of the soldiery, into the Groyne. He saw no further service at sea following the conclusion of the war in 1763, but in 1769 was appointed colonel of the second (or Portsmouth) division of Marines; shortly before he had been chosen as representative in parliament for the borough of Penryn, a government-dominated borough which frequently chose distinguished naval officers as its MPs. (Pigot succeeded Vice-Admiral Sir George Rodney.) Pigot was a close friend of the Prime Minister, the Duke of Grafton, and this connection was cemented when Grafton married Elizabeth Wrottesley, sister of Pigot's second wife, Frances.
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Over the course of the season approximately 20,000 guilders-worth of specie was recovered. The 1858 season was hampered by poor weather but yielded 32 gold bars and 66 silver bars. This ship's bell was also discovered in this year (see below). In 1859 it became apparent that the treasure had been stored towards the stern of the ship, and that the stern was lying on its side, with the starboard side uppermost and the port side sunk into the sand. This area, however, only gave up 4 gold bars, 1 silver bar, and over 3,500 piastres. By 1860, the depth of the wreck had reached and the quantity of salvage was declining. Nonetheless, over the four years salvage worth half a million guilders had been recovered: 41 gold bars, 64 silver bars, and 15,350 various coins, and the syndicate paid a 136% return; attempts were finally ended in 1863 as the wreck again silted up. After 1860 to 1889 attempts at salvage are reported to have recovered 11,164 coins valued at $4,600.
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On 21 July 1817 a letter was sent by P.F. Hammes and R. Beck (LMS agents in Cape Town) to David Langton. An excerpt from the letter reads: “Sir, We acknowledge the receipt of Yours dated 20 March last and have the honor to return for Answer, that we have received the two Cases, containing small Silver Specie and Copper pieces in good order, and we will act with the same according to the intention and wish of the Society”. This is the only known record where the copper tokens are mentioned. On his second visit to South Africa, John Campbell visited the Griqua mission station again and noted in his diary on 8 August 1820: “The Landdrost (Andries Stockenstroom) thought it important to establish a regular communication between Griquatown and Graaff Reynet; also advised to apply to Government for sanction to the passing of the Griqua money in Graaff Reynet and Beaufort districts”. (The two districts were part of the Cape Colony, while Griquatown was not) A few days later, on 12 August, Campbell wrote: “Conversed also on the coin.
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Articles of a treaty made and concluded at camp in Turkey Creek Prairie, in the State of Indiana, between Abel C. Pepper, commissioner of the United States, and Mes-quaw-buck, a chief of the Pottawatamy tribe of Indians and his band, on twenty-sixth day of March, in the year eighteen hundred and thirty-six. :ART. 1. The above named chief and his band hereby cede to the United States the four sections of land reserved for them by the second article of the treaty between the United States and the Pottawatamy Indians, on Tippecanoe river on the twenty-seventh day of October 1832. :ART. 2. In consideration of the cession aforesaid the United States stipulate to pay the above named chief and his band the sum of twenty-five hundred and sixty dollars in specie at the next payment of annuity after the ratification of this treaty. :ART. 3. The United States stipulate to provide for the payment of the necessary expenses attending the making and concluding this treaty. :ART. 4.
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The qianzhuang and piaohao ("Shanxi banks") were created out of different circumstances, while the piaohao were created out of a necessity for long-distance remittance, the qianzhuang were originally created for the silver-specie exchange market. Because of this, the scope of business of the qianzhuang was very dissimilar to that of the Shanxi banks, the qianzhuang tended to make their profits from relatively high interest rates which they would charge on unsecured loans to medium-range merchants, while the Shanxi banks subsisted their profits more on draft commission. Because of these different business models, some Shanxi banks were known to deposit some of their idle funds in qianzhuang interest-bearing accounts, this meant that the general relationship between the qianzhuang and the Shanxi banks was one of cooperation and complementarity rather than of confrontational competition. A large bulk of the cash coins the qianzhuang dealt with were inherited from earlier Chinese dynasties, or were re-casted in the furnaces of imperial mints and private franchised furnaces, or illegally elsewhere.
