Similarly, a European Commission study found that bee-pollinated strawberries are heavier, redder, firmer, and have fewer malformations than those that are wind-pollinated or self-pollinated.
|
|
A study in Burkina Faso found that cotton and sesame plants pollinated by bees had an average of 62% higher quality and quantity than those that self-pollinated.
|
|
Rice is a self-pollinated crop with small flowers that are monoclinous.
|
|
About 42% of flowering plants exhibit a mixed mating system in nature. In the most common kind of system, individual plants produce a single flower type and fruits may contain self-pollinated, out-crossed or a mixture of progeny types. Another mixed mating system is referred to as dimorphic cleistogamy. In this system a single plant produces both open, potentially out-crossed and closed, obligately self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers.
|
|
It is self-pollinated plant which seeds attract various animals and birds. The sticky seeds are easily distributed by animals and humans, easily adhering to fur and clothing.
|
|
Legumes can either be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated. Some tropical legumes that are closely self-pollinated are: Macroptilium atropurpureum 'Siratro', Macroptilum lathyroides, Centrosema pubescens, Neonotonia wightii, and Lotononis bainesii. However, the autogamous annual Stylosanthes humilis proved otherwise by adapting in response to changing conditions during an experiment, and was found to be composed of several genotypes showing heterogeneity. Two legumes used for pasture with cross-pollination are: Desmodium intortum and Desmodium uncinatum.
|
|
The lobe on top of the anther is short and covered with small bumps. The flowers are self-pollinated and open on hot, sunny days. Flowering occurs from November to January.
|
|
Some flowers are self-pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called cleistogamous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules.
|
|
Barbara McClintock discovered the first TEs in maize (Zea mays) at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York. McClintock was experimenting with maize plants that had broken chromosomes. In the winter of 1944–1945, McClintock planted corn kernels that were self-pollinated, meaning that the silk (style) of the flower received pollen from its own anther. These kernels came from a long line of plants that had been self-pollinated, causing broken arms on the end of their ninth chromosomes.
|
|
Tree with ripe fruitsThe nectar-rich flowers of Hymenaea stiginocarpa open at night and are pollinated by several bat species, among which are the mostly fruit-eating Platyrhinus lineatus and Carollia perspicilata and the nectar specialist Glossophaga soricina. Hawkmoths also frequent the flowers, but seem ineffective in pollinating them. Self-pollinated seeds do not fully mature. Although the flower’s own pollen grains grow tubes and fertilise ovules as successfully as pollen from a different specimen, after seven or eight days the self-pollinated fruits fall from the tree.
|
|
They grow from whitish papery stipules with two lobes and red bases. The tiny clusters of two or three flowers grow in the leaf axils. The flowers are about long, pink, green or dull white. The flowers are normally self-pollinated.
|
|
Caltha palustris is infertile when self-pollinated. Rather high fertility in crosses between sibling plants suggest that this phenomenon is genetically regulated by several genes. This regulation mechanism also occurs in Ranunculus and as far as known only in these two genera.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther is brownish purple with a yellow tip and small teeth. The side lobes have mop-like tufts of white hairs. Flowering occurs in December and January but the flowers are self-pollinated and only open on hot days.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther is itself lobed with yellow fringed edges. The side lobes are finger- like with yellow, toothbrush-like tufts on their ends. The flowers are self- pollinated and only open on hot, humid days. Flowering occurs from December to February.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther is short with long flanges and finger-like glands on the back. The side lobes have sparse, mop- like tufts of white hairs. Flowering occurs from October to December but the flowers are self-pollinated and only open on hot days.
|
|
Mostly, these flowers are self- pollinated, but some cases of cross-pollination have been observed. Its indehiscent fruits enclose only one spherical seed that contains around 26% protein, 18% fibre and 35% oil. This oil content is lower than what can be extracted from rapeseed and the oil is not edible.
|
|
Thelymitra polychroma, commonly called the rainbow sun orchid, is a species of orchid that is endemic to Tasmania. It has a single narrow, fleshy leaf and up to four blue and mauve flowers with darker veins. It grows in windswept heath and swampy areas and the flowers are self-pollinated.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther is short with a yellow tip and small glands on the back. The side lobes have a long, mop-like tufts of white hairs. Flowering occurs from October to December but the flowers are self- pollinated and open only slowly on hot days.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther has a dense fringe and a yellow tip with a dark collar. The side lobes have dense, yellow, mop-like tufts on their ends. The flowers are self-pollinated and open only slowly on hot, humid days. Flowering occurs from August to October.
