' In 1550 the name of Thomas Broke occurs among the chief sectaries of Kent. Although from the character of his literary work it is impossible to suppose that Broke the translator could have been one of the 'Anabaptists and Pelagians' spoken of by Strype (Memorials, II. i. 369), yet if, as seems likely, he was dissatisfied with the new Book of Common Prayer, he may have belonged to a separate congregation, and so have been described as sharing the opinions of the majority of the sectaries of the district.
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There are > believers and heretics mixed together. The saṅghârâmas [Buddhist monasteries > or temples] and Dêva [Hindu] temples are closely joined. There are about > 2000 priests, who study both the Great [Mahayana] and Little [Hinayana] > Vehicles. The number of heretics and sectaries of different sorts is > uncertain.
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Transnatural Philosophy, or Metaphysicks: Demonstrating the Essences and Operations of all Beings whatever, which gives the Principles to all other Sciences. And shewing the perfect Conformity of Christian Faith to Right Reason, and the Unreason ableness of Atheists, Deists, Anti-trinitarians, and other Sectaries. London, 1700.
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By early 1636, Bull was working as a weaver in St Botolph without Aldgate, when a complaint was made concerning the "sectaries or schismatiques" of London. The king's commissioners for causes ecclesiastical had been notified that throughout London, and in many other places, "there are at this present [...] sundrie sorts of Separatists and sectaries, as namely Brownists, Anabaptists, Arrians, Thraskists, Famalists, Sensualists, Antinomians, and some other sorts". On 20 February 1636, John Wragg, a messenger of majesty's chamber, was tasked by the commissioners with entering any places where "privat Conventicles or meetings" were suspected and rooting out "seditious and unlawfull writings and papers", utilising "all other his highnes officers ministers and subjects whatsoever" in his search.For the full warrant see TNA: PRO SP 16/314, f.
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Thomas Cornell was an innkeeper in Boston who was part of the Peripheral Group in the Antinomian Controversy, a religious and political conflict in the Massachusetts Bay Colony from 1636 to 1638.Battis, Emery (1962). Saints and Sectaries: Anne Hutchinson and the Antinomian Controversy in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. .
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Biner entered the Society of Jesus in 1715 and received the usual training of its members. He was later professor of canon law in the universities of Ingolstadt, Dillingen and Innsbruck. He entered zealously into all the controversies with the sectaries of his time, especially with the Swiss Protestants. As a consequence, all his works have a polemical tinge.
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The Seditious Sectaries Act of 1593 outlawed the Brownist church, banishing its members from England on pain of death. A large part of the London congregation emigrated to Amsterdam, including some who were released from prison for the purpose. Others remained surreptitiously in London. Both groups were now led by Francis Johnson, though he was kept in the Clink prison.
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Unlike the Sadducees, Anan and the Qumran sectaries allowed persons to leave their house, but prohibited leaving one's town or camp. Anan said that one should not leave one's house for frivolous things, but only to go to prayer or to study scripture. The Sadducees required the observation of the new moon to establish the dates of festivals and always held the Shavuot festival on a Sunday.
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"A Curb for Sectaries and bold propheciers, by which Richard Farnham the Weaver, James Hunt the Farmer, M. Greene the Feltmaker, and all other the like bold Propheciers and Sect Leaders may be bridled", London, 1641. 2. "False Prophets Discovered, being a true story of the Lives and Deaths of two weavers, late of Colchester, viz. Richard Farnham and John Bull …", London, 1641[–2].
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After one more conflict with these Polovtsi in 1106, the Khazars fade from history. By the 13th century they survived in Russian folklore only as 'Jewish heroes' in the 'land of the Jews'. (zemlya Jidovskaya). By the end of the 12th century, Petachiah of Ratisbon reported travelling through what he called "Khazaria", and had little to remark on other than describing its minim (sectaries) living amidst desolation in perpetual mourning.
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Provost Jaffray of Aberdeen was captured at Dunbar and carried to England. Staunch Covenanter though he was, his intercourse with Sectaries in that country gave him leanings to Independency, and later he became a Quaker. To the Presbyterian mindset this was a notable illustration of the danger of mingling with those who were in wrong paths. Wariston evidently loved the man and tried hard to save him from such scandals.
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67-68 the first documented contact was Davy's written attack on "The pretended inspiration of Quakers and other sectaries","The pretended inspiration ..." survives in Davy's notebook 13e, at the Royal Institution, Fullmer p. 74, Note 12. the continuation of an oral debate. Dunkin is reported as having responded "I tell thee what, Humphry, thou art the most quibbling hand at a dispute as I ever met with in my life".