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The automatic adjustment mechanism under the gold standard is the price specie flow mechanism, which operates so as to correct any balance of payments disequilibrium and adjust to shocks or changes. This mechanism was originally introduced by Richard Cantillon and later discussed by David Hume in 1752 to refute the mercantilist doctrines and emphasize that nations could not continuously accumulate gold by exporting more than their imports. The assumptions of this mechanism are: # Prices are flexible # All transactions take place in gold # There is a fixed supply of gold in the world # Gold coins are minted at a fixed parity in each country # There are no banks and no capital flows Adjustment under a gold standard involves the flow of gold between countries resulting in equalization of prices satisfying purchasing power parity, and/or equalization of rates of return on assets satisfying interest rate parity at the current fixed exchange rate. Under the gold standard, each country's money supply consisted of either gold or paper currency backed by gold.
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Its absence made it much more difficult to handle the financing of the war, and cause special problems in terms of moving money from state to state, since state banks were not allowed to operate across state lines. The bureaucracy was terrible, often missing deadlines. On the positive side, over 120 new state banks were created all over the country, and they issued notes that financed much of the war effort, along with loans raised by Washington. Some key Republicans, especially Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin realized the need for new taxes, but the Republican Congress was very reluctant and only raised small amounts. The whole time, the Federalists in Congress and especially the Federalist-controlled state governments in the Northeast, and the Federalist- aligned financial system in the Northeast, was strongly opposed to the war and refused to help in the financing.. Indeed, they facilitated smuggling across the Canadian border, and sent large amounts of gold and silver to Canada, which created serious shortages of specie in the US.Tucker, Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 p.
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In effect, the paper money was a hidden tax on the people, and indeed was the only method of taxation that was possible at the time. The skyrocketing inflation was a hardship on the few people who had fixed incomes—but 90 percent of the people were farmers, and were not directly affected by that inflation. Debtors benefited by paying off their debts with depreciated paper.Ralph Volney Harlow, "Aspects of Revolutionary Finance, 1775–1783", American Historical Review Vol. 35, No. 1 (Oct., 1929), pp. 46–68 in JSTOR The greatest burden was borne by the soldiers of the Continental Army, whose wages—usually in arrears—declined in value every month, weakening their morale and adding to the hardships suffered by their families. Starting in 1776, the Congress sought to raise money by loans from wealthy individuals, promising to redeem the bonds after the war. The bonds were in fact redeemed in 1791 at face value, but the scheme raised little money because Americans had little specie, and many of the rich merchants were supporters of the Crown.
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Known as Clearing House Loan Certificates, they were, in effect, quasi-currency, backed not by gold but by discounted county and state bank notes held by member banks. Bearing the words “Payable Through the Clearing House,” a Clearing House Loan Certificate was the joint liability of all the member banks, and thus, in lieu of specie, a most secure form of payment. The certificates appeared in smaller denominations during the panic of 1873, and continued to be used as a substitute currency among the member banks for settlement purposes during panics in subsequent decades, including the Panic of 1893. Although they represented a potential violation of federal law against privately issued currencies, these certificates, as a contemporary observer noted, “performed so valuable a service…in moving the crops and keeping business machinery in motion, that the government…wisely forbore to prosecute.” In 1913, Congress passed the Federal Reserve Act, thus creating an independent, federal clearing system modeled on the many private clearing houses that had sprung up across America.