|
|
This plant is self-pollinated, each plant with a capacity of producing up to 2,800 seeds which can remain dormant under soil for several years. The seeds are large; dispersal is via mammal fur. Germination occurs when the seeds are brought near to the soil surface and it takes place within a month.
|
|
Prasophyllum species are mycotrophic, requiring symbiotic fungi for seed germination. The main fungus is Ceratobasidium cornigerum. Many Western Australian species only flower after summer fires and in other years only produce leaves. Most flowers are strongly scented, produce nectar and are pollinated by insects but a few appear able to self-pollinated if not visited.
|
|
The column is a similar colour to the sepals and petals but with rows of purple spots. It is long, about wide and has short, yellow-tipped arms on the sides. The flowers are self-pollinated, short-lived, open on sunny days and quickly droop after they have been fertilised. Flowering occurs in October and November.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther is brown with a yellow tip and wrinkled back. The side lobes have dense, mop-like tufts of cream-coloured hairs. Flowering occurs in November and December but the flowers are self-pollinated and only open on hot days. Flowering is more prolific after fire the previous summer.
|
|
The column is pale to dark mauve or pink, long and wide. The lobe on the top of the anther is dark purple to almost black with a curved, deeply notched yellow top. The side lobes have loose tufts of white, toothbrush-like hairs. The flowers are self-pollinated and only open on hot days, and then only slowly.
|
|
We are told that vanilla is an orchid but also a vine. We get to see a vanilla flower being self-pollinated and are told they are only open for a few hours. It takes 9 months for the pods to develop and another 9 months for them to dry and cure. The best pods have crystals on them.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther is dark purplish black with a yellow tip and covered with a glistening secretion. It is also inflated, gently curved and deeply notched. The side lobes have toothbrush-like tufts of white, cream or yellow hairs. Flowering occurs in November and December but the flowers are self-pollinated and only open on hot days.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther is purplish with a yellow tip, wedge shaped and covered with a thick, sticky secretion. The end of the lobe is deeply notched. The side lobes have shaggy toothbrush-like yellow or cream-coloured tufts on their ends. The flowers are self-pollinated and only open on hot days, and then only slowly.
|
|
The lobe on the top of the anther is dark blue and brown with a yellow tip and a few short finger-like glands on the back. The side lobes have a few sparse white hairs on their ends. Flowering occurs in December and January but the flowers are self-pollinated and only open on hot days, and then only slowly.
|
|
Capsicum frutescens is a wild chili pepper having genetic proximity to the cultivated pepper Capsicum chinense native to the Amazon Basin. Pepper cultivars of C. frutescens can be annual or short-lived perennial plants. Flowers are white with a greenish white or greenish yellow corolla, and are either insect- or self-pollinated. The plants' berries typically grow erect; ellipsoid-conical to lanceoloid shaped.
|
|
Flowers have higher fruit production when cross-pollinated although they are not self-incompatible and can produce low numbers of fruit when self-pollinated. One study of microsatellite loci showed low levels of polymorphism and low genetic diversity within populations, while another study found that populations of T. papyrus are highly differentiated with little to no gene flow between populations.
|
|
Habit Experiments have demonstrated that Warea carteri is self-pollinating, autogamous, and self-compatible. Autogamy and selfcompatibility allow isolated or sparsely distributed individuals to reproduce. Natural levels of fruit- and seed-set are quite high, with a fruit- set of 62 percent, and seed-set of 50 percent. Self-pollinated flowers showed significantly lower fruit- and seed-set, 41 percent fruit-set and 28 percent seed-set.
|
|
Pennycress is planted and germinates in the fall and overwinters as a small rosette. The central stem and upper side stems terminate in erect racemes of small white flowers. Flowers are self-pollinated and produce a penny sized, heart-shaped, flat seed pod with up to 14 seeds. Each dark brown seed is oval-shaped and slightly larger than a camelina seed (Camelina sativa).
|
|
Thelymitra sparsa, commonly called the wispy sun orchid, is a species of orchid that is endemic to Tasmania. It has a single erect, fleshy leaf and up to six relatively small blue flowers with a few small darker spots. The flowers are self-pollinated and open only slowly on hot days. The species is restricted to a few restricted montane sites in south-eastern Tasmania.
|
|
Some plants make use of multiple vectors, but many are highly specialised. Cleistogamous flowers are self-pollinated, after which they may or may not open. Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers. The flowers of plants that make use of biotic pollen vectors commonly have glands called nectaries that act as an incentive for animals to visit the flower.
