So-called working memory — the mental scratchpad where the brain manipulates numbers, names and images — may shrink temporarily.
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Lenkner said his scratchpad estimate is based on the millions of Tesla shares – more than $11 billion worth – traded on Aug.
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Vohra and Goldberg have already made eight investments, including the apertif brand Haus, account exec toolmaker Scratchpad and outdoor ad startup AdQuick.
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Axiom is a general-purpose computer algebra system. It has been in development since 1971 by IBM, originally named scratchpad. Richard Jenks originally headed it but over the years Barry Trager who then shaped the direction of the scratchpad project took the project. Project scratchpad was eventually sold to a numerical group called Numerical Algorithms Group (NAG) and was renamed Axiom.
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Scratchpad memory (SPM), also known as scratchpad, scratchpad RAM or local store in computer terminology, is a high-speed internal memory used for temporary storage of calculations, data, and other work in progress. In reference to a microprocessor ("CPU"), scratchpad refers to a special high- speed memory circuit used to hold small items of data for rapid retrieval. It is similar to the usage and size of a scratchpad in life: a pad of paper for preliminary notes or sketches or writings, etc. It can be considered similar to the L1 cache in that it is the next closest memory to the ALU after the processor registers, with explicit instructions to move data to and from main memory, often using DMA-based data transfer.
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The Adapteva Epiphany architecture is a manycore network on a chip processor with scratchpad memory addressable between cores.
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Marguerite McKinnon (born July 1970),Interview @ Scratchpad . - August 2007. is an Australian journalist and television reporter for Seven News in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.McKinnon's profile.
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In January 2017, he appeared as a guest on a play-through of ScratchPad Publishing's Dusk City Outlaws, alongside Elisa Teague, Tom Lommel, Spencer Crittenden, and game designer Rodney Thompson.
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The film began shooting in Mexico and the British Honduras in September 1970. The film was also partially shot in Parisian studios and in Andalucia, Spain.Simmons, Art. "Paris Scratchpad". Jet.
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Under MS- DOS 7.0 (1995) to 8.0 (2000), parts of the HMA are also used as a scratchpad to hold a growing data structure recording various properties of the loaded real-mode drivers.
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While being worked on, data can be temporarily held in processor registers, scratchpad values that can be accessed very quickly. Registers are used, for example, when adding up strings of numbers into a total.
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FriCAS is a descendant of Axiom History (external link) which itself has its origin in Scratchpad, a project that started in 1965 by James Griesmer at IBM laboratories.Axiom history For more details see Axiom/History.
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In cache memory systems, the mapping of program elements is done during run time, whereas in scratchpad memory systems this is done either by the user or automatically by the compiler using a suitable algorithm.
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The custom instruction set 107 MMI (Multimedia Extensions) was implemented by grouping the two 64-bit integer ALUs. Both the integer and floating-point pipelines are six stages long. To feed the execution units with instructions and data, there is a 16 KB two-way set associative instruction cache, an 8 KB two-way set associative non blocking data cache and a 16 KB scratchpad RAM. Both the instruction and data caches are virtually indexed and physically tagged while the scratchpad RAM exists in a separate memory space.
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Digital signal processors have similarly generalised over the years. Earlier designs used scratchpad memory fed by DMA, but modern DSPs such as Qualcomm Hexagon often include a very similar set of caches to a CPU (e.g. Modified Harvard architecture with shared L2, split L1 I-cache and D-cache).
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Each CU had about 30 to 40,000 gates. The CU had sixteen 64-bit registers and a separate sixty-four slot 64-bit "scratchpad", LDB. There were four accumulators, AC0 through AC3, a program counter ILR, and various control registers. The system had a short instruction pipeline and implemented instruction look ahead.
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The co- processor that normally manages the TLB-based MMU seems to be a custom effort by Sony and has no integrated memory. Both CPUs contain 16 KiB of two-way set associative instruction cache and data cache respectively. There is additionally 16 KiB of scratchpad RAM which, while faster than main RAM, is not nearly as fast as the integrated cache.
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Windows 7 also introduces an option to submit speech training data to Microsoft to improve future recognizer versions. A new dictation scratchpad interface functions as a temporary document into which users can dictate or type text for insertion into applications that are not compatible with the Text Services Framework. Windows Vista previously provided an "enable dictation everywhere option" for such applications.