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Pilfering Molasses, 1853 painting by George Henry Hall The importance of New Orleans as a commercial center was reinforced when the United States Federal Government established a branch of the United States Mint there in 1838, along with two other Southern branch mints at Charlotte, North Carolina, and Dahlonega, Georgia. Although there was an existing coin shortage, the situation became much worse because in 1836 President Andrew Jackson had issued an executive order, called a specie circular, which demanded that all land transactions in the United States be conducted in cash, thus increasing the need for minted money. In contrast to the other two Southern branch mints, which only minted gold coins, the New Orleans Mint produced both gold and silver coinage, which perhaps marked it as the most important branch mint in the country. The mint produced coins from 1838 until 1861, when Confederate forces occupied the building and used it briefly as their own coinage facility until it was recaptured by Union forces the following year.
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In the late 18th century, coins were issued in denominations of , 1, 2, 4, 8, 24 and 32 skilling, , , , and 1 rigsdaler specie. Between 1813 and 1815, copper coins bearing the legend "rigsbanktegn" ("rigsbank token") were issued in denominations of 2, 3, 4, 6, 12 and 16 skilling. From 1818, 1, 2 and 32 rigsbank skilling coins were issued, with 1 rigsdaler species from 1820. From 1826, gold coins were issued denominated in "Frederiks d'Or" or "Christians d'Or" (depending on the name of the ruling king). The "d'or" was nominally worth 10 rigsdaler, although the currency was on a silver standard. In 1838, rigsbank skilling coins were introduced. Between 1840 and 1843, a new coinage was introduced, consisting of , , 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16 and 32 rigsbank skilling, 1 rigsbankdaler and 1 rigsdaler species. Denominations between 4 rigsbank skilling and 1 rigsbankdaler were also inscribed with the denomination in the currency of Schleswig-Holstein, the Schilling Courant, of which there were 60 to the Speciethaler, equal to the rigsdaler species.
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In 1862, while stationed with his regiment in Fairfax, Virginia he was recalled and assigned by General George McClellan to the command of an artillery brigade in Geneneral Amiel Weeks Whipple's division. He resigned his commission in October 1862 to continue his travels and writings. According to James J. Martin in Men Against the State, Greene did not become a "full-fledged anarchist" until the last decade of his life, but his writings show that by 1850 he had articulated a Christian mutualism, drawing heavily on the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's sometimes-antagonist Pierre Leroux (see Equality; 1849 and Mutual Banking; 1850), writing in The Radical Deficiency of Existing Circulating Medium (1857): > The existing organization of credit is the daughter of hard money, begotten > upon it incestuously by that insufficiency of circulating medium which > results from laws making specie the sole legal tender. The immediate > consequences of confused credit are want of confidence, loss of time, > commercial frauds, fruitless and repeated applications for payment, > complicated with irregular and ruinous expanses.
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The ratio was bound to be imperfect, as the amount of gold and silver mined and the demand for it around the world fluctuated from year to year; as a metal's market price exceeded its legal price, coins of that metal would disappear from circulation (a phenomenon known as Gresham's law). Before the Civil War, gold circulated freely and silver disappeared, and while silver dollars were legal tender, Sherman wrote that "[a]lthough I was quite active in business ... I do not remember at that time to have ever seen a silver dollar". The issuance of greenbacks had pushed debate over gold-silver ratios to the background as coins of both metals disappeared from the nation's commerce in favor of the new paper notes, but as the dollar became stronger in peacetime and the national debt payments were guaranteed to be paid in specie, Congress saw the need to update the coinage laws. Grant's Treasury Secretary, George S. Boutwell, sent Sherman (who was by now Senate Finance Committee Chairman) a draft of what would become the Coinage Act of 1873.
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Unlike most medieval rulers who levied funds from sources of taxation relatively nearby, the papacy's primary source of income was constituted from taxes and tributes collected across Europe. Moreover, the papacy had a gross geographic mismatch of its assets and liabilities: money collected in France and Poland, for example, might be spent for military reconquest in the Papal States. The papacy soon discovered that the direct transfer or shipment of physical specie over long distances was not only risky but extremely expensive, and was thus forced to procure the services of international merchant-bankers who dealt in foreign exchange from their branches throughout the important commercial centers of Western Europe not only in large centers but at the sites of the Champagne fairs. However, the Italian merchant-bankers could be of no assistance for funds collected in Eastern Europe (mainly Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia), Scandinavia, and Northern Germany where there was no organized money market at this time, and thus the direct transfer of funds was still required.