|
|
Streptanthus niger is an annual herb attaining a height of 20 to 70 centimeters. The plant architecture may manifest as simple-stemmed or branching in the upper part. Lower portions of the stems are smooth and practically hairless. This self-pollinated plant has dark purple, almost black, flower petals; moreover, the petals have a purple claw and a white blade with a purple midvein.
|
|
The flower heads that develop underneath the leaves do not open and are self-pollinated. Each floret is fully enclosed in its involucral bracts, and the corolla shows very little development. The cypselas are relatively large and flattened, blackish in color, with ample hairs, and remain below the soil surface after the plant has died. Any pappus consists of somewhat scale-like bristles, hardly developed or is entirely absent.
|
|
This was independently discovered by G. H. Hardy and W. Weinberg, which ultimately gave rise to the concept of Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium published in 1908. For a more thorough exploration of the history of population genetics, see History of Population Genetics by Bob Allard. Around this same time, genetic and plant breeding experiments in maize began. Maize that has been self-pollinated experiences a phenomenon called inbreeding depression.
|
|
Crocanthemum is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cistaceae. They are native to both North and South America where they are widespread. Crocanthemum are herbaceous perennials or subshrubs with alternate leaves. With the exception of species in California, they generally produce two types of flowers: showy, yellow chasmogamous (cross-pollinated) produced earlier in the growing season, followed by cleistogamous (self-pollinated) flowers that are smaller and lack petals.
|
|
Also, the pink-flowered selfer is inter-fertile with outcrossing populations, while the white flowered self-pollinated population differs from the others by a translocation and reduced fertility. He argued that the self- pollinated populations arose from catastrophic selection; the self-pollinators being able to survive extremely reduced population sizes; they concluded that the white flowered population was a derivative of the pink flowered selfing population. In 1966 Lewis expanded the concept of catastrophic selection to "saltational speciation" to all flowering plants: > Saltational speciation in flowering plants is required as an explanation > only for the relationships between particular populations of annuals that > have been studied intensively. by reasonable extrapolation, however, it > appears to be the prevalent mode of speciation in many herbaceous genera and > to have had a significant role in the evolution of woody plants In 1968 Wedberg and Lewis reported on the distribution of widespread translocation heterozygosity and supernumerary chromosomes in C. williamsonii.
|
|
Many violets form relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and in the case of the zinc violets, this allows them to tolerate such highly contaminated soils. Flowering is often profuse, and may last for much of the spring and summer. Viola are most often spring- blooming with chasmogamous flowers that have well developed petals pollinated by insects. Many species also produce self-pollinated cleistogamous flowers in summer and autumn that do not open and lack petals.
|
|
Transposon mutagenesis was first studied by Barbara McClintock in the mid-20th century during her Nobel Prize-winning work with corn. McClintock received her BSc in 1923 from Cornell’s College of Agriculture. By 1927 she had her PhD in botany, and she immediately began working on the topic of maize chromosomes. In the early 1940s, McClintock was studying the progeny of self-pollinated maize plants which resulted from crosses having a broken chromosome 9.
|
|
In all instances, derivative species occupy ecologically > different, invariably more xeric, habitats than their progenitors. Lewis reported in 1965 on the evolution of self-pollination in Clarkia xantiana. In this species all populations were out-crossers, except two populations located in an area subject to periodic and exceptional drought; these same two populations were found to be self-pollinated. Further, one of the populations has pink flowers, the normal color, and the second has white flowers.
|
|
The flower, self-pollinated, will then produce a fruit. The vanilla flower lasts about one day, sometimes less, so growers have to inspect their plantations every day for open flowers, a labor-intensive task. The fruit, a seed capsule, if left on the plant, ripens and opens at the end; as it dries, the phenolic compounds crystallize, giving the fruits a diamond- dusted appearance, which the French call givre (hoarfrost). It then releases the distinctive vanilla smell.
|
|
Despite being a member of the grass subfamily Panicoideae which includes many species which utilize C4 photosynthesis, D. oligosanthes retains the more ancestral trait, using a C3 photosynthetic pathway. The genome of Dichanthelium oligosanthes is carried on nine chromosomes and is estimated to be between 750 and 950 megabases in size. A draft genome assembly was generated from the progeny of a single self-pollinated plant collected from the Shaw Nature Reserve near Gray Summit, Missouri.
|
|
The genome of Fraxinus excelsior is being sequenced by two groups of scientists in the United Kingdom. A group at Queen Mary University of London led by Richard Buggs are sequencing the self-pollinated offspring of a tree from Worcestershire, held by the Earth Trust. A group at the John Innes Centre and The Genome Analysis Centre led by Allan Downie are sequencing "Tree 35" from Denmark, discovered by Erik Kjær, which has survived 8 years of ash dieback.