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R. Mitchison, Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), , p. 66. In general the period of the Commonwealth was looked back on as one where Protestantism flourished. Ministers, now largely barred from politics, spent more time with their flocks and placed an emphasis on preaching that emulated the sectaries. One Presbyterian noted that "there were more souls converted to Christ in that short period of time than in any season since the Reformation".
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Similar to her religious views, there has been much study and speculation on Collins' political views. She has been described as "critical of sectaries and Independents, pro-Commonwealth, opposed to the radical wing of Parliament, anti-Commonwealth, and Royalist." One thing is certain; Collins writes a great deal of responses to the conflicts between the Parliamentarians and Royalists of the English Civil War. Collins clearly opposes the Engagement Oath, which was similarly protested by many religious groups.
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Besides sermons, Ryves was the author of Mercurius Rusticus; or the Countries Complaint of the Barbarous Outrages committed by the Sectaries of this late flourishing Kingdom. Nineteen numbers appeared from June to December 1643, and were republished together, in 1646, 1647, and 1685. George Wither started a parliamentary Mercurius Rusticus as a counter. The assaults on Sir John Lucas's house, Wardour Castle, and other mansions are narrated, while a second part starts on damage done to the cathedrals.
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He was summoned by James I to the Hampton Court conference in 1603 as a nonconformist; Anthony à Wood says that he appeared there in 1604 unconventionally dressed, and he reportedly said little. The king, however, was gracious. Sparke, in later writing A Brotherly Persuasion to Unity and Uniformity in Judgment and Practice (1607), adopted an eirenic line. He was attacked in An Antidote against the Pestiferous Writings of all English Sectaries ... in particular against Dr. Sparke, (1615) by Sylvester Norris.
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Under the Act of Uniformity 1559, it was illegal not to attend official Church of England services, with a fine of one shilling (£0.05; about £ today) for each missed Sunday and holy day. The penalties included imprisonment and larger fines for conducting unofficial services. The Seditious Sectaries Act of 1593 was specifically aimed at outlawing the Brownists. Under this policy, the London Underground Church from 1566, and then Robert Browne and his followers in Norfolk during the 1580s, were repeatedly imprisoned.
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The Commonwealth extended toleration to Protestants, including sectaries, but the only significant group were a small number of Quakers. The Kirk that had been established at the Reformation and had been largely united since the Declaration of the Covenant in 1638, was divided into Resolutioners and more hard line Protesters by the issue of co-operation with the crown. The regime tended to favour the Protestors giving them control over the universities. The country was relatively highly taxed, but gained access to English markets.
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The universities, largely seen as a training school for clergy, were relatively well funded and came under the control of the Protestors, with Patrick Gillespie being made Principal at Glasgow. Toleration did not extend to Episcopalians and Catholics, but if they did not call attention to themselves they were largely left alone.Mackie, Lenman and Parker, A History of Scotland, pp. 227–8. It did extend to sectaries, but the only independent group to establish itself in Scotland in this period were a small number of Quakers.
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Or, A new and > higher discovery of the errors, heresies, blasphemies, and insolent > proceedings of the sectaries of these times (Ralph Smith, at the Bible in > Cornhill, London 1646), pp. 81-82. Full text at Umich/eebo (open). "But behold" (adds Wood), "while he was in the height of these diabolicall and rebellious actions, he was suddenly, and as I may say most justly, cut off from the face of the earth and was no more seen."Wood, 'Calibute Downing', Athenae Oxonienses, III, p. 107.
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One of the most notorious of these sectaries was the zealous Samuel Gorton who had been expelled from both Plymouth Colony and the settlement at Portsmouth, and then was refused freemanship in Providence Plantation. In 1642, he settled in what became Warwick, but the following year he was arrested with some followers and brought to Boston for dubious legal reasons. Here he was forced to attend a Cotton sermon in October 1643 which he confuted. Further attempts at correcting his religious opinions were in vain.
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From 1661 to 1663 he was commissioner for assessment for Lincolnshire and from 1663 to 1664 commissioner for assessment for Kesteven, Lincolnshire. He was described as "a great abettor of sectaries and nonconformists". He was arrested by the deputy lieutenants during the Second Anglo-Dutch War which he claimed to be an act of personal revenge by Sir Robert Carr and was released after three months. In February 1666 he was committed to the Tower of London for refusing to guarantee his peaceable demeanour.