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The preferred alternative to shipping specie was to entrust small amounts to ecclesiastics who happened to be traveling to visit the pope or (more often) traveling merchants on their way to Bruges or Venice (however, to transfer funds from Krakow to Bruges to Avignon took over a year). Even in Western Europe, direct transfer of funds was required when the foreign exchange market could not provide the necessary liquidity; for example, in 1327, 100,000 florins were sent from Avignon to Bologna in a caravan of fifteen pack animals guarded by an armed escort of forty-six. The Apostolic Camera, or papal treasury, was established in the 13th century, with close ties to Italian merchant bankers, who were given the title mercatores camerae apostolicae ("mercatores" of the Apostolic Camera). The papal residences of Rome, Viterbo, and Rieti were close to the two main banking centers in Italy: Florence and Siena; however, these connections were severed during the reign of Pope Clement V (1305–1315) as he wandered through Languedoc and Provence.
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In practical terms, the British interception of the four Real Armada frigates represented the end of an era for Bourbon Spain and regular specie shipments from the Spanish Empire's New World mines and mints. The squadron to which Mercedes belonged was the last of its kind that the world would see: a Spanish treasure fleet moving bullion from the New World Viceroyalties to the Iberian kingdoms. Under the terms of the Cruizers and Convoys Act of 1708 ships captured at sea were "Droits of the Crown" and became the property of their captors, who received the full value of the ships and cargo in prize money. However, since technically Britain and Spain were not at war at the time of the action, the Admiralty Court ruled that the three ships were "Droits of the Admiralty", and all revenues would revert to them. The four Spanish ships carried a total of 4,286,508 Spanish dollars in silver and gold coin, as well as 150,000 gold ingots, 75 sacks of wool, 1,666 bars of tin, 571 pigs of copper, seal skins and oil, although 1.2 million in silver, half the copper and a quarter of the tin went down with the Mercedes.
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A major difference between how paper money was used under the Mongols and under the Song dynasty was that, in certain regions of the Yuan dynasty, paper notes were the only acceptable form of currency and could not be exchanged in either copper cash coins or silver sycees. Exchanging paper money into copper or silver was known as duìxiàn (兌現, "convert into specie") which was the main reason why earlier forms of paper money were deemed reliable. As these regions were completely dependent on paper money inflation hit them more severely as their notes could not be converted into a currency based on any intrinsic value, for this reason the Mongols allowed their subjects to continue using copper-alloy cash coins and issued new ones every now and then. During the last few decades of the Yuan dynasty the inflation caused people to lose their trust in paper money and barter became the most common means of exchange.Williams, S. Wells (1975). "Paper Money among the Chinese", T'ung Pao: Journal of the Society for Oriental Numismatics, 1/2: 38-40 [reprinted from The Chinese Repository, 20 (1851)].
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Dusii are among the supernatural influences and magical practices that threaten marriages, as noted by Hincmar in his 9th- century treatise De divortio Lotharii ("On Lothar's divorce"): "Certain women have even been found to have submitted to sleeping with Dusii in the form of men who were burning with love."Quaedam etiam faeminae a Dusis in specie virorum, quorum amore ardebant, concubitum pertulisse inventae sunt: De divortio, XV Interrogatio, MGH Concilia 4 Supplementum, 205, as cited by Filotas, Pagan Survivals, p. 305. In the same passage, Hincmar warns of sorceresses (sorciariae), witches (strigae), female vampires (lamiae), and magic in the form of "objects bewitched by spells, compounded from the bones of the dead, ashes and dead embers, hair taken from the head and pubic area of men and women, multicoloured little threads, various herbs, snails' shell and snake bits."Filotas, Pagan Survivals, p. 305. 19th-century Prussian coat of arms depicting woodland "wild men" The form Dusiolus, a diminutive, appears in a sermon with the beings aquatiquus (from aqua, "water") and Geniscus, possibly a form of the Roman Genius or the Gallic Genius Cucullatus whose hooded form suggested or represented a phallus.