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So far, the discussion on the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of imperative programming. This is the most common conception—one which attempts to describe a task in discrete, "mechanical" means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation, which sets the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of "memory" as a scratchpad.
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Channel processors are simple, but self-contained, with minimal logic and sufficient scratchpad memory (working storage) to handle I/O tasks. They are typically not powerful or flexible enough to be used as a computer on their own and can be construed as a form of coprocessor. On some systems the channels use memory or registers addressable by the central processor as their scratchpad memory, while on other systems it is present in the channel hardware. A CPU designates a block of storage or sends a relatively small channel programs to the channel in order to handle I/O tasks, which the channel and controller can, in many cases, complete without further intervention from the CPU (exception: those channel programs which utilize 'program controlled interrupts', PCIs, to facilitate program loading, demand paging and other essential system tasks).
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Within an instruction, the reader phase occurs first. These are operations that require no inputs and create output that is available the next cycle. These drop values directly from the instruction stream or from reading static byte addresses of the scratchpad. Next is the op or compute phase that takes inputs from the belt and drops values onto the belts, such as loads or arithmetic operations.
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Cache coherency is an issue limiting the scaling of multicore processors. Manycore processors may bypass this with methods such as message passing, scratchpad memory, DMA, partitioned global address space, or read-only/non-coherent caches. A manycore processor using a network on a chip and local memories gives software the opportunity to explicitly optimise the spatial layout of tasks (e.g. as seen in tooling developed for TrueNorth).
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Strided or simple 2D, 3D access patterns (e.g., stepping through multi-dimensional arrays) are similarly easy to predict, and are found in implementations of linear algebra algorithms and image processing. Loop tiling is an effective approach.paper covers loop tiling and implication for parallel code Some systems with DMA provided a strided mode for transferring data between subtile of larger 2D arrays and scratchpad memory.
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Special Array Value is padlist which is an array of array. Its 0th element to an AV containing all lexical variable names (with prefix symbols) used within that subroutine. The padlist's first element points to a scratchpad AV, whose elements contain the values corresponding to the lexical variables named in the 0th row. Another elements of padlist are created when the subroutine recurses or new thread is created.
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As before, one of the counters is used as scratchpad. The other holds an integer whose prime factorization is 2a3b5c7d. The exponents a, b, c, and d can be thought of as four virtual counters that are being packed (via Gödel numbering) into a single real counter. If the real counter is set to zero then incremented once, that is equivalent to setting all the virtual counters to zero.
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Outputs from the compute phase may take several cycles to retire, dropping onto the belt with hardware-enforced static latency and order. Then writer phase reads value from the belt and changes global state, but not does not create belt values. Stores and branches occur here, as well as writes to scratchpad addresses. There are a few other conceptual phases that aren't part of the 3-cycle skew.
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It is also possible to open multiple viewports to the same document. An application-wide scratchpad (which can be used as a color mixing panel) is provided, which is saved between sessions. Colors can be stored in the swatches panel. Various raster drawing tools are implemented, such as the Airbrush, Watercolor, Pen, and Marker, which can all be easily customized, and stored in slots in the user interface of the application.
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The PEs had about 12,000 gates. It included four 64-bit registers, using an accumulator A, an operand buffer B and a secondary scratchpad S. The fourth, R, was used to broadcast or receive data from the other PEs. The PEs used a carry-lookahead adder, a leading-one detector for boolean operations, and a barrel shifter. 64-bit additions took about 200 ns and multiplications about 400 ns.
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For example, DianNao, 16 16-in vector MAC, requires 16 × 16 × 2 = 512 16-bit data, i.e., almost 1024GB/s bandwidth requirements between computation components and buffers. With on-chip reuse, such bandwidth requirements are reduced drastically. Instead of the widely used cache in general processing devices, DLPs always use scratchpad memory as it could provide higher data reuse opportunities by leveraging the relatively regular data access pattern in deep learning algorithms.
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On-chip caches use static RAM that consumes between 25% and 50% of the total chip power and occupies about 50% of the total chip area. Scratchpad memory occupies less area than on-chip caches. This will typically reduce the energy consumption of the memory unit, because less area implies reduction in the total switched capacitance. Current embedded processors particularly in the area of multimedia applications and graphic controllers have on-chip scratch pad memories.