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The document is called a recantation, but when safe from the clutches of the court, Brabourne explained that all he had actually retracted was the word "necessarily". He had affirmed "that Saturday ought necessarily to be our sabbath"; this he admitted to be a "rash and presumptuous error", for his opinion, though true, was not 'a necessary truth.' Brabourne wrote in 1653 The Change of Church-Discipline, a tract against sectaries of all sorts. This stirred Collings to attack him in Indoctus Doctor Edoctus, &c.
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When this was done, the Bishops were summoned to the Imperial palace, where the emperor received them with kindness and retired to his study with their written confessions. Theodosius however rejected and destroyed all except that of the orthodox, because he felt that the others introduced a division into the Holy Trinity. After this, Theodosius forbade all sectaries, except the Novatianists, to hold divine services or to publish their doctrines or to ordain clergy, under threat of severe civil penalties. In 385 the emperor's wife Aelia Flaccilla (or Placilla) and their daughter Pulcheria died.
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In 1641 he became minister of the British church at Delft, in which his father had officiated. He was an acquaintance and correspondent of Principal Baillie, who makes favourable mention of him in his letters of 1644, 1645, and 1646. He commends a manuscript which Forbes had written and sent him, and wishes to see it in print. He asks Spang, minister of the Scots church at Campvere, to 'keep correspondence with that young man,’ and to urge him to 'use diligence' against the British sectaries in Holland, and to 'write against the anabaptists.
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John WalkerSufferings of Clergy, p. 205 must be wrong. He described himself as an 'episcopal presbyterian,’ and waged a fierce war against independents and other sectaries, defended the parochial system, and boasted that 'he had withstood popery both by writing and preaching as much as any minister in Wales.' In 1652 he accepted the challenge which the famous itinerant, Vavasor Powell, threw down to any minister in Wales, to dispute whether his calling or Powell's, and his ways or his opponent's 'ways of separation' were most conformable to scripture.
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Over Bainbridge's protests, the parliamentary commissioners for Leicestershire sequestered Honywood's living of Kegworth, and a new rector was appointed in 1649. At the Restoration Honywood returned to England, and resumed his living of Kegworth. The sectaries in his parish gave him some trouble, and in 1667 Richard Gibson, a Quaker who refused to pay his tithes, was thrown into prison, and was detained there several years at Honywood's suit. Some of the fellows of Christ's College hoped that he might be appointed master, at a time when Ralph Cudworth held the post.
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Robert Haldane, who played a major part in expanding independency in Scotland In the mid-seventeenth century, the extension of toleration to sectaries under the Commonwealth brought a number of independent movements to Scotland. The only one not to collapse after the withdrawal of the army at the Restoration in 1660 were the Quakers.R. Mitchison, Lordship to Patronage, Scotland 1603–1745 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), , p. 66. Their numbers remained small in the eighteenth century and they were largely confined to the large cities and the northwest.Brown, Religion and Society in Scotland Since 1707, p. 38.
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When Adkins 'first appeared in the pulpit at St. Mary's, Oxford, being but young and looking younger than he was, from the smallness of his stature, the hearers despised him, expecting nothing worth hearing from "such a boy," as they called him. But his discourse soon turned their contempt into admiration.. Cromwell appointed him one of his chaplains. But, like Richard Baxter, he found the place unsuitable 'by reason of the insolency of the sectaries.' He resettled at Theydon as the successor of John Feriby and the predecessor of Francis Chandler and his ministry here extended from 1652–3 to 1657.
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Allegory showing Charles V (centre) enthroned over his defeated enemies (from left to right): Suleiman the Magnificent, Pope Clement VII, Francis I, the Duke of Cleves, the Duke of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse The imprisonment of Philip put the Protestants in Hesse into great trials and difficulties. It had previously been organized carefully by Philip and Bucer, and synods, presbyteries, and a system of discipline had been established. The country was now thoroughly heretical; public worship showed no uniformity, discipline was not applied, and many competing sectaries existed. The Augsburg Interim was finally introduced, sanctioning Catholic practises and terms.
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These people are the remains of those sectaries who, induced by the scruples of a timorous conscience, separated themselves from the Swedish church in 1738." (should be 1728). "When they first withdrew themselves from the established religion, they appeared to despise the public mode of worship, the sacraments, and still more, the priests; by which they necessarily drew upon themselves great persecutions, and were even banished the kingdom; but obtained permission in 1746 to reside in Wermdoeum, where they bought some lands called Skevik, from which they are generally named Skevikare. Many of their doctrines are whimsical, but their conduct is virtuous.