|
|
Co- dominance, where allelic products co-exist in the phenotype, is different from incomplete dominance, where the quantitative interaction of allele products produces an intermediate phenotype. For example, in co-dominance, a red homozygous flower and a white homozygous flower will produce offspring that have red and white spots. When plants of the F1 generation are self- pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F2 generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Spotted:White). These ratios are the same as those for incomplete dominance.
|
|
The plant seems to have three different life strategies; some seeds germinate in the autumn and overwinter as small seedlings; others overwinter as seeds and germinate in the spring, flowering the same year; and some germinate in the spring but do not flower until the following year. The flowering period for all three groups extends from late May to late August. The flowers make little effort to attract insects for pollination (no showy petals, little nectar), and most are self-pollinated.
|
|
Empty pine nuts with undeveloped seeds (self-pollinated) are a light tan color, while the "good" ones are dark brown.Ronald M. Lanner 1981 The pine nuts are dispersed by the pinyon jay, which plucks the seeds out of the open cones, choosing only the dark ones and leaving the light ones (as in image at right). The jay, which uses the seeds as a food resource, stores many of the seeds for later use by burying them. Some of these stored seeds are not used and are able to grow into new trees.
|
|
The mechanism to abort self-pollinated fruits is not known, but cross-fertilised ovules grow faster from the start. By producing annually large amounts of fruits that are consumed by terrestrial fauna, the species also plays an important ecological role. It has been suggested that the agouti is responsible for most of the seed dispersal of H. stigonocarpa. Unlike many other species of the family Fabaceae, Hymenaea stiginocarpa is said to lack symbiontic soil bacteria, and therefore is unable to directly use the nitrate made by the bacteria from atmospheric nitrogen.
|
|
Among other plants that can self-pollinate are many kinds of orchids, peas, sunflowers and tridax. Most of the self-pollinating plants have small, relatively inconspicuous flowers that shed pollen directly onto the stigma, sometimes even before the bud opens. Self-pollinated plants expend less energy in the production of pollinator attractants and can grow in areas where the kinds of insects or other animals that might visit them are absent or very scarce—as in the Arctic or at high elevations. Self-pollination limits the variety of progeny and may depress plant vigor.
|
|
The species is partly self-compatible, as some seed is set when pollinators are excluded. Selection against self-pollinated seed has been observed, but the species has nonetheless been shown to have one of the lowest outcrossing rates of any Banksia. This is probably caused by the small population sizes, which increase the probability of self-fertilisation, and may discourage visits by pollinators. It has a low rate of fruiting, with less than 1% of flowers developing into follicles, and more than half of the inflorescences failing to form any follicles at all.
|
|
Crossing over and DNA repair are very similar processes, which utilize many of the same protein complexes. In her report, “The Significance of Responses of the Genome to Challenge”, McClintock studied corn to show how corn's genome would change itself to overcome threats to its survival. She used 450 self- pollinated plants that received from each parent a chromosome with a ruptured end. She used modified patterns of gene expression on different sectors of leaves of her corn plants show that transposable elements (“controlling elements”) hide in the genome, and their mobility allows them to alter the action of genes at different loci.
|
|
A similar type of incomplete dominance is found in the four o'clock plant wherein pink color is produced when true-bred parents of white and red flowers are crossed. In quantitative genetics, where phenotypes are measured and treated numerically, if a heterozygote's phenotype is exactly between (numerically) that of the two homozygotes, the phenotype is said to exhibit no dominance at all, i.e. dominance exists only when the heterozygote's phenotype measure lies closer to one homozygote than the other. When plants of the F1 generation are self- pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F2 generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Pink:White).
|
|
Hong Kong orchid trees are usually sterile, yet here, too, there are exceptions. One tree has been found in Hong Kong that produces seeds, perhaps indicating that evolution or mutation has occurred, or that even though Bauhinia × blakeana is perhaps sterile when self-pollinated (the scientific study in 2005 established the low fertility of Bauhinia × blakeana's pollen when compared with its parental species Bauhinia purpurea or Bauhinia variegata), however, it may perhaps be able to produce seeds when pollinated instead by its parental species Bauhinia purpurea or Bauhinia variegata or other related Bauhinia species. More scientific research will need to be carried out, e.g., artificial controlled cross-pollination experiments to confirm the ability of Bauhinia × blakeana in backcross or outcross to produce (fertile) seeds.
|
|