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The remaining calculations, including the bond forces and the fast Fourier transforms (used for long-range electrostatics), are performed by the flexible subsystem. This subsystem contains four general-purpose Tensilica cores (each with cache and scratchpad memory) and eight specialized but programmable SIMD cores called geometry cores. The flexible subsystem runs at 400 MHz. Anton's network is a 3D torus and thus each chip has 6 inter-node links with a total in+out bandwidth of 607.2 Gbit/s.
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Some processors support scratchpad memory into which temporaries may be put, and direct memory access (DMA) to transfer data to and from main memory when needed. This approach is used by the Cell processor, and some embedded systems. These allow greater control over memory traffic and locality (as the working set is managed by explicit transfers), and eliminates the need for expensive cache coherency in a manycore machine. The disadvantage is it requires significantly different programming techniques to use.
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Two counters can simulate this stack, in which one of the counters holds a number whose binary representation represents the bits on the stack, and the other counter is used as a scratchpad. To double the number in the first counter, the FSM can initialize the second counter to zero, then repeatedly decrement the first counter once and increment the second counter twice. This continues until the first counter reaches zero. At that point, the second counter will hold the doubled number.
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Each cluster is accompanied by a more conventional general-purpose core called the Management Processing Element (MPE) that provides supervisory functions. Each cluster has its own dedicated DDR3 SDRAM controller, and a memory bank with its own address space. The processor runs at a clock speed of 1.45 GHz. The CPE cores feature 64 KB of scratchpad memory for data and 16 KB for instructions, and communicate via a network on a chip, instead of having a traditional cache hierarchy.
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The Sunway TaihuLight uses a total of 40,960 Chinese-designed SW26010 manycore 64-bit RISC processors based on the Sunway architecture. Each processor chip contains 256 processing cores, and an additional four auxiliary cores for system management (also RISC cores, just more fully featured) for a total of 10,649,600 CPU cores across the entire system. The processing cores feature 64 KB of scratchpad memory for data (and 16 KB for instructions) and communicate via a network on a chip, instead of having a traditional cache hierarchy.
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Processors with scratchpad memory and DMA (such as digital signal processors and the Cell processor) may benefit from software overlapping DMA memory operations with processing, via double buffering or multibuffering. For example, the on-chip memory is split into two buffers; the processor may be operating on data in one, while the DMA engine is loading and storing data in the other. This allows the system to avoid memory latency and exploit burst transfers, at the expense of needing a predictable memory access pattern.
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Some architectures such as PowerPC attempt to avoid the need for cacheline locking or scratchpads through the use of cache control instructions. Marking an area of memory with "Data Cache Block: Zero" (allocating a line but setting its contents to zero instead of loading from main memory) and discarding it after use ('Data Cache Block: Invalidate', signaling that main memory didn't receive any updated data) the cache is made to behave as a scratchpad. Generality is maintained in that these are hints and the underlying hardware will function correctly regardless of actual cache size.
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On a "drum machine" this would likely be back to the drum, an operation that takes considerable time. And then the very next operation has to read that value back in, which introduces another considerable delay. Accumulators dramatically improve performance in systems like these by providing a scratchpad area where the results of one operation can be fed to the next one for little or no performance penalty. In the example above, the basic weekly pay would be calculated and placed in the accumulator, which could then immediately be used by the income tax calculation.
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In 2016, Graphcore announced the world's first graph tool chain designed for machine intelligence called Poplar Software Stack. On 20 July 2017 Graphcore announced their first chip called the Colossus GC2, a "16 nm massively parallel, mixed-precision floating point processor", first available in 2018. Packaged with two chips on a single PCI Express card called the Graphcore C2 IPU, it is slated to perform the same role as a GPU in conjunction with standard machine learning frameworks such as TensorFlow. The device relies on scratchpad memory for its performance rather than traditional cache hierarchies.
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Except for branch, conditional move, and multiply instructions, all other instructions begin and finish execution during stage five for a one cycle latency. Branch and conditional move instructions are executed during stage six so they can be issued with a compare instruction whose result they depend on. The integer register file contained forty 64-bit registers, of which thirty-two are specified by the Alpha Architecture and eight are for use by PALcode as scratchpad memory. The register file has four read ports and two write ports evenly divided between the two integer pipelines.
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Samna had many strengths, but was regularly criticized in reviews over speed issues. Even before GUI environments like Windows, it pioneered treating the empty editing screen as a 'scratchpad', that is, a space that you could cursor into, placing a character or other entry anywhere at will on a printable page. In WordPerfect and Word, and virtually all other editors of that period, territory beyond the last character entered did not exist. When the Hercules graphics card became popular, Samna Word gained a Print Preview mode that was not editable, but showed font and format treatments.