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The first major collection of source documents on the controversy was Antinomianism in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, published by Charles Adams in 1894. The next major study on the controversy emerged in 1962 when Emery Battis published Saints and Sectaries: Anne Hutchinson and the Antinomian Controversy in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. This sociological and psychological study of the controversy and its players provides many details about the individuals, trials, and other events of the controversy. David Hall added to Adams' collection of source documents in The Antinomian Controversy (1968) and then updated the work with additional documents in 1990.
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He rode up to Dublin, and, appearing before the privy council, obtained the pardon of a condemned man unjustly convicted. He studied physic and prescribed for the poor, argued successfully with profligates and sectaries, persuaded lunatics out of their delusions, fought and trounced a company of profane travelling tinkers, and chastised a military officer who persisted in swearing. He became for a short time in 1742 tutor to James Caulfeild, 1st Earl of Charlemont, and in 1743 dedicated ‘Truth in a Mask’ to his pupil. A difference with Mr. Adderley, Lord Charlemont's stepfather, led to his return to his curacy in Monaghan.
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The king made some difficulty in seeing them, but promised that they should not be molested till their petition could come before parliament. On 23 October 1642 Richard Baxter was preaching for Clarke at Alcester, when the guns of the battle of Edgehill were heard, and next day they rode over the battle-field. Clarke going to London soon afterwards was pressed to the curacy of St. Bennet Fink, in the gift of the chapter of Windsor. The former curate having been expelled, Clarke was elected in his place by the parishioners, and when the war was over resigned Alcester, which was troubled by 'sectaries,' in order to retain it.
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The term is said to have been coined by the Anglo-Irish cleric Henry Crumpe, but its origin is uncertain. The earliest official use of the name in England occurs in 1387 in a mandate of the Bishop of Worcester against five "poor preachers", nomine seu ritu Lollardorum confoederatos. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it most likely derives from Middle Dutch ' ("mumbler, mutterer"), from a verb lollen ("to mutter, mumble"). The word is much older than its English use; there were Lollards in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 14th century, who were akin to the Fraticelli, Beghards and other sectaries of the recusant Franciscan type.
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Originating from Colchester, and working as a weaver in London, Bull first came to the attention of the authorities in a crackdown on the "sectaries or schismatiques" of London, in early 1636. As members of a private conventicle and religious dissenters, both Farnham and Bull were arrested and interrogated on 16 April. With both men imprisoned, pamphleteer Thomas Heywood recorded their outlandish views in a 1636 tract, with the supposed prophets claiming to have power over the elements, and that it was their fate to be "slaine at Hierusalem" and "rise again". Sensational literature surrounded the pair, and often emphasized their reputed group of female followers.
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This work on church polity had no effect on the view of most Presbyterians, but it did change the stance of Presbyterian John Owen who later became a leader of the independent party at the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660. Owen had earlier been selected by Oliver Cromwell to be the vice-chancellor of Oxford. Congregationalism was New England's established church polity, but it did have its detractors among the Puritans, including Baptists, Seekers, Familists, and other sectaries. John Winthrop's Short Story about the Antinomian Controversy was published in 1644, and it prompted Presbyterian spokesman Robert Baillie to publish A Dissuasive against the Errours of the Time in 1645.
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In 1660 Sir Edward Hyde found him anxious to serve the king, likely to be useful among the sectaries, and surprisingly well acquainted with recent royalist negotiations. He was elected Member of Parliament for Winchelsea in the Convention Parliament.History of Parliament Online- Howard, WIlliam In 1674 he was discovered in secret correspondence with Holland, spent several months in the Tower of London and was set free only upon making a full confession. Succeeding his brother Thomas Howard, 2nd Baron Howard of Escrick as Lord Howard in 1678, he sat on the lords' committees which credited Titus Oates's information, and furthered the trial of his kinsman, William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford.
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From the political right, traditionalist conservative philosopher Russell Kirk criticized libertarianism by quoting T. S. Eliot's expression "chirping sectaries" to describe them. Kirk had questioned fusionism between libertarian and traditionalist conservatives that marked much of the post-war conservatism in the United States. Kirk stated that "although conservatives and libertarians share opposition to collectivism, the totalist state and bureaucracy, they have otherwise nothing in common" and called the libertarian movement "an ideological clique forever splitting into sects still smaller and odder, but rarely conjugating". Believing that a line of division exists between believers in "some sort of transcendent moral order" and "utilitarians admitting no transcendent sanctions for conduct", he included the libertarians in the latter category.