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The movement found particular success at the 1874 elections in Wisconsin, California, Iowa and Kansas. This led the Chicago Weekly Tribune to state that the movement offered, "an opportunity to accomplish something for the country at large — not for the farmers merely, but for all who live by their industry, as distinguished from those who live by politics, speculations and class-legislation." Frustrated by their inability to get Democrats or Republicans to adopt inflationary monetary policy, southern and western leaders of monetary reform met in Indianapolis and proposed the creation of a new political party for currency reform. They would meet again in Cleveland to formally launch the Greenback Party in 1875. The Greenbackers condemned the National Banking System, created by the National Banking Act of 1863, the harmonization of the silver dollar (Coinage Act of 1873 was in fact the "Crime of '73" to Greenback), and the Resumption Act of 1875, which mandated that the U.S. Treasury issue specie (coinage or "hard" currency) in exchange for greenback currency upon its presentation for redemption beginning on January 1, 1879, thus returning the nation to the gold standard.
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The Volante Rossa performed murders of individuals it deemed representatives of the old régime. Its first action was the murder of two ausiliarie (female RSI soldiers), Rosa Bianchi Sciaccaluga and her daughter Liliana. Some of the victims, often kidnapped without a declared pretext, were murdered in Lambrate or at the Giuriati sports fieldFasanotti & Gandus, p. 25: "Ma ben più numerosi furono gli atti di violenza gratuita, gli omicidi-spesso per oscuri motivi-di poveri cristi i cui cadaveri venivano abbandonati nei pressi del campo Giuriati, una specie di cimitero della Volante" ("Yet, much more numerous were the instances of gratuitous violence, the murders-often for reasons unclear-of inconspicuous people whose corpses were dumped around the Giuriati field, a graveyard of sorts for the Volante") whereas others were made to disappear in the Martesana and Villoresi canals, with a rock tied around their necks;Cicchino & Olivo, p. 277 later the rumor would be purposely be spread that the victims had fled to Argentina. The murders of former Fascists led the latter to close ranks and to start taking the initiative, and on November 5, 1945, the posters at Odeon movie theater publicizing Rossellini's film Roma città aperta were set on fire.
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Other coins that were used at various times in the Pontifical States were the baiocchella = 1 baiocco, a copper piece with a silver surface, and therefore smaller than the copper baiocco; there were coins made of the two metals of the values, respectively of 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 16 baiocchi; the copper madonnina (Bologna) = 5 baiocchi; the sampietrino (Pius VI) = 2½ baiocchi; the paludella was a soldo, made of an alloy of copper and silver, established by Pius VI as a more easily portable specie with which to pay the workmen of the Pontine Marshes; the sesino = 0·4 of a baiocco = 2 quattrini; the leonina (Leo XII) = 4·4 Gregorian scudi; the doblone = 2 old scudi = 3·3 scudi of the nineteenth century; there were dobloni of the relative values of 4, 8, and 16 scudi; the doppio was worth a little less than the doblone, that is, 3·21 scudi of the nineteenth Century; at Bologna there were also coined scudi of 80 baiocchi, and half-scudi of 40 baiocchi; the gabella was a Bolognese coin, equivalent to a carlino or giulio; the gabellone was equivalent to 26 bolognini (baiocchi); the franco, in the fifteenth century, was worth 12 baiocchi at Bologna, but only 10 baiocchi at Rome; the alberetti was a two-baiocco piece that was coined by the Roman Republic (1798–99).
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