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The dictation scratchpad in Windows 7 replaces the "enable dictation everywhere" option of Windows Vista. WSR was updated to use Microsoft UI Automation and its engine now uses the WASAPI audio stack, substantially enhancing its performance and enabling support for echo cancellation, respectively. The document harvester, which can analyze and collect text in email and documents to contextualize user terms has improved performance, and now runs periodically in the background instead of only after recognizer startup. Sleep mode has also seen performance improvements and, to address security issues, the recognizer is turned off by default after users speak "stop listening" instead of being suspended.
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The Geometry Engine is used for the purpose, with each Geometry board containing up to four working in a multiple instruction multiple data (MIMD) fashion. The Geometry Engine is a semi-custom ASIC with a single instruction multiple data (SIMD) pipeline containing three floating-point cores, each containing an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a multiplier and a 32-bit by 32-entry register file with two read and two write ports. These cores are provided with a 32-bit by 2,560-entry memory that holds elements of OpenGL state and provides scratchpad storage. Each core also has a float-to-fix converter to convert floating-point values into integer form.
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It is very hard to adapt programs written in traditional languages such as C and C++ which present the programmer with a uniform view of a large address space (which is an illusion simulated by caches). A traditional microprocessor can more easily run legacy code, which may then be accelerated by cache control instructions, whilst a scratchpad based machine requires dedicated coding from the ground up to even function. Cache control instructions are specific to a certain cache line size, which in practice may vary between generations of processors in the same architectural family. Caches may also help coalescing reads and writes from less predictable access patterns (e.g.
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To achieve the high performance needed for mathematically intensive tasks, such as decoding/encoding MPEG streams, generating or transforming three-dimensional data, or undertaking Fourier analysis of data, the Cell processor marries the SPEs and the PPE via EIB to give access, via fully cache coherent DMA (direct memory access), to both main memory and to other external data storage. To make the best of EIB, and to overlap computation and data transfer, each of the nine processing elements (PPE and SPEs) is equipped with a DMA engine. Since the SPE's load/store instructions can only access its own local scratchpad memory, each SPE entirely depends on DMAs to transfer data to and from the main memory and other SPEs' local memories.
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The drive toward GPGPU has made GPUs more suitable for the job of a PPU; DX10 added integer data types, unified shader architecture, and a geometry shader stage which allows a broader range of algorithms to be implemented; Modern GPUs support compute shaders, which run across an indexed space and don't require any graphical resources, just general purpose data buffers. NVidia CUDA provides a little more in the way of inter-thread communication and scratchpad-style workspace associated with the threads. Nonetheless GPUs are built around a larger number of longer latency, slower threads, and designed around texture and framebuffer data paths, and poor branching performance; this distinguishes them from PPUs and Cell as being less well optimized for taking over game world simulation tasks. The Codeplay Sieve compiler supports the PPU, indicating that the Ageia physX chip would be suitable for GPGPU type tasks.
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Meanwhile, the store operations in the loop body receive `None` values until the loop's steady state is reached, and therefore have no effect until real results are available for storing. Thus, the loop body that handles the steady-state of the pipeline code, which includes appropriate `retire` operations, acts as its own prologue code. The processing of the final elements through the pipeline can generally be finished by having this same loop deliberately execute extra iterations, such that the remaining scheduled operations have time to finish and be stored to memory, because nearly all operations have no side effects (attempted invalid memory reads merely produce a `NaR` value on the belt, which does not cause a fault unless it is then used by a store or flow control operation). To pipeline nested loops, the Mill treats each loop almost like a subroutine call, with automatic saves and restores of appropriate state (belt and scratchpad).
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For instance, given a large array A(100,100) of mostly-zero values, a sparse array representation that was declared as SA(100,0) could have each row resized to have exactly enough elements to hold only the non-zero values of A along that row. Because arrays larger than 1024 words were segmented but smaller arrays were not, on a system that was short of real memory, increasing the declared size of a collection of scratchpad arrays from 1,000 to say 1,050 could mean that the program would run with far less "thrashing" as only the smaller individual segments in use were needed in memory. Actual storage for an array segment would be allocated at run time only if an element in that segment were accessed, and all elements of a created segment would be initialised to zero. Not initialising an array to zero at the start therefore was encouraged by this, normally an unwise omission.
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