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Edward Gibbon, in the first volume of his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776), would take the same position: "The public and even partial favour of Philip towards the sectaries of the new religion, and his constant reverence for the ministers of the church, gave some colour to the suspicion, which prevailed in his own times, that the emperor himself was become a convert to the faith; and afforded some grounds for a fable which was afterwards invented, that he had been purified by confession and penance from the guilt contracted by the murder of his innocent predecessor."Gibbon, ed. Womersley, 1.554. See also: J. G. A. Pocock, Barbarism and Religion.
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Knollys never wavered in his consistent championship of the puritans. In May 1574 he joined Bishop Grindal, Sir Walter Mildmay, and Sir Thomas Smith in a letter to Parkhurst, Bishop of Norwich, arguing in favour of the religious exercises known as "prophesyings". But he was zealous in opposition to heresy, and in September 1581 he begged Burghley and Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester to repress such "anabaptisticall sectaries" as members of the "Family of Love", "who do serve the turn of the papists". Writing to Whitgift, archbishop of Canterbury, 20 June 1584, he hotly condemned the archbishop's attempts to prosecute puritan preachers in the Court of High Commission as unjustly despotic, and treading "the highway to the pope".
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Although we can glean much information from the fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls narrative, there are still many unknowns and issues that scholars heavily debate. Clearly, the authorship of the Qumran Book of Giants is still a question among scholars. Some initially believed that the manuscript (despite so many extant copies from Qumran of the overall Enochic work) to have been little used among the desert sectaries; but more recent scholarship declares: "We know that the Qumran Essenes copied, studied, and valued the writings and teachings ascribed to Enoch" (VanderKam, 2008/1995, p. 143). The Qumran discoveries decidedly ruled out any possibility that the Manicheans were the composers of the Book of Giants, for their work followed later.
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On the restoration Walsh urged his patron, Ormonde, to support the Irish Roman Catholics as the natural friends of royalty against the Protestant sectaries, who had supported the Parliament during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Walsh endeavoured to mitigate their lot and efface the impression made by their successive rebellions by a loyal remonstrance to Charles II, boldly repudiating papal infallibility and interference in public affairs, and affirming undivided allegiance to the crown. For eight years he canvassed for signatures to this address, but in spite of considerable support, the strenuous opposition of the Jesuits and Dominicans deterred the clergy and nearly wrecked the scheme. (See also: Act of Settlement 1662 for Irish politics at the time).
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There are several explanations for the origin of the style, "William the Silent". The most common one relates to his prudence in regard to a conversation with Henry II, the king of France. > One day, during a stag-hunt in the Bois de Vincennes, Henry, finding himself > alone with the Prince, began to speak of the great number of Protestant > sectaries who, during the late war, had increased so much in his kingdom to > his great sorrow. His conscience, said the King, would not be easy nor his > realm secure until he could see it purged of the "accursed vermin," who > would one day overthrow his government, under the cover of religion, if they > were allowed to get the upper hand.
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Old Chaucer, Gower, and Sir Thomas More, Sir Philip Sidney, who > the laurel wore, Spenser, and Shakespeare did in art excell, Sir Edward > Dyer, Greene, Nash, Daniel. Sylvester, Beaumont, Sir John Harrington, > Forgetfulness their works would over run But that in paper they immortally > Do live in spite of death, and cannot die. A Swarm of Sectaries, and Schismatiques, 1641 He was a prolific poet, with over one hundred and fifty publications in his lifetime. Many were gathered into the compilation All the Workes of John Taylor the Water Poet (London, 1630; facsimile reprint Scholar Press, Menston, Yorkshire, 1973); augmented by the Spenser Society's edition of the Works of John Taylor ... not included in the Folio edition of 1630 (5 volumes, 1870–78).
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The next session of the General Court began on 2 November 1637 at the meeting house on Spring Street in Newtown. Wheelwright biographer Charles Bell wrote that the purpose of the meeting was to "rid the colony of the sectaries who would not be dragooned into the abandonment of their convictions". One of the first orders of business on that Monday was to deal with Wheelwright, whose case had been long deferred by Winthrop in hopes that he might finally see the error of his ways. When asked if he was ready to confess his offenses, Wheelwright responded that "he was not guilty, that he had preached nothing but the truth of Christ, and he was not responsible for the application they [the other ministers] made of it".
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The largest Puritan faction - the Presbyterians - had been deeply dissatisfied with the state of the church under Cromwell. They wanted to restore religious uniformity throughout England and they believed that only a restoration of the English monarchy could achieve this and suppress the sectaries. Most Presbyterians were therefore supportive of the Restoration of Charles II. Charles II's most loyal followers - those who had followed him into exile on the continent, like Sir Edward Hyde - had fought the English Civil War largely in defense of episcopacy and insisted that episcopacy be restored in the Church of England. Nevertheless, in the Declaration of Breda, issued in April 1660, a month before Charles II's return to England, Charles II proclaimed that while he intended to restore the Church of England, he would also pursue a policy of religious toleration for non- adherents of the Church of England.
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The preamble to the canons claims that the canons are not innovating in the church, but are rather restoring ceremonies from the time of Edward VI and Elizabeth I which had fallen into disuse. The first canon asserted that the king ruled by divine right; that the doctrine of Royal Supremacy was required by divine law; and that taxes were due to the king "by the law of God, nature, and nations." This canon led many MPs to conclude that Charles and the Laudian clergy were attempting to use the Church of England as a way to establish an absolute monarchy in England, and felt that this represented unwarranted clerical interference in the recent dispute between Parliament and the king over ship money. Canons against popery and Socinianism were uncontroversial, but the canon against the sectaries was quite controversial because it was clearly aimed squarely at the Puritans.
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Emery Battis presents a sociological perspective of the controversy in Saints and Sectaries (1962) in which he asks why so many prominent people were willing to give up their homes to follow Hutchinson and Wheelwright out of the Massachusetts colony. He compiles a list of all members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony who were connected to the Antinomian controversy and breaks them into three groups based on the strength of their support for Hutchinson and Wheelwright: the Core Group, the Support Group, and the Peripheral Group. He collected statistics on the members of each group, some of which are shown in the following tables. The place of origin of the individual is the English county from which he came, the year of arrival is the sailing year from England to New England, and the residence is the New England town where the person lived during the controversy.
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In the opinion of O'Beirne, Bishop of Meath, "the management of the Hibernian Bible Society has entirely fallen into the hands of sectaries and seceders, and the establishment of their auxiliary societies, wherever it takes place through the country, has for its immediate object the increase of the number of their proselytes, and the extension and prevalence of their doctrines."History of the Diocese of Meath, volume 2, p 160Charles Stokes Dudley: An Analysis of the System of the Bible Society With the Belfast Bible Society becoming independent and forming the Northern Ireland Bible Society in 1987, The Hibernian Bible Society changed its name to the Bible Society of Ireland and it changed again in 1989 to the National Bible Society of Ireland,NBSI Annual Report 1991-1992 National Bible Society of Ireland. and is member of the United Bible Societies since 1949. Over the years the Bible society has become more ecumenical involving other denominations including Roman Catholic.
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Felix Makower, The Constitutional History and Constitution of the Church of England, Ayer, 1972, p 193. Opposition from Independents and sectaries, however, meant that the ordinance was never enforced.C. H. Firth and R. S. Rait, Acts and Ordinances of the Interregnum, 1642–1660, 3 vols., London, 1911, p 1133–6; H. J. McLachlan, Socinianism in Seventeenth-Century England, Oxford, 1951, p 163–217. And only with the passage of another act in 1677 ("forbidding the burning of heretics"Burning at the stake remained on the statute book in England until 1790, as the punishment for a woman who murdered her husband. A. Aspinall, A. Smith, English Historical Documents 1783–1832, Routledge, 1996, p 339f.; F. E. Dolan, Dangerous Familiars: Representations of Domestic Crime in England, 1550–1700, Cornell, 1994.) was Wightman's position in history ‘as the last person in England to be burned at the stake for heresy’ secured.M. Fisher, The Constitutional History of England, p 522.
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In the Smyrna passage, according to Koester, those claiming to be Jews probably bore in their traits the usual markers of kinship, circumcision, dietary restriction and Sabbath observance, but are taken to task for denouncing the Christian community to the Roman authorities to get them arrested. This has recently been questioned by Elaine Pagels, David Frankfurter, Heinrich Kraft and John W. Marshall. Pagels, reviewing the literature, argues that the author of Revelation, John of Patmos, was himself a Jew devoted to Christ, saw himself as a Jew, not a Christian. Unlike the other evangelists who blame Jews for Christ's death, the author of Revelation, drawing on old patterns of late Jewish eschatological imagery, assigns responsibility for his death to Romans and says they are abetted by an internal enemy who feign to be God's people while acting as agents of Satan, a theme also present in the literature of the Qumran sectaries.
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